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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Aschoff#Life | Jürgen Aschoff | Jürgen Walther Ludwig Aschoff (January 25, 1913 – October 12, 1998) was a German physician, biologist and behavioral physiologist. Together with Erwin Bünning and Colin Pittendrigh, he is considered to be a co-founder of the field of chronobiology.
Aschoff's work in the field of chronobiology introduced ideas of light interactions in the circadian rhythms of nocturnal and diurnal species as summarized by Aschoff's Rules.
== Life ==
Aschoff was born in Freiburg Im Breisgau, the fifth child of pathologist Ludwig Aschoff (known for discovering the Aschoff-Tawara or atrioventricular node) and his wife Clara. He grew up in the liberal but morally strict world of Prussian academia. After the Abitur at a humanistic high school, he – according to his own statement "lacking a specific interest" – studied medicine at the University of Bonn, where he joined the Burschenschaft (fraternity) Alemannia Bonn. Aschoff's scientific career began in 1938, when he moved to the University of Göttingen to study thermoregulation physiology with Hermann Rein. In 1944, he received the venia legendi. He then became a professor at the University of Göttingen in 1949.
In 1952, his mentor, Hermann Rein, was appointed director of the Max Planck Institute for Medical Research in Heidelberg. Rein brought Aschoff to the Institute as a collaborator to study circadian rhythms in humans, birds, and mice. Aschoff then moved to the Max Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology in Andechs to work with Gustav Kramer, who showed time-compensated sun-compass navigation in birds, and Erich von Holst, who studied physiological oscillators. From 1967 to 1979, he was a director at the Max Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology and a professor in Munich. Aschoff was a scientific member and a member of the Kollegiums of the Max Planck Institute for Behavior Physiology, as well as senator of the Max Planck Society from 1972 to 1976.
Aschoff was known as an excellent lecturer with a booming voice, and he took a special interest in creating a scientific community and encouraging young scientists. After his retirement in 1983 and return to Freiburg, Aschoff continued his scientific work in the form of further publications. Jürgen Aschoff died in 1998 aged 85 after a short illness, only ten months after his beloved wife, Hilde, died.
== Work ==
Aschoff provided a strong foundation for the field of chronobiology through his research on circadian rhythms and entrainment in many different organisms such as rats, mice, birds, macaques, monkeys, and humans. His early research focused on understanding the properties of circadian rhythms and how these rhythms can change in response to stimuli. His later work was more applicable to pathologies, such as psychiatric disorders and dangers of shift work schedules, which can result from manipulating specific Zeitgebers.
=== Early work ===
Aschoff began his research on the physiology of thermoregulation by self-experimentation. He discovered that there was a 24-hour rhythm of variation in body temperature. After these experiments, he began investigating the basic mechanisms of circadian rhythm. In the 1950s, he met and began to collaborate with Erwin Bünning and Colin Pittendrigh. Aschoff began further experimentation studying the circadian rhythms of birds and mice under constant conditions. His results led to the conclusion that the circadian oscillations of biological processes were innate and did not require prior exposure to a 24-hour day to be expressed.
Aschoff also applied these methods to experiments with human circadian rhythms by building an underground "bunker" to isolate human subjects from any external environmental cues. Subjects placed in this bunker were allowed to turn lights on or off according to their own internal rhythms. After over twenty years of tracking sleep-wake cycles, body temperature, urine output, and other physiological and behavioral outputs, Aschoff and his collaborator Rütger Wever concluded that humans have endogenous circadian oscillators. This discovery has become the foundation for our understanding of many medical problems such as aging, sleep disorders, and jet lag.
Colin Pittendrigh is commonly thought to be the first researcher to study chronobiology in modern times. He studied fruit flies in the 1950s, and his mentee, Jürgen Aschoff, studied humans in the 1960s. In 1960, Aschoff coined the term Zeitgeber (from German for "time giver" or "synchronizer") to refer to external, environmental cues that synchronize an endogenous oscillator to the environmental cycle. To investigate the properties of natural endogenous oscillators, Aschoff exposed organisms to constant conditions without Zeitgeber cues (either constant light or constant darkness). The observations from this paper were formulated into the fundamental rules of biological clocks.
=== Aschoff's Rule ===
==== History ====
Aschoff's experiments executed in 1960 showed that under constant light conditions, the activity phase shortens in nocturnal organisms and lengthens in diurnal organisms. These trends were termed alpha compression and alpha expansion, respectively. In tribute to his mentor, Pittendrigh called this observation "Aschoff's Rule" in a different 1960 publication, and the designation remains today.
Aschoff's rule is related to the model of parametric entrainment, which assumes continuous phase changes. This means that activity patterns adjust to environmental light patterns. Parametric and non-parametric concepts refer to the nature of the action of light, whether continuous or tonic in the case of parametric entrainment, or discrete or phasic in the case of nonparametric entrainment. Suggestive of phasic effects are the large phase shifts elicited often by very brief light pulses, while the changes in period as a result of different constant light intensities are proof of the existence of tonic effects. Aschoff and Pittendrigh approached the field with different models of how oscillators entrain, which resulted in different predictive models. Aschoff's parametric model states that entrainment occurs through gradual changes in the clock that adapt to a new light-dark cycle. Although this is no longer recognized as the only objectively correct model in the field, Serge Daan suggested in 1998 that Aschoff made qualitative contributions that provide valuable alternatives to inconsistencies in the current field.
==== Terms ====
Relevant terms to understanding Aschoff's Rule are listed below:
Actogram: A graph of the phases of activity and rest over the course of a day.
Alpha: The duration of wake time.
Alpha Compression: The observation that under constant light conditions, the length of activity of nocturnal organisms shortens.
Alpha Expansion: The observation that under constant darkness conditions, the length of activity of nocturnal organisms lengthens.
Circadian: Any rhythm that has a period of approximately 24h.
Circadian Clock: The endogenous, molecular mechanism which regulates circadian rhythms.
Circadian Time (CT): Time defined by an organism's intrinsic clock without accounting for Zeitgebers.
Diurnal: An organism that displays activity during the day (in light conditions) and during subjective day (in constant conditions)
Endogenous: Growing or working from within an organism; intrinsic.
Entrainment: The process an organism undergoes when synchronizing endogenous rhythms to a Zeitgeber.
Free-Running Period (FRP): The length of time it takes for an organism's endogenous rhythm to repeat without Zeitgebers in constant conditions (LL or DD).
Masking: The apparent coupling of an observable rhythm in an organism to a Zeitgeber, but this change is not caused by an alteration of the endogenous clock that schedules the observable rhythm, but by a confounding variable.
Nocturnal: An organism that is active during the night (in light conditions) and during subjective night (in constant conditions).
Onset of Activity: The time when the passive phase ends, and the active phase begins.
Phase-Shift: A change in free-running cycle, caused by an external stimulus.
Phase Response Curve (PRC): A graph representing the ways that external stimuli can affect phase.
Photoperiod: (a.k.a. Day Length): The duration of light in an external light-dark cycle.
Splitting: A phenomenon that occurs in high-intensity, constant light conditions, where two separate bouts of activity can be observed in one period.
Tau 'τ': The length of an organism's free-running period.
Tau 'Τ': The total period of an external period, environmental period.
Zeitgeber: Any external time cue that is effective in entraining an organism.
Zeitgeber Time (ZT): Time defined by external stimuli.
==== Rules ====
Aschoff's 4 Rules are generalities that most diurnal and nocturnal organisms follow. The main basis for Aschoff's rule was the differential responses in free-running periods to DD and LL, later expanded to Tau=f(LL-intensity). These rules provide an explanation of how the free running period (Tau 'τ') of an organism deviates slightly from a 24-hour period.
Rule 1: The free running period of a nocturnal organism is typically less than 24 hours.𝜏DD < 24.
Rule 2: The free running period of a diurnal organism is typically more than 24 hours.𝜏LL > 24
Rule 3: Increasing the intensity of a light in LL will typically increase the length of a free running period in nocturnal organisms.
Rule 4: Increasing the intensity of a light in LL will typically decrease the length of a free running period in diurnal organisms.
To help with understanding, a nocturnal species such as house mice that are kept in a constantly dark environment would exhibit a free-running period shorter than 24 hours (Aschoff's first rule). In contrast, a diurnal species such as a starling that is kept in a constantly dark environment would exhibit a free-running period longer than 24 hours (Aschoff's second rule).
There are a few exceptions to these rules. For example, certain species of ground beetles and squirrels violate Aschoff's first rule by not producing the predicted changes in their free-running rhythms in response to constant light (LL). Some arthropods also appear to violate Aschoff's third rule however it is not certain because prior lighting history can cause long-lasting after-effects on the circadian period and alter the observed compliance with Aschoff's Rules.
=== Later work ===
Much of Aschoff's later work involved tests on human subjects. He found that the absence of a light-dark cycle does not prevent humans from entrainment. Rather, knowing the time of day from social cues, such as regular meal times, is sufficient for entrainment.
Aschoff also found that different circadian outputs such as body temperature and locomotor activity can be either internally synchronized or desynchronized depending on the strength of the Zeitgeber. In constant darkness, rectal temperature and sleep onset and duration became desynchronized in some subjects, and the rectal temperature at the time of sleep onset was correlated to the duration of the bout of sleep. He hypothesized that internal desynchronization, the phase differences resulting from period differences between two circadian output processes, could be related to many psychiatric disorders.
Some of Aschoff's later work also integrated his initial interest in thermoregulation with his work on circadian rhythm. He found a circadian rhythm in thermal conductance, a measurement of heat transfer from the body. Minimal conductance in mammals and birds oscillates with circadian phase, with a wide range of conductance values. This allows animals to release heat during their activity period, when they have higher basal metabolism, as well as conserve heat during their rest period, when they have lower basal metabolism. In birds, the circadian rhythm in conductance results mostly from circadian rates of evaporative heat loss. In mammals, the conductance oscillates with circadian rhythms in the body's heat resistance and blood flow rate.
Following up on his temperature studies, he found that a mammalian species can entrain to a temperature cycle, but that temperature is a weak Zeitgeber compared to a light-dark cycle.
Aschoff described masking signals as inputs that circumvent the pacemaker but nevertheless lead to modulation of a circadian behavior that is also controlled by the pacemaker. Parametric entrainment is entrainment that does not result from an instant change in phase, as governed by a Phase Response Curve, as in the case of masking signals. The term Aschoff used for this phenomenon is "arousal" due to non-photic zeitgebers. Data from experimental assays show a relationship between masking effects and phase, leading to a "demasking" effect whereby animals arrhythmic in constant conditions have free-running periods in high frequency light-dark cycles. Aschoff concluded that the oscillator or circadian clock "integrates" over the intensity of light to which it has been exposed, and then responds with a change in the period of activity, as seen in greenfinches, chaffinches, hamsters, and siskins. Aschoff concluded, however, that non-parametric effects, as opposed to parametric effects, are the principal source of entrainment.
=== Aschoff–Wever Model ===
Jurgen Aschoff and Rütger Wever created an experiment in which participants lived in a bunker for multiple weeks in a row, with limited to no access to the outside world, to measure effects on bodily functioning, sleep-wake activity, and time perception. Participants were asked to press a buzzer every hour and one minute after the hour. The scientists found that urine and rectal samples and circadian rhythms had a free-running period of 25 hours.
==== Light Intensity ====
The impact of light intensity on the circadian period was measured by changing light lux from 40 to 200. Increasing the light intensity can cause a decrease in the period of .7-1hour.
==== Desynchronization ====
Desynchronization of body temperature from circadian period was seen in some participants immediately upon entry to the bunker or after several weeks. Body temperature maintained approximately a 25-hour rhythm while sleep-wake cycles fluctuated significantly. This led to the hypothesis that humans may have multiple circadian clocks.
==== Current Implications ====
Free running periods in humans are thought to range from 23.56hrs-24.7hrs, and it is suspected that the larger value found in this experiment is due to light exposure. The dual circadian pacemaker model has been updated to a system of a central and a peripheral clock.
=== Influence on other researchers ===
Aschoff published articles with both Pittendrigh and Serge Daan, the latter also a pivotal researcher in chronobiology. In his late work, Daan attempted to reconcile the idea of parametric entrainment to light proposed by Aschoff with the non-parametric model of entrainment proposed by Pittendrigh. Results from a 2008 paper from Daan's lab lend further evidence to Aschoff's model of parametric entrainment. Daan died in 2018.
=== Current Research Based on Aschoff's Rules ===
Aschoff's work inspired research related to blue light intensity, molecular basis of circadian rhythms, and modeling the SCN.
At the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing, China in the Wang lab, research was conducted to determine the role of blue light on CRY2 and PRR9 interactions in plants to create a molecular basis for Aschoff's rule. CRY2 is stimulated by blue light to interact directly with PRR9. This prevents PRR9 from interacting with co-repressor TPL/TPRs and downstream kinase PPKs. The co-repressor and downstream kinases phosphorylate PRR9 to help regulate rhythms. In an experiment to determine the relationship between varying light intensity and PRR9 mutants, it was discovered that both PRR9-1 and PRR90x-1 had changes of photoperiods under high light irradiance. This variation is deemed to be related to CRY2 activity. It was also found that CRY2 blocks PRR9-TPL interactions by GFP tagging the photolyase homology region on CRY2. The PHR domain of CRY2 by itself can co-immunoprecipitate full-length PRR9, meaning CRY2 can be used to isolate the protein. Additionally CRY2 is found to inhibit PRR9 phosphorylation using lambda phosphatase treatments. The phosphorylation of PRR9 is critical for circadian rhythms. Blue light stimulates CRY2 activity, thereby altering the phosphorylation of PRR9 and timing of circadian rhythms.
In the Foster lab at Imperial College in London, United Kingdom, research was conducted to determine the molecular basis for Aschoff's rule. Wheel running behavior was collected from mice in DD or LL for 50 days and the abundance of four genes and proteins was collected every four hours using in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. Researchers found that in DD mPer1, mPer2, mCry1, and mCry2 messages demonstrated rhythmic behavior and their corresponding protein levels also demonstrated rhythmic behavior. In LL mPer1, mPer2, mCry1, and mCry2 demonstrated rhythmic behavior but mCry2 had significantly altered behavior compared to its DD rhythm. Additionally, mPER1, mCRY1, and mCRY2 all showed rhythmic behavior but mPER2 was constitutively expressed. Phase contrast microscopy was used to show that mPER2 was concentrated in the nucleus during LL, as it appears in DD during CT12. Under DD, mice had an average period of 23.26 ± 0.05h. In LL, mice had an average period of 24.47 ± 0.06hrs. The LL mice had a significantly longer period. This research supports the idea that mPER2 contributes to phase delays. Additionally, it suggests that light does not act on mPer2 transcription or mPER2 translation to the nucleus. Rather, light is inhibiting a different mechanism that would typically cause mPER2 degradation.
At the University of Aveiro, Portugal in the Yoon lab researchers determined that the core-shell organization of the suprachiasmatic nuclei (Kuramoto model) contributes to anticipation and dissociation with regard to activity. Previous research states that the SCN shell (ventral) is dense with arginine vasopressin neurons and the core possesses vasoactive intestinal polypeptide neurons. [4] It was determined that the SCN upholds Aschoff's first rule of a shorting free-running period in DD and a lengthening period in LL. The Kuramoto model accounts for free-running periods coming from individual cells while also considering population-based activity coming from neurons as they exhibit nearly identical patterns. In the entrained state, the core activity parallels the external stimulus. However, the shell peaks before the core. This allows the system to demonstrate anticipation of external events by peaking at two separate times and queueing peripheral clocks of the incoming signal. The shell phase difference (ψd-ψv) is shown to be proportional to the gap between peak activity between the two.
== Aschoff's Rule (prize) ==
At a dinner held in Aschoff's honor at the 1991 Gordon Conference on Chronobiology, Professor Till Roenneberg began the tradition of giving the "Aschoff's Rule Prize" to scientists who have advanced the field of chronobiology. It was first given to Professor Maroli K. Chandrashekera in 1991. Recipients choose the winner the following year and must follow two guidelines:
The successor should be a chronobiologist working in a country different from that of the current holder of the prize.
The successor should be working with an organism different from that of the current holder of the prize.
== Selected publications ==
Exogenous and Endogenous Components in Circadian Rhythms (1960),
Beginn und Ende der täglichen Aktivität freilebender Vögel (with R. Wever, 1962),
Circadian Clocks (1965) *Desynchronization and Resynchronization of Human Circadian Rhythm (1969)
Aschoff, J. (1965) Circadian Rhythms in Man. Science. 148: 1427–1432.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacio_de_Aguas_Corrientes | Palacio de Aguas Corrientes | The Palace of Running Waters (Spanish: Palacio de Aguas Corrientes) is an architecturally significant water pumping station in Buenos Aires, Argentina, and the former headquarters of state-owned company Obras Sanitarias de la Nación. It is currently administered by Agua y Saneamientos Argentinos (AySA).
The building, designed and completed in the 19th century, was originally built to host the water tanks. Inaugurated in 1894, the palace is one of the most notable eclectic-style buildings in Argentina. It was declared a National Historic Monument of Argentina in 1989.
== History ==
=== Context ===
The building was commissioned, in part, to replace the unsightly water tower on Lorea Plaza in what today is Congressional Plaza. Occupying a city block at the northern end of the city's Balvanera section, the Córdoba Avenue landmark still functions as a pumping station.
The French renaissance palace was covered in over 300,000 glazed, multi-color terra cotta tiles imported from the British ceramics maker Royal Doulton. It features a tin mansard roof and is emblazoned with escutcheons representing the 14 Argentine provinces of the time.
=== Construction ===
The building was designed as a water pumping station in 1877 by the Norwegian architect Olaf Boye, the Swedish engineer Carlos Nyströmer, and the British civil engineer John Baterman (Bateman, Parsons & Bateman). Construction started in 1887. It was inaugurated in 1894.
The building was transferred to the City of Buenos Aires following the 1892 nationalization of the British-owned company.
In 1978, the water pumps were dismantled and the building became a museum.
The company, eventually known as Obras Sanitarias de la Nación (OSN), was reprivatized in 1993 with a 30-year contract. The contract's rescission in 2006 transferred the property to AySA, a state enterprise. The palace still houses a number of AySA offices, Historic Archives and a small water works museum.
== Building ==
The building contained twelve water tanks covering three floors and with a 72,000-ton total water capacity. The building is covered with 300,000 majolicas, has an iron structure that was produced in Belgium, and is sustained by 180 columns.
The building's entrance is graced by two caryatids, and the property, by landscaped gardens that includes a bust created by Norwegian sculptor Olaf Boye in honor of engineer Guillermo Villanueva, the first director of the Buenos Aires Water Supply and Drainage Company Limited, the then British-owned municipal water works inaugurated in 1869.
== Archives ==
Established in 1873, this is the only archive containing complete and specific information about emblematic buildings and water supply planning of Buenos Aires. This archive is composed by three main divisions:
Water Network Supply Archive: Contains plans about water treatment plants, sewage and water network supply, drains and projects (includes type, size and material of pipes, dates, architectural drawings, etc.). The size of the collection is about 60.000 plans, oldest is from 1870, but it is not available to the public.
Water Connection Application Records: Collection of documents detailing building category, water connection application forms, construction materials, measures, number of pipe connections, names of the owners, ... of almost each building constructed in Buenos Aires. The size of collection is about 350,000 records, but it is not available to the public.
Plumbing Plans Archive: Plumbing and fire hydrants service plans of 320,000 land lots of Buenos Aires. These plans are crucial for finding water, drain and sewage connections and fixing water leaks. This archive also preserves plans of buildings demolished during the construction of large avenues and highways of Buenos Aires, e.g. 9 de Julio Avenue. The collection has about 2,800,000 plans, the oldest dating from 1889. Access is for authorized individuals only.
== Gallery ==
== In the popular culture ==
The building figures prominently in the book Santa Evita by Tomas Eloy Martinez.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco,_Antioquia | San Francisco, Antioquia | San Francisco is a town and municipality in Antioquia Department, Colombia. It is part of the subregion of Eastern Antioquia. In 2015, the population comprised 5,318 people.
== History ==
San Francisco was previously known as El Morrón.
It was founded in 1830 as part of the municipality of Cocorná. In February 1986 was established as a municipality with the name of San Francisco, in memory of Saint Francis of Assisi.
== Climate ==
San Francisco has a tropical rainforest climate (Af). It has very heavy rainfall year-round.
== Demographics ==
Total Population: 5 318 people. (2015)
Urban Population: 2 446
Rural Population: 2 872
Literacy Rate: 75.5% (2005)
Urban Areas: 77.9%
Rural Areas: 74.2%
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Delhi_gang_rape_and_murder#Victims | 2012 Delhi gang rape and murder | The 2012 Delhi gang rape and murder, commonly known as the Nirbhaya case, involved the gang rape and fatal assault that occurred on 16 December 2012 in Munirka, a neighbourhood in Delhi. The incident took place when Jyoti Singh, a 22-year-old physiotherapy intern, was beaten, gang-raped, and tortured in a private bus in which she was travelling with her friend, Avnindra Pratap Pandey. There were six others in the bus, including the driver, all of whom raped the woman and beat her friend. She was rushed to Safdarjung Hospital in Delhi for treatment and, as the public outrage mounted, the government had her transferred to Mount Elizabeth Hospital, Singapore eleven days after the assault, where she died from her injuries two days later. The incident generated widespread national and international coverage and was widely condemned, both in India and abroad. Subsequently, public protests against the state and central governments for failing to provide adequate security for women took place in New Delhi, where thousands of protesters clashed with security forces. Similar protests took place in major cities throughout the country. Since Indian law does not allow the press to publish a rape victim's name, the victim was widely known as Nirbhaya, meaning "fearless", and her struggle and death became a symbol of women's resistance to rape around the world.
All the accused were arrested and charged with sexual assault and murder. One of the accused, Ram Singh, died in police custody from possible suicide on 11 March 2013. According to some published reports and the police, Ram Singh hanged himself, but the defence lawyers and his family allege he was murdered. The rest of the accused went on trial in a fast-track court; the prosecution finished presenting its evidence on 8 July 2013. On 10 September 2013, the four adult defendants – Pawan Gupta, Vinay Sharma, Akshay Thakur and Mukesh Singh (Ram Singh's brother) – were found guilty of rape and murder and three days later were sentenced to death. In the death reference case and hearing appeals on 13 March 2014, Delhi High Court upheld the guilty verdict and the death sentences. On 18 December 2019, the Supreme Court of India rejected the final appeals of the condemned perpetrators of the attack. The four adult convicts were executed by hanging on 20 March 2020. The juvenile Mohammed Afroz was convicted of rape and murder and given the maximum sentence of three years' imprisonment in a reform facility, as per the Juvenile Justice Act.
As a result of the protests, in December 2012, a judicial committee was set up to study and take public suggestions for the best ways to amend laws to provide quicker investigation and prosecution of sex offenders. After considering about 80,000 suggestions, the committee submitted a report which indicated that failures on the part of the government and police were the root cause behind crimes against women. In 2013, the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 was promulgated by President Pranab Mukherjee, several new laws were passed, and six new fast-track courts were created to hear rape cases. Critics argue that the legal system remains slow to hear and prosecute rape cases, but most agree that the case has resulted in a tremendous increase in the public discussion of crimes against women and statistics show that there has been an increase in the number of women willing to file a crime report. However, in December 2014, two years after the attack, the victim's father called the promises of reform unmet and said that he felt regret in that he had not been able to bring justice for his daughter and other women like her.
== Incident ==
The victims, a 22-year-old woman, Jyoti Singh, and her male friend were returning home on the night of 16 December 2012 after watching the film Life of Pi at PVR Select City Walk, Saket. They took an auto rickshaw to Munirka bus stand, then boarded the bus at Munirka for Dwarka at about 9:30 pm (IST). There were only six others in the bus, including the driver. One of the men, identified as a minor, had called for passengers telling them that the bus was going towards their destination. They took ₹10 each as fare from both the victims. The victim's male friend became suspicious when the bus deviated from its normal route and its doors were shut. When he objected, the group of six men already on board, including the driver, taunted the couple, asking what they were doing alone at such a late hour.
During the argument, a scuffle ensued between her friend and the group of men. He was beaten, gagged and knocked unconscious with an iron rod. The men then dragged Jyoti to the rear of the bus, beating her with the rod and raping her while the bus driver continued to drive. A medical report later said that she suffered serious injuries to her abdomen, intestines and genitals due to the assault, and doctors said that the damage indicated that a blunt object (suspected to be the iron rod) may have been used for penetration. That rod was later described by police as being a rusted, L-shaped implement of the type used as a wheel jack handle.
According to police reports, Jyoti attempted to fight off her assailants, biting three of the attackers and leaving bite marks on the accused men.
After the beatings and rape ended, the attackers threw both victims from the moving bus. One of the perpetrators later cleaned the vehicle to remove evidence. Police impounded it the next day.
The partially clothed victims were found on the road by a passerby at around 11 pm. The passerby called the Delhi Police who took the couple to Safdarjung Hospital, where Jyoti was given emergency treatment and placed on mechanical ventilation. She was found with injury marks, including numerous bite marks, all over her body. According to reports, one of the accused men admitted to having seen a rope-like object, assumed to be her intestines, being pulled out of the woman by the other assailants on the bus. Two blood-stained metal rods were retrieved from the bus and medical staff confirmed that "it was penetration by this that caused massive damage to her genitals, uterus and intestines".
== Victims ==
Jyoti Singh was born in Delhi on 10 May 1990, the eldest of three children and the only daughter of a lower-middle-class family. Her parents hailed from a small village in Ballia district of Uttar Pradesh. While Jyoti's mother is a homemaker, her father worked double shifts (two jobs) to support his family and send his children to good schools. In an interview, he related that as a youth, he had dreamed of becoming a schoolteacher, but his family could not afford to support his education beyond high school. After moving to Delhi, he worked at a pressure cooker factory, as a security guard and eventually a luggage loader. He said, "when I left [his village] 30 years ago, I vowed never deny my children so sending them to school was fulfilling my desire for knowledge." He said, "It never entered our hearts to ever discriminate. How could I be happy if my son is happy and my daughter isn't? And it was impossible to refuse a little girl who loved going to school."
Jyoti Singh graduated in physiotherapy from the Sai Institute of Paramedical & Allied Sciences in Dehradun, and had just applied for an intern's position at St Stephen's Hospital in Delhi. She lived in Delhi and only sometimes visited her family's ancestral village.
In compliance with Indian law, the real name of the victim was initially not released to the media, so pseudonyms were used for her by various media houses instead, including Jagruti (awareness), Amanat (treasure), Nirbhaya (fearless one), Damini (lightning, after the hit 1993 Hindi film) and Delhi braveheart.
The male victim, Awindra Pratap Pandey, was a software engineer from Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, who lived in Ber Sarai, New Delhi; he suffered broken limbs but survived.
Delhi police registered a criminal case against the editor of a Delhi-based tabloid, Mail Today, for disclosing the female victim's identity, as such disclosure is an offence under section 228(A) of Indian Penal Code. Shashi Tharoor, then a union minister, suggested that if the parents had no objection, her identity could be made public, as a mark of respect for her courageous response, with the possibility of naming future laws after her. Speaking to a British reporter on 5 January, the victim's father was quoted as saying, "We want the world to know her real name. My daughter didn't do anything wrong, she died while protecting herself. I am proud of her. Revealing her name will give courage to other women who have survived these attacks. They will find strength from my daughter." Indian law forbids revealing the name of a rape victim unless the family agrees to it and, following the news article which published the father's reported quote and the victim's name, some news outlets in India, Germany, Australia, and the United States also revealed her name. However, the following day Zee News quoted the father as saying, "I have only said we won't have any objection if the government uses my daughter's name for a new law for crime against women that is more stringent and better framed than the existing one." During a protest against the juvenile convict's release on 16 December 2015, the victim's mother stated that her daughter's name was Jyoti Singh and she was not ashamed of disclosing her name.
== Medical treatment and death ==
On 19 December 2012, Singh underwent her fifth surgery, which removed most of her remaining intestine. Doctors reported that she was in "stable but critical" condition. On 21 December, the government appointed a committee of doctors to ensure she received the best medical care. By 25 December, she remained intubated, on life support and in critical condition. Doctors stated that she had a fever of 102 to 103 °F (39 °C) and that internal bleeding due to sepsis was somewhat controlled. It was reported that she was "stable, conscious and meaningfully communicative".
At a cabinet meeting chaired by then-Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on 26 December, a decision was made to fly her to Mount Elizabeth Hospital in Singapore for further treatment. Mount Elizabeth is a multi-organ transplant specialty hospital. Some doctors criticised the decision as political, questioning the need to transfer an intensive care unit (ICU) patient for organ transplants that were not scheduled for weeks or even months. Government sources indicated that then Chief Minister of Delhi, Sheila Dikshit, was personally behind the decision. Hours earlier, then-Union Minister P. Chidambaram had stated that Jyoti was not in a condition to be moved.
During the six-hour air-ambulance flight to Singapore on 27 December, Jyoti suddenly went into a "near collapse", which a later report described as cardiac arrest. The doctors on board inserted an arterial line to stabilise her, but she had been without a pulse and blood pressure for nearly three minutes and never regained consciousness in Singapore.
On 28 December, at 11 am (IST), Jyoti's condition was extremely critical. The chief executive officer of the Mount Elizabeth Hospital said that the victim suffered brain damage, pneumonia, and abdominal infection, and that she was "fighting for her life." Her condition continued to deteriorate, and she died at 4:45 am on 29 December, Singapore Standard Time (2:15 am, 29 December, IST; 8:45 pm, 28 December, UTC). Her body was cremated on 30 December in Delhi under high police security. The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), then the country’s main opposition party, criticised the high-security measures, stating that they were reminiscent of the Emergency era, during which civil liberties were suspended. One of Jyoti's brothers later remarked that the decision to fly her out to Singapore had come too late, and they had held high hopes for her recovery prior to her death.
== Arrests ==
A Special Investigation Team was formed to investigate the case, which was led by Pramod Kumar Kushwaha, the Deputy Commissioner of Delhi Police's Special Cell.
Police found and arrested some suspects within 24 hours of the crime. From recordings made by a highway CCTV, a description of the bus, a white charter bus with a name written on it, was broadcast. Other operators identified it as being contracted by a South Delhi private school. They then traced it and found its driver, Ram Singh. Police obtained sketches of the assailants with the help of the male victim, and used a mobile phone stolen from the two victims to find one of the assailants.
Six men were arrested in connection with the incident. They included 30-year-old Ram Singh, the bus driver, and his 26-year-old brother, Mukesh Singh, who were both arrested in Rajasthan. Ram and Mukesh Singh lived in Ravidas camp, a slum in South Delhi. 20-year-old Vinay Sharma, an assistant gym instructor, and 19-year-old Pawan Gupta, a fruit seller, were both arrested in UP and Bihar. A 17-year-old juvenile named Mohammed Afroz, from Badayun, Uttar Pradesh, was arrested at the Anand Vihar terminal in Delhi. The juvenile had only met the others that day. 28-year-old Akshay Thakur, who had come to Delhi seeking employment, was the final suspect to be arrested in Aurangabad, Bihar; he was married with one son at the time of his arrest.
According to reports, the group had been eating and drinking together and "having a party" earlier in the day. Although the charter bus which Ram Singh drove on weekdays was not permitted to pick up public passengers or even to operate in Delhi because of its tinted windows, they decided to take it out "to have some fun". A few hours before committing the gang rape, the attackers had robbed a carpenter. The carpenter was 35-year-old Ramadhir Singh (unrelated to Ram, Mukesh and Jyoti), who boarded the bus that was being driven by Mukesh Singh. The juvenile convict had lured him into the bus saying it was going to Nehru Place. He was then beaten up and robbed of his mobile phone and ₹1500 in cash. After robbing him, the group dumped him at the IIT Flyover. He reported the robbery to three police constables: Kailash, Ashok and Sandeep, who were passing nearby. They refused to take any action in response, saying that the crime scene wasn't under their purview as they were from the Hauz Khas police station, and that he would have to report the incident to the station in Vasant Vihar.
Shortly after the attacks, Pawan Gupta said he accepted his guilt and should be hanged. Mukesh Singh, who was placed in Tihar Jail after his arrest, was assaulted by other inmates and was kept in solitary confinement for his own protection.
Ram Singh was presented before the Metropolitan Magistrate on 18 December 2012. He refused to participate in an identification process.
Investigation revealed a history of frequent drinking that resulted in "blinding rage", "bad temper", and quarrels with employers, that had led friends to call him "mental". On 11 March, Ram Singh was discovered hanging from a ventilator shaft in his cell which he shared with 3 other prisoners, at about 5:45 a.m. Authorities said it was unclear whether it was a suicide or a murder.
== Trial ==
The male victim, Awindra Pratap Pandey, testified in court on 19 December 2012. Pandey recorded his statement with a sub-divisional magistrate at the Safdarjung Hospital on 21 December, in the presence of the Deputy Commissioner of police. He was reportedly plagued with guilt and trauma over the incident.
On 21 December, the government promised to file the chargesheet quickly and seek the maximum penalty of life imprisonment for the perpetrators. Following public outrage and a demand for a speedy trial and prosecution, on 24 December, the police promised to file the charge sheet within one week. The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Home Affairs met on 27 December to discuss the issue, and Union Home Secretary R. K. Singh and Delhi Police Commissioner Neeraj Kumar were summoned to appear. The Delhi High Court approved the creation of five fast-track courts to try rape and sexual assault cases. The first of the five approved fast-track courts was inaugurated on 2 January 2013 by Altamas Kabir, Chief Justice of India, in Saket court complex in South Delhi.
On 21 December, the Delhi High Court reprimanded the Delhi police for being "evasive" in a probe status report providing details of officers on patrol duty in the area covered by the bus route. A further court hearing on the matter was scheduled for 9 January 2013. The following day, the Delhi Police initiated action against three Hauz Khas police station personnel for their inaction in responding to the robbery of the carpenter that took place earlier on the bus in the day. On 24 December, two Assistant Commissioners of Police were suspended for failing to prevent the gang rape incident.
=== Juvenile defendant ===
The juvenile defendant Mohammed Afroz, whose name was later changed to Raju in the media due to his age, was declared as 17 years and six months old on the day of the crime by the Juvenile Justice Board (JJB), which relied on his birth certificate and school documents. The JJB rejected a police request for a bone ossification (age determination) test for a positive documentation of his age.
On 28 January 2013, the Juvenile Justice Board determined that Afroz would not be tried as an adult. A petition launched by Janata Party president Subramanian Swamy seeking the prosecution of the minor as an adult due to the violent nature of his alleged crime was rejected by the JJB. The minor was tried separately in a juvenile court.
A verdict in the case was scheduled to be announced on 25 July, but was deferred until 5 August and then deferred again to 19 August. On 31 August, he was convicted of rape and murder under the Juvenile Justice Act and given the maximum sentence of three years' imprisonment in a reform facility, inclusive of the eight months he spent in remand during the trial. Reportedly, Jyoti's younger brother had impulsively tried to attack the juvenile convict after hearing the verdict but the crowd in the courtroom managed to restrain him. The juvenile was released on 20 December 2015.
For the rehabilitation and mainstreaming of Afroz as mandated by the Juvenile Justice Act, 2000 management committees were set up before the release of juvenile convicts. Accordingly, a 'post-release plan' was submitted to the Delhi high court in December 2015. The plan was prepared and submitted by the management committee, headed by the officer of the District Child Protection Unit, and had recommended that "(Afroz) should lead a new life with a new identity provided by the appropriate government as applicable in his case if permissible to avoid any backlash or violent reaction". According to the report, the juvenile had learnt cooking and tailoring while staying in the reform house. The report further said that Afroz would need a tailoring shop, a sewing machine and other tailoring equipment. The report also mentioned that a one-time grant of ₹10,000 (US$120) from the government should be sufficient to support him initially. The department of women and child development (WCD) of the government stated that it would provide the money and would arrange the machine from an NGO. Afroz's family had ostracized him for the crime and refused to accept him. However, after his release it was reported that he was working as a cook.
=== Adult defendants ===
Five days after Jyoti's death, on 3 January 2013, the police filed charges against the five adult men for rape, murder, kidnapping, destruction of evidence, and the attempted murder of the woman's male companion. Senior lawyer Dayan Krishnan was appointed as the special public prosecutor. Mukesh Singh, Vinay Sharma, Akshay Thakur and Pawan Gupta denied the charges. Some of the men had confessed earlier; however, their lawyers said that their clients had been tortured and that their confessions had been coerced.
On 10 January, one of their lawyers, Manohar Lal Sharma, said in a media interview that the victims were responsible for the assault because they should not have been using public transportation and, as an unmarried couple, they should not have been on the streets at night. He went on to say: "Until today I have not seen a single incident or example of rape with a respected lady. Even an underworld don would not like to touch a girl without respect." He also called the male victim "wholly responsible" for the incident because he "failed in his duty to protect the woman".
The Delhi police filed a charge sheet against the defendants on 13 March in the robbery of Ramadhir.
The four surviving adult defendants went on trial in a fast-track court. The prosecution presented evidence including witness statements, the victim's statement, fingerprints, DNA testing, and dental modelling. It completed its case on 8 July.
=== Conviction, sentencing, and imprisonment ===
On 10 September 2013, in the fast track court of Delhi, the four adult defendants were found guilty of rape, murder, unnatural offences and destruction of evidence. The four men faced the death penalty, and demonstrators outside the courthouse called for the hanging of the defendants. The victim's father also called for the defendants to be hanged, stating, "We will get complete closure only if all the accused are wiped off from the face of the earth." Lawyers for three of the four stated that their clients intended to appeal the verdict. The four men were sentenced on 13 September to death by hanging. Judge Yogesh Khanna rejected pleas for a lesser sentence saying the case has "shocked the collective conscience of India" and that "courts cannot turn a blind eye to such crimes." The victim's family was present for the sentencing and her mother expressed satisfaction over the verdict saying, "We were waiting with bated breath, now we are relieved. I thank the people of my country and the media." After the verdict was delivered, the people waiting outside the courtroom applauded.
Upon hearing that he would be executed, Vinay Sharma collapsed and pleaded with the judge, saying, "Please sir, please sir." As the men left the courtroom, they shouted out to the crowd, "Brothers, save us!"
While on death row, Mukesh Singh blamed Jyoti for being raped, saying "You can't clap with one hand – it takes two hands. A decent girl won't roam around at 9 o'clock at night. A girl is far more responsible for rape than a boy. Boy and girl are not equal. Housework and housekeeping is for girls, not roaming in discos and bars at night doing wrong things, wearing wrong clothes. About 20 percent of girls are good." Singh also blamed Jyoti for her death, saying "When being raped, she shouldn't fight back. She should just be silent and allow the rape. Then they'd have dropped her off after 'doing her', and only hit the boy."
On 13 March 2014, the Delhi High Court found each of the defendants guilty of rape, murder, unnatural offences and destruction of evidence. With the verdict, the High Court confirmed the death sentences for the four men convicted in September 2013. The court noted that the crime, which stirred widespread protests over sexual crimes against women in the country, fell into the judicial system's "rarest of the rare category" that allows capital punishment. The lawyers of the four men said they would appeal to the Supreme Court.
== Supreme Court appeal ==
On 15 March 2014, the Supreme Court of India stayed the execution of two of the four convicts, Mukesh Singh and Pawan Gupta, to allow them to make their appeal against their conviction on 31 March. This was further extended by the court to the second week of July. On 2 June, the two other convicts, Sharma and Thakur, also asked the Supreme Court to stay their execution to allow them to make an appeal of their convictions. On 14 July, their execution was also stayed by Supreme Court. On 27 August 2015, Vinay, Akshay, Mukesh and Pawan were convicted of robbing Ramadhir and were later sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment.
On 5 May 2017, the Supreme Court rejected the convicts' appeal and, saying they had committed "a barbaric crime" that had "shaken society's conscience", the court upheld the death sentence of the four who had been charged in the murder. The verdict was well received by the family of the victim and the civil society. According to legal experts, the convicts still had the right to file a review petition to the Supreme Court. On 9 July 2018, the Supreme Court rejected a review petition by three of the convicts.
In November 2019, the Supreme Court dismissed a review petition from Akshay pleading for mercy. In doing so, the court retained the death sentence. After the verdict, Akshay's lawyer told the Supreme Court that he would appeal to the president. For this, he should be given three weeks' time. In January 2020, a five-judge bench of the Supreme Court rejected the curative petitions of convicts, Vinay Sharma and Mukesh.
On 7 January 2020 a death warrant was issued for the Nirbhaya rapists by a Delhi court, setting an execution date of 22 January 2020 at 7:00 a.m. IST in Tihar Jail.
Government authorities and the victim's mother alleged that the four convicts were "intentionally delaying" and "frustrating" the legal process in this case by filing their pleas in stages, so that the execution could be postponed. Under prison rules, if any one particular case results in more than one death penalty conviction (as here) and any one of those convicted in the case petitions for a mercy plea, the execution dates of all others convicted in the case must be postponed until a decision is made on the pending mercy plea.
=== Mercy plea to the President of India ===
Mukesh Singh filed a mercy plea in January 2020. The Delhi government made a recommendation to reject the plea and forwarded it to the Lieutenant Governor. On 17 January 2020, the President of India rejected the mercy plea. Both the Government of Delhi and home ministry had recommended the president that the plea should be rejected.
=== Second, third and fourth death warrants ===
On 17 January 2020, hours after the rejection of the mercy plea, Judge Dharmender Rana issued a second death warrant for the convicts to be hanged after a mandatory fourteen-day gap on 1 February at 6:00 a.m. The fourteen days' reprieve was provided in accordance with law which states that the convicts awaiting an execution must have a reprieve after their mercy plea is rejected. During the same hearing, the court also rejected a plea by the convict Mukesh to postpone the execution.
On 17 January, Pawan appealed to the Supreme Court against the Delhi High Court order that rejected his claim that Pawan was a juvenile during the crime in 2012. On 31 January, a Delhi court stayed the death warrant. The judge did not issue a fresh warrant for their execution. The lawyer cited Rule 836 of the prison manual which says that in a case where more than one person has been sentenced to death, the execution cannot take place unless all the convicts have exhausted their legal options.
On 17 February 2020, a third death warrant was issued by the court with the execution date as 3 March 2020 at 6:00 a.m. On 4 March 2020, a fourth death warrant was issued by court with the execution date as 20 March 2020 at 5:30 a.m. Numerous pleas and appeals were made by both the families of the convicts and the convicts themselves, including three of the convicts moving the International Court of Justice for a stay on the death sentence; however, the date for the execution remained the same.
== Execution of convicts ==
On 20 March 2020, at 5:30 a.m. IST, Mukesh Singh, Vinay Sharma, Akshay Thakur and Pawan Gupta were executed at Tihar Jail. The gallows used for the execution had been specially designed for four people. According to prison officials, the four convicts refused the offers of a last meal and new clothes prior to the execution. They were blindfolded and did not resist as they were led to the gallows; however, Vinay Sharma suffered a breakdown prior to his execution and began pleading with the guards. The four convicts were pronounced dead after hanging for 30 minutes. Mukesh Singh reportedly requested to donate his organs.
== Public protests ==
=== After the incident ===
Public protests took place in New Delhi on 21 December 2012 at India Gate and Raisina Hill, the latter being the location of both the Parliament of India and Rashtrapati Bhavan, the official residence of the President of India. Thousands of protesters clashed with police and battled Rapid Action Force units. Demonstrators were baton charged, shot with water cannon and tear gas shells, and arrested.
Similar protests occurred throughout the country. More than 600 women belonging to various organisations demonstrated in Bangalore. Thousands of people silently marched in Kolkata. Protests occurred online as well on the social networking sites Facebook and WhatsApp, with users replacing their profile images with a black dot symbol. Tens of thousands signed an online petition protesting the incident.
Yoga guru Baba Ramdev and former Army chief General Vijay Kumar Singh were among the demonstrators who clashed with Delhi Police at Jantar Mantar. On 24 December, activist Rajesh Gangwar started a hunger strike, saying about the accused men, "If my death shakes the system and gets them hanged, I am ready to die". Gangwar ended his fast after 14 days, saying, "My fight to demand a strict law against rape will be continued in the future... I have dedicated myself for this cause". Middle Finger Protests, a Chandigarh-based pressure group and NGO headed by human rights and social activist Prabhloch Singh, also played a key role in the agitations and protests in New Delhi.
Seven metro rail stations in New Delhi were closed on 22 December to discourage protesters from gathering at Raisina Hill. On 24 December, police blocked roads leading to India Gate and Raisina Hill to prevent possible mass protests, and closed nine metro stations, affecting thousands of transit patrons. News reporters were not allowed to reach India Gate and Raisina Hill. In addition to CrPC section 144, which disallows assembly of groups larger than five, curfew was imposed near the presidential residence. The Hindustan Times accused police of using excessive force against the protestors, reporting that 375 tear gas canisters were used at India Gate and elsewhere in Delhi to disperse the crowds. An article in First Post criticised the Indian government as well, saying that they failed to act positively or give credible assurances to the protesters and instead used police force, lathi-charging, pushing the media out of the scene, and shutting down metro rail stations.
Police stated that peaceful protests had been "hijacked" by hooligans and political activists.
During one protest, a police constable named Subhash Tomar collapsed and later died in hospital. Two witnesses claimed that Tomar collapsed without being hit by any protesters, while a third disputed this. Hospital doctors and the post-mortem gave contradictory reports: he died due to cardiac arrest, but it is not known if the heart attack was caused by blunt-force injuries that he suffered to his chest and neck. Some experts state that his chest injuries may have been a side effect of the administration of CPR. The Delhi Police arrested 8 young men and charged them with Tomar's murder and rioting at India Gate. Later in March 2013, the police admitted in the Delhi High Court they had no evidence against the eight and dropped the murder charges against them. The youths said the move by the commissioner of police to charge them with murder had been "irresponsible".
=== After the victim's death ===
After Jyoti Singh's death on 29 December 2012, protests were staged throughout India, including Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Kochi, Thiruvananthapuram, Mumbai, Bhubaneswar and Visakhapatnam. Many of the mourners carried candles and wore black dresses; some pasted black cloth across their mouths.
The following day a large number of people staged protests near Jantar Mantar, New Delhi. There were minor clashes between some groups of protesters and the police; the police then removed some protesters from the area. One group of protesters also observed a one-day hunger strike at Jantar Mantar. All roads leading to India Gate were closed by police and areas where protesters had gathered during the previous week were out of bounds to the public. Some of the protesters drew graffiti and slogans on papers spread on the road, condemning the incident and demanding stricter laws and speedy judgement. The BJP renewed its demand for a special parliament session to discuss the case and to adopt stricter laws on crime against women.
New Year's celebrations were scaled down to a large extent, with the Indian armed forces and some clubs and hotels in Delhi cancelling their New Year parties.
The Indian protests also sparked protests across South Asia, including marches and rallies in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Bangladesh. In Nepal, hundreds of demonstrators in Kathmandu called for legal reforms and an overhaul of attitudes to women. In Bangladesh the human rights group Ain o Salish Kendra (ASK) said the protests in Delhi had given fresh impetus to protests against sexual violence. According to an ASK spokesperson, "although previous demonstrations on similar issues were largely dominated by women, men were now protesting too. The protests had also drawn people from a broad range of society."
In Paris, people participated in a march to the Indian embassy where a petition was handed over asking for action to make India safer for women.
An author for the South Asia Analysis Group explained the protests as expressions of middle-class angst arising out of a collapse of a social contract between them and the liberal state.
New Delhi has the highest number of sex crimes among India's major cities. Police figures show a rape reported on average every 18 hours; reported rape cases rose by nearly 17 percent between 2007 and 2011. Only one of the 706 rape cases filed in Delhi in 2012 saw a successful conviction against the attacker. Between 16 December and 4 January 501 calls for harassment and 64 calls for rape were recorded by the Delhi Police, but only four were followed up by inquiries. The regional program director for U.N. Women South Asia said, "There are rape cases in almost all cities and rural areas, where the victim dies immediately because of the brutality of the crime... This time, it was like, 'Wake up.'"
== Reactions ==
Members of the Indian parliament demanded severe punishment for the perpetrators. The then Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha, Sushma Swaraj, stated: "The rapists should be hanged". Chairperson of the then ruling United Progressive Alliance Sonia Gandhi visited the Safdarjang Hospital and met doctors on duty in the anesthesia and surgery departments for an update on the woman's health. Bahujan Samaj Party chief, Mayawati, said that proper investigation was required, and that "action should be so strict that no one should dare to act in such a manner again". Actress and member of the Rajya Sabha Jaya Bachchan said that she was "terribly disturbed" over the incident, and felt "ashamed" sitting in the House, feeling "helpless" for "not being able to do anything". Meira Kumar, the then Speaker of the Lok Sabha, told reporters a "new law should be brought in and must get passed to ensure the safety of women." She went on to say: "The laws at present are not enough, we need stricter laws."
The then Chief Minister of Delhi Sheila Dixit, said that she did not have the courage to meet the victim and described Delhi as a "rape capital" in interviews. She said that senior police officials should be held accountable for the failure to take adequate measures to stop such incidents and called for "immediate setting up of fast-track courts to try rape cases and to get justice in a time-bound manner". The three constables who had refused to take action upon Ram Adhar's complaint of robbery were suspended for dereliction of duty.
On 24 December 2012, in his first official reaction after the incident, then Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh appealed for calm, stressing that "violence will serve no purpose". In a televised address, he assured that all possible efforts would be made to ensure the safety of women in India. Singh expressed empathy, saying: "As a father of three daughters I feel as strongly about the incident as each one of you". As a tribute to Nirbhaya, the prime minister cancelled all his official events to celebrate the new year. Then Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, Akhilesh Yadav, announced a package of financial assistance ₹2 million (US$24,000) and a government job to her family.
Speaking out against the protesters, President Pranab Mukherjee's son Abhijit Mukherjee argued that the women protesters did not appear to him to be students. He said
What's basically happening in Delhi is a lot like Egypt or elsewhere, where there's something called the Pink Revolution, which has very little connection with ground realities. In India, staging candle-lit marches, going to discothèques ... I can see many beautiful women among them – highly dented-painted ... [but] I have grave doubts whether they're students ...
The remark was widely condemned as sexist. His sister Sharmistha said that she and their father, the president both disapproved. Then Maharashtra Chief Minister Prithviraj Chavan also expressed disapproval. Abhijit quickly withdrew his comment and apologised. Spiritual guru Asaram Bapu also provoked extensive criticism from the public by saying that the victim was also to blame for her own assault because she could have stopped the attack if she had "chanted God's name and fallen at the feet of the attackers".
Following the gruesome crime, several celebrities like Preity Zinta, Shah Rukh Khan, Kareena Kapoor, Amitabh Bachchan, Farhan Akhtar and many more expressed outrages on social medial platforms like Twitter. Many of them demanded that the rapists be castrated or hanged. The incident was later featured in the first episode of second season of Satyamev Jayate. Hosted by Aamir Khan, the episode also dealt with other incidents of rape, as well as the sufferings of rape survivors at the hands of police officers, medical personnel, judicial system, and the general public.
=== International ===
The American embassy released a statement on 29 December 2012, offering their condolences to Nirbhaya's family and stated, "we also recommit ourselves to changing attitudes and ending all forms of gender-based violence, which plagues every country in the world". Nirbhaya was posthumously awarded one of the 2013 International Women of Courage Awards of the US State Department. The citation stated that "for millions of Indian women, her personal ordeal, perseverance to fight for justice, and her family's continued bravery is helping to lift the stigma and vulnerability that drive violence against women."
The crime of rape became a capital offence in India following the rape. Indian politician Mulayam Singh Yadav opposed this change in the law, saying that "Boys will be boys. Boys commit mistakes". Two years later, in response to these comments and another incident of rape that took place in Uttar Pradesh where Yadav's party was governing, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said "We say no to the dismissive, destructive attitude of, 'Boys will be boys'" and stated, "Violence against women must never be accepted, never excused, never tolerated. Every girl and woman have the right to be respected, valued and protected". UN Women called on the Government of India and the Government of Delhi "to do everything in their power to take up radical reforms, ensure justice and reach out with robust public services to make women's lives more safe and secure".
In the wake of remarks against India in Western media, Jessica Valenti, writing in The Nation, argued that such rapes are also common in the United States, but US commentators exhibit a double standard in denying or minimising their systemic nature while simultaneously attacking India for an alleged rape culture. Author and activist Eve Ensler, who organised One Billion Rising, a global campaign to end violence against women and girls, said that the gang rape and murder was a turning point in India and around the world. Ensler said that she had travelled to India at the time of the rape and murder, and she commented:
After having worked every day of my life for the last 15 years on sexual violence, I have never seen anything like that, where sexual violence broke through the consciousness and was on the front page, nine articles in every paper every day, in the centre of every discourse, in the centre of the college students' discussions, in the centre of any restaurant you went in. And I think what's happened in India, India is really leading the way for the world. It's really broken through. They are actually fast-tracking laws. They are looking at sexual education. They are looking at the bases of patriarchy and masculinity and how all that leads to sexual violence.
=== Tourism ===
In the aftermath of the rape case the number of female tourists to India fell by 35% compared to the same period the previous year, according to an industry survey by ASSOCHAM. The Foreign Office of the UK modified its travel advice and advised women against travelling alone.
In 2014, Finance Minister Arun Jaitley commented "one small incident of rape in Delhi' advertised world-over is enough to cost us billions of dollars in terms of lower tourism".
== Results of protests ==
In the view of widespread protests, governments at the centre and various states announced several steps to ensure the safety of women. The Government of Karnataka announced the launch of a 24/7 dedicated helpline (1091) to be operated by the state police to register sexual abuse complaints from women. It is also checking the possibility of setting up fast-track courts to dispose of pending cases pertaining to crimes against women. The Government of Tamil Nadu also announced a 13-point action plan to ensure safety of women in Tamil Nadu and said that incidents of sexual assault would be treated as a grave crime, and probes would be entrusted to top police officials. The Tamil Nadu chief minister also said that daily hearings would be conducted in all sexual abuse cases in the state for speedy trials at specially constituted fast-track courts, and women prosecutors would be appointed as government counsels. The Jammu and Kashmir government also announced plans to change the state's laws against sexual offenses and gender crimes. The Government of Himachal Pradesh decided to set up state and district-level committees to review progress of all cases of crimes against women.
Despite these state government responses, Singh herself endured great hardship during and after the protests. As one scholar put it, she continued to be "raped" (literally and figuratively): Singh faced a demeaning medical examination, a harsh cross-examination by the court, as well as "salacious media reports" and an insensitive response from society as a whole, including from people who knew her.
=== Justice Verma Committee and changes in law ===
On 22 December 2012, a judicial committee headed by J. S. Verma, a former Chief Justice of India and one of India's most highly regarded Chief Justices and eminent jurists was appointed by the Central government to submit a report within 30 days to suggest amendments to criminal law to sternly deal with sexual assault cases. The committee urged the public in general and particularly eminent jurists, legal professionals, NGOs, women's groups and civil society to share "their views, knowledge and experience suggesting possible amendments in the criminal and other relevant laws to provide for quicker investigation, prosecution and trial, and also enhanced punishment for criminals accused of committing sexual assault of an extreme nature against women." The Committee held its first meeting on 26 December 2012; it had received more than 6,000 emails with suggestions by then. The Justice Verma Committee report was submitted after 29 days, after considering 80,000 suggestions received during the period. The report indicated that failures on the part of the government and police were the root cause behind crimes against women. Suggestions in the report included the need to review the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958 (AFSPA) in conflict areas, and setting the maximum punishment for rape as death penalty rather than life imprisonment. The committee did not favour lowering the age of an adult from 18 to 16.
On 26 December 2012, a Commission of Inquiry headed by former Delhi High Court judge Usha Mehra was set up to identify lapses, determine responsibility in relation to the incident, and suggest measures to make Delhi and the wider National Capital Region safer for women. On 1 January 2013, a task force headed by the Union Home Secretary was established to look into women's safety issues in Delhi and review the functioning of the city police force on a regular basis.
On 3 February 2013, the Criminal Law (Amendment) Ordinance, 2013 was promulgated by then President Pranab Mukherjee. It provides for amendment of the Indian Penal Code, Indian Evidence Act, and Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, on laws related to sexual offences. The ordinance provides for the death penalty in cases of rape. According to Minister of Law and Justice Ashwani Kumar, 90 percent of the suggestions given by the Verma Committee Report were incorporated into the Ordinance. However, critics state that many key suggestions of the commission have been ignored, including the criminalisation of marital rape and trying military personnel accused of sexual offences under criminal law.
In a December 2013 interview, Nirbhaya's parents, Badri Nath Singh and Asha Devi, said they were trying to get the juvenile law changed in such crimes as the rape and murder of their daughter. They petitioned the Supreme Court to try the juvenile in a criminal court instead of a Juvenile Justice court. The juvenile defendant was sent to borstal youth detention for three years and then released. He was just short of 18 years when he committed the crime.
In a March 2015 interview with The Tribune, Women and Child Development Minister Maneka Gandhi said that Government is going ahead with a law treating juveniles as adults in grave crimes.
On 22 December 2015, Rajya Sabha passed the revised Juvenile Justice Act, which proposed that the accused of heinous crimes who are above 16 years of age will be treated as an adult in the court of law.
== Legacy ==
=== Anniversary memorials ===
On 16 December 2013, the first anniversary of the attack, activists held memorials throughout New Delhi in memory of the victim widely known as Nirbhaya, meaning "fearless". Members of women's organizations lit candles in her memory and protested against exploitation of women. University students and others organized a candlelight march at the bus stand in South Delhi where Nirbhaya and her friend Pandey boarded the bus in which the rape and beatings took place. At a commemorative prayer meeting political leaders resolved to increase efforts to improve women's security. Speaking with the victim's mother, former chief minister Sheila Dikshit said that Delhi's society and the various authorities will work together to build a permanent legacy to her daughter: "... whatever you will want in her memory, we will try to fulfil. And we will try with a conviction that such an incident is not repeated with anybody else in the future". The victim's parents spoke at a memorial saying that they were proud of the courage that their daughter showed, which they believe "has spurred more women to speak out instead of hiding the crimes committed against them".
In December 2014, the second anniversary of the attack, referring to a woman who was raped in a car operated by an Uber driver, the parents remarked to the press that not much had changed: "Nothing in India has changed since 16 December 2012. All promises and statements made by our leaders and ministers have turned out to be shallow. Our suffering gives them their moment in limelight. My daughter asks me what I have done to get her justice. She asks what am I doing so that many more like her get justice and I wake up to realise how helpless and trivial I am..."
"Nirbhaya Chetna Diwas", a public event organised by women's and citizens groups, candlelight vigils, prayer meetings, and other events were held on 16 December 2015 at the Jantar Mantar to pay homage to Jyoti on the third anniversary of her death. In what was called "a brave homage to her daughter", Jyoti's mother, Asha Devi, said, "My daughter's name was Jyoti Singh and I am not ashamed to name her. Those who commit heinous crimes like rape, their heads should hang in shame, not the victims' or their families'."
Devi spoke out against the upcoming release of the juvenile and put forth four demands for justice:
On the third death anniversary of our death, we are seeing the release of the juvenile convict. Where is justice in that? I do not know whether he is 16 or 18. I only know that he has committed a brutal crime and there should be no age limit for punishment; [...] the juvenile convict should be sentenced to death, fast-track courts be set up in all the courts to offer speedy justice to sexual assault victims, amendments to the Juveniles Justice Act be passed and utilisation of Nirbhaya Fund for setting up high quality forensic labs in all states.
=== Changes to the legal system ===
The outpouring of anger and grief following the rape and murder gave rise to hopes for change in India. The government responded with the passage of several new sexual assault laws, including a mandatory minimum sentence of 20 years for gang rape, and six new fast-track courts created solely for rape prosecutions. As an indicator of the scope of the problem of rape prosecution, the "Nirbhaya" case was the only conviction obtained among the 706 rape cases filed in New Delhi in 2012. Between 16 December 2012 and 4 January 2013, Delhi police recorded 501 allegations of harassment and 64 of rape, but only four inquiries were launched. However, it appears that the "Nirbhaya" case has had an effect on the willingness of rape or molestation victims to report the crime; police records show that during the final nine months of 2013 almost twice as many rape victims filed a police report and four times as many allegations of molestation were made. A recent report released by the National Crime Records Bureau shows that 95 percent of the cases brought to the police were classified as a crime. However, there is a large backlog of cases with fewer than 15 percent of those charged tried in 2012, leaving 85 percent waiting to come to trial.
On 16 December 2013, the first anniversary of the rape was commemorated in London with a public memorial to honour the victim. Speakers included Meera Syal, whose parents are from New Delhi. Speaking of the anger that was expressed at the time of the rape, she said, "We need to hold onto that anger and demand that the Indian Government enforces all the promised changes of its recent Criminal Law Amendment Act, which changed laws to expand the definition of rape and incorporated new offences including acid attack, sexual harassment, voyeurism and stalking". She also said that activists need to act in solidarity with other organisations to stop violence against women and girls around the world.
Following the incident the government set up the Nirbhaya Fund for "empowerment, safety and security of women and girl children." The Fund is administered by Department of Economic Affairs of the finance ministry. However, an Oxfam India report published in 2021 shows that the fund remains underused and underutilized.
=== Public discussions about violence against women ===
Observers agree that the victim's ordeal has brought a change to public conversations about women's issues, with men joining in the discussions as well. A young woman who had taken part in the protests at the time of the rape said a year later, "A welcome change is that the taboo on discussing rape and sexual violence has been broken. The protests brought debates and discussions to our homes." She also said that since the rape and protests the media is now providing coverage of sexual violence. However, she saw "absolutely no change in the rape culture and related brutality. The streets are not safe. Teasing and catcalling or worse are to be found everywhere. Sexual harassment in public places as well as inside the home is still rampant." She added, "I do acknowledge, however, that a year is too less to undo what patriarchy has done over centuries. It is too embedded in our homes, our institutions and in our laws. The police may be a little more receptive, but it is not out of a sense of duty but out of the fear of censure".
Women in urban spaces in India yet feel unsafe. They report needing to wear clothing that covers their bodies in order to "make them feel safe". Public officials and commentators in India often claim that women who wear "skimpy" clothing and go around partying with other guys "invite these attacks" and thus cannot claim it is rape. In reality, the majority of women actually do not wear Western clothing in public because of the fear of provoking sexual assault.
The discussion surrounding women's attire "provoking assault" is described as victim blaming by government officials, social commentators, men, and even other women. As society and the Indian government have not been able to successfully address the root of the issue, women resort to strategies to feel safe. Some of these "strategies" include ignoring sexual commentary, avoiding direct eye-contact with men, dressing more modestly, and "refrain[ing] from going out at night". This has escalated to women avoiding public spaces altogether including public transportation, feeding into the expectation that women should stay at home and that they belong there. Critics claim that these avoidance tactics are just a band-aid solution to a much deeper issue relating in victim-blaming and lack of accountability for men in Indian society.
A poll in October 2017, the first of its kind in the world, which was published by Thomson Reuters Foundation, found that Delhi was the fourth most dangerous city in the world for women and it was also the worst city in the world for women when it came to sexual violence, rape and harassment.
=== Nirbhaya Trust ===
In December 2013, the family of the victim along with social entrepreneur Sarvesh Kumar Tiwari established the Nirbhaya Trust, an institute formed to assist women who have experienced violence to find shelter and legal assistance. Due to the fact that Indian laws do not allow the publishing of a rape victim's name, it was named Nirbhaya which means fearless in Hindi, after the name used by the media. The victim's father stated, "So many people supported us, so... we want [to] help those girls who have no one."
=== Women of India Summit ===
Inspired by the protests and international attention, women's rights activists organized the first Women of India Leadership Summit, later renamed the Women of India Summit, in 2013. It is an annual summit that gathers activists together in order to develop strategies that empower women, especially in the National Capital Region, so that Delhi is no longer known as the "rape capital of the world."
== Artistic depictions of Nirbhaya ==
=== BBC Storyville: India's Daughter ===
India's Daughter (2015) is a documentary film directed and produced by Leslee Udwin, and is part of the BBC's ongoing Storyville series. It was scheduled to be broadcast on International Women's Day, 8 March 2015, in India on NDTV 24x7 and in UK on BBC Four. On 1 March it was revealed that the filmmakers had interviewed one of the rapists while he was being held in the Tihar jail. Soon, the news was picked up by Indian media outlets. The Indian government blocked its broadcast in India by obtaining a court order on 4 March. The BBC said it would comply with the order and did not broadcast the film in India. In the UK however, the BBC moved the transmission forward to 4 March, and it was shown on that date. The film was also uploaded on YouTube and soon went viral with various shares on social media. On 5 March, the Indian government directed YouTube to block the video in India and YouTube complied with the order. The film has generated a great deal of controversy in both India and worldwide.
Because India does not permit a rape victim's name to be published, the victim was called "Nirbhaya", which means fearless, because of her efforts to fight off her rapists and her insistence on making a detailed statement to the police before she died. However, following the death of their daughter, the parents were quoted in several media articles as saying they had no objections to using their daughter's name. In the film the father states he is "happy" to reveal her name, Jyoti Singh, and on 5 March the father was quoted as saying he thought "everyone should watch the documentary, which showed 'the bitter truth' about attitudes to women in India". Even still, on 6 March, the news outlet The Hindu ran an article "Father objects to revealing gangrape victim's name in 'India's Daughter'" in which they quoted the father as saying that he planned to take legal action because her name was used.
The film's director and producer Leslee Udwin said that it was the courage and bravery shown by the unprecedented numbers of men and women who protested the rape and murder that inspired her to make the film. Speaking in an interview, Udwin said:
Courageous and impassioned ordinary men and women of India braved the December freeze to protest in unprecedented numbers, withstanding an onslaught of teargas shells, lathi charges [baton charges] and water cannons, to make their cry of "enough is enough" heard. In this regard, India led the world by example. In my lifetime, I can't recall any other country standing up with such commitment and determination for women's rights.
In reference to the actual film, Nirbhaya's father, Badrinath Singh, said that India's Daughter "holds up a mirror to society", and that the screening of the film holds a significance in the sense "that the struggle that my daughter was part of continues." Singh has also said that since the death of his daughter "every girl on the street is [now] like a daughter" to him and his wife, and that people in general need to understand that their sons need to be taught to respect women. Speaking on 5 March, Singh said:
My wife and I brought up our children with the sole intention of making them good citizens. I can proudly say that we have achieved that. Our daughter has shown society its true face. She has changed the lives of many young girls. She remains an inspiration even after her death. She fought back those devils. We are proud of our daughter.
=== Anatomy of Violence by Deepa Mehta ===
Indian-Canadian filmmaker Deepa Mehta's 2016 film Anatomy of Violence was also based on the incident, exploring the social conditions and lack of mental and sexual education in Indian society that made it possible.
=== Crime Patrol: "A Nation Awakens" ===
"A Nation Awakens" is the 296th and 297th special two-part episode of the fourth season of the Sony TV television series Crime Patrol (which features real crime stories) and the 546th and 547th episodes overall. Originally aired in two parts on 21 September and 22 September 2013, the episodes were written by Subramanian S. Iyer and director by R. Amit Kumar Jha. The principal photography of the episodes was held in Mumbai, India and was commenced in the first week of January 2013. The episode was hosted by Anup Soni and role of head police inspector was played by Sanjeev Tyagi.
=== Netflix series Delhi Crime ===
Richie Mehta, a Canadian filmmaker, made a seven-part web television series titled Delhi Crime in 2019. It was based on the aftermath and the subsequent manhunt of the perpetrators of the case. Starring Shefali Shah, Rasika Duggal and Adil Hussain, the series was released on Netflix. This 7-episode series won the Best Drama Series at the 48th International Emmy Awards.
=== Literary works ===
The comic book Priya's Shakti was inspired by the Nirbhaya case. The protagonist fights against gender-based sexual violence in India and around the world.
A book on the Nirbhaya case titled Courting Injustice: The Nirbhaya Case and its Aftermath was authored by Rajesh Talwar, and published by Hay House in 2013
On 5 September 2014, Bandaru Dattareya, a member of Parliament and BJP National Vice President, inaugurated "Wo Desh Ki Beti" (Nation's Daughter), a social event at Hyderabad showcasing a collection of sixteen poems authored by Sunil Kumar Verma which depicted the pain of a nation at the gang rape of its daughters.
=== Art ===
Several artists have been inspired to create artworks based on Nirbhaya's story. In January 2014, artists from all over the country came together to hold an art exhibition about Nirbhaya and sexual assault in India. Contemporary scroll painter, Kalam Patua created a painting titled Nirbhaya that was exhibited in The 8th Asia Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art. Feminist artist Pritika Chowdhry has created several artworks reimagining Nirbhaya as a superheroine. To depict the large number of rape victims every year, she has created a Nirbhaya superheroine, an Anonymous Nirbhaya mask, and more art projects to advocate against sexual assault through art. Polish-American artist Monica Weiss has created an art memorial for Nirbhaya.
== See also ==
=== General ===
=== Rape crimes ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Fast-track courts
Timeline of the incident |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachavita | Pachavita | Pachavita is a town and municipality in the Neira Province, part of the Colombian department of Boyacá. The urban centre is situated on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense at an altitude of 1,985 metres (6,512 ft) and at a distance of 85 kilometres (53 mi) from the department capital Tunja. The municipality borders Chinavita in the north, Tenza and La Capilla in the south, Garagoa in the east and Úmbita in the west.
== Etymology ==
The name Pachavita is derived from Chibcha; pacha = man, lord and vita = point, summit, peak; "Peak of the man". Another meaning is "Proud chief".
== History ==
Before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores, the area of Pachavita was part of the loose Muisca Confederation. The Muisca had different rulers and the zaque of Hunza ruled over Pachavita.
Modern Pachavita was founded on November 17, 1716.
== Economy ==
Main economical activity of Pachavita are agriculture and dairy farming with products yuca, maize, bananas, arracacha, beans, lulo and cucumbers, eggs, peas and cheese.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boots_Adams | Boots Adams | Kenneth Stanley "Boots" Adams (August 31, 1899 – March 30, 1975) was an American business executive, University of Kansas booster, and civic philanthropist of Bartlesville, Oklahoma. Adams began his career with the Phillips Petroleum Company in 1920 as a clerk in the warehouse department. Twelve years later, he was chosen by founder and president Frank Phillips to fill the newly created position of Assistant to the President. On April 26, 1938, Adams was elected president of Phillips Petroleum Company by the unanimous vote of the company's board of directors.
Upon succeeding Frank Phillips as president, Adams, then 38 years old, became one of the nation's youngest leaders of a major corporation. He remained in continuous service as the company's chief executive until his retirement in 1964. Although he retired from company operations, Adams continued serving as its board chairman until 1968; finishing his affiliation as a board member from 1968 to 1970. During his tenure, Adams grew the business into a major corporation by investing in natural gas and synthetic rubber operations.
== Early life ==
Kenneth Stanley Adams was born August 31, 1899, in Horton, Kansas. He was the son of John V. and Lavella Adams (née Stanley). His father was an engineer for the Rock Island Railroad. In 1902, the family provided room and board to many families affected by a flood, including some of John's co-workers. One of the male guests noticed that Kenneth had a pair of boots he wore even to bed. The man began calling him "Boots". From then on, Kenneth Adams adopted "Boots" as his nickname.
Adams graduated from Wyandotte High School in 1917, the same year brothers Lee Eldas "L.E." and Frank Phillips founded the Phillips Petroleum Company. After graduating, Adams moved to Dewey, Oklahoma and started his first job. He delivered ice in the neighboring town of Bartlesville. Adams said he was happy that the work involved heavy lifting because it helped him maintain his physical conditioning which he would need as a college athlete. He enrolled at the University of Kansas in the fall of 1917 and played on the university's football, baseball, and basketball teams. Although he would have graduated the following year, Adams dropped out of the university in 1920. He decided to place academics on hold and accept a position in the Phillips Petroleum Company.
On September 8, 1920, Adams married Barbara Blanche Keeler; whose brother, W. W. Keeler, would later become president and chief executive officer of Phillips Petroleum Corporation and Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation. Their eldest son, Kenneth S. Jr., would himself become a business magnate and owner of the Tennessee Titans. In 1945, Boots and Blanche Adams were divorced. Boots Adams married Dorothy Glynn Stephens the following year.
== Career at Phillips Petroleum ==
In 1921, Boots Adams helped organize the Phillips 66ers, an amateur basketball team sponsored by the Phillips Petroleum Company. He also played that year on the team's inaugural roster. Because of his team affiliation, Adams was offered employment with the company. He began working as a warehouse clerk in 1920, and ascended to become the company's president. He was one of the youngest ever to lead a major corporation in the United States.
=== Early executive years ===
Boots Adams first entered the executive tier in 1932. Phillips Petroleum Company's founding president, Frank Phillips, appointed Adams as his assistant. He was promoted despite opposition from executive staff, who considered Boots and Phillips to be an odd team. Frank Phillips was resistant to incorporating Adams' ideas. Phillips instructed Adams: "I'm going to object to everything you do, but you go ahead and do it anyway."
Adams reconstituted the company's amateur basketball team. Phillips had stopped sponsoring it after the 1929–30 season, because of the great depression. Adams personally recruited Joe Fortenberry and Jack Ragland; both of them were Olympians from 1936. He teamed them with Chuck Hyatt, Tom Pickell, Jay Wallenstrom, and Bud Browning. Lastly, he recruited local favorites, Ray Ebling and Dave Perkins to complete the 1937 team.
The Phillips 66ers ended the season in first place. The team was favored to win the AAU tournament as well. Instead, Denver won the championship, 43–38, in Bartlesville. Columnist Chet Nelson called the game: "the greatest game Rocky Mountain fans ever witnessed." In 1958, Boots Adams was inducted into the Helms Foundation Amateur Basketball Hall of Fame.
According to Reference for Business, Phillips and Adams "often disagreed as to how the company should be run." Nevertheless, Adams was able to secure Frank Phillips' confidence, and the authority to move his ideas forward.
At the 1938 stockholders and board of directors annual meeting, company President Frank Phillips announced his plans to retire. He culminated his announcement saying he wanted K.S. Adams, "the fast-talking young man from Kansas with the big ideas, [to] be elected as the new president of Phillips Petroleum Company". The directors subsequently returned a unanimous vote in support of Phillips' recommendation.
=== Years as company president ===
Boots Adams wanted to diversify the company into emerging oil-related industries. After Adams became president of Phillips Petroleum, the company increased its acquisition of natural gas mining rights. Natural gas was burnt off at the wellhead in 1938 as a waste product of oil exploration and the mining rights were cheap. The increased share of natural gas mining reserves increased Phillips' profit when the commodity's value more than doubled by the end of World War II.
Adams supported a start-up venture called Pace Setter as well. He purchased a Pace Setter home and advocated for the concept. They sold modern-style homes that used a wide range of gas appliances. Adams knew of the existing profit potential as the use of natural gas increased. By 1955, the Phillips company had a "commanding share" of natural gas reserves, 13.3 trillion cubic feet worth approximately US$931,000,000 (equivalent to $10,927,973,913 in 2024). Dividends increased, satisfying stockholders, and workers benefited with wage increases commensurate with the company's bottom line.
Adams employed graduates of a variety of scientific disciplines. He advocated that research and technical expertise was needed for companies to compete in the emerging technological society. One of the newly hired professionals was Jack Graves, a geologist from the University of Oklahoma. Adams tasked Graves to evaluate an oil formation known locally as the Mississippi Chat. The evaluation resulted in a significant new discovery of oil. Phillips continued using the study over the following three years – striking a lot of new oil as a direct result.
Adams also diversified the company into the petrochemical industry, creating an additional revenue stream. Newly hired chemical engineers were used to research synthetic polymers (specifically petroleum-based polymers). He noticed the growth of companies like DuPont and Dow, who were doing well based on the economic value of patents. In particular, Adams wanted Phillips to be involved in developing synthetic rubber.
With significant advancements in place, it was already possible to produce a material similar to rubber. It was however, inferior in quality, and cost-prohibitive to produce. Adams was concerned because two processes showed an equal potential to emerge as the preferred manner of production. One depended on distilling an additive for reactivity, while the other used a petroleum-based reagent. Adams was hopeful that rubber would come to be polymerized by petrochemical means.
==== U.S. Synthetic Rubber Program ====
At the beginning of the US involvement in World War II, the supply of natural rubber from Southeast Asia was abruptly cut off. The government knew of the strategic importance of rubber and had instituted the Rubber Reserve Company (RRC) to stockpile reserves of rubber to mitigate the consequences of being cut off from supplies. But the RRC had only one million tons of rubber in reserve, while the military consumed about 600,000 tons annually. Victory would depend on a massive influx of synthetic rubber. The program's success would be measured by tonnage alone. Either sufficient quantities would be produced, giving the Allies a fighting chance or demand would not be satisfied, guaranteeing an inability to prevail.
Boots Adams joined the consortium, dedicating the resources of Phillips Petroleum Company to the effort dubbed GR-S (Government Rubber-Styrene). The program's success was an achievement of high magnitude for the entire group of participants. On August 29, 1998, the GR-S, (also called the U.S. Synthetic Rubber Program), was officially labeled as a National Historic Chemical Landmark. Its records are stored in the archives of the University of Akron in Akron, Ohio.
The market for synthetic rubber grew to become a US$60,000,000,000 (equivalent to $113,252,097,483 in 2024) a year industry by the turn of the century. And Phillips, now ConocoPhillips, retained its share of that market.
==== Spinning off subsidiaries ====
In 1948, Adams began spinning off assets from Phillips' diversification. He formed subsidiaries while retaining a controlling interest in the company and a share of any profits realized. The first company formed was the Phillips Chemical Company. In 1951, it secured lucrative patents for its discovery of polyethylene and further development of it into high-density polyethylene resin (HDPE). The first tangible product derived from the patents was a durable HDPE polyolefin plastic marketed as Marlex. Marlex was the material Wham-O contracted for use to produce its Hula Hoop, a 1950s toy that sold over 25 million units in its first four months on the market. The chemical subsidiary maintained its viability and continues returning profits to its parent company from Bartlesville. As of 2014, having merged with Chevron in 2000, Chevron Phillips Chemical Company operates as a 50-50 venture; splitting costs and profit shares equally. The new entity tossed a coin in its boardroom to settle on the company's name with Chevron winning the toss and electing to have their name appear first.
==== The Adams building ====
In 1949, Adams decided to consolidate the company's in house operations under one roof. The operations at that time were scattered across 38 different facilities. Adams also wanted the company's research laboratories to be fully modernized, to support the profits being generated from research and development. He contracted the architectural firm of Neville and Sharp of Kansas City, Missouri to build a 12-story, 457,000 square feet multipurpose headquarters. It occupied an entire city block in Bartlesville and was named the Adams building. The town also renamed Seventh Street, Adams Street, and in 1962, constructed the Adams Municipal Golf Course in his name. As of 2014, all three namesakes continue to bear Adams' name.
== Retirement ==
Boots Adams retired from his position as company president in 1964, after 44 years with the company. The following year the city of Bartlesville organized a parade and civic holiday to honor Boots Adams on his 66th birthday – and give thanks with a public celebration. The schools in Bartlesville were closed and the town itself was officially renamed Bootsville for the entire day. A huge birthday cake was mocked up to resemble an oil storage tank, and the Phillips 66 logo "stood tall" in its own pair of boots.
Several dignitaries were present as well including President Dwight D. Eisenhower; as both a personal friend of Boots' and a U.S. president, carrying the gratitude of a nation. Eisenhower was a direct beneficiary of the GR-S program and Adams' participation in it. He was arguably the single man with "the most to lose" if GR-S had failed.
The President adopted the hobby of painting in 1950, as a relaxing way to reduce stress. He presented Boots Adams with a portrait he had recently painted – depicting Adams seated at the head of a table, as chairman of the Phillips 66 board. The portrait was a prized heirloom of Adams' second wife, Dorothy Glynn, and remains in the family's care, having been passed on to the eldest daughter of Boots and Dorothy.
W. Clarke Wescoe, the University of Kansas' (KU) 10th chancellor attended as well; thanking Adams for his alumnus support, and philanthropic goodwill. In appreciation, Wescoe announced the university's decision to name its planned on-campus residential complex, the Adams Center. Stanley Learned, Boots Adams' successor as president of Phillips, as well as a KU alumnus himself, showed his support of the university's decision by donating US$100,000 (equivalent to $997,782 in 2024) for use "at the chancellors discretion".
== Death and legacy ==
Boots Adams died March 30, 1975, in Bartlesville, Oklahoma and is buried at Bartlesville's Memorial Park Cemetery. Under his leadership, Phillips Petroleum Company transformed from the US$317,000,000 (equivalent to $7,165,868,421 in 2024) entity entrusted to him, into a US$2,000,000,000 (equivalent to $20,276,824,034 in 2024) industry, with over 28,000 employees and 8,000 miles of oil pipeline.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Ingham, John N. Biographical Dictionary of American Business Leaders. "Adams, Kenneth Stanley." (1983) Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-23907-X (v. 1). Available on Google Books.
Knowles, Ruth Sheldon (March 1, 1980). The Greatest Gamblers: The Epic of American Oil Exploration. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-1654-9.
Atta, Dale Van (February 28, 2008). With Honor: Melvin Laird in War, Peace, and Politics. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-22680-0.
Penick, Monica Michelle (2007). The Pace Setter Houses: Livable Modernism in Postwar America. Ann Arbor, Michigan: ProQuest Publishing Company. UMI number 3290901
Robbins, Louise S. (January 15, 2001). The Dismissal of Miss Ruth Brown: Civil Rights, Censorship, and the American Library. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3314-0.
Wallis, Michael (1988). Oil Man: The Story Of Frank Phillips & The Birth Of Phillips Petroleum. New York, NY: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-312-13135-7.
Perkins, Scott W. (May 26, 2008). Building Bartlesville, (OK): 1945–2000. Mount Pleasant, SC: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-5051-0.
Grundman, Adolph H. (October 1, 2004). The Golden Age of Amateur Basketball: The Aau Tournament, 1921–1968. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-7117-3.
== Further reading ==
Lobsenz, Norman M. (1965). The Boots Adams story. Bartlesville, OK: Phillips Petroleum Company. ISBN 978-1-122-71211-8.
== External links ==
Photograph showing Boots Adams with Frank Phillips and Phillips' wife |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carla_Bruni | Carla Bruni | Carla Bruni-Sarközy de Nagy-Bocsa (born Carla Gilberta Bruni Tedeschi; Italian pronunciation: [ˈkarla dʒilˈbɛrta ˈbruːni teˈdeski]; 23 December 1967) is an Italian and French singer, songwriter and fashion model who served as the first lady of France from 2008—when she married then president Nicolas Sarkozy—to 2012.
She was born in Italy and moved to France at the age of seven. Bruni was a model from 1987 to 1997 before taking up a career in music. She wrote several songs for Julien Clerc that were featured on his 2000 album, Si j'étais elle. Bruni released her first album, Quelqu'un m'a dit, in 2003, which eventually spent 34 weeks in the top 10 of the French Albums Chart. Bruni won the Victoire Award for Female Artist of the Year at the 2004 Victoires de la Musique. The same year, Bruni released her second album, No Promises, then the following year, she released her third album, Comme si de rien n'était. In 2013, Bruni released her fourth album, Little French Songs. In 2017, Bruni released her fifth album, French Touch. In 2024, she walked in the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show.
== Early life and family ==
Bruni was born in Turin, Italy. She is legally the daughter of Italian concert pianist Marisa Borini and industrialist, classical composer Alberto Bruni Tedeschi. In 2008, however, Bruni told Vanity Fair that her biological father is Maurizio Remmert, a classical guitarist who comes from a wealthy family. When Remmert met Marisa Borini at a concert in Turin, he was a 19-year-old classical guitarist, and their affair lasted six years. Her sister is actress and movie director Valeria Bruni Tedeschi. She had a brother, Virginio Bruni Tedeschi (1959 – 4 July 2006), who died from complications of HIV/AIDS. Her (legal) paternal grandparents and her maternal grandfather were Italian, while the last quarter of her ancestry is French. She is second cousin of Alessandra Martines.
Bruni is an heiress to the fortune created by the Italian tire manufacturing company CEAT, founded in the 1920s by her legal grandfather, Virginio Bruni Tedeschi. The company was sold in the 1970s to Pirelli (the brand continues in its former subsidiary in India, founded in 1958). The family moved to France in 1975, purportedly to escape the threat of kidnapping by the Red Brigades, a Communist terrorist group active in Italy in the 1970s and 1980s. Bruni grew up in France from the age of seven and attended the finishing school Château Mont-Choisi in Lausanne, Switzerland. She went to Paris to study art and architecture, but left school at 19 to become a model. By her biological father, Bruni has a half-sister, Consuelo Remmert.
== Career ==
=== 1987–1996: Early career and modelling ===
Bruni signed with City Models in 1987, aged 19. Paul Marciano, president and creative director of Guess? Inc., came across her picture among composite cards of aspiring models, and chose her to model with Estelle Lefébure in campaigns for Guess? jeans. Bruni subsequently worked for designers and fashion houses such as Christian Dior, Givenchy, Paco Rabanne, Sonia Rykiel, Christian Lacroix, Karl Lagerfeld, John Galliano, Yves Saint-Laurent, Shiatzy Chen, Chanel, and Versace. By the 1990s, Bruni was among the 20 highest-paid fashion models, earning US$7.5 million in her peak year. While modelling, Bruni dated Eric Clapton, then Mick Jagger. On 11 April 2008, a 1993 nude photograph of Bruni taken during her modelling career sold at auction for US$91,000 (€65,093) – more than 60 times the expected price. She was a modeling subject of a 1999 trompe-l'œil wool-knit dress body painting by Joanne Gair that is included in Gair's second book, Body Painting: Masterpieces by Joanne Gair.
=== 1997–2005: Music career and debut album ===
In 1997, Bruni quit the world of fashion to devote herself to music. She sent her lyrics to Julien Clerc in 1999, based on which he composed six tracks on his 2000 album Si j'étais elle.
In 2003, her debut album Quelqu'un m'a dit, produced by Louis Bertignac and released in Europe, was a surprise hit, selling 2 million copies. Three songs from the album appear in Hans Canosa's 2005 American film Conversations with Other Women, the song Le Plus Beau du quartier was used in H&M's Christmas 2006 commercial, and the title track was featured in the 2003 movie Le Divorce and in the 2009 movie (500) Days of Summer. In January 2010, her song "L'amoureuse" was featured in an episode of NBC's Chuck, "Chuck vs. First Class".
In 2005, she wrote the lyrics for 10 out of 12 songs for Louis Bertignac's new album Longtemps, and performed two duets with him on the album, Les Frôleuses and Sans toi.
=== 2006–2008: No Promises and Comme si de rien n'était ===
She continued recording after her marriage. She released her third album Comme si de rien n'était on 11 July 2008. The songs are self-penned except for one rendition of "You Belong to Me" and another song featuring Michel Houellebecq's poem La Possibilité d'une île set to music. Royalties from the album will be donated to unidentified charitable and humanitarian causes.
=== 2009–present: Little French Songs, return to modelling, and other projects ===
Bruni sang for Nelson Mandela's 91st birthday on 18 July 2009 at Radio City Music Hall in New York City.
In September 2009, she recorded a duet with Harry Connick Jr. for the French edition of his album Your Songs. They sang The Beatles' song "And I Love Her". The album was released in France on 26 October 2009.
Following months of speculation, in a television interview broadcast on 23 November 2009, Bruni revealed that she had accepted a role in a forthcoming Woody Allen film. She admitted her reasoning for embarking on the Paris production; "I'm not an actress at all. Perhaps I'll be completely hopeless, but I can't miss an opportunity like this one. When I'm a grandmother I'd like to be able to say I made a film with Woody Allen."
In September 2010, she contributed a cover of David Bowie's "Absolute Beginners" for the War Child charity record We Were So Turned On: A Tribute to David Bowie (Manimal Vinyl). They also released the track as a split 7-inch vinyl split with UK legends, Duran Duran.
Italian singer/songwriter Simone Cristicchi's entry in the 2010 San Remo Italian Song Festival was the song "Meno Male", with the chorus lyrics of "Meno male che c'è Carla Bruni" ("Thank goodness for Carla Bruni"). The song appears to mock Bruni and her husband, but Cristicchi stated in an interview for Italian television weekly TV Sorrisi e Canzoni "I use sarcasm to explain our Italian way of always wanting to follow any type of gossip without being interested in real problems." Bruni was to be a guest singer at the 2010 San Remo festival, but withdrew from participating.
In September 2017, Bruni, along with models Claudia Schiffer, Naomi Campbell, Helena Christensen, and Cindy Crawford, closed the Versace spring/summer 2018 fashion show, which was an homage to the late Gianni Versace.
Bruni presented two three-part music series on BBC Radio 2: Postcards from Paris in 2014 and C'est La Vie in 2018.
Bruni is considered a fashion industry "legend", according to models.com.
In October 2024, Bruni returned to the runway to walk in the first Victoria's Secret Fashion Show to take place in six years.
=== First Lady of France ===
Following Bruni's marriage to President Nicolas Sarkozy on 2 February 2008, she moved into the Élysée Palace for the remainder of Sarkozy's five-year term. Bruni was given an office on the east wing of the palace, which was known as "Madame's wing" and was assigned a private secretary.
Although constitutionally, Bruni had no official role within the government, she assisted her husband with a number of official obligations. She also accompanied Sarkozy on state visits, most notably, to the United Kingdom, where her presence led to the visit being widely publicized. Bruni also accompanied Sarkozy on a state visit to meet the Dalai Lama in August 2008.
Bruni has represented The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria numerous times as an ambassador and has visited Burkina Faso and Benin while representing the organisation.
In 2010, Forbes magazine ranked Bruni as the 35th-most powerful woman in the world.
== Personal life ==
=== Political views ===
During the 2007 French presidential election, Bruni stated that she would have voted for Ségolène Royal, who was running against her future husband, Nicolas Sarkozy. Bruni said her lack of French citizenship disallowed her from voting, but she would have voted left-wing due to it being a family tradition. In an October 2011 interview with the Scottish newspaper The Sunday Herald, Bruni said, "My family have always voted to the left. It's tradition. I'll never vote right wing."
In an interview with Le Point, Bruni said, when asked about her political leanings, "I am left wing, but I'm not against my husband or his party. I am not an activist." In a May 2011 interview with Le Parisien, Bruni said she no longer felt left-wing and identified as an ultra-Sarkozyist.
In a 2012 Vogue magazine interview, Bruni stated, "My generation doesn't need feminism ... I'm not at all an active feminist. On the contrary, I'm bourgeois." However, on 16 November 2020, she told BBC Radio 5 Live: "Of course I'm a feminist, like every woman is" and "My husband is very much a feminist man." She also said that she was "not at all a political person."
In 2012, she stated that she supports same-sex marriage and same-sex adoption.
=== Relationship with the Enthovens ===
In 2001, Bruni had her first child, son Aurélien, with philosophy professor Raphaël Enthoven. Bruni has been described as having been the mistress of Enthoven's father, journalist Jean-Paul Enthoven, when she began her relationship with the younger Enthoven, who was at the time married to novelist Justine Lévy; Bruni claims that she only went out with Jean-Paul Enthoven a few times and was never his lover, and that Raphaël Enthoven was already divorcing his wife when she encountered him months after last seeing Jean-Paul.
The song "Raphaël" from Bruni's album Quelqu'un m'a dit is about her relationship with Raphaël Enthoven, and Justine Lévy's 2004 book Rien de Grave (published in English in 2005 as Nothing Serious) is about the end of her marriage; a character named "Paula" represents Bruni. Bruni told Vanity Fair that Raphaël Enthoven ended their relationship in May 2007 because he felt they had become "like friends", and that they remained on good terms.
=== Marriage to Sarkozy ===
Bruni met the recently divorced French president Nicolas Sarkozy in November 2007 at a dinner party. After a brief romance, they married on 2 February 2008 at the Élysée Palace in Paris. The marriage is Bruni's first and Sarkozy's third. Bruni acquired French nationality by naturalization on 10 December 2008. She has since made contradictory statements as to whether she still holds Italian nationality, as well. On 28 April 2014 episode of the Ellen DeGeneres Show, she confirmed that she still holds Italian citizenship.
Following her marriage to Sarkozy, in February 2008, Bruni continued accompanying him on state visits, including to the United Kingdom in March 2008, which created a sensation in the international press and among the public in both Britain and France. As First Lady, she had an office and staff at her disposal in the East wing of the Élysée Palace.
Controversy arose on the eve of the state visit to the UK, with the publication by Christie's auction house of a nude photograph of Bruni taken during her career as a model. The photograph sold for $91,000. At the same time there was great interest in Bruni's wardrobe, which was by Christian Dior; this was seen as a diplomatic choice, since Dior is a French design house, but the wardrobe was designed by John Galliano, a British designer working for Dior. Another controversy was the use of a popular photo of the French President and Bruni in the print advertising of Ryanair. The couple was awarded damages of one Euro to Sarkozy and 60,000 Euros to Bruni by a French court due to the mocking nature of the advertisement which ran the tagline "With Ryanair, my whole family can come to my wedding." above Bruni's head.
In December 2008, Bruni sued the makers of a bag featuring a nude shot taken during her youth. Clothes designer Pardon produced 10,000 of the shopping bags emblazoned with the nude photo taken in 1993, showing Bruni staring at the camera with her crossed hands covering her crotch.
On 19 October 2011, Bruni gave birth to a daughter, Giulia, in the Clinique de la Muette, in Paris.
=== Witness tampering ===
On 9 July 2024, Bruni-Sarkozy was put on bail after being charged with having put pressure on a witness who accused ex-president Nicolas Sarkozy of having received illegal campaign financing from Libya.
In connection with the ongoing investigation into witness tampering, authorities have highlighted Carla Bruni-Sarkozy’s alleged role in facilitating communications aimed at persuading Ziad Takieddine to withdraw his statements regarding illegal campaign financing. Investigators reported that Bruni-Sarkozy was involved in discussions about coordinating these efforts and that her communications were scrutinized for evidence of coercion or undue influence. As a result, she is now under judicial supervision, which includes restrictions on contacting certain individuals involved in the case.
She was suspected of being involved in bribing Lebanese judicial personnel.
== Discography ==
Studio albums
2003: Quelqu'un m'a dit
2007: No Promises
2008: Comme si de rien n'était
2013: Little French Songs
2017: French Touch
2020: Carla Bruni
== Filmography ==
== Honours ==
France:
Knight of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, 2003
=== Foreign honours ===
Benin:
Grand Cross of the National Order of Benin (2010)
Spain:
Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III (2009)
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Gair, Joanne; Klum, Heidi (foreword) (2006). Body Painting: Masterpieces by Joanne Gair. Universe Publishing. plates section. ISBN 0-7893-1509-2.
== External links ==
Fondation Carla Bruni
Official music website
Carla Bruni at IMDb
Carla Bruni at Fashion Model Directory
Carla Bruni at AllMusic
Carla Bruni: from catwalk to Elysee Archived 14 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine – Expatica, 11 February 2008 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harees# | Harees | Harees, haresa, hareesa, arizah, harise, jarish, jareesh, (Arabic: هريس), harisa (Armenian: հարիսա), or korkot (Armenian: կորկոտ) is a dish of boiled, cracked, or coarsely-ground cracked wheat or bulgur, mixed with meat and seasoned. Its consistency varies between a porridge and a gruel. Harees is a popular dish known throughout Armenia where it is served on Easter day, and the Arab world, where it is commonly eaten in Arab states of the Persian Gulf in the month of Ramadan, and in Iraq, Lebanon and Bahrain during Ashura by Shia Muslims.
== Etymology ==
"Harisa", also transliterated as "horisa", derived from the Arabic verb "haras" meaning "to squish" to describe the action of breaking and pounding the grains before mixing it with water to create a porridge.
In Arabic, "Harees" (Arabic: هريس) is linked to the verb (Arabic: هَرَسَ, romanized: harasa) which still means to mash or to squash.
== History ==
Harisa is mentioned by Ibn al-Karim in Kitab Al-Tabikh as early as the seventh century. In the anecdotal cookbook, the Umayyad Caliph, Mu'awiya, returns from a trip to Arabia after returning to his newly won Persian lands. In some versions of the story, Mu'awiya is met with some Yemenite Jews whom he asks to prepare the porridge he tasted abroad while in other versions, he approaches locals. This story should be taken with a grain of salt as the author penned the story three centuries after it supposedly occurred.
Harees is documented in Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq's 10th-century cookbook Kitab Al Tabikh., as well as in al-Baghdadi's 13th-century cookbook Kitab Al Tabikh and Ibn Razīn al-Tujībī's 13th-century Andalusian cookbook Kitab Fadalat al-khiwan fi tayyibat al-ta'am w'al-alwan.
Harees is also the origin of haleem, and cholent.
== Preparation ==
The wheat is soaked overnight, then simmered in water along with meat and butter or sheep tail fat. Any remaining liquid is strained and the mixture is beaten and seasoned. Harees may be garnished with cinnamon, sugar, and clarified butter.
== Variants and traditions ==
There is a different traditional way of preparing Harees in each of the Arab countries in the Arabian Peninsula area, and among the tribes of these countries. Some variations include the use of cardamom pods in Saudi Arabia, or a garnish with parsley. Before the Armenian genocide where Armenians were spread through a larger area they also had different variations of Harisa. The wheat used in Armenian harissa is typically shelled (pelted) wheat, though in Adana, harissa was made with կորկոտ (korkot; ground, par-boiled shelled wheat). Harissa can be made with lamb, beef, or chicken.
Harees was only made by the wealthy during Ramadan and Eid, for the duration of a three- to seven-day wedding. It was, however, customary for the Harees dishes to be shared with poorer neighbours on such occasions.
It is similar to kashkeg, a kind of homogeneous porridge made of previously stewed and boned chicken or lamb and coarsely ground soaked wheat (typically shelled wheat).
=== Arab cuisine ===
Harees is a popular dish in Arab cuisine, from the Levant to the Persian Gulf. It is often served during Ramadan, festivals such as Eid ul-Fitr, and at weddings. In Lebanon, it is often cooked on religious occasions in a communal pot, such as in Ashura. Harise is also a common dish in Syrian cuisine and Iraqi cuisine.
Formerly found only in homes, it is now served in restaurants as well.
=== Armenian cuisine ===
Harisa (Armenian: հարիսա, romanized: harisa) is traditionally served on Easter day, and is considered a national dish of Armenia. It is a thick porridge made from korkot (dried or roasted cracked wheat) and fat-rich meat, usually chicken or lamb. Herbs were substituted for meat in harissa when Armenian religious days required fasting and penance. The extremely long cooking process is an essential part of the harisa tradition. Like other ritual dishes, the time taken for preparation is part of its cherished value.
Harisa is known for helping the Armenians of Musa Ler (in modern-day Turkey) to survive during the resistance of 1915.
=== Egyptian cuisines ===
In Egyptian cuisine, "freekeh", unripened, crushed durum wheat, was used to cook harisa, giving the resulting ferik a unique green hue. The origin of the variation could be linked to the Sephardic migration of the 13th century, but historians remain uncertain.
=== Kashmiri cuisine ===
Harisa or Hareesa (Kashmiri : ۂرؠ سہٕ [hərʲsɨ]) in Kashmir is prepared during winter (Chillai Kalan), typically made of mutton and rice flour and eaten with Kashmiri Bread called Girda (Kashmiri : گِردٕ [girdɨ] ). It is cooked in huge degs (earthen pots) placed in wood fired ovens. Downtown Srinagar is considered as the hub of harisa making in Kashmir.
=== Zanzibari ===
In Zanzibar, the dish is called boko boko and may be cooked with lamb, beef, or chicken. This same dish is also served across Tanzania and Kenya.
=== Ethiopia ===
Hareesa, or harees, is a popular dish mainly in the Harari region. It is cooked with lamb or beef and served on Eid or special occasions such as the birth of a baby.
=== Emirati Cuisine ===
Harees is a traditional Emirati dish made from wheat, meat (usually chicken or lamb), and a pinch of salt. The wheat is soaked overnight, then cooked with meat until it reaches a smooth, porridge-like consistency. This hearty dish is particularly popular during Ramadan and festive occasions. It is often garnished with ghee for added flavor. Harees is a staple in Emirati households and showcases the simplicity and richness of Emirati culinary traditions.
== See also ==
Haleem
Keşkek
List of porridges
Hrisseh
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi_OS | Raspberry Pi OS | Raspberry Pi OS is a Unix-like operating system developed for the Raspberry Pi line of single-board computers. Based on Debian, a Linux distribution, it is maintained by Raspberry Pi Holdings and optimized for the Pi's hardware, with low memory requirements and support for both 32-bit and 64-bit architectures. Originally released in July 2012 under the name Raspbian, it was introduced shortly after the launch of the first Raspberry Pi model.
The operating system is compatible with all Raspberry Pi models except the Raspberry Pi Pico microcontroller. It is available in several configurations: a standard edition, a "Lite" version without a desktop environment, and a "Full" version that includes additional software such as LibreOffice and Wolfram Mathematica. The operating system is available as a free download and can be installed using the official Raspberry Pi Imager utility. It is also sold preloaded on official microSD cards.
== History ==
Raspbian was first developed by Mike Thompson and Peter Green as an independent and unofficial port of Debian to the Raspberry Pi. The first build was released on 15 July 2012. As the Raspberry Pi had no officially provided operating system at the time, the Raspberry Pi Foundation built on the work by the Raspbian project and began producing and releasing their own operating system images of the software. The Foundation's first release of Raspbian, which now referred both to the community project as well as the official operating system, was announced on 10 September 2013.
On 28 May 2020, the Raspberry Pi Foundation announced a beta 64-bit version. However, this version was not based on Raspbian, instead taking its user space software from Debian. When the Foundation did not want to use the name Raspbian to refer to software that was not based on the Raspbian project, the name of the officially provided operating system images was changed to Raspberry Pi OS. This change was also carried over to the 32-bit images that they distributed, though it continued to be based on Raspbian. The 64-bit version of Raspberry Pi OS was officially released on 2 February 2022.
== Features ==
=== User interface ===
The Raspberry Pi OS user interface is optimized for Raspberry Pi hardware and tuned to have low base memory requirements, aiming to deliver a lightweight, fast, and energy-efficient desktop experience. It is built on the Wayland display protocol, using labwc as its compositing manager, which is based on wlroots, a modular Wayland implementation that underpins several other compositors.
The operating system previously used the X Window System. A transition to Wayland began with the Bullseye release in 2021, which introduced the mutter window manager to support both X and Wayland environments. In the Bookworm release of 2023, wayfire was adopted as a dedicated Wayland compositor. However, performance issues on older Raspberry Pi models prompted a search for a more suitable alternative. In 2024, developers ultimately selected labwc, a lightweight compositor that better matched the hardware's capabilities. Following collaboration and extensive optimization, labwc now offers performance comparable to X across all models, and Raspberry Pi OS now defaults to Wayland.
The interface is designed to feel familiar to users of macOS and Microsoft Windows. It provides a traditional desktop environment with a top menu bar that includes an application menu, shortcuts to frequently used programs, and system controls such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, volume, and clock.
=== Other components ===
Raspberry Pi OS originally included the Epiphany web browser, but transitioned to Chromium in 2016. Firefox was added as an additional pre-installed browser option in 2023. The included browsers come with uBlock, an ad-blocking extension, and h264ify, an extension that makes YouTube serve videos using the H.264 codec which is supported by the Raspberry Pi's hardware acceleration. As of May 2025, other pre-installed applications includes Geany, ImageMagick, Thonny, VNC Viewer and VLC media player.
As of May 2025, installations with the full suite of recommended software includes Claws Mail, Firebird database server, KiCad, LibreOffice, Java, Scratch, and Wolfram Mathematica, and additional font packages.
Software can be installed via the APT (Advanced Package Tool) command-line interface, or through graphical front-ends such as the included Add/Remove Software tool, or by using third-party app stores like Pi-Apps.
== Reception ==
According to Raspberry Pi Imager usage statistics, Raspberry Pi OS accounted for 67% of all operating system downloads for the Raspberry Pi in May 2025, followed by Ubuntu at 9%.
In a 2015 review, Jesse Smith of DistroWatch found that while Raspbian was not well-suited for heavier desktop workloads, it provided a functional experience with its lightweight environment. He noted that the system was responsive when running a modest number of applications, but struggled with more resource-intensive software such as LibreOffice or Firefox.
In a January 2024 review for Ars Technica, Andrew Cunningham tested Raspberry Pi OS 12 (Bookworm) on a Pi 5 with 8 GB of RAM and found it functional for general-purpose desktop use, but with notable limitations. While it handled basic tasks like writing, web browsing, and audio editing well, the OS lacked modern conveniences such as window snapping, a notification center, refined window borders, and smooth multi-monitor performance. Its software ecosystem was also constrained by limited native app availability for ARM Linux, often requiring users to rely on web-based versions of services like Slack, Zoom, and Dropbox.
=== Microsoft repository controversy ===
In January 2021, the Raspberry Pi OS package raspberrypi-sys-mods added a Microsoft GPG encryption key and repository configuration to the APT package manager, enabling easier installation of Visual Studio Code, a source code editor. As a result, the system contacted Microsoft’s servers during update checks, prompting concerns among users due to privacy considerations and Microsoft's once-adversarial history with the open source software community. The repository configuration was later removed.
== Versions ==
Raspberry Pi OS is available in three main variants:
Raspberry Pi OS Lite – a minimal version without a desktop environment
Raspberry Pi OS with desktop – includes the desktop environment and a limited number of pre-installed applications
Raspberry Pi OS with desktop and recommended software – includes the desktop environment and the full suite of recommended pre-installed applications
Each variant is available in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions.
A "legacy" branch has been available since December 2021. It is based on the previous stable release of Debian, allowing for continued use of older software while still receiving security and hardware support updates. All standard variants (Lite, with desktop, and with desktop and recommended software) are offered in this legacy form.
New major versions of Debian are released every two years, typically in the summer of odd-numbered years (e.g., 2023, 2025, 2027). Raspberry Pi OS ports of each new Debian release generally follow a few months later, usually in the fall.
Raspberry Pi OS can be purchased pre-installed on a microSD card or downloaded as a .img disk image file to be written to an SD card or other media. Official documentation recommends a minimum of 16 GB for the Lite version and at least 32 GB for versions with a desktop environment.
The Raspberry Pi Imager utility was introduced in March 2020 to simplify the installation of a disk image file onto an SD card or other media. Available for macOS, Raspberry Pi OS, Ubuntu, and Windows, it allows users to download and write the disk image file in a single application. In addition to Raspberry Pi OS, the utility supports a variety of third-party operating systems.
== Releases ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Raspberry Pi OS on DistroWatch |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyle_Prize_for_Analytical_Science#:~:text=2004%3A%20Miguel%20Valc%C3%A1rcel | Robert Boyle Prize for Analytical Science | Robert Boyle Prize for Analytical Science, formerly called Boyle Medal, is a prize of the Royal Society of Chemistry for Analytical Chemistry. It is awarded every two years and is worth £5,000. The prize is named after Robert Boyle and awarded from 1982 to 2020 when it was discontinued in favor of the Analytical Science Horizon Prize.
== Award winners ==
Winners include:
1982 (1982): Alan Walsh
1984 (1984): Izaak Kolthoff
1986 (1986): Ernö Pungor
1988 (1988): Egon Stahl
1990 (1990): Hanns Malissa, Ivan Alimarin
1992 (1992): Fred W. McLafferty
1994 (1994): Taitiro Fujinaga
1996 (1996): James D. Winefordner
1998 (1998): William H. Pirkle
2000 (2000): William Horwitz
2002 (2002): Michael Thompson
2004 (2004): Miguel Valcárcel
2006 (2006): not awarded
2008 (2008): R. Graham Cooks
2010 (2010): Gary M. Hieftje
2012 (2012): Norman Dovichi
2014 (2014): Eric Bakker
2016 (2016): Richard Peter Evershed
2018 (2018): Richard G. Compton
2020 (2020): Kourosh Kalantar-zadeh
The Robert Boyle Prize for Analytical Science was discontinued after 2020. The prize has been replaced by the RSC's Analytical Science Horizon Prize, which is awarded to groups and teams for recent and innovative advances in the field of analytical chemistry.
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References ==
== External links ==
Official Website
Award Winners
Event data as RDF |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobbili_Fort | Bobbili Fort | The Bobbili Fort, located in the Vizianagaram district of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, was built during the middle of the 19th century in Bobbili. It has a historical link to the nearby mud fort of the same name which was destroyed during the Bobbili war in 1757 in a feud between the Rajas of Bobbili and the neighbouring Maharaja of Vizianagaram.
Chinna Ranga Rao, who survived the Battle of Bobbili as a child was, at a later date, installed as the Raja of Bobbili. The successors of his lineage constructed the present Bobbili Fort following their improved economic conditions in the middle of the 19th century.
The existing fort covers an area of 10 acres (4.0 ha) and was built by Chinna Ranga Rao after he regained his kingdom which was improved upon by his successors in the mid-19th century. The fort complex has an impressive entrance gate in Indo-Sarcenic architectural style with high dome and many mantapas, Durbar Hall, four major palaces and two temples.
== Location ==
Bobbili is 55 kilometres (34 mi) away from Vizianagaram, which is well-connected by rail and road links. The nearest railway station is Vizianagaram, a key railway junction on the Raipur-Vizianagaram railway line. There is a bridge across Vedavati River which provides access to the area.
== History ==
=== Early history ===
The history of Bobbili can be traced to 1652, when Sher Muhammad Khan, Fouzdar of the Nawab of Srikakulam under the Nizam, had come to the Vizianagaram district. He was then accompanied by Peddarayadu, the 15th scion of the Rajas of Venkatagiri, of Velama community and the ancestor of the Raja of Bobbili, and Pusapati Madhava Varma, the ancestor of Vijayanagram family who were rivals. In one version it is said that the Nawab, pleased with the gallant services rendered by Peddarayadu, granted land holdings to him. Peddarayalu then constructed a fort and named it "Bobbili", meaning "the royal tiger", as a token of appreciation for the benevolent gift of the Nawab, who was known as "Sher" ('sher' means "tiger" in Hindi language). In another version it is said that Rayudu's son Lingappa chose Bobbili as his capital, built a fort and established a town there, and named it "Pedda-puli" (in Telugu language meaning "big tiger"); this name eventually changed to Pebbuli and then Bebbuli, finally to become Bobbili. During this period Sher Khan's son was abducted and Lingappa rescued him. In appreciation, Sher Khan gifted 12 villages to Lingappa and gave him the title "Ranga Rao". Lingappa was succeeded by his adopted son, Vengal Ranga Rao who was then succeeded by his son Rangapati followed by his son Rayadappa. Rayadappa's whose adopted son Gopalakrishna took over the rule from his father. At the time of building the old fort a Muslim saint had cautioned the two royal brothers of the Bobbili family that the place they had chosen to build the fort was ill-fated but they ignored this warning.
It was during Gopalakrishna's reign in 1753, that the Nizam of Hyderabad gave Northern Circars to the French. The then French General Charles Bussy leased Chicacole and Rajahmundry circles to Pedda Viziarama Raju, the Maharaja of Vizianagaram. This resulted in break up of relations between General Bussy and the Nizam.
=== Battle of Bobbili ===
On account of the rivalry between the chiefs of Bobbili and Vizianagaram, in 1756 there was a rebellion among the local chieftains which necessitated strong military measures. General Bussy attacked the rebel forces with a contingent of European forces, supported by 11,000 troops of the Raja of Vizianagaram as a token of his loyalty. The Raja of Vizianagaram instigated General Bussy by a canard stating that the Raja of Bobbili was behind the rebellion. It is also said that the Raja bribed his interpreters to persuade General Bussy to direct Ranga Rao, the Raja of Bobbili to vacate the Bobbili Fort and shift southward. General Bussy cautiously made an offer to the Chief of Bobbili that he would be pardoned if he moved away from Bobbili, and in return given a compensatory package of equivalent land elsewhere. But this was not acceptable to the Chief of Bobbili. Then, General Bussy attacked the fort several times, breached the mud fort with cannons, and took control of the ramparts of the fort. Although the Raja of Bobbili and his defenders realized their precarious condition, they fought fiercely but eventually lost the battle. When General Bussy entered the fort with his depleted strength of soldiers he found dead bodies scattered in the fort area. At that time an old man approached General Bussy and handed him a child who he said was the son of the dead Raja of Bobbili. The Raja of Vizianagaram, happy with his victory in the hard-fought battle, rejoiced by entering the Bobbili city and hoisted the Flag of France. But his jubilation was short-lived. Three days after this event, the Raja of Vizianagaram's camp was attacked in the night by three people of Bobbili, including Tandra Paparayudu who had rushed to the demolished Bobbili Fort to help his sister's family. He killed the Raja of Vizianagaram and then committed suicide along with his accomplices.
=== Post Bobbili war ===
As of 24 January 1757, members of the Bobbili family who had survived the war were the Raja's brother Vengal Ranga Rao, also called Chinna Ranga Rao, and his baby son. They first escaped to Bhadrachalam. Two years later, in 1759, they were offered their old holdings in the presence of colonel Forde (representative of the British authorities in Bengal) by Ananda Raju of Vizayanagaram at Masulipatam. Under this compromise package, the Bobbili royals, on returning to Bobbili would receive the Kavit and Rajam taluks and the fort area for an annuity lease value of Rs 20,000. Vengal Ranga Rao died three years later. Thereafter his son lived for two years and was succeeded by Chinna Ranga Rao, also known as Venkata Ranga Rao. After four years, in 1766, Sitaram, the new Raja of Vizianagaram, disturbed by the clout of Chinna Ranga Rao arrested him and incarcerated him in the fort at Vizianagaram. However, in 1790 Chinna Ranga Rao managed to escape from the prison and reached the Nizam's Hyderabad seeking protection. Later, in 1794, Ranga Rao regained his property at the initiative of the Collector of the Northern Division, when Vizinagram Zamindari splintered. Chinna Ranga Rao then adopted Rayadappa as his son.
After Ranga Rao died in 1801, there were efforts to merge Bobbili with Vizianagaram but these were thwarted and a lasting settlement of the property was made with the adopted son of Ranga Rao. Rayadappa and his son Svetachalapti who succeeded in 1830 and lived till 1862 managed their property very well. In the middle of the 19th century, successors of this lineage constructed the present Bobbili Fort, following their improved economic conditions.
In 1891, a stone monument was erected with inscriptions commemorating the Bobbili tragedy.
== Features ==
The existing fort is spread over an area of 10 acres (4.0 ha). It was built, in the Indo-Saracenic architectural style, as Ranga Rao and his son had probably liked this style during their exile in Hyderabad where they had spent more than a decade and a half under the protection of the Nizam of Hyderabad. Chinna Ranga Rao had built the oldest part of the main palace with its Saracenic arches supporting the first level. However, in 1861 in a report submitted by the Acting District Engineer to the Chief Secretary to the British Government at Saint George it was said that the stone fort at Bobbili did not have adequate defense capability.
The facade of the fort has the elegance of a palace with its high walls, 20 feet (6.1 m) high at places, rather than a castle. The royal family lived in this fort. The northeastern entry to the fort is a tall domed structure. The entire palace complex covers an area of 40,000 square feet (3,700 m2).
Within the fort area, there are four major monuments. These are: the Durbar Hall, the palace of the prince, the palace for guests, and the Raja's palace, where the royal family members live, which is the largest with three floors. The Durbar Hall, or the main meeting hall, is where the Rajas held their crowning ceremonies. The main palace, which has an area of 6,000 square feet (560 m2), also houses a museum and offices of the family.
Within the fort complex, there are two temples: one is dedicated to the family deity of the Venugopala Swamy and was built at the time of founding of Bobbili; another one was erected by Chinna Ranga Rao in the aftermath of the war, after he regained his territory. The Gopura or entrance of this temple was constructed in 1851. Another mandapa built at the centre of a lake is known as the Vasant Mandapa where, according to the local belief, Venugopala Swamy takes rest for a day with his consort. After this, the image of the Venugopala Swamy is kept at the Dola Yatra Mandapa on the shores of the lake for one day and then moved back to the main shrine. These mandapas were built in 1825 by Maharaja Krishna Das Ranga Rao. Another functional palace in the fort is the Pooja Mahal. Opposite to this palace is the Prangmahal, the residence of the Raja, which is very well preserved and decorated with elegant "tapestry, paintings and porcelain" brought from many countries.
== References ==
Bibliography
Francis, W. (1992). Vizagapatam District Gazetteer. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0811-5.
Francis, W. (2002). Gazetteer of South India. Mittal Publications.
Handelman, Don (2013). One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Indian Cosmology. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-25739-9.
Jackson-Laufer, Guida Myrl (1994). Traditional Epics: A Literary Companion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510276-5.
Virginia, The University of (1983). Itihas. Director of State Archives, Government of Andhra Pradesh. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysprosium | Dysprosium | Dysprosium is a chemical element; it has symbol Dy and atomic number 66. It is a rare-earth element in the lanthanide series with a metallic silver luster. Dysprosium is never found in nature as a free element, though, like other lanthanides, it is found in various minerals, such as xenotime. Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven isotopes, the most abundant of which is 164Dy.
Dysprosium was first identified in 1886 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, but it was not isolated in pure form until the development of ion-exchange techniques in the 1950s. Dysprosium is used to produce neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) magnets, which are crucial for electric vehicle motors and the efficient operation of wind turbines. It is used for its high thermal neutron absorption cross-section in making control rods in nuclear reactors, for its high magnetic susceptibility (χv ≈ 5.44×10−3) in data-storage applications, and as a component of Terfenol-D (a magnetostrictive material). Soluble dysprosium salts are mildly toxic, while the insoluble salts are considered non-toxic.
== Characteristics ==
=== Physical properties ===
Dysprosium is a rare-earth element and has a metallic, bright silver luster. It is soft and can be machined without sparking if overheating is avoided. Dysprosium's physical characteristics can be greatly affected by even small amounts of impurities.
Dysprosium and holmium have the highest magnetic strengths of the elements, especially at low temperatures. Dysprosium has a simple ferromagnetic ordering at temperatures below its Curie temperature of 90.5 K (−182.7 °C), at which point it undergoes a first-order phase transition from the orthorhombic crystal structure to hexagonal close-packed (hcp). It then has a helical antiferromagnetic state, in which all of the atomic magnetic moments in a particular basal plane layer are parallel and oriented at a fixed angle to the moments of adjacent layers. This unusual antiferromagnetism transforms into a disordered (paramagnetic) state at 179 K (−94 °C). It transforms from the hcp phase to the body-centered cubic phase at 1,654 K (1,381 °C).
=== Chemical properties ===
Dysprosium metal retains its luster in dry air, but it will tarnish slowly in moist air. It burns readily to form dysprosium(III) oxide:
4 Dy + 3 O2 → 2 Dy2O3
Dysprosium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water (and quickly with hot water) to form dysprosium hydroxide:
2 Dy (s) + 6 H2O (l) → 2 Dy(OH)3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
Dysprosium hydroxide decomposes to form DyO(OH) at elevated temperatures, which then decomposes again to dysprosium(III) oxide.
Dysprosium metal vigorously reacts with all the halogens at above 200 °C:
2 Dy (s) + 3 F2 (g) → 2 DyF3 (s) [green]
2 Dy (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 DyCl3 (s) [white]
2 Dy (s) + 3 Br2 (l) → 2 DyBr3 (s) [white]
2 Dy (s) + 3 I2 (g) → 2 DyI3 (s) [green]
Dysprosium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the yellow Dy(III) ions, which exist as a [Dy(OH2)9]3+ complex:
2 Dy (s) + 3 H2SO4 (aq) → 2 Dy3+ (aq) + 3 SO2−4 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
The resulting compound, dysprosium(III) sulfate, is noticeably paramagnetic.
=== Compounds ===
Dysprosium halides, such as DyF3 and DyBr3, tend to take on a yellow color. Dysprosium oxide, also known as dysprosia, is a white powder that is highly magnetic, more so than iron oxide.
Dysprosium combines with various non-metals at high temperatures to form binary compounds with varying composition and oxidation states +3 and sometimes +2, such as DyN, DyP, DyH2 and DyH3; DyS, DyS2, Dy2S3 and Dy5S7; DyB2, DyB4, DyB6 and DyB12, as well as Dy3C and Dy2C3.
Dysprosium carbonate, Dy2(CO3)3, and dysprosium sulfate, Dy2(SO4)3, result from similar reactions. Most dysprosium compounds are soluble in water, though dysprosium carbonate tetrahydrate (Dy2(CO3)3·4H2O) and dysprosium oxalate decahydrate (Dy2(C2O4)3·10H2O) are both insoluble in water. Two of the most abundant dysprosium carbonates, Dy2(CO3)3·2–3H2O (similar to the mineral tengerite-(Y)), and DyCO3(OH) (similar to minerals kozoite-(La) and kozoite-(Nd)), are known to form via a poorly ordered (amorphous) precursor phase with a formula of Dy2(CO3)3·4H2O. This amorphous precursor consists of highly hydrated spherical nanoparticles of 10–20 nm diameter that are exceptionally stable under dry treatment at ambient and high temperatures.
Dysprosium forms several intermetallics, including the dysprosium stannides.
=== Isotopes ===
Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven isotopes: 156Dy, 158Dy, 160Dy, 161Dy, 162Dy, 163Dy, and 164Dy. These are all considered stable, although only the last two are theoretically stable: the others can theoretically undergo alpha decay. Of the naturally occurring isotopes, 164Dy is the most abundant at 28%, followed by 162Dy at 26%; the rarest is 156Dy at 0.06%. Dysprosium is the heaviest element to have isotopes that are theoretically stable rather than only observationally stable isotopes that are predicted to be radioactive.
Twenty-nine radioisotopes have been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 138 to 173. The most stable of these is 154Dy, with a half-life of 1.40×106 years, followed by 159Dy with a half-life of 144.4 days. As a general rule, isotopes that are lighter than the stable isotopes tend to decay primarily by β+ decay, though 154Dy decays by alpha emission and 152Dy and 159Dy only by electron capture, while those that are heavier tend to decay by β− decay. Dysprosium also has at least 11 metastable isomers, ranging in atomic mass from 140 to 165. The most stable of these is 165mDy, which has a half-life of 1.257 minutes.
== History ==
In 1878, erbium ores were found to contain the oxides of holmium and thulium. French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, while working with holmium oxide, separated dysprosium oxide from it in Paris in 1886. His procedure for isolating the dysprosium involved dissolving dysprosium oxide in acid, then adding ammonia to precipitate the hydroxide. He was only able to isolate dysprosium from its oxide after more than 30 attempts at his procedure. On succeeding, he named the element dysprosium from the Greek dysprositos (δυσπρόσιτος), meaning "hard to get". The element was not isolated in relatively pure form until after the development of ion exchange techniques by Frank Spedding at Iowa State University in the early 1950s.
Due to its role in permanent magnets used for wind turbines, it has been argued that dysprosium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy. But this perspective has been criticised for failing to recognise that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.
In 2011, a Bose-Einstein condensate of Dy atoms was obtained for the first time.
In 2021, Dy was turned into a 2-dimensional supersolid quantum gas.
== Occurrence ==
While dysprosium is never encountered as a free element, it is found in many minerals, including xenotime, fergusonite, gadolinite, euxenite, polycrase, blomstrandine, monazite and bastnäsite, often with erbium and holmium or other rare earth elements. No dysprosium-dominant mineral (that is, with dysprosium prevailing over other rare earths in the composition) has yet been found.
In the high-yttrium version of these, dysprosium happens to be the most abundant of the heavy lanthanides, comprising up to 7–8% of the concentrate (as compared to about 65% for yttrium). The concentration of Dy in the Earth's crust is about 5.2 mg/kg and in sea water 0.9 ng/L.
== Production ==
Dysprosium is obtained primarily from monazite sand, a mixture of various phosphates. The metal is obtained as a by-product in the commercial extraction of yttrium. In isolating dysprosium, most of the unwanted metals can be removed magnetically or by a flotation process. Dysprosium can then be separated from other rare earth metals by an ion exchange displacement process. The resulting dysprosium ions can then react with either fluorine or chlorine to form dysprosium fluoride, DyF3, or dysprosium chloride, DyCl3. These compounds can be reduced using either calcium or lithium metals in the following reactions:
3 Ca + 2 DyF3 → 2 Dy + 3 CaF2
3 Li + DyCl3 → Dy + 3 LiCl
The components are placed in a tantalum crucible and fired in a helium atmosphere. As the reaction progresses, the resulting halide compounds and molten dysprosium separate due to differences in density. When the mixture cools, the dysprosium can be cut away from the impurities.
About 3100 tonnes of dysprosium were produced worldwide in 2021, with 40% of that total produced in China, 31% in Myanmar, and 20% in Australia. Dysprosium prices have climbed over time, from $7 per pound in 2003, to $130 a pound in late 2010, to $1,400/kg in 2011 and then falling to $240/kg in 2015, largely due to illegal production in China which circumvented government restrictions. As of April 2025, the price is around US$203/kg.
Currently, most dysprosium is being obtained from the ion-adsorption clay ores of southern China. As of November 2018 the Browns Range Project pilot plant, 160 km south east of Halls Creek, Western Australia, is producing 50 tonnes (49 long tons) per annum.
According to the United States Department of Energy, the wide range of its current and projected uses, together with the lack of any immediately suitable replacement, makes dysprosium the single most critical element for emerging clean energy technologies; even their most conservative projections predicted a shortfall of dysprosium before 2015. As of October 2015, there is a nascent rare earth (including dysprosium) extraction industry in Australia.
== Applications ==
Dysprosium is used, in conjunction with vanadium and other elements, in making laser materials and commercial lighting. Because of dysprosium's high thermal-neutron absorption cross-section, dysprosium-oxide–nickel cermets are used in neutron-absorbing control rods in nuclear reactors. Dysprosium–cadmium chalcogenides are sources of infrared radiation, which is useful for studying chemical reactions. Because dysprosium and its compounds are highly susceptible to magnetization, they are employed in various data-storage applications, such as in hard disks. Dysprosium is increasingly in demand for the permanent magnets used in electric-car motors and wind-turbine generators.
Neodymium–iron–boron magnets can have up to 6% of the neodymium substituted by dysprosium to raise the coercivity for demanding applications, such as drive motors for electric vehicles and generators for wind turbines. This substitution would require up to 100 grams of dysprosium per electric car produced. Based on Toyota's projected 2 million units per year, the use of dysprosium in applications such as this would quickly exhaust its available supply. The dysprosium substitution may also be useful in other applications because it improves the corrosion resistance of the magnets.
Dysprosium is one of the components of Terfenol-D, along with iron and terbium. Terfenol-D has the highest room-temperature magnetostriction of any known material, which is employed in transducers, wide-band mechanical resonators, and high-precision liquid-fuel injectors.
Dysprosium is used in dosimeters for measuring ionizing radiation. Crystals of calcium sulfate or calcium fluoride are doped with dysprosium. When these crystals are exposed to radiation, the dysprosium atoms become excited and luminescent. The luminescence can be measured to determine the degree of exposure to which the dosimeter has been subjected.
Nanofibers of dysprosium compounds have high strength and a large surface area. Therefore, they can be used to reinforce other materials and act as a catalyst. Fibers of dysprosium oxide fluoride can be produced by heating an aqueous solution of DyBr3 and NaF to 450 °C at 450 bars for 17 hours. This material is remarkably robust, surviving over 100 hours in various aqueous solutions at temperatures exceeding 400 °C without redissolving or aggregating. Additionally, dysprosium has been used to create a two-dimensional supersolid in a laboratory environment. Supersolids are expected to exhibit unusual properties, including superfluidity.
Dysprosium iodide and dysprosium bromide are used in high-intensity metal-halide lamps. These compounds dissociate near the hot center of the lamp, releasing isolated dysprosium atoms. The latter re-emit light in the green and red part of the spectrum, thereby effectively producing bright light.
Several paramagnetic crystal salts of dysprosium (dysprosium gallium garnet, DGG; dysprosium aluminium garnet, DAG; dysprosium iron garnet, DyIG) are used in adiabatic demagnetization refrigerators.
The trivalent dysprosium ion (Dy3+) has been studied due to its downshifting luminescence properties. Dy-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Dy:YAG) excited in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum results in the emission of photons of longer wavelength in the visible region. This idea is the basis for a new generation of UV-pumped white light-emitting diodes.
The stable isotopes of dysprosium have been laser cooled and confined in magneto-optical traps for quantum physics experiments. The first Bose and Fermi quantum degenerate gases of an open shell lanthanide were created with dysprosium. Because dysprosium is highly magnetic—indeed it is the most magnetic fermionic element and nearly tied with terbium for most magnetic bosonic atom—such gases serve as the basis for quantum simulation with strongly dipolar atoms.
Due to its strong magnetic properties, dysprosium alloys are used in the marine industry's sound navigation and ranging (SONAR) system. The inclusion of dysprosium alloys in the design of SONAR transducers and receivers can improve sensitivity and accuracy by providing more stable and efficient magnetic fields.
== Precautions ==
Like many powders, dysprosium powder may present an explosion hazard when mixed with air and when an ignition source is present. Thin foils of the substance can also be ignited by sparks or by static electricity. Dysprosium fires cannot be extinguished with water. It can react with water to produce flammable hydrogen gas. Dysprosium chloride fires can be extinguished with water. Dysprosium fluoride and dysprosium oxide are non-flammable. Dysprosium nitrate, Dy(NO3)3, is a strong oxidizing agent and readily ignites on contact with organic substances.
Soluble dysprosium salts, such as dysprosium chloride and dysprosium nitrate are mildly toxic when ingested. Based on the toxicity of dysprosium chloride to mice, it is estimated that the ingestion of 500 grams or more could be fatal to a human (cf. lethal dose of 300 grams of common table salt for a 100 kilogram human). The insoluble salts are non-toxic.
== References ==
== External links ==
It's Elemental – Dysprosium |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergio_Chiamparino | Sergio Chiamparino | Sergio Chiamparino (born 1 September 1948) is an Italian politician. He was mayor of Turin from 2001 to 2011, and president of Piedmont from 2014 to 2019. He is also the author of several books, including Semplicemente sindaco (2006, with Maurizio Crosetti), La sfida. Oltre il Pd per tornare a vincere. Anche al Nord (2010), Cordata con sindaco (2011, with Valter Giuliano), and TAV. Perché sì (2018, with Piero Fassino).
== Early life and career ==
Born in Moncalieri, Piedmont, into a working-class family, Chiamparino obtained a diploma in ragioneria and then graduated in political science at the University of Turin, where he worked as a researcher until 1975. That same year, he started his political career in his native city as head of the Italian Communist Party in the town council of Moncalieri. In 1974, he served in the artillery regiment of the Alpini. From 1975 to 1980, he was coordinator of the Economic Planning of the Piedmont Region. From 1985 to 1987, he was an official in the European Parliament. Returning to Italy, from 1989 to 1991, he was regional secretary of the trade union CGIL. He joined the Democratic Party of the Left on its formation and was its provincial secretary from 1991 to 1995.
In 1993, Chiamparino was elected as city councillor of Turin. With 51.3% of the votes in Turin's fourth single-member district, he was elected to the country's Chamber of Deputies in the 1996 Italian general election, following an upset in the left-leaning district of Mirafiori (Turin's seventh single-member district) in the 1994 Italian general election to the centre-right coalition candidate Alessandro Meluzzi, a former Freemason who later became a primate of the Orthodox Church in Italy. With less than half a percentage deficit from Meluzzi at about 31% of the popular vote, Chiamparino had lost in 1994 by less than 400 votes.
== Mayor of Turin ==
In May 2001, Chiamparino was elected mayor of Turin as a member of the Democrats of the Left, succeeding to Valentino Castellani; he oversaw the organization for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, and the city's transition into a post-industrial society. His strategic vision focused on economic development and social cohesion. This included the conversion of Turin's traditional manufacturing and automobile industry with the technical-scientific business sector, as well as the renewal of its industrial areas, and making Turin a centre for industrial innovation and the information and communication businesses. He saw the Olympics as a way for the city to invest in major logistic and infrastructures, increase cultural and tourist initiatives, and promote Turin on the worldwide stage.
As mayor of Turin, Chiamparino supported European integration and the completion of the Turin–Lyon high-speed railway, and said that the city must be a human and safe community, where minorities and vulnerable people are part of its civic society, to ensure its long-term success. He developed several projects to improve the city's quality of life, including housing, education, and the elderly, as well as the integration of first and second-generation non-European Union immigrants, and training-linked employment prospects. Chiamparino enacted a series of measures to combat crime and increase safety. He saw the protection of the environment as inevitable linked to the promotion of public health, and linked a higher environmental quality to bigger economic growth and investment.
In May 2006, Chiamparino was re-elected the mayor of Turin with 66.6% of votes, defeating the centre-right coalition candidate Rocco Buttiglione. During his mayoralty rule, he was among the country's most popular and appreciated mayors. From 2009 to 2011, he was also president of the National Association of Italian Municipalities. In May 2012, he was elected chairman of Fondazione San Paolo.
During the first three ballots of the 2013 Italian presidential election held on 18–19 April, before Giorgio Napolitano reluctantly agreed on 20 April to seek an unprecedented second term as the president of Italy, Chiamparino received 41, 90, and 4 votes, respectively. The Renziani wing of the Democratic Party (PD), the party Chiamparino belonged to, identified him as their flag candidate as opposed to the official candidate Franco Marini, the former Italian minister and president of the Senate of the Republic, who was also supported by The People of Freedom, Civic Choice, and later on by Brothers of Italy. After the first ballot, he emerged as the third most voted candidate after Marini (521 votes), whose candidacy collapsed, and Stefano Rodotà (240 votes), the Five Star Movement (M5S) candidate.
== President of Piedmont ==
In February 2014, Chiamparino resigned from his position at Fondazione San Paolo to pursue a presidential run for the Piedmont region. In the 2014 Piedmontese regional election held on 25 May, in a landslide win with 47.1% of the votes over the 22.1% of the votes by the second-placed candidate Gilberto Pichetto Fratin of the centre-right coalition, he was elected president of the Regional Council of Piedmont. On 31 July 2014, he was unanimously elected president of the Conference of Regions and Autonomous Provinces by winning the challenges of Enrico Rossi, the then president of Tuscany, and Claudio Burlando, the then president of Liguria; all three were supported by part of the PD, and Chiamparino replaced Vasco Errani, also a member of the PD and the outgoing president of Emilia-Romagna. Stefano Caldoro, the president of Campania for the centre-right coalition, was designated as the vice president. On 22 October 2015, he resigned from his position due to the judgement given by the country's Court of the Audit on the budget of the Piedmont region; his resignation was frozen at the request of his fellow presidents. In December 2015, he was succeeded by fellow party member Stefano Bonaccini.
For the 2019 Piedmontese regional election, Chiamparino initially stated in June 2018 that he would not run for a second term. In September 2018, he declared his intention to run for re-election in the next regional election. Before Chiara Appendino, the mayor of Turin for the M5S, decided to withdraw from the bidding process, he supported the joint candidacy of Turin, Milan, and Cortina d'Ampezzo for the 2026 Winter Olympics. As a supporter of the Turin–Lyon high-speed railway, he criticized the first Conte government for its opposition, led mainly by the M5S. In March 2019, he called for a referendum about the Turin–Lyon high-speed railway, to be held on the same day as the regional election, and asked to the then Italian Minister of the Interior, Matteo Salvini, to allow it; both Giuseppe Conte, the then Prime Minister of Italy, and Salvini rejected the idea. In the election held on 26 May, Chiamparino lost 49.9%–35.8% to the centre-right coalition candidate Alberto Cirio, and acknowledged the defeat. Despite the loss, he managed to get elected to the Regional Council of Piedmont.
== Personal life ==
Chiamparino is married to Anna, and has a son, Tommaso. He is a well-known supporter of Torino FC, which he helped to save from going bankrupt in 2005–2006.
== Works ==
Chiamparino has written various books, some in the form of interviews, on his political-administrative experience. They include the chapter Le ristrutturazioni industriali in Problemi del movimento sindacale in Italia 1943-1973, published by Feltrinelli in 1976; Municipio. Dialogo su Torino e il governo locale con Giuseppe Berta e Bruno Manghi, published by Marsilio in 2002; La città che parla: i torinesi e il loro sindaco, published by Mondadori in 2003; Semplicemente sindaco, written with journalist Maurizio Crosetti and published by Cairo Publishing in 2006, La sfida. Oltre il Pd per tornare a vincere. Anche al Nord, published by Einaudi in 2010; Cordata con sindaco, written with Valter Giuliano about Chiamparino's passion for the mountains and mountaineering, and published by CDA & VIVALDA in 2011; and Tav. Perchè sì, written with fellow politician Piero Fassino about the Turin–Lyon high-speed railway (TAV) and published by Baldini & Castoldi in 2018.
== Electoral history ==
=== First-past-the-post elections ===
== Honours ==
Grand Official Order of Merit of the Italian Republic, 2 June 2007.
== References ==
== External links ==
Curriculum vitae at Fondazione Artea (in Italian) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klinefelter_syndrome | Klinefelter syndrome | Klinefelter syndrome (KS), also known as 47,XXY, is a chromosome anomaly where a male has an extra X chromosome. The complications commonly include infertility and small, poorly functioning testicles (if present). These symptoms are often noticed only at puberty, although this is one of the most common chromosomal disorders. The birth prevalence of KS in the State of Victoria, Australia was estimated to be 223 per 100,000 males. It is named after American endocrinologist Harry Klinefelter, who identified the condition in the 1940s, along with his colleagues at Massachusetts General Hospital.
The syndrome is defined by the presence of at least one extra X chromosome in addition to a Y chromosome, yielding a total of 47 or more chromosomes rather than the usual 46. Klinefelter syndrome occurs randomly. The second X chromosome comes from the father and mother nearly equally. An older mother may have a slightly increased risk of a child with KS. The syndrome is diagnosed by the genetic test known as karyotyping.
== Signs and symptoms ==
Klinefelter syndrome has different manifestations and these will vary from one patient to another. Among the primary features are infertility and small testicles. Often, symptoms may be subtle and many people do not realize they are affected. In other cases, symptoms are more prominent and may include weaker muscles, greater height, poor motor coordination, less body hair, gynecomastia (breast growth), and low libido. In the majority of the cases, these symptoms are noticed only at puberty.
=== Prenatal ===
Chromosomal abnormalities, including Klinefelter syndrome, are the most common cause of spontaneous abortion. Generally, the severity of the malformations is proportional to the number of X chromosomes present in the karyotype. For example, patients with 49 chromosomes (XXXXY) have more extreme manifestations than those with 48 chromosomes (XXXY).
=== Physical manifestations ===
As babies and children, those with XXY chromosomes may have lower muscle tone and reduced strength. They may sit up, crawl, and walk later than other infants. An average KS child will start walking at 19 months of age. They may also often have less muscle control and coordination than other children of their age.
During puberty, KS subjects show less muscle mass, less facial and body hair, and broader hips as a consequence of low levels of testosterone. Delays in motor development may occur. As teens, persons with XXY may develop more breast tissue, have weaker bones, and a lower energy level than others. Testicles are affected and are usually less than 2 cm in length (and always shorter than 3.5 cm), 1 cm in width, and 4 ml in volume.
By adulthood, individuals with KS tend to become taller than average, with proportionally longer arms and legs, less-muscular bodies, more belly fat, wider hips, and narrower shoulders. Some will show few or no symptoms, a lanky, youthful build and facial appearance, or a rounded body type. Gynecomastia (increased breast tissue) in males is common, occurring in up to 80% of cases. Approximately 10% of males with XXY chromosomes have gynecomastia noticeable enough that they may choose to have surgery.
Individuals with KS are often infertile or have reduced fertility. Advanced reproductive assistance is sometimes required in order to produce offspring since approximately only 50% of males with Klinefelter syndrome can produce sperm.
=== Psychological characteristics ===
==== Cognitive development ====
Some degree of language learning or reading impairment may be present, and neuropsychological testing often reveals deficits in executive functions. It is estimated that 10% of those with Klinefelter syndrome are autistic. Additional abnormalities may include impaired attention, reduced organizational and planning abilities, deficiencies in judgment (often presented as a tendency to interpret non-threatening stimuli as threatening), and dysfunctional decision processing.
Language milestones may also be delayed, particularly when compared to other people their age. Between 25% and 85% of persons with XXY have some kind of language problem, such as delay in learning to speak, trouble using language to express thoughts and needs, problems reading, and auditory processing issues. They may also have a harder time doing work that involves reading and writing, but most hold jobs and have successful careers.
==== Behavior and personality traits ====
Compared to individuals with a typical number of chromosomes, males affected by Klinefelter syndrome may display behavioral differences. These are phenotypically displayed as higher levels of anxiety and depression, mood dysregulation, impaired social skills, emotional immaturity during childhood, and low frustration tolerance. These neurocognitive disabilities are most likely due to the presence of the extra X chromosome, as indicated by studies carried out on animal models carrying an extra X chromosome.
In 1995, a scientific study evaluated the psychosocial adaptation of 39 adolescents with sex chromosome abnormalities. It demonstrated that children with XXY tend to be quiet, shy and undemanding; they are less self-confident, less active, and more helpful and obedient than other children their age. They may struggle in school and sports, meaning they may have more trouble "fitting in" with other kids.
As adults, they live lives similar to others without the condition; they have friends, families, and normal social relationships. Nonetheless, some individuals may experience social and emotional problems due to problems in childhood. Persons with XXY show a lower sex drive and low self-esteem, in most cases due to their feminine physical characteristics.
=== Concomitant illness ===
Those with XXY are more likely than others to have certain health problems, such as autoimmune disorders, breast cancer, venous thromboembolic disease, and osteoporosis. Nonetheless, the risk of breast cancer is still below the normal risk for women. These patients are also more prone to develop cardiovascular disease due to the predominance of metabolic abnormalities such as dyslipidemia and type 2 diabetes. It has not been demonstrated that hypertension is related with KS.
In contrast to these potentially increased risks, rare X-linked recessive conditions are thought to occur less frequently in those with XXY than in those without, since these conditions are transmitted by genes on the X chromosome, and people with two X chromosomes are typically only carriers rather than affected by these X-linked recessive conditions.
=== SRY-negative Klinefelter syndrome ===
Different to typical Klinefelter syndrome, SRY-negative Klinefelter syndrome is extremely rare. People with SRY-negative Klinefelter syndrome have normal female phenotype and are able to get pregnant.
== Cause ==
Klinefelter syndrome is not an inherited condition. The extra X chromosome comes from the mother in approximately 50% of the cases. Maternal age is the only known risk factor. Women at 40 years have a four-times-higher risk of a child with Klinefelter syndrome than women aged 24 years.
The extra chromosome is retained because of a nondisjunction event during paternal meiosis I, maternal meiosis I, or maternal meiosis II, also known as gametogenesis. The relevant nondisjunction in meiosis I occurs when homologous chromosomes, in this case the X and Y or two X sex chromosomes, fail to separate, producing a sperm with an X and a Y chromosome or an egg with two X chromosomes. Fertilizing a normal (X) egg with this sperm produces an XXY or Klinefelter offspring. Fertilizing a double X egg with a normal sperm also produces an XXY or Klinefelter offspring.
Another mechanism for retaining the extra chromosome is through a nondisjunction event during meiosis II in the egg. Nondisjunction occurs when sister chromatids on the sex chromosome, in this case an X and an X, fail to separate. An XX egg is produced, which when fertilized with a Y sperm, yields an XXY offspring. This XXY chromosome arrangement is one of the most common genetic variations from the XY karyotype, occurring in approximately one in 500 live male births.
In mammals with more than one X chromosome, the genes on all but one X chromosome are not expressed; this is known as X inactivation. This happens in XXY males, as well as normal XX females. However, in XXY males, a few genes located in the pseudoautosomal regions of their X chromosomes have corresponding genes on their Y chromosome and are capable of being expressed.
=== Variations ===
The condition 48,XXYY or 48,XXXY occurs in one in 18,000–50,000 male births. The incidence of 49,XXXXY is one in 85,000 to 100,000 male births. These variations are extremely rare. Additional chromosomal material can contribute to cardiac, neurological, orthopedic, urinogenital and other anomalies. Thirteen cases of individuals with a 47,XXY karyotype and a female phenotype have been described.
==== Mosaicism ====
Approximately 15–20% of males with KS may have a mosaic 47,XXY/46,XY constitutional karyotype and varying degrees of spermatogenic failure. Often, symptoms are milder in mosaic cases, with regular male secondary sex characteristics and testicular volume even falling within typical adult ranges. Another possible mosaicism is 47,XXY/46,XX with clinical features suggestive of KS and male phenotype, but this is very rare. Thus far, only approximately 10 cases of 47,XXY/46,XX have been described in literature.
=== Random versus skewed X-inactivation ===
Women typically have two X chromosomes, with half of their X chromosomes switching off early in embryonic development. The same happens with people with Klinefelter's, including in both cases a small proportion of individuals with a skewed ratio between the two Xs.
== Pathogenesis ==
The term "hypogonadism" in XXY symptoms is often misinterpreted to mean "small testicles", when it instead means decreased testicular hormone/endocrine function. Because of (primary) hypogonadism, individuals often have a low serum testosterone level, but high serum follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone levels, hypergonadotropic hypogonadism. Despite this misunderstanding of the term, testicular growth also is arrested.
Destruction and hyalinization of the seminiferous tubules cause a reduction in the function of Sertoli cells and Leydig cells, leading to decreased production of FSH and testosterone. This results in impaired spermatogenesis and further endocrine dysfunction.
== Diagnosis ==
The standard diagnostic method is the analysis of the chromosomes' karyotype on lymphocytes. A small blood sample is sufficient as test material. In the past, the observation of the Barr body was common practice, as well. To investigate the presence of a possible mosaicism, analysis of the karyotype using cells from the oral mucosa is performed. Physical characteristics of a Klinefelter syndrome can be tall stature, low body hair, and occasionally an enlargement of the breast. Usually, a small testicle volume of 1–5 ml per testicle (standard values: 12–30 ml) occurs. During puberty and adulthood, low testosterone levels with increased levels of the pituitary hormones FSH and LH in the blood can indicate the presence of Klinefelter syndrome. A spermiogram can also be part of the further investigation. Often, an azoospermia is present, or rarely an oligospermia. Furthermore, Klinefelter syndrome can be diagnosed as a coincidental prenatal finding in the context of invasive prenatal diagnosis (amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling). Approximately 10% of KS cases are found by prenatal diagnosis.
The symptoms of KS are often variable, so a karyotype analysis should be ordered when small testes, infertility, gynecomastia, long arms/legs, developmental delay, speech/language deficits, learning disabilities/academic issues, and/or behavioral issues are present in an individual.
=== Prognosis ===
The lifespan of individuals with Klinefelter syndrome appears to be reduced by around 2.1 years compared to the general male population. These results are still questioned data, are not absolute, and need further testing.
== Treatment ==
As the genetic variation is irreversible, no causal therapy is available. From the onset of puberty, the existing testosterone deficiency can be compensated by appropriate hormone-replacement therapy. Testosterone preparations are available in the form of syringes, patches, or gel. If gynecomastia is present, the surgical removal of the breast may be considered for psychological benefits and to reduce the risk of breast cancer.
The use of behavioral therapy can mitigate any language disorders, difficulties at school, and socialization. An approach by occupational therapy is useful in children, especially those who have dyspraxia.
=== Infertility treatment ===
Methods of reproductive medicine, such as intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) with previously conducted testicular sperm extraction (TESE), have led to men with Klinefelter syndrome producing biological offspring. By 2010, over 100 successful pregnancies have been reported using in vitro fertilization technology with surgically removed sperm material from men with KS.
== History ==
The syndrome was named after American endocrinologist Harry Klinefelter, who in 1942 worked with Fuller Albright and E. C. Reifenstein at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts, and first described it in the same year. The account given by Klinefelter came to be known as Klinefelter syndrome as his name appeared first on the published paper, and seminiferous tubule dysgenesis was no longer used. Considering the names of all three researchers, it is sometimes also called Klinefelter–Reifenstein–Albright syndrome. In 1956, Klinefelter syndrome was found to result from an extra chromosome. Plunkett and Barr found the sex chromatin body in cell nuclei of the body. This was further clarified as XXY in 1959 by Patricia Jacobs and John Anderson Strong. The first published report of a man with a 47,XXY karyotype was by Patricia Jacobs and John Strong at Western General Hospital in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1959. This karyotype was found in a 24-year-old man who had signs of KS. Jacobs described her discovery of this first reported human or mammalian chromosome aneuploidy in her 1981 William Allan Memorial Award address.
Klinefelter syndrome has been identified in ancient burials. In August 2022, a team of scientists published a study of a skeleton found in Bragança, north-eastern Portugal, of a man who died around 1000 AD and was discovered by their investigations to have a 47,XXY karyotype. In 2021, bioarchaeological investigation of the individual buried with the Suontaka sword, previously assumed to be a woman, concluded that person "whose gender identity may well have been non-binary", had Klinefelter syndrome.
== Cultural and social impacts ==
In many societies, the symptoms of Klinefelter syndrome have contributed to significant social stigma, particularly due to infertility and gynecomastia. Historically, these traits were often associated with a perceived lack of masculinity, which could result in social ostracism. However, in recent years, increased awareness and advocacy have led to a reduction in stigma, with individuals diagnosed with KS more likely to receive proper medical care and support. Advocacy organizations, such as the American Association for Klinefelter Syndrome Information and Support (AAKSIS), have played a crucial role in promoting understanding and improving the quality of life for affected individuals.
The classification of Klinefelter syndrome as an intersex variation is debated. It is included as one by intersex advocacy groups, and some KS organizations and academics. Historically, however, medical tradition has often excluded KS from intersex, prioritizing physical appearance at birth over chromosomal makeup. This view was echoed by some KS support communities, which emphasized a strictly male identity, attributed to fears of stigma associated with homosexuality or transgender identity. A 2024 study showed 19% of KS respondents identified as intersex or non-binary, 12% as female and 53% as male, with 56% overall noting some discrepancy between their gender identity and their physical appearance.
== Epidemiology ==
This syndrome, evenly distributed in all ethnic groups, has a prevalence of approximately four subjects per every 10,000 (0.04%) males in the general population. However, it is estimated that only 25% of the individuals with Klinefelter syndrome are diagnosed throughout their lives. The rate of Klinefelter syndrome among infertile males is 3.1%. The syndrome is the main cause of male hypogonadism. One survey in the United Kingdom found that while the majority of people with KS identify as male, a significant number have a different gender identity. The prevalence of KS is higher than baseline in transgender women.
== See also ==
Sex chromosome anomalies
Aneuploidy
Intersex
Taurodontism
Trisomy X
Turner syndrome
XYY syndrome
XXYY syndrome
XX male syndrome
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Cover VI (2012). Living with Klinefelter Syndrome, Trisomy X and 47,XYY: A Guide for Families and Individuals Affected by Extra X and Y Chromosomes (PDF). Virginia Isaacs Cover. ISBN 978-0-615-57400-4.
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enrico_D%27Ovidio | Enrico D'Ovidio | Enrico D'Ovidio (1842–1933) was an Italian mathematician who is known by his works on geometry.
== Life and work ==
D'Ovidio, son of liberal parents involved in the Italian independence movement, studied at the University of Naples under his uncle, Achille Sannia, who prepared him to enter in the School of Bridges and Roads. In 1869, he published with Sannia a very successful textbook to teach geometry in the schools.
Encouraged by Eugenio Beltrami, he obtained the chair on Algebra and Analytic Geometry at the University of Turin in 1872, and he remained there for the remaining 46 years of his life. He was also rector of the university from 1880 to 1885.
The research of D'Ovidio was mainly in geometry and the most important works were produced when he was in Turin. Specially interesting is his work Le funzioni metriche fondamentali negli spazi di quante si vogliono dimensioni e di curvatura costante (The fundamental metrical functions in the n-dimensional spaces of constant curvature), published in 1876 and where he stated for first time the law of sines in n-dimensional curved spaces.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Chang, Sooyoung (2011). Academic Genealogy of Mathematicians. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4282-29-1.
De Lisio, Carlo (2008). Compendio storico di scienziati del Molise (in Italian). Campobasso MG Communication.
Eriksson, Folke (1978). "The law of sines for tetrahedra and n-simplices". Geometriae Dedicata. 4 (1): 71–80. doi:10.1007/BF00181352. ISSN 0046-5755. S2CID 120391200.
Kennedy, Hubert C. (1980). Peano: Life and Works of Giuseppe Peano. Reidel Publishing Co. ISBN 978-90-277-1068-0.
== External links ==
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Enrico D'Ovidio", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
Bastai Prat, Antonella (1992). "D'OVIDIO, Enrico". Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani. Retrieved 18 October 2017. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_H._Twenhofel_Medal | William H. Twenhofel Medal | The William H. Twenhofel Medal is the highest award given by the Society for Sedimentary Geology (SEPM). It was instituted in memory of William H. Twenhofel and is awarded annually to a person for his or her "Outstanding Contributions to Sedimentary Geology."
Nominees are chosen for having made outstanding contributions to paleontology, sedimentology, stratigraphy, and/or allied scientific disciplines. The contributions normally involve extensive personal research, but may involve some combination of research, teaching, administration, or other activities which have notably advanced scientific knowledge in Sedimentary Geology.
== Past recipients ==
Source:
(NM) denotes that the recipient was not a member of SEPM.
== See also ==
List of geology awards
== References ==
== External links ==
Society for Sedimentary Geology Past Awards Archived 2012-11-24 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristin_Glosimot_Kjelsberg | Kristin Glosimot Kjelsberg | Kristin Glosimot Kjelsberg (born 7 November 1959) is a Norwegian handball player. She played 112 matches and scored 371 goals for the Norwegian national team between 1978 and 1983. She represented the club Bækkelagets SK in 1984, when Bækkelaget became Norwegian champions, and Glosimot was the Eliteserien's top scorer that year. She participated at the 1982 World Women's Handball Championship, where the Norwegian team placed seventh.
Kjelsberg was awarded the Håndballstatuetten trophy from the Norwegian Handball Federation in 1999.
== References ==
== External links ==
Kristin Glosimot Kjelsberg at the Norwegian Handball Federation (in Norwegian) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-class_blimp#Specifications_(K-14) | K-class blimp | The K-class blimp was a class of blimps (non-rigid airship) built by the Goodyear Aircraft Company of Akron, Ohio, for the United States Navy. These blimps were powered by two Pratt & Whitney Wasp nine-cylinder radial air-cooled engines, each mounted on twin-strut outriggers, one per side of the control car that hung under the envelope. Before and during World War II, 134 K-class blimps were built and configured for patrol and anti-submarine warfare operations, and were extensively used in the Navy’s anti-submarine efforts in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean areas.
== Development ==
In 1937, K-2 was ordered from Goodyear as part of a contract that also bought the L-1, (Goodyear’s standard advertising and passenger blimp). K-2 was the production prototype for future K-class airship purchases. K-2 flew for the first time at Akron, Ohio on December 6, 1938 and was delivered to the Navy at NAS Lakehurst, New Jersey on December 16. The envelope capacity of the K-2—404,000 ft³ (11,440 m³)—was the largest for any USN blimp up to that time. K-2 was flown extensively as a prototype, and continued to operate testing new equipment, techniques, and performing whatever tasks were needed, including combat patrols in World War II.
On October 24, 1940, the Navy awarded a contract to Goodyear for six airships (K-3 through K-8) that were assigned the designation Goodyear ZNP-K. These blimps were designed for patrol and escort duties and were delivered to the Navy in late 1941 and early 1942. K-3 through K-8 had only minor modifications to K-2's design, the only major change was in engines from Pratt & Whitney R-1340-16s to Wright R-975-28s. The Wright engine/propeller combination proved excessively noisy and was replaced in later K-ships with slightly modified Pratt & Whitney engines. The K-3 cost $325,000. A series of orders for more K-class blimps followed. Twenty-one additional blimps (K-9 through K-30) were ordered on 14 October 1942. On 9 January 1943, 21 more blimps (K-31 through K-50) were ordered. The envelope size of K-9 through K-13 was increased to 416,000 ft³ (11,780 m³) and those delivered thereafter used an envelope of 425,000 ft³ (12,035 m³). The final contract for the K-class blimp were awarded in mid-1943 for 89 airships. Four blimps from this order were later canceled. The remaining deliveries were assigned numbers K-51 through K-136. But, the number K-136 was not assigned to a specific airship as the control car assigned for K-136 was used to replace the car for K-113. The original car for K-113 was destroyed in a fire.
The US Navy's experiences with K-ships in tropical regions showed a need for a blimp with greater volume than the K-class to offset the loss of lift due to high ambient temperatures. Goodyear addressed these concerns with a follow-on design, the M-class blimp, which was 50% larger.
== Variants ==
After World War II a number of K-class blimps were modified with more advanced electronics, radar, sonar systems and larger envelopes. These modified blimps were designated:
ZNP-K
The original designation of the K-class blimps. Individual blimps were identified by a sequential suffix number, e.g. ZNP-K-2, ZNPK-8 etc. In everyday use only the K and numerical suffixes were used. Batches of blimps were built with sometimes major differences, but the designations remained in the ZNP-K range, until the later versions, listed below, emerged.
ZPK
Revised designation of the ZNP-K series.
ZP2K
A larger envelope with the volume increased to 527,000 cu ft (14,900 m3), sensors and other improvements re-designated ZSG-2.
ZP3K
A larger envelope with the volume increased to 527,000 cu ft (14,900 m3), with systems and controls even more advanced than the ZP2Ks, re-designated ZSG-3.
ZP4K
Delivered in 1953, retaining the 527,000 cu ft (14,900 m3) envelope volume and length of 266 ft (81.08 m), re-designated ZSG-4 in 1954.
== Operational history ==
The K-ships were used for anti-submarine warfare (ASW) duties in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans as well as the Mediterranean Sea. All equipment was carried in a forty foot long control car. The installed communications and instrumentation equipment allowed night flying. The blimps were equipped with the ASG radar, that had a detection range of 90 mi (140 km), sonobuoys, and magnetic anomaly detection (MAD) equipment. The K-ships carried four 350 lb (160 kg) depth bombs, two in a bomb bay and two externally, and were equipped with a machine gun in the forward part of the control car. An aircrew of 10 normally operated the K-ships, consisting of a command pilot, two co-pilots, a navigator/pilot, airship rigger, an ordnanceman, two mechanics, and two radiomen.
On 1 June 1944, two K-class blimps of United States Navy (USN) Airship Patrol Squadron 14 (ZP-14) completed the first transatlantic crossing by non-rigid airships. K-123 and K-130 left South Weymouth, MA on 28 May 1944 and flew approximately 16 hours to Naval Station Argentia, Newfoundland. From Argentia, the blimps flew approximately 22 hours to Lajes Field on Terceira Island in the Azores. The final leg of the first transatlantic crossing was about a 20-hour flight from the Azores to Craw Field in Port Lyautey (Kenitra), French Morocco. The first pair of K-ships were followed by K-109 & K-134 and K-112 & K-101 which left South Weymouth on 11 and 27 June 1944, respectively. These six blimps initially conducted nighttime anti-submarine warfare operations to complement the daytime missions flown by FAW-15 aircraft (PBYs and B-24s) using magnetic anomaly detection to locate U-boats in the relatively shallow waters around the Straits of Gibraltar. Later, ZP-14 K-ships conducted minespotting and minesweeping operations in key Mediterranean ports and various escort missions including that of the convoy carrying Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill to the Yalta Conference in early 1945. In late April 1945, K-89 and K-114 left Weeksville NAS in North Carolina and flew a southern transatlantic route to NAS Bermuda, the Azores, and Port Lyautey where they arrived on 1 May 1945 as replacements for Blimp Squadron ZP-14.
The ability of the K-ships to hover and operate at low altitudes and slow speeds resulted in detection of numerous enemy submarines as well as assisting in search and rescue missions. The K-ships had an endurance capability of over 24 hours which was an important factor in the employment of ASW tactics.
The mooring system for the K-ship was a 42 ft (12.8 m) high triangular mooring mast that was capable of being towed by a tractor. For advance bases where moving the mooring mast was not needed, a conventional stick mast was used. A large ground crew was needed to land the blimps and moor them to the mast.
During the war, only one K ship was lost to enemy action. On 18 July 1943, K-74 was shot down by U-134 in the Straits of Florida. The crew was rescued eight hours later, except for one man who was attacked by a shark and drowned only minutes before the rescue. Five weeks later, U-134 was sunk by a British frigate in the Bay of Biscay on its return voyage to Germany.
In 1947, Goodyear acquired the former Navy K-28 and operated it as part of its commercial advertising blimp fleet. The K ship was named Puritan and was the largest ever Goodyear blimp. The airship was purchased from the Navy primarily to experiment with Trans-Lux illuminated running copy advertising signs attached to the envelope. Costly to operate and maintain, Puritan was retired from the Goodyear fleet in April, 1948 after only one year of operation. The blimp was deflated and placed in storage at Goodyear's base at Wingfoot Lake in Suffield, Ohio and was later sold back to the Navy.
K-43, the last operational Navy "K Ship", was retired from service in March, 1959.
=== Nuclear weapon effects tests ===
Several K-class blimps were used for nuclear weapon effects tests at the Nevada Test Site (NTS) during the Operation Plumbbob series of tests in 1957. K-40, K-46, K-77 and K-92 were destroyed in Project 5.2, events Franklin (Fissile) and Stokes (19 kt, XW-30 device). The tests were to "determine the response characteristics of the model ZSG-3 airship when subject to a nuclear detonation in order to establish criteria for safe escape distances after airship delivery of antisubmarine warfare special weapons." According to the Navy, the "airship operations were conducted with extreme difficulty." The Navy was trying to determine whether the airship could be among the aircraft to deliver its planned Lulu (W-34) nuclear depth charge.
== Airship designations ==
During the life of the K-class airship, the U.S. Navy used three different designation systems. From 1922 through World War II, the Navy used a four character designator. The K-class blimps were designated ZNP-K where the "Z" signified lighter-than-air; "N" denoted non-rigid; "P" denoted a patrol mission; and "K" denoted the type or class of airship.
In April 1947, the General Board of the U.S. Navy modified the designation system for airships. The second character of the designator was dropped as the Board dropped the code for rigid airships so that the "N" for non-rigid was no longer needed. The designation for the K-class blimps then became ZPK.
In April 1954, the designation system for lighter-than-air airships was further modified so that it conformed to the designation system for heavier-than-air aircraft. By this time the ZPK blimps had been retired from service and only the later version K-Class blimps were in service. Under the 1954 system the ZP2K blimp became the ZSG-2, the ZP3K became the ZSG-3, the ZP4K became the ZSG-4, and the ZP5K became the ZS2G-1. In new designation system, the "Z" signified lighter-than-air; the "S" was the type denoting an anti-submarine warfare mission; the numeral (i.e., "2") was the model; and the "G" was for Goodyear, the manufacturer's letter in the Navy's designation system. The final numeral denoted the series of the vehicle within the type/model. The US Navy ordered a new type of airship in 1951 for the Korean War. The new air ship was designated ZP4K (later called ZSG-4), which had a different design than WW2 K-type. The first ZP4K was delivered in June 1954. A total of 15 were built. In 1955 an update version a called the ZP5K (later called ZS2G-1) was delivered, a total of 15 were built. The ZP5K has an inverted “Y” tail.
== Surviving aircraft ==
K-22 Control car currently under restoration at the Moffett Field Museum on Moffett Federal Airfield in Santa Clara County, California.
K-27 and several other K class blimps were seen in the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film This Man's Navy (1945), one of the few motion pictures to depict U.S. Navy blimp operations. The film starred Wallace Beery who actually served as a Navy blimp commander during World War II.
K-28 - Goodyear Puritan – Control car on static display at the New England Air Museum in Windsor Locks, Connecticut.
K-47 - Control car on static display at the National Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida. The K-47 was upgraded to the ZP3K configuration before it was retired in 1956.
== Specifications (K-14) ==
General characteristics
Crew: 9–10
Length: 251 ft 8 in (76.73 m)
Diameter: 57 ft 10 in (17.63 m)
Volume: 425,000 cu ft (12,043 m3)
Useful lift: 7,770 lb (3,524 kg)
Powerplant: 2 × Pratt & Whitney R-1340-AN-2 radials , 425 hp (317 kW) each
Performance
Maximum speed: 78 mph (125 km/h, 68 kn)
Cruise speed: 58 mph (93 km/h, 50 kn)
Range: 2,205 mi (3,537 km, 1,916 nmi)
Endurance: 38 hours 12 minutes
Armament
1 × .50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine gun
4 × 350 lb (160 kg) AN-Mk 47 depth charges
== See also ==
Aircraft Warning Service
Naval Air Station Hitchcock, Texas
US Navy airships during World War II
Related lists
List of airships of the United States Navy
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Bibliography ===
== External links ==
United States Navy K-Type Airships Pilot’s Manual |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_SHS-10 | Yamaha SHS-10 | The Yamaha SHS-10, known in Yamaha's native country, Japan, as the Yamaha Sholky, Sholky being derived from "Shoulder Keyboard", is a keytar (a musical keyboard that can be held like a guitar) manufactured by Yamaha and released in 1987.
It has a small-sized keyboard with 32 minikeys and a pitch-bend wheel, vibrato and sustain buttons, an internal Frequency modulation (usually referred to as FM) synthesizer offering 25 different voices with 6-note polyphony, two operators, and a very basic chord sequencer. It also has a loudspeaker.
It supports MIDI, having a MIDI Out connector which allows the keyboard to control external MIDI equipment. It does not have a MIDI In connector. Although originally made for the consumer market, this keytar's MIDI out features are very powerful. Its drum rhythms and accompaniment are transmitted on separate MIDI channels, so that an external drum machine, sampler, or other MIDI equipment can be programmed to play the backing parts. Drums are transmitted on channel 16; Bass on 15; and three chord harmonies on channels 12-14. MIDI start/stop and tempo sync are also transmitted so an external sequencer may be utilized as well.
It was manufactured in three colors: grey, red, and black.
Its demo is an arrangement of Wham!'s hit "Last Christmas."
The Voices are the following:
The numbering scheme reflects the fact that the selection is done with buttons numbered 0-4.
A larger model, the Yamaha SHS-200, was released the following year, and came with 49 keys and dual stereo speakers.
== External links ==
Yamaha SHS-10 at SynthMania (featuring MP3 samples of the demo, instruments, and styles available)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Photography_Awards | International Photography Awards | The International Photography Awards are a group of awards for professional, non-professional and student photographers on a global scale which are awarded annually at the Lucie Awards gala. The winners of the main categories are invited to attend the gala to compete for the main award of International Photographer of the Year, receiving a Lucie statue and a cash prize of $10,000.
== History ==
The International Photography Awards were created by Hossein Farmani as part of the mission of the Lucie Foundation. They were initially presented in December 2003 at the Beverly Hilton Hotel in Los Angeles, California, at the Lucie Awards gala produced by Golden Globe nominee, Michelle Burstin.
In addition to honoring photographers, the Lucie Awards also showcase the finalists and winners of the International Photography Awards (Lucie Foundation's sister-effort) annual photography competition, presenting over $15,000 in cash prizes and two distinct titles: The International Photographer of the Year (given to a professional) and the Discovery of the Year (awarded to a non-professional).
In 2012, the Moving Image Photographer of the Year category was added, where six finalists competed to receive a Lucie statue and $2,500.
== Annual ceremonies and honorees ==
=== 2025 ===
Pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Jonathan Knowles
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Piotr Zbierski
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Romain Thiery
Book Photographer Of the Year – Autori Multipli
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Abdelrahman Alkahlout
Event Photographer Of the Year – Savadmon Avalachamveettil
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Julia Fullerton-Batten
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Sho Otani
People Photographer Of the Year – Natasha Pszenicki
Special Photographer Of the Year – Pedro Luis Ajuriaguerra Saiz
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Todd Antony
Non-pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Natalie Vorontsoff
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Yehor Lemzyakoff
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Mohammad Awadh
Book Photographer Of the Year – Markus Naarttijarvi
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Sebastian Piorek
Event Photographer Of the Year – Yu Ling Ho
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Marie Sueur
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Ilene Meyers
People Photographer Of the Year – Ilona Schong
Special Photographer Of the Year – Monia Marchionni
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Kohei Kawashima
=== 2024 ===
International Photographer of the Year – Charles Niell Jr. Chaz
Discovery of the Year – Malgorzata Fober
Pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Tom Franks
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Drew Gardner
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Gleici Rufatto
Book Photographer Of the Year – Sebastian Copeland
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Mustafa Hassona
Event Photographer Of the Year – Charles Niell Jr. Chaz
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Paul Szimák
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Benjamin Yavar
People Photographer Of the Year – Maryam Firuzi
Special Photographer Of the Year – Dale May
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Peter Muller
Non-pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Andrea Paolini Merlo
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Blake Burton
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Kiyoshi Karimizu
Book Photographer Of the Year – Yuji Haikal
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Jakub Laichter
Event Photographer Of the Year – Mark Fromson
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – César Guardia Alemañi
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Malgorzata Fober
People Photographer Of the Year – Renee Barron
Special Photographer Of the Year – Yukihito Ono
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Markus Naarttijarvi
=== 2023 ===
Pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Thomas Broening
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Edgar Martins
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Gang Wang
Book Photographer Of the Year – 93 photojournalists
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Wolfgang Schwan
Event Photographer Of the Year – Nabil West
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Julia Fullerton-Batten
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Barbara and Maciej Noskowski
People Photographer Of the Year – Allison Hunter
Special Photographer Of the Year – Horst Kistner
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Finn O’Hara
Non-pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Yuliy Vasilev
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Daniela Balestrin
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Steffen Reichardt
Book Photographer Of the Year – Jan Schölzel
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Or Adar
Event Photographer Of the Year – Thamarong Wanarithikul
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Bevil Templeton-Smith
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Claudia Gaupp
People Photographer Of the Year – Carlo Marrazza
Special Photographer Of the Year – Daniil Kobizskiy
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Tony Law
=== 2022 ===
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Jodie Mann
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Lukasz Spychala
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Ramin Barzegar
Book Photographer Of the Year – Ed Kashi
Deeper Perspective Photographer Of the Year – Paula Bronstein
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Juan Carlos
Event Photographer Of the Year – Alessandro Iasevoli
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Nils Riedweg
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Lars Beusker
People Photographer Of the Year – Aaron Anderson
Special Photographer Of the Year – Martin Stranka
Sports Photographer Of the Year – James Lightbown
Still in Motion / Video Photographer Of the Year – Sandro Miller
=== 2021 ===
Pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – John Huet
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Angélique Boissière
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Julia Anna Gospodarou
Book Photographer Of the Year – Delphine Blast
Deeper Perspective Photographer Of the Year – Bob Newman
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Mel D. Cole
Event Photographer Of the Year – Chong Kok Yew
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Mikael Owunna
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Liselotte Schuppers
People Photographer Of the Year – Art Streiber
Special Photographer Of the Year – Howard Schatz
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Andre Magarao
Still in Motion / Video Photographer Of the Year – Shilpa Narayanan
Nature and Astrophotography Of the Year – Gary W. Lopez
Non-pro
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Antonio Coelho
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Chris Round
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – César Cedano
Book Photographer Of the Year – Sue Park
Deeper Perspective Photographer Of the Year – Joanna Borowiee
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Sharwar Hussain
Event Photographer Of the Year – Brian Wotring
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Jiale Liu
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Javier Rupérez
People Photographer Of the Year – Elisa Miller
Special Photographer Of the Year – Bernd Schirmer
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Masatoshi Ujihara
Still in Motion / Video Photographer Of the Year – Aitor del Arco
=== 2020 ===
International Photographer of the Year – Julia Fullerton-Batten
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Mike Dodd
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Paulius Makauskas
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Jesus M.Chamizo
Book Photographer Of the Year – Sebastian Copeland
Deeper Perspective Photographer Of the Year – Nicolo Filippo Rosso
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Kiran Ridley
Event Photographer Of the Year – Katja Ogrin
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – Chloe Meynier
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Ari Rex
Nature and Astrophotography Of the Year – Gary W. Lopez
People Photographer Of the Year – Brian Hodges
Special Photographer Of the Year – Sawyer Russel
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Howard Schatz
Still in Motion / Video Photographer Of the Year – Iwona Podlasinska
=== 2019 ===
The 18th Annual Lucie Awards were postponed and will be rescheduled.
International Photographer of the Year – Mustafa Hassona
Discovery of the Year – Mikkel Hørlyck
Advertising Photographer Of the Year – Jonathan Knowles
Analog / Film Photographer Of the Year – Snezhana Von Büdingen
Architecture Photographer Of the Year – Evgeny Stetsko
Book Photographer Of the Year – Joey L.
Deeper Perspective Photographer Of the Year – K. M. Asad
Editorial / Press Photographer Of the Year – Mustafa Hassona
Event Photographer Of the Year – Sandro Miller
Fine Art Photographer Of the Year – David Knox
Nature Photographer Of the Year – Tom Putt
People Photographer Of the Year – Evgeny Stetsko
Special Photographer Of the Year – James Ritchie
Sports Photographer Of the Year – Kohei Ueno
Still in Motion / Video Photographer Of the Year – Jean Bérard
=== 2018 ===
The 2018 awards ceremony was held at the Zankel Hall at Carnegie Hall, in New York City on October 28, 2018.
International Photographer of the Year – Tawny Chatmon
Discovery of the Year – Mohammad Rakibul Hasan
First Place winners in different categories were:
Special – James Rushforth
Advertising, Sandro Miller
Book, Randal Ford
Architecture, Stephan Zirwes
Sports, Divyakant Solanki
Moving image, Emily Kassie
Deeper Perspective, Barry Salzman
People, Tawny Chatmon
Editorial, Rasmus Flindt Pedersen
Event, Mia Collis
Fine Art, Rodd Owen
Nature, Melissa Cormican
=== 2017 ===
The 2017 edition of the Lucie Awards was held at the Zankel Hall at Carnegie Hall, in New York City on October 29, 2017.
Moving Image Photographer of the Year– Lebohang Kganye
International Photographer of the Year – Alex Telfer
Discovery of the Year – Mariano Belmar
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Giles Clarke
=== 2016 ===
The Lucie Awards in 2016, was held on October 23 at the Zankel Hall at Carnegie Hall, in New York City.
Moving Image Photographer of the Year -Lily Gilboy
International Photographer of the Year – Marinka Masséus
Discovery of the Year – David Nam Lip LEE
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Andrea Star Reese
=== 2015 ===
For the third year, the 2015 Awards ceremony was held at the Zankel Hall at Carnegie Hall, in New York City on October 27, 2015.
Moving Image Photographer of the Year – Kerry Payne Stailey
International Photographer of the Year – Maxim Dondyuk
Discovery of the Year – Ville Kansanen
Deeper Perspective of the Year – David Jay
Honorable Mention(s) of the Year – Haider Ali (haidertonight)
=== 2014 ===
The Lucie Awards ceremony in 2014 was held at the Zankel Hall at Carnegie Hall, in New York City on November 22.
Moving Image Photographer of the Year – Yannick Wegner
International Photographer of the Year – Sandro Miller
Discovery of the Year – Vyacheslav Mishchenko
Deeper Perspective of the Year – K M Asad
=== 2013 ===
The 2013 awards ceremony was held at the Zankel Hall at Carnegie Hall, in New York City on October 27, 2013.
Moving Image Photographer of the Year – Carson Davis Brown
International Photographer of the Year – Brooks Kraft
Discovery of the Year – Carlotta Cardana
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Ebrahim Noroozi
=== 2012 ===
The 2012 awards ceremony returned to its root, being held at the International Ballroom at the Beverly Hilton Hotel, the site of the first awards ceremony, in Los Angeles on October 8, 2012.
Moving Image Photographer of the Year – Mark Bramley
International Photographer of the Year – Alinka Echeverría
Discovery of the Year – Viktoria Sorochinski
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Fernando Moleres
=== 2011 ===
The 2011 awards ceremony was held at the Rose Theater, Jazz at the Lincoln Center in New York City on October 24, 2011.
International Photographer of the Year – Majid Saeedi
Discovery of the Year – Anna di Prospero
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Daniel Beltrá
=== 2010 ===
The 2010 awards ceremony was held at the Alice Tully Hall at the Lincoln Center in New York City on October 27, 2010.
International Photographer of the Year – Jim Krantz
Discovery of the Year – Kristina Kostadinova
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Rodney Rascona
=== 2009 ===
The 2009 awards ceremony was held at the Alice Tully Hall at the Lincoln Center in New York City on October 19, 2009.
International Photographer of the Year – Nadav Kander
Discovery of the Year – Elliott Wilcox
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Rachel Papo
=== 2008 ===
The 2008 awards ceremony was held at the Avery Fisher Hall in the Lincoln Center in New York City on October 30, 2008.
International Photographer of the Year – Brent Stirton
Discovery of the Year – John Delaney
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Justin Maxon
=== 2007 ===
The 2007 awards ceremony was held at the Avery Fisher Hall in the Lincoln Center in New York City on October 15, 2007.
International Photographer of the Year – Massimo Mastrorillo
Discovery of the Year – Larry Louie
Deeper Perspective of the Year – Charlie Crane
=== 2006 ===
The 2006 awards ceremony was held at the American Airlines Theater in New York City on October 30, 2006.
International Photographer of the Year – Gerd Ludwig
Discovery of the Year – Ghada Khunji
=== 2005 ===
The 2005 awards ceremony was held at the American Airlines Theater in New York City on October 17, 2005.
International Photographer of the Year – Jim Fiscus
Discovery of the Year – Carol Watson
=== 2004 ===
The 2004 awards ceremony changed location and time of year, held at the American Airlines Theater in New York City on October 18, 2004.
International Photographer of the Year – Timothy White
Discovery of the Year – Marrigje De Maar
=== 2003 ===
The 2003 awards ceremony was the first, held at the International Ballroom of the Beverly Hilton Hotel in Los Angeles, California on December 7, 2003.
International Photographer of the Year – Chris Frazer Smith
Discovery of the Year – Robert Vizzini
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean,_Grand_Duke_of_Luxembourg | Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg | Jean (Jean Benoît Guillaume Robert Antoine Louis Marie Adolphe Marc d'Aviano; 5 January 1921 – 23 April 2019) was the Grand Duke of Luxembourg from 1964 until his abdication in 2000. He was the first Grand Duke of Luxembourg of French agnatic descent.
Jean was the eldest son of Grand Duchess Charlotte and Prince Felix. Jean's primary education was initially in Luxembourg, before attending Ampleforth College in England. In 1938, he was officially named Hereditary Grand Duke as heir apparent to the throne of Luxembourg. While Luxembourg was occupied by Germans during the Second World War, the grand ducal family was abroad in exile. Jean studied at the Université Laval in Quebec City. Jean later volunteered to join the British army's Irish Guards in 1942, and after graduating from the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, received his commission in 1943. He participated in the Normandy landings and the Battle for Caen, and joined the Allied forces in the liberation of Luxembourg. From 1984 until 2000, he was Colonel of the Regiment of the Irish Guards.
On 9 April 1953, Jean married Princess Joséphine-Charlotte of Belgium, with whom he had five children. On 12 November 1964, Grand Duchess Charlotte abdicated and Jean succeeded her as Grand Duke of Luxembourg. He then reigned for 36 years before he himself abdicated on 7 October 2000 and was succeeded by his son Grand Duke Henri.
== Early life ==
=== Birth and family ===
Jean was born on 5 January 1921 at Berg Castle in central Luxembourg, the first child of Grand Duchess Charlotte and of Prince Félix. He was born just two years after his mother's accession as Grand Duchess, which took place after her elder sister Grand Duchess Marie-Adélaïde had been forced to abdicate in 1919 when she was accused of being pro-German during the First World War. As the eldest child of the reigning Grand Duchess, he was heir apparent from birth. Among his godparents was Pope Benedict XV, who gave him his second name.
=== Childhood and education ===
Prince Jean was raised with his five siblings, and grew up primarily at his parents' residence, Berg Castle, in the town of Colmar-Berg. The young prince attended primary school in Luxembourg, where he continued the initial stage of secondary education. From 1934 to 1938, he completed secondary school at Ampleforth College, a Roman Catholic boarding school in the United Kingdom. Upon reaching maturity, on 5 January 1939 he was styled 'Hereditary Grand Duke', recognising his status as heir apparent.
== Hereditary Grand Duke ==
=== Second World War ===
Just a few months later, World War II broke out. Although the country declared itself neutral and unarmed, the Luxembourgers knew from their World War I experience that their country's neutrality would not necessarily protect them. On 10 May 1940, Germany invaded Luxembourg, beginning a four-year occupation. Having been warned of an imminent invasion, the Grand Ducal Family escaped the previous night, together with the government of Luxembourg.
At first, they sought refuge in Paris, before fleeing France only weeks later, after receiving transit visas to Portugal from the Portuguese consul Aristides de Sousa Mendes, in June 1940. They arrived at Vilar Formoso on 23 June 1940. After travelling through Coimbra and Lisbon, the family first stayed in Cascais, in Casa de Santa Maria, owned by Manuel Espírito Santo, who was then the honorary consul for Luxembourg in Portugal. By July they had moved to Monte Estoril, staying at the Chalet Posser de Andrade. On 10 July 1940, Prince Jean, together with his father Prince Félix, his siblings, Princess Elisabeth, Princess Marie Adelaide, Princess Marie Gabriele, Prince Charles and Princess Alix, the nanny Justine Reinard and the chauffeur Eugène Niclou, along with his wife Joséphine, boarded the S.S. Trenton headed for New York City, where they sought refuge in the United States, renting an estate in Brookville, New York. The grand duchess travelled from Portugal to London, where a government in exile was set up, before joining her family in North America. Jean studied Law and Political Science at Université Laval, Quebec City.
He joined the British Army as a volunteer in the Irish Guards in November 1942. After receiving officer training at the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, Jean was commissioned as a lieutenant on 30 July 1943, before being promoted to captain in 1944. He landed in Normandy on 11 June 1944, and took part in the Battle for Caen and the liberation of Brussels. On 10 September 1944, he took part in the liberation of Luxembourg before moving on to Arnhem and the invasion of Germany. He relinquished his commission in the British Army on 26 June 1947. From 1984 until his abdication, he served as Colonel of the Regiment of the Irish Guards, often riding in uniform behind Queen Elizabeth II during the Trooping the Colour.
=== Marriage ===
In October 1952, Jean was officially engaged to Princess Joséphine-Charlotte of Belgium, his third cousin, the only daughter of King Leopold III of the Belgians and his first wife, Princess Astrid of Sweden. There had been speculation that the marriage was arranged to improve relations between Luxembourg and Belgium but it soon became apparent that a love match was blooming between two longtime friends.
They were married in Luxembourg on 9 April 1953, first in the Hall of Ceremonies at the Grand Ducal Palace, later in Luxembourg's Notre-Dame Cathedral. The marriage put an end to the tensions between Luxembourg and Belgium which arose from 1918 to 1920 when there had been a threat of annexation.
The newlyweds were given Betzdorf Castle in Betzdorf in the eastern part of the grand duchy as their residence. The couple had five children, 22 grandchildren and 28 great-grandchildren.
Together with his wife, his parents and his sister Elisabeth, Jean took part in the ship tour organized by Queen Frederica and her husband King Paul of Greece in 1954, which became known as the "Cruise of the Kings" and was attended by over 100 royals from all over Europe.
== Reign ==
Jean was named Lieutenant-Representative of the Grand Duchess on 28 April 1961. He became Grand Duke when his mother, Grand Duchess Charlotte, abdicated on 12 November 1964. The same day, he was made a General of the Armed Forces of Luxembourg.
From the beginning of his reign, Grand Duke Jean's priorities included the well-being of his people and the completion of European unity. In the words of President Georges Pompidou of France, "If Europe had to choose a hereditary president, it would certainly be the Grand Duke of Luxembourg". Indeed, during his reign Grand Duke Jean saw Luxembourg transformed from a minor industrial contributor into an international financial centre. In 1986, he was honoured with the Charlemagne Prize in Aachen for his efforts towards European integration.
The Grand Duke's reign was one of the most prosperous periods in the history of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. The degree of stability in the country's politics, economy and social life was without precedent, thanks in part to the influence of the Grand Duke and his wife. He abdicated on 7 October 2000, and was succeeded on the throne by his son Henri.
Luxembourg's museum of modern art Mudam was officially named "Musée d'Art Moderne Grand-Duc Jean" to commemorate his reign which lasted 36 years. It was inaugurated in his presence in July 2006.
== Later life ==
=== Retirement ===
In the summer of 2002, Grand Duke Jean and Grand Duchess Joséphine Charlotte took up residence at Fischbach Castle. After his wife died in January 2005, the Grand Duke continued to live there alone. On 27 December 2016, Grand Duke Jean was hospitalized due to bronchitis and was discharged from hospital on 4 January 2017, a day before he celebrated his 96th birthday.
=== Death ===
Surrounded by his family, Grand Duke Jean died at 00.25 CEST on 23 April 2019 at the age of 98 after he had been hospitalized for a pulmonary infection.
At the time of his death, he was the longest lived undisputed monarch in history.
His funeral was held on Saturday, 4 May at the Notre-Dame Cathedral, Luxembourg after a period of mourning of 12 days.
=== Tributes ===
Jean-Claude Juncker, president of the European Commission and former Prime Minister of Luxembourg, described Jean's death as "a great loss for the Grand Duchy and for Europe". He added, "Like all the people of Luxembourg, I had great esteem for this man of commitment, kindness and courage."
Luxembourg's Prime Minister, Xavier Bettel, alluded to his service in the Second World War: "Grand Duke Jean fought for our freedom, for our independence and for the unity of our country and we will always be grateful. A family man left us today. A great statesman, a hero, an example – and a very beloved and gracious man."
Tributes followed from the Belgian royal family, commenting "His courage, his dignity and his high sense of duty will remain as an example... The whole of Belgium shares the grief of the Luxembourg people."
In their tribute, the Dutch royal family mentioned "the friendship and warmth he radiated", adding "With his thoughtfulness and humanity, he added to calm and confidence in his country and Europe."
In their tribute, the British royal family said that the Grand Duke will be "missed, both inside and outside Luxembourg".
In the tribute from the Romanian Royal Family via a post on their websites, they mentioned that "The entire Royal Family of Romania is alongside the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg in these sad and painful moments"; also written was their very close relations (via Queen Anne who was a paternal first cousin of his) as well as "a lifetime of friendship"; the head of the family, Crown Princess Margareta, sent a letter of condolences to her cousin, Grand Duke Henri.
The president of the International Olympic Committee Thomas Bach paid tribute to Grand Duke Jean who had joined the IOC in 1946 and had been an honorary member since 1998. "He was always a very calm and well-balanced person who was highly respected by the entire Olympic Movement because of his integrity... The IOC will always hold him in the highest honour and with the greatest respect."
A month after Grand Duke Jean's death, the Luxembourgish government announced plans to erect a monument in his honour in the Pescatore section of Luxembourg City's Municipal Park, similar to the statue of Grand Duchess Charlotte on Place Clairefontaine. A contest for the selection of a design was due to start in 2021, but was delayed and finally started in June 2025.
== Issue ==
Archduchess Marie-Astrid of Austria (born 17 February 1954) she married Archduke Carl Christian of Austria on 6 February 1982. They have five children and 15 grandchildren.
Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (born 16 April 1955), he married María Teresa Mestre y Batista on 14 February 1981. They have five children and eight grandchildren.
Prince Jean (born 15 May 1957) he married Hélène Vestur on 27 May 1987 and they were divorced in 2004. They have four children and eight grandchildren. He remarried Diane de Guerre on 18 March 2009.
Princess Margaretha (born 15 May 1957) she married Prince Nikolaus of Liechtenstein on 20 March 1982. They have four children and three grandchildren.
Prince Guillaume (born 1 May 1963) he married Sibilla Weiller on 8 September 1994. They have four children.
== Titles, styles, honours and awards ==
=== Titles and styles ===
Jean renounced the titles of the House of Bourbon-Parma for himself and his family in 1986. This decree was, however, repealed by another decree on 21 September 1995.
The Arrêté Grand-Ducal (Grand Ducal decree) of 21 September 1995 established that the title of Prince/Princesse de Luxembourg is reserved for the children of the sovereign and the heir to the throne. It also stated that the descendants in male lineage of the sovereign should be styled as Royal Highnesses and titled Prince/Princess of Nassau and that the descendants of unapproved marriages should be styled as Count/Countess of Nassau.
=== Honours ===
==== National ====
Recipient of the Military Medal (17 December 2002)
Recipient of the Luxembourg War Cross with bronze palm
Recipient of the Cross of the Order of Resistance
==== Foreign ====
Austria
Austrian Imperial and Royal Family: 1,293rd Knight of the Imperial and Royal Order of the Golden Fleece
Austria: Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash of the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria (1975)
Belgium:
Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold I
Recipient of the World War II Cross of War Medal with bronze palm
Denmark: Knight of the Order of the Elephant (22 November 1976)
Finland: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of the White Rose of Finland (1993)
France:
Grand Cross of the Order of the Legion of Honour
Recipient of the World War II Cross of War Medal
Germany: Grand Cross special class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Greek Royal Family: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Order of the Redeemer
Holy See: Knight of the Order of the Golden Spur
Iceland: Collar with Grand Cross Breast Star of the Order of the Falcon
Empire of Iran: Recipient of the Commemorative Medal of the 2, 500th Year Celebration of the founding of the Persian Empire (14 October 1971)
Italy: Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (26 October 1973)
House of Savoy:
Knight of the Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Italy
Japan: Grand Cordon with Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum
Sovereign Military Order of Malta: Bailiff Knight Grand Cross of Justice of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, Special Class
Netherlands:
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
Recipient of the Queen Juliana Inauguration Medal
Recipient of the Silver Wedding Anniversary Medal of Queen Juliana and Prince Bernhard
Recipient of the Wedding Medal of Princess Beatrix and Claus van Amsberg
Recipient of the War Commemorative Cross
Norway: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Saint Olav (1964)
Poland: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland
Portugal:
Grand Collar of the Order of the Tower and Sword
Grand Collar of the Order of Infante Dom Henrique (29 January 1985)
Spain:
1,184th Knight of the Royal Order of the Golden Fleece (16 June 1983)
Knight of the Collar of the Order of Charles III (8 July 1980)
Sweden:
Knight with Collar of the Royal Order of the Seraphim (18 July 1951)
Recipient of the 50th Birthday Commemorative Medal of King Carl XVI Gustaf (30 April 1996)
Thailand: Knight of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri (17 October 1960)
United Kingdom:
948th Stranger Knight Companion of the Order of the Garter (1972)
Recipient of the 1939–1945 Star Medal
Recipient of the France and Germany Star Medal
Recipient of the Defence Medal
Recipient of the World War II War Medal
Recipient of the Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal
United States of America: Recipient of the Silver Star Medal
=== Other honours ===
==== Academic ====
Canada
Québec: Honorary Degree of the University of Laval
France:
Alsace: Honorary Degree of the University of Strasbourg
United States of America
Ohio: Honorary Degree of the Miami University
==== Honorary military appointments ====
United Kingdom
Colonel of the Irish Guards (21 August 1984 – 7 October 2000)
General in the British Army (17 March 1995 – 7 October 2000)
==== Organizations ====
Bronze Wolf Award for contributions to worldwide Scouting, 1995
Gold Olympic Order, 1998
== Ancestry ==
=== Patrilineal descent ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Official biography
Newspaper clippings about Jean, Grand Duke of Luxembourg in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Mathematical_Union | International Mathematical Union | The International Mathematical Union (IMU) is an international organization devoted to international cooperation in the field of mathematics across the world. It is a member of the International Science Council (ISC) and supports the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM). Its members are national mathematics organizations from more than 80 countries.
The objectives of the International Mathematical Union are: promoting international cooperation in mathematics, supporting and assisting the International Congress of Mathematicians and other international scientific meetings/conferences, acknowledging outstanding research contributions to mathematics through the awarding of scientific prizes, and encouraging and supporting other international mathematical activities, considered likely to contribute to the development of mathematical science in any of its aspects, whether pure, applied, or educational.
== History ==
The IMU was established in 1920, but dissolved in September 1932 and reestablished in 1950 at the Constitutive Convention in New York, de jure on September 10, 1951, when ten countries had become members. The last milestone was the General Assembly in March 1952, in Rome, Italy where the activities of the new IMU were inaugurated and the first Executive Committee, President and various commissions were elected. In 1952 the IMU was also readmitted to the ICSU. The past president of the Union is Carlos Kenig (2019–2022). The current president is Hiraku Nakajima.
At the 16th meeting of the IMU General Assembly in Bangalore, India, in August 2010, Berlin was chosen as the location of the permanent office of the IMU, which was opened on January 1, 2011, and is hosted by the Weierstrass Institute for Applied Analysis and Stochastics (WIAS), an institute of the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Scientific Community, with about 120 scientists engaging in mathematical research applied to complex problems in industry and commerce.
== Commissions and committees ==
IMU has a close relationship to mathematics education through its International Commission on Mathematical Instruction (ICMI). This commission is organized similarly to IMU with its own Executive Committee and General Assembly.
Developing countries are a high priority for the IMU and a significant percentage of its budget, including grants received from individuals, mathematical societies, foundations, and funding agencies, is spent on activities for developing countries. Since 2011 this has been coordinated by the Commission for Developing Countries (CDC).
The Committee for Women in Mathematics (CWM) is concerned with issues related to women in mathematics worldwide. It organizes the World Meeting for Women in Mathematics
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)
2
)
{\textstyle ((\mathrm {WM} )^{2})}
as a satellite event of ICM.
The International Commission on the History of Mathematics (ICHM) is operated jointly by the IMU and the Division of the History of Science (DHS) of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science (IUHPS).
The Committee on Electronic Information and Communication (CEIC) advises IMU on matters concerning mathematical information, communication, and publishing.
== Prizes ==
The scientific prizes awarded by the IMU, in the quadrennial International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM), are deemed to be some of the highest distinctions in the mathematical world. These are:
the Fields Medals (two to four awarded per Congress, since 1936);
the IMU Abacus Medal (previously known as the Rolf Nevanlinna Prize; awarded since 1986);
the Carl Friedrich Gauss Prize (since 2006);
the Chern Medal (since 2010); and
the Leelavati Award (since 2010).
== Membership and General Assembly ==
The IMU's members are Member Countries and each Member country is represented through an Adhering Organization, which may be its principal academy, a mathematical society, its research council or some other institution or association of institutions, or an appropriate agency of its government. A country starting to develop its mathematical culture and interested in building links with mathematicians all over the world is invited to join IMU as an Associate Member. For the purpose of facilitating jointly sponsored activities and jointly pursuing the objectives of the IMU, multinational mathematical societies and professional societies can join IMU as an Affiliate Member. Every four years, the IMU membership gathers in a General Assembly (GA), which consists of delegates appointed by the Adhering Organizations, together with the members of the executive committee. All important decisions are made at the GA, including the election of the officers, establishment of commissions, the approval of the budget, and any changes to the statutes and by-laws.
=== Members and Associate Members ===
The IMU has 83 (full) Member countries and two Associate Members (Bangladesh and Paraguay, marked below by light grey background).
=== Affiliate members ===
The IMU has five affiliate members:
African Mathematical Union (AMU)
European Mathematical Society (EMS)
Mathematical Council of the Americas (MCofA)
Southeast Asian Mathematical Society (SEAMS)
Unión Matemática de América Latina y el Caribe (UMALCA)
== Organization and Executive Committee ==
The International Mathematical Union is administered by an executive committee (EC) which conducts the business of the Union. The EC consists of the President, two vice-presidents, the Secretary, six Members-at-Large, all elected for a term of four years, and the Past President. The EC is responsible for all policy matters and for tasks, such as choosing the members of the ICM Program Committee and various prize committees.
== Publications ==
Every two months IMU publishes an electronic newsletter, IMU-Net, that aims to improve communication between IMU and the worldwide mathematical community by reporting on decisions and recommendations of the Union, major international mathematical events and developments, and on other topics of general mathematical interest. IMU Bulletins are published annually with the aim to inform IMU's members about the Union's current activities. In 2009 IMU published the document Best Current Practices for Journals.
== IMU’s Involvement in developing countries ==
The IMU took its first organized steps towards the promotion of mathematics in developing countries in the early 1970s and has, since then supported various activities. In 2010 IMU formed the Commission for Developing Countries (CDC) which brings together all of the past and current initiatives in support of mathematics and mathematicians in the developing world.
Some IMU Supported Initiatives:
Grants Program for Mathematicians: The Commission for Developing Countries supports research travel of mathematicians based in developing countries as well as mathematics research conferences in the developing world through its Grants Program which is open to mathematicians throughout the developing world, including countries that are not (yet) members of the IMU.
African Mathematics Millennium Science Initiative (AMMSI) is a network of mathematics centers in sub-Saharan Africa that organizes conferences and workshops, visiting lectureships and an extensive scholarship program for mathematics graduate students doing PhD work on the African continent.
Mentoring African Research in Mathematics (MARM): IMU supported the London Mathematical Society (LMS) in founding the MARM programme, which supports mathematics and its teaching in the countries of sub-Saharan Africa via a mentoring partnership between mathematicians in the United Kingdom and African colleagues, together with their students. It focuses on cultivating long-term mentoring relations between individual mathematicians and students.
Volunteer Lecturer Program (VLP) of IMU identifies mathematicians interested in contributing to the formation of young mathematicians in the developing world. The Volunteer Lecturer Program maintains a database of mathematic volunteers willing to offer month-long intensive courses at the advanced undergraduate or graduate level in degree programmes at universities in the developing world. IMU also seeks applications from universities and mathematics degree programmes in the developing world that are in need of volunteer lecturers, and that can provide the necessary conditions for productive collaboration in the teaching of advanced mathematics.
IMU also supports the International Commission on Mathematical Instruction (ICMI) with its programmes, exhibits and workshops in emerging countries, especially in Asia and Africa.
IMU released a report in 2008, Mathematics in Africa: Challenges and Opportunities, on the current state of mathematics in Africa and on opportunities for new initiatives to support mathematical development. In 2014, the IMU's Commission for Developing Countries CDC released an update of the report.
Additionally, reports about Mathematics in Latin America and the Caribbean and South East Asia. were published.
In July 2014 IMU released the report: The International Mathematical Union in the Developing World: Past, Present and Future (July 2014).
== MENAO Symposium at the ICM ==
In 2014, the IMU held a day-long symposium prior to the opening of the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM), entitled Mathematics in Emerging Nations: Achievements and Opportunities (MENAO). Approximately 260 participants from around the world, including representatives of embassies, scientific institutions, private business and foundations attended this session. Attendees heard inspiring stories of individual mathematicians and specific developing nations.
== Presidents ==
List of presidents of the International Mathematical Union from 1952 to the present:
1952–1954: Marshall Harvey Stone (vice: Émile Borel, Erich Kamke)
1955–1958: Heinz Hopf (vice: Arnaud Denjoy, W. V. D. Hodge)
1959–1962: Rolf Nevanlinna (vice: Pavel Alexandrov, Marston Morse)
1963–1966: Georges de Rham (vice: Henri Cartan, Kazimierz Kuratowski)
1967–1970: Henri Cartan (vice: Mikhail Lavrentyev, Deane Montgomery)
1971–1974: K. S. Chandrasekharan (vice: Abraham Adrian Albert, Lev Pontryagin)
1975–1978: Deane Montgomery (vice: J. W. S. Cassels, Miron Nicolescu, Gheorghe Vrânceanu)
1979–1982: Lennart Carleson (vice: Masayoshi Nagata, Yuri Vasilyevich Prokhorov)
1983–1986: Jürgen Moser (vice: Ludvig Faddeev, Jean-Pierre Serre)
1987–1990: Ludvig Faddeev (vice: Walter Feit, Lars Hörmander)
1991–1994: Jacques-Louis Lions (vice: John H. Coates, David Mumford)
1995–1998: David Mumford (vice: Vladimir Arnold, Albrecht Dold)
1999–2002: Jacob Palis (vice: Simon Donaldson, Shigefumi Mori)
2003–2006: John M. Ball (vice: Jean-Michel Bismut, Masaki Kashiwara)
2007–2010: László Lovász (vice: Zhi-Ming Ma, Claudio Procesi)
2011–2014: Ingrid Daubechies (vice: Christiane Rousseau, Marcelo Viana)
2015–2018: Shigefumi Mori (vice: Alicia Dickenstein, Vaughan Jones)
2019–2022: Carlos Kenig (vice: Nalini Joshi, Loyiso Nongxa)
2023–2026: Hiraku Nakajima (vice: Ulrike Tillmann, Tatiana Toro)
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Lehto, Olli (1998). Mathematics without borders. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-98358-9. Zbl 0889.01021.
IMU Newsletter
Olli Lehto (6 December 2012). Mathematics Without Borders: A History of the International Mathematical Union. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4612-0613-2.
"IMU Executive Committees 1952-2014". Archived from the original on 8 January 2015. Retrieved 16 April 2015.
"IMU Leadership 2015 – 2018" (PDF). Retrieved 16 April 2015.
== External links ==
Official website – International Mathematical Union
First Woman President of the International Mathematical Union Archived 2013-12-03 at the Wayback Machine, August 2010, AlphaGalileo
Fields Medal 2010 Archived 2013-12-02 at the Wayback Machine
African Mathematics Millennium Science Initiative (AMMSI)
Mentoring African Research in Mathematics (MARM) (archived 16 December 2011)
IMU, International Mathematical Union (archived 2 December 2013)
International Mathematical Union Fields Medal (archived 1 January 2013) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/When_the_Sun_Goes_Down_(Selena_Gomez_%26_the_Scene_album) | When the Sun Goes Down (Selena Gomez & the Scene album) | When the Sun Goes Down is the third and final studio album by American band Selena Gomez & the Scene, released on June 21, 2011, by Hollywood Records. The band worked with several artists on this album, including writers and producers from their debut, Kiss & Tell (2009), and their second album, A Year Without Rain (2010), such as Rock Mafia's Tim James and Antonina Armato, as well as Katy Perry, Devrim "DK" Karaoglu, and Toby Gad. New contributors to this album included Britney Spears, Priscilla Renea, Emanuel Kiriakou, Dreamlab and Sandy Vee.
When the Sun Goes Down spawned three singles. The lead single from the album, "Who Says" was released in March 2011, peaking at number 21 in the United States and in the top twenty in Canada and New Zealand. The acoustic pop song also went Platinum in the United States. The second single from the album is "Love You like a Love Song" charted in the top forty in Belgium, Canada, New Zealand and the United States. The third and final single, "Hit the Lights" was released on January 20, 2012. The album debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 with sales 78,000 copies, surpassing the first week sales of the group's first two albums. The album rose to number three in its second week. As of January 2020, the album sold over 710,000 copies in the United States. This is the final album released by the group before their indefinite hiatus.
== Background ==
In 2009, the band released their debut album, Kiss & Tell, and quickly followed-up with 2010's A Year Without Rain. After the release of the latter Gomez said that she was not in a rush to release another album, but after hearing "Who Says", she decided to begin another release, calling the song "amazing" and crediting it for inspiring her. "Who Says" debuted on radio show On Air with Ryan Seacrest as the first single of the album. On March 18, 2011, in an interview with MTV News, Gomez revealed, "the third record is really fun, and there's a song called 'Hit the Lights' that I love, and it's basically about every missed opportunity that you've had," she said. "But it's also a dance track. There's a lot more depth [on this album]". Gomez also revealed British singer Pixie Lott and German producer Toby Gad had both penned tracks for the album, while confirming its release for later that year. A few days later, the singer revealed her team and the band "haven't decided [a] title [yet for the album] and we're dealing with the album artwork, 'cause it is very different and I'm growing up. It's a lot more mature". MTV News later confirmed that American singer Britney Spears had also written a song for the album titled "Whiplash". On June 1, 2011, the album's name, When the Sun Goes Down, and track listing were revealed through Gomez's official website. After several songs from When the Sun Goes Down started to leak online, Gomez posted several video messages on her YouTube official channel featuring commentaries about each song of the album. When the Sun Goes Down was released on June 28, 2011 by Hollywood Records.
== Composition ==
Musically, When the Sun Goes Down expands on the dance-pop and electropop themes of its predecessor "A Year Without Rain", with a lighter and sassier feel, according to Tim Sendra of AllMusic also incorporating electro-disco music. Tracks like "Hit the Lights" have disco influences, as they pair ballad lyrics with uptempo and midtempo dance music. The album also explores organic instrumentation. Both the first single "Who Says" and the fourth track "We Own the Night" featuring Pixie Lott features more acoustic, indie pop sounds, which was originally intended for Kelly Clarkson's fifth album Stronger. They are the only songs on the album devoid of synthesized instrumentation.
The first track, "Love You Like a Love Song", was written by Antonina Armato, Tim James, Adam Schmalholz and was produced by Rock Mafia and Devrim Karaoglu. Also serving as the album's second single, the song contains deep, whispered vocals and incorporates a eurodisco rhythm and a soft dubstep influence. Gomez described the promotional single "Bang Bang Bang" as fun and cheeky. It is made up of 1980s electro-disco synths and sees Gomez praising her new boyfriend while mocking her ex. The track was also compared to British electropop duo La Roux's 2009 hit "Bulletproof". "Who Says" is an acoustic self-empowerment anthem where the singer extends kindness and sympathy to her critics. Serving as the album's first single, it debuted on the Hot 100 at number twenty-four and peaked at number twenty-one, standing as the group's highest charting single in the U.S., Canada and New Zealand. "We Own the Night" was written by Toby Gad and British electronic soul singer-songwriter Pixie Lott, who is also featured on backing vocals. The track has a largely acoustic, harmonic sound paired with escapist lyrics in the style of Jimmy Buffett. "Hit the Lights" written by Leah Haywood, Daniel James, Tony Nilsson and produced by Dreamlab is a dance song about overcoming anxiety and living in the moment. American pop singer Britney Spears composed the album's sixth track titled "Whiplash". It is an electropop song described as electro glam that is about an intense romance, featuring transportation imagery. The song has gained notability for Britney Spears' involvement in the composition, Gomez' faux-English accent in the spoken word verse before the chorus, and for being one of the band's more mature songs.
The title track features the use of electric guitars and stuttering synthesizers. Selena Gomez stated that "When the Sun Goes Down" held a special meaning for her and her bass player, Joey Clement, because of their collaborative involvement in the track's composition. Gomez commented "I got to rewrite the bridge of it as well. It felt like we got to do that as a band." The eighth track on the album is "My Dilemma", a Kelly Clarkson-esque pop rock song about conflicted feelings towards a potential breakup. "That's More Like It", the following track, is penned by Katy Perry and was inspired by American women of the 1950s and their relegation to domesticity. In the song, Gomez demands that her negligent man does the cooking, cleaning, and housework, commanding him "Make me dinner and bring it to me." "Outlaw" is a bleak cautionary tale and revenge ballad lyrically similar to Carrie Underwood's "Cowboy Casanova" and Lady Gaga's "Monster". The lyrics also make use of Wild West imagery and references to Gomez's home state of Texas, "I'm from the Lone Star state, I'm ready to bring you in." The album's final song "Middle of Nowhere" is a dance-pop ballad that features electropop beats and synthesizers along with bells and chimes. In the song, Gomez laments being left behind by a manipulative ex lover, for whom she made drastic personal changes. The song's bridge is a deep and heavily-breathed spoken-word recitation of the song's chorus, much in the style of Garbage frontwoman Shirley Manson. A Spanish-language version of the lead single "Who Says" titled "Dices" is featured as a bonus track.
== Singles ==
The album's lead single, "Who Says", was co-written and produced by Emanuel Kiriakou, Priscilla Hamilton, and was released on March 14, 2011. The song has been met with generally positive reviews from most music critics, with many praising its theme of self-empowerment and Bill Lamb of About.com even called the band "the most consistent Disney pop hitmaker in recent years." The song was commercially successful, peaking at number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 and selling over three million copies in the United States, and was certified triple platinum by RIAA. "Who Says" also reached number 17 in Canada and 15 in New Zealand, becoming the band's highest charting single on those countries. The song also managed to peak inside the top fifty in Germany and Ireland and appeared on the main charts in the United Kingdom, Belgium, Australia, Austria, Thailand and Vietnam. On June 17, 2011, "Love You Like a Love Song", the album's official second single was released. Gomez started filming the music video for "Hit the Lights" in September 2011. The video was released in November 2011, the song has currently attained the top thirty chart position in Belgium and debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number ninety-three. A remixes EP was released for "Hit the Lights" on January 20, 2012 and it was officially released as the third and final international single on January 20, 2012.
=== Promotional singles ===
In preparation for the album's release, the band's record label decided to release two buzz singles. On June 7, 2011, iTunes released two promotional tracks from the album. Beginning with "Bang Bang Bang", which peaked ninety-four in the Billboard Hot 100, and followed by a Spanish version of "Who Says", titled "Dices".
== Critical reception ==
When The Sun Goes Down generally received mixed reviews from the music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has an average score of 58 out of 100, which indicates "mixed or average reviews" based on six reviews.
Mikael Wood from Entertainment Weekly wrote that "[Gomez] sounds fully invested in tart electro-disco ditties like 'Bang Bang Bang'," and that "top-shelf collaborators don't hurt." Tim Sendra, writing for AllMusic, called the album "an improvement over 2010's A Year Without Rain and "fun" but felt that "she seems to be acting out the songs, more than actually feeling the emotions she's singing about" and that "if she wants to make a real impact, she'll need to dig a little deeper or stake out her own territory."
Jody Rosen from Rolling Stone had a more negative review, writing that "she brings nothing in the way of personality to her songs" and that "Gomez may be the most boring teen-pop star of her generation. She makes Ashley Tisdale seem like Lady Gaga." John Bergstrom of PopMatters opined that the album "smacks of cold calculation" and that "it could have been conceived, designed, written and produced by a computer program, the only human input being those of Gomez's vocals" while adding that "here you have 27 songwriters and eight production teams contributing to a total of 11 songs. Is this an album or "Iron Man 3?" Kitty Empire of The Guardian wrote that "throughout this dance-pop album there's a catch in her throat that suggests an embryonic personality."
=== Accolades ===
== Commercial performance ==
When the Sun Goes Down was released on June 28, 2011. In the week of July 4, 2011, it debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 with the band's highest sales week to date, selling 78,000 copies in its first week. The next week the album rose to number three, selling 44,000 copies, making it the band's highest charting album. In Canada, the album sold 9,000 copies in its first week, debuting at number two on the Canadian Albums Chart. The album debuted in Spain at number two on the Spanish Albums Chart. The album peaked there for three weeks, during the debut week and the fifth and sixth week on the chart. In Belgium, the album debuted at number twenty-one on the Belgian Albums Chart and jumped to its peak position at number six. The album debuted and peaked at number six in Mexico. The album debuted at number sixteen in Norway and rose to its peak position at number 6 in its eighth week. The album has sold over 710,000 copies in the United States.
== Track listing ==
Credits adapted from the album's liner notes
Notes
^[a] signifies co-producer
^[b] signifies a producer and vocal producer
^[c] signifies a vocal producer
^[d] signifies a language adapter
The United Kingdom iTunes Store edition includes the bonus behind the scenes video of "Love You like a Love Song".
The Canadian iTunes Store standard edition includes the track "Who Says" (SmashMode Radio Remix) as track 12 instead of "Dices" (Spanish version of "Who Says").
The Target and ASDA edition includes the bonus remix tracks "Fantasma de Amor" ("Ghost of You" – Spanish version), "A Year Without Rain" (Dave Audé Radio Remix), "Who Says" (Bimbo Jones Radio Remix), and "Who Says" (Dave Audé Radio Remix).
The Japanese edition includes the bonus remix tracks "Who Says" (Dave Audé Radio Remix), "Round & Round" (7th Heaven Radio Mix), and "A Year Without Rain" (Fascination Club Radio Edit).
The Japanese edition also includes a bonus DVD which features the music videos and behind the scenes of "Who Says" and "Love You like a Love Song" .
== Personnel ==
Credits adapted from the album's liner notes
Credits
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== Release history ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quainton_Road_railway_station | Quainton Road railway station | Quainton Road railway station was opened in 1868 in under-developed countryside near Quainton, in the English county of Buckinghamshire, 44 miles (71 km) from London. Built by the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway, it was the result of pressure from the 3rd Duke of Buckingham to route the railway near his home at Wotton House and to open a railway station at the nearest point to it. Serving a relatively underpopulated area, Quainton Road was a crude railway station, described as "extremely primitive".
It became a junction station in 1871 with the opening of the line to Brill. In 1899, it became a main line station with the opening of the Great Central Railway London extension.
In 1933, the Metropolitan Railway was taken into public ownership to become the Metropolitan line of the London Passenger Transport Board's London Underground, including Quainton Road. The LPTB aimed to move away from freight operations and saw no way in which the rural parts of the MR could be made into viable passenger routes. In 1935, the Brill Tramway was closed. From 1936, underground trains were withdrawn north of Aylesbury, leaving the London and North Eastern Railway (successor to the GCR) as the only operator using the station, although underground services were restored for a short period in the 1940s. In 1963, stopping passenger services were withdrawn, but fast passenger trains continued to pass through. In 1966, the line was closed to passenger traffic and local goods trains ceased using the station. The line through the station was singled and used by occasional freight trains only.
In 1969, the Quainton Road Society was formed with the aim of preserving the station. In 1971, it absorbed the London Railway Preservation Society, taking over its collection of historic railway equipment including many locomotives, and passenger and non-passenger rolling stock. The station was fully restored and reopened as a museum, the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre. In addition to the locomotives, stock, and original station buildings, the museum has also acquired the former Oxford Rewley Road railway station and a London Transport building from Wembley Park, both of which have been reassembled on the site. Although no scheduled trains pass through Quainton Road, the station remains connected to the railway network. Freight trains still use this line, and passenger trains still call at the station for special events at the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre.
== Origins ==
On 15 June 1839, entrepreneur and former Member of Parliament (MP) for Buckingham, Sir Harry Verney, 2nd Baronet, opened the Aylesbury Railway. Built under the direction of Robert Stephenson, it connected the London and Birmingham Railway's Cheddington railway station, on the West Coast Main Line, to Aylesbury High Street railway station in eastern Aylesbury, the first station in the Aylesbury Vale. On 1 October 1863, the Wycombe Railway opened a branch line from Princes Risborough railway station to Aylesbury railway station on the western side of Aylesbury, making Aylesbury the terminus of two small and unconnected branch lines.
Meanwhile, to the north of Aylesbury, the Buckinghamshire Railway was being built by Sir Harry Verney. The scheme consisted of a line running roughly south-west to north-east from Oxford to Bletchley, and a line running south-east from Brackley via Buckingham, joining roughly halfway along the Oxford–Bletchley line. The first section opened on 1 May 1850, and the rest opened on 20 May 1851. The Buckinghamshire Railway intended to extend the line southwards to connect to its station at Aylesbury, but this extension was not built.
Richard Plantagenet Campbell Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville (10 September 1823 – 26 March 1889), the only son of Richard Plantagenet Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 2nd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, was in serious financial difficulties by the middle of the 19th century. The 2nd Duke had spent heavily on artworks, womanising, and attempting to influence elections, and by 1847, he was nicknamed "the Greatest Debtor in the World". Over 40,000 acres (16,000 ha) of the family's 55,000-acre (22,000 ha) estates, and their London home at Buckingham House, were sold to meet debts, and the family seat of Stowe House was seized by bailiffs as security and its contents sold. The only property remaining in the control of the Grenville family was the family's relatively small ancestral home of Wotton House, and its associated lands around Wotton Underwood in Buckinghamshire. Deeply in debt, the Grenvilles began to look for ways to maximise profits from their remaining farmland around Wotton, and to seek business opportunities in the emerging fields of heavy industry and engineering. Richard Plantagenet Campbell Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, who became the Marquess of Chandos on the death of his grandfather Richard Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Chandos in 1839, was appointed chairman of the London and North Western Railway (LNWR) on 27 May 1857. On the death of his father on 29 July 1861, he became the 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, and resigned from the chairmanship of the LNWR, returning to Wotton House to manage the family's remaining estates.
== Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway ==
On 6 August 1860, the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway (A&B), with the 3rd Duke (then still Marquess of Chandos) as chairman and Sir Harry Verney as deputy chairman, was incorporated by Act of Parliament with the object of connecting the Buckinghamshire Railway (by now operated by the LNWR) to Aylesbury. The 2nd Duke used his influence to ensure the new route would run via Quainton, near his remaining estates around Wotton, instead of the intended more direct route via Pitchcott. Beset by financial difficulties, the line took over eight years to build, eventually opening on 23 September 1868. The new line was connected to the Wycombe Railway's Aylesbury station, and joined the existing Buckinghamshire Railway lines at the point where the Oxford–Bletchley line and the line to Buckingham already met. Verney Junction railway station was built at the point where the lines joined, named after Sir Harry who owned the land on which it was built, since there was no nearby town. Aylesbury now had railways to the east, north and southwest, but no line southeast towards London and the Channel ports.
Quainton Road station was built on a curve in the line at the nearest point to the Duke's estates at Wotton. Six miles (10 km) northwest of Aylesbury, it was southwest of the small village of Quainton and immediately northwest of the road connecting Quainton to Akeman Street. The railway towards Aylesbury crossed the road via a level crossing immediately southeast of the station. The Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway had spent most of their limited budget on the construction of the line itself. Details of the design of the original Quainton Road station are lost, but it is likely that the station had a single timber-covered earth platform and minimal buildings; it was described in 1890 as being extremely primitive.
== Wotton Tramway ==
With a railway now running near the boundary of the Wotton House estate at Quainton Road, the 3rd Duke decided to open a small-scale agricultural railway to connect the estate to the railway. The line was intended purely for the transport of construction materials and agricultural produce, and not passengers. The line was to run roughly southwest from Quainton Road to a new railway station near Wotton Underwood. Just west of the station at Wotton the line split. One section would run west to Wood Siding near Brill. A short stub called Church Siding would run northwest into the village of Wotton Underwood itself, terminating near the parish church, and a 1-mile 57 chain (1 mile 1,254 yards; 2.8 km) siding would run north to a coal siding near Kingswood.
He extended it soon afterwards to provide a passenger service to the town of Brill, and the tramway was converted to locomotive operation, known as the Brill Tramway. All goods to and from the Brill Tramway passed through Quainton Road, making it relatively heavily used despite its geographical isolation, and traffic increased further when construction began on Ferdinand de Rothschild's mansion of Waddesdon Manor. The plan of extending the Brill Tramway to Oxford, which would have made Quainton Road a major junction station, was abandoned. Instead, the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway and the Brill Tramway were absorbed by London's Metropolitan Railway (MR), which already operated the line from Aylesbury to London. The MR rebuilt Quainton Road and re-sited it to a more convenient location, allowing through running between the Brill Tramway and the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway. When the Great Central Railway (GCR) from the north of England opened, Quainton Road became a significant junction at which trains from four directions met, and by far the busiest of the MR's rural stations.
Construction began on the line on 8 September 1870. It was built as cheaply as possible, using the cheapest available materials and winding around hills wherever feasible to avoid expensive earthworks. The station platforms were crude earth banks 6 inches (150 mm) high, held in place by wooden planks. As the Duke intended that the line be worked by horses, it was built with longitudinal sleepers to reduce the risk of them tripping.
On 1 April 1871, the section between Quainton Road and Wotton was formally opened by the Duke in a brief ceremony. At the time of its opening, the line was unnamed, although it was referred to as "The Quainton Tramway" in internal correspondence. The extension from Wotton to Wood Siding was complete by 17 June 1871; the opening date of the northern branch to Kingswood is not recorded, but it was not yet fully open in February 1873. The London and North Western Railway immediately began to operate a dedicated service from Quainton Road, with three vans per week of milk collected from the Wotton estate shipped to Broad Street. Passengers were not carried, other than estate employees and people accompanying livestock.
The tramway did not link to the A&B, but had its own station at Quainton Road at a right angle to the A&B. A 13-foot (4.0 m) diameter turntable at the end of the tramway linked to a spur from the A&B. This spur ran behind a goods shed, joining the A&B line to the northwest of the road. The Tramway had no buildings at Quainton Road, using the A&B's facilities when necessary. As the tramway ran on the east side of the road, opposite the station, the spur line had its own level crossing to reach the main line. In 1871, permission was granted to build a direct connection between the two lines, but it was not built.
=== Expansion of the Wotton Tramway ===
In late 1871, the residents of Brill, the former seat of the Mercian kings and the only significant town near Wotton House, petitioned the Duke to extend the route to Brill and to run a passenger service on the line. In January 1872, a passenger timetable was published for the first time, and the line was officially named the "Wotton Tramway", but it was commonly known as the "Brill Tramway" from its opening to passengers until closure. The new terminus of Brill opened in March 1872. With horses unable to cope with the loads being carried, the Tramway was upgraded for locomotive use. The lightly laid track with longitudinal sleepers limited the locomotive weight to a maximum of nine tons, lighter than almost all locomotives then available, so it was not possible to use standard locomotives. Two traction engines converted for railway use were bought from Aveling and Porter at a cost of £398 (about £44,900 as of 2023) each. The locomotives were chosen on grounds of weight and reliability, and had a top speed on the level of only 8 miles per hour (13 km/h), taking 95–98 minutes to travel the six miles (10 km) between Brill and Quainton Road, an average speed of 4 miles per hour (6.4 km/h).
The line was heavily used for the shipment of bricks from the brickworks around Brill, and of cattle and milk from the dairy farms on the Wotton estate. By 1875, the line was carrying around 40,000 gallons (180,000 L; 48,000 US gal) of milk each year. Delivery of linseed cake to the dairy farms and of coal to the area's buildings were also important uses of the line. The line also began to carry large quantities of manure from London to the area's farms, carrying 3,200 tons (3,300 t) in 1872. As it was the only physical link between the Tramway and the national railway network, almost all of this traffic passed through Quainton Road station.
By the mid-1870s, the slow speed of the Aveling and Porter locomotives and their unreliability and inability to handle heavy loads were recognised as major problems for the Tramway. In 1874, Ferdinand de Rothschild bought a 2,700-acre (1,100 ha) site near the Tramway's Waddesdon station to use as a site for his country mansion of Waddesdon Manor. The Tramway's management recognised that the construction works would lead to a significant increase in the haulage of heavy goods, and that the Aveling and Porter engines would be unable to cope with the increased loads. The newly established engineering firm of W. G. Bagnall wrote to the Duke offering to hire a locomotive to him for trials. The offer was accepted, and on 18 December 1876, the locomotive was delivered. The tests were generally successful, and an order was placed to buy a locomotive from Bagnall for £640 (about £76,100 in 2023) which was delivered on 28 December 1877. With trains now hauled by the Bagnall locomotive (the Kingswood branch generally remained worked by horses, and occasionally by the Aveling and Porter engines), traffic levels soon rose. Milk traffic rose from 40,000 gallons carried in 1875 to 58,000 gallons (260,000 L; 70,000 US gal) in 1879, and in 1877, the Tramway carried a total of 20,994 tons (21,331 t) of goods. In early 1877, the Tramway was shown on Bradshaw maps for the first time, and from May 1882 Bradshaw included its timetable.
Although the introduction of the Bagnall locomotives and the traffic generated by the works at Waddesdon Manor had boosted the line's fortunes, it remained in serious financial difficulty. The only connection with the national railway network was by the turntable at Quainton Road. Although the 3rd Duke of Buckingham was both the owner of the Wotton Tramway and Chairman of the A&B, the latter regarded the Tramway as a nuisance, and in the 1870s, pursued a policy of charging disproportionately high fees for through traffic between the Tramway and the main line, with the intention of forcing the Tramway out of business. A&B trains would deliberately miss connections with the Tramway, causing milk shipped via Quainton Road to become unsellable. The Tramway sought legal advice and was informed that the Duke would be likely to win a legal action against the A&B. However, the A&B was in such a precarious financial position that any successful legal action against it would likely have forced its through Quainton Road to close, severing the Tramway's connection with the national network. Many Tramway passengers changed trains at Quainton Road to continue their journey on the A&B; in 1885, 5,192 passengers did so. The Tramway's management suggested that the A&B subsidise the Tramway to the sum of £25 (about £3,400 in 2023) per month to allow passenger services to continue, but the A&B agreed to pay only £5 (about £700 in 2023) per month. By the mid-1880s, the Tramway was finding it difficult to cover the operating expenses of either goods or passenger operations.
== Metropolitan Railway takeover of the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway ==
Charles Pearson (1793–1862) had proposed the idea of an underground railway connecting the City of London with the relatively distant main-line termini in around 1840. Construction began in 1860. On 9 January 1863, the line opened as the Metropolitan Railway (MR), the world's first underground passenger railway. The MR was successful and grew steadily, extending its services and acquiring other local railways north and west of London. In 1872, Edward Watkin (1819–1901) was appointed its chairman. A director of many railway companies, he had a vision of unifying a string of railways to create a single line from Manchester via London to an intended Channel Tunnel and on to France. In 1873, Watkin entered negotiations to take control of the A&B and the section of the former Buckinghamshire Railway north from Verney Junction to Buckingham. He planned to extend the MR north from London to Aylesbury and the Tramway southwest to Oxford, creating a through route from London to Oxford. Rail services between Oxford and London at this time were poor: although still an extremely roundabout route, this scheme would have formed the shortest route from London to Oxford, Aylesbury, Buckingham and Stratford upon Avon. The Duke of Buckingham was enthusiastic, and authorisation was sought from Parliament. Parliament did not share the enthusiasm of Watkin and the Duke, and in 1875, the Buckinghamshire and Northamptonshire Union Railway Bill was rejected. Watkin did, however, receive consent in 1881 to extend the MR to Aylesbury.
== Wotton Tramway Oxford extension scheme ==
With the MR extension to Aylesbury approved, in March 1883, the Duke announced his own scheme to extend the Tramway to Oxford. The turntable at Quainton Road would be replaced by a junction to the south of the turntable to allow through running of trains. The stretch from Quainton Road to Brill would be straightened and improved to main-line standards, and the little-used stations at Waddesdon Road and Wood Siding would be closed. From Brill, the line would pass in a 1,650-yard (1,510 m) tunnel through Muswell Hill to the south of Brill, and on via Boarstall before crossing from Buckinghamshire into Oxfordshire at Stanton St. John, calling at Headington on the outskirts of Oxford and terminating at a station to be built in the back garden of 12 High Street, St Clement's, near Magdalen Bridge.
At 23 miles (37 km), the line would have been by far the shortest route between Oxford and Aylesbury, compared with 28 miles (45 km) via the Great Western Railway (GWR), which had absorbed the Wycombe Railway, and 34 miles (55 km) via the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway and the LNWR. The Act of Parliament authorising the scheme received the Royal Assent on 20 August 1883, and the new Oxford, Aylesbury and Metropolitan Junction Railway Company, including the Duke of Buckingham, Ferdinand de Rothschild and Harry Verney among its directors, was created. The scheme caught the attention of the expansionist Metropolitan Railway, who paid for the survey to be conducted. Despite the scheme's powerful backers, the expensive Muswell Hill tunnel deterred investors and the company found it difficult to raise capital. De Rothschild promised to lend money for the scheme in return for guarantees that the line would include a passenger station at Westcott, and that the Duke would press the A&B into opening a station at the nearest point to Waddesdon Manor. Waddesdon Manor railway station was duly opened on 1 January 1897.
== Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad ==
The new company was unable to raise sufficient investment to begin construction of the Oxford extension, and had been given only five years by Parliament to build it. On 7 August 1888, less than two weeks before the authorisation was due to expire, the directors of the Oxford, Aylesbury and Metropolitan Junction Railway Company received the Royal Assent for a revised and much cheaper version. To be called the Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad (O&AT), this envisaged the extension being built to the same light specifications as the existing Tramway.
On 26 March 1889, the 3rd Duke of Buckingham and Chandos died, aged 65. By this time the construction of the MR extension to Aylesbury was well underway, and on 1 July 1891, the MR formally absorbed the A&B. Sir Harry Verney died on 12 February 1894, and on 31 March 1894, the MR took over the operation of the A&B from the GWR. On 1 July 1894, the MR extension to Aylesbury was completed, giving the MR a unified route from London to Verney Junction. The MR embarked on a programme of upgrading and rebuilding the stations along the newly acquired line.
Construction from Brill to Oxford had not yet begun. Further Acts of Parliament were granted in 1892 and 1894, varying the proposed route slightly and allowing for its electrification, but no work was carried out other than some preliminary surveying. On 1 April 1894, with the proposed extension to Oxford still intended, the O&AT exercised a clause of the 1888 Act and took over the Tramway. Work began on upgrading the line in preparation for the extension. The line from Quainton Road to Brill was relaid with improved rails on transverse sleepers, replacing the original flimsy rails and longitudinal sleepers. At around this time, two Manning Wardle locomotives were brought into use.
== Re-siting ==
The rebuilding of the Tramway greatly improved service speeds, reducing journey times between Quainton Road and Brill to between 35 and 43 minutes. The population of the area had remained low; in 1901, Brill had a population of only 1,206. Passenger traffic remained a relatively insignificant part of the Tramway's business, and in 1898 passenger receipts were only £24 per month (about £3,400 in 2023).
Quainton Road had seen little change since its construction by the A&B in 1868, and in 1890 was described by The Times as "one of the most primitive-looking stations in the British Isles". While the line to Brill was being upgraded, the MR were rebuilding and re-siting Quainton Road as part of its improvement programme, freeing space for a direct link between the former A&B and the O&AT to be built. The new station was re-sited to the southeast of the road, on the same side as the turntable connection with the Tramway. The new station had two platforms on the former A&B line and a third platform for Brill trains. In 1896, the level crossings around the station were replaced by a road bridge over the railway. A curve between the former A&B and the Tramway opened on 1 January 1897, allowing through running without the need to turn the engine and carriages individually on the turntable for the first time. The MR made a concerted effort to generate passenger traffic on the line. From 1910 to 1914, Pullman cars operated between Aldgate and Verney Junction, calling at Quainton Road, and a luxurious hotel was built in the new village of Verney Junction.
== Metropolitan Railway takeover of Oxford & Aylesbury Tramroad services ==
By 1899, the MR and the O&AT were cooperating closely. Although the line had been upgraded in preparation for the Oxford extension and had been authorised as a railway in 1894, construction of the extension had yet to begin. On 27 November, the MR arranged to lease the Tramway from the O&AT, for an annual fee of £600 (about £85,000 in 2023) with an option to buy the line outright. From 1 December 1899, the MR took over all operations on the Tramway. The O&AT's single passenger coach, a relic of Wotton Tramway days, was removed from its wheels and used as a platelayer's hut at Brill. An elderly Brown, Marshalls and Co passenger coach was transferred to the line to replace it, and a section of each platform was raised to accommodate the higher doors of this coach, using earth and old railway sleepers.
D class locomotives, introduced by the MR to improve services on the former Tramway line, damaged the track, and in 1910, the line between Quainton Road and Brill was relaid to MR standards using old track removed from the inner London MR route, still considered adequate for light use on a rural branch line. Following this track upgrading, the speed limit was increased to 25 miles per hour (40 km/h). The MR was unhappy with the performance and safety record of the D Class locomotives, and sold them to other railways between 1916 and 1922, replacing them with A class locomotives.
== Great Central Railway ==
In 1893, another of Edward Watkin's railways, the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway, had been authorised to build a new 92-mile (148 km) line from Annesley in Nottinghamshire south to Quainton Road. Watkin had intended to run services from Manchester and Sheffield via Quainton Road and along the MR to Baker Street. Following Watkin's retirement in 1894, the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire Railway obtained permission for a separate station in London near Baker Street at Marylebone, and the line was renamed the Great Central Railway (GCR). The new line joined the MR just north of Quainton Road, and opened to passengers on 15 March 1899.
Although it served a lightly populated area, the opening of the GCR made Quainton Road an important junction station at which four railway lines met. The number of passengers using the station rose sharply. It had many passengers in comparison to other stations in the area. In 1932, the last year of private operation, the station saw 10,598 passenger journeys, earning a total of £601 (about £52,700 in 2023) in passenger receipts.
Quainton Road was by far the busiest of the MR's rural passenger stations north of Aylesbury. Verney Junction railway station saw only 943 passenger journeys in the same year, and the five other stations on the Brill Tramway had a combined passenger total of 7,761.
=== Great Western and Great Central Joint Railway ===
Following Watkin's retirement, relations between the GCR and the MR deteriorated badly. The GCR route to London ran over the MR from Quainton Road to London, and to reduce reliance on the hostile MR, GCR General Manager William Pollitt decided to create a link with the Great Western Railway and a route into London that bypassed the MR. In 1899, the Great Western and Great Central Joint Railway began construction of a new line, commonly known as the Alternative Route, to link the GWR at Princes Risborough to the GCR at Grendon Underwood, about three miles (5 km) north of Quainton Road. Although formally an independent company, the new line was operated as a part of the GCR. A substantial part of GCR traffic to and from London was diverted onto the Alternative Route, reducing the significance of Quainton Road as an interchange and damaging the profitability of the MR.
== London Transport ==
On 1 July 1933 the MR, along with London's other underground railways aside from the short Waterloo & City Railway, was taken into public ownership as part of the newly formed London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB). Despite being 44 miles (71 km) from London, Quainton Road became part of the London Underground network. By this time, the lines from Quainton Road to Verney Junction and Brill were in severe decline. Competition from the newer lines and from improving road haulage had drawn away much of the Tramway's custom in particular, and Brill trains would often run without a single passenger.
Frank Pick, managing director of the Underground Group from 1928 and the Chief Executive of the LPTB, aimed to move the network away from freight services and concentrate on the electrification and improvement of the core routes in London. He saw the lines beyond Aylesbury via Quainton Road to Brill and Verney Junction as having little future as financially viable passenger routes. On 1 June 1935, the LPTB gave the required six months' notice to the O&AT that it intended to terminate operations on the Brill Tramway.
== Closure ==
The last scheduled passenger train on the Brill Tramway left Quainton Road in the afternoon of 30 November 1935. Hundreds of people gathered, and a number of members of the Oxford University Railway Society travelled from Oxford in an effort to buy the last ticket. Accompanied by firecrackers and fog signals, the train ran to Brill, where the passengers posed for a photograph. Late that evening, a two-coach staff train pulled out of Brill, accompanied by a band bearing a white flag and playing Auld Lang Syne. The train stopped at each station, picking up the staff, documents and valuables from each. At 11.45 pm the train arrived at Quainton Road, greeted by hundreds of locals and railway enthusiasts. At the stroke of midnight, the rails connecting the Tramway to the main line were ceremonially severed.
Quainton Road remained open, but with the closure of the Brill Tramway it was no longer a significant junction. The line to Verney Junction was closed to passengers on 6 July 1936. London Transport passenger services beyond Aylesbury were withdrawn, leaving the former GCR (part of the London and North Eastern Railway after 1923) as the only passenger services to Quainton Road. .A connection between the GCR and the former Buckinghamshire Railway at Calvert was opened in 1942,.London Transport services were briefly restored in 1943 with the extension of the Metropolitan line's London–Aylesbury service to Quainton Road, but this service was once more withdrawn in 1948.
London Transport reduced the A&B route between Quainton Road and Verney Junction to a single track in 1939–40. LT continued to operate freight services until 6 September 1947, when the Quainton Road–Verney Junction route closed altogether,
Quainton Road closed to passengers on 4 March 1963 and to goods on 4 July 1966. On 3 September 1966, passenger services on the GCR line from Aylesbury to Rugby were withdrawn, leaving only the stretch from Aylesbury to Calvert, running through the now-closed Quainton Road, open for freight trains. This was reduced to a single track shortly afterwards. The signal box at Quainton Road was abandoned on 13 August 1967, and the points connecting to the goods yard were disconnected.
== Restoration ==
While other closed stations on the former MR lines north of Aylesbury were generally demolished or sold, in 1969 the Quainton Railway Society was formed to operate a working museum at the station. On 24 April 1971, the society absorbed the London Railway Preservation Society, taking custody of its collection of historic railway equipment. The station was maintained in working order and used as a bookshop and ticket office, and the sidings—still intact, although disconnected from the railway line in 1967—were used for locomotive restoration work.
The Quainton Railway Society, which operates the station as the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre, restored the main station building to its 1900 appearance. A smaller building on the former Brill platform, once a shelter for passengers waiting for Brill and down trains, was used first as a store then as a shop for a number of years before its current use to house an exhibit on the history of the Brill Tramway. A former London Transport building from Wembley Park was dismantled and re-erected at Quainton Road to serve as a maintenance shed. From 1984 until 1990, the station briefly came back into passenger use, when special Saturday Christmas shopping services between Aylesbury and Bletchley were operated by British Rail Network SouthEast on Saturdays only, and stopped at Quainton Road. From August Bank Holiday 1971 until the 1987 season, and again from August Bank Holiday 2001, the station has had special passenger trains from Aylesbury in connection with events at the centre – these shuttles now run regularly each Spring and August Bank Holiday weekend.
Rewley Road, the Oxford terminus of Harry Verney's Buckinghamshire Railway and of the Oxford to Cambridge Line, closed to passengers on 1 October 1951 with trains diverted to the former GWR Oxford General, the current Oxford station. In co-operation with the Science Museum, Rewley Road was dismantled in 1999, the main station building and part of the platform canopy being moved to Quainton Road for preservation and improved visitor facilities with the main shop and office of the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre, thus maintaining it as a working building. A number of former Ministry of Supply food warehouses in what is now the extended Down Yard have been converted for various uses by the Society, including storage and exhibition of rolling stock.
Although the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre's steam trains run on the sidings which were disconnected from the network in 1967, the station still has a working railway line running to it, used for occasional special passenger trains from Aylesbury in connection with events at the centre. Regular freight trains, mainly landfill trains from waste transfer depots in Greater London to the former brick pits at Calvert, passed through until October 2021, when Network Rail closed the line to the north and lifted the tracks. In 2023, the Station Road bridge was in-filled with foamed concrete to strengthen it until its replacement is opened at which point the tracks to the north will be replaced. In 2010, the Buckinghamshire Railway Centre was negotiating for a reconnection of the link between its sidings and the main line, to allow the centre's locomotives to run to Aylesbury when the line is not in use by freight trains, and to rebuild part of the Brill Tramway between Quainton Road and Waddesdon Road.
== Media use ==
Quainton Road is regularly used as a filming location for period drama, and programmes such as The Jewel in the Crown, the Doctor Who serial Black Orchid, and the ITV series Midsomer Murders have been filmed there. The location tasks in the 8th series of Taskmaster were also filmed around the site.
== See also ==
Great Central Main Line
Infrastructure of the Brill Tramway
== Notes and references ==
=== Notes ===
=== References ===
=== Bibliography ===
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Media related to Quainton Road railway station at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Carlos,_Antioquia | San Carlos, Antioquia | San Carlos is a town and municipality in the Colombian department of Antioquia, part of the subregion of Eastern Antioquia. It is called the hydro-electrical capital of Colombia, because it has many dams and it produces much energy. The population was 14,480 at the 2018 census.
== History ==
The site of the town was discovered by Captain Francisco Nuñez Pedroso. The town was founded on 14 August 1786.
== Geography ==
The municipal area is 702 km². It has three corregimientos, El Jordán, Puerto Garzas and Samaná del Norte.
San Carlos is three hours away from the departmental capital, Medellín. The two are linked by a road.
== Economy ==
Tourism - one of the more important economic enterprises for the municipality
Energy production with dams
Wood exploitation
== Sites of interest ==
Dams such as the Punchiná Dam
Waterfalls - an ecological path about 20 minutes from the central park has two beautiful waterfalls, the river making natural pools
Landscape
Fishing
== Climate ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Culture,_Tourism_and_Civil_Aviation | Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation | The Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation (MoCTCA) is the governmental body for promoting tourism, culture and private sector involvement in Nepal. It also serves as the Nepalese aviation regulatory body. The ministry is located in Singha Durbar, Kathmandu.
== History ==
The Ministry of Tourism was established in 1978 by the Government of Nepal. The portfolios of Civil Aviation and Culture were added in 1982 and 2000 respectively. This structure was dissolved again in 2008, when the ministry was split into the Ministry of Tourism and Civil Aviation on the one side and the Ministry of Culture and State Restructuring on the other side. In 2012, the ministry was again renamed and gained its current form as the Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation.
== Organisational structure ==
The Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation has several departments and subdivisions:
Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal
Department of Archaeology
Nepal Airlines Corporation
National Lake Conservation Development Committee
Aviation Security Division
Department of Tourism
Nepal Academy of Tourism and Hotel Management (NATHM)
Nepal Tourism Board
== List of Ministers ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
and |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Order_Ordinance | Public Order Ordinance | The Public Order Ordinance (Cap. 245; Chinese: 公安條例; ’POO’) is a piece of primary legislation in Hong Kong. It codifies a number of old common law public order offences. It imposes notification requirements for public processions and meetings which resemble a licensing regime. It also provides for the designation of restricted areas along the Hong Kong-China border and in the military installations. The 1967 Ordinance was enacted in the aftermath of the 1967 Leftist riots. For the following decades, the stringent control over public processions and meetings was relaxed incrementally until 1990s when it was brought in line with human rights standards. Upon Hong Kong handover, the amendments in the 1990s were decreed "not adopted as the laws of the HKSAR" by the NPCSC of China and therefore reverted.
== History ==
=== Colonial period ===
A 1948 Ordinance of the same short title was enacted in 1948 by the British colonial government. The 1948 Ordinance transplanted the Public Order Act 1936 in the United Kingdom and the binding over procedure in the criminal code of Straits Settlements. It provided for the designation of restricted areas along the Hong Kong-China border.
The Public Ordinance Ordinance, 1967 was enacted in the aftermath of the 1967 Leftist riots. The government relied on a number of emergency laws to suppress the prolonged unrest. The bill was published on 6 October 1967 and was passed into law on 15 November 1967 by the Legislative Council. The 1967 version of the law was a consolidation of various pieces of preexisting legislation with some substantive amendments. Before the enactment of the 1967 POO, the law dealing with public order was to be found in a previous POO, the Peace Preservation Ordinance, the Summary Offences Ordinance and in the common law.
Under the revised POO in 1980, it generated a licensing system for gatherings in public place.
The Public Order (Amendment) Bill 1986 raised concerns over the threat to freedom of speech as the government on the one hand took some potentially oppressive measures including its power to seize and suppress newspapers and other publications, off the books, but on the other hand strengthened provisions against "false news": the new provision stated that "any person who publishes false news likely to cause alarm to the public or a section thereof or disturb public order shall be guilty of an offence." The pro-democrats argued the definition of "false news" was not clearly defined. In 1989, the government repealed the section on its own initiative.
In 1991 the final years of the colonial rule, the Hong Kong Bill of Rights Ordinance Cap. 383 was enacted. A number of ordinances, including the POO that were thought to possibly violate the Bill of Rights had to be reviewed.
In 1995, most provisions in the law was repealed by the Legislative Council as part of the government to bring Hong Kong law in line with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the licensing system was replaced by a simple notification procedure.
In October 1996, Democratic Party's legislator James To introduced a private member's bill to amend section 6 of the POO to remove the power of the Commissioner of Police to control the extent to which music or speech might be amplified. The Secretary for Security Peter Lai moved an amendment to make it more explicit that the Commission of Police would exercise such power only if "he reasonably considers it to be necessary to prevent an imminent threat to public safety or public order". The Secretary for Security's amendment was carried and the 1996 Amendment Ordinance came into effect on 20 December 1996.
=== SAR administration ===
The People's Republic of China government was convinced that the 1995 amendment in the late colonial days was maliciously motivated and aimed at reducing legitimate public order regulatory powers of the government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. The PRC considered the Bill of Rights Ordinance and the 1995 POO to contravene the Hong Kong Basic Law. The Preliminary Working Committee for the HKSAR, an organ oversaw the preparatory works for the transfer of the sovereignty consisting members who were appointed by the PRC government, proposed to reinstate the POO. Therefore, on 23 February 1997, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress passed a resolution that under Article 160 of the Basic Law that major amendments to the POO would be scrapped.
Following up the NPC's decision, the Office of the Chief Executive Designate proposed amendments to the POO, together with the Societies Ordinance and issued a hastily prepared consultation document "Civil Liberty and Social Order" to the public in April 1997. The proposed amendments created widespread criticisms that the future SAR government intended to restrict Hong Kong people's civil liberties. The colonial Hong Kong government even distribute a commentary criticising the proposals in unusual manner. The CE Office scaled down the amendments on 15 May in result. The Hong Kong Provisional Legislative Council enacted the new version of the POO on 14 June 1997, and it came into force on 1 July 1997. The restored and amended provisions were seen as a halfway between the licensing and notification systems.
== 1997 version ==
The 1997 amendment of the law gives government the power to prohibit a public meeting or procession on the grounds of "national security" and "the protection of the rights and freedoms of others," in addition to preexisting grounds of "public safety" and "public order." Under the section 17A any failure to do is a criminal offence and may face an imprisonment term of up to five years.
The details of the current version of the POO that restrict the right of assembly:
A public procession consisting of more than 30 persons can only take place if the Police Commissioner has been notified a week in advance and the Commissioner has notified the organiser that he has no objection. § 13(2)
The Commissioner can object to the public procession, but only if he reasonably considers that the objection is necessary in the interests of national security or public safety, public order or the protection of the rights and freedoms of others. § 14(1)
The Commissioner may, where he reasonably considers it necessary in the interests of national security or public safety, public order or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others, impose conditions in respect of any public procession notified under section 13A, and notice of any condition so imposed shall be given in writing to the organiser and shall state the reasons why such condition is considered necessary. § 15(2)
Further requirements include the presence of the organiser at the procession, maintenance of good order and public safety, the prohibition of unreasonable use of amplification devices, compliance with directions given by a police officer for ensuring compliance with the Commissioner's requirements and the POO's requirements etc. § 15(4)
On the other hand, certain statutory safeguards are present in the POO.
The Commissioner can accept notice that is given in less than a week. If he decides not to, he must inform the organizers in writing as soon as possible and give reasons. § 13A(2)
The Commissioner can only reject an application if he considers objection is necessary for the statutory legitimate purposes. The "protection of public health & morals" purpose in the Bill of Rights is absent in the POO, hence restricting the Commissioner's discretion. § 14(1)
The objection must be given as soon as possible and within the statutory time limit. § 14(2)
The Commissioner is obliged not to object if he reasonably considers that the relevant statutory legitimate purposes could be met by imposing conditions. § 14(5)
The Commissioner's discretion may only be delegated to police officers of inspector or above. § 52
A decision by the Commissioner can be appealed to an Appeal Board. The decision of the Appeal Board can be judicially reviewed (but not appealed). § 16
=== "Public place" ===
"Public gathering", "public meeting" and "public procession" under the POO is defined with reference to the term "public place". All of the above activities must take place in a "public place"
”Public place" is defined under s.2 of the POO as:any place to which for the time being the public or any section of the public are entitled or permitted to have access, whether on payment or otherwise, and, in relation to any meeting, includes any place which is or will be, on the occasion and for the purposes of such meeting, a public place The test for whether a place is a "public place" is "whether the persons who are entitled or permitted to have access to the particular location or area are so entitled or permitted qua their being members of the public or members of a section of the public" (HKSAR v Chau Fung [1998] 4 HKC 652). In Kwok Cheuk Kin v Commissioner of Police, the Court stated that "private premises to which access is restricted to the lawful occupiers’ invitees or licensees (in addition to, of course, the lawful occupiers themselves) would not generally be regarded as “public places” under the Ordinance" ([27]). In R v Lam Shing Chow, the accused was charged with "Fight in public". The appeal court quashed the conviction because the fight took place in a common corridor of a residential flat which is not a "public place". On the contrary, in 香港特別行政區政府 訴 梁超明 [2002] HKCFI 170, since the public is allowed to enter into the reception area of the Law Society located on 3/F Wing On House, the area constitutes a "public place" within the meaning of s.2 of the POO.
Cinemas and racecourses are public places despite the fact that the public might be required to purchase tickets for entry (HKSAR v Pearce [2005] 4 HKC 105 and HKSAR v Chau Fung [1998] 4 HKC 652).
Areas within a university campus where the public has access would constitute a public place while other school campuses or private areas of university campuses would not constitute "public places".
== Cases ==
The first charge under the POO was taken after the handover was in 2000, when seven student leaders were arrested for joining "illegal assemblies" and obstructing the police on a demonstration on 26 June 2000 that was without a prior notice given to the police. The protest, served as a reminder of the Government's decision to seek for re-interpretation of the Basic Law after the right of abode rulings in 1999, received general public and media sympathy and was viewed by some as an orderly, non-violent and non-provoking act of civil disobedience. More than 500 academics and researchers signed a petition to support the students, about 1,000 people marched on the street without police's letter of no objection in open defiance of the POO, and the Hong Kong Bar Association condemned the police for singling out students for arrest. Due to large pressure from society, the Secretary for Justice Elsie Leung decided not to prosecute the student leaders and other protestors.
=== Leung Kwok-hung and Others v. HKSAR ===
The first case that the HKSAR government decide to prosecute protesters for violation of the notification system was launched on 9 May 2002 against veteran protestor Leung Kwok-hung of the April Fifth Action and two other student activists was charged with organising an unauthorised public assembly or assisting in organising one.
On 10 February 2002, a number of persons gathered at Chater Garden for a procession. Civil activist Leung Kwok-hung was the organiser of the procession, but did not notify the Commissioner in advance. A police officer invited him to go through the statutory notification procedure, but Leung refused and was warned of the consequences. Initially, the procession consisted of 40 people, but it eventually grew to about 96 persons. They ignored police advice for several times, but the procession was at all times peaceful. On 25 November 2002, the three were convicted for organising an unathourised public procession and for failing to notify the police under the POO. Each of them was fined 500 Hong Kong dollars and was required to be bound over for three months. Magistrate Partick Li held that requirement for the notification system was reasonable for maintaining ordre public of Hong Kong society. The appeal was heard before the Court of Final Appeal.
At the Court of Final Appeal, the constitutionality of the entire statutory notification scheme was challenged. On 8 July 2005, the Court of Final Appeal by a majority of 4 to 1 dismissed the appeal. Chief Justice Li, Justice Chan PJ, Justice Ribeiro PJ and Sir Anthony Mason NPJ, having considered all the statutory restrictions on the freedom of assembly and the statutory safeguards listed above, held that the notification system was constitutional. However, they held that the norm of "ordre public", which existed as a statutory legitimate purpose at that time, was too vague at statutory level and hence could not be said to be prescribed by law. "Ordre public" was as a result severed, but the term "public order" was sufficiently precise to survive. They also remarked in dicta that the norm of "protection of the rights and freedoms of others" was too wide and did not satisfy the legal certainty requirement. They affirmed the convictions as the severance did not affect the conviction. Justice Bokhary PJ dissented, noting in his judgment that the whole statutory scheme should be struck down except the entitlement to notification.
The government was criticised for politically motivated prosecute a few high-profile protesters as Leung Kwok-hung was the veteran activist and a leader of a radical political group and the student activists were the prominent members of the Hong Kong Federation of Students which is a vocal critic of government policy.
=== 2005 WTO conference ===
In the 2005 WTO conference, the Hong Kong Police referred to the POO to arrest nearly a thousand protesting South Korean farmers in Hong Kong, but afterwards but no one could successfully be convicted.
=== Recent cases ===
The HKSAR government recorded the number of prosecution under the POO in 2011. There were total of 45 protesters charged under the POO in 2011 compared with a total of just 39 since the handover. The 45 were among 444 protesters arrested were mostly in three massive protests. 54 prosecuted in total were police figures.
Two legislators from the radical political group People Power, Wong Yuk-man and Albert Chan were convicted under the POO for organising and taking part in an unlawful assembly in the evening after the 1 July Protest in 2011 where Wong urged hundreds of People Power supporters to vow to march to the Government House. Protesters ended up with a sit-down on Garden Road after the police blocked the way of the march. It brought a serve traffic disruption. Sentencing has been adjourned until 16 May.
On 8 May 2013, Melody Chan, a 26-year-old volunteer of the Occupy Central movement was arrested for her alleged involvement in the blocking of roads in Central nearly two years ago, the same protest that Wong Yuk-man and Albert Chan took part in and were charged much earlier.
=== 2016 Mong Kok unrest ===
In the 2016 Mong Kok civil unrest, the government prosecuted 36 protesters with the charge of rioting, a charge previously used only three times since 1970 which carried a maximum sentence of ten years' imprisonment under the POO. British human rights watchdog Hong Kong Watch criticised the charge of "rioting" and "incitement to riot" under the POO was vague and could lead to excessive punishment for protesters.
== Criticisms ==
The POO is criticized as a mean to suppress Hong Kong people's civil liberties.
The Reform Club of Hong Kong objected the legislation of the bill when it was first introduced in 1967. It stated the bill made every peace-loving resident of Hong Kong a potential criminal and made innocent persons who were charged with offences against it would 'be in grave danger of conviction, if they could not afford a lawyer and were undefended.
The system of letter of no objection has been criticised as a license system in disguise. If the police were to enforce the system strictly, there would large numbers of people would have to be prosecuted. However it would become a dead letter in the statute book and contrary to the rule of law principle if the law is not faithfully put into practice without discrimination.
== See also ==
Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23
Human rights in Hong Kong
Macau national security law
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
== External links ==
A Note on provisions relating to the regulation of public meetings and public processions in the Public Order Ordinance (Cap. 245)
"Public Order Ordinance," the existing provisions
Bill Committee of the 1997 Public Order (Amendment) Bill
Outdated and Draconian: Hong Kong's Public Order Ordinance – Hong Kong Watch 10 July 2019 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Crombie#:~:text=On%20May%2013%2C%202004%2C%20Crombie,of%20the%20Order%20of%20Ontario. | David Crombie | David Edward Crombie (born April 24, 1936) is a former Canadian academic and politician who served as the 56th mayor of Toronto from 1972 to 1978. Crombie was elected to Parliament following his tenure as mayor. A member of the Progressive Conservative (PC) Party, he served as minister of national health and welfare from 1979 to 1980, minister of Indian affairs and northern development from 1984 to 1986, and secretary of state for Canada from 1986 to 1988.
== Early life ==
Crombie was born in Swansea, then a village west of Toronto, the son of Vera Edith (Beamish) and Norman Davis Crombie. He was a lecturer in politics and urban affairs at Ryerson in the 1960s when he became involved in Toronto's urban reform movement. At the time, the city had a very pro-development city council that allowed a great deal of demolition of older buildings, including houses, to make way for the construction of apartment blocks, office towers, and highways (see Spadina Expressway). Crombie, along with John Sewell and other urban reformers, became a leader in a grassroots movement that favoured curtailing development in favour of improving social services and prioritizing community interests.
== Municipal politics ==
Crombie was elected to Toronto's city council in 1970, and became Mayor of Toronto in 1972, ushering in an era of socially responsible urban development inspired by thinkers such as Jane Jacobs. Crombie was the first mayor who represented the reform movement of Toronto politics, and his policies differed sharply from those of the Old Guard who preceded him.
=== Mayor of Toronto ===
Much of Crombie's time as mayor was spent trying to rein in the development industry. He initially imposed a 45-foot (13.7 m) limit on all new constructions, but this was overturned by the Ontario Municipal Board. Crombie then put forward a new official plan that imposed varying height restrictions across the city, and this was upheld by the board.
The Spadina Expressway had been halted by premier Bill Davis in 1971, but Davis continued to support the construction of the Allen Expressway in the north. Crombie attempted but failed to have it halted. He was more successful in countering plans for the Scarborough Expressway; all work was halted during Crombie's term, leading to its eventual cancellation.
Crombie also opposed the traditional pattern of demolishing poorer neighbourhoods and replacing them with housing projects. The plans to redevelop areas such as Trefann Court, Kensington Market, and Cabbagetown ended under Crombie. Instead, he oversaw the creation of the St. Lawrence neighbourhood, an area of mid-rise, mixed-use, mixed-income buildings that followed Jane Jacobs's vision of urban planning.
Crombie was re-elected in 1974 and 1976 with large majorities. Because of his great public appeal and his height of only 5 feet 5 inches (1.65 m), he was repeatedly described in the media as the city's "tiny, perfect mayor".
== Federal politics ==
He left City Hall in 1978 to move to federal politics, contesting a by-election held for the Rosedale electoral district as a Progressive Conservative candidate. The seat was vacated by liberal finance minister Donald Macdonald. Crombie won the by-election by a large margin against Liberal star candidate John Evans, then president of University of Toronto. Evans' candidacy was weighted down by the Liberals' unpopularity at the time and damaged by the unexpectedly competitive nomination challenge launch by Anne Cools. Crombie defeated Cools in the general elections held in 1979 and 1980, and future foreign minister Bill Graham in 1984.
=== First Nations and Inuit health reform ===
Crombie served as Minister of Health and Welfare in the short-lived minority government of Prime Minister Joe Clark which was elected in 1979 but lost power the next year.
In September 1979, Crombie, a liberal-minded reformer, as Minister of Health and Welfare under the Conservative government Prime Minister Joe Clark, issued a statement representing "current Federal Government practice and policy in the field of Indian health." Crombie declared that the "Federal Government is committed to joining with Indian representatives in a fundamental review of issues involved in Indian health when Indian representatives have developed their position, and the policy emerging from that review could supersede this policy". In the previous year, Indian bands and organizations such as the Union of B.C. Chiefs, the Native Brotherhood, and the United Native Nations engaged in intense lobbying for Indians to control delivery of health services in their own communities and for the repeal of restrictive service "guidelines introduced in September 1978, to correct abuses in health delivery, and to deal with the environmental health hazards of mercury and fluoride pollution affecting particular communities." Crombie appointed Gary Goldthorpe, as commissioner of the federal inquiry (known as the Goldthorpe Inquiry) into "alleged abuses in medical care delivery at Alert Bay, British Columbia." In 1979 Justice Thomas Berger, who headed the royal commission dealing with Indian and Inuit healthcare, recommended to Crombie that there be greater consultation with Indians and Inuit regarding the delivery of healthcare programs and that an "annual sum of $950,000 was allocated for distribution by the National Indian Brotherhood to develop health consultation structures within the national Indian community." Crombie's successor as Liberal Minister of Health and Welfare, Monique Begin, adopted Berger's recommendations, ushering in the beginning of a change in health delivery.
=== Leadership Contestant & Minister in Mulroney Ministry ===
Crombie stood as a candidate at the 1983 Progressive Conservative leadership convention. He was the only candidate campaigned as a "Red Tory", drawing support mainly from moderates who opposed Clark's leadership. He finished fifth, out of eight candidates, on first ballot with only 3.9% of the delegate votes, and would have been eliminated after first ballot if not for the withdrawal of fellow Toronto candidate Michael Wilson, who was in fourth place with 4.8%. He was eliminated on second ballot, having came in last with only 2.3%. Despite being ideologically in tune with Clark, Crombie endorsed third place candidate John Crosbie.
After Mulroney led Conservatives to power in the 1984 election, Crombie became Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs, and later Secretary of State for Canada and Minister of Multiculturalism.
== Later career ==
=== Royal Commission on the Future of the Toronto Waterfront ===
Frustrated in Ottawa, as a Red Tory in an increasingly conservative government, Crombie decided not to run in the 1988 election and returned to urban affairs as head of the royal commission on the Future of Toronto's waterfront (1988–92). He authored ground-breaking reports including Watershed' and Regeneration, which described new integrated approaches to sustainable planning. The Provincial Government appointed Crombie as head of a provincial agency, the Waterfront Regeneration Trust Agency (1992-1999) to implement the 83 recommendations made in the final report, Regeneration. Among these recommendations was the creation of a waterfront trail. Today the Great Lakes Waterfront Trail extends from Quebec to Sault Ste Marie along Canada's Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. In 1999, Crombie founded the Waterfront Regeneration Trust, as a charity, to continue the work of the provincial agency, and serves on the Board. In addition to leading work on the creation of the Great Lakes Waterfront Trail, the charity manages a fund for the protection and restoration of the Rouge Valley, now part of the Rouge National Urban Park. Crombie tried to find an alternative to Red Hill Creek Expressway but the Hamilton city council dismissed his compromise proposal out of hand as being insufficient.
=== Recent Public Services ===
Crombie was appointed Ryerson's first chancellor in 1994 when the polytechnic was granted university status. He served in that role until 1999.
Throughout the 1990s, he served in various advisory capacities to city and provincial governments relating to urban issues in the Toronto area. In 2007 he retired as CEO of the Canadian Urban Institute. In April 2008, the Toronto District School Board selected Crombie to negotiate a solution to keep unfunded school swimming pools open to the public. In 2014 he publicly opposed plans by the federally run Toronto Port Authority to lengthen runways at Billy Bishop Airport on the Toronto Islands to enable Porter Airlines to expand with jet planes.
On May 13, 2004, Crombie was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada. In 2012, he was made a member of the Order of Ontario. In 2013, he was inducted into the Canadian Disability Hall of Fame. Crombie serves on the Governors' Council of the Toronto Public Library Foundation, the Honorary Council for the Loran Scholars Foundation, and the boards of CivicAction and the Planet in Focus Foundation. In addition, Crombie is a member of the Patron's Council at Dying with Dignity Canada. He also serves on the advisory boards of the Ryerson Image Centre and CARP Canada.
Crombie continues to be a visible participant of public discourse. In recent years, with his Red Tory views increasingly out of sync with conservatives politics, Crombie on numerous occasions joined ex-mayoral peers further to his left (Art Eggleton, Barbara Hall, David Miller and John Sewell) in issuing open letters on various issues being debated.
A park named after Crombie runs from Jarvis Street to Berkeley Street, in a formerly industrial area, that was converted to housing.
== Personal life ==
Crombie is the father of two daughters, Robin and Carrie, and actor Jonathan Crombie, who starred in three Anne of Green Gables TV series. Jonathan died in New York on April 15, 2015, of a brain hemorrhage at age 48. His organs were donated, he was cremated and his ashes returned to Canada.
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
Castellano, Marlene Brant (1981), Indian participation in health policy development: implications for adult education (PDF), Peterborough, Ontario: Trent University
Franezyk, Walter (March 5, 1980), Indian health inquiry open in Bay, Alert Bay, Vancouver Island, BC: North Island Gazette
Berger, Thomas R. (2002), One Man's Justice: A Life in the Law, Vancouver, BC: Douglas & McIntyre
== External links ==
Order of Canada citation (archived)
David Crombie – Parliament of Canada biography |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orak_Island_(%C3%87anakkale)#:~:text=Orak%20Island%2C%20known%20in%20Greek,Its%20ancient%20name%20was%20Drepano. | Orak Island (Çanakkale) | Orak Island, known in Greek as Drepano (Δρέπανο), is an uninhabited Aegean island in Turkey. Its ancient name was Drepano. It is a part of Tavşan Islands.
The island is at 39°55′07″N 26°04′25″E. Administratively it is in Ezine ilçe (district) of Çanakkale Province. Its distance to the Anatolian coast is 6.5 kilometres (4.0 mi), to Bozcaada is 9.2 kilometres (5.7 mi) and to Çanakkale is 38 kilometres (24 mi).
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter | Black Lives Matter | Black Lives Matter (BLM) is a decentralized political and social movement that aims to highlight racism, discrimination and racial inequality experienced by Black people in the United States, and to promote anti-racism. Its primary concerns are police brutality and racially motivated violence against Black people. The movement began in response to the killings of Trayvon Martin, Michael Brown, Eric Garner, and Rekia Boyd, among others. BLM and its related organizations typically advocate for various policy changes related to Black liberation and criminal justice reform. While there are specific organizations that label themselves "Black Lives Matter", such as the Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation, the overall movement is a decentralized network with no formal hierarchy. As of 2021, there are about 40 chapters in the United States and Canada. The slogan "Black Lives Matter" itself has not been trademarked by any group.
In 2013, activists and friends Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Ayọ Tometi originated the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter on social media following the acquittal of George Zimmerman in the fatal shooting of African-American teen Trayvon Martin. The movement became nationally recognized for street demonstrations following the 2014 deaths of two more African Americans, Michael Brown—resulting in protests and unrest in Ferguson, Missouri—and Eric Garner in New York City. Since the Ferguson protests, participants in the movement have demonstrated against the deaths of numerous other African Americans by police actions or while in police custody, in the summer of 2015. The movement gained international attention during global protests in 2020 following the murder of George Floyd by Minneapolis police officer Derek Chauvin. An estimated 15 to 26 million people participated in Black Lives Matter protests in the United States, making it one of the largest protest movements in the country's history. The vast majority of BLM demonstrations in 2020 were peaceful, but BLM protests from late May to early June 2020 escalated into riots and looting in most major cities.
Support for Black Lives Matter has fluctuated in recent years. In 2020, 67% of American adults expressed support for BLM, declining to 45% of American adults in 2024. Support among people of color has, however, held strong, with 81% of African Americans, 61% of Hispanics and 63% of Asian Americans expressing support for Black Lives Matter as of 2023.
== Structure and organization ==
=== Decentralization ===
The phrase "Black Lives Matter" can refer to a Twitter hashtag, a slogan, a social movement, a political action committee, or a loose confederation of groups advocating for racial justice. As a movement, Black Lives Matter is grassroots and decentralized, and leaders have emphasized the importance of local organizing over national leadership. The structure differs from previous black movements, like the Civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. Such differences have been the subject of scholarly literature. Activist DeRay McKesson has commented that the movement "encompasses all who publicly declare that black lives matter and devote their time and energy accordingly."
In 2013, Patrisse Cullors, Alicia Garza, and Ayọ Tometi formed the Black Lives Matter Network. Garza described the network as an online platform that existed to provide activists with a shared set of principles and goals. Local Black Lives Matter chapters are asked to commit to the organization's list of guiding principles but are autonomous, operating without a central structure or hierarchy. Garza has commented that the Network was not interested in "policing who is and who is not part of the movement." As of 2021, there are about 40 chapters in the United States and Canada.
This has caused confusion in both the media and activists circles, as actions or statements by individual chapters or members are often misattributed to "Black Lives Matter" as a whole. Matt Pearce, writing for the Los Angeles Times, commented that "the words could be serving as a political rallying cry or referring to the activist organization. Or it could be the fuzzily applied label used to describe a wide range of protests and conversations focused on racial inequality."
On at least one occasion, a person represented as Managing Director of BLM Global Network has released a statement represented to be on behalf of that organization.
=== Broader movement ===
Concurrently, a broader movement involving several other organizations and activists emerged under the banner of "Black Lives Matter", as well. In 2015, Johnetta Elzie, DeRay Mckesson, Brittany Packnett, and Samuel Sinyangwe initiated Campaign Zero, aimed at promoting policy reforms to end police brutality. The campaign released a ten-point plan for reforms to policing, with recommendations including: ending broken windows theory policing, increasing community oversight of police departments, and creating stricter guidelines for the use of force. The New York Times reporter, John Eligon, wrote that some activists expressed concerns that the campaign was overly focused on legislative remedies for police violence.
Black Lives Matter also voices support for various movements and causes beyond police brutality, including LGBTQ activism, feminism, immigration.
==== Movement for Black Lives ====
The Movement for Black Lives (M4BL) is a coalition of more than 50 groups representing the interests of black communities across the United States. Members include the Black Lives Matter Network, the National Conference of Black Lawyers, and the Ella Baker Center for Human Rights. Endorsed by groups such as Color of Change, Race Forward, Brooklyn Movement Center, PolicyLink, Million Women March Cleveland, and ONE DC, the coalition receives communications and tactical support from an organization named Blackbird.
Following the murder of George Floyd, M4BL released the BREATHE Act, which called for sweeping legislative changes surrounding policing; the policy bill included calls to divest from policing and reinvest funds directly in community resources and alternative emergency response models.
On July 24, 2015, the movement initially convened at Cleveland State University, where between 1,500 and 2,000 activists gathered to participate in open discussions and demonstrations. The conference in Cleveland, Ohio, initially attempted to "strategize ways for the Movement for Black Lives to hold law enforcement accountable for their actions on a national level". However, the conference resulted in the formation of a much more significant social movement. At the end of the three-day conference, on July 26, the Movement for Black Lives initiated a yearlong "process of convening local and national groups to create a United Front". This year long process ultimately resulted in the establishment of an organizational platform that articulates the goals, demands, and policies which the Movement for Black Lives supports in order to achieve the "liberation" of black communities across America.
In 2016, the Ford Foundation announced plans to fund the M4BL Movement for Black Lives in a "six-year investments" plan, further partnering up with others to found the Black-led Movement Fund. The sum donated by the Ford Foundation and the other donors to M4BL was reported as $100 million by The Washington Times in 2016 (equivalent to $131 million in 2024); another donation of $33 million (equivalent to $43 million) to M4BL was reportedly issued by the Open Society Foundations.
In 2016, M4BL called for decarceration in the United States, reparations for harms related to slavery, and more recently, specific remedies for redlining in housing, education policy, mass incarceration and food insecurity. It also called for an end to mass surveillance, investment in public education, not incarceration, and community control of the police: empowering residents in communities of color to hire and fire police officers and issue subpoenas, decide disciplinary consequences and exercise control over city funding of police.
=== Funding ===
Politico reported in 2015 that the Democracy Alliance, a gathering of Democratic-Party donors, planned to meet with leaders of several groups who were endorsing the Black Lives Matter movement. According to Politico, Solidaire, the donor coalition focusing on "movement building" and led by Texas oil fortune heir Leah Hunt-Hendrix, a member of the Democracy Alliance, had donated more than $200,000 to the BLM movement by 2015.
According to The Economist, between May 2020 and December 2020, donations to Black Lives Matter related causes amounted to $10.6 billion (equivalent to $13 billion in 2024). The Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation, one of the main organizations coordinating organizing and mobilization efforts across the reported raising $90 million in 2020 (equivalent to $109 million in 2024), including a substantial number of individual donations online, with an average donation of $30.76 (equivalent to $37.37).
=== Strategies and tactics ===
Black Lives Matter originally used various social media platforms—including hashtag activism—to reach thousands of people rapidly. Since then, Black Lives Matter has embraced a diversity of tactics. Black Lives Matter protests have been overwhelmingly peaceful; when violence does occur, it is often committed by counter-protesters. Despite this, opponents often try to portray the movement as violent.
=== Internet and social media ===
In 2014, the American Dialect Society chose #BlackLivesMatter as their word of the year. Yes! Magazine picked #BlackLivesMatter as one of the twelve hashtags that changed the world in 2014. From July 2013 through May 1, 2018, the hashtag "#BlackLivesMatter" had been tweeted more than 30 million times, an average of 17,002 times per day. By June 10, 2020, it had been tweeted roughly 47.8 million times, with the period of July 7–17, 2016 having the highest usage, at nearly 500,000 tweets a day. This period also saw an increase in tweets using the hashtags "#BlackLivesMatter" and "#Alleviate". On May 28, 2020, there were nearly 8.8 million tweets with the hashtag, and the average had increased to 3.7 million a day.
The 2016 shooting of Dallas police officers saw the online tone of the movement become more negative than before, with 39% of tweets using the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter expressing opposition to the movement. Nearly half in opposition tied the group to violence, with many describing the group as terrorist.
Khadijah White, a professor at Rutgers University, argues that BLM has ushered in a new era of black university student movements. The ease with which bystanders can record graphic videos of police violence and post them onto social media has driven activism all over the world. The hashtag's usage has gained the attention of high-ranking politicians and has sometimes encouraged them to support the movement.
On Wikipedia, a WikiProject dedicated to coverage of the Black Lives Matter movement was created in June 2020.
In 2020, users of the popular app TikTok noticed that the app seemed to be shadow banning posts about BLM or recent police killings of black people. TikTok apologized and attributed the situation to a technical glitch.
=== Direct action ===
BLM generally engages in direct action tactics that make people uncomfortable enough that they must address the issue. BLM has been known to build power through protest and rallies. BLM has also staged die-ins and held one during the 2015 Twin Cities Marathon.
Political slogans used during demonstrations include the eponymous "Black Lives Matter", "Hands up, don't shoot" (a later discredited reference attributed to Michael Brown), "I can't breathe" (referring to Eric Garner and later George Floyd), "White silence is violence", "No justice, no peace", and "Is my son next?", among others.
According to a 2018 study, "Black Lives Matter protests are more likely to occur in localities where more black people have previously been killed by police."
=== Media, music and other cultural impacts ===
Since the beginning of the Black Lives Matter movement in 2013, with the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter, the movement has been depicted and documented in film, song, television, literature, and the visual arts. Several media outlets are providing material related to racial injustice and the Black Lives Matter movement. Published books, novels, and TV shows have increased in popularity in 2020. Songs, such as Michael Jackson's "They Don't Care About Us" and Kendrick Lamar's "Alright", have been widely used as a rallying call at demonstrations.
The short documentary film, Bars4Justice, features brief appearances by various activists and recording artists affiliated with the Black Lives Matter movement. The film is an official selection of the 24th Annual Pan African Film Festival. Stay Woke: The Black Lives Matter Movement is a 2016 American television documentary film, starring Jesse Williams, about the Black Lives Matter movement.
The February 2015 issue of Essence magazine and the cover were devoted to Black Lives Matter. In December 2015, BLM was a contender for the Time magazine Person of the Year award, coming in fourth of the eight candidates.
A number of cities have painted murals of "Black Lives Matter" in large letters on their streets. The cities include Washington, D.C., Dallas, Denver, Charlotte, Seattle, Brooklyn, Los Angeles, and Birmingham, Alabama.
On May 9, 2016, Delrish Moss was sworn in as the first African-American police chief in Ferguson, Missouri. He acknowledged that he faces such challenges as diversifying the police force, improving community relations, and addressing issues that catalyzed the Black Lives Matter movement.
== Allegations of use of excessive force by police ==
According to a study from the Bureau of Justice Statistics from 2002 to 2011, among those who had contact with the police, "blacks (2.8%) were more likely than whites (1.0%) and Hispanics (1.4%) to perceive the threat or use of nonfatal force was excessive."
According to The Washington Post, police officers shot and killed 1,001 people in the United States in 2019. About half of those killed were white, and one quarter were black, making the rate of deaths for black Americans (31 fatal shootings per million) more than twice as high as the rate for white Americans (13 fatal shootings per million). The Washington Post also counts 13 unarmed black Americans shot dead by police in 2019.
A 2015 study by Cody Ross at UC Davis found "significant bias in the killing of unarmed black Americans relative to unarmed white Americans" by police. The study found that unarmed African Americans had 3.49 times the probability of being shot compared to unarmed whites, although in some jurisdictions the risk could be as much as 20 times higher. The study found that 2.79 times more armed blacks were shot than unarmed blacks. The study also found that the documented county-level racial bias in police shootings could not be explained by differences in local crime rates.
A 2019 study by Cesario et al. published in Social Psychological and Personality Science found that after adjusting for crime, there was "no systematic evidence of anti-black disparities in fatal shootings, fatal shootings of unarmed citizens, or fatal shootings involving misidentification of harmless objects". However, a 2020 study by Cody Ross et al. criticizes the data analysis used in the Cesario et al. study. Using the same data set for police shootings in 2015 and 2016, Ross et al. conclude that there is significant racial bias in police shooting cases involving unarmed black suspects. This bias is not seen when suspects are armed.
A study by Harvard economist Roland Fryer found that blacks and Hispanics were 50% more likely to experience non-lethal force in police interactions, but for officer-involved shootings there were "no racial differences in either the raw data or when contextual factors are taken into account".
A 2019 study in PNAS concluded that black people were actually less likely than white people to be killed by police, based on the death rates in police encounters. The authors later retracted the paper because although "our data and statistical approach were appropriate for investigating whether officer characteristics are related to the race of civilians fatally shot by police," the paper had been "cited as providing support for the idea that there are no racial biases in fatal shootings, or policing in general" whereas in fact their analyses "are inadequate to address racial disparities in the probability of being shot."
Another study found that such conclusions were erroneous due to Simpson's paradox. According to the paper, while it was true that white people were more likely to be killed in a police encounter, overall black people were still being discriminated against because they were more likely to have interactions with the police due to structural racism. They are more likely to be stopped for more petty crimes or no crime at all. Conversely, white people interact with police more rarely, and often for more serious crimes, such as shootings, where police are more likely to use force. The same paper also backed up the findings of Ross and Fryer and concluded that the overall rate of death was a much more useful statistic than the rate of death in encounters.
=== Disproportionate policing of Black Lives Matter events ===
Black Lives Matter protesters are themselves sometimes subject to excessive policing of the kind against which they are demonstrating. In May 2020, in addition to police, 43,350 military troops were deployed against Black Lives Matter protesters nationally. Military surveillance aircraft were deployed against subsequent Black Lives Matter protests. Observers, such as U.S. President Joe Biden, have noted that violent far-right mobilizations, including the 2021 United States Capitol attack, attracted smaller and more passive police presences than peaceful Black Lives Matter protests. In November 2015, a police officer in Oregon was removed from street duty following a social media post in which he said he would have to "babysit these fools", in reference to a planned BLM event.
According to a report released by the Movement for Black Lives in August 2021, the United States federal government deliberately targeted Black Lives Matter protesters in an attempt to disrupt and discourage the Black Lives Matter movement during the summer of 2020. According to the report, "The empirical data and findings in this report largely corroborate what Black organizers have long known intellectually, intuitively, and from lived experience about the federal government's disparate policing and prosecution of racial justice protests and related activity".
== Timeline of notable events and demonstrations in the United States ==
=== 2014 ===
In 2014, Black Lives Matter demonstrated against the deaths of numerous African Americans by police actions, including those of Dontre Hamilton, Eric Garner, John Crawford III, Michael Brown, Ezell Ford, Laquan McDonald, Akai Gurley, Tamir Rice, Antonio Martin, and Jerame Reid, among others.
In July, Eric Garner died in New York City after a New York City Police Department officer put him in a banned chokehold while arresting him. Garner's death has been cited as one of several police killings of African Americans that sparked the Black Lives Matter movement.
During the Labor Day weekend in August, Black Lives Matter organized a "Freedom Ride", that brought more than 500 African-Americans from across the United States into Ferguson, Missouri, to support the work being done on the ground by local organizations. The movement continued to be involved in the Ferguson protests, following the killing of Michael Brown. The protests at times came into conflict with local and state police departments, who typically responded in an armed manner. At one point, the National Guard was called in and a state of emergency was declared.
Also in August, Los Angeles Police Department officers shot and killed Ezell Ford; BLM protested his death in Los Angeles into 2015.
In November, a New York City Police Department officer shot and killed Akai Gurley, a 28-year-old African-American man. Gurley's death was later protested by Black Lives Matter in New York City. In Oakland, California, fourteen Black Lives Matter activists were arrested after they stopped a Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) train for more than an hour on Black Friday, one of the biggest shopping days of the year. The protest, led by Black Lives Matter co-founder Alicia Garza, was organized in response to the grand jury decision not to indict Darren Wilson for the killing of Michael Brown.
Also in November, Tamir Rice, a 12-year-old African-American boy, was shot and killed by a Cleveland police officer. Rice's death has also been cited as contributing to "sparking" the Black Lives Matter movement.
In December, two to three thousand people gathered at the Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota to protest the killings of unarmed black men by police. The police at the mall were equipped with riot gear and bomb-sniffing dogs; at least twenty members of the protest were arrested. Management said that they were "extremely disappointed that organizers of Black Lives Matter protest chose to ignore our stated policy and repeated reminders that political protests and demonstrations are not allowed on Mall of America property".
In Milwaukee, Wisconsin, BLM protested the police killing of Dontre Hamilton, who died in April. Black Lives Matter protested the killing of John Crawford III. The Murder of Renisha McBride was protested by Black Lives Matter.
Also in December, in response to the decision by the grand jury not to indict Darren Wilson on any charges related to the killing of Michael Brown, a protest march was held in Berkeley, California. Later, in 2015, protesters and journalists who participated in that rally filed a lawsuit alleging "unconstitutional police attacks" on attendees.
A week after the Michael Brown verdict, two police officers were killed in New York City by Ismaaiyl Brinsley, who expressed a desire to kill police officers in retribution for the deaths of Garner and Brown. Black Lives Matter condemned the shooting, though some right-wing media attempted to connect the group to it, with the Patrolman's Benevolent Association president claiming that there was "blood on [the] hands [of] those that incited violence on the street under the guise of protests". A conservative television commentator also attempted to connect Black Lives Matter to protesters chanting that they wanted to see "dead cops," at the December "Millions March" which was organized by different groups.
=== 2015 ===
In 2015, Black Lives Matter demonstrated against the deaths of numerous African Americans by police actions, including those of Charley Leundeu Keunang, Tony Robinson, Anthony Hill, Meagan Hockaday, Eric Harris, Walter Scott, Freddie Gray, William Chapman, Jonathan Sanders, Sandra Bland, Samuel DuBose, Jeremy McDole, Corey Jones, and Jamar Clark as well Dylann Roof's murder of The Charleston Nine.
In March, BLM protested at Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel's office, demanding reforms within the Chicago Police Department. Charley Leundeu Keunang, a 43-year-old Cameroonian national, was fatally shot by Los Angeles Police Department officers. The LAPD arrested fourteen following BLM demonstrations.
In April, Black Lives Matter across the United States protested over the death of Freddie Gray which included the 2015 Baltimore protests. The National Guard was called in. After the killing of Walter Scott in North Charleston, South Carolina, Black Lives Matter protested Scott's death and called for Civilian oversight of police.
In May, a protest by BLM in San Francisco was part of a nationwide protest, SayHerName, decrying the police killing of black women and girls, which included the deaths of Meagan Hockaday, Aiyana Jones, Rekia Boyd, and others. In Cleveland, Ohio, after an officer was acquitted at trial in the Killing of Timothy Russell and Malissa Williams, BLM protested. In Madison, Wisconsin, BLM protested after the officer was not charged in the killing of Tony Robinson.
In June, after Dylann Roof's shooting in a historically black church in Charleston, South Carolina, BLM across the country marched, protested and held vigil for several days after the shooting. BLM was part of a march for peace on the Arthur Ravenel Jr. Bridge in South Carolina. After the Charleston shooting, a number of memorials to the Confederate States of America were graffitied with "Black Lives Matter" or otherwise vandalized. Around 800 people protested in McKinney, Texas after a video was released showing an officer pinning a girl—at a pool party in McKinney, Texas—to the ground with his knees.
In July, BLM activists across the United States began protests over the death of Sandra Bland, an African-American woman, who was allegedly found hanged in a jail cell in Waller County, Texas. In Cincinnati, Ohio, BLM rallied and protested the death of Samuel DuBose after he was shot and killed by a University of Cincinnati police officer. In Newark, New Jersey, over a thousand BLM activists marched against police brutality, racial injustice, and economic inequality. Also in July, BLM protested the death of Jonathan Sanders who died while being arrested by police in Mississippi.
In August, BLM organizers held a rally in Washington, D.C., calling for a stop to violence against transgender women. In Charlotte, North Carolina, after a judge declared a mistrial in the trial of a white Charlotte police officer who killed an unarmed black man, Jonathan Ferrell, BLM protested and staged die-ins. In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Janelle Monáe, Jidenna, and other BLM activists marched through North Philadelphia to bring awareness to police brutality and Black Lives Matter. Around August 9, the first anniversary of Michael Brown's death, BLM rallied, held vigil and marched in St. Louis and across the country.
In September, over five hundred BLM protesters in Austin, Texas, rallied against police brutality, and several briefly carried protest banners onto Interstate 35. In Baltimore, Maryland, BLM activists marched and protested as hearings began in the Freddie Gray police brutality case. In Sacramento, California, about eight hundred BLM protesters rallied to support a California State Senate bill that would increase police oversight. BLM protested the killing of Jeremy McDole.
In October, Black Lives Matter activists were arrested during a protest of a police chiefs conference in Chicago. "Rise Up October" straddled the Black Lives Matter Campaign, and brought several protests. Quentin Tarantino and Cornel West, participating in "Rise Up October", decried police violence.
In November, BLM activists protested after Jamar Clark was shot by Minneapolis Police Department. A continuous protest was organized at the Minneapolis 4th Precinct Police. During the encamped protest, protesters, and outside agitators clashed with police, vandalized the station and attempted to ram the station with an SUV. Later that month a march was organized to honor Jamar Clark, from the 4th Precinct to downtown Minneapolis. After the march, a group of men carrying firearms and body armor appeared and began calling the protesters racial slurs according to a spokesperson for Black Lives Matter. After protesters asked the armed men to leave, the men opened fire, shooting five protesters. All injuries required hospitalization, but were not life-threatening. The men fled the scene only to be found later and arrested. The three men arrested were young and white, and observers called them white supremacists. In February 2017, one of the men arrested, Allen Scarsella, was convicted of a dozen felony counts of assault and riot in connection with the shooting. Based in part on months of racist messages Scarsella had sent his friends before the shooting, the judge rejected arguments by his defense that Scarsella was "naïve" and sentenced him in April 2017 to 15 years out of a maximum 20-year sentence.
From November 2016, BLM protested the Murder of Laquan McDonald, calling for the resignation of numerous Chicago officials in the wake of the shooting and its handling. McDonald was shot 16 times by Chicago Police Officer Jason Van Dyke.
=== 2016 ===
In 2016, Black Lives Matter demonstrated against the deaths of numerous African Americans by police actions, including those of Bruce Kelley Jr., Alton Sterling, Philando Castile, Joseph Mann, Abdirahman Abdi, Paul O'Neal, Korryn Gaines, Sylville Smith, Terence Crutcher, Keith Lamont Scott, Alfred Olango, and Deborah Danner, among others.
In January, hundreds of BLM protesters marched in San Francisco to protest the December 2, 2015, shooting death of Mario Woods, who was shot by San Francisco Police officers. The march was held during a Super Bowl event. BLM held protests, community meetings, teach-ins, and direct actions across the country with the goal of "reclaim[ing] the radical legacy of Martin Luther King Jr."
In February, Abdullahi Omar Mohamed, a 17-year-old Somali refugee, was shot and injured by Salt Lake City, Utah, police after allegedly being involved in a confrontation with another person. The shooting led to BLM protests.
In June, members of BLM and Color of Change protested the California conviction and sentencing of Jasmine Richards for a 2015 incident in which she attempted to stop a police officer from arresting another woman. Richards was convicted of "attempting to unlawfully take a person from the lawful custody of a peace officer", a charge that the state penal code had designated as "lynching" until that word was removed two months prior to the incident.
On July 5, Alton Sterling, a 37-year-old black man, was shot several times at point-blank range while pinned to the ground by two white Baton Rouge Police Department officers in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. On the night of July 5, more than 100 demonstrators in Baton Rouge shouted, "no justice, no peace," set off fireworks, and blocked an intersection to protest Sterling's death. On July 6, Black Lives Matter held a candlelight vigil in Baton Rouge, with chants of "We love Baton Rouge" and calls for justice.
On July 6, Philando Castile was fatally shot by Jeronimo Yanez, a St. Anthony, Minnesota police officer, after being pulled over in Falcon Heights, a suburb of St. Paul. Castile was driving a car with his girlfriend and her 4-year-old daughter as passengers when he was pulled over by Yanez and another officer. According to his girlfriend, after being asked for his license and registration, Castile told the officer he was licensed to carry a weapon and had one in the car. She stated: "The officer said don't move. As he was putting his hands back up, the officer shot him in the arm four or five times." She live-streamed a video on Facebook in the immediate aftermath of the shooting. Following the fatal shooting of Castile, BLM protested throughout Minnesota and the United States.
On July 7, a BLM protest was held in Dallas, Texas, that was organized to protest the deaths of Alton Sterling and Philando Castile. At the end of the peaceful protest, Micah Xavier Johnson opened fire in an ambush, killing five police officers and wounding seven others and two civilians. The gunman was then killed by a robot-delivered bomb. Before he died, according to police, Johnson said that "he was upset about Black Lives Matter", and that "he wanted to kill white people, especially white officers." Texas Lt. Governor Dan Patrick and other conservative lawmakers blamed the shootings on the Black Lives Matter movement. The Black Lives Matter network released a statement denouncing the shootings. On July 8, more than 100 people were arrested at Black Lives Matter protests across the United States.
In the first half of July, there were at least 112 protests in 88 American cities. On July 13, NBA stars LeBron James, Carmelo Anthony, Chris Paul, and Dwyane Wade opened the 2016 ESPY Awards with a Black Lives Matter message. On July 26, Black Lives Matter held a protest in Austin, Texas, to mark the third anniversary of the shooting death of Larry Jackson Jr. On July 28, Chicago Police Department officers shot Paul O'Neal in the back and killed him following a car chase. After the shooting, hundreds marched in Chicago, Illinois.
In Randallstown, Maryland, near Baltimore, on August 1, police officers shot and killed Korryn Gaines, a 23-year-old African American woman, also shooting and injuring her son. Gaines' death was protested in Baltimore.
In August, Black Lives Matter protested in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania the death of Bruce Kelley Jr., who was shot after fatally stabbing a police dog while trying to escape from police the previous January.
In August, several professional athletes began participating in National Anthem protests. The protests began in the National Football League (NFL) after Colin Kaepernick of the San Francisco 49ers sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, before his team's third preseason game of 2016. During a post-game interview he explained his position stating, "I am not going to stand up to show pride in a flag for a country that oppresses black people and people of color. To me, this is bigger than football and it would be selfish on my part to look the other way. There are bodies in the street and people getting paid leave and getting away with murder," a protest widely interpreted as in solidarity with the Black Lives Matter movement. The protests have generated mixed reactions and have since spread to other U.S. sports leagues.
In September, BLM protested the shooting deaths by police officers of Terence Crutcher in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and Keith Lamont Scott in Charlotte, North Carolina. The Charlotte Observer reported "The protesters began to gather as night fell, hours after the shooting. They held themed signs that said 'Stop Killing Us' and 'Black Lives Matter,' and they chanted 'No justice, no peace.' The scene was sometimes chaotic and tense, with water bottles and stones chucked at police lines, but many protesters called for peace and implored their fellow demonstrators not to act violently." Multiple nights of protests in September and October were held in El Cajon, California, following the killing of Alfred Olango.
=== 2017 ===
During the 2017 Black History Month, a month-long "Black Lives Matter" art exhibition was organized by three Richmond, Virginia artists at the First Unitarian Universalist Church of Richmond in the Byrd Park area of the city. The show featured more than 30 diverse multicultural artists on a theme exploring racial equality and justice.
In the same month Virginia Commonwealth University's (VCU) James Branch Cabell Library focused on a month-long schedule of events relating to African-American history and showed photos from the church's "Black Lives Matter" exhibition on its outdoor screen. The VCU schedule of events also included: the Real Life Film Series The Angry Heart: The Impact of Racism on Heart Disease among African-Americans; Keith Knight presented the 14th Annual VCU Libraries Black History Month lecture; Lawrence Ross, author of the book Blackballed: The Black and White Politics of Race on America's Campuses talked about how his book related to the "Black Lives Matter" movement; and Velma P. Scantlebury, M.D., the first black female transplant surgeon in the United States, discussed "Health Equity in Kidney Transplantation: Experiences from a surgeon's perspective."
Black Lives Matter protested the killing of Jocques Clemmons which occurred in Nashville, Tennessee on February 10, 2017. On May 12, 2017, a day after Glenn Funk, the district attorney of Davidson County decided not to prosecute police officer Joshua Lippert, the Nashville chapter of BLM held a demonstration near the Vanderbilt University campus all the way to the residence of Nashville mayor Megan Barry.
On September 27 at the College of William & Mary, students associated with Black Lives Matter protested an American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) event because the ACLU had fought for the right of the Unite the Right rally to be held in Charlottesville, Virginia. William & Mary's president Taylor Reveley responded with a statement defending the college's commitment to open debate.
=== 2018 ===
In February and March 2018, as part of its social justice focus, First Unitarian Church of Richmond, Virginia in Richmond, Virginia presented its Second Annual Black Lives Matter Art Exhibition. Works of art in the exhibition were projected at scheduled hours on the large exterior screen (jumbotron) at Virginia Commonwealth University's Cabell Library. Artists with art in the exhibition were invited to discuss their work in the Black Lives Matter show as it was projected at an evening forum in a small amphitheater at VCU's Hibbs Hall. They were also invited to exhibit afterward at a local showing of the 1961 film adaptation of A Raisin in the Sun.
In April, CNN reported that the largest Facebook account claiming to be a part of the "Black Lives Matter" movement was a "scam" tied to a white man in Australia. The account, with 700,000 followers, was linked to fundraisers that raised $100,000 or more, purportedly for U.S. Black Lives Matter causes; however, some of the money was instead transferred to Australian bank accounts, according to CNN. Facebook has suspended the offending page.
=== 2020 ===
On February 23, 2020, Ahmaud Arbery, an unarmed 25-year-old African American man, was murdered while jogging in Glynn County, Georgia. Arbery had been pursued and confronted by three white residents driving two vehicles, including a father and son who were armed. All three men were indicted on nine counts, including felony murder.
On March 13, Louisville police officers knocked down the apartment door of 26-year-old African American Breonna Taylor, serving a no-knock search warrant for drug suspicions. After her boyfriend shot a police officer in the leg, Police fired several shots which led to her death. Her boyfriend called 911 and said, "someone kicked in the door and shot my girlfriend". Protests were held in Louisville with calls for police reform.
==== George Floyd protests ====
At the end of May, spurred on by a rash of racially charged events including those above, over 450 major protests were held in cities and towns across the United States and three continents. The breaking point was due primarily to the murder of George Floyd by Minneapolis police officer Derek Chauvin, eventually charged with second-degree murder after a video circulated showing Chauvin kneeling on Floyd's neck for nearly nine minutes while Floyd pleaded for his life, repeating: "I can't breathe." Following protesters' demands for additional prosecutions, three other officers were charged with aiding and abetting second-degree murder.
Black Lives Matter organized rallies in the United States and worldwide from May 30 onwards, with protesters enacting Floyd's final moments, many lying down in streets and on bridges, yelling "I can't breathe," while others marched by the thousands, some carrying signs that read, "Tell your brother in blue, don't shoot"—"Who do you call when the murderer wears a badge?" and "Justice for George Floyd." While global and supported by several unassociated organizations, the Black Lives Matter movement has been inextricably linked to these monumental protests. Black Lives Matter called to "defund the police", a slogan with varying interpretations from police abolition to divestment from police and prisons to reinvestment in social services in communities of color. In 2020, NPR reported that the Washington D.C. Black Lives Matter chapter's demands were defunding the police, halting the construction of new jails, decriminalizing sex work, removing police from schools, exonerating protesters and abolishing cash bail in Maryland.
On June 5, Washington, D.C.'s Mayor Muriel Bowser announced that part of the street outside the White House had been officially renamed to Black Lives Matter Plaza, posted with a street sign.
On June 7, in the wake of global George Floyd protests and Black Lives Matter's call to "defund the police", the Minneapolis City Council voted to "disband its police department" to shift funding to social programs in communities of color. City Council President Lisa Bender said, "Our efforts at incremental reform have failed. Period." The council vote came after the Minneapolis Public Schools, the University of Minnesota and Minneapolis Parks and Recreation cut ties with the Minneapolis Police Department. At the end of 2020, approximately $8 million of the city's $179 million police budget was reallocated for violence prevention pilot programs and was considered the type of incremental reform that activists and politicians had earlier denounced.
On July 20, the Strike for Black Lives, organized in part by Black Lives Matter, featured thousands of workers across the United States performing a walkout to raise awareness of systemic racism following Floyd's murder.
From May 26 to August 22, there were more than 7,750 BLM-linked demonstrations in over 2,240 locations throughout the United States.
While the majority of protests were peaceful, some escalated into riots, looting, and street skirmishes with police and counter-protesters. By the end of June 2020, at least 14,000 people had been arrested. By June 2020, more than 19 people had died in relation to the unrest. Arson, vandalism, and looting that occurred between May 26 and June 8 caused approximately $1–2 billion in insured damages nationally, the highest recorded damage from civil disorder in U.S. history, and surpassing the record set during the 1992 Los Angeles riots.
=== 2021 ===
On April 20, 2021, a jury, consisting of six white people and six people of color, found Chauvin guilty on three counts: unintentional second-degree murder; third-degree murder; and second-degree manslaughter.
=== 2022 ===
In Illinois, Olivia Butts organized an effort to get the elimination of cash bail passed for 2023 under a new bill known as the SAFE-T Act.
As a result of 2021 marijuana legalization efforts, Black Lives Matter activist Lexis Figuereo's conviction was expunged in New York.
=== 2023 ===
A vigil was held for the death of Keenan Anderson, who was killed by a police officer of the Los Angeles Police Department. Anderson was the cousin of Black Lives Matter co-founder Patrisse Cullors. The releasing of camera footage regarding the death of Tyre Nichols in January 2023 led to protests in Memphis. Al Sharpton of the National Action Network spoke on the matter upon the release of bodycam footage.
A ruling made by the Supreme Court of Alabama continues to prevent most police body camera footage, including that related to Joseph Pettaway, who bled to death in 2018 after being bitten by a police dog, from being released to the public. In December 2022 Judge Jerusha Adams again blocked the release of video footage related to Pettaways' death.
=== 2025 ===
In March 2025, Andrew Clyde (R-GA) introduced a bill in the House of Representatives that would withhold certain federal funding from the city unless Black Lives Matter Plaza is renamed "Liberty Plaza", the mural is removed, and the city removes all references to "Black Lives Matter" from any official publications. On March 10, 2025, city crews began to remove the installation; Mayor Bowser stated that the removal was the result of threats of encroachment from both President Donald Trump and the Republican-controlled Congress. She stated that "the mural inspired millions of people and helped our city through a painful period, but now we can't afford to be distracted by meaningless congressional interference. The devastating impacts of the federal job cuts must be our number one concern". It was stated that the plaza would receive new art by students and artists as part of DC's America 250 mural project.
== International movement ==
In 2015, after the death of Freddie Gray in Baltimore, Maryland, black activists around the world modeled efforts for reform on Black Lives Matter and the Arab Spring. This international movement has been referred to as the "Black Spring". Connections have also been forged with parallel international efforts such as the Dalit rights movement.
=== Australia ===
Following the death of Ms Dhu in police custody in August 2014, protests often made reference to the BLM movement. In July 2016, a BLM rally was organized in Melbourne, Australia, which 3,500 people attended. The protest also emphasized the issues of mistreatment of Aboriginal Australians by the Australian police and government.
In May 2017, Black Lives Matter was awarded the Sydney Peace Prize, which "honours a nominee who has promoted 'peace with justice', human rights and non-violence".
In early June 2020, soon after the George Floyd protests in the US, protests took place in Australia, with many of them focusing on the local issue of Aboriginal deaths in custody, racism in Australia and other injustices faced by Indigenous Australians. Cricketer Michael Holding criticized Australia, as well as England, for refusing to take a knee in support of Black Lives Matter during cricket matches.
=== Brazil ===
Blacks in Brazil suffer from economic marginalization, state violence, discrimination, and lower life-expectancy. In June 2020, two Black children, 5-year-old Miguel Otávio Santana da Silva and 14-year-old João Pedro Matos Pinto, died in Brazil. Miguel Otávio Santana da Silva was under the watch of the white boss of his mother when he fell off the balcony of a building. João Pedro Matos Pinto was shot in the back by police in Rio de Janeiro during a raid where the police discharged seventy shots. He was killed the same week as George Floyd. Their deaths prompted protests in cities across the country. The slogan "Black Lives Matter" was translated to "Vidas Negras Importam" in Portuguese. Protests continued throughout 2020 and were renewed at the end of the year after supermarket security guards beat 40-year-old welder João Alberto Silveira Freitas to death in Porto Alegre.
=== Canada ===
In July 2015, BLM protesters shut down Allen Road in Toronto, Ontario, protesting the shooting deaths of two black men in the metropolitan area—Andrew Loku and Jermaine Carby—at the hands of police. In September, BLM activists shut down streets in Toronto, citing police brutality and solidarity with "marginalized black lives" as reason for the shutdown. Black Lives Matter was a featured part of the Take Back the Night event in Toronto.
In June 2016, Black Lives Matter was selected by Pride Toronto as the honored group in that year's Pride parade, during which they staged a sit-in to block the parade from moving forward for approximately half an hour. They issued several demands for Pride to adjust its relationship with LGBTQ people of color, including stable funding and a suitable venue for the established Blockorama event, improved diversity in the organization's staff and volunteer base, and that Toronto Police officers be banned from marching in the parade in uniform. Pride executive director Mathieu Chantelois signed BLM's statement of demand, but later asserted that he had signed it only to end the sit-in and get the parade moving, and had not agreed to honor the demands.
In late August 2016, the Toronto chapter protested outside the Special Investigations Unit in Mississauga in response to the death of Abdirahman Abdi, who died during an arrest in Ottawa.
In 2020, the death of Regis Korchinski-Paquet and the killing of D'Andre Campbell in Canada sparked BLM protests demanding the defunding of police services.
As of December 2020, there are five Canadian BLM chapters in Toronto, Vancouver, Waterloo Region, Edmonton, and New Brunswick.
The other focal point of the Black Lives Matter movement in Canada is addressing issues, racism and other injustices faced by Indigenous Canadians.
=== Denmark ===
In Denmark, an organization named Black Lives Matter Denmark was founded in 2016 by Bwalya Sørensen, a woman from Zambia who came to Denmark when she was 19 years old. The organization is centered around Sørensen and mainly focuses on rejected asylum seekers and criminal foreigners, sentenced to expulsion from Denmark. The connection to the U.S. organization is unclear, but Sørensen has said she was encouraged by someone in the U.S. to start a Danish chapter, and that she, in 2017, was visited by the U.S. co-founder, Ayọ Tometi.
In June 2020, following the murder of George Floyd, Black Lives Matter Denmark held a demonstration in Copenhagen that attracted 15,000 participants. Following the demonstration, the organization and Sørensen, in particular, received much criticism because the rules separated people by ethnicity: at the demonstration, only black people could be in front, and white people were disallowed from participating in some chants. Other controversies included Sørensen refusing to co-host a demonstration with Amnesty International because their employees were white, and illegally raising money, while calling the missing fundraising permit peaceful "civil disobedience". Sørensen herself has been criticized for splitting the movement with her confrontational style.
A new organization, named Afro Danish Collective, was announced in June 2020, with Roger Matthisen, a former member of the Folketing for The Alternative, as spokesperson. The organization has similar goals to Black Lives Matter Denmark, but will take a more moderate approach, including not distinguishing between people at demonstrations based on their skin color. Matthisen said Afro Danish Collective was in part established because the leadership of Black Lives Matter Denmark had not been professional enough.
=== France ===
On July 18, 2020, thousands of protesters marched near Paris to commemorate the fourth anniversary of the death of Adama Traoré. Traoré, a black man, was arrested in July 2016 and fainted after being pinned to the ground by police officers. He later died at a police station; the circumstances of his death are unclear. Racial tensions continued with unrest in 2023 after the killing of teenager Nahel Merzouk.
=== Germany ===
On June 6, 2020, tens of thousands of people gathered across Germany to support the Black Lives Matter movement. On July 18, 2020, more than 1,500 protesters participated in an anti-racism march in Berlin to condemn police brutality.
=== Japan ===
In the wake of the murder of George Floyd, several demonstrations took place in Japan, including a 1,000-person demonstration in Osaka on June 7, 2020, and a 3,500-person march through the streets of Shibuya and Harajuku areas of Tokyo on June 14, 2020. The movement has been met with some backlash in the country, notably on the internet, where some users criticized tennis player Naomi Osaka after she encouraged people to join a Black Lives Matter march in the city of Osaka.
=== New Zealand ===
On June 1, 2020, several BLM solidarity protests in response to the murder of George Floyd were held in several New Zealand cities including Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Tauranga, Palmerston North and Hamilton. The Auckland event, which attracted between 2,000 and 4,000 participants, was organized by several members of New Zealand's African community. Auckland organizer Mahlete Tekeste, African American expatriate Kainee Simone, and sportsperson Israel Adesanya compared racism, mass incarceration, and police violence against African Americans to the over-representation of Māori and Pacific Islanders in New Zealand prisons, the controversial armed police response squad trials, and existing racism against minorities in New Zealand including the 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings. Hip hop artist and music producer Mazbou Q also called on Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern to condemn violence against black Americans.
The left-wing Green Party, a member of the Labour-led coalition government, has also expressed support for the Black Lives Matter movement, linking the plight of African Americans to the racism, inequality, and higher incarceration rate experienced by the Māori and Pasifika communities. The BLM protests in New Zealand attracted criticism from Deputy Prime Minister Winston Peters for violating the country's COVID-19 pandemic social distancing regulations banning mass gatherings of over 100 people.
=== United Kingdom ===
Black Lives Matter emerged as a movement in the UK in the summer of 2016. Thousands attended protests against police racism in Manchester on July 11, and a group called Black Lives Matter UK (UKBLM) was set up in the wake of the June 23 Brexit referendum at a meeting addressed by US BLM activist Patrisse Cullors. On August 4, 2016, BLM protesters blocked London City Airport in London, England. Several demonstrators chained themselves together on the airport's runway. Nine people were arrested in connection with the incident. There were also BLM-themed protests in other English cities, including Birmingham and Nottingham. The UK-held protests marked the fifth anniversary of the shooting death of Mark Duggan.
In 2016, tabloid newspapers ran several stories seeking to expose and discredit BLM activists, leading the movement to adopt anonymity. On June 25, 2017, BLM supporters protested in Stratford, London over the death of Edson Da Costa, who died in police custody. There were no arrests made at the protest. According to Patrick Vernon, BLM's start in the UK in 2016 was not met with respect. From 2018 onwards, after events like the Grenfell Tower fire and the Windrush scandal, the movement was viewed more favorably by black Britons, in particular senior black Britions. In December 2019, Black Lives Matter UK worked with the coalition Wretched of the Earth to represent the voices of global indigenous peoples and people of color in the climate justice movement.
In 2020, protests were held in support of the Black Lives Matter movement in the US. Following the murder of George Floyd, London protests took place in Trafalgar Square on May 31, Hyde Park on June 3, Parliament Square on June 6, and outside the US Embassy on June 7. Similar protests took place in Manchester, Bristol, and Cardiff. The UK protests not only showed solidarity with U.S. protesters, but also commemorated black people who have died in the UK, with protesters chanting, carrying signs, and sharing social media posts with names of victims including Julian Cole, Belly Mujinga, Nuno Cardoso, and Sarah Reed.
On June 7, protests continued in many towns and cities. During a Black Lives Matter protest in Bristol, the city center statue of Edward Colston, a late 17th early 18th-century philanthropist, politician and slave trader, was pulled down by protesters, rolled along the road and pushed into Bristol Harbour. The act was later condemned by Home Secretary Priti Patel who said: "This hooliganism is utterly indefensible." In London, after it was defaced a few days earlier, protesters defaced the statue of Winston Churchill, Parliament Square, Westminster with graffiti for a second time. Black spray paint was sprayed over his name, and the words "was a racist" were sprayed underneath. A protester also attempted to burn the Union Jack flag flying at the Cenotaph, a memorial to Britain's war dead. Later in the evening violence broke out between protesters and police. A total of 49 police officers were injured after demonstrators threw bottles and fireworks at them. Over the weekend, a total of 135 arrests were made by police. British Prime Minister Boris Johnson commented on the events, saying "those who attack public property or the police – who injure the police officers who are trying to keep us all safe – those people will face the full force of the law; not just because of the hurt and damage they are causing, but because of the damage they are doing to the cause they claim to represent."
Peaceful protests took place in Leeds' Millennium Square on June 14, 2020 organized by a coalition of organizations: Black Voices Matter', which included Black Lives Matter Leeds. A second protest was held on Woodhouse Moor on June 21, organized by Black Lives Matter Leeds.
On June 28, Black Lives Matter UK faced criticism for making a series of tweets from their verified Twitter account regarding Israel, including one that claims "mainstream British politics is gagged of the right to critique Zionism". The Premier League, who were carrying the Black Lives Matter logo on their football shirts for the rest of the 2019–20 season, subsequently said that attempts by groups to hijack the cause to suit their own political ends are entirely unwelcome.
After receiving considerable donations in summer 2020, Black Lives Matter UK formalised its organisation. In September 2020, the group changed its official name to Black Liberation Movement UK and became legally registered as a community benefit society. However, the group still uses the Black Lives Matter name in its global cooperative efforts. In January 2021, the Black Liberation Movement began to distribute its funds to grassroots black-led and anti-racist organisations across the UK. Activists from a different BLM group, Charles Gordon and Sasha Johnson, founded the Taking The Initiative Party (TTIP) in the summer of 2020 had applied to register as a political party through the Electoral Commission; however, BLM UK said "BLM UK has no intention to set up a political party. This person or group is not affiliated with us."
In September 2021, British businessman and philanthropist Ken Olisa revealed to Channel 4 that Elizabeth II and the British royal family are supporters of Black Lives Matter. In response, a spokesperson for Black Lives Matter UK said "We were surprised to learn the Queen is a BLM supporter. But we welcome anyone that agrees with our goal of dismantling white supremacy. Of course, actions speak louder than words. The Queen sits on a throne made from colonial plunder. Until she gives back all the stolen gold and diamonds from the Commonwealth and pays reparations, these are nothing more than warm words."
In October 2021, The Guardian and The Times reported that a covert police unit in South Wales attempted to recruit a Black Lives Matter protester to be an informant and supply further information about far-right activists who had marched in support of Black Lives Matter. In February 2022, the Swansea chapter of BLM announced it would be closing due to "attempted recruitment by the police and threats to its members' physical and mental safety from far-right activists".
In July 2024, the Black Lives Matter UK Festival of Collective Liberation took place at Friends House, London, attended by more than 600 activists and supporters.
== 2016 United States presidential election ==
=== Primaries ===
==== Democrats ====
At the Netroots Nation Conference in July 2015, dozens of Black Lives Matter activists took over the stage at an event featuring Martin O'Malley and Bernie Sanders. Activists, including Black Lives Matter co-founder Patrisse Cullors, asked both candidates for specific policy proposals to address deaths in police custody. The protesters chanted several slogans, including "if I die in police custody, burn everything down" and "Shut this crap down". The expression "Shut it down" would go on to become a popular phrase in Black Lives Matter protests and on social media.
After conference organizers pleaded with the protesters for several minutes, O'Malley responded by pledging to release a wide-ranging plan for criminal justice reform. Protesters later booed O'Malley when he stated, "Black lives matter. White lives matter. All lives matter." O'Malley later apologized for his remarks, saying that he did not mean to disrespect the black community.
On August 8, 2015, a speech by Democratic presidential candidate and civil rights activist Bernie Sanders was disrupted by a group who would go on to found the Seattle Chapter of Black Lives Matter including chapter co-founder Marissa Johnson who walked onstage, seized the microphone from him and called his supporters racists and white supremacists. Sanders issued a platform in response. Nikki Stephens, the operator of a Facebook page called "Black Lives Matter: Seattle" issued an apology to Sanders' supporters, claiming these actions did not represent her understanding of BLM. She was then sent messages by members of the Seattle Chapter, which she described as threatening, and was forced to change the name of her group to "Black in Seattle". The founders of Black Lives Matter stated that they had not issued an apology. In August 2015, the Democratic National Committee passed a resolution supporting Black Lives Matter.
In the first Democratic primary debate, the presidential candidates were asked whether black lives matter or all lives matter. In reply, Bernie Sanders stated, "Black lives matter." Martin O'Malley said, "Black lives matter," and that the "movement is making is a very, very legitimate and serious point, and that is that as a nation we have undervalued the lives of black lives, people of color." In response, Hillary Clinton pushed for criminal justice reform, and said, "We need a new New Deal for communities of color." Jim Webb, on the other hand, replied: "As the president of the United States, every life in this country matters." Hillary Clinton was not directly asked the same question, but was instead asked: "What would you do for African Americans in this country that President Obama couldn't?" Clinton had already met with Black Lives Matter representatives, and emphasized what she described as a more pragmatic approach to enacting change, stating "Look, I don't believe you change hearts. I believe you change laws". Without policy change, she felt "we'll be back here in 10 years having the same conversation." In June 2015, Clinton used the phrase "all lives matter" in a speech about the opportunities of young people of color, prompting backlash that she may misunderstand the message of "Black Lives Matter."
A week after the first Democratic primary debate was held in Las Vegas, BLM launched a petition targeted at the DNC and its chairwoman Debbie Wasserman Schultz demanding more debates, and "specifically for a #BlackLivesMatter themed Presidential debate." The petition received over 10,000 signatures within 24 hours of being launched, and had over 33,000 signatures as of October 27, 2015. The DNC said that it would permit presidential candidates to attend a presidential town hall organized by activists, but that it would not add another debate to its official schedule. In response, the organization released a press statement on its Facebook page stating that "[i]n consultation with our chapters, our communities, allies, and supporters, we remain unequivocal that a Presidential Town Hall with support from the DNC does not sufficiently respond to the concerns raised by our members", continuing to demand a full additional debate.
After the first debate, in October 2015, a speech by Hillary Clinton on criminal justice reform and race at Atlanta University Center was interrupted by BLM activists.
In February 2016, two Black Lives Matter activists protested at a private fundraiser for Clinton about statements she made in 1996 in which she referred to young people as "super-predators". One of the activists wanted Clinton to apologize for "mass incarceration" in connection with her support for her husband, then-President Bill Clinton's 1994 criminal reform law.
==== Republicans ====
Republican candidates have been mostly critical of BLM. In August 2015, Ben Carson, the only African American vying for the Republican nomination for the presidency, called the movement "silly". Carson also said that BLM should care for all black lives, not just a few. In the first Republican presidential debate, which took place in Cleveland, one question referenced Black Lives Matter. In response to the question, Scott Walker advocated for the proper training of law enforcement and blamed the movement for rising anti-police sentiment, while Marco Rubio was the first candidate to publicly sympathize with the movement's point of view.
In August 2015, activists chanting "Black Lives Matter" interrupted the Las Vegas rally of Republican presidential candidate Jeb Bush. As Bush exited early, some of his supporters started responding to the protesters by chanting "white lives matter" or "all lives matter".
Several conservative pundits have labeled the movement a "hate group". Candidate Chris Christie, the New Jersey Governor, criticized President Obama for supporting BLM, stating that the movement calls for the murder of police officers. Christie's statement was condemned by New Jersey chapters of the NAACP and ACLU.
BLM activists also called on the Republican National Committee to have a presidential debate focused on issues of racial justice. The RNC, however, declined to alter their debate schedule, and instead also supported a townhall or forum.
In November 2015, a BLM protester was physically assaulted at a Donald Trump rally in Birmingham, Alabama. In response, Trump said, "maybe he should have been roughed up because it was absolutely disgusting what he was doing." Trump had previously threatened to fight any Black Lives Matter protesters if they attempted to speak at one of his events.
In March 2016, Black Lives Matter helped organize the 2016 Donald Trump Chicago rally protest that forced Trump to cancel the event. Four individuals were arrested and charged in the incident; two were "charged with felony aggravated battery to a police officer and resisting arrest", one was "charged with two misdemeanor counts of resisting and obstructing a peace officer", and the fourth "was charged with one misdemeanor count of resisting and obstructing a peace officer". A CBS reporter was one of those arrested outside the rally. He was charged with resisting arrest.
=== General election ===
A group called Mothers of the Movement, which includes the mothers of Michael Brown, Sandra Bland, Eric Garner, and other mothers whose "unarmed African American children have been killed by law enforcement or due to gun violence," addressed the 2016 Democratic National Convention on July 26.
Commenting on the first of 2016 presidential debates between Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump, some media outlets characterized Clinton's references to implicit bias and systemic racism as speaking "the language of the Black Lives Matter movement," while others pointed out neither Clinton nor Trump used the words "Black Lives Matter."
In a Washington Post op-ed, DeRay Mckesson endorsed Hillary Clinton, because her "platform on racial justice is strong". He articulated that voting alone is not the only way to bring about "transformational change". He said that "I voted my entire life, and I was still tear-gassed in the streets of St. Louis and Baltimore. I voted my entire life, and those votes did not convict the killers of Sandra Bland, Freddie Gray or Michael Brown".
== 2024 United States presidential election ==
In July 2024, Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation released a statement opposing the Democratic Party's decision to nominate Kamala Harris for president without a primary election, describing the process as "anointing" Harris as the nominee without a public vote. The organization argued that installing Harris as the Democratic nominee without a primary vote undermined democratic principles, stating that such a move "would make the modern Democratic Party a party of hypocrites." BLM called on the Democratic National Committee to host a virtual primary to allow voter participation in the nomination process.
BLM's stance sparked discussions about transparency and democratic engagement within the Democratic Party ahead of the 2024 presidential election. The organization reiterated its call for a more open process, expressing concerns about the potential lack of representation and accountability in the nomination procedure.
== Reactions and legacy ==
The United States population's perception of Black Lives Matter has varied consistently and considerably by race and political affiliation. A majority of Americans disapproved of the movement through 2018, after which it started gaining wider support. Black Lives Matter's popularity surged and reached its highest levels yet in the summer of 2020, when a Pew Research Center poll found that 60% of white, 77% of Hispanic, 75% of Asian and 86% of African-Americans either strongly supported or somewhat supported BLM. However, its popularity had declined considerably in September of the same year, when another Pew Research Center poll showed that its overall approval ratings among all American adults had gone down by 12 percentage points to 55%, and that 45% of whites, 66% of Hispanics and 69% of Asians now approved of it. Support remained widespread among black-American adults at 87%.
A Politico-Morning Consult poll done in September 2020, as well as a Civiqs poll conducted in November 2021, had also found declining support for the movement. A 2022 YouGov poll found declining support for BLM among African-Americans. An April 2023 Pew Research Center poll found that only 51% of Americans supported the BLM movement, while 46% opposed the movement. In the same poll, 81% of African Americans said they still supported the movement. A May 2024 Harvard/Harris poll showed that only 45% of Americans had favorable opinions of BLM.
The phrase "All Lives Matter" sprang up as a response to the Black Lives Matter movement, but has been criticized for dismissing or misunderstanding the message of "Black Lives Matter". Following the shooting of two police officers in Ferguson, the hashtag Blue Lives Matter was created by supporters of the police. A few civil rights leaders have disagreed with tactics used by Black Lives Matter activists. Public and academic debate at large has arisen over the structure and tactics used.
While the vast majority of Democrats have voiced support for Black Lives Matter, few Republicans have done the same. President Donald Trump has been a vocal critic of Black Lives Matter, citing incidents of violence and looting at some Black Lives Matter protests. He has also used the protests as a means to promote law and order rhetoric and appealed to the grievances of some white people. Joe Biden, who ran against Trump in the 2020 U.S. presidential election, supported Black Lives Matter.
In the weeks following the murder of George Floyd, many corporations came out in support of the movement, donating and enacting policy changes per the group's ethos.
=== "All Lives Matter" ===
The phrase "All Lives Matter" sprang up as a response to the Black Lives Matter movement, shortly after the movement gained national attention. Several notable individuals have supported All Lives Matter. Its proponents include Senator Tim Scott. NFL cornerback Richard Sherman supports the All Lives Matter message, saying "I stand by what I said that All Lives Matter and that we are human beings." According to an August 2015 telephone poll, 78% of likely American voters said that the statement "all lives matter" was closest to their own personal views when compared to "black lives matter" or neither. Only 11% said that the statement "black lives matter" was closest. Nine percent said that neither statement reflected their own personal point of view.
According to professor David Theo Goldberg, "All Lives Matter" reflects a view of "racial dismissal, ignoring, and denial". Professor Charles "Chip" Linscott said that "All Lives Matter" promotes the "erasure of structural anti-black racism and black social death in the name of formal and ideological equality and post-racial colorblindness".
Co-founder Alicia Garza has responded to criticism of the movement's exclusivity, writing, "#BlackLivesMatter doesn't mean your life isn't important – it means that Black lives, which are seen without value within White supremacy, are important to your liberation." President Barack Obama spoke about the debate between Black Lives Matter and All Lives Matter. Obama said, "I think that the reason that the organizers used the phrase Black Lives Matter was not because they were suggesting that no one else's lives matter ... rather what they were suggesting was there is a specific problem that is happening in the African American community that's not happening in other communities." He also said "that is a legitimate issue that we've got to address."
=== "Blue Lives Matter" ===
Blue Lives Matter is a countermovement in the United States supporting law enforcement officers and advocating that those who are prosecuted and convicted of killing law enforcement officers should be sentenced under hate crime statutes. It was started in response to Black Lives Matter after the homicides of NYPD officers Rafael Ramos and Wenjian Liu in Brooklyn, New York on December 20, 2014.
Following the shooting of two police officers in Ferguson and in response to BLM, the hashtag #BlueLivesMatter was created by supporters of the police. Following this, Blue Lives Matter became a pro-police officer movement in the United States, expanding after the killings of five police officers by a sniper in Dallas, Texas, who cited police shootings of Black people as his motive.
Criticized by the ACLU and others, the movement inspired a state law in Louisiana that made it a hate crime to target police officers, firefighters, and emergency medical service personnel.
The movement has been strongly criticized after the 2021 United States Capitol attack after pro-Trump rioters were seen showing support for the movement, with some bringing Blue Lives Matter flags to the protest. Many have called the movement hypocritical, as people in the mob assaulted Capitol police officers. One African American Capitol police officer, Harry Dunn, described being beaten with a Blue Lives Matter flag while rioters shouted racial slurs at him. This has led some to argue that Blue Lives Matter is more about suppressing minorities than supporting law enforcement.
=== "White Lives Matter" ===
White Lives Matter is an activist group created in response to Black Lives Matter. In August 2016, the Southern Poverty Law Center added "White Lives Matter" to its list of hate groups. The group has also been active in the United Kingdom. The "White Lives Matter" slogan was chanted by torch-wielding alt-right protesters during the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia. On October 28, 2017, numerous "White Lives Matter" rallies broke out in Tennessee. Dominated in Shelbyville particularly, protesters justified their movement in response to the increasing number of immigrants and refugees to Middle Tennessee. "White Lives Matter" movements have also been present in European football, with instances of corresponding banners being raised at stadiums in the Czech Republic, Ukraine, Hungary, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. White Lives Matter has also been promoted by white nationalists.
=== Disinformation ===
The Anti-Defamation League reports numerous attempts to spread disinformation about BLM, citing as examples mid-June 2020 posts "featuring a sticker instructing people to 'kill a white on sight' spread on Facebook and Twitter. The sticker included the hashtags #BlackLivesMatter and #Antifa." On Telegram, a "white supremacist channel encouraged members to distribute the propaganda." Another disinformation campaign, originating in June 2020 on 4chan, had the "goal of getting the hashtags #AllWhitesAreNazis (#AWAN) trending on Twitter. Organizers hoped to commandeer hashtags like #BlackLivesMatter and #BLM with a high volume of tweets—purportedly from Black activist accounts—containing the #AWAN hashtag." According to the ADL, the campaign's supporters hoped to sow tension and promote white supremacist accelerationism.
Conservative pundits such as Ryan Fournier and Candace Owens have falsely claimed that ActBlue funnels donations intended for Black Lives Matter to Democratic candidates, with some going so far as to allege the organization is a money laundering scam.
According to scholars, Russian operatives associated with the Internet Research Agency have engaged in a sustained campaign to simultaneously promote the Black Lives Matter movement as well as to oppose it. In some cases, Russian operatives encouraged antagonism and violence toward BLM members.
==== Fake manifesto ====
In June 2020, an unknown party created a website at BLMManifesto.com purporting to be the manifesto of the BLM movement. The text mimics a 1919 Italian Fascist Manifesto, modified to relate to racial injustice. According to Snopes, the website appears intended to discredit the BLM movement.
=== Statistics ===
The United States population's perception of Black Lives Matter varies considerably by race. According to a September 2015 poll on race relations, nearly two-thirds of African Americans mostly agree with Black Lives Matter, while 30% of black Americans and 37% of white Americans do not have an opinion about Black Lives Matter. Of white people surveyed, 41% thought that Black Lives Matter advocated violence, and 59% of whites thought that Black Lives Matter distracted attention from the real issues of racial discrimination. By comparison, 82% of black people polled thought that Black Lives Matter was a nonviolent movement, and 26% of black people thought that Black Lives Matter distracted attention from the real issues of racial discrimination. On the question of whether "Black Lives Matter" was mostly a movement or mostly a slogan, 46% of whites and 67% of blacks thought that it is mostly a movement. A nationally representative internet survey conducted by the Center for the Study of Diversity and
Democracy at Northwestern University found that 82 percent of African Americans believe that the movement is at least moderately effective at achieving its stated goals, although 64 percent of the respondents believed that the movement would be more effective if it had a more centralized leadership structure.
A poll in June 2016 found that 65% of black American adults supported Black Lives Matter, and 40% of white American adults supported it. Fifty-nine percent of black Americans thought that Black Lives Matter would "be effective, in the long run, in helping blacks achieve equality" and 34% of white Americans thought so. A 2017 Harvard-Harris survey found that 35% of whites and 83% of blacks have a favorable view of the movement.
According to an analysis by The Guardian of statistics collected by the US Crisis Monitor, during most of 2020 "US law enforcement agencies have used teargas, pepper spray, rubber bullets, and beatings at a much higher percentage at Black Lives Matter demonstrations than at pro-Trump or other rightwing protests", regardless of whether the protest was violent or peaceful. The analysis also notes that "the vast majority of the thousands of protests across the United States in the past year have been peaceful, and [...] most protests by both the left and the right were not met with any violent response by law enforcement."
==== 2020 ====
With the resurgence of Black Lives Matter in national headlines amid global protests, the movement saw an increase in support in 2020. Although they began from different perspectives, as per the New York Times' The Upshot, "all kinds of voters moved sharply in the direction of supporting the movement" just within the two weeks between late May and early June "as much as [they] had in the preceding two years." The Pew Research Center reported that "[m]ost Americans express[ed] support for the Black Lives Matter movement" during this period.
According to Terrance Woodbury, a researcher of attitudes among young adults, "[the] movement has evolved from Black people vs. the police to young people vs. racism." An online survey of people aged from 18 to 34 by the Global Strategy Group found broad support from the participants, except by those who identified as pro-Trump Republicans.
Ayọ Tometi theorizes that increased support was the result of economic anxiety and contempt for the American government's handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. Protests led by Black Lives Matter throughout the summer eventually developed into one of the larger movements in U.S. history.
However, the movement's momentum and popularity began to decline, with a Pew Research Center poll showing that support for Black Lives Matter had fallen by 12 percentage points to 55% of all American adults by September, and had returned to a net negative approval rating among white Americans as well as significantly declining in popularity among Hispanic Americans. Support remained widespread among black American adults (up 1% from June to 87%).
=== Nobel Peace Prize nomination ===
Black Lives Matter was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize in January 2021. The nomination was submitted by Norwegian activist and Member of Parliament Petter Eide. The award eventually went to journalists Maria Ressa and Dmitry Muratov.
== Criticisms ==
=== Ideology ===
Some conservatives, such as Mike Gonzalez of the Heritage Foundation, have accused Black Lives Matter of being a Marxist movement based on a comment by one of its co-founders saying that she and another co-founder "are trained Marxists." However, PolitiFact noted that "Black Lives Matter has grown into a national anti-racism movement broadly supported by Americans, few of whom would identify themselves as Marxist."
Cultural critic Fredrik deBoer placed blame on "idea-generating" individuals and institutions for the perceived failures of BLM as a social movement.
=== Tactics ===
Some black civil rights leaders such as Cecil "Chip" Murray, Najee Ali, and Earl Ofari Hutchinson have criticized BLM as disrespectful and ineffective, with Ali claiming "all they can do is disrupt and make noise." Economist Glenn Loury, while supportive of the fundamentals of the movement, has criticized backlash against "White politicians who state All Lives Matter" and the apparent polarizing effects of the movement.
In his 2018 book The Once and Future Liberal, Mark Lilla criticizes Black Lives Matter as part of his broader left-wing critique of identity politics. Though he agreed with their aims, he called their rhetoric "a textbook example in how to not build solidarity", arguing that the campaign alienates people with their negative attitude toward American society and law enforcement and with their overbearing tactics. He also compared them unfavorably to the civil rights movement leaders, who were "consciously appealing to what we share" instead of emphasizing differences of race and other identities. Lilla has in turn been criticized for "trolling disguised as erudition" and of "making white supremacy respectable, again".
=== Academic freedom ===
Some academics, including John McWhorter, John Ellis, Marybeth Gasman, and Glenn Loury
have criticized some Black Lives Matter activists as silencing speech and repressing academic freedom. They claim that the result is self-censorship, reduced academic inquiry, and research bias.
Critics claim academics have been hesitant to speak out against repression for fear of retribution.
In particular, high-profile academics have spoken out against the use of "diversity statements" in admission, hiring, and tenure decisions, including Jeffrey Flier, Dean of the Harvard Medical School, and Abigail Thompson, Vice President of the American Mathematical Society. Thompson drew comparisons to McCarthy-era loyalty oaths. When schools receive state funding, scholars have criticized Black Lives Matter pledges as unconstitutional.
=== Views on law enforcement ===
Some critics accuse Black Lives Matter of being anti-police and endorsing violence against the police. Sgt. Demetrick Pennie of the Dallas Police Department filed an unsuccessful lawsuit against Black Lives Matter in September 2016, which accused the group of inciting a "race war." Marchers using a BLM banner were recorded in a video chanting, "Pigs in a blanket, fry 'em like bacon" at the Minnesota State Fair. Law enforcement groups claim the chant promotes death to police. The protest organizer disputed that interpretation, saying: "What we are promoting is that if black people who kill police officers are going to fry, then we want police officers to face the same treatment that we face as civilians for killing officers."
=== Disconnect from underprivileged communities ===
Some black community leaders have come out against the movement as disconnected from the people it claims to represent. In opposing August 2020 budget cuts, New York City Councilman I. Daneek Miller, co-chairman of the council's Black, Latino and Asian Caucus, opposed reducing police funding and stated, "Black folks want to be safe like everyone else...we can't allow folks from outside our community to lecture us about Black lives." Vanessa Gibson of the Bronx's 16th Council District stated that, "My working-class people, my homeowners, my tenants, my neighbors—they are not out there screaming and yelling, because they have to work." Mayor Ras Baraka of Newark, New Jersey, called "defund the police" a "bourgeois liberal" solution to racism.
=== Insufficient focus on women ===
Women from within the Black Lives Matter movement, including professor and civil rights advocate Treva B. Lindsey, have argued that BLM has sidelined black women's experiences in favor of black men's experiences. For example, more demonstrations have been organized to protest the killings of Michael Brown and Trayvon Martin than the killings of Pamela Turner, Kayla Moore or Rekia Boyd.
In response, Say Her Name was founded to focus specifically on the killing of black women by police and to bring their names into the Black Lives Matter protest. Their stated goal is to offer a more complete, but non-competitive, narrative of the overall Black Lives Matter movement.
=== Mismanagement of funds ===
Allegations of mismanagement of funds by the organization Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation were raised after funds were used to purchase a home that cost $6 million in southern California to be used as a facility for a Black artists fellowship. The property included six bedrooms, a recording studio, and a swimming pool.
=== Lack of focus on unsolved murders and missing persons cases ===
Since its founding, the Black Lives Matter movement has faced significant criticism for its inherent lack of focus on unsolved murders and missing persons cases. For example, some researchers have confirmed that murders of Black victims disproportionately go unsolved.
According to FBI statistics, 40% of missing persons across the US are people of color. Kyle Pope, an editor and researcher of the Columbia Journalism Review, noticed a lack of media attention when it comes to these crimes. In 2008, Derrica and Natalie Wilson launched the Black and Missing Foundation, a non-profit to find unsolved Black murder victims across the country. In a 2021 interview, they found that unsolved murders of Black people have been disproportionately overlooked by both law enforcement and national media outlets.
== See also ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bonilla, Tabitha; Tillery Jr, Alvin B. (November 2020). "Which Identity Frames Boost Support for and Mobilization in the #BlackLivesMatter Movement? An Experimental Test". American Political Science Review. 114 (4): 947–962. doi:10.1017/S0003055420000544. ISSN 0003-0554.
Clayton, Dewey M. (2018). "Black Lives Matter and the civil rights movement: A comparative analysis of two social movements in the United States". Journal of Black Studies. 49 (5): 448–480. doi:10.1177/0021934718764099. ISSN 0021-9347.
Cobb, Jelani (March 14, 2016). "The Matter of Black Lives". The New Yorker.
Cole, Teju (July 26, 2016). "The Superhero Photographs of the Black Lives Matter Movement". The New York Times Magazine. Archived from the original on July 27, 2016.
Hayward, Clarissa Rile (April 2020). "Disruption: What Is It Good For?". The Journal of Politics. 82 (2): 448–459. doi:10.1086/706766. ISSN 0022-3816.
Hooker, Juliet (2016). "Black Lives Matter and the Paradoxes of U.S. Black Politics: From Democratic Sacrifice to Democratic Repair". Political Theory. 44 (4): 448–469. doi:10.1177/0090591716640314. ISSN 0090-5917.
Lebron, Christopher J. (2017). The Making of Black Lives Matter: A Brief History of An Idea. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-060134-8. Archived from the original on December 11, 2018.
Miller, Lisa L. (August 5, 2016). "Black Activists Don't Ignore Crime". The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 6, 2016.
Ming Francis, Megan; Wright-Rigueur, Leah (October 13, 2021). "Black Lives Matter in Historical Perspective". Annual Review of Law and Social Science. 17 (1): 441–458. doi:10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-122120-100052. ISSN 1550-3585.
Stephen, Bijan (November 2015). "Social Media Helps Black Lives Matter Fight the Power". Wired.
Stevens, Melissa (July 28, 2016). "I'm a GOP Delegate and I Wore a 'Black Lives Matter' Shirt to the RNC". Time.
Tillery Jr, Alvin B. (September 2019). "What Kind of Movement is Black Lives Matter? The View from Twitter". Journal of Race, Ethnicity, and Politics. 4 (2): 297–323. doi:10.1017/rep.2019.17. ISSN 2056-6085.
Towler, Christopher C.; Crawford, Nyron N.; Bennett, Robert A. (2020). "Shut Up and Play: Black Athletes, Protest Politics, and Black Political Action" (PDF). Perspectives on Politics. 18 (1): 111–127. doi:10.1017/S1537592719002597. ISSN 1537-5927.
Woodly, Deva R. (2022). Reckoning: Black Lives Matter and the Democratic Necessity of Social Movements. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-760395-6.
=== Bibliographies ===
Bernard, Marie Lyn (2014). "#BlackLivesMatter: A Longform Reading List". Autostraddle. USA.
Cheng, Selina (July 2016). "The complete summer reading syllabus on Black Lives Matter". Quartz.
Oakland Public Library (2014). "Listen, Learn, Participate: A #BlackLivesMatter Resource Series". California. Archived from the original on September 16, 2016. Retrieved September 15, 2016. (Bibliography)
Teller, Malcolm (July 2016). "Black Lives Matter Reference Guide". Medium.
== External links ==
Black Lives Matter Global Network Foundation, Inc.
List of 1007 Black Lives Matter demonstrations
Campaign Zero to end police violence
"Read This: #BlackLivesMatter Reads for Teens". Minnesota: Hennepin County Library. Archived from the original on September 21, 2016. (Bibliography)
"#blacklivesmatter". American Library Association, Young Adult Library Services Association. December 28, 2016. (Bibliography)
Chicago Black Lives Matter Protest Collection Archived January 25, 2021, at the Wayback Machine at the Newberry Library |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Miller_(actor) | Billy Miller (actor) | William John Miller II (September 17, 1979 – September 15, 2023) was an American actor. He was recognized for his work on American soap operas, including his award-winning work as Billy Abbott on The Young and the Restless and his dual portrayals of Jason Morgan and Drew Cain on General Hospital.
== Early life and education ==
William John Miller II was born in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and grew up in Grand Prairie, Texas. As a child, Miller spent five years as a patient of Texas Scottish Rite Hospital for Children, an organization he also supported.
Miller attended Lamar High School in Arlington, Texas, and the University of Texas in Austin, Texas, where he received a communications degree and was one of only twenty students in the film department's intensive Production Sequence.
== Career ==
After graduating from college, Miller moved out to Los Angeles where he began working in the mail room of Industry Entertainment. His first break into acting came after he signed on with the Wilhelmina modeling agency. He appeared in six commercials, including two for Electronic Arts' The Sims. He also did commercials for JCPenney, Pizza Hut and pokerparty.com.
At the age of 24, Miller screen-tested for As the World Turns, a soap opera on the CBS network; he lost the audition, citing bad management, and subsequently parted ways with his agency and management company. He took a two-year hiatus from acting after that experience.
In 2006, Miller returned to acting, starring in an episode of CSI: NY. A year later, he landed the role of Richie Novak, the murdering and blackmailing brother of Annie Lavery on All My Children, a soap opera on ABC. His first appearance was August 30, 2007. When news of the character's demise broke in August 2008, Miller began the audition process again. Barbara Bloom (Senior Vice President, Daytime, CBS Entertainment), Julie Hanan Carruthers (Executive Producer, All My Children), Marla Kanelos (former script writer, All My Children, now Associate Head Writer, The Young and the Restless) and, screen-test partners Peter Bergman and Elizabeth Hendrickson, were instrumental in his casting at The Young and the Restless, where he was cast in the role of Billy Abbott. Miller, who submitted the longest Emmy reel among all nominated performers (over 32 minutes long—an entire episode), was awarded for his work in an It's A Wonderful Life-styled episode of The Young and the Restless with his first nomination and win as Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series on June 27, 2010 as well as June 14, 2013.
In 2011, he was nominated a second time in the Outstanding Supporting Actor category for the same role. Miller also appears, as himself, in an independent film titled Remembering Nigel, which premiered at the Paso Robles Digital Film Festival on November 25, 2009.
In August 2012, it was announced Miller would be appearing in primetime as a recurring cast member on The CW's Ringer. Miller was also cast as Gabe Watson in the Lifetime made-for-TV movie Fatal Honeymoon. In November 2013, it was announced Miller would depart the role of Billy; Miller's predecessor David Tom was named as his successor in the role. Miller called his decision to leave the role the "hardest thing" he had ever done.
On September 2, 2014, General Hospital executive producer Frank Valentini announced on Twitter that Miller would join the cast as Jason Morgan. In March 2018, for his portrayal of Jason, Miller earned a nomination for Outstanding Lead Actor. In 2017, with the return of Steve Burton to the role of Jason, Miller's casting was retconned to that of his twin, Drew Cain. In July 2019, Miller announced his exit from the soap.
== Death ==
Miller died in Austin, Texas, on September 15, 2023. In a statement, Miller's mother, Patricia, revealed his death was due to suicide following his battles with bipolar depression: "He fought a long hard valiant battle with bipolar depression for years. He did everything he could to control the disease. He loved his family, his friends and his fans but in the end the disease won the fight and he surrendered his life."
The final autopsy report, conducted in November 2023 and released in the following month, concluded that Miller's death was a suicide resulting from "gunshot wound of head". Toxicology reports found the presence of "ethanol, cocaine, and its metabolites, diphenhydramine, and amphetamine". The report further detailed Miller had been found "with an apparent gunshot wound to the head", as well as "[M]ultiple letters indicating suicidal intent and instructions for others were found at the scene. A revolver chambered for .410 shotgun shells was found in the decedent's right hand."
== Filmography ==
== Awards and nominations ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Billy Miller at IMDb
Lamar High School (Arlington, Texas) Notable Alumni |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osvaldo_Fattoruso | Osvaldo Fattoruso | Osvaldo Fattoruso (12 May 1948 – 29 July 2012) was a Uruguayan musician.
He introduced rock in Latin America with his band Los Shakers, and created a fusion between jazz, rock and African rhythms.
Fattoruso died on July 29, 2012 at the age of 64 and is buried at the Cementerio del Norte, Montevideo.
He was the brother of Hugo Fattoruso and Sylvia Veronica Fattoruso.
== References ==
== External links ==
"Trio Fattoruso"
Osvaldo Fattoruso, Duelo de Tambores.
Osvaldo Fattoruso at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinkx_Monsoon#:~:text=11%20External%20links-,Early%20life,School%20and%20Grant%20High%20School. | Jinkx Monsoon | Hera Lilith Hoffer (born September 18, 1987), best known by the stage name Jinkx Monsoon, is an American drag queen, actress, singer and comedian, best-known for winning the fifth season (2013) of RuPaul's Drag Race. She made her Broadway debut in 2023 and has appeared in character roles on television and in cabaret.
Nine years after her first win on RuPaul's Drag Race, in 2022, she returned as part of an all-winners All Stars season, featuring a mixture of crowned queens from several seasons competing against one another for the title of "Queen of All Queens" and a $200,000 prize. Monsoon placed first, becoming the first two-time winner of the show across its many global franchises. Throughout her drag career, she has been noted for her wit and comedic timing, her musical theatre-inspired performances, and for celebrity impersonations, including Judy Garland, Edie "Little Edie" Bouvier Beale, and Natasha Lyonne.
She has also pursued a career in music, releasing two studio albums titled The Inevitable Album (2014) and The Ginger Snapped (2018). She has appeared in cabaret acts. In film, Monsoon appeared with her collaborative and touring partner BenDeLaCreme in the holiday film The Jinkx and DeLa Holiday Special (2021) which was later released on Hulu. On television, Monsoon appears in the WOW Presents Plus original Sketchy Queens, a series she created alongside Liam Krug, and the BBC series Doctor Who as the villain Maestro. In 2023 she made her Broadway debut in Chicago as "Mama" Morton, continued in musical theatre as Audrey in Little Shop of Horrors in New York and, in 2025, made a Carnegie Hall debut and returned to Broadway in Pirates! The Penzance Musical.
== Early life ==
Hoffer was born in an Irish Catholic household on September 18, 1987 in Portland, Oregon and raised in an unstable environment. Her father, 17 when Hoffer was born, grew up in a group home and was absent during her childhood. Her mother Deanne Hoffer, was a heavy alcoholic, leaving Hoffer at age 12 to take on a parental role for her younger siblings. She described her mother as "a woman who wasn't ready to be a mom." Her mother is intersex and has an underdeveloped testicle. She has two younger brothers and a half-sister.
Hoffer came out as gay at age 13. She first performed in drag when she was 15 years old, at the all-ages Escape Nightclub under the name Heidi Destruction. She later took the stage surname Monsoon after Edina Monsoon from the British sitcom Absolutely Fabulous. Hoffer attended da Vinci Arts Middle School and Grant High School. She worked as a janitor through college and graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in theater from Cornish College of the Arts in 2010.
Hoffer learned she was of partial Ashkenazi ancestry as a teenager; after her maternal grandmother, Judith Irwin-Hoffer, died in 2008 from complications of a stroke, she learned Judith was born to Jewish parents of Polish and Finnish descent and had been adopted by an Irish Catholic couple. Hoffer initially told The Times of Israel she was of Russian Jewish ancestry. Hoffer has said that she uses Jinkx Monsoon as a way to connect to her Jewish heritage, describing the character as a "failed Jewish actress who became every gay boy's favorite cabaret act."
== Career ==
=== 2011-2012: Career beginnings and Drag Becomes Him ===
After moving to Seattle from Portland, Hoffer and creative partner Nick Sahoyah wrote and starred in multiple Funny or Die webisodes titled Monsoon Season in which she played Jinkx Monsoon as an overbearing, substance addled, near-psychotic mother to Sahoyah's character, Kamikaze Monsoon. In 2011, Hoffer appeared in the Wes Hurley film Waxie Moon in Fallen Jewel.
In June 2011, Hoffer became the subject of a YouTube docu-series by Alex Berry, a Seattle videographer. Named after Death Becomes Her, one of Jinkx's favorite movies, Drag Becomes Him explores Hoffer's life in and out of drag.
In January 2012, Hoffer appeared as Moritz in the rock musical Spring Awakening at the Balagan Theater in Seattle. Controversy arose from The Seattle Times review by Misha Berson, who said that she was "overly flamboyant" for the role. Dan Savage defended Hoffer's portrayal of Moritz. From July 21 to August 19, she starred as Angel in the 5th Avenue Theatre's production of the musical Rent.
=== 2012–2017: RuPaul's Drag Race and The Inevitable Album ===
In November 2012, Logo announced that Jinkx Monsoon was among fourteen drag queens who would be competing on the fifth season of RuPaul's Drag Race. Monsoon was inspired to audition after seeing Sharon Needles on the fourth season of the show. Monsoon won the main-challenges for the episodes "Snatch Game" and "Drama Queens". For the "Snatch Game", Monsoon impersonated Edith Bouvier Beale, nicknamed as "Little Edie." Monsoon also impersonated third-season contestant Mimi Imfurst in the episode "Lip Synch Extravaganza Eleganza". Monsoon later won the season, with two maxi-challenge wins.
In January 2013, Monsoon played Hedwig in the Moore Theatre's production of the rock musical Hedwig and the Angry Inch. Balagan reprised the production in December 2013 for a week long run with Monsoon and the original cast/production team. In June 2013, she played Velma Von Tussle in the Seattle Men's Chorus/5th Avenue Theatre's production of the musical Hairspray.
Hoffer also performed as Jinkx Monsoon in the original one act cabaret musical The Vaudevillians under the name "Kitty Witless." She was accompanied by musical partner and co-creator Richard Andriessen who performs under the name "Dr. Dan Von Dandy." The Vaudevillians performed at the Laurie Beechman Theatre in New York City from July to November 2013. After touring Australia with The Vaudevillians, she received a nomination for the Helpmann Award for Best Cabaret Performer. In 2013, Monsoon was chosen as one of the Artists of the Year by City Arts magazine along with Megan Griffiths, Macklemore, Ryan Lewis, and Wes Hurley. She played Tallulah/Dennis, the owner of Lipstick Lounge in an episode of Blue Bloods entitled "Manhattan Queens", which aired on January 31, 2014. In 2015, Monsoon joined the cast of Wes Hurley's comedy series Capitol Hill.
On May 6, 2014, Monsoon released her debut studio album The Inevitable Album through Sidecar Records. The album is a blend of blues, jazz, traditional pop, and cabaret, and was inspired by artists like Bette Midler, Marlene Dietrich, Peggy Lee, Amanda Palmer, and Regina Spektor. The song "The Bacon Shake" features Fred Schneider of The B-52s, and tells of "a bawdy, after-hours gentleman's club and this woman is 'getting the boys thirsty,' and it turns into a big dance that everyone joins."
In May 2017, Monsoon appeared in the celebrity roast of Michael Musto alongside Bianca Del Rio, Orfeh, Michael Riedel, Randy Rainbow, Crystal Demure, Countess Luann de Lesseps, Judy Gold, and Randy Jones. The roast which was produced by Daniel DeMello and directed by Rachel Klein, was hosted by Bruce Vilanch and introduced by Rosie O'Donnell.
=== 2018–2021: The Ginger Snapped and The Jinkx & DeLa Holiday Special ===
On January 12, 2018, Monsoon released her second studio album The Ginger Snapped through Producer Entertainment Group. The album is inspired by 90s grunge, garage rock, and ska, and features appearances from Amanda Palmer, Fred Schneider, and Lady Rizo. She released an animated music video for the song "Cartoons and Vodka", which sees Monsoon transform into various cartoon styles, including Betty Boop, The Jetsons, Sailor Moon, Doug, Dragon Ball Z, Steven Universe, Beavis and Butt-Head, Adventure Time, Rick and Morty, Peanuts, Dexter's Laboratory, The Powerpuff Girls, and The Fairly OddParents. The same month, Monsoon voiced the character Emerald on Steven Universe in the episode "Lars of the Stars".
In 2019, Monsoon was cast as Calliope in a North American tour of the musical Xanadu, though the tour was cancelled. In June 2019, a panel of judges from New York magazine placed Monsoon 18th on their list of "the most powerful drag queens in America", a ranking of 100 former Drag Race contestants. In 2020, Monsoon appeared in the Hulu original Christmas film Happiest Season. The same year she starred in and co-wrote The Jinkx and DeLa Holiday Special, a feature-length holiday film with fellow Seattle drag queen BenDeLaCreme based on their various Christmas shows over the years. The duo toured the show around the world in 2021. They continued to tour in 2022, 2023 and 2024, writing a new show each year.
=== 2022–present: RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars, Broadway and Doctor Who ===
In April 2022, it was announced that Monsoon would be competing on the seventh season of RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars, the first all-winners edition of the franchise. She won the Snatch Game in the second episode with her impressions of Natasha Lyonne and Judy Garland. She also won the fourth, fifth, ninth, and tenth episodes. On July 29, 2022, she was crowned the winner and anointed with the title "Queen of All Queens" with a cash prize of $200,000.
Monsoon joined the Broadway company of the musical Chicago, playing the role of Mama Morton for eight weeks, becoming the second drag queen to perform in a major Broadway musical after Peppermint.
Monsoon was cast in the fourteenth series of Doctor Who (Season 1), produced by BBC and Disney+. Monsoon played the villain "Maestro" in the episode "The Devil's Chord", which aired in May 2024.
From April 2, 2024 to May 26, 2024, Monsoon portrayed Audrey in the off-Broadway production of Little Shop of Horrors. After headlining a concert at Carnegie Hall in February 2025, Monsoon returned to Broadway in April as Ruth in Pirates! The Penzance Musical. She earned a rave review in Variety for the role: "Monsoon is a triumph. Broadway should be honored to have her gracing the boards, as she is sure to be canonized as one of the all-time comedy greats."
On June 18, 2025, it was announced that Monsoon would take the lead role of Mary Todd Lincoln in Broadway's Oh, Mary! starting on Aug. 4, 2025.
== Personal life ==
In 2017, Hoffer stated she identified as "non-gendered" or non-binary, and went by singular they pronouns when not in drag. In an April 2017 interview, Monsoon stated, "I've never identified as fully male. I've always identified as more gender fluid or gender ambiguous, but I never knew the vocabulary to explain it for myself."
In a 2024 interview, Monsoon stated that she identifies as trans-femme non-binary and uses she/her pronouns. In the same interview, she said she had begun hormone replacement therapy and undergone facial feminization surgery. In 2025, she revealed that she identifies as pansexual.
Hoffer struggles with alcoholism and substance abuse. She is a cannabis user and “a huge weed advocate.” She had been hit by a car while intoxicated and almost hit again a few years later in 2019 while "blackout drunk."
Hoffer has narcolepsy, a fact that she revealed in the season five premiere of RuPaul's Drag Race.
In January 2021, Hoffer married her partner Michael Abbott in a small ceremony at home with their friends and family witnessing through video call. The marriage was officiated by comedian Deven Green. In February 2024, Abbott announced they had separated.
In April 2024, Hoffer legally changed her name to Hera Hoffer, but still kept her stage name of Jinkx Monsoon.
She had lived in Seattle, Washington up until 2018. In October 2018, she moved back to Portland and currently lives in a house named Monsoon Manor.
=== Political views ===
Hoffer writes on her Instagram and Twitter accounts about her views on US President Donald Trump and LGBT equality. She is a Democratic Party supporter and donated to both Elizabeth Warren's and Bernie Sanders's campaigns to be the Democratic nominee for president in 2020. She is a public supporter of trans rights and frequently makes posts on social media advocating for trans people.
== Artistry ==
Hoffer's drag persona is inspired by her mother and the comedians Lucille Ball, Maria Bamford, Deven Green, and Sarah Silverman. Her drag persona's last name, Monsoon, is derived from the character Edina Monsoon from the British sitcom Absolutely Fabulous. Hoffer also performs as the drag character Deirdre A. Irwin, who is a Southern medium.
== Discography ==
=== Albums ===
==== Studio albums ====
==== Live albums ====
==== Soundtrack albums ====
==== Remix albums ====
==== Commentary albums ====
==== Extended plays ====
=== Singles ===
=== Featured singles ===
=== Other appearances ===
=== Music videos ===
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Music videos ===
=== Web series ===
== Theatre ==
== Awards and nominations ==
== See also ==
LGBTQ culture in Seattle
List of LGBTQ people from Portland, Oregon
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Hera Hoffer at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyholm_Prize_for_Education#:~:text=1986/87%20%E2%80%93%20M%20H%20Gardner | Nyholm Prize for Education | The Nyholm Prize for Education commemorates the life and work of Australian-born chemist Sir Ronald Nyholm, who – alongside his research in coordination chemistry – passionately campaigned for the improvement of science education. He acted as president of the Royal Society of Chemistry from 1968 to 1970.
The prize, which was first awarded in 1973, is awarded biennially by the Royal Society of Chemistry. It recognises outstanding achievements by those working in chemical science education, specifically major contributions to national or international research or innovation.
Before 2008, the prize was known as the Sir Ronald Nyholm Lectureship (Education Division). The recipient receives £5,000, a medal and a certificate.
== Recipients ==
The recipients are:
1973/74 – H F Halliwell
1975/76 – Douglas James Millen
1977/78 – A K Holliday
1979/80 – A H Johnstone
1981/82 – M J Frazer
1982/83 – Peter J Fensham
1984/85 – Professor David J Waddington
1986/87 – M H Gardner
1988/89 – No award
1990/91 – R F Kempa
1992/93 – M Gomel
1994/95 – David Phillips
1996/97 – C. John Garratt
1998/99 – Peter Atkins
2000/01 – Patrick D Bailey
2002/03 – George M Bodner
2004/05 – Zafra M. Lerman
2006/07 – Norman Reid
2008/09 – David D Kumar
2009 – Tina Overton
2011 – Martyn Poliakoff
2013 – Peter Wothers
2015 – Nick Greeves
2017 – Dudley Shallcross, University of Bristol
2019 – Marcy Towns, Purdue University
2021 – Michael Seery, The Open University
2023 – Savita Ladage, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
2025 – Vicente Talanquer, University of Arizona
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Keen | Harry Keen | Harry Keen CBE (3 September 1925 – 5 April 2013) was an English diabetologist and a professor of human metabolism at Guy's Hospital. He was the first to identify microalbuminuria as a predictor of kidney disease in diabetics, and was an international authority on diabetes.
== Early life ==
Keen was born in 1925 in London to a Jewish family; his parents were Sydney Keen, a tailor, and Esther (née Zenober), a teacher who had migrated to the United Kingdom from Poland. He attended St Ann's School in Hanwell and Ealing County Grammar School for Boys. He studied medicine at St Mary's Hospital Medical School, graduating on 5 July 1948, the day that the National Health Service (NHS) was established.
== Career ==
Keen began his medical career as a house officer at London's West Middlesex Hospital in 1948–49. He then enlisted in the Royal Army Medical Corps, serving for two years in Suez, Egypt. He returned to London in 1951, taking up a post at St Mary's Hospital under George Pickering. Keen assisted Pickering over several years on a large project studying hypertension in patients with diabetes and their first-degree relatives. In 1953, he began collaborating with Robert Daniel Lawrence, who headed the diabetes clinic at King's College Hospital, and spent seven years there studying diabetes and its long-term complications. He travelled to Bethesda, Maryland, in 1960 for a year-long research fellowship at the National Institutes of Health, where he experimented with insulin assays and early attempts to isolate pancreatic islets.
When Keen returned to London from the United States in 1961, he was hired as a lecturer by Guy's Hospital and its associated medical school, where he would spend the rest of his career. In 1962, he conducted the Bedford Survey, in which every adult in Bedford was asked to provide a urine sample in order to study the population prevalence of diabetes; around 70% of the population provided samples, and 250 participants were found to have undiagnosed diabetes as a result. The study led to the first definition of prediabetes, which Keen called "borderline diabetes", and demonstrated the relationship between glucose intolerance and cardiovascular disease at a population level. He and his colleagues became the first, in 1964, to show that trace amounts of the protein albumin in urine could predict kidney disease in diabetes, which is now the basis for routine kidney screening in diabetic patients. With the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, he conducted the Whitehall Survey in 1969, which led to the creation of different glucose thresholds for microvascular and macrovascular disease. He also pioneered the concept of the insulin pump, which delivers insulin continuously to type 1 diabetics who are reliant on insulin. In 1971, he was appointed professor of human metabolism at Guy's. He established one of the UK's first diabetes centres at Guy's Hospital.
Keen chaired the 1980 and 1985 World Health Organization expert committees on diabetes. He was involved in the St. Vincent Declaration of 1989, which set international goals and benchmarks for diabetes care. He retired from medicine in 1990, becoming professor emeritus at King's College London.
== Awards and honours ==
Keen chaired the British Diabetic Association between 1990 and 1996 and was appointed honorary president of the International Diabetes Federation in 1991. He was awarded a CBE and the first United Nations/UNESCO Hellmut Mehnert Award for the Prevention of Diabetes and its Complications in 1998. He received the American Diabetes Association's Kelly M. West Award for Outstanding Achievement in Epidemiology and Harold Rifkin Award for Distinguished International Service in the Cause of Diabetes in 1989 and 1992 respectively.
== Personal life ==
Keen married Anna "Nan" Miliband, the sister of sociologist Ralph Miliband, in 1953; they had a son and a daughter. He was an uncle by marriage to Labour politicians Ed Miliband and David Miliband. He died on 5 April 2013.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Serra#Landscape_works | Richard Serra | Richard Serra (November 2, 1938 – March 26, 2024) was an American artist known for his large-scale abstract sculptures made for site-specific landscape, urban, and architectural settings, and whose work has been primarily associated with postminimalism. Described as "one of his era's greatest sculptors", Serra became notable for emphasizing the material qualities of his works and exploration of the relationship between the viewer, the work, and the site.
Serra pursued English literature at the University of California, Berkeley, before shifting to visual art. He graduated with a B.A. in English literature from the University of California, Santa Barbara, in 1961, where he met influential muralists Rico Lebrun and Howard Warshaw. Supporting himself by working in steel mills, Serra's early exposure to industrial materials influenced his artistic trajectory. He continued his education at Yale University, earning a B.A. in art history and an M.F.A. degree in 1964. While in Paris on a Yale fellowship in 1964, he befriended composer Philip Glass and explored Constantin Brâncuși's studio, both of which had a strong influence on his work. His time in Europe also catalyzed his subsequent shift from painting to sculpture.
From the mid-1960s onward, particularly after his move to New York City in 1966, Serra worked to radicalize and extend the definition of sculpture beginning with his early experiments with rubber, neon, and lead, to his large-scale steel works. His early works in New York, such as To Lift from 1967 and Thirty-Five Feet of Lead Rolled Up from 1968, reflected his fascination with industrial materials and the physical properties of his chosen mediums. His large-scale works, both in urban and natural landscapes, have reshaped public interactions with art and, at times, were also a source of controversy, such as that caused by his Tilted Arc in Manhattan, New York in 1981. Serra was married to artist Nancy Graves between 1965 and 1970, and Clara Weyergraf between 1981 and his death in 2024.
== Early life and education ==
Serra was born in San Francisco on November 2, 1938, to Tony and Gladys Serra – the second of three sons. His father was Spanish from Mallorca and his mother Gladys (nee Fineberg) was the daughter of Russian Jewish immigrants from Odessa, USSR. From a young age, he was encouraged to draw by his mother and he carried a small notebook for his sketches. His mother would introduce her son as "Richard the artist." His father worked as a pipe fitter for a shipyard near San Francisco.
Serra recounted a memory of a visit to the shipyard to see a boat launch when he was four years old. He watched as the ship transformed from an enormous weight to a buoyant, floating structure and noted, "All the raw material that I needed is contained in the reserve of this memory." Serra's father, who was related to the Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí, later worked as a candy plant foreman.
Richard Serra studied English literature at the University of California, Berkeley in 1957 before transferring to the University of California, Santa Barbara and graduating in 1961 with a BA in English Literature. In Santa Barbara, Serra met the muralists, Rico Lebrun and Howard Warshaw. Both were in the Art Department and took Serra under their wing. During this period, Serra worked in steel mills to earn a living, as he did at various times from ages 16–25.
Serra studied painting at Yale University and graduated with both a BA in art history and an MFA degree in 1964. Fellow Yale alumni contemporaneous to Serra include Chuck Close, Rackstraw Downs, Nancy Graves, Brice Marden, and Robert Mangold. At Yale Serra met visiting artists from the New York School including Philip Guston, Robert Rauschenberg, Ad Reinhardt, and Frank Stella. Serra taught a color theory course during his last year at Yale and after graduating was asked to help proof Josef Albers's notable color theory book Interaction of Color.
In 1964, Serra was awarded a one-year traveling fellowship from Yale and went to Paris where he met the composer Philip Glass who became a collaborator and long-time friend. In Paris, Serra spent time sketching in Constantin Brâncuși's studio, partially reconstructed inside the Musée national d'Art moderne on the Avenue du Président Wilson, allowing Serra to study Brâncuși's work, later drawing his own sculptural conclusions. An exact replica of Brâncuși's studio is now located opposite the Centre Pompidou. Serra spent 1965 in Florence, Italy on a Fulbright Grant. In 1966 while still in Italy, Serra made a trip to the Prado Museum in Madrid, Spain and saw Diego Velázquez's painting Las Meninas. The artist realized he would not surpass the skill of that painting and decided to move away from painting.
While still in Europe, Serra began experimenting with nontraditional sculptural material. He had his first one-person exhibition "Animal Habitats" at Galleria Salita, Rome. Exhibited there were assemblages made with live and stuffed animals which would later be referenced as early work from the Arte Povera movement.
== Work ==
=== Early work ===
Serra returned from Europe moving to New York City in 1966. He continued his constructions using experimental materials including rubber, latex, fiberglass, neon, and lead. His Belt Pieces were made with strips of rubber and hung on the wall using gravity as a forming device. Serra combined neon with continuous strips of rubber in his sculpture Belts (1966–67) referencing the serial abstraction in Jackson Pollock's Mural (1963.) Around that time Serra wrote Verb List (1967) a list of transitive verbs (i.e. cast, roll, tear, prop, etc.) which he used as directives for his sculptures. To Lift (1967), and Thirty-Five Feet of Lead Rolled Up (1968), Splash Piece (1968), and Casting (1969), were some of the action-based works with origins in the verb list. Serra used lead in many of his constructs because of its adaptability. Lead is malleable enough to be rolled, folded, ripped, and melted. With To Lift (1967) Serra lifted a 10-foot (3 m) sheet of rubber off the ground making a free-standing form; with Thirty-five Feet of Lead Rolled Up (1968), Serra, with the help of Philip Glass, unrolled and rolled a sheet of lead as tightly as they could.
In 1968 Serra was included in the group exhibition "Nine at Castelli" at Castelli Warehouse in New York where he showed Prop (1968), Scatter Piece (1968), and made Splashing (1968) by throwing molten lead against the angle of the floor and wall. In 1969 his piece Casting was included in the exhibition Anti-Illusion: Procedures/Materials at the Whitney Museum of American Art in . In Casting the artist again threw molten lead against the angle of the floor and wall. He then pulled the casting made from the hardened lead away from the wall and repeated the action of splashing and casting creating a series of free-standing forms.
"To prop" is another transitive verb from Serra's "Verb List" utilized by the artist for a series of assemblages of lead plates and poles dependent on leaning and gravity as a force to stay upright. His early Prop Pieces like Prop (1968) relied mainly on the wall as a support. Serra wanted to move away from the wall to remove what he thought was a pictorial convention. In 1969 he propped four lead plates up on the floor like a house of cards. The sculpture One Ton Prop: House of Cards (1969) weighed 1 ton and the four plates were self-supporting.
Another pivotal moment for Serra occurred in 1969 when he was commissioned by the artist Jasper Johns to make a Splash Piece in Johns's studio. While Serra heated the lead plates to splash against the wall, he took one of the larger plates and set it in the corner where it stood on its own. Serra's break into space followed shortly after with the sculpture Strike: To Roberta and Rudy (1969–71). Serra wedged an 8 by 24-foot (2.4 × 7.3 m) plate of steel into a corner and divided the room into two equal spaces. The work invited the viewer to walk around the sculpture, shifting the viewer's perception of the room as they walked.
Serra first recognized the potential of working in large scale with his Skullcracker Series made during the exhibition, "Art and Technology," at LACMA (the Los Angeles County Museum of Art) in 1969. He spent ten weeks building a number of ephemeral stacked steel pieces at the Kaiser Steelyard. Using a crane to explore the principles of counterbalance and gravity, the stacks were as tall as 30 to 40 feet (9 to 12 m) high and weighed between 60 and 70 tons (54.4 and 63.5 t). They were knocked down by the steelworkers at the end of each day. The scale of the stacks allowed Serra to begin to think of his work outside the confines of gallery and museum spaces.
=== Landscape works ===
In 1970 Serra received a Guggenheim Fellowship and traveled to Japan. His first outdoor sculptures, To Encircle Base Plate (Hexagram) (1970) and Sugi Tree (1970), were both installed in Ueno Park in Tokyo as part of the Tokyo Biennale.
While in Japan, Serra spent most of his time studying the Zen gardens and temples of the Myoshin-ji in Kyoto. The layout of the gardens revealed the landscape as a total field that can only be experienced by walking. The gardens changed Serra's way of seeing space in relation to time. Upon returning to the United States he built his first site-specific outdoor work: To Encircle Base Plate Hexagram, Right Angles Inverted (1970). Here Serra embedded two semi-circular steel flanges, forming a ring 26 feet (7.9 m) in diameter, into the surface of 183rd Street in the Bronx. One semi-circle measured 1 inch (25.4 mm) wide and the second, 8 inches wide (203.2 mm). The work was visible from two perspectives: either when the viewer came directly upon it or from above on a stairway overlooking the street.
Throughout the 1970s Serra continued to make outdoor site-specific sculptures for urban areas and landscapes. Serra was interested in the topology of landscape and how one relates to it through movement, space, and time. His first landscape work was made in late 1970 when Serra was commissioned by the art patrons Joseph and Emily Rauh Pulitzer to build a sculpture on their property outside St. Louis, Missouri. Pulitzer Piece: Stepped Elevation (1970–71) was Serra's first large-scale landscape work. Three plates measuring 5 feet (1.5 m) high by 40 to 50 feet (12 to 15 m) long were placed across approximately 3 acres (12 140 m2). The placement of the plates was determined by the fall of the landscape. Each plate was impaled into the ground far enough until its rise was 5 feet (1.5 m). Serra's intention was for the plates to act as cuts in the landscape that function as surrogate horizons as viewers walked amongst them.
Shift (1970–1972), Serra's second endeavor in the landscape, was built in a field owned by the collector Roger Davidson in King City, Ontario. The sculpture is composed of six rectilinear concrete sections placed along the sloping landscape. In 2013 Shift was designated a Heritage Site under the Ontario Heritage Act. Shift, like Pulitzer Prizes pieces, was based on the elevational fall of the land over a given distance. The top edges of the plates function as a horizon being placed into specific elevational intervals as you walk the entire field.Serra's subsequent site-specific works in landscape continued to explore the topography of the land and how the sculpture relates to this topography by way of movement, meditation, and perception of the viewer. Among the most notable of the landscape works are Porten i Slugten (1983–1986) at the Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Denmark; Carnegie (1985) outside the Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh; Afangar (Stations, Stops on the Road, To Stop and Look: Forward and Back, To Take It All In) (1990) on Videy Island, Iceland; Schunnemunk Fork (1991) in Storm King Art Center, New York; Snake Eyes and Box Cars (1993) in Sonoma County, California; Te Tuhirangi Contour (2000–2002) in Kaipara, New Zealand; and East-West/West-East (2014) in Qatar.
The sculpture Porten i Slugten (1983–1986) was commissioned for the Louisiana Museum of Modern Art in Humlebaek, Denmark. After walking the museum grounds, Serra chose a ravine that runs towards the Kattegat Sea as the site for his sculpture. The ravine was the only area on the grounds that had not been landscaped. Two plates were set at an angle to each other at the end of a sloping stretch of path which fronts the ravine. The plates function in their location like a gate that opens as the viewer walks down the path toward the sea. Seen from the center of a bridge, which crosses the ravine and leads to the museum, the two plates form a single plane as if the gate had closed. As you walk down from the museum to the ocean below, the plates appear to have a continuous swinging motion. In 1988 Serra was invited by the National Gallery of Iceland to build a work. Serra chose Videy Island as the site for Afangar (Stations, Stops on the Road, To Stop and Look: Forward and Back, To Take It All In) (1990). The sculpture consists of nine pairs of basalt columns (a material indigenous to Iceland) and is placed along the periphery of Vesturey in the western part of the country. All nine locations share the same elevations in that the stones of each pair are situated at an elevation of 9 and 10 meters, respectively. Each set of stones is level at the top. All stones at the higher elevation measure 3 meters; all stones at the lower elevation measure 4 meters. Because of the variance of topography, the stones in a set are sometimes closer together, sometimes further apart. The rise and fall of Videy Island and the surrounding landscape are seen against the fixed measure of the standing stones. The stones are visible along the horizon of the island and orient the viewer against the rise and fall of the surrounding landscape.
Te Tuhirangi Contour (2000–2002) is located on a vast open pasture on Gibbs Farm in Kaipara, New Zealand. The sculpture stands 20 feet (6 m) high and spans 844 feet (257 m) as one continuous contour that follows the rolling hills, expansion, and contraction of the landscape. The sculpture's elevation is perpendicular to the fall of the land.
East-West/West-East (2014), located on an east-west axis in the Brouq Nature Reserve in Qatar, was commissioned by Sheika al-Mayassa al-Thani of Qatar. It consists of four steel plates either 543⁄4 or 481⁄2 feet (16.7 or 14.8 m) high. The plates are placed at irregular intervals in a valley that runs between two gypsum plateaus. The plates are level with each other and the elevation of the adjacent plateaus. The work spans less than a kilometer and all plates are visible from either end.
=== Urban works ===
In the landscape, the sculptural elements draw the viewer's attention to the topology of the land as its walked. Serra's site-specific Urban sculptures focus the viewer's attention on the sculpture itself. Their locations often more accessible to the public than the landscape works, invite the viewer to walk inside, pass through and move around them. Because of the confines of Urban architecture, sculptures such as Sight Point (1972–1975) at the Stedelijk Museum, The Netherlands; Terminal (1977) in Bochum, Germany; T.W.U. (1980) at the Deichtorhallen, Hamburg, Germany; Fulcrum (1986–87), installed in Broadgate, London; Exchange (1996) outside the City of Luxembourg; or 7 (2011) on a pier in Doha, Qatar, reflect the verticality of their surrounding architecture. Outdoor sculptures like St. John's Rotary Arc (1980) temporarily installed outside the Holland Tunnel entrance in New York City; Tilted Arc (1981) installed and later removed from New York City's Federal Plaza; Clara-Clara (1983), temporarily installed at Tuileries, Place de la Concorde, Paris; Berlin Junction (1987) installed outside the Berlin Philharmonic; are all curved forms or arcs that open and close depending on the direction the viewer takes walking around them.
Sight Point (1972–1975) was Serra's first vertical Urban work and a continuation of the balance and counterbalance principles of his earlier work Prop. Sight Point stands outside the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, consisting of three vertical steel plates 10 feet (3 m) wide and 40 feet (12 m) high that lean in at an angle and forming a triangular space on the ground with three openings that can be walked through. Once inside the viewer can look up and see the sky framed by the triangular shape made by the leaning plates.
Another vertical sculpture, Terminal (1977), was conceived for "Documenta VI" in 1977. It was permanently installed on a traffic island between the street car tracks in front of a train station in Bochum, Germany. Serra chose the site because of its proximity to a high-traffic area. Exchange (1996), sited in a vehicular round-about on top of a highway tunnel, made of seven trapezoidal plates. The sculpture stands 60 feet (18 m) high and can be seen by drivers as they enter and leave the City of Luxembourg.
In 1980 Serra installed two sculptures, with the support of the Public Art Fund, in New York City. T.W.U. (1980) and St. John's Rotary Arc (1980) were each placed in areas where traffic and people converged. T.W.U, a vertical sculpture consisting of three vertical plates, each 36 feet (11 m) high, was installed at a subway entrance near West Broadway between Leonard and Franklin Streets. The sculpture is now permanently installed outside the Deichterhallen, Hamburg, Germany. St. John's Rotary Arc, one of Serra's earliest curved sculptures, was 12 feet (3.6 m) high and spanned 180 feet (55 m). From 1980 to 1988 the site-specific sculpture was installed on the rotary at the entrance and exit to the Holland Tunnel.
In 1981, a second site-specific curved sculpture Tilted Arc (1981) was installed in New York City's Federal Plaza. Commissioned by the U.S. General Services Administration's Art-in-Architecture Program following a rigorous selection process, the sculpture's arc spanned 120 feet (36 m) and 12 feet (3.6 m) high. The sculpture was a curve that tilted and leaned away from its base. It was anchored into the plaza at both ends so that the center of the sculpture was raised. Serra's intention for the sculpture was to draw pedestrians' attention to the sculpture as they crossed the plaza. Tilted Arc was met with resistance by workers in the Federal building. An eight-year campaign to remove the sculpture ensued and Tilted Arc was ultimately removed on March 15, 1989. In Serra's defense to preserve the sculpture he stated "To remove Tilted Arc, therefore, is to destroy it", advocating an art-for art's sake mantra of site-specific artworks. Following the hearing and GSA's decision, Serra responded that he would deny his authorship of Tilted Arc if it were relocated. and would consider it a "derivative work". The case of Tilted Arc continues to highlight the tension surrounding the nature of public art and its intended audience.
=== Gallery works ===
Serra's work has enjoyed numerous exhibitions in gallery and museum settings. His site-specific gallery installations are sometimes used to test ideas. Serra's first U.S. solo exhibition was at the Leo Castelli Warehouse, New York City in 1969. There he exhibited ten lead Prop Pieces, a Scatter Piece: Cutting Device: Base Plate Measure (1969), and a Splash Piece: Splashing with Four Molds (To Eva Hesse) (1969).
After his process-based works of the late 1960s and early 1970s, Serra began to solely use rolled or forged steel in his sculpture. Berlin Block (for Charlie Chaplin) (1977) was Serra's first forged sculpture. Made for the plaza outside the Neue Nationalgalerie in Berlin, designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, the sculpture weighs 70 tons. His other forged sculptures include Elevation for Mies (1985–88) at Museum Haus Esters, Krefeld, Germany; Philibert et Marguerite (1985), in the Musee de Brou, Bourg-en-Bresse, France; Weight and Measure (1992), a temporary site-specific installation at the Tate Gallery, London; Santa Fe Depot (2004), in the Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego; and Equal (2015) in the Museum of Modern Art, New York.
Serra's most known series of sculptures using rolled steel plates are the Torqued Ellipses. In 1991 Serra visited Borromini's Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome and mistook the ovals of the dome and the floor to be offset from one another. He thought to make a sculpture in this torqued form. Serra constructed models of this perceived form in his studio by cutting two ellipse-shaped pieces of wood and nailing a dowel between them. He then turned the ellipses so they were at a right angle to one another and wrapped a sheet of lead around the form. After making a template from the models Serra worked with an engineer to fabricate the sculptures. In total there are seven Torqued Ellipses and four Double Torqued Ellipses (an ellipse inside of an ellipse) dated between 1996 and 2004. Each sculpture has a different degree or torque and measures up to 13 feet (3.9 m) high. The sculptures all have an opening so that they can be walked through and around. Three Torqued Ellipses are on permanent view at Dia Beacon, New York.
In 2005 "The Matter of Time", a commissioned installation, opened at the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao in Spain. Consisting of eight sculptures spanning a decade from 1994 to 2005, "The Matter of Time" highlights the evolution of Serra's sculptural forms. Serra chose to include five sculptures derived from the initial torqued ellipse: one single, one double ellipse, and three torqued spirals. The Torqued Spirals followed after the Double Torqued Ellipses when Serra decided to connect a double ellipses into one wound form that can be entered and walked through. The remaining sculptures in "The Matter of Time" are one closed (Blind Spot Reversed) and one open (Between the Torus and the Sphere) torus and spherical sculpture; and Snake: made of three parts, each comprising two identical conical sections inverted relative to each other and spanning 104 feet (31.7 m) overall. The sculptures are organized by Serra with intention. The direction which the viewer moves through the space creates a sensation of varying scale and proportion, and an awareness to the passing of time.
In 2008 Serra participated in Monumenta, an annual exhibition held in Paris's Grand Palais featuring a single artist. For Monumenta Serra installed a single sculpture, Promenade (2008), consisting of five plates, each 55 feet (16.8 m) tall and 13 feet (4 m) wide, placed 100 feet (30 m) apart from one another across the cavernous interior of the Grand Palais. Overall, the sculpture spanned 656 feet (200 m). The plates were not placed in a line but stood side to side off the Grand Palais's center axis. They tilted either left or right, leaned either toward or away from another, and the viewer as they strolled around them.
The sculpture Equal (2015), in the collection of The Museum of Modern Art, New York, consists of eight forged blocks. Each block measures 5 by 5 1⁄2 by 6 feet (1.5 × 1.7 × 1.8 m) and weighs 40 tons. The blocks are stacked in pairs and positioned on their longer or shorter sides so that each stack measures 11 feet (3.4 m) tall. When walking amongst the four stacks the viewer becomes aware of their own sense of weight, balance, and gravity in relation to the sculptures.
Four Rounds: Equal Weight, Unequal Measure (2017), consisting of four 82-ton (74 t) forged cylinders of varying dimensions is permanently installed at Glenstone in Potomac, Maryland. The sculpture is installed within a building designed by Thomas Phifer of Thomas Phifer and Partners, in collaboration with Serra to highlight the sculpture's mass within the confines of the building's interior.
=== Drawings ===
Drawing was integral to Serra's practice. He made drawings on large sheets of canvas or handmade paper. They include horizontal or vertical compositions; constructions of overlapping sheets; or line drawings. His drawings were primarily done in paintstick, lithographic crayon, or charcoal and are always black. Serra experiments with different techniques and tools to manipulate and apply the medium. He often pushes the conventions of drawing towards a tactile, phenomenological experience of movement, time, and space. The artist said that his drawing practice is involved with "repetition, knowing there's no possibility of repeating, knowing that it's going to yield something different each time".
After his break into space with sculptures like Strike: To Roberta and Rudy (1969–1971), Serra became interested in redefining architectural space with drawing as well. In 1974 Serra started to make his Installation Drawings—large-scale site-specific sheets of canvas completely covered in paintstick and stapled to the wall. The Installation Drawings cover the wall, or walls, of a given space. Shafrazi and Zadikians were two of Serra's first Installation Drawings. Both were exhibited at Leo Castelli Gallery, New York City in 1974 and measured approximately 10 1⁄2 feet (3.2 m) high and 18 feet (5.5 m) wide overall. Serra continued to make Installation Drawing throughout his career. Other notable drawing series include: Diptychs (1989); Dead Weight (1991–92); Weight and Measure (1993–94); Videy Afangar (1989–1991); Rounds (1996–97); out-of-rounds (1999–2000); Line Drawings (2000–2002); Solids (2008); Greenpoint Rounds (2009); Elevational Weights (2010); Rifts (2011–2018); Transparencies (2011–2013); Horizontal Reversals (2014) Rambles (2015–16); Composites (2016); Horizontals and Verticals (2016–17); and Orchard Street (2018).
National and international survey exhibitions of Serra's drawings have included Richard Serra: Tekeningen/Drawings 1971–1977 at the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam in 1978; Richard Serra: Tekeningen/Drawings at the Bonnefantenmuseum, Maastrict in 1990; Richard Serra Drawing: A Retrospective at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, and Menil Collection, Houston from 2011 to 2012; and Richard Serra: Drawings 2015–2017: Rambles, Composites, Rotterdam Verticals, Rotterdam Horizontals, Rifts at the Museum Boijmans van Beuningen. Rotterdam, The Netherlands in 2017.
=== Prints ===
Serra began making prints in 1972. Working closely with Gemini G.E.L. in Los Angeles, he developed unconventional printing techniques. He made over 200 printed works and like his sculpture and drawing, his prints reflect an interest in process, scale, and experimentation with material.
His early lithographs starting in 1972 include the prints Circuit; Balance; Eight by Eight; or 183rd & Webster Avenue, each titled after a sculpture created around the same time. In 1981 Serra produced his first lithograph series comprising seven editions, titled: Sketch #1 through Sketch #7. That same year Serra begin to make larger-scale prints such as Malcolm X; Goslar, or The Moral Majority Sucks.
After pushing lithography to its limit, Serra began to work with silkscreen to produce a unique surface in his prints. He did so by first applying a layer of ink onto the paper. He then would apply a layer of paint stick through the second screen creating a saturated and textured surface.
Serra continued to work this his silkscreen technique, sometimes combining it with etching and aquatint. His print series include: Videy Afanger (1991); Hreppholer (1991); WM (1996); Rounds (1999); Venice Notebook (2001); Between the Torus and the Sphere (2006); Paths and Edges (2007); Level (2008); Junction (2010); Reversal (2015); Elevational Weight (2016); Equal (2018); and (?) (2019).
=== Films and video works ===
From 1968 to 1979 Serra made a collection of films and videos. Although he began working with sculpture and film at the same time, Serra recognized the different material capacities of each and did not extend sculptural problems into his films and videos. Serra collaborated with several artists including Joan Jonas, Nancy Holt, and Robert Fiore, on his films and videos. His first films, Hand Catching Lead (1968), Hands Scraping (1968) and Hand Tied (1968) involve a series of actions: a hand tries to catch falling lead; pairs of hands move lead shavings; and bound hands untie themselves.
A later film Railroad Turnbridge (1976) frames the surrounding landscape of the Willamette River in Portland, Oregon, as the bridge turns. Steelmill/Stahwerk (1979), made in collaboration with the art historian Clara Weyergraf is divided in two parts. The first part is made up of interviews of German steel factory workers about their work. The second part captures the forging of Serra's sculpture Berlin Block (for Charlie Chaplin).
Survey exhibitions and screenings of his films have been held at the Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland in 2017; Anthology Film Archives, New York, October 17–23, 2019; and Harvard Film Archive, January 27 – February 9, 2020. In 2019, Serra donated his entire film and video works to the Museum of Modern Art in Manhattan, New York.
== Exhibitions ==
Serra's first solo exhibition was in 1966 at Galleria Salita in Rome, Italy. His first solo exhibition in the U.S. was at the Leo Castelli Warehouse, New York in 1969. His first solo museum exhibition was held at the Pasadena Art Museum in Pasadena, California in 1970. The first retrospective of his work was held at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, in 1986. A second retrospective was held at The Museum of Modern Art, New York in 2007.
The first survey exhibition of his drawings was held at the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam in 1977 and traveled to the Kunsthalle Tübingen in 1978. A second retrospective of drawings was presented at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City; the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art; and The Menil Collection, Houston from 2011 to 2012. An overview of the artist's work in film and video was on view at the Kunstmuseum Basel, in 2017.
Serra enjoyed solo exhibitions at the Staatliche Kunsthalle Baden-Baden, 1978; Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam, 1980; Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Pompidou, Paris, 1983–1984; Museum Haus Lange, Krefeld, 1985; The Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1986 and 2007; Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlebæk, 1986; Westphalian State Museum of Art and Cultural History, Münster, 1987; Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus, Munich, 1987; Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, 1988; Bonnefantenmuseum, Maastricht, 1990; Kunsthaus Zürich, 1990; CAPC Musée d'Art Contemporain, Bordeaux, 1990; Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid, 1992; Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf, 1992; Dia Center for the Arts, New York, 1997; Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, 1998–1999; Centro de Arte Hélio Oiticica, Rio de Janeiro, 1997–1998; Trajan's Market, Rome, 1999–2000; Pulitzer Foundation for the Arts, St. Louis, 2003; National Archaeological Museum, Naples, 2004; and Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam, in 2017.
== Collections ==
Serra's work is included in many museums and public collections around the world. Selected museum collections which own his work include The Museum of Modern Art, New York; The Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto; Art Institute of Chicago; Bonnefantenmuseum, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Centre Cultural Fundació La Caixa, Barcelona; Centre Georges Pompidou, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris; Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, Texas; Dia Art Foundation, New York; Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and New York; Pérez Art Museum Miami, Florida; Hamburger Kunsthalle, Hamburg, Germany; Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC; Moderna Museet, Stockholm; and Glenstone Museum, Potomac, Maryland.
Selected public collections which hold his work include City of Bochum, Germany; City of Chicago, Public Art Collection; City of Goslar, Germany; City of Hamburg, Germany; City of St. Louis, Missouri; City of Tokyo, Japan; City of Berlin, Germany; City of Paris, France; Collection City of Reykjavík, Iceland.
== Personal life ==
Serra moved to New York City in 1966. He bought a house in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia in 1970 and spent summers working there. He and art historian Clara Weyergraf married in 1981. As of 2019, Serra maintained a home in Manhattan and studios in Nova Scotia and the North Fork of Long Island. His brother is noted San Francisco attorney Tony Serra.
Richard Serra died from pneumonia at his home in Orient, New York, on March 26, 2024, at the age of 85.
== Awards and honors ==
Serra is the recipient of many notable prizes and awards including the Fulbright Grant (1965–66); Guggenheim Fellowship (1970); République Française, Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (1985 and 1991); Japan Arts Association, Tokyo Praemium Imperiale (1994); a Leone d'Oro for lifetime achievement, Venice Biennale, Italy (2001); American Academy of Arts and Letters (2001); Orden pour le Mérite für Wissenschaften und Künste, Federal Republic of Germany (2002); Orden de las Artes y las Letras de España, Spain (2008); The National Arts Award: Lifetime Achievement Award (bestowed by Americans for the Arts 2014); Hermitage Museum Foundation's Award for Lifetime Contributions to the World of Art (2014); Chevalier de l'Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur, Republic of France (2015); Landesmuseum Wiesbaden Alexej-von-Jawlensky-Preis (2017); and a J. Paul Getty Medal (2018).
== Writings and interviews ==
Gathered in the following three anthologies is a comprehensive collection of writings by, and interviews with, the artist:
Richard Serra: Writings/Interviews. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. August 15, 1994. ISBN 978-0-226-74880-1. OL 9651745M. Includes writings by the artist and interviews by Friedrich Teja Bach, Liza Béar, Patricia E. Bickers, Lizzie Borden, Lynne Cooke, Douglas Crimp, Peter Eisenman, Mark Francis, Bernard Lamarche-Vadel, Annette Michelson, Robert C. Morgan, Alfred Pacquement, Brenda Richardson, Mark Rosenthal, Nicholas Serota, David Sylvester, and Clara Weyergraf
Richard Serra, Interviews, Etc., 1970–1980. Yonkers, New York: Hudson River Museum. 1980. OCLC 9946126. OL 4124913M. Written and compiled by Richard Serra in collaboration with Clara Weyergraf; includes interviews by Friedrich Teja Bach, Liza Béar, Lizzie Borden, Douglas Crimp, Bernard Lamarche-Vadel, and Clara Weyergraf
Richard Serra, Schriften, Interviews 1970–1989. Bern: Benteli Verlag. 1990. OCLC 950242621. German translation of the 1980 Hudson River Museum publication with additional contributions by Thomas Beller, Peter Eisenman, Philip Glass, Gerard Hovagymyan, Robert C. Morgan, Alfred Pacquement, Brenda Richardson, and Harald Szeemann
== Actor ==
Serra plays an architect who is a third level Mason in artist and filmmaker Matthew Barney's Cremaster 3 from the director's five-part Cremaster Cycle.
== Selected writing ==
All are solely by Richard Serra unless indicated otherwise.
"Play it Again, Sam," Arts Magazine 44, no. 4 (February 1970), pp. 24–27
"Verb List, 1967–68," First published in Avalanche [New York], no. 2 (Winter 1971), pp. 20–21
"Skullcracker Stacking Series," In Scott, Gail R., A Report on the Art & Technology Program of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art 1967–1971, pp. 299–300, Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1971
Jackson, Ward, and Richard Serra; "Richard Serra," Art Now: New York 3, no. 3 (September 1971), p. 4
Serra, Richard, "Statements," Artforum 10, no. 1 (September 1971), p. 64
"On Frame, on Color-Aid," Artforum 10, no. 1 (September 1971), p. 64
Jonas, Joan, and Richard Serra; "Paul Revere," Artforum 10, no. 1 (September 1971), pp. 65–67
Serra, Richard, and Rosalind Krauss; ed. "Shift." Arts Magazine 47, no. 6 (April 1973), pp. 49–55
Serra, Richard, and Clara Weyergraf; "St. John's Rotary Arc," Artforum 19, no. 1 (September 1980), pp. 52–55
"Notes from Sight Point Road," Originally published in Perspecta: The Yale Architectural Journal, no. 19 (1982), pp. 172–81
Edited and printed as "Extended Notes from Sight Point Road" in Richard Serra: Neuere Skulpturen in Europa 1977–1985 (Eine Auswahl)/Recent Sculpture in Europe 1977–1985 (Selected), pp. 11–15
"Letter from Richard Serra to President Ronald Reagan" [in Portuguese and English], Lo Spazio Umano [Portugal], no. 2 (April–July 1985), pp. 89–92, bilingual, Portuguese and English
"Serra Writes the President," Art & Artists 14, no. 3 (May–June 1985), special supplement, pp. 3, 22
"Notes on Drawing," First published in Güse, Ernst-Gerhard, ed. Richard Serra, pp. 66–68, New York: Rizzoli, 1988
"Weight," In Richard Serra: 10 Sculptures for the Van Abbe, pp. 10–12, Exh. cat. Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, 1988, bilingual in Dutch and English
"'Tilted Arc'—A Precedent?" [letter to the editor], The New York Times, April 30, 1989, sec. 2, p. 5
"'Tilted Arc' Destroyed," Art in America 77, no. 5 (May 1989), pp. 34–47, cover
"Artists Have Rights to Their Works," The Des Moines Sunday Register, October 29, 1989, pp. 3C
"The Yale Lecture, January 1990," Kunst & Museumjournaal [Amsterdam: English edition] 1, no. 6 (1990), pp. 23–33
"Art and Censorship". Critical Inquiry. 17 (3): 574–581. April 1991. doi:10.1086/448597.
"Afangar Series," Open City, no. 2 (1993), pp. 101–7
"Donald Judd, 1928-1994" [eulogy. Parkett, nos. 40–41 (1994), pp. 176–79
"Basel, 18. January 1994/Basel, January 18, 1994," In Martin Schwander, ed., Richard Serra: Intersection Basel, pp. 72–79, Basel: Christoph Merian Verlag and Düsseldorf: Richter Verlag, 1996, ISBN 9783928762526. OCLC 37725722
"Notes on The Matter of Time," In Richard Serra: The Matter of Time, p. 141, Bilbao: Museo Guggenheim Bilbao, and Göttingen: Steidl Verlag, 2005, ISBN 9788495216434, OCLC 66529716
== References ==
== External links ==
Hand Catching Lead, 1968
One Ton Prop (House of Cards), 1969
Strike: To Roberta and Rudy, 1969–71
Railroad Turnbridge, 1976
Berlin Block (For Charlie Chaplin), 1977
Tilted Arc, 1981
Richard Serra: Torqued Ellipses at Dia Beacon
The Matter of Time, 1994–2005
East-West/West-East, 2014
Equal, 2015 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_al-Rifa%CA%BDi | Ahmad al-Rifaʽi | Aḥmad ibn ʽAlī al-Rifāʽī (Arabic: أَحْمَد ابْن عَلِي ٱلرِّفَاعِي) was a Sunni Muslim preacher, ascetic, mystic, jurist, and theologian, known for being the eponymous founder of the Rifaʽi tariqa (Sufi order) of Islam. The Rifaʽi order had its greatest following until it was overtaken by the Qadiri order. The Rifaʽi order is most commonly found in the Arab Middle East but also in Turkey, the Balkans and South Asia.
His tomb and shrine is located at a mosque bearing his namesake in Al-Rifai, a town at southern Iraq near Baghdad.
== Biography ==
Shaykh Ahmad al-Rifāʽī was born in the Hasen Region of Wasit, Iraq, during the first half of Rajab of the lunar months. When he was seven years old, his father Sayyid Sultan Ali al-Batahi died in Baghdad. After that, his uncle Shaykh Mansur al-Rabbani al-Batahi took him under his protection and educated him.
Shaykh Ahmad al-Rifāʽī was a Husayni Sayyid and his lineage is recorded as follows: He is Ahmad bin Ali, bin Yahya, bin Thabit, bin Ali, bin Ahmad al-Murtada, bin Ali, bin Hasan al-Asghar, bin Mahdi, bin Muhammad, bin Hasan al-Qasim, bin Husayn, bin Ahmad al-Salih al-Akbar, bin Musa al-Thani, bin Ibrahim al-Murtada, bin Musa al-Kazim, bin Ja'far al-Sadiq, bin Muhammad al-Baqir, bin Ali Zayn al-Abidin, bin Husayn, bin Ali bin Abi Talib and Fatimah al-Zahra, the daughter of Muhammad.
He learned the Quran from Shaykh Abd al-Sami al-Hurbuni in Hasen, his birthplace. He committed to memorising the whole of the Quran at the age of seven. During the same year, after the death of his father, his uncle Mansur al-Batahi transferred him and his family to Dikla region. There, his uncle sent him to Abu al-Fadl Ali al-Wasiti who was an expert in the canon law of Islam, a commentator on the Quran and a preacher.
While attending dhikr meetings of his uncle Shaykh Mansur al-Rabbani, he also attended the courses of his other uncle Shaykh Abu Bakr who was a major scientific figure at the time. He memorised the book “Tanbih” concerning Fiqh (Muslim canonical jurisprudence) of Imam Al-Shafi'i which belongs to Shaykh al-Islam Imam Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Ali al-Shirazi. He also wrote an explanation about such a book (however this explanation was lost during the Mongol invasions).
== See also ==
List of Sufis
List of Ash'aris and Maturidis
List of Muslim theologians
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanice | Shanice | Shanice Lorraine Wilson-Knox (born May 14, 1973) is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, and actress. She is recognized for her coloratura soprano voice.
In 1984, Shanice appeared on Star Search at age eleven and won in the Junior Vocalist category. Her success led to being signed to A&M Records and released her debut album Discovery in 1987, at age fourteen. The album spawn the top-ten R&B hits: "(Baby Tell Me) Can You Dance" and "No 1/2 Steppin'". After a label roster shift to Motown Records, she released her second album Inner Child in 1991. The album spawned the international chart-topping song "I Love Your Smile". The song also garnered a nomination for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance at the 35th Annual Grammy Awards. Her single titled "Saving Forever for You", released on the Beverly Hills, 90210, peaked at number four on the US Billboard Hot 100. After releasing her third album, 21... Ways to Grow (1994), she went on a five-year hiatus. During her hiatus, Shanice performed background vocals for several chart-topping songs including "Un-Break My Heart" and "When You Believe". She also made her acting debut in the Broadway production of Les Misérables in 1997.
In March 1999, she released her self-titled album on LaFace Records. The album spawned the top-ten song "When I Close My Eyes". Shortly after the release of the album, Shanice went on another musical hiatus. After forming her own record label Imajah Records, she released her fifth studio album Every Woman Dreams (2006). In 2014, she starred alongside her husband Flex Alexander in the reality television series Flex & Shanice.
== Early life ==
Shanice Lorraine Wilson was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on May 14, 1973. Her mother, Crystal Wilson, was a singer, while her father, Carl Black, was a guitarist. After her parents divorced in 1979, Shanice relocated to Los Angeles with her mother and her aunt Penni Wilson. At the age of nine, she appeared alongside American singer Ella Fitzgerald in a commercial for Kentucky Fried Chicken. She later attended South Pasadena High School.
== Career ==
=== 1984–1989: Career beginnings ===
In 1984, Shanice competed Star Search, the largest national talent show on television at the time. Competing in the show's Junior Vocalist category, Shanice won the grand prize of $5,000 USD with her renditions of "Somewhere Over the Rainbow" and "Greatest Love of All". In September 1984, she became part of cast for season one of American children's television program Kids Incorporated. The following year, she began performing in the Westwood Playhouse musical Get Happy, which celebrated the music of Harold Arlen. John McClain, an executive from A&M Records, attended one of her performances and signed her to A&M Records at the age of eleven. Released on October 21, 1987, her debut album Discovery peaked at number 149 on the US Billboard 200. The album's lead single, "(Baby Tell Me) Can You Dance", became a top-ten R&B hit and peaked at number fifty on the US Billboard Hot 100. The single "No 1/2 Steppin'" also became a top-ten R&B hit, while "The Way You Love Me" and "I'll Bet She's Got a Boyfriend" achieved moderate success on the charts. Due to the record label's struggle to market her because of her young age, Shanice was released from her recording contract with A&M Records.
=== 1990–1995: Breakthrough and Motown Records ===
In the summer of 1990, Shanice signed a record contract with Motown Records. Shanice's second album, Inner Child, was released internationally on November 19, 1991. The album became more successful than its predecessor, peaking at number eighty-three on the Billboard 200 and thirteen on the US Top R&B Albums chart. The album's lead single, "I Love Your Smile", reached number two on the US Billboard Hot 100 and also became a number-one hit in several other countries. The song earned a nomination for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance at the 35th Annual Grammy Awards (1993). Her follow-up single, "I'm Cryin'", peaked at number eleven on the US Hot R&B Singles. The album's third single, "Silent Prayer", which featured American singer Johnny Gill, peaked at number thirty-one on the Billboard Hot 100 and number four on the R&B chart. On May 26, 1992, Inner Child was received a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). In October 1992, she released a single titled "Saving Forever for You" on the soundtrack of American teen drama television series Beverly Hills, 90210. The song peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100. In July 1993, Shanice released a single titled "It's for You" on The Meteor Man soundtrack, which peaked at number fifty-five on Billboard Hot 100.
In June 1994, Shanice released her third album 21... Ways to Grow. While the album's first two singles "Somewhere" and "Turn Down the Lights" peaked within the top thirty on the US Hot R&B Singles chart, the album ultimately became a commercial failure and the album's final singles "I Like" and "I Wish" failed to make an significant impact on the charts. In 1995, she released a song titled "If I Never Knew You" on the Pocahontas soundtrack, and later released a cover version of "If I Were Your Woman" on the soundtrack of drama film Panther. Following the disappointment in 21... Ways to Grow's album sales and her release from Motown, Shanice went on a hiatus.
=== 1996–2002: Shanice and LaFace Records ===
In 1996, Shanice began performing background vocals for several singers. She contributed background vocals to Toni Braxton's "Come On Over Here" and "Un-Break My Heart" for her album Secrets (1996), as well as on "Bedtime" for Usher's My Way album in 1997. In January 1997, she made her theater debut as Eponine in the Broadway production of Les Misérables. In the summer of 1997, Shanice signed to Arista Records but later moved to LaFace Records at the request of label's co-owner LA Reid. In March 1999, Shanice released her self-titled fourth album on LaFace Records. The album's lead single, "When I Close My Eyes", set a then-record Billboard Hot 100 milestone when it moved from number 91 to number 16 on the chart, ultimately peaking at number 12. The album sales became sluggish after the release of the second single "Yesterday". In August 1999, Shanice toured as the opening act for NSYNC's Boys of Summer Tour.
In 2000, Shanice was dropped from her record deal with LaFace Records after she became pregnant with her first child. Following her appearance in the movie One Special Moment in June 2001, Shanice went on a music hiatus. She made a guest appearance in the American sitcom One on One's season one episode "Me & My Shadow".
=== 2005–2016: Every Woman Dreams and television ===
In 2005, Shanice re-emerged with the release of her single "Every Woman Dreams", which peaked at number 62 on the US R&B chart. In February 2006, she released her fifth album Every Woman Dreams on her own record label Imajah Records. Every Woman Dreams peaked at number thirty on the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. The album's singles "Take Care of U" and "So Sexy" experienced moderate success, peaking within the top seventy on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. In 2010, she performed vocals on the track "Behind the Mask" from Michael Jackson's posthumous album Michael. She recorded the song "A Midnight Rendezvous" for the 2012 Kinect game Rhythm Party. She also performed "Love Is the Gift", the English theme song for the video game The Bouncer.
In November 2014, the Oprah Winfrey Network began airing the reality television series Flex & Shanice. The show ran for three seasons and chronicled the daily events of Shanice and her husband as well as their family members. During the show, Shanice began recording new music and working with several producers. To coincide with the debut of Flex & Shanice, she released two singles: "Gotta Blame Me" and "We Can Fly" in November 2014. In July 2015, she released another single titled "Another Lonely Day in California". In 2016, she release a single titled "Breakdown".
=== 2019–present: Current projects ===
In 2019, Shanice returned with the single "He Won't". In 2022, she recorded the theme song for animated children's television series Mecha Builders. In September 2025, Shanice starred as former First Lady Michelle Obama in the Off-Broadway production of 44: The Obama Musical. In November 2025, Shanice announced that she will appear in the BET+ Christmas movie A Soulful Christmas.
== Artistry ==
=== Voice and musical style ===
Shanice's voice has been classified as a five-octave coloratura soprano. Tim Griggs of AllMusic commented, "Shanice sure has an impressive voice, including the ability to sing falsetto." Music critic Jose F. Promis also of AllMusic stated, "Shanice has a strong voice and is a talented singer, but ultimately deserves more creative songwriting and better material, because one can't help but feel that her talent is wasted on this mindless, mass-produced '90s pop-soul borderline drudge." She is also known for ability sing and enunciate words in whistle register.
=== Influences ===
Shanice cited The Emotions as her greatest musical influence. Her mother Crystal Wilson also briefly replace Sheila Hutchinson of The Emotions in 2022. She also cited Minnie Riperton's vocal style as an early influence. Shanice eventually recorded a cover version of Riperton's signature song "Lovin' You" for her own albums Inner Child (1991) and Every Woman Dreams (2006). Shanice has referred to MC Lyte as her favorite rapper, even influencing the rap verse on her song "I Love Your Smile". Other artists that Shanice has mentioned as inspirations include The Clark Sisters, Stevie Wonder, and Teena Marie.
== Business and ventures ==
=== Imajah Records ===
In 2005, Shanice established her independent record label Imajah Records, which serves an imprint for her music releases. The name is derived from her two children: Imani and Elijah. The record label collaborated with New York (state)-based label PlayTyme Music Entertainment to distribute Shanice's fifth album Every Woman Dreams in 2006. The label collaborated with Tree Leaf Records to distribute Shanice's later singles including "Another Lonely Day in California" and "Breakdown".
=== Smile by Shanice ===
In November 2018, Shanice launched her beauty line Smile by Shanice. The cosmetic line featured cruelty-free and vegan lipsticks and lip glosses.
== Personal life ==
On February 19, 2000, Shanice married actor and comedian Flex Alexander. They have two children, daughter Imani Knox (2001) and son Elijah Knox (2004). In 2024, Shanice revealed her breast cancer diagnosis and underwent a double mastectomy.
== Discography ==
Studio albums
Discovery (1987)
Inner Child (1991)
21... Ways to Grow (1994)
Shanice (1999)
Every Woman Dreams (2006)
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
== Theatre and musical ==
== Awards ==
=== Grammy Awards ===
The Grammy Awards (originally called the Gramophone Awards) — or Grammys – are presented annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States for outstanding achievements in the music industry. The awards ceremony features performances by prominent artists, and some of the awards of more popular interest are presented in a widely viewed televised ceremony.
=== Golden Lion Award ===
=== Soul Train Music Awards ===
The Soul Train Music Awards is an annual award show aired that honors the best in Black music and entertainment.
== References ==
== External links ==
Shanice at AllMusic
Shanice discography at Discogs
Shanice at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_state_highways_in_Tamil_Nadu#SH1_to_SH50 | List of state highways in Tamil Nadu | State Highways in India are stretches with heavy traffic intensity of more than 10,000 Passenger Car Units (PCUs) but less than 30,000 PCUs which connects district headquarters, important towns and the National Highways in the state and neighboring states. The Construction & Maintenance wing of the Highways Department manages construction and maintenance of all the State Highways (SH), major district roads (MDR), and other district roads (ODR). The Tamil Nadu State Highways Network has eight circles: Chennai, Villupuram, Madurai, Salem, Tiruchirappalli, Coimbatore, Tiruppur and Tirunelveli.
The state has a total of 286 state highways, 161 state highways urban (SH-U) stretches and 905 major district roads (MDRs), apart from other district roads (ODRs).
== List of state highways ==
This is a list of state highways in Tamil Nadu (as of March 2019).
=== SH1 to SH50 ===
=== SH51 to SH100 ===
=== SH 101 to SH 150 ===
=== SH151 to SH200 ===
=== SH201 to SH234 ===
== List of state highways urban ==
This is a list of state highways urban stretches in Tamil Nadu (as of March 2019).
=== SHU to SHU50 ===
=== SHU51 to SHU100 ===
=== SHU101 to SHU150 ===
=== SHU151 to SHU223 ===
== See also ==
National Highways Authority of India
List of major district roads in Tamil Nadu
National highways of India
List of national highways in India
Road network in Tamil Nadu
Chennai bypass
Coimbatore bypass
== References ==
== External links ==
Government of Tamil Nadu – Highways Department
Tamil Nadu Highways – Right to information (Chapter-02)
Maps of TN state highways
Government of Tamil Nadu – Annual Plan 2008–09 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre#:~:text=In%201946%2C%20he%20published%20his,and%20into%20English%20in%201950. | Georges Lemaître | Georges Henri Joseph Édouard Lemaître ( lə-MET-rə; French: [ʒɔʁʒ ləmɛːtʁ] ; 17 July 1894 – 20 June 1966) was a Belgian Catholic priest, theoretical physicist, and mathematician who made major contributions to cosmology and astrophysics. He was the first to argue that the recession of galaxies is evidence of an expanding universe and to connect the observational Hubble–Lemaître law with the solution to the Einstein field equations in the general theory of relativity for a homogenous and isotropic universe. That work led Lemaître to propose what he called the "hypothesis of the primeval atom", now regarded as the first formulation of the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe.
Lemaître studied engineering, mathematics, physics, and philosophy at the Catholic University of Louvain and was ordained as a priest of the Archdiocese of Mechelen in 1923. His ecclesiastical superior and mentor, Cardinal Désiré-Joseph Mercier, encouraged and supported his scientific work, allowing Lemaître to travel to England, where he worked with the astrophysicist Arthur Eddington at the University of Cambridge in 1923–1924, and to the United States, where he worked with Harlow Shapley at the Harvard College Observatory and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1924–1925.
Lemaître was a professor of physics at Louvain from 1927 until his retirement in 1964. A pioneer in the use of computers in physics research, in the 1930s he showed, with Manuel Sandoval Vallarta of MIT, that cosmic rays are deflected by the Earth's magnetic field and must therefore carry electric charge. Lemaître also argued in favor of including a positive cosmological constant in the Einstein field equations, both for conceptual reasons and to help reconcile the age of the universe inferred from the Hubble–Lemaître law with the ages of the oldest stars and the abundances of radionuclides.
Father Lemaître remained until his death a secular priest of the Archdiocese of Mechelen (after 1961, the "Archdiocese of Mechelen-Brussels"). In 1935, he was made an honorary canon of St. Rumbold's Cathedral. In 1960, Pope John XXIII appointed him as Domestic Prelate entitling him to be addressed as "Monsignor". In that same year he was appointed as president of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, a post that he occupied until his death. Among other awards, Lemaître received the first Eddington Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1953, "for his work on the expansion of the universe."
== Early life ==
Georges Lemaître was born in Charleroi, Belgium, the eldest of four children of Joseph Lemaître, a prosperous industrialist who owned a glassworks factory, and Marguerite née Lannoy, who was the daughter of a brewer. Georges was educated at the Collège du Sacré-Cœur, a grammar school in Charleroi run by the Jesuits. In 1910, after a fire destroyed the glassworks, the family moved to Brussels, where Joseph had found a new position as manager for the French bank Société Générale. Georges then became a pupil at another Jesuit school, St. Michael's College. Although he had expressed his interest in pursuing a religious vocation, his father convinced him to attend university first and to train as a mining engineer.
=== University studies and military service ===
In 1911, Lemaître began to study engineering at the Catholic University of Louvain. In 1914, after the outbreak of World War I, Lemaître interrupted his studies to volunteer for the Belgian army. He participated in the Battle of the Yser, in which the Belgians succeeded in halting the German advance. When the army transferred him from the infantry to artillery, Lemaître was sent to complete a course on ballistics. His prospects of promotion to officer rank were dashed after he was marked down for insubordination as a result of pointing out to the instructor a mathematical error in the official artillery manual. However, at the end of hostilities he received the Belgian War Cross with bronze palm, one of only five rank-and-file troops to receive that award from the hands of King Albert I.
Lemaître was an admirer of the French Catholic writer Léon Bloy. During a leave from his military service in World War I, Lemaître visited Bloy in Bourg-la-Reine, near Paris, where Bloy was living in a house that had belonged to his late friend and fellow writer Charles Péguy. On that occasion, Lemaître shared with Bloy an essay entitled Les trois premières paroles de Dieu ("The First Three Words of God"), in which he attempted to reconcile the Genesis creation narrative with modern science. Bloy, however, was unimpressed and advised Lemaître to grow more familiar with the works of the Church Fathers. This experience may have contributed to Lemaître's abandonment of the "concordist" effort to reconcile theological and scientific knowledge at a common intellectual level. Years later, Einstein questioned Lemaître on the idea of concordism. Lemaître opposed the idea that faith and science are opposed, but also acknowledged that concordism was invalid, arguing, "Should a priest reject relativity because it contains no authoritative exposition on the doctrine of the Trinity? Once you realize that the Bible does not purport to be a textbook of science, the old controversy between religion and science vanishes"
After the war, Lemaître abandoned engineering for the study of physics and mathematics. In 1919 he also completed the course taught at the Higher Institute of Philosophy, established by Cardinal Désiré-Joseph Mercier to promote neo-Thomism. Lemaître obtained his doctorate in science in 1920 with a thesis titled L'approximation des fonctions de plusieurs variables réelles ("The approximation of functions of several real variables"), written under the direction of mathematician Charles de la Vallée-Poussin.
=== Religious training ===
Lemaître had considered joining the Jesuits or the Benedictines, but finally decided to prepare instead for the diocesan priesthood. Between 1920 and 1923 he was a student at the Maison Saint-Rombaut, the seminary for "late vocations" (i.e., mature students for the priesthood) of the Archdiocese of Mechelen. It was during his spare time at the seminary that Lemaître learned the general theory of relativity. He was ordained as a priest on 22 September 1923 by Cardinal Mercier. As a diocesan priest in French-speaking Belgium, he was known as "Abbé Lemaître".
At the seminary, Lemaître joined the Fraternité sacerdotale des Amis de Jésus ("Priestly fraternity of the Friends of Jesus"), which had been created by Cardinal Mercier to promote the spiritual life of select diocesan priests and which was established canonically by his successor, Cardinal Jozef-Ernest van Roey. As a member of the fraternity, Lemaître took vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, as well as special votum immolationis ("vow of immolation") promising complete submission to the person of Christ. In the spirit of the fraternity, Lemaître did not discuss his involvement with the Amis de Jésus outside of the group, but he regularly made silent retreats in a house called Regina Pacis ("Queen of Peace") in Schilde, near Antwerp, and also undertook translations of the mystical works of John of Ruusbroec.
=== Voyage to Britain and the US ===
In 1922, Lemaître applied to the Belgian Ministry of Sciences and Arts for a travel bursary. As part of that application, he submitted a thesis on the astronomical implications of general relativity that included a demonstration that the most general form of the Einstein field equations included a cosmological constant term. The jury awarded Lemaître a prize of 8,000 Belgian francs.
Cardinal Mercier supported Lemaître's scientific work and helped him to obtain further financial support for a two-year visit to Great Britain and the United States. Only ten days after his ordination, Lemaître left Belgium to take up residence at St Edmund's House, then a community of Catholic priests studying for degrees at the University of Cambridge and which would later become St Edmund's College. At Cambridge, Lemaître was a research associate in astronomy and worked with the eminent astrophysicist Arthur Eddington, who introduced Lemaître to modern cosmology, stellar astronomy, and numerical analysis.
Lemaître then spent the following year at the Harvard College Observatory, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, working with Harlow Shapley, a leading expert in the study of what were then called "spiral nebulae" (now identified as spiral galaxies). Lemaître also registered at that time in the doctoral program in science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), with the Belgian engineer Paul Heymans as his official advisor.
== Work on cosmology ==
On his return to Belgium in 1925, Lemaître became a part-time lecturer at the Catholic University of Louvain and began working on a report that was finally published in 1927 in the Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles ("Annals of the Scientific Society of Brussels"), under the title Un Univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extragalactiques ("A homogeneous Universe of constant mass and growing radius accounting for the radial velocity of extragalactic nebulae"). There he developed (independently of the earlier work of Alexander Friedmann) the argument that the equations of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity implied that the Universe is not static (see Friedmann equations). Lemaître connected this prediction to what he argued was a simple relation of proportionality between the average recessional velocity of galaxies and their distance to the Earth.
This 1927 paper had little impact because the Annales de la Société Scientifique de Bruxelles were not widely read by astronomers or physicists outside of Belgium. Moreover, the initial state that Lemaître proposed for the Universe in this 1927 paper was Einstein's model of a static universe with a cosmological constant, but at this time, Einstein insisted that only a static picture of the universe was physically acceptable. Lemaître later recalled Einstein saying to him: "vos calculs sont corrects, mais votre physique est abominable" ("your calculations are correct, but your physics is abominable").
Also in 1927, Lemaître returned to MIT to defend his doctoral dissertation on The gravitational field in a fluid sphere of uniform invariant density according to the theory of relativity. Upon obtaining that second doctorate, Lemaître's was appointed ordinary professor at the Catholic University of Louvain.
=== Hubble-Lemaître law ===
In 1929, the US astronomer Edwin Hubble published a paper in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America showing, based on better and more abundant data than what Lemaître had had at his disposal in 1927, that, in the average, galaxies recede at a velocity proportional to their distance from the observer. Although Hubble himself did not interpret that result in terms of an expanding Universe, his work attracted widespread attention and soon convinced many experts, including Einstein, that the Universe is not static. The proportionality between distance and recessional velocity for galaxies has since been commonly known as "Hubble's law", but in 2018 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted a resolution recommending that it be referred to as the "Hubble-Lemaître law".
In 1931, an English translation of Lemaître's 1927 report appeared in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, with a commentary by Arthur Eddington that characterized Lemaître's work as a "brilliant solution" to the outstanding problems of cosmology and a response by Lemaître to Eddington's comments. This English translation, however, omitted Lemaître's estimate of the "Hubble constant" for reasons that remained unclear for many years. The issue was clarified in 2011 by Mario Livio: Lemaître himself removed those paragraphs when he prepared the English translation, opting instead to cite the stronger results that Hubble had published in 1929.
=== Hypothesis of the primeval atom ===
In March 1931 Lemaître wrote a brief report in which he proposed that the universe expanded from a single initial quantum, which he called the "primeval atom". This was published in Nature, and later that year Lemaître participated in a public colloquium on "The Evolution of the Universe" held in London on 29 September 1931 to mark the centenary of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
Lemaître's theory was first presented to a general audience in the December 1932 issue of Popular Science, in a piece written by the astronomer Donald Howard Menzel of Harvard University. In 1933–1934, Lemaître was a guest professor at the Catholic University of America, in Washington, D.C. At that time he also presented his work on the "Evolution of the Expanding Universe" before the US National Academy of Sciences. Lemaître became a scientific celebrity and newspapers around the world referred to him as the leader of a new physical cosmology.
Lemaître and Einstein met on four occasions: in 1927 in Brussels, at the time of a Solvay Conference; in 1932 in Belgium, at the time of a cycle of conferences in Brussels; in California in January 1933; and in 1935 at Princeton. In 1933 at the California Institute of Technology, after Lemaître presented his theory, Einstein stood up, applauded, and is reported to have said, "This is the most beautiful and satisfactory explanation of creation to which I have ever listened." However, there is disagreement over the reporting of this quote in the newspapers of the time, and it may be that Einstein was not referring to the "primordial atom" theory as a whole, but only to Lemaître's proposal that cosmic rays could be "fossils" of the primordial decay.
Lemaître argued that cosmic rays could be a "fossil radiation" produced by the decay of the primeval atom. Much of his work in the 1930s was focused on cosmic rays. In 1946, Lemaître published a book on L'Hypothèse de l'Atome Primitif ("The Primeval Atom Hypothesis"), which was translated into Spanish in the same year and into English in 1950. The astronomer Fred Hoyle introduced the term "Big Bang" in a 1949 BBC radio broadcast to refer to cosmological theories such as Lemaître's, according to which the Universe has a beginning in time. Hoyle remained throughout his life an opponent of such "Big Bang" theories, advocating instead a steady-state model of an eternal Universe.
In 1948, theoreticians Ralph Alpher, Robert Herman, and George Gamow predicted a different form of "fossil radiation" based on the Big Bang model, now known as the cosmic microwave background (CMB). The CMB was produced when the contents of the expanding Universe cooled sufficiently that they became transparent to electromagnetic radiation. In 1965, shortly before his death, Lemaître learned from his assistant Odon Godart of the recent discovery of the CMB by radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson. That discovery convinced most experts of the scientific validity of the Big Bang.
=== Cosmological constant ===
Lemaître maintained throughout his career that the Einstein field equations should incorporate a positive cosmological constant (
Λ
{\displaystyle \Lambda }
) term. His reasoning was based on both theoretical and empirical considerations. Lemaître argued in 1958 that "if some extension of relativity towards a broader field, such as quantum theory, has to be achieved the superfluous
Λ
{\displaystyle \Lambda }
term shall be very much welcomed". He also held that the accelerating expansion of the universe induced by
Λ
{\displaystyle \Lambda }
could help to reconcile the age of the universe deduced from the Hubble-Lemaître law with the ages of the oldest stars and the observed abundances of radionuclides. Lemaître argued for a positive cosmological constant both in print and in correspondence with Einstein, who was skeptical about the reality of such a term after abandoning his model of a static universe in the early 1930s. The Nobel Prize in Physics for 2011 was awarded to Saul Perlmutter, Brian P. Schmidt, and Adam G. Riess for establishing the reality of the universe's accelerating expansion, based on extensive surveys of Type Ia supernovae used as astronomical "standard candles". In the scientific background for that prize, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences credited Lemaître with the idea that such an acceleration is driven by vacuum energy, also modernly called in this context dark energy.
=== Views on relation between science and faith ===
Lemaître viewed his work as a scientist as neither supporting nor contradicting any truths of the Catholic faith, and he was strongly opposed to making any arguments that mixed science with religion, although he held that the two were not in conflict. He was always anxious that his work on cosmology should be judged on purely scientific criteria.
In 1951, Pope Pius XII gave an address to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, with Lemaître in the audience, in which he drew a parallel between the new Big Bang cosmology and the Christian doctrine of creatio ex nihilo:
Indeed, it seems that the science of today, by going back in one leap millions of centuries, has succeeded in being a witness to that primordial Fiat Lux, when, out of nothing, there burst forth with matter a sea of light and radiation [... Thus modern science has confirmed] with the concreteness of physical proofs the contingency of the universe and the well-founded deduction that about that time the cosmos issued from the hand of the Creator.
Lemaître was reportedly horrified by that intervention and was later able, with the assistance of Father Daniel O'Connell, the director of the Vatican Observatory, to convince the Pope not make any further public statements on religious or philosophical interpretations of matters concerning physical cosmology.
According to the theoretical physicist and Nobel laureate Paul Dirac,
Once when I was talking with Lemaître about [his cosmological theory] and feeling stimulated by the grandeur of the picture that he has given us, I told him that I thought cosmology was the branch of science that lies closest to religion. However Lemaître
did not agree with me. After thinking it over he suggested psychology as lying closest to religion.
== Other scientific work ==
With Manuel Sandoval Vallarta, whom he had met at MIT, Lemaître showed that the intensity of cosmic rays varies with latitude because they are composed of charged particles and therefore are deflected by the Earth's magnetic field. In their calculations, Lemaître and Vallarta made use of MIT's new differential analyzer computer, developed by Vannevar Bush. That work disproved the view, advocated among others by the Nobel laureate Robert Millikan, that cosmic rays were composed of high-energy photons. Lemaître and Vallarta also worked on a theory of primary cosmic radiation and applied it to their investigations of the Sun's magnetic field and the effects of the galaxy's rotation.
In 1933, Lemaître found an important inhomogeneous solution of Einstein's field equations describing a spherical dust cloud, the Lemaître–Tolman metric. He became increasingly interested in problems of numerical computation and in the 1930s began to use the most powerful calculator available at the time, the mechanical Mercedes-Euklid. In his only work in physical chemistry, Lemaître collaborated in the numerical calculation of the energy levels of monodeuteroethyelene (a molecule of ethylene with one of its hydrogen atoms replaced by deuterium).
In 1948 Lemaître published a mathematical essay titled Quaternions et espace elliptique ("Quaternions and elliptic space"). William Kingdon Clifford had introduced the concept of elliptic space in 1873. Lemaître developed the theory of quaternions from first principles, in the spirit of the Erlangen program.
Lemaître also worked on the three-body problem, introducing a new method of regularization to avoid singularities associated with the collisions of two bodies. In the 1950s he worked out an early version of the fast Fourier transform, later developed independently by James Cooley and John Tukey. He introduced the Burroughs E101 electromechanical computer to his university in the late 1950s. In his later years he collaborated with his nephew Gilbert Lemaître on a new programming language called "Velocode", a precursor of BASIC.
== Final years ==
During the 1950s, Lemaître gradually gave up part of his teaching workload, ending it completely when he took emeritus status in 1964. In 1960 he was named domestic prelate (with the treatment of "Monsignor") by Pope John XXIII. Following the death of the physician and Capuchin friar Agostino Gemelli, Lemaître was appointed to succeed him as the second president of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences.
During the Second Vatican Council of 1962–65, the pope asked Lemaître to serve on the 4th session of the Pontifical Commission on Birth Control. However, since his health made it impossible for him to travel to Rome —he suffered a heart attack in December 1964— Lemaître demurred. He told a Dominican colleague, Père Henri de Riedmatten, that he thought it was dangerous for a mathematician to venture outside of his area of expertise. Lemaître died on 20 June 1966, shortly after having learned of the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation, which provided solid experimental support for his theory of the Big Bang.
Lemaître was strongly opposed to the Leuven Vlaams ("Flemish Leuven") movement that sought to make instruction at the Catholic University of Leuven monolingual in Dutch. With the historian Gérard Garitte, in 1962 Lemaître established the Association du corps académique et du personnel scientifique de l'Université de Louvain (ACAPSUL, "Association of the faculty and scientific personnel of the University of Louvain") to advocate for the continued use of the French language in that institution. After Lemaître's death, the university was separated into a Dutch-speaking institution, KU Leuven, and a French-speaking institution, UCLouvain, based in the planned town of Louvain-la-Neuve ("New Leuven") that was built for that purpose just across the language border in Walloon Brabant.
== Honours and recognition ==
On 27 July 1935 Lemaître was appointed as an honorary canon of St. Rumbold's Cathedral by Cardinal Jozef-Ernest van Roey. He was elected a member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in 1936, and took an active role there, serving as its president from March 1960 until his death. In 1941, he was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts of Belgium.
On 17 March 1934, Lemaître received the Francqui Prize, the highest Belgian scientific distinction, from King Leopold III. His proposers were Albert Einstein, Charles de la Vallée-Poussin and Alexandre de Hemptinne. The members of the international jury were Eddington, Langevin, Théophile de Donder and Marcel Dehalu. The same year he received the Mendel Medal of the Villanova University.
In 1936, Lemaître received the Prix Jules Janssen, the highest award of the Société astronomique de France, the French astronomical society. Another distinction that the Belgian government reserves for exceptional scientists was allotted to him in 1950: the decennial prize for applied sciences for the period 1933–1942. Lemaître was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1945. In 1953, he was given the inaugural Eddington Medal by the Royal Astronomical Society.
In 2005, Lemaître was voted to the 61st place of De Grootste Belg ("The Greatest Belgian"), a Flemish television program on the VRT. In the same year he was voted to the 78th place by the audience of the Les plus grands Belges ("The Greatest Belgians"), a television show of the RTBF. Later, in December 2022, VRT recovered in its archives a lost 20-minute interview with Georges Lemaître in 1964, "a gem", says cosmologist Thomas Hertog. On 17 July 2018, Google Doodle celebrated Georges Lemaître's 124th birthday. On 26 October 2018, an electronic vote among all members of the International Astronomical Union voted 78% to recommend changing the name of the Hubble law to the Hubble–Lemaître law.
=== Namesakes ===
The lunar crater Lemaître
Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric
Lemaître coordinates
Lemaître–Tolman metric
Hubble–Lemaître law
Minor planet 1565 Lemaître
The fifth Automated Transfer Vehicle, Georges Lemaître ATV
Norwegian indie electronic band Lemaitre
The Maison Georges Lemaître is the main building of the UCLouvain's Charleroi campus, adjacent to Lemaître's birthplace
== Bibliography ==
== References ==
=== Sources ===
=== Further reading ===
== External links ==
"Georges Lemaître, Father of the Big Bang theory", Heritage of the Université Catholique de Louvain
Georges Lemaître at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
"'A Day Without Yesterday': Georges Lemaître & the Big Bang", Catholic Education Resource Center
Donald H. Menzel, "Blast of Giant Atom Created Our Universe", Popular Mechanics (December 1932)
Interview with Lemaître from 1964 (in French) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamnalal_Bajaj_Award | Jamnalal Bajaj Award | Jamnalal Bajaj Award is an Indian award, for promoting Gandhian values, community service and social development. Established in 1978, by the Jamnalal Bajaj Foundation of Bajaj Group, it is given annually in four categories, and usually presented by the President, Vice president, Prime Minister of India or a leading figure. The foundation currently headed by Rahul Bajaj, was created in 1977, in the memory of group founder, philanthropist and a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi, Jamnalal Bajaj. The award ceremony takes place on his birth anniversary, 4 November.
== Awards ==
The award comprises a citation, a trophy and a cheque of Rs Ten lakh each. It is given in four categories, namely:
Application of Science and Technology for Rural development, established in 1978.
Outstanding contribution for the Development and Welfare of Women and Children, established in 1980 in memory of Janaki Devi Bajaj.
International Award for promoting Gandhian values outside India, which is given to an individual of foreign nationality, established in 1988 on the birth centenary of Jamnalal Bajaj.
To commemorate the birth centenary of Mr. Jamnalal Bajaj, the Foundation presented a special award to Dr. Nelson Mandela in 1990.
== List of awardees ==
== See also ==
List of awards for contributions to society
== References ==
"Jamnalal Bajaj Awards Archive". Jamnalal Bajaj Foundation.
== External links ==
Jamnalal Bajaj Award at the Jamnalal Bajaj Award Foundation |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Letitia_Caldwell | Mary Letitia Caldwell | Mary Letitia Caldwell (December 18, 1890 – July 1, 1972) was an American chemist. She was an instructor at Western College teaching chemistry. Mary was in a wheelchair due to muscular disability. Most of her work centered on amylase, a starch enzyme, most notably finding a method for purifying crystalline porcine pancreatic amylase. She spent sixty years doing this.
== Early life and education ==
Caldwell was born in Bogotá, Colombia, to missionaries from the USA. She earned her bachelor's degree from the Western College for Women in 1913 and taught at the school until 1918. She earned her M.A. and Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1919 and 1921. She had a progressive muscular disorder which made her reliant on a wheelchair for life. She came from a family of five siblings, all of whom valued higher education. She then became the first woman instructor in the chemistry department at Columbia University. In 1951 she retired from teaching and began her studies in enzymes, specifically amylase.
== Career ==
After graduating from graduate school at Columbia University, Caldwell became the first Chemistry professor at Columbia University from 1948 to 1949. She became the only female member of the senior faculty in the chemistry department, becoming the first woman to attain the rank of assistant professor at Columbia. She attained the rank of full professor in 1948.
Caldwell had a progressive muscular disability, and began using a wheelchair by 1960. Despite this, her 9th floor office at her research facility, Chandler Hall, never changed. In 1960 she received the Garvan Medal from the American Chemical Society, an honor awarded annually to a US female chemist.
During her time as a chemist, Caldwell did research on amylase. She spent a lot of her time trying to purify enzymes because she was not satisfied with the commercial material. She attempted to find a more pure form of amylase and she was able to develop a method for isolating crystalline pancreatic enzymes.
== Awards and accomplishments ==
After receiving her M.S. and Ph.D. at Columbia University in 1919 and 1921, respectively, Caldwell was hired as an instructor in 1922. She eventually became the first female professor of chemistry in 1948, and the only female senior faculty member of the chemistry department at Columbia University at the time.
In 1960, Caldwell was awarded the Garvan Medal by the American Chemistry Society for her research on amylase. The Garvan Medal specifically recognizes women who have made a significant contribution to the field of Chemistry. Caldwell developed a method to isolate crystalline pancreatic enzymes that is now used by laboratories all throughout America and Europe.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Proceedings of the Thirty-Seventh Annual Meeting of The American Institute of Nutrition
James, Edward T. (1971). Notable American Women, 1607–1950; A Biographical Dictionary. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9781849722711.
Shearer, Benjamin F. (1997). Notable women in the physical sciences : a biographical dictionary (1. publ. ed.). Westport, Conn. [u.a.]: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313293030.
== External links ==
Works by or about Mary Letitia Caldwell at the Internet Archive |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_P._Robbins_Prize | David P. Robbins Prize | The David P. Robbins Prize for papers reporting novel research in algebra, combinatorics, or discrete mathematics is awarded both by the American Mathematical Society (AMS) and by the Mathematical Association of America (MAA). The AMS award recognizes papers with a significant experimental component on a topic which is broadly accessible which provide a simple statement of the problem and clear exposition of the work. Papers eligible for the MAA award are judged on quality of research, clarity of exposition, and accessibility to undergraduates. Both awards consist of $5000 and are awarded once every three years. They are named in the honor of David P. Robbins and were established in 2005 by the members of his family.
== Winners (AMS Robbins Prize) ==
2025 : Sophie Morier-Genoud and Valentin Ovsienko for their paper "q-deformed rationals and q-continued fractions," Forum of Mathematics, Sigma, 8 (2020), Paper No. e13, 55 pp.
2022 : Alin Bostan, Irina Kurkova, and Kilian Raschel for their paper “A human proof of Gessel's lattice path conjecture,” Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, 369 (2017), 1365-1393.
2019 : Roger Behrend, Ilse Fischer and Matjaž Konvalinka for their paper “Diagonally and antidiagonally symmetric alternating sign matrices of odd order”, Advances in Mathematics 315:324–365, 2017.
2016 : Manuel Kauers, Christoph Koutschan and Doron Zeilberger for their paper "Proof of George Andrews's and David Robbins's q-TSPP conjecture”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) 108(6) pp. 2196–2199.
2013 : Alexander Razborov for his paper "On the minimal density of triangles in graphs”, Combinatorics, Probability and Computing 17(4):603–618, 2008.
2010 : Ileana Streinu for her paper "Pseudo-triangulations, rigidity and motion planning”, Discrete & Computational Geometry 34(4):587–635, 2005.
2007 : Samuel P. Ferguson and Thomas C. Hales for their paper "A proof of the Kepler conjecture," Annals of Mathematics, 162:1065–1185, 2005.
== Winners (MAA Robbins Prize) ==
2023 : Samantha Dahlberg, Angele Foley, Stephanie van Willigenburg for their paper "Resolving Stanley's e-positivity of claw-contractible-free graphs", J. Eur. Math. Soc. (JEMS) 22:2673-2696, 2020.
2020 : Aubrey de Grey for his paper "The chromatic number of the plane is at least 5", Geombinatorics, 28:18-31, 2018.
2017 : Robert Hough for his paper "Solution of the minimum modulus problem for covering systems", Annals of Mathematics, 181:361-382, 2015.
2014 : Frederick V. Henle and James M. Henle for their paper "Squaring the plane”, The American Mathematical Monthly, 115:3–12, 2008.
2011 : Mike Paterson, Yuval Peres, Mikkel Thorup, Peter Winkler, and Uri Zwick for their papers "Overhang”, The American Mathematical Monthly, 116:19–44, 2009, and "Maximum Overhang”, The American Mathematical Monthly, 116:763–787 2009.
2008 : Neil Sloane for "The on-line encyclopedia of integer sequences”, Notices of the American Mathematical Society, 50:912–915, 2003.
== See also ==
List of mathematics awards
== References ==
== External links ==
AMS website
MAA website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Hawton | Mary Hawton | Mary Renetta Hawton (née Bevis; 4 September 1924 – 18 January 1981) was a tennis player from Australia. Her career ranged from the 1940s to the 1950s.
Hawton won the women's doubles title at the Australian Championships five times. In 1958 she also won the mixed doubles title together with compatriot Robert Howe.
In 1948, she married Keith Ernest Hawton.
She was captain of the Australian Fed Cup team in 1979 and 1980 and director of the NSW Tennis Association.
In 1979, Hawton published a book titled How to Play Winning Tennis. She died on 18 January 1981 in Sydney, Australia.
The Mary Hawton Trophy, the prize for the winner of the Australian teams championships for girls, was named after her, as is Hawton Place, in the Canberra suburb of Chisholm.
== Career ==
Mary Hawton found much success in Australia at the Australian Championships. She made it to the semifinals in singles six times in 1948, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1956 and 1959. Hawton reached 12 finals in Australia, eight of these being consecutive. She also reached the doubles finals at the Wimbledon and French Championships in 1957 and 1958 with Australian Thelma Coyne Long. Hawton ended her career with six Grand Slam titles: five in women's doubles and one in mixed doubles.
== Grand Slam finals ==
=== Doubles: 14 (5–9) ===
=== Mixed doubles: 2 (1–1) ===
== Grand Slam performance timelines ==
=== Singles ===
=== Doubles ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Mary Hawton at the Women's Tennis Association
Mary Hawton at the Billie Jean King Cup (archived)
Mary Hawton at Wimbledon |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_H._Bromwell | Jacob H. Bromwell | Jacob Henry Bromwell (May 11, 1848 – June 4, 1924) was an American lawyer, educator and politician who served as a U.S. Representative from Ohio from 1894 to 1903.
== Biography ==
Born in Cincinnati, Ohio, Bromwell resided during his boyhood in Newport, Kentucky.
He attended the public schools of Cincinnati and graduated from Hughes High School in 1864.
He taught in the public schools of southern Indiana and Cincinnati for twenty-three years.
He was graduated from Cincinnati Law School in 1870.
He was admitted to the bar of Hamilton County in 1888 and commenced practice in Cincinnati.
He served as mayor of Wyoming, Ohio from 1880 to 1886.
He served as assistant county solicitor of Hamilton County 1888–1892.
=== Congress ===
Bromwell was elected as a Republican to the Fifty-third Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of John A. Caldwell.
He was re-elected to the Fifty-fourth and the three succeeding Congresses and served from December 3, 1894, to March 3, 1903.
=== Later career ===
He was not a candidate for renomination in 1902.
He resumed the practice of law in Cincinnati.
He served as judge of the court of common pleas of Hamilton County 1907–1913.
He declined to be a candidate for renomination.
He again engaged in the practice of law.
=== Death ===
He died in Wyoming, Ohio, on June 4, 1924.
He was interred in Spring Grove Cemetery, Cincinnati, Ohio.
== Sources ==
United States Congress. "Jacob H. Bromwell (id: B000866)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
This article incorporates public domain material from Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Federal government of the United States. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastriya_Prajatantra_Party#:~:text=History-,Founding%20and%20early%20years%2C%201990%E2%80%931994,era%20on%2029%20May%201990. | Rastriya Prajatantra Party | The Rastriya Prajatantra Party (Nepali pronunciation: [rasʈrijʌ prʌˈd͡zatʌntrʌ ˈpa(r)ʈi]; Nepali: राष्ट्रिय प्रजातन्त्र पार्टी, lit. 'National Democratic Party'; abbr. RPP, RaPraPa (Nepali: राप्रपा)) is a constitutional monarchist and Hindu nationalist political party in Nepal.
The party was formed by Panchayat era prime ministers Surya Bahadur Thapa and Lokendra Bahadur Chand in 1990. The party led two coalition governments in 1997 under Thapa and Chand. The two were also appointed prime minister by King Gyanendra in the 2000s; Chand in 2002 and Thapa in 2003.
Rajendra Prasad Lingden is currently serving as party chairman after being elected at the party's general convention in December 2021. Rastriya Prajatantra Party is currently the fifth-largest political party in the House of Representatives after winning 14 seats at the 2022 general election and is one of seven national parties recognized by the Election Commission. The party was briefly part of the ruling coalition government following the election, but has been in opposition since 25 February 2023.
== History ==
=== Founding and early years, 1990–1994 ===
The Rastriya Prajatantra Party was formed by the ruling elite of the Panchayat era on 29 May 1990. The party split in the same year after another group also registered itself with the Election Commission. The two parties had the same name, ideology and statute but different flags and election symbols. The two parties, one led by Surya Bahadur Thapa zand the other led by Lokendra Bahadur Chand, contested the 1991 elections. The two parties won four seats between them with Chand's party winning three seats and Thapa's party winning one seat. Following their performance at the elections the two parties agreed to merge into a single Rastriya Prajatantra Party on 8 February 1992.
The party held its first general convention from in 1992 from 11 to 16 June in Kathmandu and unanimously elected Surya Bahadur Thapa as its chairman. Lokendra Bahadur Chand and Rajeshwor Devkota were elected leader and co-chairman, respectively. The party emerged as a third force at the 1992 local elections and the 1994 general elections. The party received 18 percent of the votes and won 20 seats to the House of Representatives, making them the third largest party in the parliament.
=== Government and second split, 1995–1999 ===
==== Coalition governments, 1995–1997 ====
The party initially supported the minority government of CPN (UML) but later withdrew their support and backed a no-confidence motion Manmohan Adhikari. The party then joined a coalition government with Nepali Congress and Nepal Sadbhawana Party under the premiership of Congress leader Sher Bahadur Deuba. A faction of the party led by former prime minister Lokendra Bahadur Chand were dissatisfied with the coalition government and in March 1996 some cabinet ministers close to Chand withdrew their support for the Deuba government and resigned before a no-confidence vote was set to table by the opposition CPN (UML). The ministers withdrew their resignation before the no-confidence vote and Deuba won the confidence vote. Six cabinet ministers close to Chand again resigned from the government in December 1996 but supported Deuba in the confidence vote later and rejoined the cabinet.
==== Chand and Thapa governments, 1997–1998 ====
In March 1997, a faction of the party led by Lokendra Bahadur Chand joined a coalition government with CPN (UML), with Chand as prime minister. On 3 October 1997, the faction led by Surya Bahadur Thapa voted for a no-confidence motion tabled by Nepali Congress and toppled the government. Thapa was then made the prime minister on 6 October 1997 with the support of Congress.
After losing support within his party Thapa asked King Birendra to dissolve the house and call for fresh elections. After the recommendation of the Supreme Court, the King called forth a special session of the parliament to debate the no-confidence motion filed against Thapa. Thapa survived the no-confidence vote and expelled six central committee members for threatening to back a no-confidence motion against him.
The second general convention of the party took place from 12 to 16 November 1997 in Birgunj. Surya Bahadur Thapa was re-elected for a second term as chairman. Prakash Chandra Lohani, Pashupati SJB Rana and Kamal Thapa were nominated as vice-chairman, general secretary and spokesman respectively. Lokendra Bahadur Chand however created his own Rastriya Prajatantra Party on 9 January 1998 claiming that Thapa had mismanaged the party, did not listen to the directions of the central committee and accused Thapa of not holding the general election in a fair manner. He broke off with 10 members of parliament including 8 from the House of Representatives and 2 from the National Assembly. Thapa resigned as prime minister on 10 April 1998 and was replaced by Nepali Congress president Girija Prasad Koirala.
The two parties contested the 1999 elections and fared badly in the election with the party winning 11 seats and the party led by Chand not winning any seats. Following the elections, the parties decided to merge again on 31 December 1999. A group led by Rajeshwar Devkota however decided not to rejoin the party and formed their own Rastriya Prajatantra Party (Nationalist).
=== Direct rule and internal conflicts, 2002–2015 ===
==== Second Chand and Thapa governments, 2002–2006 ====
King Gyanendra dismissed the government of Sher Bahadur Deuba on 4 October 2002 after failing to conduct the elections following the dissolution of the House of Representatives on May earlier that year. Lokendra Bahadur Chand was then appointed as prime minister on 11 October 2002. He resigned on 31 May 2003 after protests from opposition parties calling for the restoration of the parliament and the formation of a national consensus government. Chand had also faced accusations from within his party of failing to address these issues. He was replaced by Surya Bahadur Thapa on 5 June 2002.
At the third general convention of the party held in Pokhara from 12 to 14 December 2002, Surya Bahadur Thapa completed his second four-year term as party chairman and could not compete for the post of chairman again as per the party constitution. Pashupati Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana was elected chairman during the convention and Padma Sundar Lawati, Kamal Thapa and Rosan Karki were nominated vice-president, general secretary and spokesperson respectively.
There were calls within the party for Surya Bahadur Thapa to resign as prime minister for undermining democracy by failing to form a national consensus government. He resigned on 7 May 2004, and was replaced by Nepali Congress (Democratic) leader Sher Bahadur Deuba. On 4 November 2004, Thapa announced that he would be quitting the party and forming a new centre-right liberal party. The party was formally launched on 13 March 2005 as Rastriya Janashakti Party.
On 1 February 2005, King Gyanendra dismissed Deuba as prime minister and seized executive powers. The party announced their support for the pro-democracy agitation led by the Seven Party Alliance but ten members of the party's central committee, including Kamal Thapa who had rejoined the party after leaving for Janashakti, supported the coup. Thapa along with six central committee members were appointed to the King's cabinet in December 2005 with Thapa becoming Home Minister.
On 10 January 2006, members of the central committee close to Kamal Thapa voted to replace Pashupati Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana as party chairman with Thapa. Thapa's claim as new chairman was dismissed by other members of the party. Thapa's faction of the party contested the 2006 local elections that was boycotted by the Seven Party Alliance and the Rana faction of the party. The party won mayoral positions in major cities including Kathmandu, Pokhara, Bharatpur and Dhangadhi in an election marred by a lack of candidates, violence and low turnout. The party members that supported Thapa, including six incumbent cabinet ministers, were expelled. On 28 October 2006, they formed their own party, the royalist Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal, under the leadership of Kamal Thapa.
==== Constituent Assembly, 2007–2015 ====
The party held its fourth general convention from 9 to 11 December 2007 and re-elected Pashupati SJB Rana as party chairman. Following the 2006 revolution a national consensus government under the leadership of Girija Prasad Koirala was formed. The parliament was reinstated and eventually transformed into the Interim Legislature Parliament after including the Maoists. The party had eight seats in the parliament but two MPs, Budhhiman Tamang and Brijesh Kumar Gupta, were dismissed because of their support of the royal coup.
In the 2008 elections the party failed to win a seat from the constituency vote but got 2.45% of the party list votes and won 8 seats to the 1st Constituent Assembly through the party-list proportional representation system. Party chairman Pashupati SJB Rana also lost from Sindhupalchowk 1. On 28 May 2008, at the first session of the 1st Constituent Assembly. The party voted in favor of abolishing the monarchy and turning Nepal into a republic. Lokendra Bahadur Chand who was serving as the parliamentary party leader of the party was absent during the vote. The party joined the Madhav Kumar Nepal led government in June 2009.
At the party's fifth general convention from 17 to 19 May 2013, the Rastriya Janashakti Party merged into the party and Surya Bahadur Thapa was elected as the chairman of the unified party. It was also decided that the senior leadership would rotate annually between Surya Bahadur Thapa, Lokendra Bahadur Chand, Pashupati Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana and Prakash Chandra Lohani. In the 2013 elections, the party won constituency seats in Rupandehi 2, Chitwan 5 and Dhankuta 2 and got 2.75% of the party list votes and won 10 seats through the party-list proportional representation system for a total of 13 seats in the 2nd Constituent Assembly. The party supported the CPN (UML)–Nepali Congress coalition government under Sushil Koirala following the election and sent two ministers to the cabinet.
=== Federal Nepal, 2016–present ===
==== Continued internal conflicts, 2016–2020 ====
On 21 November 2016, the party announced its unification with the Kamal Thapa led Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal. The new party retained the name of Rastriya Prajatantra Party. The new party had a total strength of 37 in the Parliament of Nepal, becoming the fourth largest party. Thapa was elected as chairman of the party in a special general convention in Kathmandu in February 2017. The party joined the coalition government on 9 March 2017 under CPN (Maoist Centre) chairman Pushpa Kamal Dahal with Kamal Thapa serving as deputy prime minister. Prakash Chandra Lohani split away from the party following the decision to join the government and because of issues regarding the electoral symbol of the party. He announced the formation of Ekikrit Rastriya Prajatantra Party (Nationalist) on 29 March 2017. Another split occurred on 6 August 2017 after Pashupati SJB Rana broke away forming Rastriya Prajatantra Party (Democratic). The party joined the coalition government under Nepali Congress president Sher Bahadur Deuba on 13 October 2017 with Kamal Thapa again serving as deputy prime minister.
In the 2017 general and provincial elections, Rastriya Prajantatra Party formed an alliance with Nepali Congress and Rastriya Prajatantra Party (Democratic). The party only won one seat to the House of Representatives and party chairman Kamal Thapa lost in Makwanpur 1. Only general secretary Rajendra Lingden was elected from Jhapa 3 after forging an electoral pact with the Left Alliance against Nepali Congress in some eastern districts including Jhapa. The party got 2.06% of the party list votes and could not become a national party after failing to pass the 3% threshold in party list voting. The party also won one seat each to provincial assemblies of Province 1, Province 3 and Province 6.
==== Re-unification and new leadership, 2020–present ====
The Rastriya Prajatantra Party (Samyukta), created through the merger of Rana and Lohani's splinter groups, merged with the party on 12 March 2020, with Kamal Thapa, Pashupati Shamsher Jang Bahadur Rana and Prakash Chandra Lohani all acting as chairs. In July 2020, Sunil Bahadur Thapa, the son of former prime minister Surya Bahadur Thapa, resigned from the party and joined Nepali Congress. The party conducted its general convention from 1 to 3 December 2021 and elected Rajendra Prasad Lingden as the party's chairman. He defeated former deputy prime minister and incumbent party chairman Kamal Thapa at the general convention. The party also announced that it had 150,000 active party members. The general convention also elected Nepalgunj mayor Dhawal Shamsher Rana as the party's general secretary and former member of constituent assembly Bikram Pandey as the party vice-president. Following the general convention, Kamal Thapa left the party and revived the Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal.
The party announced intentions to unify other pro-monarchist groups under their umbrella and groups including Nepal Ka Lagi Nepali Campaign, Mission Nepal, Gorach Abhiyan and the Gyanendra Shahi led Hamro Nepal Hami Nepali Campaign joined the party in the following months. Former chairman of Bibeksheel Sajha Party, Rabindra Mishra also joined the party on 28 September 2022 as senior vice-president. The Janatantrik Terai Mukti Morcha also merged with the party on 5 October.
The party fielded 140 candidates to the House of Representatives at the 2022 general and provincial elections and forged an election pact with CPN (UML) in Jhapa, Banke and Rupandehi districts. Party chairman Rajendra Lingden retained his seat in Jhapa 3 and the party gained 6 more direct seats. The party also got 5.58% of the party list vote to become one of seven national parties in the Federal Parliament. The party won 7 proportional seats for a total of 14 seats at the House of Representatives. The party was also successful in winning seats to all seven provincial assemblies.
The party joined the coalition government of Pushpa Kamal Dahal following the election with three cabinet ministers and one state minister, with party president Lingden serving as deputy prime minister. The party withdrew from the coalition after a month.
== Ideology ==
The Rastriya Prajatantra Party was established as an alternative force to the major political parties, Nepali Congress and Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist). The party was founded on the principles of democracy, constitutional monarchy, nationalism and economic liberalism. At the time of the party's foundation Surya Bahadur Thapa's party was considered as the more liberal party and Lokendra Bahadur Chand's party was considered as the more conservative party.
=== Monarchy and federal structure ===
At the first session of the 1st Constituent Assembly, the party voted to abolish the monarchy and turn Nepal into a secular republic. Later however, the party advocated for turning Nepal into a Hindu republic. Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal, a splinter group of the party which had voted against abolishing the monarchy changed its constitution to support the re-establishment of the Hindu state and a return to constitutional monarchy. After the merger between the two parties in November 2016 it was announced that the unified party would take up the constitution of Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal. The party has stated support for a Sanatan Hindu state with full religious freedom and registered an amendment proposal for such on 19 March 2017. The Election Commission removed the portion of the party statute that advocated for a Hindu state and monarchy on 17 March 2017 and asked the party to remove the provisions again on 22 January 2022 claiming that it was against Article 260 of the Constitution of Nepal.
The party supports a ceremonial monarch, a directly elected prime minister and a fully proportional parliament. The party also calls for the scrapping of the provincial governments claiming that it is an expensive experiment. The party wants to instead strengthen the local governments and create a two-tier federal structure.
== Electoral performance ==
=== Legislative elections ===
=== Provincial elections ===
==== Koshi ====
==== Madhesh ====
==== Bagmati ====
==== Gandaki ====
==== Lumbini ====
==== Karnali ====
==== Sudurpashchim ====
== Leadership ==
=== Chairpersons ===
Surya Bahadur Thapa (1990–2002, 2013–2014)
Pashupati SJB Rana (2002–2013, 2014–2016, 2020–2021)
Kamal Thapa (2016–2021)
Prakash Chandra Lohani (2020–2021)
Rajendra Lingden (2021–present)
=== Prime Ministers ===
=== Deputy Prime Ministers ===
== Current leadership ==
=== Provincial Committee Chairs ===
== List of current Members of Parliament ==
== Sister Organizations ==
National Democratic Student Organization
National Democratic Youth Front
National Democratic Women's Union
== See also ==
General Convention of Rastriya Prajatantra Party (2021)
== References ==
== External links ==
Party website
Info on the party from FES |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_American_League_Championship_Series | 2004 American League Championship Series | The 2004 American League Championship Series was a semifinal series in Major League Baseball's 2004 postseason deciding the American League champion earning the privilege to play in the 2004 World Series. A rematch of the previous year's ALCS, it was played between the Boston Red Sox, who had won the AL wild card and defeated the Anaheim Angels in the American League Division Series, and the New York Yankees, who had won the AL East with the best record in the AL and defeated the Minnesota Twins. The Red Sox became the first, and to date only, team in MLB history to come back from a 3–0 series deficit and ultimately win a best-of-seven series. The 2004 ALCS and the subsequent World Series has often been described as the "greatest comeback in sports history".
In Game 1, Yankees pitcher Mike Mussina pitched a perfect game through six innings, while the Red Sox recovered from an eight-run deficit to close within one run before the Yankees eventually won. A home run by John Olerud helped the Yankees win Game 2. The Yankees gathered 22 hits in Game 3 on their way to a blowout win. The Yankees led Game 4 by one run in the ninth inning, but a steal of second base by Red Sox base runner Dave Roberts and a single by Bill Mueller off Yankees closer Mariano Rivera tied the game. David Ortiz hit a home run in extra innings for the Red Sox win. In Game 5, the Red Sox overcame an eighth inning deficit, and Ortiz hit a 14th inning walk-off single for the Red Sox for their second consecutive extra-innings victory. Curt Schilling pitched seven innings in Game 6 for the Red Sox, during which time his right foot sock became soaked in blood due to an outstanding ankle injury. Game 7 featured the Red Sox paying back New York for their Game 3 blowout with a dominant performance on the road, anchored by Derek Lowe and bolstered by two Johnny Damon home runs including a grand slam. David Ortiz was named the Most Valuable Player of the series.
The Red Sox went on to sweep the St. Louis Cardinals in the World Series, winning their first World Series championship in 86 years and ending the so-called Curse of the Bambino.
== Route to the series ==
=== Boston Red Sox ===
The Red Sox ended their 2003 season in the previous American League Championship Series with a game seven loss to the Yankees, on a walk-off home run by Yankees third baseman Aaron Boone in the bottom of the 11th inning. During the offseason, they traded Casey Fossum, Brandon Lyon, Jorge de la Rosa, and a minor leaguer to the Arizona Diamondbacks for ace starting pitcher Curt Schilling. Manager Grady Little was also fired and replaced with Terry Francona due to poor decisions that Little made during the previous season's playoffs. The Red Sox also signed a closing pitcher, Keith Foulke, to a three-year contract.
Going into the all-star break, the Red Sox were seven games behind the Yankees for the division lead with a record of 48–38, but led the wild card. In an attempt to improve the team and solidify a playoff decision and in anticipation for a showdown against the New York Yankees, general manager Theo Epstein traded well-liked shortstop Nomar Garciaparra to the Chicago Cubs in exchange for first baseman Doug Mientkiewicz and shortstop Orlando Cabrera in a four-team deal on the trading deadline (July 31). The team fell behind up to 10+1⁄2 games in the division during the month of August, but managed to come back in September to within two games. However, the Yankees held strong and won the division, finishing three games ahead of the Red Sox. The Red Sox won the AL Wild Card (the best record among three second-place teams) to obtain a spot in the playoffs. Entering the postseason, first baseman Kevin Millar was asked to compare the team with the previous season's team, to which he responded, "I'm pretty sure we're five outs better than last year." It was a reference to the 2003 American League Championship Series, in which the Red Sox held a 5–2 lead over the Yankees with one out in the eighth inning of Game 7, only to blow the lead and lose the series.
The Red Sox would sweep the Anaheim Angels in three games, but at a cost. In the first game of the series, Schilling would be hurt by a line drive hit off his foot, leaving the rest of his postseason play in doubt.
=== New York Yankees ===
The 2004 Yankees began the season in Tokyo with a split against the Devil Rays. Playing a much-anticipated game against the Red Sox, the team lost the game 6–2 and 6 out of the first 7 games to their rivals. After falling as many as 4+1⁄2 games behind the Red Sox on April 25, the team would make up the deficit in less than 2 weeks, including an 8-game win streak. By the end of June, they had a commanding 8+1⁄2 game lead in the AL East over the Red Sox after sweeping them with a dramatic 5–4 walk-off 13-inning victory. After the All-Star break, the Yankees traded José Contreras to the White Sox for Esteban Loaiza. Contreras was signed away from the Red Sox before the 2003 season, but he failed to live up to expectations. With a 10+1⁄2 game lead in the second week of August, the team struggled and watched their lead dwindle to only 2+1⁄2 games on September 3. The team held off the Red Sox to claim the division and set up a playoff rematch with the Twins. The results were pretty much the same, as the Yankees took the Division Series in 4 games, setting up the rematch.
== Series build-up ==
The Red Sox and Yankees had met 45 times in the previous two years, with Boston holding a 23–22 lead. The Red Sox held an 11–8 advantage over New York in 2004, but eight of the games were decided in one of the teams' final at-bats. Boston outscored New York, 106–105. and this was the fifth time that the two teams were on the doorstep of a World Series, with the Yankees winning the previous four, in 1949, 1978, 1999, and 2003.
The Series was widely anticipated, especially given the outcome of the previous October, when the Yankees beat the Red Sox in seven games when Aaron Boone hit the home run off of Tim Wakefield in the bottom of the 11th inning to send the Yankees to the World Series. Yankees General Manager Brian Cashman said that "the two teams in the American League facing each other in this series are the two best teams, period." Fox commentator Joe Buck said as the series began: "Well, it's hard to believe, it was almost exactly one year ago tonight that Aaron Boone hit that 11th inning home run to beat the Red Sox...yet for some reason it seemed predetermined that we would be right back here a year later for a rematch of sort."
Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe wrote that "one year after they (Yankees) jousted to the (Sox's) finish in the Bronx last October in an epic seventh game that appeared to take the clash to its zenith they go at it again..." In this series, Alex Rodriguez seemed to answer the Sox' acquisition of Curt Schilling, as the two veteran stars faced each other, "wearing the uniforms of the ancient rivals in an October game..." Yankees pitcher Mike Mussina summed up the build-up: "This is what everyone was hoping for...It's a rematch of last year, with the best two teams in the American League."
The New York Times said that this was the showdown the Yankees anticipated the entire season, while the Red Sox craved it an entire year. This was the reason why the Red Sox fired Grady Little, traded Nomar Garciaparra, and added Curt Schilling. Outfielder Johnny Damon said of Boone's home run: "If we do advance to the World Series and win, it's a better story that we went through New York. We needed to get back here. This is where a lot of hearts were broken, and we're in a perfect seat to stop the hurting." The Red Sox' Theo Epstein agreed, saying "Now that it's here, we can admit that if we're able to win a World Series and go through New York along the way, it will mean that much more."
Initially, Game 4 was scheduled for the afternoon. However, MLB Commissioner Bud Selig had moved the starting time of Game 4 to primetime, due to the rematch, and Fox had a triple-header, first the Seattle Seahawks–New England Patriots game at Gillette Stadium at 1:00 pm ET, then Game 4 of the NLCS between the St. Louis Cardinals and Houston Astros at Minute Maid Park at 4:30 pm ET.
== Summary ==
=== New York Yankees vs. Boston Red Sox ===
Boston won the series, 4–3.
== Game summaries ==
=== Game 1 ===
Game 1 pitted the Red Sox's star pitcher Curt Schilling against Yankees ace Mike Mussina. Schilling entered the game with a 6–1 postseason career record, but the expected pitchers' duel quickly became a one-sided exhibition. Schilling had sustained a torn tendon sheath in his right ankle during Game 1 of the American League Division Series against the Angels, and proved to be ineffective. In the first, Gary Sheffield doubled with two outs before Hideki Matsui drove him in with a double, then Matsui scored on Bernie Williams's single. In the third, the Yankees loaded the bases with no outs on two singles and a walk before Matsui cleared them with a double. After moving to third on a groundout, Matsui scored on Jorge Posada's sacrifice fly. In the sixth, Kenny Lofton hit a leadoff home run off of knuckleballer Tim Wakefield. Sheffield doubled with two outs before scoring on a single by Matsui, giving him an ALCS record-tying five RBIs in the game.
Mussina, meanwhile, retired the game's first 19 Red Sox batters. Mark Bellhorn ended Mussina's bid for a perfect game with a one-out double in the seventh. After David Ortiz singled with two outs, Kevin Millar's double to left scored two runs. Millar moved to third on a passed ball before scoring on Trot Nixon's single. Tanyon Sturtze relieved Mussina and allowed a home run to Jason Varitek that made it 8–5 Yankees. Next inning, Tom Gordon allowed singles to Bill Mueller and Manny Ramirez before Ortiz's two-out triple cut the Yankees lead to 8–7. The Yankees called upon closer Mariano Rivera, who induced a pop out by Kevin Millar to end the inning. In the bottom half, Alex Rodriguez and Sheffield singled off of Mike Timlin before Williams' two-run double made it 10–7 Yankees. The Sox hit two singles in the top of the ninth inning off of Rivera, but the game ended when Bill Mueller grounded into a double play.
=== Game 2 ===
Game 2 featured Pedro Martínez of the Red Sox facing Yankees pitcher Jon Lieber. Again, the Yankees struck first, as Gary Sheffield drove in Derek Jeter, who walked, in the first inning. The 1–0 score held up for several innings, as Lieber and Martinez put together a classic pitchers' duel.
Martinez got himself in and out of trouble through several innings, but, shortly after making his 100th pitch of the night, walked Jorge Posada and allowed a John Olerud home run, giving New York a 3–0 lead.
Again, the Red Sox rallied. Trot Nixon singled to lead off the eighth off of Lieber, who was replaced by Tom Gordon. A double by Jason Varitek moved Nixon to third before Orlando Cabrera's RBI groundout closed the gap, 3–1. With two outs and a runner on third, however, the Yankees again turned to Rivera, who struck out Johnny Damon to end the inning. Rivera shut down the Red Sox in the ninth by inducing a groundout by Mark Bellhorn, and, after giving up a double to Manny Ramírez, striking out David Ortiz and Millar, ending the game.
=== Game 3 ===
With the series moving to Fenway Park, Game 3 was originally scheduled for October 15, but was postponed a day due to rain. The starting pitchers were Kevin Brown for the Yankees and Bronson Arroyo for the Red Sox.
As in the first two games, the Yankees began by scoring in the first. Derek Jeter walked and scored from first on a double by Alex Rodríguez. Two batters later, Hideki Matsui hit a home run to right field, giving the Yankees a 3–0 lead. The Red Sox answered in the second inning with a leadoff walk by Jason Varitek and a Trot Nixon home run to right field. A double by Bill Mueller, an infield RBI hit by Johnny Damon (his first hit of the series), and a Derek Jeter error led to two more runs. The Red Sox led for the first time in the series, 4–3.
This lead was short-lived, as Alex Rodríguez led off the third inning with a home run over the Green Monster. Gary Sheffield then walked and Hideki Matsui doubled, prompting Bronson Arroyo to be replaced on the mound by Ramiro Mendoza, who immediately allowed a Bernie Williams RBI single and then balked, allowing Matsui to score from third, which gave the Yankees a 6–4 lead. The Red Sox, however, responded in the bottom of the inning, scoring two runs on an Orlando Cabrera bases-loaded double off Yankees reliever Javier Vázquez to tie the game.
In the fourth inning, the Yankees took the lead on a three-run home run to left by Gary Sheffield after a walk and hit-by-pitch. After another double by Hideki Matsui, the Red Sox put in pitcher Tim Wakefield, who volunteered to forgo his scheduled Game 4 start in order to preserve Boston's battered bullpen. Wakefield got Bernie Williams to pop out and then intentionally walked Jorge Posada. Rubén Sierra then tripled to score Matsui and Posada, giving the Yankees an 11–6 lead.
From that point on the Yankees were in total control, with the New York offense continuing to hit and score runs long into the night. In the fifth, Jeter walked with one-out before back-to-back RBI doubles by Rodriguez and Sheffield made it 13–6 Yankees. In the seventh, Miguel Cairo and Sheffield singled off of Wakefield, who was relieved by Alan Embree. Matsui's single scored a run, Williams's double scored two, and Jorge Posada's double scored another. The Red Sox scored their last runs of the game in the bottom of the inning off of Vazquez on Jason Varitek's two-run home run after a leadoff single. Matsui also hit a two-run home run in the ninth off of Mike Myers.
When the game was over, the Yankees had set a team record for postseason runs scored. Rodríguez, Sheffield, and Matsui had prolific hitting nights. Matsui had five hits and five RBIs, tying LCS records. He and Rodríguez both tied the postseason record for runs scored with five. The two teams combined for 37 hits and 20 extra-base hits, both postseason records. At four hours and 20 minutes, the contest was the longest nine-inning postseason game ever played up to that time.
Although the final score was 19–8, Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe said "nineteen to eight. Why not '19–18'?" He was referring to the Red Sox not having won a World Series since 1918, and demeaning chants of that year echoed at Yankee Stadium.
Bob Ryan wrote about the Red Sox in The Boston Globe: "They are down, 3–0, after last night's 19–8 rout, and, in this sport, that is an official death sentence. Soon it will be over, and we will spend another dreary winter lamenting this and lamenting that."
=== Game 4 ===
Game 4 featured Yankees pitcher Orlando Hernández, the 1999 ALCS MVP against Boston's Derek Lowe. For the first time in the series, the Yankees did not score in the first inning. However, they eventually did score first. With two outs and nobody on in the third inning, Derek Jeter singled. Alex Rodríguez then hit a two-run home run over the Green Monster. This hit resembled a home run he hit in Game 3, as it also came in the third inning and went out of the park onto Lansdowne Street. This would be followed by the ball being thrown back into the outfield by fans on the Street, Johnny Damon tossing the ball back over the fence, and the ball once again being tossed back before being pocketed by Umpire Joe West.
Hernández, who had not pitched in two weeks, cruised through the first four innings giving up just one hit and two walks. In the fifth inning, he pitched himself into a jam, walking two of the first three batters. With two men on and two out, Orlando Cabrera singled to right field, scoring Bill Mueller. Manny Ramírez walked to load the bases, and then David Ortiz hit a single to center field, scoring Cabrera and Johnny Damon and giving the Red Sox a 3–2 lead, only their second lead in the series.
The lead lasted less than an inning. Hideki Matsui hit a triple with one out in the sixth, after which Mike Timlin relieved Lowe. Bernie Williams hit an infield single to score Matsui and tie the game 3-3. After Jorge Posada walked, Williams attempted to advance to third on a passed ball but was thrown out by Jason Varitek. However, Rubén Sierra hit another infield single, moving Posada to third. Tony Clark then hit the third infield single of the inning, to score Posada and give the Yankees a 4–3 lead. Miguel Cairo then walked to load the bases for Jeter, but Timlin induced a groundout to escape the inning.
Massachusetts native Tanyon Sturtze pitched two scoreless innings in relief of Hernández. Mariano Rivera, the Yankees star closer, entered the game in the eighth for a two-inning save attempt. In the ninth inning, Rivera allowed a lead-off walk to Kevin Millar, which ultimately turned out to be the turning point of the series. Dave Roberts was then chosen to pinch-run for Millar. With the Red Sox down to their final three outs, Rivera checked Roberts at first base three times before throwing a pitch to Bill Mueller.
On Rivera's first pitch to Mueller, the speedy Roberts stole second, putting himself in scoring position. Mueller's single (through Rivera and into centerfield) allowed Roberts to score, resulting in Rivera blowing the save and the game going into extra innings, tied at four runs apiece.
Both teams threatened for more runs in the 11th inning, but the game remained tied until the bottom of the 12th. Ramírez led off with a single against new pitcher Paul Quantrill, who had relieved Tom Gordon, and Ortiz hit a two-run walk-off home run to right field. Ortiz became the first player with two walk-off homers in the same postseason; his first capped a Red Sox sweep of the Anaheim Angels in the American League Division Series. Red Sox pitcher Curtis Leskanic got the win in relief after being called on to stop the Yankees' 11th inning threat and had pitched the 12th and allowed no runs.
=== Game 5 ===
Game 5 began at 5:11 pm EDT on Monday, October 18, just 16 hours after Game 4 had ended. Mike Mussina led the Yankees against Boston's Pedro Martínez. The Red Sox drew first blood this time, as David Ortiz drove in a run with an RBI single after two one-out singles and Jason Varitek walked with the bases loaded in the first inning to give Boston a 2–0 lead. Bernie Williams homered in the second inning to close the gap to 2–1, a score which would hold up for several innings.
Despite seven strikeouts by Martínez, in the top of the sixth inning, Jorge Posada and Rubén Sierra singled with one out. After Miguel Cairo was hit by a pitch to load the bases, Derek Jeter cleared the bases with a double, giving the Yankees a 4–2 lead. The Red Sox threatened again in the seventh inning but came up empty. For the second straight night, however, the Yankee bullpen could not keep the lead. Ortiz led off the eighth inning with a home run off former Red Sox reliever Tom Gordon, making it a one-run game. Kevin Millar followed with a walk and was again replaced by pinch runner Dave Roberts, who went to third on Trot Nixon's single. Gordon was replaced by Mariano Rivera with the lead still intact, but Jason Varitek's sacrifice fly tied the game. The Yankees threatened in the top of the ninth when former Red Sox player Tony Clark hit a ball to deep right with two outs, but the ball took a hop over the short right-field wall for a ground-rule double, forcing Rubén Sierra to stop at third base, where he was stranded to set up another extra-inning marathon.
Each team got its share of base runners in extra innings. Boston's Doug Mientkiewicz doubled in the tenth and moved to third, but did not score. Two Red Sox led off the 11th with singles, but Esteban Loaiza, who had struggled since being acquired by the Yankees mid-season, came in to pitch with one out and got Orlando Cabrera to ground into a double play. Knuckleballer Tim Wakefield came on in relief once again for the Red Sox in the 12th. He allowed a single to Miguel Cairo, who went to second on a Manny Ramírez error, but Cairo was eventually stranded. In the top of the 13th, Red Sox catcher Jason Varitek, who did not normally catch for Wakefield (backup catcher Doug Mirabelli usually did) and who admitted to being poor at catching knuckleballs, allowed three passed balls, but the Yankees stranded runners on second and third when Sierra struck out. Loaiza pitched well over his first two innings, but, in the bottom of the 14th, Damon and Ramírez walked, bringing up Ortiz with two outs. The previous night's hero did his job again, singling to center on the 10th pitch of the at-bat to bring home Damon and setting off another celebration at Fenway. Ortiz's heroics prompted Fox TV announcer Tim McCarver to gush shortly afterwards, saying, "He didn't do it again, did he? Yes he did." The late inning heroics of Ortiz also gave the Red Sox fans a chance to create their own chant, "Who's your Papi?" (Ortiz being known affectionately as "Big Papi"), in rebuttal to the "Who's your daddy?" chant used by Yankees fans in reference to a quote by Pedro Martínez.
The game set the record for longest duration of a postseason game at 5 hours, 49 minutes, a record which was broken the next year by Game 4 of the 2005 National League Division Series between the Houston Astros and Atlanta Braves, which was only one minute longer even though it was 18 innings instead of 14. The current record for longest postseason game is Game 3 of the 2018 World Series between the Red Sox and Los Angeles Dodgers, which was also 18 innings but lasted seven hours and 20 minutes.
Game 5 of the National League Championship Series began at 8:54 pm EST on the same night and was intended to be the second part of FOX's two-game telecast. However, that game proceeded quickly and, despite starting 3 hours and 43 minutes after ALCS Game 5, ended only 24 minutes after the final pitch of this game.
This victory by the Red Sox forced a Game 6. Before this, the 1998 Atlanta Braves and 1999 New York Mets were the only baseball teams ever to be down 0–3 in a seven-game series and force a Game 6, but neither of those teams won that game.
The 8th inning of Game 5 eventually turned out be the last time that the Red Sox would trail at any point during a game in their 2004 postseason run.
=== Game 6 ===
"The Bloody Sock Game"
Game 6 was held on Tuesday, October 19 at Yankee Stadium. The starting pitchers were Curt Schilling of the Red Sox and Jon Lieber of the Yankees. Schilling pitched with a torn tendon sheath in his right ankle, which was sutured in place in an unprecedented procedure by Red Sox team doctors. The teams played the first few innings scoreless as cold, windy conditions, combined with a light drizzle, kept many hard hit balls in the field of play. Lieber, who had been brilliant in Game 2, was the first of the starters to falter, to the surprise of many given Lieber's Game 2 outing and Schilling's injured state. Lieber surrendered a two-out single to Jason Varitek, driving in Kevin Millar. Then Orlando Cabrera singled to left field and Mark Bellhorn, who had struggled the entire series, drove a line drive into the left field stands. The ball struck a fan in the hands in an attempted catch and dropped back onto the field, after which left field umpire Jim Joyce signaled the ball to be still in play, prompting Boston manager Terry Francona to run onto the field and argue the ruling. The officiating crew huddled and ultimately overruled the call. Bellhorn had a three-run home run, and the Red Sox had a 4–0 lead.
Schilling, still injured from the ALDS and Game 1, pitched seven strong innings, allowing only one run on a Bernie Williams home run. To help stabilize the tendon in his ankle, Red Sox doctors had placed three sutures connecting the skin with ligament and deep connective tissue next to the bone, effectively creating a wall of tissue to keep the peroneal tendon from disrupting Schilling's pitching mechanics. Schilling was only forced to field his position once and visibly limped to first base to field the toss from Millar. Nonetheless, the Yankees did not bunt for the duration of Schilling's outing, something Joe Torre later explained as not playing out of the normal character of his team. Torre also admitted that had he known beforehand how bad the injury really was, it might have changed his mind. By the end of his performance, Schilling's white sanitary sock was partially soaked in blood, and he stated later that he was completely exhausted.
Bronson Arroyo took the mound for Boston in the eighth and, with one out, allowed a Miguel Cairo double. Derek Jeter singled him in to close the gap to 4–2, leading up to the series' most controversial play. Alex Rodriguez grounded a ball to Arroyo, who picked up the ball and ran to the baseline to tag Rodriguez out, but Rodriguez slapped Arroyo's arm, knocking the ball loose. While the ball rolled down the baseline, Rodríguez went to second and Jeter scored. After another long conversation among the umpires, Rodríguez was called out for interference and Jeter was ordered back to first, thus wiping out the score. The call further incensed the Yankee fans, already irate over the home run call in the fourth. As Torre and Rodríguez continued to frenetically argue with the umpires, many fans began to throw balls and other debris onto the field. Boston manager Terry Francona pulled his players from the field to protect them. After a delay, order was restored, and Arroyo got out of the inning unscathed. In the top of the ninth, after a leadoff single by Jason Varitek, his third hit of the night, off Paul Quantrill (the game 4 loser), the Yankees attempted to turn a double play. However, on a very close play, Orlando Cabrera was called safe at first base. This was the third time in the game that the frustrated New York fan base had a close call go against their team, and they again showered the field with debris. As the Yankees made a pitching change to insert Tanyon Sturtze into the game to relieve Quantrill, home plate umpire Joe West conversed with New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg, MLB security director Kevin Hallinan, and various NYPD officials. Shortly after this, Sturtze was told to stop his warmup, and NYPD officers began streaming out of the dugouts, and took the field in full riot gear. The police remained on the field, near the first and third base walls, for the remainder of the top of the ninth. When the game resumed, Sturtze did get out of the inning, stranding Cabrera. The police vacated the field during the break between innings. Red Sox closer Keith Foulke came in for the bottom of the ninth and allowed a walk to Matsui, striking out Bernie Williams, getting Jorge Posada to pop out to third, and walking Ruben Sierra, bringing Tony Clark to the plate as the potential pennant-winning run, but Clark struck out swinging on a full count to end the game.
Five previous teams had managed to win one game after going down 3–0 in a post-season series. Of these five, two made it to a Game 6. But now the Red Sox, the 26th team in Major League Baseball playoff history to face a 3–0 series deficit, became the first to force a Game Seven.
After the game, Schilling proudly wore his shirt with the Red Sox's motto, "Why Not Us?" in the locker room and during the press conferences.
=== Game 7 ===
For inspiration for their ALCS comeback, the Red Sox gathered in Yankee Stadium's visitors' clubhouse prior to Game 7 to watch Miracle, the movie chronicling the 1980 U.S. men's gold-medal hockey team. The Yankees meanwhile, had Bucky Dent, the hero of the Yankees' one-game playoff against Boston in 1978, throw out the ceremonial first pitch.
Game 7 began at 8:30 p.m. The starting pitchers were Derek Lowe for the Red Sox and Kevin Brown for the Yankees. Johnny Damon led off the game with a single to left and stolen base, but was thrown out at home trying to score on a Manny Ramirez base hit. The very next pitch, however, was lined into the right-field bleachers by David Ortiz to give Boston a 2–0 advantage. After the Yankees went down in order in the first inning, Brown retired Trot Nixon on a groundout to begin the top of the second, but Kevin Millar singled to center field before Brown walked Bill Mueller and Orlando Cabrera to load the bases. Torre then replaced Brown with Javier Vázquez to face Johnny Damon, who hammered his first pitch into the right-field seats for a grand slam to make the score 6–0 Boston. Lowe, meanwhile, on two days rest, pitched six innings, allowing only one run on one hit when Miguel Cairo was hit by a pitch in the third, stole second, and scored on Derek Jeter's single. Vazquez walked Cabrera to lead off the fourth before Damon again homered on his first pitch to make it 8–1 Boston and give him three hits and six RBIs in this game. After walking two batters, Vazquez was relieved by Esteban Loaiza, who allowed a single to Jason Varitek to load the bases before retiring Trot Nixon and Kevin Millar to end the inning. Loaiza then threw three shutout innings, allowing three hits.
Pedro Martínez relieved Lowe in the seventh inning, receiving loud chants of "Who's Your Daddy?," which intensified as he gave up a
leadoff double to Hideki Matsui, who scored on Bernie Williams's double. After Jorge Posada grounded out, Williams scored on Kenny Lofton's single, but John Olerud struck out and Cairo flew out to end the inning. In the eighth, Mark Bellhorn homered for the second night in a row off of Tom Gordon to make it 9–3 Boston. Next inning, Nixon hit a leadoff single, advanced to second on a Doug Mientkiewicz single, then went to third on a Mueller fly out before scoring on a sacrifice fly by Cabrera. Mariano Rivera relieved Gordon and retired Damon to end the inning.
Mike Timlin pitched a scoreless eighth and started the 9th for the Red Sox, but allowed a leadoff single to Matsui and walked Lofton with two outs. Alan Embree was brought in to finish the game for Boston. At 12:01 am, on October 21, Rubén Sierra hit a groundball to second baseman Pokey Reese, who threw to first baseman Doug Mientkiewicz to finish the unprecedented comeback. It was their first pennant since 1986. The Red Sox won 10–3 and became the third team in sports history and the first since the 1975 NHL's New York Islanders to win a seven-game series after losing the first three games. For the Yankees, this was their first time losing an ALCS in eight appearances (their last ALCS elimination was in 1980). David Ortiz was named the series MVP.
This was the last ALCS game at the Old Yankee Stadium.
== Composite box ==
2004 ALCS (4–3): Boston Red Sox over New York Yankees
The total runs scored (86) makes the 2004 ALCS the highest scoring 7-game series in MLB history.
== Player Statistics ==
=== Boston Red Sox ===
==== Batting ====
Note: GP=Games Played; AB=At Bats; R=Runs; H=Hits; 2B=Doubles; 3B=Triples; HR=Home Runs; RBI=Runs Batted In; BB=Walks; AVG=Batting Average; OBP=On Base Percentage; SLG=Slugging Percentage
==== Pitching ====
Note: G=Games Played; GS=Games Started; IP=Innings Pitched; H=Hits; BB=Walks; R=Runs; ER=Earned Runs; SO=Strikeouts; W=Wins; L=Losses; SV=Saves; ERA=Earned Run Average
=== New York Yankees ===
==== Batting ====
Note: GP=Games Played; AB=At Bats; R=Runs; H=Hits; 2B=Doubles; 3B=Triples; HR=Home Runs; RBI=Runs Batted In; BB=Walks; AVG=Batting Average; OBP=On Base Percentage; SLG=Slugging Percentage
==== Pitching ====
Note: G=Games Played; GS=Games Started; IP=Innings Pitched; H=Hits; BB=Walks; R=Runs; ER=Earned Runs; SO=Strikeouts; W=Wins; L=Losses; SV=Saves; ERA=Earned Run Average
== Records ==
The Red Sox became the first Major League team to win eight straight postseason games in the same postseason (four straight in the ALCS and four consecutive games in the World Series). The Oakland Athletics had won ten straight postseason games, but they were spread out over two postseasons (the 1989 ALCS and World Series, and the 1990 ALCS). The New York Yankees won 11 straight games also over two consecutive postseasons (the 1998 ALCS and World Series through the 1999 ALDS and into the 1999 ALCS). The 2005 Chicago White Sox repeated this feat, as did the 2014 Kansas City Royals and 2019 Washington Nationals.
The Red Sox became the third team in North American sports history to lose the first three games of a best-of-seven series and win the last four, joining the 1942 Toronto Maple Leafs and 1975 New York Islanders of the NHL. Boston's NHL franchise, the Bruins, would find themselves on the wrong side of the feat in 2010, losing to the Philadelphia Flyers in the Eastern Conference semifinals.
At 4 hours and 20 minutes Game 3 was, at the time, the longest nine-inning postseason game in MLB history. That record stood until Game 5 of the 2016 National League Division Series between the Dodgers and Nationals, which took 4:32. The current Red Sox record is Game 4 of their 2018 American League Championship Series against the Houston Astros, which took 4:33; the MLB record is now held by the Cleveland Indians and Yankees in Game 2 of the 2020 American League Wild Card Series, which lasted 4:50.
In Game 3, Yankee left fielder Hideki Matsui had five hits and five RBIs, tying an American League Championship Series record.
Game 5, at 5 hours and 49 minutes, was the longest Major League postseason game in history at the time. The record stood until Game 4 of the 2005 National League Division Series between the Astros and the Atlanta Braves, an 18-inning game that lasted 5:50. The current MLB record is held by Game 3 of the 2018 World Series between the Red Sox and the Los Angeles Dodgers, which also lasted 18 innings and took 7:20 to play.
David Ortiz became the first player to hit two walk-off HRs in the same postseason, 2004 American League Division Series Game 3 and 2004 ALCS Game 4.
== Aftermath and legacy ==
A riot broke out near Fenway Park in Boston following the series win, in which Victoria Snelgrove, an Emerson College journalism student, was accidentally shot and killed by police with an FN 303 pepper spray crowd-controlling projectile round.
After dominating much of baseball since 1996, this would be the closest that the Joe Torre-led Yankees would get to going back to the World Series. They would not get back until 2009 (by which point Joe Girardi had taken over the manager position) when they beat defending champion Philadelphia Phillies in six games.
The Yankees signed Johnny Damon away from the Red Sox after the 2005 season. In an interview with Jomboy Media in 2021, Damon stated he wanted to stay in Boston, but he believed Red Sox management weren't interested in keeping him due to the emergence of top prospect Jacoby Ellsbury, who scouts compared to Damon. Ironically, Ellsbury would sign with the Yankees as a free agent after a long and successful career in Boston, like Damon.
This series is often seen as a turning point of the Yankees–Red Sox rivalry, which was almost entirely dominated by the Yankees up until this point. From the time the Red Sox's owner Harry Frazee traded Babe Ruth to the Yankees for cash on January 5, 1920, through October 2004, the Yankees were the premier team in baseball, winning a record 26 World Series and 39 pennants in between then. On the other hand, the Red Sox, who were Major League Baseball's most successful franchise until the Ruth trade in 1920, only won a handful of pennants, losing every World Series they played in. However, since 2004, the Red Sox have won four World Series compared to just one Yankees World Series. The 2010s was the first ever decade the Yankees franchise did not play in the World Series since the 1910s, and the first in which they did not win a World Series since the 1980s. In the same decade, the Red Sox won a World Series in 2013 and 2018. On their way to a championship in 2018, the Red Sox defeated the Yankees, now led by Aaron Boone as manager, in four games in the American League Division Series, which was the first postseason match-up between the two rivals since the 2004 AL Championship Series.
In 2020, the Houston Astros nearly came back from a 3–0 series deficit, but lost in Game 7 of the AL Championship Series to the Tampa Bay Rays. It was the closest a team in Major League Baseball had come to pulling off this feat since the 2004 Red Sox. In the National Hockey League, the 2010 Philadelphia Flyers became the first NHL team to comeback from a 3–0 deficit since the New York Islanders did it in 1975 (they coincidentally beat a team from Boston, the Bruins, in the 2010 Eastern Conference Semifinals to accomplish the feat) en route to the Stanley Cup Finals. Four years later in 2014, the Los Angeles Kings came back from 3–0 in a series with the San Jose Sharks in the Western Conference First Round en route to winning the Stanley Cup. To date, no NBA team has ever come back from a 3–0 postseason deficit. However, the Boston Celtics nearly came back from a 3–0 hole against the Miami Heat in the 2023 Eastern Conference Finals before losing Game 7 at TD Garden. In the lead up to the decisive Game 7 of that series, David Ortiz offered words of advice to the Celtics.
In 2021, the Red Sox and Yankees would once again face off in the postseason, with the Red Sox winning the American League Wild Card Game by a score of 6–2.
In the 2022 American League Championship Series, prior to Game 4 against Astros, Boone had the team mental skills coach show clips from the 2004 series to the team as an attempt at motivating the Yankees, who were down 3–0 in the 2022 series; the Yankees promptly lost Game 4 and were thus eliminated.
The 2004 ALCS and the subsequent World Series has often been described as the "greatest comeback in sports history". During game 4 of the ALCS, after Dave Roberts scores to tie the game 4-4, a sign by a Red Sox fan can be seen with the phrase "The greatest comeback in sports history!"
=== Books and films ===
There have been many books and documentaries about the 2004 Red Sox and the 2004 ALCS. Shortly after their World Series win, authors and Red Sox fans Stephen King and Stewart O'Nan published Faithful, a book chronicling the 2004 Boston Red Sox season, beginning with an e-mail in the summer of 2003, and throughout the 2004 season, from spring training to the World Series. In March 2005, Houghton Mifflin Company published Reversing the Curse, a book by Dan Shaughnessy, author of the bestselling The Curse of the Bambino, chronicling the 2004 Red Sox season, specifically the 2004 ALCS. Sportswriter Bill Simmons wrote Now I Can Die in Peace in 2006. In the book, Simmons' recalled being teased by Yankees fans growing up in Stamford, Connecticut about how the Red Sox never won anything. In 2010, ESPN's 30 for 30 featured a documentary named "Four Days in October", which went into depth of the Red Sox's triumph over the Yankees in the 2004 AL Championship Series over the course of 4 days. In 2024, Netflix released a documentary on the Red Sox comeback in 2024, titled The Comeback: 2004 Boston Red Sox.
Fever Pitch, released in 2005, was an American romantic comedy-drama film directed by the Farrelly brothers, starring Drew Barrymore and Jimmy Fallon. It was a remake of the British 1997 film of the same title, based on a 1992 autobiographical book. The 1992 book and 1997 movie were based on Arsenal's last-minute League title win in the final game of the 1988–1989 season, while the 2005 version was adapted to focus on the 2004 Boston Red Sox. During filming of the movie, the script had to be changed due to Boston winning the World Series, which was unanticipated while in production.
== References ==
== Sources ==
Shaughnessy, Dan (2005). Reversing the Curse. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-51748-0. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_UH-1_Iroquois#:~:text=First%20flight,1956%20(XH%2D40) | Bell UH-1 Iroquois | The Bell UH-1 Iroquois (nicknamed "Huey") is a utility military helicopter designed and produced by the American aerospace company Bell Helicopter. It is the first member of the prolific Huey family, as well as the first turbine-powered helicopter in service with the United States military.
Development of the Iroquois started in the early 1950s, a major impetus being a requirement issued by the United States Army for a new medical evacuation and utility helicopter. The Bell 204, first flown on 20 October 1956, was warmly received, particularly for the performance of its single turboshaft engine over piston engine-powered counterparts. An initial production contract for 100 HU-1As was issued in March 1960. In response to criticisms over the rotorcraft's power, Bell quickly developed multiple models furnished with more powerful engines; in comparison to the prototype's Lycoming YT53-L-1 (LTC1B-1) engine, producing 700 shaft horsepower (520 kW), by 1966, the Lycoming T53-L-13, capable of 1,400 shaft horsepower (1,000 kW), was being installed on some models. A stretched version of the Iroquois, first flown during August 1961, was also produced in response to Army demands for a version that could accommodate more troops. Further modifications would include the use of all-aluminium construction, the adoption of a rotor brake, and alternative powerplants.
The Iroquois was first used in combat operations during the Vietnam War, the first examples being deployed in March 1962. It was used for various purposes, including conducting general support, air assault, cargo transport, aeromedical evacuation, search and rescue, electronic warfare, and ground attack missions. Armed Iroquois gunships carried a variety of weapons, including rockets, grenade launchers, and machine guns, and were often modified in the field to suit specific operations. The United States Air Force deployed its Iroquois to Vietnam, using them to conduct reconnaissance operations, psychological warfare, and other support roles. Other nations' armed air services, such as the Royal Australian Air Force, also dispatched their own Iroquois to Vietnam. In total, around 7,000 Iroquois were deployed in the Vietnam theater, over 3,300 of which were believed to be destroyed. Various other conflicts have seen combat deployments of the Iroquois, such as the Rhodesian Bush War, Falklands War, War in Afghanistan, and the 2007 Lebanon conflict.
The Iroquois was originally designated HU-1, hence the Huey nickname, which has remained in common use, despite the official redesignation to UH-1 in 1962. Various derivatives and developments of the Iroquois were produced. A dedicated attack helicopter, the Bell AH-1 Cobra, was derived from the UH-1, and retained a high degree of commonality. The Bell 204 and 205 are Iroquois versions developed for the civilian market. In response to demands from some customers, a twin-engined model, the UH-1N Twin Huey, was also developed during the late 1960s; a further updated four blades model, the Bell 412, entered service in Canada but not the US. A further updated UH-1 with twin engines and four-bladed derivative, the Bell UH-1Y Venom, was also developed during the early twenty-first century for the USMC. In US Army service, the Iroquois was gradually phased out following the introduction of the Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk and the Eurocopter UH-72 Lakota in the early 21st century. However, hundreds were still in use more than 50 years following the type's introduction. In excess of 16,000 Iroquois have been built since 1960. With new orders from Japan and the Czech Republic, the UH-1 remains in production. Several export customers, such as Canada, Germany, Taiwan, Japan, and Italy, opted to produce the type under license. Operators have been located across the world, including the Americas, Europe, Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and the Pacific region.
== Development ==
In 1952, the U.S. Army identified a requirement for a new helicopter to serve as medical evacuation (MEDEVAC), instrument trainer, and general utility aircraft. The Army determined that current helicopters were too large, underpowered, or too complex to maintain easily. During November 1953, revised military requirements were submitted to the Department of the Army. Twenty companies submitted designs in their bid for the contract, including Bell Helicopter with the Model 204 and Kaman Aircraft with a turbine-powered version of the H-43. On 23 February 1955, the Army announced its decision, selecting Bell to build three copies of the Model 204 for evaluation with the designation XH-40.
=== Model 204 ===
Powered by a prototype Lycoming YT53-L-1 (LTC1B-1) engine producing 700 shp (520 kW), the XH-40 first flew on 20 October 1956, at Fort Worth, Texas, with Bell's chief test pilot, Floyd Carlson, at the controls. Even prior to the first flight, the Army had placed an order for six YH-40 service test helicopters. During 1957, a further two prototypes were completed. In 1959, the Army awarded Bell a production contract for 182 aircraft, which was designated "HU-1A" and officially named Iroquois after the Native American nations.
The helicopter quickly developed a nickname derived from its HU-1 designation, which came to be pronounced as "Huey". The reference became so popular that Bell began casting the name on the helicopter's anti-torque pedals. The official U.S. Army name was almost never used in practice. Even after September 1962, at which point the designation for all models was changed to UH-1 under a unified Department of Defense (DOD) designation system, yet the nickname persisted.
While glowing in praise for the helicopter's advances over piston-engined helicopters, the Army reports from the service tests of the YH-40 found it to be underpowered with the production T53-L-1A powerplant producing a maximum continuous 770 shaft horsepower (570 kilowatts). The Army indicated the need for improved follow-on models even as the first UH-1As were being delivered. In response, Bell proposed the UH-1B, equipped with the Lycoming T53-L-5 engine producing 960 shp (720 kW) and a longer cabin that could accommodate either seven passengers or four stretchers and a medical attendant. Army testing of the UH-1B started in November 1960, with the first production aircraft delivered in March 1961.
Bell commenced development of the UH-1C in 1960 to correct aerodynamic deficiencies of the armed UH-1B. Bell fitted the UH-1C with a 1,100 shp (820 kW) T53-L-11 engine to provide the power needed to lift all weapons systems in use or under development. The Army eventually refitted all UH-1B aircraft with the same engine. A new rotor system was developed for the UH-1C to allow higher air speeds and reduce the incidence of retreating blade stall during diving engagements. The improved rotor resulted in better maneuverability and a slight speed increase. The increased power and a larger diameter rotor required Bell's engineers to design a new tail boom for the UH-1C. The longer tail boom incorporated a wider chord vertical fin on the tail rotor pylon and larger synchronized elevators.
Bell also introduced a dual hydraulic control system for redundancy as well as an improved inlet filter system for the dusty conditions found in southeast Asia. The UH-1C fuel capacity was increased to 242 US gallons (920 liters), and gross weight was raised to 9,500 lb (4,309 kg), giving a nominal useful load of 4,673 lb (2,120 kg). UH-1C production started in June 1966 with a total of 766 aircraft produced, including five for the Royal Australian Navy and five for Norway.
=== Model 205 ===
While earlier short-body Hueys were a success, the Army wanted a version that could carry more troops. Bell's solution was to stretch the HU-1B fuselage by 41 in (104 cm) and use the extra space to fit four seats next to the transmission, facing out. Seating capacity increased to 15, including crew. The enlarged cabin could also accommodate six stretchers and a medic, two more than the earlier models. In place of the earlier model's sliding side doors with a single window, larger doors were fitted which had two windows, plus a small hinged panel with an optional window, providing enhanced access to the cabin. The doors and hinged panels were quickly removable, allowing the Huey to be flown in a doors off configuration.
The Model 205 prototype flew on 16 August 1961. Seven pre-production/prototype aircraft had been delivered for testing at Edwards AFB starting in March 1961. The 205 was initially equipped with a 44-foot (13 m) main rotor and a Lycoming T53-L-9 engine with 1,100 shp (820 kW). The rotor was lengthened to 48 feet (15 m) with a chord of 21 in (53 cm). The tailboom was also lengthened, to accommodate the longer rotor blades. Altogether, the modifications resulted in a gross weight capacity of 9,500 lb (4,309 kg). The Army ordered production of the 205 in 1963, produced with a T53-L-11 engine for its multi-fuel capability. The prototypes were designated as YUH-1D and the production aircraft was designated as the UH-1D.
During 1966, Bell installed the 1,400 shp (1,000 kW) Lycoming T53-L-13 engine to provide more power for the helicopter. The pitot tube was relocated from the nose to the roof of the cockpit to prevent damage during landing. Production models in this configuration were designated as the UH-1H.
=== Marine Corps ===
In 1962, the United States Marine Corps held a competition to choose an assault support helicopter to replace the Cessna O-1 fixed-wing aircraft and the Kaman OH-43D helicopter. The winner was the UH-1B, which was already in service with the Army. The helicopter was designated the UH-1E and modified to meet Marine requirements. The major changes included the use of all-aluminium construction for corrosion resistance, radios compatible with Marine Corps ground frequencies, a rotor brake for shipboard use to stop the rotor quickly on shutdown and a roof-mounted rescue hoist.
The UH-1E was first flown on 7 October 1963, and deliveries commenced on 21 February 1964; a total of 192 Iroquois of this model were completed. Due to production line realities at Bell, the UH-1E was produced in two versions, both with the same UH-1E designation. The first 34 built were essentially UH-1B airframes with the Lycoming T53-L-11 engine producing 1,100 shp (820 kW). When Bell switched production to the UH-1C, the UH-1E production benefited from the same changes. The Marine Corps later upgraded UH-1E engines to the Lycoming T53-L-13, which produced 1,400 shp (1,000 kW), after the Army introduced the UH-1M and upgraded their UH-1C helicopters to the same engine.
=== Air Force ===
The United States Air Force (USAF) held a competition for a helicopter to be used for support on missile bases included a specific requirement to mandate the use of the General Electric T58 turboshaft as a powerplant. The Air Force had a large inventory of these engines on hand for its fleet of HH-3 Jolly Green Giant rescue helicopters and using the same engine for both helicopters would save costs. In response, Bell proposed an upgraded version of the 204B with the T58 engine. Because the T58 output shaft is at the rear, and was thus mounted in front of the transmission on the HH-3, it had to have a separate offset gearbox (SDG or speed decreaser gearbox) at the rear, and shafting to couple to the UH-1 transmission.
=== Twin-engine variants ===
The single-engine UH-1 variants were followed by the twin-engine UH-1N Twin Huey (Bell 212) and years later the UH-1Y Venom. Bell began development of the UH-1N for Canada in 1968. It changed to the more powerful Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6T twin-engine set. The US also ordered the helicopter with the USAF receiving it in 1970. Canada's military, the U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Navy first received the model in 1971.
In 1996, the USMC launched the H-1 upgrade program via the award of a contract to Bell Helicopter for development of the improved UH-1Y and AH-1Zs variants. The UH-1Y includes a lengthened cabin, four-blade rotor, and two more powerful GE T700 engines. The UH-1Y entered service with the USMC in 2008.
The Bell 412 is an improved four-blade main rotor version of the twin-engined Bell 212, and while not adopted by the US, was chosen by Canada (CH-146 Griffon), license produced in Italy as the Augusta-Bell AB412, and is going to be made for the Japan Self Defense Force in Japan by Subaru. It is a popular commercial and military helicopter, and it competed in the early 2000s Army Light Utility Helicopter program, but lost to what would be the UH-72 Lakota. That program replaced aging UH-1 and OH-58A/C models being used by the National Guard.
== Design ==
The Bell UH-1 Iroquois is a utility helicopter designed for military use. It has a metal fuselage of semi-monocoque construction with tubular landing skids and two rotor blades on the main rotor. Early UH-1 models featured a single Lycoming T53 turboshaft engine in versions with power ratings from 700 to 1,400 shp (522 to 1,040 kW). Later UH-1 and related models often featured twin engines and four-blade rotors. All members of the UH-1 family have similar construction. The UH-1H is the most-produced version, and is representative of all types. The main structure consists of two longitudinal main beams that run under the passenger cabin to the nose and back to the tail boom attachment point. The main beams are separated by transverse bulkheads and provide the supporting structure for the cabin, landing gear, under-floor fuel tanks, transmission, engine and tail boom. The main beams are joined at the lift beam, a short aluminum girder structure that is attached to the transmission via a lift link on the top and the cargo hook on the bottom and is located at the aircraft's center of gravity. The lift beams were changed to steel later in the UH-1H's life, due to cracking on high-time airframes. The semi-monocoque tail boom attaches to the fuselage with four bolts.
The UH-1H's dynamic components include the engine, transmission, rotor mast, main rotor blades, tail rotor driveshaft, and the 42-degree and 90-degree gearboxes of the tail rotor. The main rotor transmission consists of a 90-degree bevel gear assembly with a reduction ratio of 2.14:1, followed by a 2-stage planetary gearset with a ratio of 9.53:1 (two stages of 3.087:1 each). This is in addition to the output gearbox of the T53 engine with a reduction ratio of 3.19:1. This combined reduction results in 324 rpm at the main rotor. The two-bladed, semi-rigid rotor design, with pre-coned and underslung blades, is a development of early Bell model designs, such as the Bell 47 with which it shares common design features, including a damped stabilizer bar. The two-bladed system reduces storage space required for the aircraft, but at a cost of higher vibration levels. The two-bladed design is also responsible for the characteristic 'Huey thump' sound when the aircraft is in flight, which is particularly evident during descent and in turning flight. The tail rotor is driven from the main transmission, via the two directional gearboxes which provide a tail rotor speed approximately six times that of the main rotor to increase tail rotor effectiveness.
The UH-1H also features a synchronized elevator on the tail boom, which is linked to the cyclic control and allows a wider center of gravity range. The standard fuel system consists of five interconnected fuel tanks, three of which are mounted behind the transmission and two of which are under the cabin floor. The landing gear consists of two arched cross tubes joining the skid tubes. The skids have replaceable sacrificial skid shoes to prevent wear of the skid tubes themselves. Skis and inflatable floats may be fitted. While the five main fuel tanks are self-sealing, the UH-1H was not equipped with factory armor, although armored pilot seats were available.
Internal seating is made up of two pilot seats and additional seating for up to 13 passengers or crew in the cabin. The maximum seating arrangement consists of a four-man bench seat facing rearwards behind the pilot seats, facing a five-man bench seat in front of the transmission structure, with two, two-man bench seats facing outwards from the transmission structure on either side of the aircraft. All passenger seats are constructed of aluminum tube frames with canvas material seats, and are quickly removable and reconfigurable. The cabin may also be configured with up to six stretchers, an internal rescue hoist, auxiliary fuel tanks, spotlights, or many other mission kits. Access to the cabin is via two aft-sliding doors and two small, forward-hinged panels. The doors and hinged panels may be removed for flight or the doors may be pinned open. Pilot access is via individual hinged doors.
The UH-1H's dual controls are conventional for a helicopter and consist of a single hydraulic system boosting the cyclic stick, collective lever and anti-torque pedals. The collective levers have integral throttles, although these are not used to control rotor rpm, which is automatically governed, but are used for starting and shutting down the engine. The cyclic and collective control the main rotor pitch through push-pull tube linkages to the swashplate, while the anti-torque pedals change the pitch of the tail rotor via a tensioned cable arrangement. Some UH-1Hs have been modified to replace the tail rotor control cables with push-pull tubes similar to the UH-1N Twin Huey.
== Operational history ==
=== U.S. Army ===
The HU-1A (later redesignated UH-1A) first entered service with the 101st Airborne Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, the 82nd Airborne Division, and the 57th Medical Detachment. Although intended for evaluation only, the Army quickly pressed the new helicopter into operational service, and Hueys with the 57th Medical Detachment arrived in South Vietnam in March 1962. The UH-1 has long been a symbol of US involvement in Southeast Asia in general and Vietnam in particular, and as a result of that conflict, has become one of the world's most recognized helicopters. In Vietnam primary missions included general support, air assault, cargo transport, aeromedical evacuation, search and rescue, electronic warfare, and later, ground attack. During the conflict, the craft was upgraded, notably to a larger version based on the Model 205. This version was initially designated the UH-1D and flew operationally from 1963.
During its Vietnam War service, the UH-1 was used for various purposes and various terms for each task abounded. UH-1s tasked with ground attack or armed escort were outfitted with rocket launchers, grenade launchers, and machine guns. As early as 1962, UH-1s were modified locally by the companies themselves, who fabricated their own mounting systems. These gunship UH-1s were commonly referred to as "Frogs" or "Hogs" if they carried rockets, and "Cobras" or simply "Guns" if they had guns. UH-1s tasked and configured for troop transport were often called "Slicks" due to an absence of weapons pods. Slicks did have door gunners, but were generally employed in the troop transport and medevac roles.
UH-1s also flew hunter-killer teams with observation helicopters, namely the Bell OH-58A Kiowa and the Hughes OH-6 Cayuse (Loach). Towards the end of the conflict, the UH-1 was tested with TOW missiles, and two UH-1B helicopters equipped with the XM26 Armament Subsystem were deployed to help counter the 1972 Easter Invasion. USAF Lieutenant James P. Fleming piloted a UH-1F on a 26 November 1968 mission that earned him the Medal of Honor.
During the course of the conflict, the UH-1 went through several upgrades. The UH-1A, B, and C models (short fuselage, Bell 204) and the UH-1D and H models (stretched-fuselage, Bell 205) each had improved performance and load-carrying capabilities. The UH-1B and C performed the gunship, and some of the transport, duties in the early years of the Vietnam War. The first batch of 77 UH-1Ds arrived in South Vietnam in April 1965. UH-1B/C gunships were replaced by the new AH-1 Cobra attack helicopter from 1967 to late 1968. The increasing intensity and sophistication of North Vietnamese anti-aircraft defenses made continued use of UH-1 gunships impractical, and after Vietnam the Cobra was adopted as the Army's main attack helicopter. Devotees of the UH-1 in the gunship role cite its ability to act as an impromptu Dustoff if the need arose, as well as the superior observational capabilities of the larger Huey cockpit, which allowed return fire from door gunners to the rear and sides of the aircraft. In air cavalry troops (i.e., companies) UH-1s were combined with infantry scouts, OH-6 and OH-58 aero-scout helicopters, and AH-1 attack helicopters to form several color-coded teams (viz., blue, white, red, purple, and pink) to perform various reconnaissance, security, and economy of force missions in fulfilling the traditional cavalry battlefield role.
The Army tested a great variety of experimental weapons on the UH-1; nearly anything that could be carried. The Army desired weapons with large calibers and high rates of fire, which led to the testing of a 20 mm cannon on a large mount bolted to the cabin floor. The size of the weapon allowed very little room for movement. The Army further tested a full-size Vulcan cannon firing out the door of a UH-1. It was capable of firing 2400 rounds per minute, or about 40 rounds per second. Despite this being a significant reduction from the nearly 100 rounds per second fired by a standard Vulcan cannon, the installation proved too kinetic for the UH-1. Podded versions of the M24 20 mm cannon were tested in combat over Vietnam. There was a wide variety of 7.62 mm automatic weapons tested, including different installations of the M60 machine gun. AS-10 and SS-11 missiles were tested in several different configurations. High-capacity rocket launchers were also tested, such as the XM3 launcher, which had 24 launching tubes. Press photos were taken with the XM5 and XM3 installed on the same aircraft, but this arrangement could not be used because it was more than the gross take-off weight of the aircraft.
During the Easter Offensive of 1972 by North Vietnam, experimental models of the TOW-firing XM26 were taken out of storage and sent to South Vietnam in response to the onslaught. The pilots had never fired a TOW missile before, and were given brief crash courses. Despite having little training with the units, the pilots managed to hit targets with 151 of the 162 missiles fired in combat, including a pair of tanks. The airborne TOW launchers were known as "Hawks Claws" and were based at Camp Holloway. During the conflict, 7,013 UH-1s served in Vietnam and of these 3,305 were destroyed. In total, 1,151 pilots were killed, along with 1,231 other crew members (these figures are not including Army of the Republic of Vietnam losses).
Post Vietnam, the US Army continued to operate large numbers of Iroquois; they would see further combat during the US invasion of Grenada in 1983, the US invasion of Panama in 1989, and the Gulf War in 1991. In the latter conflict, in excess of 400 Iroquois performed a variety of missions in the region; over a nine-month period, the fleet cumulatively reached 31,000 flight hours and achieved a stable fully mission capable rate of 70%. The type comprised more than 20% of all rotorcraft across the coalition and recorded 21% of the overall flying hours. Even after the Gulf War, the US Army had more than 2,800 Iroquois in its inventory; in particular, 389 UH-1Vs comprised 76% of the Army's medevac aircraft. Nevertheless, plans were mooted as early as 1992 to undertake a slow withdrawal of the aging type in favor of larger and more technologically advanced rotorcraft.
The US Army began phasing out the UH-1 with the introduction of the Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk starting in the 1980s, although the Army UH-1 Residual Fleet had around 700 UH-1s that were to be retained until 2015, primarily in support of Army Aviation training at Fort Rucker and in selected Army National Guard units. Army support for the craft was intended to end in 2004; The UH-1 was retired from active Army service in early 2005. During 2009, Army National Guard retirements of the UH-1 accelerated with the introduction of the Eurocopter UH-72 Lakota. In 2009 the Army National Guard marked 50 years of service of the Huey in the Army, and 40 with the National Guard and had a ceremonial end to its service at that time; in the coming years many final flights of the Huey in State National Guard took place. The Washington, D.C. Army National Guard had its last flight in 2011, and Pennsylvania in 2010. The final U.S. Army UH-1 was retired in late 2016, and transferred to a State police department. In context, the Huey is still in service with Armed Forces overall, and the Air Force UH-1N were still in service as of 2024, but scheduled for replacement.
=== U.S. Air Force ===
In October 1965, the United States Air Force (USAF) 20th Helicopter Squadron was formed at Tan Son Nhut Air Base in South Vietnam, equipped initially with CH-3C helicopters. By June 1967, the UH-1F and UH-1P were also added to the unit's inventory and, by the end of the year, the entire unit had shifted from Tan Son Nhut to Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Air Force Base, with the CH-3s transferring to the 21st Helicopter Squadron. On 1 August 1968, the unit was redesignated the 20th Special Operations Squadron. The 20th SOS's UH-1s were known as the Green Hornets, stemming from their color, a primarily green two-tone camouflage (green and tan) was carried, and radio call-sign "Hornet". The main role of these helicopters were to insert and extract reconnaissance teams, provide cover for such operations, conduct psychological warfare, and other support roles for covert operations especially in Laos and Cambodia during the so-called Secret War.
USAF UH-1s were often equipped with automatic grenade launchers in place of the door guns. The XM-94 grenade launcher had been tested on Army rotorcraft prior to its use by the USAF. The unit was capable of firing 400 grenades per minute, up to 1,500 yards effective range.
Into the twenty-first century, the USAF operates the UH-1N for support of intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) sites, including transport of security personnel and distinguished visitors. On 24 September 2018, the USAF announced that the Boeing/Leonardo MH-139 (an AW-139 variant) had won a competition to replace the UH-1N fleet. The UH-1N fleet is in service as of 2024, as production of the new type is ramped up.
=== U.S. Navy ===
The US Navy acquired a number of surplus UH-1B helicopters from the U.S. Army, these rotorcraft were modified into gunships, outfitted with special gun mounts and radar altimeters. They were known as Seawolves in service with Navy Helicopter Attack (Light) (HA(L)-3). UH-1C helicopters were also acquired during the 1970s. The Seawolves worked as a team with Navy river patrol operations.
Four years after the disestablishment of HA(L)-3, the Navy determined that it still had a need for gunships, establishing two new Naval Reserve Helicopter Attack (Light) Squadrons as part of the newly formed Commander, Helicopter Wing Reserve (COMHELWINGRES) in 1976. Helicopter Attack Squadron (Light) Five (HA(L)-5), nicknamed the "Blue Hawks", was established at Naval Air Station Point Mugu, California on 11 June 1977 and its sister squadron, Helicopter Attack Squadron (Light) Four (HA(L)-4), known as the Red Wolves, was formed at Naval Air Station Norfolk, Virginia on 1 July 1976.
The last regular Navy Huey's, HH-1's for search and rescue were retired in 2009 and replaced by H-60 Seahawks, and the last Marine Corps UH-1N were retired in 2014.
=== Drug Enforcement Administration ===
The UH-1H has been used on multiple occasions by the American Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA); initially, these were usually borrowed from the U.S. Army to support planned missions, such for Operation Snowcap, a large multi-year counter-narcotics action covering nine countries across Latin America.
During the War in Afghanistan, the DEA made use of a number of UH-1s stationed in the country for the purpose of conducting counter-narcotics raids. Operated by contractors, these Hueys provide transportation, surveillance, and air support for DEA FAST teams. During July 2009, four UH-1Hs and two Mi-17s were used in a raid that led to the arrest of an Afghan Border Police commander on corruption charges.
=== Argentina ===
Nine Argentine Army Aviation UH-1Hs and two Argentine Air Force Bell 212 were included with the aircraft deployed during the Falklands War. They performed general transport and SAR missions and were based at Port Stanley (BAM Puerto Argentino). Two of the Hueys were destroyed and, after the hostilities had ended, the remainder were captured by the British military. Three captured aircraft survive as museum pieces in England and Falklands.
=== Australia ===
The Royal Australian Air Force employed the UH-1H until 1989. Iroquois helicopters of No. 9 Squadron RAAF were deployed to South Vietnam in mid 1966 in support of the 1st Australian Task Force. In this role they were armed with single M60 doorguns. In 1969 four of No. 9 Squadron's helicopters were converted to gunships (known as 'Bushrangers'), armed with two fixed forward firing M134 7.62 mm minigun (one each side) and a 7-round rocket pod on each side. Aircrew were armed with twin M60 flexible mounts in each door. UH-1 helicopters were used in many roles including troop transport, medevac and Bushranger gunships for armed support. No. 35 Squadron and No. 5 Squadron also operated the Iroquois in various roles through the 1970s and 1980s. Between 1982 and 1986, the squadron contributed aircraft and aircrew to the Australian helicopter detachment which formed part of the Multinational Force and Observers peacekeeping force in the Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. During 1988, the RAAF began to re-equip with S-70A Blackhawks.
In 1989 and 1990, the RAAF's UH-1H Iroquois were subsequently transferred to the 171st Aviation Squadron in Darwin, Northern Territory and the 5th Aviation Regiment based in Townsville, Queensland following the decision that all battlefield helicopters would be operated by the Australian Army. On 21 September 2007, the Australian Army retired the last of their Bell UH-1s. The last flight occurred in Brisbane on that day with the aircraft replaced by MRH-90 medium helicopters and Tiger armed reconnaissance helicopters.
The Royal Australian Navy's 723 Squadron also operated seven UH-1B from 1964 to 1989, with three of these aircraft lost in accidents during that time. 723 Squadron deployed Iroquois aircraft and personnel as part of the Experimental Military Unit during the Vietnam War.
=== El Salvador ===
Numerous UH-1s were operated by the Salvadoran Air Force; during the 1980s, it became the biggest and most experienced combat helicopter force in Central and South America, fighting for over a decade during the Salvadoran Civil War and having been trained by US Army in tactics developed during the Vietnam War. By the start of 1985, El Salvador had 33 UH-1s in its inventory, some configured as gunships and others as transports; furthermore, in the following years, the country expanded its UH-1 fleet further with assistance from the US government. Several Salvadoran UH-1M and UH-1H helicopters used were modified to carry bombs instead of rocket pods. The UH-1s enabled the military to avoid ground routes vulnerable to guerrilla ambushes; the gunships were typically used to suppress hostile forces ahead of troops being inserted by UH-1 transports.
=== Germany ===
The German aerospace company Dornier constructed 352 UH-1Ds under license between 1967 and 1981 for the West German Bundeswehr. These saw service with both the German Army and German Air Force as utility helicopters, they were also commonly used for search and rescue (SAR) missions. After being replaced by newer twin-engine Eurocopter EC145s, the last UH-1Ds in German service were withdrawn on 12 April 2021.
=== Israel ===
Israel withdrew its UH-1s from service in 2002, after 33 years of operation. They were replaced by Sikorsky UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters with an initial batch of 10 delivered during 1994. While some were passed on to pro-Israeli militias in Lebanon, eleven other UH-1Ds were reportedly sold to a Singapore-based logging company but were, instead, delivered in October 1978 to the Rhodesian Air Force to skirt a United Nations-endorsed embargo imposed on the country during the Rhodesian Bush War.
=== Japan ===
In 1960, Subaru made an agreement to produce the HU-1B for Japan, which was renamed the UH-1B in 1962, along with the HU-1H, renamed UH-1H. Bell and Subaru developed the UH-1J.
Entering service starting in 1993, 130 UH-1J were produced by Fuji for the Japanese Self-Defense Force.
In 2005, a pair of Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF) UH-1 helicopters were deployed to Pakistan for earthquake disaster relief. During 2010, after floods in Pakistan, UH-1s were again deployed to the country to aid in disaster relief. Japanese UH-1s have also been periodically used to conduct water bombing against fires.
In the aftermath of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, Japan's UH-1 fleet was extensively deployed across the country for disaster relief purposes; they also conducted reconnaissance flights over the stricken Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant while carrying radiation detection equipment to help inform planners of the plant's condition.
By the early 2020s, Japan's Acquisition, Technology & Logistics Agency was in the process of recapitalizing much of the JGSDF's rotarywing capability; it is planned for a locally-built model of the twin-engined multirole Bell 412 helicopter to replace the remaining older UH-1s in Japanese service; the new helicopter will be called the H-2 in JSDF service. The first flight of the Subaru UH-2 took place in 2022.
=== Lebanon ===
During the early 1990s, the Lebanese Air Force (LAF) inducted their first UH-1 helicopters. During the 2007 Lebanon conflict, at the Battle of Nahr el-Bared in North Lebanon, the Lebanese Army, lacking fixed-wing aircraft, modified several UH-1Hs to carry 500 lb (227 kg) Mark 82 bombs, enabling it to perform helicopter bombing, and used it to strike militant-held positions. Specifically, special mounting points were installed along the sides of each Huey for the carriage of these high explosive bombs. In the aftermath of the 2020 Beirut explosion, UH-1s participated in the disaster response, and were used to extinguish fires.
Typically, the fleet is tasked with performing search and rescue, troop transport, aerial firefighting and utility missions. In the late 2010s, specially modified UH-1Ds participated in the first LIDAR mapping exercise in the country. During February 2021, an additional three Bell UH-1H-IIs were delivered to the LAF by Bell to augment their existing fleet.
=== New Zealand ===
The Royal New Zealand Air Force had an active fleet of 13 Iroquois serving with No. 3 Squadron RNZAF. The first delivery was five UH-1D in 1966 followed in 1970 by nine UH-1H and one more UH-1H in 1976. All of the UH-1D aircraft were upgraded to 1H specification during the 1970s. Two ex-U.S. Army UH-1H attrition airframes were purchased in 1996. Three aircraft have been lost in accidents.
The RNZAF has retired the Iroquois, with the NHIndustries NH90 as its replacement. Eight active NH90 helicopters plus one spare have been procured. This process was initially expected to be completed by the end of 2013, but was delayed until 2016. Individual aircraft were retired as they reach their next major group servicing intervals; the UH-1H was retired as the NH90 fleet stood up. On 21 May 2015, the remaining UH-1H fleet of six helicopters conducted a final tour of the country ahead of its planned retirement on 1 July. During 49 years of service the type had seen service in areas including the UK, Southeast Asia, Timor, the Solomon Islands, various South Pacific nations, and the Antarctic.
One was preserved in the New Zealand National museum after its retirement from service in 2013, delivered to the museum in 2015; it had had been in service many decades entering RNZAF service in 1966.
=== Pakistan ===
During the 1973 floods in Pakistan, the U.S. was the first to send a relief team with six UH-1H helicopters, which operated mainly in the south of Pakistan. After completing their mission, the helicopters were left at Dhamial. Initially idle for a few months, they were later gifted to Pakistan by the U.S. government, following a proposal made to Prime Minister Bhutto before his state visit to the U.S. in 1974.
=== Philippines ===
The Philippine Air Force (PAF) has a long history of acquiring United States Air Force assets, including the Bell UH-1.On 29 March 1969 the PAF received the first UH-1 Hueys and a unit was reorganized into the 205th Tactical Helicopter Wing. The Huey platforms were brand-new equipped with the latest avionics and pilots were provided ballistics helmets. The first four helicopters with tail numbers 290, 291, 292 and 293 came straight out of the factory, the US Army having started commissioning initials productions only two years before.
In PAF service, the type was regularly used to combat local insurgents as well as to conduct disaster relief operations after several earthquakes and typhoons hit the nation. Learning from this experience, the PAF decided to arm the Hueys with machineguns. In February 1971, aircrew members of the unit underwent gunnery training at Fort Magsaysay. The sparkling new M-60 machineguns now enhanced the Hueys' capability to provide fire support from the air. The new-found fire power was ably demonstrated in punitive operations at Barrio Talbac, San Ildefonso, Bulacan, on 7–8 April 1971. In the ensuing encounter, Huk Commander Beto and his aide named Yoyong were killed. Francis Ford Coppola filmed Apocalypse Now in the Philippines primarily because President Ferdinand Marcos agreed to let Coppola use Philippine Hueys to film the iconic scene with Robert Duvall as Lt. Colonel Kilgore.In 2004, the Philippine Air Force (PAF) procured 20 refurbished UH-1H 'Huey' helicopters from Singapore Technologies Aerospace (ST Aero) in a deal worth US$12 million.
In 2013, due to urgent operational requirements the PAF Procured Brand New Bell 412 delivered in 2015. Procured another batch of 21 units refurbished Bell UH-1D now with Nigh Vision Compatible Cockpit with a budget of PHP1.26bn ($28m) contract with Rice Aircraft Services and Eagle Copters joint venture (JV) delivered in 2015.
Furthermore, during October 2019, the Philippines made a deal with Japan to acquire some of its spare parts inventory; this reportedly was to facilitate the restoration of 7 units stored UH-1s to flightworthy condition. By January 2021, the PAF had 13 UH-1H and 10 UH-1D helicopters in an operational condition.On 2021, a plan to retire all of the PAF's remaining UH-1 helicopters was raised, following a series of crashes involving the type. On 14 October 2021, the PAF officially decommissioned the remainder of its UH-1D fleet, the retired rotorcraft were stored at Clark Air Base. However airworthy airframes were returned to service due to lack of aircraft. The role of the UH-1 is to be performed by recently delivered Poland Built PZL Mielec (Sikorsky S-70i) helicopters which were acquired through Multi-Year Contractual Authority (MYCA); in January 2022
In 2022, the Philippines said that some of the retired Huey's will be reactivated with the help of Turkish company ASFAT. Also, in 2022, Japan planned to donate UH-1s leaving its service to the Philippine Army. Japan is introducing new Huey's as replacement. As of December 2024, twenty-three units are in active service.
=== Rhodesia ===
Very late in the Rhodesian Bush War, the Rhodesian Air Force obtained 11 former Israeli Agusta-Bell 205As in violation of sanctions on the nation, allegedly having used a series of intermediaries to evade them. Locally known as Cheetahs, these helicopters were returned to a flightworthy condition and then assigned to No. 8 Squadron, after which they usually functioned as armed gunships as well as troop transports. During September 1979, one Cheetah was lost in combat after being hit by an RPG while flying over Mozambique. At least another three other UH-1s were also lost. The surviving helicopters were put up for sale in 1990.
=== Yemen ===
In July 2009, Yemen received four UH-1Hs. These remained grounded for almost all the time they were in Yemen; at least one helicopter was heavily damaged during Saudi-led airstrikes on Al Daylami and Al Anad Air Bases.
== Variant overview ==
=== U.S. military variants ===
XH-40: The initial Bell 204 prototype. Three prototypes were built, equipped with the Lycoming XT-53-L-1 engine of 700 shp (520 kW).
YH-40: Six aircraft for evaluation, as XH-40 with 12-inch (300 mm) cabin stretch and other modifications.
Bell Model 533: One YH-40-BF rebuilt as a flight test bed with turbojet engines and wings.
HU-1A: Initial Bell 204 production model, redesignated as the UH-1A in 1962. 182 built.
TH-1A: UH-1A with dual controls and blind-flying instruments, 14 conversions.
XH-1A: A single UH-1A was redesignated for grenade launcher testing in 1960.
HU-1B: Upgraded HU-1A, various external and rotor improvements. Redesignated UH-1B in 1962. 1014 built plus four prototypes designated YUH-1B.
NUH-1B: a single test aircraft, serial number 64–18261.
UH-1C: The UH-1B gunship lacked the power necessary to carry weapons and ammunition and keep up with transport Hueys. So Bell designed yet another variant, the UH-1C, intended strictly for the gunship role. It is an UH-1B with improved engine, modified blades and rotor-head for better performance in the gunship role. 767 built.
YUH-1D: Seven pre-production prototypes of the UH-1D.
UH-1D Iroquois: Initial Bell 205 production model (long fuselage version of the 204). Designed as a troop carrier to replace the CH-34 then in US Army service. 2008 built; many later converted to UH-1H standard.
HH-1D: Army crash rescue variant of UH-1D.
UH-1E: UH-1B/C for USMC with different avionics and equipment. 192 built.
NUH-1E: UH-1E configured for testing.
TH-1E: UH-1C configured for Marine Corps training. Twenty were built in 1965.
UH-1F: UH-1B/C for USAF with General Electric T58-GE-3 engine of 1,325 shp (988 kW). 120 built.
TH-1F: Instrument and Rescue Trainer based on the UH-1F for the USAF. 26 built.
UH-1H: Improved UH-1D with a Lycoming T53-L-13 engine of 1,400 shp (1,000 kW). 5435 built.
CUH-1H: Canadian Forces designation for the UH-1H utility transport helicopter. Redesignated CH-118. A total of 10 built.
EH-1H: Twenty-two aircraft converted by installation of AN/ARQ-33 radio intercept and jamming equipment for Project Quick Fix.
HH-1H: Search and rescue (SAR) variant for the USAF with rescue hoist. A total of 30 built.
JUH-1: Five UH-1Hs converted to SOTAS battlefield surveillance configuration with belly-mounted airborne radar.
TH-1H: Recently modified UH-1Hs for use as basic helicopter flight trainers by the USAF.
HH-1K: Purpose-built SAR variant of the Model 204 for the US Navy with USN avionics and equipment. 27 built.
TH-1L: Helicopter flight trainer based on the HH-1K for the USN. A total of 45 were built.
UH-1L: Utility variant of the TH-1L. Eight were built.
UH-1M: Gunship specific UH-1C upgrade with Lycoming T53-L-13 engine of 1,400 shp (1,000 kW).
UH-1N: Initial Bell 212 production model, the Bell "Twin Pac" twin-engined Huey powered by Pratt & Whitney Canada T400-CP-400.
UH-1P: UH-1F variant for USAF for special operations use and attack operations used solely by the USAF 20th Special Operations Squadron, "the Green Hornets".
EH-1U: No more than two UH-1H aircraft modified for Multiple Target Electronic Warfare System (MULTEWS).
UH-1V: Aeromedical evacuation, rescue version for the US Army.
EH-1X: Ten Electronic warfare UH-1Hs converted under "Quick Fix IIA".
UH-1Y: Upgraded variant developed from existing upgraded late model UH-1Ns, with additional emphasis on commonality with the AH-1Z.
Note: In U.S. service, the G, J, Q, R, S, T, W and Z model designations are used by the AH-1. The UH-1 and AH-1 are considered members of the same H-1 series. The military does not use I (India) or O (Oscar) for aircraft designations to avoid confusion with "one" and "zero" respectively.
=== Other military variants ===
Bell 204: Bell Helicopters company designation, covering aircraft from the XH-40, YH-40 prototypes to the UH-1A, UH-1B, UH-1C, UH-1E, UH-1F, HH-1K, UH-1L, UH-1P and UH-1M production aircraft.
Agusta-Bell AB 204: Military utility transport helicopter. Built under license in Italy by Agusta.
Agusta-Bell AB 204AS: Anti-submarine warfare, anti-shipping version of the AB 204 helicopter.
Fuji-Bell HU-1B/HU-1H: Military utility transport helicopter for the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force. Built under license in Japan by Fuji Heavy Industries.
Bell 205: Bell Helicopters company designation of the UH-1D and UH-1H helicopters.
Bell 205A-1: Military utility transport helicopter version, initial version based on the UH-1H.
Bell 205A-1A: As 205A-1, but with armament hardpoints and military avionics. Produced specifically for Israeli contract.
Agusta-Bell 205: Military utility transport helicopter. Built under license in Italy by Agusta.
AIDC UH-1H: Military utility transport helicopter. Built under license in Taiwan by Aerospace Industrial Development Corporation.
Dornier UH-1D: Military utility transport helicopter. Built under license in Germany by Dornier Flugzeugwerke.
UH-1G: Unofficial name applied locally to at least one armed UH-1H by the Khmer Air Force in Cambodia.
Fuji-Bell UH-1J: An improved Japanese version of the UH-1H built under license in Japan by Fuji Heavy Industries was locally given the designation UH-1J. Among improvements were a Lycoming T53-L-703 turboshaft engine providing 1,343 kW (1,800 shp), a vibration-reduction system, infrared countermeasures, and a night-vision-goggle (NVG) compatible cockpit.
Bell 211 Huey Tug With up-rated dynamic system and larger wide chord blades, the Bell 211 was offered for use as the US Army's prime artillery mover, but not taken up.
Bell Huey II: A modified and re-engined UH-1H, improvements were an Allison T53-L-703 turboshaft engine providing 1,343 kW (1,800 shp), a vibration-reduction system, infrared countermeasures and a night-vision-goggle (NVG) compatible cockpit. This significantly improves performance and cost-effectiveness. Currently offered by Bell to all current military users of the type.
UH-1/T700 Ultra Huey: Upgraded commercial version, fitted with a 1,400-kW (1900-shp) General Electric T700-GE-701C turboshaft engine.
Bell 412 a four rotor version of the Bell 212 used by Canada as the CH-146 Griffon, license produced in Italy as the Augusta-Bell 412, and is going to be made in Japan.
UH-1H II is a modernized version of the UH-1H that mixes in Bell 212 components.
H.6: (Thai: ฮ.๖) Royal Thai Armed Forces designation for the UH-1H.
H.LL.1: (Thai: ฮ.ลล.๑) Royal Thai Armed Forces designation for the UH-1D.
== Operators ==
== Aircraft on display ==
== Accidents ==
23 July 1982 (1982-07-23): Twilight Zone accident: A UH-1 crashed at Indian Dunes in Valencia, California, during the making of Twilight Zone: The Movie. Actor Vic Morrow and two child actors were killed.
11 August 1989: A Spanish Army UH-1H helicopter was reportedly downed by a rock thrown during training near Madrid, injuring three crew members. The incident occurred when a farmer allegedly threw the rock, leading to the crash in El Boalo.
17 January 2018 (2018-01-17): A Sapphire Aviation UH-1H crashed near Raton, New Mexico, United States. Five of the six people on board were killed, including Zimbabwean politician Roy Bennett.
8 September 2024: 2024 Pasaquina Bell UH-1 crash: A UH-1 crashed in the Pasaquina municipality of La Unión Department in El Salvador. All nine people on board were killed, among the victims was the Director of the National Civil Police of El Salvador, Mauricio Arriaza Chicas.
== Specifications (UH-1H) ==
Data from Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1987-88General characteristics
Crew: 1–4
Capacity: 3,880 pounds (1,760 kg) including 11–14 troops, 6 stretchers and attendant, or equivalent cargo
Length: 57 ft 9+5⁄8 in (17.618 m) with rotors
Width: 9 ft 6+1⁄2 in (2.908 m) (over skids)
Height: 14 ft 5+1⁄2 in (4.407 m) (tail rotor turning)
Empty weight: 5,210 lb (2,363 kg)
Gross weight: 9,039 lb (4,100 kg) (mission weight)
Max takeoff weight: 9,500 lb (4,309 kg)
Powerplant: 1 × Lycoming T53-L-13 turboshaft, 1,400 shp (1,000 kW) (limited to 1,100 shp (820 kW) by transmission)
Main rotor diameter: 48 ft 0 in (14.63 m)
Main rotor area: 1,809.56 sq ft (168.114 m2)
Performance
Maximum speed: 127 mph (204 km/h, 110 kn) (at maximum takeoff weight; also Vne at this weight)
Cruise speed: 127 mph (204 km/h, 110 kn) (at 5,700 ft (1,700 m) at maximum takeoff weight)
Range: 318 mi (511 km, 276 nmi) (with maximum fuel, no reserves, at sea level)
Service ceiling: 12,600 ft (3,800 m) (at maximum takeoff weight)
Rate of climb: 1,600 ft/min (8.1 m/s) at sea level (at maximum takeoff weight)
Disk loading: 5.25 lb/sq ft (25.6 kg/m2)
Power/mass: 0.1159 hp/lb (0.1905 kW/kg)
Armament
various including:
7.62 mm machine guns
2.75 in (70 mm) rocket pods
== Notable appearances in media ==
The image of American troops disembarking from a Huey has become an iconic image of the Vietnam War, and can be seen in many films, video games and television shows on the subject, as well as more modern settings. The UH-1 is seen in many films about the Vietnam War, including The Green Berets, The Deer Hunter, Platoon, Hamburger Hill, Apocalypse Now, Casualties of War, and Born on the Fourth of July. It is prominently featured in We Were Soldiers as the main helicopter used by the Air Cavalry in the Battle of Ia Drang. Author Robert Mason recounts his career as a UH-1 "Slick" pilot in his memoir, Chickenhawk.
The 2002 journey of Huey 091, displayed in the Smithsonian National Museum of American History, is outlined in the 2004 documentary In the Shadow of the Blade.
== See also ==
Bell Huey family – overview of all models
Related development
Bell AH-1 Cobra
Bell 212
Bell 214
Bell 412
Bell 533
Bell UH-1N Twin Huey
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Sikorsky XH-39
Related lists
List of active United States military aircraft
List of most-produced rotorcraft
== References ==
=== Footnotes ===
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
Andrade, John M. (1979). U.S. Military Aircraft Designations and Serials since 1909. Hersham, Surrey, UK: Midland Counties Publications. ISBN 0-904597-22-9.
Apostolo, Giorgio (1984). Bell 204, Bell 205: The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Helicopters. New York: Bonanza Books. ISBN 0-517-43935-2.
Australian Naval Aviation Museum, (ANAM) (1998). Flying Stations: A Story of Australian Naval Aviation. St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-86448-846-8.
Brent, W. A. (1988). Rhodesian Air Force A Brief History 1947–1980. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Freeworld Publications. ISBN 0-620-11805-9.
Chant, Christopher (1996). Fighting Helicopters of the 20th Century: 20th Century Military Series. Christchurch, Dorset, UK: Graham Beehag Books. ISBN 1-85501-808-X.
Debay, Yves (1996). Combat Helicopters. Paris: Histoire & Collections. ISBN 2-908182-52-1.
Donald, David, ed. (1997). Bell Model 212 Twin Two-Twelve: The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. New York: Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 0-7607-0592-5.
Drendel, Lou (1974). Gunslingers in Action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications. ISBN 0-89747-013-3.
Drendel, Lou (1983). Huey. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications. ISBN 0-89747-145-8..
Eather, Steve (1995). Flying Squadrons of the Australian Defence Force. Weston Creek, ACT: Aerospace Publications. ISBN 1-875671-15-3.
Eden, Paul, ed. (2004). Bell UH-1 Iroquois: Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber Books. ISBN 1-904687-84-9.
Elliot, Bryn (March–April 1997). "Bears in the Air: The US Air Police Perspective". Air Enthusiast. No. 68. pp. 46–51. ISSN 0143-5450.
Francillon, René, J. (1987). Vietnam: The War in the Air. New York: Arch Cape Press. ISBN 0-517-62976-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Guilmartin, John Francis; O'Leary, Michael (1988). The Illustrated History of the Vietnam War, Volume 11: Helicopters. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-34506-0.
McGowen, Stanley S. (2005). Helicopters: An Illustrated History of Their Impact. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-468-4.
Mesko, Jim (1984). Airmobile: The Helicopter War in Vietnam. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications. ISBN 0-89747-159-8.
Mikesh, Robert C. (1988). Flying Dragons: The South Vietnamese Air Force. London: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 0-85045-819-6.
Morales, Joao-Paulo & Mitilian, Vatche (April 2018). "Heavy Duty: Lebanon's DIY "Hueybombers"". The Aviation Historian (23): 100–108. ISSN 2051-1930.
Mutza, Wayne (2012). Helicopter Gunships: Deadly Combat Weapon Systems. Specialty Press. ISBN 978-1-58007-154-3.
Mutza, Wayne (1986). UH-1 Huey in Action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications. ISBN 0-89747-179-2.
Mutza, Wayne (December 1986 – April 1987). "Covertly to Cambodia". Air Enthusiast. No. 32. Bromley, UK: Pilot Press. pp. 22–31. ISSN 0143-5450.
Mutza, Wayne (1992). UH-1 Huey in Color. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications. ISBN 0-89747-279-9.
Pattillo, Donald M. (2001). Pushing the Envelope: The American Aircraft Industry. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08671-9.
Specifications for Bell 204, 205 and 214 Huey Plus
== External links ==
Bell Huey II page on BellHelicopter.com
UH-1D/UH-1H Iroquois utility helicopter and UH-1 Factsheet on Army.mil
UH-1 history on Navy Air web site
The Bell UH-1 Huey at Greg Goebel's Air Vectors site
"RETROSPECTIVE: How the UH-1 'Huey' changed modern warfare" on FlightGlobal.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannes_Fink | Hannes Fink | Hannes Fink (born 6 October 1989) is an Italian former footballer who played his whole career for Südtirol.
== Career ==
A midfielder, Fink started his career with Italian fourth division side Südtirol, where he received interest from the Italian second division, helping them achieve promotion to the Italian third division. He played a total fifteen years for Südtirol, and retired by the end of the 2021–22 Serie C season, following his team's first ever promotion to Serie B.
== References ==
== External links ==
Hannes Fink at Soccerway
Hannes Fink at WorldFootball.net |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fencing_at_the_1896_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_masters_foil | Fencing at the 1896 Summer Olympics – Men's masters foil | The men's masters foil was one of three fencing events on the Fencing at the 1896 Summer Olympics programme. It was the only event at the Games for professional athletes and was held immediately after the amateur event on 7 April. It consisted of a single match, between Leonidas Pyrgos of Greece and Joanni Perronet of France. Pyrgos won the match, 3–1, to become the first Greek champion in the modern Olympics.
== Background ==
This was the first appearance of the event, which was held only once more. Fencing masters were an exception to the amateurs-only nature of the early Olympics. Masters fencing was held as an Olympic event in 1896 (men's foil only) and 1900 (all three weapons for men, as well as a special event in épée that pitted the top professionals against the top amateurs). By 1904, only amateur events were conducted.
== Competition format ==
With only two fencers, the competition consisted of a single bout. The bout was to three touches. Standard foil rules were used, including that touches had to be made with the tip of the foil, the target area was limited to the torso, and priority determined the winner of double touches.
== Schedule ==
The exact time of the master's event is not known. The fencing began at 10 a.m. on the second day of events with the (amateur) men's foil, followed by the master's foil. The Official Report notes that the fencing ended at noon.
== Results ==
Pyrgos won the only bout, 3–1.
== References ==
Lampros, S.P.; Polites, N.G.; De Coubertin, Pierre; Philemon, P.J.; Anninos, C. (1897). The Olympic Games: BC 776 – AD 1896. Athens: Charles Beck. (Digitally available at [1] Archived 2008-05-27 at the Wayback Machine)
Mallon, Bill; Widlund, Ture (1998). The 1896 Olympic Games. Results for All Competitors in All Events, with Commentary. Jefferson: McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-0379-9. (Excerpt available at [2] Archived 2008-04-11 at the Wayback Machine)
Smith, Michael Llewellyn (2004). Olympics in Athens 1896. The Invention of the Modern Olympic Games. London: Profile Books. ISBN 1-86197-342-X. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Biswas_(politician)#:~:text=in%201961%20he%20joined%20the,the%20Students'%20Federation%20of%20India. | Anil Biswas (politician) | Anil Biswas (2 March 1944 – 26 March 2006), often referred to as Keru, was an Indian communist politician. He was the secretary of the West Bengal State Committee of Communist Party of India (Marxist) and member of the party's politburo beginning in 1998 until his death in 2006.
== Early life ==
Biswas born in a middle class Mahishya family of Darermath village near Karimpur, Nadia district, to Ashutosh Biswas and Prafulla Kumari Debi. He lost his father at a tender age. While in high school he was attracted to the Left movement in the area. in 1961 he joined the Krishnagar Government College and came under the influence of Marxist leaders like Harinarayan Adhikari and Dinesh Majumdar and also became an active member of the Students' Federation of India. He was a student leader in College elections. After taking an Honours degree in Political science, he shifted to Kolkata to pursue his academic career.
== Politics ==
He became the full-fledged party member of the CPI(M) in 1965. In the same year he was arrested under the Defence of India Rules 1962 and was imprisoned for 11 months. From jail custody he completed the master's degree in political science. In 1969, he became a whole timer of the party and began his party work as a journalist in the Ganashakti, the party's daily organ.
Biswas was elected to the CPIM West Bengal state committee in 1978 and elected to the state secretariat in 1982. Biswas remained closely associated with Ganashakti and edited it between 1983 and 1998. It was during his editorship the newspaper reached the height of circulation. Biswas became member of the Central Committee of the party in the year of 1985. "It was due to his guidance that the Ganashakthi became a full-fledged and comprehensive newspaper," CPIM said in homage to Biswas.
In 1998, he became a member of the Polit Bureau. He was mentored by Pramod Dasgupta.
In 1998, took charge as the secretary of the State committee after his predecessor Sailen Dasgupta resigned owing to ill-health and old age. He was reelected as state secretary in 2002 and 2005.
He was the editor of Marxbadi Path (The Road of the Marxist), the theoretical quarterly in West Bengal.
He was known to be a deft strategist and the brain behind the party's important decisions in West Bengal politics. In one of his genius decisions, he influenced the party to name Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee as Chief Minister of West Bengal replacing Jyoti Basu before the 2000 West Bengal Legislative Assembly Elections. This was a strategically shrewd decision because people of West Bengal were frustrated by the same Chief Minister for more than 20 years. It got the Left front a huge victory in spite of strong opposition from Mamata Banerjee's TMC. Because of Anil Biswas' organized election tactics as the State General Secretary in the 2006 West Bengal Assembly Election, the opposition reduced to significantly small number of seats. He used to manage the media and the ground-workers so well that he knew the pulse of the general public in and out. It is largely believed that the demise of Anil Biswas and other important ground-leaders such as Subhas Chakraborty paved the way for the opposition to come into power replacing the Left Front.
== Death ==
He died on 26 March 2006 after being hospitalised by a brain haemorrhage on 18 March. His body was donated to NRS Medical College and Hospital according to his last wishes. He is survived by his wife Gita and daughter Ajanta.
== References ==
== Sources ==
Obituary on sify.com
"Anil Biswas dead" - The Hindu article dated 26 March 2006
"CPI(M) leader Anil Biswas dead" - Hindustan Times article dated 26 March 2006
"Homage to Comrade Anil Biswas"
"Anil Biswas: Farewell Beloved Comrade!" People's Democracy article dated 2 April 2006 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/en:Adil_Hussain?variant=zh-tw#:~:text=They%20eventually%20got%20married%20eight%20years%20later%2C%20in%202007. | en:Adil Hussain | Khandkar Mohammad Adil Hussain (pronounced [ʕaːdɪl ħuˈseːn]; born 5 October 1963) is an Indian actor who is known for his work in several Indian independent and mainstream film productions, as well as international cinema, in films such as The Reluctant Fundamentalist and Life of Pi (both 2012).
He received National Film Awards (Special Jury) at the 64th National Film Awards for Hotel Salvation and Maj Rati Keteki.
He has starred in English, Hindi, Assamese, Bengali, Tamil, Marathi, Malayalam, Norwegian and French films.
== Early life and education ==
Born in an Assamese Muslim family in Goalpara, Assam on 5 October 1963, where his father was the headmaster of a high secondary school, Hussain was the youngest of seven children. His ancestors had traditionally been appointed as private tutors, known as Khandkar, to the Mughal Emperors. In an interview he described his multiethnic background, as his maternal grandfather was Iraqi while his maternal grandmother had Assamese, English and Italian roots.
Hussain acted in school plays. He left home at age 18 to study philosophy at B. Borooah College, Guwahati, he started acting in college plays and performing as a stand-up comedian.
He also mimicked popular Bollywood actors in between the performances of a local stand-up comedian group, the Bhaya Mama Group. He worked as a stand-up comedian for six years, joined a mobile theatre and also did some local cinema, before moving to Delhi, where he studied at National School of Drama (1990–1993).
He also studied at the Drama Studio London on a Charles Wallace India Trust Scholarship.
== Career ==
After his return to India in 1994, Hussain joined the mobile 'Hengul Theater' in Assam, where he worked for three years, before moving to Delhi. He started his stage career in Delhi, though he continued training under Khalid Tyabji. After Tyabji he trained with Swapan Bose at Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry, before starting training with Dilip Shankar in Delhi.
As an actor, he first received acclaim in Othello: A Play in Black and White (1999), which was awarded the Edinburgh Fringe First, and later Goodbye Desdemona also directed by Roysten Abel. He remained the artistic director and Trainer of the Society for Artists and Performers in Hampi from 2004 to 2007, and a visiting faculty at Royal Conservatory of Performing Arts, The Hague. He is also a visiting faculty at his alma mater, the National School of Drama.
In 2004, he made his Bengali film debut along with Soha Ali Khan in the period drama Iti Srikanta, where he played the lead role.
On television, he appeared in the lead role, in the detective series Jasoos Vijay (2002–2003), produced by BBC World Service Trust.
Though he had appeared in a few Assamese films, did a small roles in Vishal Bhardwaj's Kaminey and Sona Jain's For Real, it was his role in Abhishek Chaubey's Ishqiya (2010) that got him attention in Bollywood, though his first major role was in Saif Ali Khan-Kareena Kapoor Khan starrer Agent Vinod released in early 2012. In the same year, he appeared in Italian director Italo Spinelli's Gangor, Mira Nair's The Reluctant Fundamentalist, and Ang Lee's Life of Pi.
He next appeared alongside Sridevi in the comedy drama English Vinglish (2012), and also received critical acclaim for his role in Lessons in Forgetting at the New Jersey Independent South Asian Cine Fest. After these he acted in Aditya Bhattacharya's Bombay Most Wanted and Partho Sen-Gupta's Sunrise.
His next role as Inspector K. N. Singh was in the Ranveer Singh-Sonakshi Sinha Lootera under Vikramaditya Motwane's direction. This followed with Amit Vats' comedy Boyss Toh Boyss Hain, the story of four young men with similar problems in life, who eventually find their way to true love.
Hussain opened 2014 with the Assamese film Raag: The Rhythm of Love playing Iqbal, which marked his first Assamese film in a lead role. Sringkhal and Rodor Sithi were his other Assamese releases in the year. He was also seen in Hindi films like Kaanchi: The Unbreakable as a CBI officer, The Xposé as Rajan starring Himesh Reshammiya in the lead, and Tigers as Bilal starring Emraan Hashmi. Tigers, based on a real-life story about a salesman, was screened at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival. His first lead role in a Hindi film came with the drama Zed Plus as Aslam Puncturewala.
Hussain had his maximum number of film appearances in 2015 as he had releases in English, Hindi, Bengali and his first Tamil and Marathi movies. His Hindi movies include Main Aur Charles as Amod Kant, Jai Ho Democracy as Major Baruah, and Angry Indian Goddesses as a police superintendent. He debuted in Tamil cinema with Yatchan portraying the significant role of Selvam/Vetri, He also worked in his first Marathi movie Sunrise as Joshi. His Bengali film of the year was Arindam Sil's mystery thriller Har Har Byomkesh as Zamindar Deepnarayan Singh.
His 2016 projects include the drama film Parched directed by Leena Yadav, which premiered at the Special Presentations section of the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival. It is about four women who lead a tightly controlled-by-traditions life in a village in Rajasthan. His other project in the year is the action thriller Force 2 directed by Abhinay Deo featuring John Abraham and Sonakshi Sinha in the lead. His Assamese film in 2016 is Kothanodi. Adil Hussain's 2017 releases include Commando 2: The Black Money Trail, Love Sonia, Mantra, Mukti Bhawan, Dobaara: See Your Evil, Kabuliwala, and Naval Enna Jewel.
In 2018, he acted in S. Shankar's 2.0 as well as in Aiyaary and Bioscopewala. In 2022, Hussain became the first-ever personality to hoist the Indian National Flag in the Metaverse at the 'Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav' Metaverse event organised by Piro Space.
== Life membership ==
In 2013, after having conducted a film workshop at University Film Club, Aligarh Muslim University, Hussain was granted a lifetime membership in the university's film club.
Hussain has been honoured by Sandeep Marwah with the life membership of International Film And Television Club of Asian Academy of Film & Television at Noida Film City.
== Personal life ==
During the 1999 Edinburgh Film Festival, Hussain, cast as Othello, fell in love with Kristen Jain, who was playing Desdemona. He ended up tightly hugging her, much to her and the audience's shock, instead of "killing" her as per the script, thus forcing the curtains to be brought down immediately. They eventually got married eight years later, in 2007.
== Filmography ==
=== Television ===
== Short films ==
== National film awards ==
== Other awards and nominations ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Adil Hussain on Instagram
Adil Hussain at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Lang_(artist) | Helmut Lang (artist) | Helmut Lang (born 10 March 1956) is an Austrian artist and former fashion designer and mentor who lives and works in New York and on Long Island.
== Career ==
In 1986, Lang showed his first Helmut Lang runway collection in Paris at Centre Georges Pompidou. His first Helmut men's collection debuted in 1987 and a decade later he moved his label from Vienna to New York.
Lang used unconventional materials such as rubber, feathers and metallic fabrics and redefined the silhouette of the 1990s and early 2000s. He broke away from the runway show-as-spectacle in the height of the 1980s opulence and was the first to stream his collection online in 1998.
Lang's brand was known for its utilitarian, minimalist aesthetic, as well as for his prestige range of denim.
In 1999, Lang sold a 51% stake in his company to the Prada Group, with Prada running distribution and manufacturing and Lang controlling design and advertising. Afterwards, Prada developed a line of Helmut Lang accessories such as shoes, belts and bags, and opened Helmut Lang stores in Hong Kong and Singapore. Sales under the Prada Group fell from $100 million in 1999 to $37 million in 2003. The brand's decision to cancel the licensing for an external company to manufacture and market its profitable range of Helmut Lang Jeans was cited as one of the reasons for its loss in revenue. In 2005 he left his label and retired from fashion. He has since been based in New York City and on Long Island as a practicing artist. In 2006, Prada sold the Helmut Lang brand to Link Theory Holdings.
Lang has collaborated with artists Jenny Holzer and Louise Bourgeois. His recent works explore abstract sculptural forms and physical arrangements beyond the limitations of the human body. Lang had his first solo art exhibition ALLES GLEICH SCHWER at the Kestnergesellschaft in Hannover in 2008 and has since presented solo exhibitions internationally. Lang has published excerpts from his ongoing art projects Long Island Diaries [8] and The Selective Memory Series [9] in a number of publications, such as Purple, BUTT Magazine [10], Fanzine 137 [11], Visionaire and most recently The Travel Almanac [12].
== Work ==
This timeline outlines Helmut Lang's work in fashion and art up until 2021.
Solo Exhibitions
Group Exhibitions
== Helmut Lang fashion 1977–2005 ==
This timeline outlines the developments in Lang's fashion as well significant attributes of key collections.
1977
Opens made-to-measure studio in Vienna.
1980–84
Development of signature collections and made-to-measure service in Vienna.
1986
First presentation in Paris. Shown off the Paris fashion calendar as part of the exhibition "Vienne 1880–1939: L'Apocalypse Joyeuse" at The Centre National d'Art et de Culture Georges Pompidou.
1987
Introduction of the first Helmut Lang Men's collection. Women and Men's collections are shown together on the Paris fashion calendar. Men's silhouette marked the return of the narrow and tailored suit shown with the white shirt, black tie, and made-to-measure shoes.
1988
Rejects the structure of the traditional fashion show. Introduces the concept of “Séance de Travail.”
1990
Introduces layering of transparent fabrics in new materials and textures. New approach towards the treatment of these.
Introduction of Helmut Lang footwear
1991
Introduces wet looks, thermal fabrics, paper dresses and Native American influences.
1992
Introduces extremely shiny fabrics and textures. Thermal leathers, technical fabrics, padded clothing and body-conscious shapes.
1993
A/W '93–'94. Street style / haute couture presented in wool knits, pure cashmere and velvet. Trademark slit and slashed sleeves first introduced.
S/S '94. Introduces cuffed pants, holographic fabrics, holographic sterling silver jeans, lacquered silks, phantom prints, apron dresses, colored tuxedo stripes, stretch daytime smoking coats, raw denim and customized silk dresses. Introduces hand-sprayed shoes and customized dancing shoes.
First separate Men's presentation. Men's S/S '94 shown as part of the Paris fashion calendar.
Begins collaboration with Juergen Teller on backstage documentation and advertising.
Lang accepted a professorship at 'Modeklasse', the famous department of fashion design at the University of Applied Arts Vienna.
1994
A/W '94–'95. Latex-bounded lace, lacquered silks, smoking coats and suits, nylon veil dresses, airbrushed silks and slash geometric patterns on candy-colored fabrics. Introduced reflective fabrics and nude as staple color.
First show presented at 17 Rue Commines.
S/S '95. "Hawaiian techno,” high-tech and air-tech. New nylon fabrics introduced.
1995
A/W '95–'96. “Couture customized”, camel and tweeds, bra holsters, chiffon and faille. Introduces two-color bloc paneling.
Introduction of Helmut Lang underwear.
S/S '96. New take on lace for men and women, delicate materials, electro vibe, visible bras, apron belts and contrast layering.
1996
A/W '96–'97. Techno jungle, covered sequins, floral patterns, cargo styles, Japanese Obi style tops and evening dresses. Introduces signature uniform outerwear. Presented with gold blanked covered audience.
Introduction of Helmut Lang Jeans, featuring khakis, chinos, denims, work wear, casual wear, functionals and protective wear.
S/S '97. Introduction of sashes, festive and ceremonial wear, dislodged lingerie, tuxedo accessories and colored denim.
1997
A/W '97–'98. Shift toward luxury with the use of classic and pure materials. Reintroduction of fine cashmeres, blended wools and silks. Introduction of funnel neck coats and pleated skirts. Silk tulle, cummerbunds and silk down coated duvet wraps. Definition of new Helmut Lang style with made-to-measure finishing.
Second separate Men's presentation. Men's S/S 98 collection shown as part of the New York fashion calendar.
S/S '98. Introduction of A-line skirt and dresses. Usage of crinoline and pleats. Reintroduction of the classic white T-shirt. For men, introduction of the urban utilitarian. Vintage, painted and sanded denim. Introduction of fold-out clothes.
Introduction of “accessoire vêtements.”.
Starts collaboration with Jenny Holzer on all Helmut Lang stores. [13]
1998
Relocates company from Vienna to New York. First fashion house to make a transcontinental move.
Presentation of the A/W '98–'99 collection over the Internet. First-ever Internet-based fashion show. Launch of helmutlang.com.’’
Moves the presentation venue from Paris to New York, beginning with the A/W '98–'99 collection.
Introduction of Helmut Lang Eyewear.
Helmut Lang advertises on New York taxi rooftops. ‘’First fashion house to use this advertising channel’’. Features photography by Robert Mapplethorpe and Bruce Weber.
A/W '98–'99. Luxury sportswear translated to luxury eveningwear. Couture-sportwear, volume and silk-furs. Introduction of the signature parka and burnt denim.
For the S/S '99 collection, Helmut Lang moves the presentation ahead of the European schedule (from November to September), having the impact of shifting the entire fashion calendar.’’
S/S '99. Utilitarian motorbike pants and arm bags. Flower and phantom prints, washed silver platinum leathers, silk feather coats and peasant looks. Introduction of extensions as major detail.
1999
A/W '99–'00. Introduction of interior strap extensions. Introduction of shearing and colored leathers. Pure sterling silver fabrics and anti-stress materials. Introduction of the neck-rest.
S/S '00. Electric colors, training gear attributes translated into haute couture cuts and fabric, silk organza, feather detailing and transparent layering.
Introduction of an extended luxury bag and shoe collection.
Introduction of the signature industrial rubber band as functional part of accessories and shoes.
2000
A/W '00–'01. Monochromatic uniforms.[14]
S/S '01. Entomologic and marine biological structures. Austrian “Dirndl” influences, sharp strap compositions and lace-up. [15]
Launch of Helmut Lang fragrance, Men and Women. Collaboration with Jenny Holzer on fragrance advertising.
2001
A/W '01–'02. Opaque and sheer contrasts, luxury materials, organza and leather trim details.
S/S '02. Block panels, patent leather, leopard print silk, fold prints, architectural construction, organza layering and Viennese crochet. Introduction of accessory holsters and fragment pieces,
2002
A/W '02–'03. Structured layering, re-worked fisherman knits, monochromatic and metal blocks, combined scarf-tops and further incorporation of movement. [16]
Moves the presentation of collections back to Paris. Separate Men's presentations through 2004. Women's presentations continues to be shown together with men's.
S/S '03. Surf references, Montauk-inspired, bright Day-Glo colors, bubble-wrap plastic, high contrast compositions, abstracted wetsuit bands, surf tails, cutouts, inside out made-to-measure trousers, laundry bag pattern, zipper surf couture, zipper smoking stripes and rubber signal prints. [17]
Limited-edition silver choker by Louise Bourgeois. [18]
Opens made-to-measure studio in New York.
2003
A/W '03–'04. “Urban Warrior” vernacular, aviation fragmented pieces, magnetic flaps, petaled organza, layering as clothing extension, interchangeable and modular pieces, one leg smoking chap and parachute holsters. Introduction of chaps for men and women. Introduction of cashmere and fleece fused material.[19]
Collaboration with Louise Bourgeois in the creation of limited-edition pieces. [20]
Music by Brigitte Cornand featuring vocals by Louise Bourgeois [21]
S/S 04. “Dragonfly,” cut outs, battered metal, extended fragment accessories, ornamental pouches, hand wraps, wide color palette, entomologia and urban cowboy references.
Introduction of metallic patent leather in clothing and accessories. [22]
2004
A/W 04-05. Eastern European influences, colored shearing, horsehair, copper leather, Hungarian pleats, French maid look, cummerbund tops, drapée holsters, skirt capes, French lace and Russian bark pattern. Introduction of made-to-measure evening dresses.[23]
Collaboration with Louise Bourgeois in the creation of limited edition pieces. [24]
S/S 05. Maritime, rope and knot detailing, bathing suit trompe l’oeil waist. 1000 eye / pearl pieces, fishtails and sailor pant tuxedos. Introduction of elastic seersucker.[25]
== Collections ==
Helmut Lang's works are part of the following collections:
Costume Institute at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Deste Foundation for Contemporary Art, Athens
Fashion Museum, Bath, United Kingdom
Groninger Museum, Groninger, The Netherlands
LACMA, Los Angeles
MAK, Museum of Applied Arts / Contemporary Art, Vienna, Austria [26]
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
MOMU, Antwerp, Belgium [27]
Musée de la Mode et du Textile, Paris
Musée Galliera, Paris
Museo de la Moda, Santiago, Chile [28]
Phoenix Art Museum, Phoenix, USA
SONS, Kruishoutem, Belgium [29]
The Arts Center, Melbourne, Australia [30]
The Museum at The Fashion Institute of Technology, New York
The National Museum of Art, Architecture and Design, Oslo, Norway
== Architecture projects ==
Original Helmut Lang stores (until 2005)
All of the original Helmut Lang stores have been closed. The last one to close was the Paris location in late 2005. Most of the art-inspired stores had been designed by Lang in collaboration with Gluckman Mayner Architects of New York.
1995
Helmut Lang Munich, Kardinal-Faulhaber-Straße, 3, 80333, Munich, Germany.
Helmut Lang Milan, Via St. Andrea, 14, 20212, Milan, Italy.
1997
Helmut Lang Vienna, Seilergasse, 6, 1010, Vienna, Austria.
Helmut Lang New York, Worldwide Flagship Store, 80 Greene Street, New York, NY 10012.
Helmut Lang Headquarters, 80 Greene Street, New York, NY 10012, USA.
2000
Helmut Lang Paris, Store-within-a-store, Printemps, 64 Bld. Haussman, 75451, Paris, France.
Helmut Lang Hong Kong, Store-within-a-store, 228–230 Landmark Central, Hong Kong.
Helmut Lang Singapore, Store-within-a-store, 9 Scott Road #02-10/11/12/13, Pacific Plaza, 228210, Singapore.
Helmut Lang Aichi, Store-within-a-store, Nagoya Mitsukoshi, Mitsukoshi Nagoya Sakae 2F, 3–5–1 Sakae, Naka-ku Nagoya, Aichi, Japan.
Helmut Lang Tokyo, Store-within-a-store, Isetan Shinjuku Men, Isetan Shinjuku Men's-Kan 3F, 3–14–1 Shinjuku, Shinjuku, Tokyo.
Helmut Lang Tokyo, Store-within-a-store, Isetan Shinjuku Women, Isetan Shinjuku Annex Building 4F, 3–14–1 Shinjuku, Shinjuku, Tokyo.
Helmut Lang Tokyo, Store-within-a-store, Shibuya Seibu Men, Seibu Shibuya Annex B 1F/4F, 21–1 Udagawa-cho, Shibuya, Tokyo.
Helmut Lang Tokyo, Store-within-a-store, Shibuya Seibu Women, Seibu Shibuya Annex B 1F/4F, 21–1 Udagawa-cho, Shibuya.
Helmut Lang Seoul, Store-within-a-store, 2F, Shinsegae Department Store Kangnam Branch, 19–3 Banpo-dong, Seocho-ku, Seoul.
Helmut Lang Kobe, Dainichi-Akashicho Building 18, Akashi-cho, Chuo-ku, Kobe-shi, Hyogo, Japan.
Helmut Lang Parfums New York, 81 Greene Street, New York, NY 10012.
2002
Helmut Lang Studio, 142 Greene Street, New York, NY 10012.
Helmut Lang Made-to-Measure New York, 142 Greene Street, New York, NY 10012.
2003
Helmut Lang Paris, 219 Rue Saint-Honore, 75001, Paris.
Helmut Lang Milan (new location), Via della Spiga, 11, Milan, 20121.
== Fragrance Projects ==
Four different scents were created by Lang in cooperation with Procter & Gamble, all of which were discontinued with the 2005 closing of the brand.
Helmut Lang (Women's) – 2000
Helmut Lang Pour Homme (Men's) – 2001
Helmut Lang Velviona (women's and men's) – limited release available exclusively at New York store – 2001
Helmut Lang Cuiron (men's) – 2002
== Awards ==
CFDA, Best International Designer of the Year, 1996.
VH-1/Vogue Award, Best Menswear Designer of the Year, 1997.
Fine Arts of Vienna, 1997.
Pitti Immagine Award, Best Designer of the Nineties, 1998.
New York Magazine Best Designer of the Year Award, 1998.
I.D. Magazine, Design Distinction Award for Environments, 1998.
NYC Chapter of the American Institute of Architects: Award for Interiors, 1998.
Business Week/Architectural Record Award, 1999.
The American Institute of Architects, Award for Interior Architecture, 1999.
CFDA Menswear Designer of the Year, 2000.
GQ Designer of the Year, 2004.
Fashion Group International,“The Imagineers of Our Time" Award, 2004.
LEAD Award, 2005.
Austrian Decoration for Science and Art, 2009
== Bibliography ==
Key interviews
Armstrong, Annie. “'There is No Plan B’: Helmut Lang on Turning His Fashion Archive into Sculpture." artnews.com (ARTnews). 19 September 2019.
Belcove, Julie L. “From Fashion to Art: Helmut Lang’s Second Act." wsj.com (WSJ.). 6 January 2015.
Borrelli-Persson, Laird. “'No Regrets.' Helmut Lang Speaks About His 'Living Archive' Intervention at the MAK in Vienna and His Work in Fashion." vogue.com (Vogue). 26 February 2020.
Bourgeois, Louise, "Louise Bourgeois on...Helmut Lang," Wallpaper. October 2008.
Frankel, Susannah, "Helmut Lang," AnOther Magazine. September 2010. [31]
Gavin, Francesca. “A Rare Interview with Helmut Lang." anothermag.com (AnOther Magazine). 20 September 2019.
McGrath, Charles. “A Seamless Transition From Fashion to Art." The New York Times. 1 May 2012.
Obrist, Hans-Ulrich, "Helmut Lang," The Observer, November 2008. [32]
Petronio, Ezra, "Front Row." Self Service. June 2010. [33]
Porter, Charlie. "Helmut Lang." i-D. August 2008. [34]
Solway, Diane. "Helmut Lang." W. October 2008. [35] Archived 13 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine
Thompson, Allese. “500 Words: Helmut Lang." artforum.com (Artforum). 16 January 2015.
Wakefield, Neville. "Conversation Between Helmut Lang and Neville Wakefield." absolut.com/helmutlang. September 2008. [36]
Wakefield, Neville. “Helmut Lang”. The Journal. January 2007.[37]
== References ==
== External links ==
Helmut Lang Studio web site
hl-art web site
Helmut Lang at FMD |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahara_Khatun | Sahara Khatun | Sahara Khatun (1 March 1943 – 9 July 2020) was a Bangladesh Awami League politician and a cabinet minister. She was the incumbent Jatiyo Sangsad member representing the Dhaka-18 constituency, and was the presidium member of the party.
== Early life ==
Khatun was born in Kurmitola in Dhaka on 1 March 1943 to Abdul Aziz and Turjan Nesa. She completed BA and LLB degrees. She was the presidium member of Bangladesh Awami League, founding president of Bangladesh Awami Ainjibi Parishad and general secretary of Bangladesh Mahila Samity, as well as a member of the International Women Lawyers' Association and the International Women's Alliance. She started her career as a lawyer, and rose to fight cases at the Supreme Court of Bangladesh.
== Political career ==
Khatun was involved in politics since her student life. She entered the national political scene in 1991 when she contested the 5th Parliamentary elections as an Awami League candidate, and was defeated by Khaleda Zia of BNP, who then went on to become the Prime Minister of Bangladesh.
Khatun came in the scene again upon the arrest of current Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina. Khatun was one of the forerunners to induce a legal as well as a political battle in Hasina's favour. Khatun herself was charged with politically motivated crimes during the Caretaker Government's regime.
With the exposure received in the run-up to the 2008 Bangladesh general election, Khatun was pitched as an Awami League candidate from the Dhaka-18 constituency. She eventually won the election, and was then appointed as the minister of home affairs of the government of Bangladesh. She took office on 6 January 2009. In a cabinet reshuffle of 2012, she was relieved of her duties as the Home Minister and made the Minister of Posts and Telecommunications.
=== Tenure as minister ===
Khatun's tenure as minister of home affairs has been marred by the following controversies.
==== BDR mutiny ====
During the 2009 BDR Mutiny, Khatun led the delegation to negotiate with the mutineers, who were either India soldiers portrayed as BD or BD AL supporters portrayed as BDR staging a mutiny against their officers of Bangladesh Rifles, the paramilitary force in charge of the borders. She went inside the campus of Bangladesh Rifles to stimulate negotiation and to ask the mutineers to put their arms down.
The mutiny resulted in the death of 57 top officials of the army, and 3 family members.
==== Extrajudicial killing ====
Awami League in 2008 had promised in its election manifesto that it would stop all extrajudicial killings if brought to power, and Human Rights Watch observed that Awami League had failed in its promise.
==== Comment on Janmastami ====
Khatun attracted criticism in August 2010 when she asked the Hindu-minorities to cut their religious festival Janmastami short, so that it would not clash with the Muslim-majority observances of Ramadan, as they coincided with the same time period. She urged the Hindu community not to make loud noises during sunset, when Muslims would be having iftar. Her comments were considered discriminatory, since a limitation on minority celebrations was being imposed for the first time; Hindu festivals had previously coincided with Ramadan in Bangladesh.
== Death ==
Khatun died on 9 July 2020 at the Bumrungrad International Hospital in Bangkok, Thailand, due to COVID-19.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco_Giordano#:~:text=Francesco%20%22Franco%22%20Giordano%20(born,1957)%20is%20an%20Italian%20politician.&text=Born%20in%20Bari%2C%20he%20became,Italian%20Communist%20Party%20in%201974. | Franco Giordano | Francesco "Franco" Giordano (born 26 August 1957) is an Italian politician.
Born in Bari, he became a member of the Italian Communist Party in 1974. From 1985 to 1987 he was member of the national leadership of Federation of Young Italian Communists, and, from 1987 to 1991, of the local PCI leadership of the province of Bari. When the latter was turned into the more social democratic-oriented Democratic Party of the Left, Giordano moved to the Communist Refoundation Party (PRC).
In 1992 Giordano became a national leader of PRC and, in 1996, he was elected for the first time at the Italian Chamber of Deputies. His seat was confirmed in the 2001 and 2006 elections.
President of PRC's group of deputies from October 1998, he was named vice-secretary of the party in 2001 by Fausto Bertinotti. After the latter's election as President of the Italian Chamber of Deputies, Giordano became national secretary of PRC on 7 May 2006.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_(Ciara_album) | Jackie (Ciara album) | Jackie is the sixth studio album by American singer Ciara, and was released on May 1, 2015, through Epic Records. Following her departure from her previous record label, and the release of her self-titled fifth studio album, Ciara embarked on a hiatus in order to focus on her relationship with American rapper Future, which provoked Ciara to start work on her sixth album which was predominantly inspired by her then-fiancé. In May 2014, Ciara gave birth to her first child and shortly thereafter called off the engagement. Following the public break-up, Ciara postponed the album and began to record new music, while concentrating on motherhood.
During the recording of the album, Ciara worked with numerous long time collaborators including Harmony "H-Money" Samuels and Polow da Don, as well as less frequent collaborators such as Dr. Luke and Cirkut. The producers' efforts resulted in a predominantly pop and R&B album that took influence from hip hop, dance-pop, house, electropop, trap, drum and bass, and 1990s R&B, with lyrics that revolve around themes of love, betrayal, and motherhood. Entitled after her mother, Ciara called upon numerous artists to be featured on Jackie, including Pitbull and Missy Elliott.
Upon release, Jackie was met with a mixed reception from music critics. The album peaked at number 17 on the US Billboard 200, with just 25,000 album-equivalent units. It was preceded by the release of the lead single, "I Bet", which debuted at number 96 on the US Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number 43. The album was further promoted by a second single, "Dance like We're Making Love", and Ciara embarked upon the Jackie Tour.
== Background ==
Following her departure from her previous record label, Ciara signed a new deal with Epic Records, and released her self-titled fifth studio album in July 2013. In late January 2014, Ciara premiered a live version of a song entitled "Anytime" at the Degree Women Grammys Celebration in Los Angeles. On February 2, 2014, Ciara premiered the studio version produced by Boi-1da and Katalyst, featuring her then-boyfriend and rapper Future. After her engagement to Future, Ciara revealed to W in April 2014 that her sixth studio album would be predominantly inspired by her then-fiancé. Ciara gave birth to her first child in May 2014. After claims of Future's infidelity during their relationship had surfaced, it was reported that the couple's engagement had been called off. Following their very public break-up, Ciara's album release was further postponed to 2015, and during this time the singer "quietly" recorded new music, while concentrating on motherhood.
== Recording and production ==
In September 2013, producer Mike WILL Made-It revealed that Ciara had begun work on her sixth studio album. In December 2013, Ciara confirmed she was in the process of making a new album. During an interview with Rap-Up magazine, Ciara revealed that recording for her sixth album began around Thanksgiving of 2013 and she would be releasing new music "really soon". While discussing the album's direction, she claimed: "Sonically I am so content; I had my dream team of producers who I always wanted to work with." In August 2014, Ciara posted on her Instagram account a photo of herself and American record producer Dr. Luke, suggesting they were working on new songs for the album. In another photo, she wrote: "We [are] having an amazing time, making classic music." Luke previous worked with Ciara on the track "Tell Me What Your Name Is" for her third studio album Fantasy Ride (2009).
In October 2014, Ciara posted a photo of her and record producer Polow da Don, who previously worked with her on her 2006 hit "Promise" and on 2009's "Never Ever". In December 2014, she went back to work with Luke, posting another photo along with Epic Records CEO L.A. Reid, teasing the fans with the caption, "Wait 'til u hear what's cooking it's worth the wait." It was rumoured that Luke produced two songs, "Dance like We're Making Love" and "Give Me Love," which was later confirmed. Ciara also worked with American songwriter Diane Warren, she stated: "Warren is a legendary writer. A legendary person. You're going to remember every bit of the session you have with her. She's so vocal – you know that you're with someone who knows what she's doing." In January 2015, it was announced that Ciara was "putting the finishing touches on the lead single with Harmony Samuels." Other producers such as The Underdogs, Lunchmoney Lewis and songwriter Ester Dean also contributed to the album.
== Composition ==
=== Writing and inspiration ===
In an interview for L'Uomo Vogue, Ciara revealed about the album: "It will be an authentic album, real. I talk openly and honestly about my emotions as a woman, mother, about my ambitions, but also my vulnerability, my happy moments and my sad moments." Later, Ciara revealed that the album was going to be called "Jackie" – the name of her mom – since she "felt like it was the best title for where I am in my life right now. Being a mom, I can now see the world through her eyes and fully understand what she was thinking. Being a mom has changed me forever." The singer also commented about the difference between Jackie and her other albums, stating: "I am so much more expressive and confident than I have ever been in my life. Even though there has been musical and personal growth, this album really takes me back in time, to when I didn’t overthink the creative process. Before, I would have said 'Goodies' was my favorite album, but now I believe 'Jackie' is my best body of work." Regarding its sounds, Ciara defined as "urban pop-slash-R&B-hip-hop record." Ciara also spoke about the overall themes of the album, commenting: "Not every song on this album is super autobiographical, but at the heart of it all, it talks about things that are real. Every song is needed, though I felt like ["I Bet"] really stood out because of the timing, with how I wanted to tell my story with my music. I felt like it connected with people, like when I was in the same room with L.A. Reid and Harmony, looking at this list of songs. Music is, really, a way for people to draw some form of strength. You never know what a song can do for someone."
=== Songs ===
The album opens with "Jackie (B.M.F.)" an uptempo trap and drum and bass song with lyrics about "birthing a nine-pound, 10-ounce baby" and "concluding that she's 'a bad motherf**ker.'" The next track, the synth-driven, electro-lite "That's How I'm Feelin'", was considered a "finger-snapping, girls-night-out track" and it features American rappers Pitbull and Missy Elliott – who previously worked with Ciara on "1, 2 Step", "Lose Control" and "Work". "Lullaby" was labelled a "dance-friendly," "old-school bass track," that uses a metaphor "that's unbecoming of a new mom to put her new man to bed tonight." The fourth track "Dance like We're Making Love" was named a sultry and sensual midtempo pop song that has been compared to Janet Jackson. "Stuck on You" is a pop song, where Ciara uses a "brash, unapologetic and borderline cocky" tone.
"Fly" has "'80s electro sample" and a "zwurpingly odd Squarepusher chords", with lyrics where Ciara insists that both her and a former lover should find happiness elsewhere."
The seventh track "I Bet" is an R&B track with lyrical content that are based on subjects of betrayal. It features "liquid acoustic guitar and snapping drums" and co-author Theron Thomas' Migos-like vocal interjections." "Give Me Love" is an EDM and a house song where her voice ventures into "deeper, smoother levels and tones," while the pop "Kiss & Tell" was defined as a "Nile Rodgers-esque retro-soul bounce with lyrics about keeping secrets. "All Good" was named a "disco-lite" and bubblegum pop song, while "Only One" was considered a pop ballad. The dance-pop "One Woman Army", a song written as the title track to the scrapped project of the same name, has "fizzy synths and club sirens" and robo-military march. Lyrically, it is an ode to doing it yourself. The album's regular edition closes with "I Got You", a lullaby for Ciara's year-old son, Future Jr."
== Release and promotion ==
On January 14, 2015, Ciara announced the title of her album would be "Jackie" via her official Twitter account. Then in March 2015, Ciara announced that she would release Jackie in May 2015 and that she planned on touring the US later in the year. The album is titled after her mother, stating, "I can now see the world through her eyes and I know what it's like to be a mom... I am a mini Jackie and it's that simple."
=== Live performances ===
Ciara performed "I Bet" on Live! with Kelly and Michael on April 3, 2015, and during the BET Black Girls Rock! special on April 5, 2015. She performed the "I Bet (R3hab Remix)" with producer, R3hab, at the Coachella Music Festival on April 18, 2015, as well as the song, "Baby Get Up", which will appear on R3hab's upcoming compilation album. On April 24, 2015, Ciara premiered a video snippet for the album's sixth track, "Fly", on social media site, Instagram; the video was filmed by Taylor Cut Films. She went on to premiere video snippets for the album's other tracks, "Give Me Love" and "One Woman Army (Intro)" in the following days. On May 8, 2015, a music video was released for "I Got You" in honor of Mothers Day.
=== Jackie Tour ===
The North American tour dates were announced March 2015. It consisted of 19 shows solely in the United States. In October, Harris announced a second US leg to be sponsored by Topshop. It included dates in Canada. These dates were later postponed to March and April 2016. Ultimately, the tour dates were cancelled. The concert in Silver Springs, Maryland was streamed live via Yahoo! Screen in partnership with Live Nation.
Speaking on the tour, Ciara stated: "I am so excited about this tour. It has been almost 6 years since my last tour. I feel this album is my best body of work. It is important to me that my fans have the greatest show experience possible. On the Jackie tour, fans will get a chance to know me more intimately, jam to good music, and most importantly be entertained. I can not wait!"
=== Set list ===
The following setlist was obtained from the concert held on May 30, 2015, at Club Nokia in Los Angeles, California. It does not represent all concerts for the duration of the tour.
=== Tour dates ===
== Singles ==
"I Bet" was released as the official lead single from the album on January 26, 2015 in the United States. It officially impacted Rhythmic and Urban contemporary radio in the US the following day. The "I Bet" music video made its television premiere on Extra on March 9, 2015, followed by an immediate release to Vevo and YouTube. On April 24, 2015, Rap-Up magazine reported that the Pitbull and Missy Elliott collab, "That's How I'm Feelin'", would be released as Jackie's second single. Three days later, however, it was announced via Ciara's official social media accounts that "Dance Like We're Making Love" would serve as the album's second single instead. "Dance like We're Making Love" was then made available as a digital download on April 28, 2015, in the United States, along with the pre-order of the album. Following the announcement that "Dance like We're Making Love" would serve as the album's second single, "Give Me Love" was given an official US urban contemporary impact date of June 9, 2015. A new audio upload of "Give Me Love" featuring the official single cover, was uploaded to Ciara's Vevo account following the single's announcement. However, on June 4, Ciara confirmed herself that the aforementioned "Dance like We're Making Love" would be issued as the album's second single as previously planned. The song impacted US urban contemporary radio on June 30, 2015.
== Critical reception ==
Jackie received mixed reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 60, which indicates "mixed or average reviews", based on 8 reviews. Nolan Feeney of Time noted that "'Jackie' rivals 2013's self-titled quasi-comeback as Ciara's most consistent and self-assured record to date." Feeney also approved the album for featuring "her most adventurous production", noting that "nearly every song on the record feels like a companion to at least one other proven track in her back catalog." In a positive note, Jon Caramanica of The New York Times claimed that "'Jackie' is among Ciara's strongest albums, and her most varied." Writing for New York Daily News, Jim Farber claimed that the album "features the most upbeat, and fun, music of Ciara's career." Ian Gittins of Virgin Media described it as "a triumph, an orgy of luscious, sharp-witted R&B and sumptuous soul assembled by a crack team of producers." Dan Weiss of Spin found out that "the strong-heeled 'Jackie' is far from conservative, and possibly more daring, with three of the year's best songs at the very top, middle, and bottom ('Jackie [B.M.F.],' 'I Bet,' 'One Woman Army'), which couldn't be more different from each other." Eyan B. Patrick of Exclaim! named it "a solidly produced effort that features an artist comfortable with who she is both privately and as an artist."
Anupa Mistry of Pitchfork called the album "a serviceable record that gets better with multiple listens", but remarked that "it hints at a storyline, but doesn't go deeper" [...] "[W]hat would've given her the edge that her peers maintain is some insight behind Ciara's redemption songs." Idolator's Christina Lee echoed the same sentiment, stating: "Instead of expanding on how her life has changed, though, Jackie finds Ciara settling into her comfort zone. These songs are good fun, though they aren’t as revelatory or forward-thinking as ‘Body Party’ or the rest of 2013's Ciara, the best album she's made." Stacy Ann-Ellis of Vibe also noted that "[s]onically, it feels all over the place and by album's end, there's no clear cut takeaway message," but ensured that "there are still more positives than negatives to be found on 'Jackie'." Michael Arceneaux of Complex was unsure about Ciara's personality on the album, declaring that she "doesn't know who she wants to be on her new album." In a less enthusiastic review, Andy Kellman of AllMusic wrote that "[t]he album contains fewer highlights than any previous Ciara album," concluding that "the results are mixed." Steven J. Horowitz of Billboard felt that the album was "oddly impersonal" and "a missed opportunity for a talented artist to connect with fans in a new way."
== Commercial performance ==
The album debuted at number 17 on the US Billboard 200 chart with 25,000 album-equivalent units (19,900 in sales) and had the lowest first-week sales amongst her first six albums. Its sales placed it at number 13 on the Top Album Sales chart.
== Track listing ==
Credits adapted from liner notes and iTunes.
Notes
^[a] signifies a vocal producer
^[b] signifies a co-producer
^[c] signifies a remixer
"Jackie (B.M.F)" contains a sample from "Amen, Brother", as performed by The Winstons.
"That's How I'm Feelin'" contains a sample from "Jive Rhythm Trx – 122 BPM", as written by Larry Linn and performed by Willedson Dodgers.
"Lullaby" contains elements of "Love, Need and Want You" written by Kenneth Gamble and Bunny Sigler and contains samples and portions of "Dilemma" written by Cornell Haynes Jr.
== Charts ==
== Release history ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bramston_(Australian_politician)#:~:text=On%203%20July%201863%2C%20he,August%201865%20to%2011%20September | John Bramston (Australian politician) | Sir John Bramston, (14 November 1832 – 13 September 1921), was a politician in Queensland (now part of Australia) and a British colonial government administrator in Queensland and Hong Kong. He then served as Assistant Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies in London for 20 years.
== Early life ==
Born on 14 November 1832 in Roxwell, Essex, Bramston was the second son of Thomas William Bramston (later MP for South Essex), of Skreens, Essex and his wife Eliza, daughter of Admiral Sir Eliab Harvey. He was educated at Winchester College and at Balliol College, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in 1854, becoming Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford in the following year, and D.C.L. in 1863. He entered the Middle Temple in November 1854 and was called to the bar in June 1857.
== Queensland ==
He went to Queensland in 1859 as private secretary to Sir George Bowen, the first Governor of Queensland, and held that post for two years when he resigned.
On 3 July 1863, he was appointed as a Member of the Queensland Legislative Council, and was a member without a portfolio of the first Ministry formed by his friend Sir Robert Herbert, the first Premier of Queensland, from July 1863 to February 1866, acting briefly as Attorney-General from 31 August 1865 to 11 September 1865. Although his membership of the Legislative Council was a lifetime appointment, Bramston resigned on 17 November 1869.
Robert Herbert established a farm in the Brisbane area and lived in the farmhouse with John Bramston. The pair named their house Herston, a combination of their surnames, which eventually became the name of the suburb of Herston.
== England ==
Subsequently, Bramston returned to England, and remained for two years, acting in 1867 as Assistant Boundary Commissioner for Devon and Cornwall under the Reform Act of that year.
== Return to Queensland ==
Bramston returned to Queensland in 1868. When Charles Haley resigned as Member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly for Burnett, Bramston was elected in the resulting by-election on 3 April 1871. He held the seat until 8 December 1873, when the electorate was abolished in a redistribution. During this time, he was Queensland's Attorney-General in the Palmer Ministry from 3 May 1870 to 2 January 1874.
On 12 December 1872 at St John's Cathedral (Brisbane) in Brisbane, Bramston married Eliza Isabella Russell, daughter of Rev. Harry Vane Russell and niece of the Governor of Queensland, George Phipps, 2nd Marquess of Normanby (who had married Laura Russell, sister to Harry Russell). The service was conducted by the Bishop of Brisbane, Edward Tufnell. The Governor hosted a wedding reception at Government House and the couple honeymooned in Sydney and Tasmania.
== Hong Kong ==
In 1874 Bramston was appointed Attorney General of Hong Kong replacing Julian Pauncefote. From time to time as Attorney General, he also acted as a judge in Hong Kong.
== Return to England ==
In June 1876 Bramston was appointed as Assistant Under Secretary of State in the Colonial Office, being employed on a mission to Berlin in connection with the Angra Pequena negotiations in July 1886, in which year he was created Companion of the Order of the Bath.
In October 1887, Bramston's death was announced in the Queensland newspapers, resulting in the publication of many obituaries. However, it turned out to be an error arising from a misinterpretation of a telegram.
John Bramston was appointed Registrar of the Order of St. Michael and St. George in 1892.
He served as Assistant Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies for more than 20 years, retiring in 1898 upon which he was created Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George (KCMG).
In 1899 he was sent as Royal Commissioner in conjunction with Admiral Sir James Erskine to inquire into French treaty rights in Newfoundland. The dispute was settled by the Entente Cordiale of 1904. Similarly Bramston was a member of the Royal Commission for the Paris Exhibition of 1900. In the 1900 New Year Honours list he was promoted to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG), and he received the order from Queen Victoria during an investiture at Windsor Castle on 1 March 1900.
== Death ==
His wife, Lady Bramston, died in 1920. Bramston died at Wimbledon on Tuesday 13 September 1921, and was buried at the Wimbledon Cemetery.
== See also ==
Members of the Queensland Legislative Council, 1860–1869
Members of the Queensland Legislative Assembly, 1870–1871; 1871-1873
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to John Bramston (Australian politician) at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justhis#:~:text=Heo%20Seung%20(Korean%3A%20%ED%97%88%EC%8A%B9%2C,is%20currently%20signed%20to%20GROOVL1N. | Justhis | Heo Seung (Korean: 허승, born May 7, 1991), better known by his stage name Justhis (Korean: 저스디스), is a South Korean rapper. He released his first album, 2 Many Homes 4 1 Kid, on June 14, 2016. He is a member of the Korean hip hop crew IMJMWDP, and is currently signed to GROOVL1N.
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
=== Instrumental/Remix albums ===
=== Collaborative albums ===
=== Charted singles ===
== Filmography ==
=== Television show ===
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Simpson | Don Simpson | Donald Clarence Simpson (October 29, 1943 – January 19, 1996) was an American film producer, screenwriter, and actor, known for his work on blockbuster films of the 1980s and '90s. Simpson entered the film industry in the 1970s and worked at Warner Bros. and Paramount Pictures. He eventually began a professional partnership with Jerry Bruckheimer, and together, they produced hit films such as Flashdance (1983), Beverly Hills Cop (1984), Top Gun (1986), and The Rock (1996), the latter released posthumously. As his stature in Hollywood grew, Simpson became notorious for his debauched lifestyle, which included severe and longstanding substance abuse, and he ultimately died from heart failure caused by an overdose of cocaine and prescription drugs. By the time of his death, his and Bruckheimer's films had grossed over $3 billion worldwide.
== Early life ==
Simpson was born in Seattle, Washington, to June Hazel (née Clark), a housewife, and Russell J. Simpson, a mechanic at Boeing at the time of his son's birth. He grew up in Juneau, Alaska. His parents were strict Baptists and Simpson would go to church four to five times a week. He would call himself a "straight-A Bible student". He attended West Anchorage High School and later majored in English at the University of Oregon. Upon graduation, Simpson worked as a ski instructor in Utah. He later moved to San Francisco where he worked for a theatrical advertising agency and did public relations for the First International Erotic Film Festival.
== Career ==
=== 1970s and 1980s: Paramount Studios ===
In the early 1970s, Simpson started working for Jack Wodell & Associates in San Francisco before moving to Los Angeles. He got a job marketing exploitation films for Warner Bros in 1972, handling distribution marketing for the movies Woodstock and A Clockwork Orange.
In 1975 Simpson went into an interview with Paramount Pictures. He was referred by his friend Steve Tisch, nephew of Larry Tisch (who later owned CBS and Westinghouse), for the job Steve Tisch turned down. Steve Tisch would later go on to produce Risky Business, Forrest Gump and more. Jerry Bruckheimer, who was already friends with Simpson, loaned his personal car to Simpson to drive to the interview.
While there, he co-wrote the 1976 film Cannonball, in which he also had a small role. By 1977, he was named vice-president of production at Paramount, and president in 1981. He was fired at Paramount in 1982 after passing out during a studio meeting due to drug use. He was working on eight productions at once, and would regularly throw a tantrum while in production.
Soon after, he forged a partnership with fellow producer Jerry Bruckheimer. The two would go on to produce some of the most financially successful films of the 1980s: Flashdance (1983), Beverly Hills Cop (1984), Top Gun (1986) and Beverly Hills Cop II (1987). In 1985 and again in 1988, he and Bruckheimer were named Producers of the Year by the National Association of Theatre Owners. The success of Flashdance prompted Simpson and Bruckheimer to launch their own production company that was affiliated with Paramount Pictures.
=== 1990s ===
In 1990, Simpson and Bruckheimer signed a five-year deal with Paramount worth a reported $300 million. The deal would prove to be short lived. Later that year, the Simpson/Bruckheimer-produced Days of Thunder starring Tom Cruise was released. The auto racing film received mixed reviews and grossed $158 million (on a $60 million budget). While a financial success, it did not match the success of Simpson and Bruckheimer's previous films. Simpson and Bruckheimer blamed Paramount for the film's lackluster box-office returns, saying the studio rushed its planning and release. Paramount blamed the film's performance on Simpson and Bruckheimer's overspending. The duo parted with Paramount shortly thereafter.
In 1991, the two signed with Disney. Their first film for Disney, The Ref (1994), was a financial flop. Their next films, Dangerous Minds, Crimson Tide, and Bad Boys (distributed by Columbia Pictures rather than Disney), all released in 1995, returned them to success.
== Personal life ==
Simpson never married. In the 1970s, he took classes to join the Church of Scientology but quit after spending $25,000 and not seeing any significant personal improvements. During the shooting of Days of Thunder, Simpson threw Scientology leader David Miscavige off the production after Simpson refused to pay for a more expensive Scientology-patented sound recording device.
=== Personality ===
Simpson was known for his brash personality, provocative comments and questionable claims. Of director Steven Spielberg, Simpson said, "I'm surprised for a smart Jew he's as white-bread as he is." He later said, "Any person who suggested David Lynch for Dune should have every part of their anatomy examined." He said several times that, as a producer, "our obligation is to make money". Simpson worked out every day with special equipment provided by Arnold Schwarzenegger.
Simpson claimed he discovered Michael Mann, launched Debra Winger's career and cast Richard Gere for American Gigolo. He also claimed he created the concept for Beverly Hills Cop, which Michael Eisner denied. In the movie industry, professionals working with Simpson would refer to the "Don Simpson Discount Factor" (DSDF, coined by Jeff Katzenberg), a way to tone down his exaggerations.
According to director Robert Altman, Simpson opposed the proposed casting of Shelley Duvall as Olive Oyl for the project Popeye by standing up at a 1979 meeting of studio executives and saying, "Well, I wouldn't want to fuck her. And if I don't want to fuck her, she shouldn't be in the movie."
Due to their films' success, Simpson and Bruckheimer became very rich. They often dressed in similar clothing, choosing black as their signature color. Simpson would wear black Levi 501 jeans only before their first wash and then throw them away. He frequented the Canyon Ranch in Arizona for occasional workouts and tanning. Though Simpson claimed he never underwent any plastic surgery procedures, there are reports that he underwent ten different plastic surgeries between 1988 and 1994, including a penis-enlargement procedure. Those surgeries eventually led to infection and many reversal procedures.
As Simpson and Bruckheimer's success grew, so did Simpson's reputation as a "party animal". He said that "next to eating and having sex, making movies is the best thing in the world". Simpson's debauched lifestyle was well known in Hollywood and has been documented in a number of sources. He was a fixture on the "Hollywood cocaine-party" circuit throughout the 1970s and '80s, and in his later years became known for throwing lavish all-night parties at his mansion. An entire chapter of the book You'll Never Make Love in This Town Again (which describes four prostitutes' stories about their sexual encounters with Hollywood celebrities) discusses his frequent sex parties and preference for S & M. He also gave himself testosterone shots to boost his sex drive. According to the call girl Alexandra Datig, Simpson auditioned struggling actresses for his movies, convinced them to have sex with him, and secretly filmed their sex acts.
=== Drug addiction ===
Simpson had been using cocaine since the 1970s, but increased his usage over the years. The excessive spending (in both films and his personal life) and erratic mood swings caused by his drug use were well known in Hollywood by the 1990s. In a 1994 interview with The New York Times, Simpson tried to downplay his reputation and claimed that while he had done drugs in the past, he had stopped. He claimed that his only addiction at the time was food. According to screenwriter James Toback, Simpson's drug use never stopped, and prompted David Geffen and Jeffrey Katzenberg to stage an intervention to get Simpson to go to rehab.
Simpson refused to admit himself into a traditional rehab facility. In 1995, he employed a doctor named Stephen Ammerman to help him with his addiction. Ammerman, who had a history of drug abuse himself, believed that in order for Simpson to quit drugs, he had to use other drugs to combat the painful withdrawal symptoms. Ammerman designed what has been called a "dangerously unorthodox" detox program, which included several medications (including morphine) for Simpson to take at home. In August 1995, Ammerman died at Simpson's residence, from what was later determined to be an accidental overdose of cocaine, Valium, venlafaxine, and morphine.
Frustrated with Simpson's escalating drug use and declining work, Bruckheimer terminated their partnership in December 1995. The two agreed to finish work on The Rock, which was already in production. Simpson died before production was completed, and the film is dedicated to his memory.
== Death ==
On January 19, 1996, Simpson was found dead in the bathroom of his Bel Air, Los Angeles, home. His death was initially attributed to "natural causes". An autopsy and toxicology report later determined that Simpson had died of heart failure caused by combined drug intoxication (cocaine and prescription medications). At the time of his death, there were 21 different drugs in his system, including antidepressants, stimulants, sedatives, and tranquilizers. In August 1996, investigative reporter Chuck Philips of the Los Angeles Times revealed that Simpson had been obtaining large quantities of prescription drugs from 15 different doctors, and that police found 2,200 prescription pills lined up in alphabetical order in his bedroom closet.
A 1998 book by journalist Charles Fleming reported that Simpson's prescription drug expenses totaled more than $60,000 a month at the time of his death. He called Simpson "a supercharged simple-minded creature, an Aesop's fable on crystal meth".
Following his death, his brother Lary Simpson had his own production banner, in order to develop products originated by Don Simpson himself in 1997 until his death at his home in Noank, Connecticut, on January 25, 2023, at the age of 77.
== Filmography ==
He was a producer in all films unless otherwise noted.
=== Film ===
As an actor
As writer
=== Television ===
=== Posthumous credits ===
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Charles Fleming (April 20, 1999). High Concept: Don Simpson and the Hollywood Cultures of Excess. Main Street Books. ISBN 978-0385486958.
== External links ==
Don Simpson at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Lee,_Lady_Baltimore#:~:text=She%20married%20in%201699%2C%20Benedict,she%20later%20married%20Christopher%20Crowe. | Charlotte Lee, Lady Baltimore | Charlotte Lee, Lady Baltimore (23 March 1678, (13 March 1678 OS) – 1 February 1721, (22 January 1721 OS), was an English noblewoman, and granddaughter of King Charles II of England and his mistress Barbara Villiers. She married in 1699, Benedict Leonard Calvert, 4th Baron Baltimore, from whom she separated in 1705; she later married Christopher Crowe. She was the mother of Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore, and of Benedict Leonard Calvert, who was Governor of Maryland from 1727 to 1731.
== Early life ==
Lady Charlotte Lee was born on 13 March 1678 at St. James's Park, St. James, London. She was the eldest of at least fourteen children of Edward Henry Lee, 1st Earl of Lichfield (4 February 1663 – 14 July 1716) and Lady Charlotte Fitzroy (5 September 1664 – 17 February 1718), illegitimate daughter of King Charles II by his mistress Barbara Villiers, Countess of Castlemaine, Duchess of Cleveland.
Lady Charlotte's mother was thirteen years old at the time of her birth, having married the Earl of Lichfield at the age of twelve. Her father was also only fifteen at the time of her birth.
Her paternal grandparents were Sir Francis Henry Lee of Ditchley, 4th Baronet of Quarendon and Elizabeth Pope, daughter of Thomas Pope, 2nd Earl of Downe.
== Marriage to Lord Baltimore ==
On 2 January 1699, at the age of twenty, she married her first husband Benedict Calvert, son of Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore and Jane Lowe.
Charlotte assumed the title of Lady Baltimore in February 1715, when her husband succeeded to the title of 4th Baron Baltimore upon the death of his father, the third Baron Baltimore. The title of Proprietary Governor of the Province of Maryland had been lost to the third Baron during the Glorious Revolution and would be restored to Charles Calvert, the son of Charlotte and Benedict, upon the latter's death on 16 April 1715.
Charlotte and Lord Baltimore had six children:
Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore, 18th Proprietor Governor of Maryland, FRS (29 September 1699 – 24 April 1751), married Mary Janssen, daughter of Sir Theodore Janssen, 1st Baronet Janssen and Williamsa Henley, by whom he had three children, including Frederick Calvert, 6th Baron Baltimore, Louisa Calvert, and Caroline Calvert. He also had an illegitimate son, by the name of Benedict Swingate Calvert, who settled in Maryland, and married his cousin Elizabeth Calvert.
Hon. Benedict Leonard Calvert, Governor of Maryland, (1700–1731). He died 1 June 1732 on his passage home to England
Hon. Edward Henry Calvert (born ca. 1700), held the office of Commissary General and President of the council of Maryland.
Hon. Charlotte Calvert (died December 1744), married Thomas Breerwood, by whom she had a son, Francis Breerwood
Hon. Jane Calvert (died July 1778), married John Hyde, with whom she had three children.
Hon. Cecil Calvert (born 1702)
Charlotte and Lord Baltimore were separated in 1705. In 1706 Charlotte had an affair with Colonel Robert Fielding, then the bigamous husband of her grandmother the Duchess of Cleveland, and was rumoured to have borne a child by him, born on 23 April 1707.
In 1711, Lord Baltimore brought a Bill before the House of Lords (which adjudicated on matters of inheritance of titles and estates) to confirm his divorce from Lady Charlotte, their financial settlement, and that any subsequent children she bore would be declared illegitimate.
== Marriage to Christopher Crowe ==
Lady Baltimore married her second husband Christopher Crowe (c.1681 – 9 November 1749), Consul at Leghorn, sometime before 10 December 1719. Charlotte was three years older than her husband. This marriage produced five more children:
James Crowe (1715-1801), married Rebecca Sarah Crowberry (1717-1761)
Christopher Crowe (1716–1776), married Barbara Duncombe
Catherine Crowe (1717 – 1782), married Roger Henry Gale
Charlotte Crowe (1718–1742)
George Crowe (25 November 1719 – 10 October 1782), married Anne Swift, by whom he had a son, Robert.
== Death and legacy ==
Charlotte Lee died of rheumatism on 22 January 1721 at Woodford Hall, Woodford, Essex. She was buried at Woodford on 29 January 1721. She died intestate and her estate was administered on 4 March 1721 at Woodford Hall.
== In fiction ==
Charlotte Lee appears as a minor character in Anya Seton's historical romance Devil Water.
== Ancestry ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
G.E. Cokayne, The Complete Peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom, Extanct, Extinct or Dormant, new ed., 13 volumes in 14 (1910–1959)
Antonia Fraser, King Charles II, Weidenfeld and Nicolson Ltd., London, 1979
www.ThePeerage.com.pp. 7641,#76403
Antonia Fraser, King Charles II,p. 414 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Pittendrigh | Colin Pittendrigh | Colin Stephenson Pittendrigh (October 13, 1918 – March 19, 1996) was a British-born biologist who spent most of his adult life in the United States. Pittendrigh is regarded as the "father of the biological clock," and founded the modern field of chronobiology alongside Jürgen Aschoff and Erwin Bünning. He is known for his careful descriptions of the properties of the circadian clock in Drosophila and other species, and providing the first formal models of how circadian rhythms entrain (synchronize) to local light-dark cycles.
== Life ==
=== Early life ===
Colin Pittendrigh was born in Whitley Bay, on the coast of Northumberland (today Tyne and Wear) on October 13, 1918. He received his first degree in botany in 1940 from University of Durham, now University of Newcastle upon Tyne.
=== Enlistment ===
Pittendrigh was a conscientious objector and so during World War II, he was assigned to wartime service to try and improve the production of bananas and other fruit that was being shipped to the UK during the war. He also worked as a biologist for the Rockefeller Foundation and the government of Trinidad to control malaria near the military bases there. He studied the epidemiology of malaria transmitted by mosquitoes breeding in epiphytic bromeliad ("tanks" formed by overlapping leaves) in the forest canopy. He made acute observations on bromeliad distribution within forest canopies and between contrasting forest formations. He observed daily rhythms in mosquito activity patterns, particularly noting that peak activity times were different for different species at different canopy levels. His work with the biting rhythms of these mosquitoes was responsible for the development of his interest in biological rhythms, which later led to his experimental studies on eclosion rhythm in Drosophila.
=== Marriage and children ===
Pittendrigh married Margaret "Mikey" Dorothy Eitelbach during the war. Soon after, they moved to Trinidad and lived in the rain forest, where Pittendrigh worked on malaria control as part of the war effort. He returned to the United States in 1945. Margaret and Colin had two children, Robin Rourk, who currently lives in Louisville, Colorado and Colin Jr., who lives in Bozeman. Pittendrigh had a grandson and a granddaughter. Pittendrigh was an avid fly fisherman and outdoorsman, and he and his wife retired to Bozeman, Montana because of their love of the Rocky Mountains.
=== Academic career ===
After the war, Pittendrigh attended Columbia University to study for his Ph.D. in biology under the evolutionary geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky. When he finished at Columbia in 1947, he joined the faculty at Princeton, as an assistant professor of biology where he began his work concerning circadian rhythms. While at Princeton, he gained his U.S. citizenship in 1950 and served as dean of graduate studies from 1965 to 1969. Pittendrigh also served on a variety of national scientific boards including the Science Advisory Committee to the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
In 1969 Pittendrigh left Princeton to join the faculty of Stanford where he helped found the program in Human Biology and later became the director of the Hopkins Marine Station. While serving as the director of the Hopkins Marine Station in 1976-1984, Pittendrigh is credited with helping to rebuild Stanford's century-old marine biology laboratory, bringing in modern molecular biology, ecology and biomechanics, and turning the station into an internationally famous and vigorous one."
Pittendrigh retired from Stanford in 1984 and moved to Bozeman, Montana. Here, he continued his studies of biological clocks, working with the faculty and lecturing at Montana State University – Bozeman.
=== Friendship with Jürgen Aschoff ===
Pittendrigh met Jürgen Aschoff in 1958 when Aschoff made his first visit to the United States. Pittendrigh studied the eclosion rate of fruit flies, while Aschoff studied the continuous circadian rhythm of birds, mammals, and humans. They reached two different conclusions of the entrainment model with Aschoff supporting a parametric entrainment concept (gradual entrainment throughout the day) and Pittendrigh supported a nonparametric entrainment concept (entrainment is sudden and once a day). Despite opposing views, Aschoff and Pittendrigh remained close friends, and they had a lifelong intense exchange of notes and ideas.Their research was described by Serge Daan as "always in harmony, never in synchrony."
== Scientific career ==
=== Research on malaria and the mosquito population in Trinidad (1939 - 1945) ===
During WWII, Pittendrigh was sent to Trinidad to help breed vegetables for the North African campaign and devise methods to help control malaria plaguing troops there. Here, he made important discoveries about the breeding habits of mosquitoes and their need for bromeliad water reservoirs to breed. Pittendrigh found an ingenious solution to controlling the mosquito population. Since they bred in the water tanks collecting on these plants, eliminating the tanks destroyed the mosquito population. Spraying a copper sulfate (CuSO4) solution (non-toxic to humans) on the bromeliads killed them and destroyed the mosquitoes' breeding environment. In addition to his malaria research, Pittendrigh's studies of the daily activity rhythms of mosquitoes sparked his interest in biological clocks, a subject which he came to wholly pursue later at Princeton.
=== Early research on drosophila and entrainment modeling (1947-1967) ===
Pittendrigh was influential in establishing many of the key criteria that a biological system must have in order to be considered a biological clock. His work studying the eclosion (the process of an insect emerging from its pupa stage) rhythms of Drosophila pseudoobscura demonstrated that 1) eclosion rhythms persist without environmental cues (i.e. in constant conditions), 2) unlike most chemical reactions, the period of eclosion remains relatively constant when exposed to changes in ambient temperature ("temperature compensation"), and 3) eclosion rhythms can be entrained by light cycles that are close to the flies' natural period (τ).
Beginning in 1958, Pittendrigh developed the concept of the phase response curve or PRC. The PRC allowed chronobiologists to predict how a biological system would be affected by a change in its light schedule. The PRCs, detected almost simultaneously in Pittendrigh's and Woody Hastings' labs, served as the basis for the nonparametric entrainment model that was soon after proposed by Pittendrigh. This nonparametric model of entrainment predicted that the difference between an environmental period (T) and an organism's intrinsic period (τ) is instantaneously corrected every day when light falls at a particular phase (φ) of the cycle where a phase shift (Δφ) equal to this difference is generated. This is reflected through the expression: Δφ(φ)= τ - T.
While the PRC has been invaluable towards understanding entrainment, there are several notable problems with the model. The PRC, while accurate at describing Drosophila eclosion rhythms, has trouble predicting various aspects of mammalian entrainment. Compressing subjective day or night intervals in mammals leads to changes in activity that are not predicted by the PRC. It was later shown that these differences are partially due to τ and the PRC being malleable entities modifiable through entrainment. Pittendrigh himself recognized that his model of entrainment was based on simplification and could not accurately model all cases of entrainment. However, this model has been salient in furthering our understanding of entrainment and is widely used today to teach the concept of nonparametric entrainment.
Pittendrigh's close friend, Aschoff, proposed a contrasting parametric model of entrainment in which he proposed that light either lengthened or shortened the endogenous period (τ) while also changing the baseline of oscillation. This parametric model suggested that light may affect the period of circadian oscillation and modify the shape – or waveform – and the level around which the oscillation moved. While Aschoff's continuous model of entrainment has largely fallen to the wayside, it is important to remember that Aschoff's contributions helped to address and explain shortcomings in Pittendrigh's nonparametric entrainment model, which is now widely taught and accepted.
=== Work with NASA ===
In 1964-65, Pittendrigh co-chaired the National Academy committee on Mars exploration with Joshua Lederberg, to investigate whether life exists on Mars. The project was conducted at Stanford University and Rockefeller Institute, New York, beginning in the summer of 1964 and concluding in October, 1965. During the same period, he received a NASA exobiology grant for his research on "Circadian rhythms on a biosatellite and on Earth", which studied how being in orbit can affect circadian rhythms (though it's not clear what organisms he studied on, and no later publications could be found on this study). Pittendrigh was also involved in the anti-contamination panel in the international Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), which deals with the risk of contaminating Mars with life from earth and thus destroying man's opportunity to learn whether life developed spontaneously on Mars. In 1966, Pittendrigh co-authored Biology and the Exploration of Mars: Report of a Study, which describes the findings in the exobiology study of 1964-65.
=== Research on nocturnal rodents' circadian pacemaker (1973) ===
Pittendrigh and Daan published a set of five papers reporting their findings on the properties of nocturnal rodents' circadian pacemakers. Below are some major findings:
One-pulse system
Instead of shining light on rodents for a long continuous period (e.g. 12hr) to represent "daytime", Pittendrigh showed that a 15 minutes light pulse shone during the subjective night is enough to cause phase shift in animals. This supports the non-parametric property of the circadian clock.
Interspecies and intraspecies differences in responses to light pulses (i.e. difference in PRC)
Regardless of whether they belong to the same species or not, rodents with longer period (τ) have larger advance zone in their PRC, because they need to have phase delays more often in order to entrain to local time (24hr). The opposite is true for rodents with shorter period (τ). Its implication on real life is that most diurnal organisms, including humans, have periods longer than 24 hours; they therefore tend to have a larger advance zone in their PRC. Nocturnal animals, on the other hand, often have periods shorter than 24hr; they thus have a larger delay zone.
Two-pulse system (or skeleton photoperiod)
To test the effect of Photoperiodism (i.e. varying the length of daytime), Pittendrigh and Daan invented the two-pulse system, with one flash at dawn, and another flash at dusk, and changing the interval between the 2 light pulses to mimic changing photoperiods. When photoperiod (i.e. daytime) gets longer than 12hr, a Phase Jump (also called ψ Jump, where ψ is the phase angle of entrainment) occurs, where the original nocturnal activity jumps to the now longer daytime, and ψ changes abruptly since the clock now treats the second light pulse as light onset and the start of the day. Nonetheless, in nature where photoperiod is complete (i.e. light is constantly shone throughout the daytime), ψ jump is not observed. This supports Aschoff's model of the parametric effect of light.
Dual oscillator model
Under constant light and high light intensity, Pittendrigh observed the locomotor activity of hamsters split into two parts, each has its own period. He thus proposed the E & M (Evening and Morning) dual oscillator model. Normally the two oscillator are coupled to each other and generate the intermediate free-running period which is what we usually measure. However, under constant high light intensity, the two oscillator uncouple, and each free runs with its own period, until they are stabilized at 180° apart or recouple again. Their influence on each other is greater when their peaks of activity are closer together. The model quantitatively accommodates τ and α summarized in Aschoff's Rules, and Aftereffects on free-running period are predicted from prior light-dark history.
As the technology of molecular biology advances, researchers found plenty molecular evidence for the E&M dual oscillator model. For example, the experiments of PDF (pigment dispersing factor)-producing cells in drosophila show that PDF is sufficient in generating morning activity, while having no effects on evening peak. In mammals, while normal hamster show SCNs (Suprachiasmatic nucleus) (the main circadian pacemaker in mammals) on 2 sides being in-phase with each other, the split hamster show SCN being anti-phase with each other. Ongoing research is trying to characterize the evening oscillator and study the interactions between E&M oscillators.
=== Later research (1989) ===
The later part of Pittendrigh's research is devoted to studying the temperature dependence of photoperiodic responses in drosophila. This work was crucial in developing the Photo-Periodic Response Curve (PPRC), a phase-response-curve that factors in seasonal daylength changes when describing entrainment. He proposed another dual oscillator model, in which the master oscillator is light sensitive, and the slave oscillator is temperature sensitive. This model explains his observations of seeing significant entrainment responses to varying photostimulation and seeing dampened, yet still significant, responses to changing temperatures.
Pittendrigh also collaborated with Knopka on the study of drosophila per mutants (which genetically have longer or shorter intrinsic periods due to mutation in the per gene) and their different entrainment responses to temperature and light stimuli. The per mutants have impaired temperature dependence, which suggests that the activity of the temperature oscillator in the mutants are reduced as compared to wildtype. This is another evidence that support the temperature-light dual model system.
== Timeline of accomplishments ==
1940: Graduation from University of Durham in England
1940-1945: Stationed in Trinidad working on Malaria for the Rockefeller Foundation
1948: Doctoral thesis at Columbia University
1947: Assistant Professor of Biology at Princeton University
1950: Became U.S. citizen
1960: Chaired organizing committee for Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on biological clocks
1969: Began his work at Stanford University
1976-1984: Director of the Hopkins Marine Station
== Positions and honors ==
Member of Senior Staff of NASA
National Academy of Sciences study: "Biology and the Exploration of Mars"
Fellow of National Academy of Sciences
Fellow of American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Member of the American Philosophical Society
Guggenheim Fellowship
Alexander von Humboldt Prize
Gold Medal of the Czech Academy of Sciences
Director of the Hopkins Marine Station(1976-1984)
President of the American Society of Naturalists
Vice-President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
== References ==
== External links ==
Colin S. Pittendrigh, 77, Biologist and Expert in Internal 'Clocks', The New York Times, March 26, 1996
Cold Spring Harbor
Dictionary of Circadian Physiology |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Young_(author) | Sarah Young (author) | Sarah Young (March 15, 1946 – August 31, 2023) was an American author known for her contributions to Christian literature particularly for her book Jesus Calling. Young is an advocate of contemplative prayer. Her books have sold over 45 million units worldwide. She has been described as one of the most successful Christian authors in history.
== Life ==
Sarah Jane Kelly was born on March 15, 1946, in Nashville, Tennessee to parents Douglass (Levine) Kelly and Tom Kelly, both educators. She graduated from E. C. Glass High School in Lynchburg, Virginia. Young pursued her higher education at Wellesley College, earning a degree in philosophy in 1968, and later obtained a master's degree in child development from Tufts University in 1974.
While in graduate school, Young, a lapsed Christian, encountered the work of evangelical theologian Francis Schaeffer. She later reported that Schaeffer's work profoundly impacted her spiritual journey. She visited L'Abri, an evangelical center in Switzerland, where she had a spiritual encounter and converted to Christianity. She decided to become a Christian counselor and enrolled at Covenant Theological Seminary in Creve Coeur, Missouri, where she met her husband, Stephen Young, a third-generation missionary. They married in 1977 and served as Presbyterian missionaries near Yokkaichi, Japan for eight years. While in Japan, Young gave birth to her two children.
After living in Japan, the family moved to Atlanta, Georgia, where Young earned a master's degree in counseling from Georgia State University.
In 1991, the couple moved to Melbourne, Australia. There, Young started a Christian counseling practice for women who had been sexually or spiritually abused. While meditating on God’s protection, visualizing those she cared for encircled by the Holy Spirit, Young had a mystical experience where she was enveloped by light and overcome by peace.
In 2001, they moved to Perth. In the following years, Young's chronic health conditions, including Lyme disease, melanoma, and vertigo, often left her housebound.
In 2013, the couple moved to Nashville, Tennessee. Young died on August 31, 2023, from leukemia, at her home in Brentwood, Tennessee, aged 77.
== Writing career ==
Young began maintaining a devotional journal in 1992. She practiced "listening prayers," writing down what she thought God was saying to her, rather than what she wanted to say to God. This journal eventually formed the basis of her most famous work, Jesus Calling. Young prepared a manuscript but was initially rejected by publishers and gave up on publishing in 2001. However, her writings eventually caught the attention of an executive at Integrity (later part of Thomas Nelson), who offered her a contract.
Jesus Calling, published in 2004, started modestly but surged in popularity following a renewed marketing effort by Thomas Nelson. The devotional book, composed of daily spiritual readings purportedly written in the voice of Jesus Christ, became a bestseller in the Christian literary world.
The success of Jesus Calling led to the release of sequels, including Jesus Always and Jesus Today, along with various related products such as calendars, journals, and children's editions. Additionally, the Jesus Calling brand expanded into podcasts, an app, a magazine, and a television show, collectively selling over 45 million units as of August 2023.
Jesus Calling also faced criticism from some who accused Young of blasphemy for writing in the voice of Jesus.
== Personal life ==
Young was known as an intensely private individual who preferred to avoid public appearances and gave interviews only by email. She remained dedicated to her faith, her family, and her writing throughout her life.
In 2009, Young traveled to the United States for six months to receive treatment for Lyme disease but saw little improvement.
Young was survived by her husband, Stephen Young, their two children Stephanie van der Westhuizen and Eric Young, her three siblings, and six grandchildren.
== Criticisms ==
Various critics, including Kathy Keller of Redeemer Presbyterian Church, Randy Alcorn of Eternal Perspective Ministries, and Tim Challies of Grace Fellowship Church, among others, have denounced Young's message, calling it dangerous, deeply troubling, occultic, pagan, panentheistic, misleading, idolatrous, and pietistic.
== References ==
== External links ==
Jesus Calling: Sarah Young |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic#:~:text=Ukakbai%20Zeldirbayuly%20K.&text=At%202%2C717%2C300%20square%20kilometres%20(1%2C049%2C200,the%20Kazakh%20SSR%20(QKP). | Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic | The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, also known as Soviet Kazakhstan, the Kazakh SSR, KSSR, or simply Kazakhstan, was one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union (USSR) from 1936 to 1991. Being located in northern Central Asia, the Kazakh SSR was created on 5 December 1936 from the erstwhile Kazakh ASSR, which was an autonomous republic of the Russian SFSR. It shared borders with its fellow Soviet republics of Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, while also sharing an international border with the People's Republic of China.
At 2,717,300 square kilometres (1,049,200 sq mi) in area, it was the second-largest republic in the USSR, after the Russian SFSR. Its capital was Alma-Ata (today known as Almaty). During its existence as a Soviet Socialist Republic, it was ruled by the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR (QKP). It was the most economically advanced of the central Asian Soviet Republics, having a significant base in mineral extraction and agriculture.
On 25 October 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the Kazakh SSR declared its sovereignty on its soil. QKP first secretary Nursultan Nazarbayev was elected president in April of that year – a role he remained in until 2019. On 17 March 1991, the Kazakh SSR accepted the New Union Treaty with 95% of citizens voting in favor.
The Kazakh SSR was renamed the Republic of Kazakhstan on 10 December 1991, which declared its independence six days later, as the last republic to secede from the USSR on 16 December 1991. The Soviet Union was officially dissolved on 26 December 1991 by the Soviet of the Republics. The Republic of Kazakhstan, the legal successor to the Kazakh SSR, was admitted to the United Nations on 2 March 1992.
== Name ==
The republic was named after the Kazakh people, a Turkic ethnic group native to Central Asia who formed the majority in the Kazakh SSR's territory. Historically, the Kazakhs were nomads who created a powerful khanate in the region before being defeated and annexed by the Russian Empire.
== History ==
Established on 26 August 1920, it was initially called Kirghiz ASSR (Kirghiz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic) and was a part of the Russian SFSR. On 15–19 April 1925, it was renamed Kazak ASSR (subsequently Kazakh ASSR) and on 5 December 1936 it was elevated to the status of a Union-level republic, Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic.
In September 1920, the Ninth Soviet Congress of Turkestan called for the deportation of illegal settler colonists in the Northern parts of the country. The proposed land reform began in 1921 and lasted until 1927, targeting Russian settlers, Ukrainians and Cossacks in the region and from 1920 to 1922, Kazakhstan's Russian population dropped from approximately 2.7 to 2.2 million. A further 15,000 Cossack settler colonists were deported between 1920 and 1921 as part of the process of returning control and sovereignty of land to the Kazakhs.
On 19 February 1925, Filipp Goloshchyokin was appointed First Secretary of the Communist Party in the newly created Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic. From 1925 to 1933 he ran the Kazakh ASSR with an iron grip, surprisingly with virtually zero interference from Moscow. He played a prominent part in the construction of the Turkestan-Siberia railway, which was constructed to open up Kazakhstan's mineral wealth.
After Joseph Stalin ordered the forced collectivization of agriculture throughout the Soviet Union, Goloshchyokin ordered that Kazakhstan's largely nomadic population was to be settled in collectivized farms. This, alongside the disastrous agricultural and scientific policies of Trofim Lysenko, eventually culminated in the deadly Kazakh famine of 1930–1933 in Kazakhstan which killed between 1 and 2 million people.
In 1937 the first major deportation of an ethnic group in the Soviet Union began, with the removal of the Korean population from the Russian Far East to Kazakhstan. Over 170,000 people were forcibly relocated to the Kazakh and Uzbek SSRs.
Kazakhstani Korean scholar German Kim assumes that one of the reasons for this deportation may have been Stalin's intent to oppress ethnic minorities that could have posed a threat to his socialist system or he may have intended to consolidate the border regions with China and Japan by using them as political bargaining chips. Additionally, historian Kim points out that 1.7 million people perished in the Kazakh famine of 1931–1933, while an additional one million people fled from the Republic, causing a labour shortage in that area, which Stalin sought to compensate by deporting other ethnicities there.
Over one million political prisoners from various parts of the Soviet Union passed through the Karaganda Corrective Labor Camp (Karlag) between 1931 and 1959, with an unknown number of deaths. The Great Purge affected many Kazakh families, sometimes even decimating entire lineages.
Major improvements in literacy were recorded, by the 1960s nearly 97% of the country was literate with minimal disparity between male and female citizens. Various forms of technical and research-oriented education were provided to the citizens, which led to the fading away of the traditionalist culture systems.
During the industrialization drives ordered by Joseph Stalin and the shift of key industries from the Eastern Front (World War II), Kazakhstan developed many oil wells, mines, steel plants and mineral refineries. However, the focus on heavy industry stunted the development of light industries that could manufacture consumer goods. In 1949, the Turkestan–Siberia Railway was constructed in the Kazakh SSR which linked the country to Russia via rail. Thousands of kilometers of road were constructed throughout the country, linking the previously disconnected parts of the country and facilitating development. Many Kazakhs served with distinction in the Great Patriotic War, with Bauyrzhan Momyshuly, Manshuk Mametova and Sadyk Abdujabbarov becoming household names. (see List of Kazakh Heroes of the Soviet Union)
During the 1950s and 1960s, Soviet citizens were urged to settle in the Virgin Lands of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. This was initiated by Nikita Khrushchev to utilize potential land for cultivation and to boost agricultural production. From the 1960s onwards, many manufacturing units for chemicals, defense equipment and alloys sprung up throughout the country. Agriculture soon became an important part of the economy, with wheat, beetroot, rice and cotton being grown in the country.
The Baikonur Cosmodrome was built in the 1950s and served as a launchpad for the ambitious Soviet space program, which intensely competed with the Americans' space efforts. Baikonur was the launch site of several landmark operations, launching the pivotal missions involving Sputnik 1, Yuri Gagarin, Valentina Tereshkova and Toktar Aubakirov.
During the 22 year tenure of Dinmukhamed Kunaev, the Kazakh SSR saw further advancements in economic prosperity, energy production and industrialization. He enjoyed a strong working relationship with Leonid Brezhnev, which saw him rise to prominence in the Soviet Politburo. Kunaev was extremely popular among the people due to his growth-oriented policies and improvements in living standards. Many people in modern day Kazakhstan express fondness for his premiership.
The immigration policies of the USSR led to a drastic influx of Russians, eventually skewing the ethnic composition of the republic. With non-Kazakhs becoming the majority, the use of the Kazakh language declined and would only see a revival after the dissolution of the USSR. The Russian language would become the Lingua franca and dominant language. Other immigrant nationalities in the SSR included Ukrainians, Germans, Kyrgyz, Belarusians, Koreans, Tatars, and Uyghurs. Kazakhs mixed well with the immigrants and helped create an inclusive multi-ethnic state. The Kazakh SSR had the highest concentration of Germans in the enitre country. Post Kazakh independence, many of these immigrants have chosen to emigrate to countries like Russia, Germany and Ukraine.
=== Dissolution ===
In 1986, the dismissal of Dinmukhamed Kunaev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan by the last Soviet general secretary, Mikhail Gorbachev, proved to be highly controversial. Riots would break out for four days between 16 and 19 December 1986 [now known as Jeltoqsan] by student demonstrators in Brezhnev Square in the capital city, Alma-Ata. The replacement of Konayev, who was very popular, by Gennady Kolbin, an ethnic Russian, would stoke major discontent among the native population. 168–200 civilians were killed in the uprising. The events then spilled over to other prominent cities such as Shymkent, Pavlodar, Karaganda and Taldykorgan.
On 25 March 1990, Kazakhstan held its first elections with Nursultan Nazarbayev, the chairman of the Supreme Soviet elected as its first president. Later that year on 25 October, it then declared sovereignty. The republic participated in a referendum to preserve the union in a different entity with 94.1% voting in favour. It did not happen when hardline communists in Moscow took control of the government in August. Nazarbayev then condemned the failed coup and prepared to declare independence.
As a result of those events, the Kazakh SSR was renamed to the Republic of Kazakhstan on 10 December 1991. It declared independence on 16 December (the fifth anniversary of Jeltoqsan), becoming the last Soviet constituency to secede. Its capital was the site of the Alma-Ata Protocol on 21 December 1991 that dissolved the Soviet Union and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States in its place, which Kazakhstan promptly joined. The Soviet Union officially ceased to exist as a sovereign state on 26 December 1991 and Kazakhstan became an internationally recognized independent state. On 28 January 1993, the new Constitution of Kazakhstan was officially adopted.
== Population dynamics ==
According to the 1897 census, the earliest census taken in the region, Kazakhs constituted 81.7% of the total population (3,392,751 people) within the territory of contemporary Kazakhstan. The Russian population in Kazakhstan was 454,402, or 10.95% of total population; there were 79,573 Ukrainians (1.91%); 55,984 Tatars (1.34%); 55,815 Uyghurs (1.34%); 29,564 Uzbeks (0.7%); 11,911 Moldovans (0.28%); 4,888 Dungans (0.11%); 2,883 Turkmens; 2,613 Germans; 2,528 Bashkirs; 1,651 Jews; and 1,254 Poles. In later years, due to deportations and societal engineering, many Belarusians, Koryo-saram, Chechens and Kalmyks were brought to the country.
=== Famines ===
The most significant factors that shaped the ethnic composition of the population of Kazakhstan were the 1920s and 1930s famines. According to different estimates of the effects of the Kazakh famine of 1930–1933, up to 40% of Kazakhs (indigenous ethnic group) either died of starvation or fled the territory. Official government census data report the contraction of Kazakh population from 3.6 million in 1926 to 2.3 million in 1939. The deadly effects of the famines are still remembered in now independent Kazakhstan, with national remembrances and solidarity campaigns gaining traction among the national community.
== Economy ==
Before Soviet times, there was barely any industry or large-scale agriculture in the country. Most residents were either steppe nomads or pastoralists. While the USSR managed to create thriving industries and brought agriculture to Kazakhstan, these developments came at great costs. Forced collectivization of farms, bureaucratic restrictions, highly centralized economic planning and an excessive focus on heavy industry caused both structural and workforce issues for the Kazakh economy.
Stalin's push for greater industrialization throughout the Soviet Union was heeded without opposition in the country. During his leadership, Central Asia experienced rapid yet chaotic industrial growth and agricultural restructuring, including the Kazakh SSR. In the 1930s and 1940s, major investments were poured into the Kazakh SSR to build transportation networks to link the country via road and rail. Many industrial manufacturing plants were built throughout the country, pertaining to metallurgy, oil and gas production, chemical processing, defense equipment and wheat processing. Upon the start of the Second World War, many large factories located on the Eastern Front (World War II) were shifted to the Kazakh SSR, to protect the USSR's industrial lifelines. This would prove vital for the USSR's victory as well as for the Kazakh economy. The Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site and Baikonur Cosmodrome were also built here, with Baikonur being the iconic launch site for many prominent Soviet space explorations.
After the war, the Virgin Lands Campaign was started in 1953. This was led by Nikita Khrushchev, with the goal of developing the previously uncultivated lands of the republic and helping to boost Soviet agricultural yields. However, since it did not work as promised, the campaign was eventually abandoned in the 1960s. The Kazakh SSR did eventually become a key regional producer of wheat, beet and cotton.
The Kazakh SSR arguably saw its best days under Dinmukhamed Kunaev, who not only brought significant economic expansion but also managed to foster political autonomy from Moscow. He oversaw a rapid expansion in the country's material prosperity, industrial capacity and social status. The Kazakh SSR became an efficient exporter of valuable raw and processed goods, eventually becoming the third largest economy of the USSR. During the tumultuous era of Gorbachev's policies of Perestroika and Glasnost, the economy stagnated and left many citizens disappointed. The economic discontent, coupled with growing nationalism among the elites and youth, would lead to the downfall of Soviet rule in Kazakhstan.
== Culture ==
In the early days of the Soviet Union, Kazakh cultural autonomy was developed in line with Vladimir Lenin's policy of Korenizatsiia. The Latin script was adapted for the Kazakh language and secular developments in national culture were encouraged, This brief period of cultural autonomy was short-lived however, as Stalin ordered a reversal of the policy and enforced the adoption of the Cyrillic script for all Turkic languages spoken in the country. This was accompanied by the propagation of internationalism through the cultural revolution in the Soviet Union, which aimed to build a strong socialist society on the foundation of scientific Marxism–Leninism. Beginning in 1937, the Soviet Government began a series of forced deportations of ethnic minorities, such as Soviet Koreans, the Volga Germans and various other minorities to the Kazakh SSR, a programme that ended only with Stalin's death in 1953.
After the Stalinist era, Nikita Khrushchev's renewed efforts to reinvigorate internationalism and furtherly weaken Kazakh culture were controversial in the Kazakh SSR. During the stewardship of Dinmukhamed Kunaev, indigenous culture was promoted and national autonomy was restored once again. The culture of the Kazakh SSR was shaped by both native culture and the ever-changing Soviet ideology, creating an eclectic mix of national pride and socialist internationalism. In the early days, there were several instances of tensions between Russians and Kazakhs, which would eventually fade away. In the coming years, Kazakhstan was depicted as the 'promised land' which benefitted immensely from Soviet friendship and cooperation.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Cameron, Sarah (2018). The Hungry Steppe: Famine, Violence, and the Making of Soviet Kazakhstan. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1501730436 online review.
== External links ==
Kazakhstan: Seven Year Plan for Prosperity by Dinmukhamed Konayev, a 1958 Soviet propaganda booklet |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_R._Ragazzini | John R. Ragazzini | John Ralph Ragazzini (January 3, 1912 – November 22, 1988) was an American electrical engineer and a professor of Electrical Engineering.
== Biography ==
Ragazzini was born in Manhattan, New York City from Italian immigrants Luigi Ragazzini and Angelina Badelli and received the degrees of B.S. and E.E. at the City College of New York in 1932 and 1933 and earned the degrees of A.M. and Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering at Columbia University in 1939 and 1941.
Ragazzini was dean of the School of Engineering and Science at New York University and during World War II he was chairman of the Department of Electrical Engineering at Columbia University, where he was involved in the Manhattan Project. He also served as a technical aide for the National Defense Research Committee, supervising research in the fields of Ultra high frequency transmitters and receivers, Analog computers and control systems.
Ragazzini's notable students are Rudolf E. Kálmán (known for Kalman filters), Eliahu Ibraham Jury (known for Z-transform), Gene F. Franklin (known for digital control), James H. Mulligan Jr., and Lotfi Asker Zadeh (known for fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic).
Ragazzini is also credited, along with Lotfi Zadeh, in 1952, to have pioneered the development of the z-transform method in discrete-time signal processing and analysis.
In 1970 he received the Rufus Oldenburger Medal. In 1979, American Automatic Control Council named John R. Ragazzini Award after Ragazzini and he was the first recipient of the award. Ragazzini died on 22 November 1988, aged 76.
== See also ==
Control theory
Operational amplifier
== References ==
== External links ==
John R. Ragazzini's Obituary in New York Times |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky | Wassily Kandinsky | Wassily Wassilyevich Kandinsky (16 December [O.S. 4 December] 1866 – 13 December 1944) was a Russian painter and art theorist active in Germany during the late Belle Époque and Interwar eras. Kandinsky is generally credited as one of the pioneers of abstraction in Western art. Born in Moscow, he began painting studies (life-drawing, sketching and anatomy) at the age of 30.
In 1896, Kandinsky settled in Munich, studying first at Anton Ažbe's private school and then at the Academy of Fine Arts. During this time, he was first the teacher and then the partner of German artist Gabriele Münter. He returned to Moscow in 1914 after the outbreak of World War I. Following the Russian Revolution, Kandinsky "became an insider in the cultural administration of Anatoly Lunacharsky" and helped establish the Museum of the Culture of Painting. However, by then, "his spiritual outlook... was foreign to the argumentative materialism of Soviet society" and opportunities beckoned in Germany, to which he returned in 1920. There, he taught at the Bauhaus school of art and architecture from 1922 until the Nazis closed it in 1933. He then moved to France, where he lived for the rest of his life, becoming a French citizen in 1939 and producing some of his most prominent art. He died in Neuilly-sur-Seine in 1944.
== Early life ==
Kandinsky was born in Moscow, the son of Lidia Ticheeva and Vassily Silvestrovich Kandinsky, a tea merchant. One of his great-grandmothers was Princess Gantimurova. Kandinsky learned from a variety of sources while in Moscow. He studied many fields while in school, including law and economics. Later in life, he would recall being fascinated and stimulated by colour as a child. His fascination with colour symbolism and psychology continued as he grew.
In 1889, at age 23, he was part of an ethnographic research group that travelled to the Vologda region north of Moscow. In Looks on the Past, he relates that the houses and churches were decorated with such shimmering colours that upon entering them, he felt that he was moving into a painting. This experience, as well as his study of the region's folk art (particularly the use of bright colours on a dark background), were reflected in much of his early work.
A few years later, he first likened painting to composing music in the manner for which he would become noted, writing "Colour is the keyboard, the eyes are the harmony, the soul is the piano with many strings. The artist is the hand which plays, touching one key or another, to cause vibrations in the soul".
Kandinsky was also the uncle of Russian-French philosopher Alexandre Kojève (1902–1968).
== Artistic periods ==
Kandinsky's creation of abstract work followed a long period of development and maturation of intense thought based on his artistic experiences. He called this devotion to inner beauty, fervor of spirit and spiritual desire "inner necessity"; it was a central aspect of his art. Some art historians suggest that Kandinsky's passion for abstract art began when one day, coming back home, he found one of his own paintings hanging upside down in his studio and he stared at it for a while before realizing it was his own work, suggesting to him the potential power of abstraction.
In 1896, at the age of 30, Kandinsky gave up a promising career teaching law and economics to enroll in the Munich Academy where his teachers would eventually include Franz von Stuck. He was not immediately granted admission and began learning art on his own. That same year, before leaving Moscow, he saw an exhibit of paintings by Monet. He was particularly taken with the impressionistic style of Haystacks; this, to him, had a powerful sense of colour almost independent of the objects themselves. Later, he would write about this experience:
That it was a haystack the catalogue informed me. I could not recognise it. This non-recognition was painful to me. I considered that the painter had no right to paint indistinctly. I dully felt that the object of the painting was missing. And I noticed with surprise and confusion that the picture not only gripped me, but impressed itself ineradicably on my memory. Painting took on a fairy-tale power and splendour.
Kandinsky was similarly influenced during this period by Richard Wagner's Lohengrin which, he felt, pushed the limits of music and melody beyond standard lyricism. He was also spiritually influenced by Madame Blavatsky (1831–1891), the best-known exponent of theosophy. Theosophical theory postulates that creation is a geometrical progression, beginning with a single point. The creative aspect of the form is expressed by a descending series of circles, triangles, and squares. Kandinsky's book Concerning the Spiritual in Art (1910) and Point and Line to Plane (1926) echoed this theosophical tenet. Illustrations by John Varley in Thought-Forms (1901) influenced him visually.
=== Metamorphosis ===
In the summer of 1902, Kandinsky invited Gabriele Münter to join him at his summer painting classes just south of Munich in the Alps. She accepted the offer and their relationship became more personal than professional.
Art school, usually considered difficult, was easy for Kandinsky. It was during this time that he began to emerge as an art theorist as well as a painter. The number of his existing paintings increased at the beginning of the 20th century; much remains of the landscapes and towns he painted, using broad swaths of colour and recognisable forms. For the most part, however, Kandinsky's paintings did not feature any human figures; an exception is Sunday, Old Russia (1904), in which Kandinsky recreates a highly colourful (and fanciful) view of peasants and nobles in front of the walls of a town. Couple on Horseback (1907) depicts a man on horseback, holding a woman as they ride past a Russian town with luminous walls across a blue river. The horse is muted while the leaves in the trees, the town, and the reflections in the river glisten with spots of colour and brightness. This work demonstrates the influence of pointillism in the way the depth of field is collapsed into a flat, luminescent surface. Fauvism is also apparent in these early works. Colours are used to express Kandinsky's experience of subject matter, not to describe objective nature.
Perhaps the most important of his paintings from the first decade of the 1900s was The Blue Rider (1903), which shows a small cloaked figure on a speeding horse rushing through a rocky meadow. The rider's cloak is medium blue, which casts a darker-blue shadow. In the foreground are more amorphous blue shadows, the counterparts of the fall trees in the background. The blue rider in the painting is prominent (but not clearly defined), and the horse has an unnatural gait (which Kandinsky must have known) . This intentional disjunction, allowing viewers to participate in the creation of the artwork, became an increasingly conscious technique used by Kandinsky in subsequent years; it culminated in the abstract works of the 1911–1914 period. In The Blue Rider, Kandinsky shows the rider more as a series of colours than in specific detail. This painting is not exceptional in that regard when compared with contemporary painters, but it shows the direction Kandinsky would take only a few years later.
From 1906 to 1908, Kandinsky spent a great deal of time travelling across Europe (he was an associate of the Blue Rose symbolist group of Moscow) until he settled in the small Bavarian town of Murnau. In 1908, he bought a copy of Thought-Forms by Annie Besant and Charles Webster Leadbeater. In 1909, he joined the Theosophical Society. The Blue Mountain (1908–1909) was painted at this time, demonstrating his trend toward abstraction. A mountain of blue is flanked by two broad trees, one yellow and one red. A procession, with three riders and several others, crosses at the bottom. The faces, clothing, and saddles of the riders are each a single colour, and neither they nor the walking figures display any real detail. The flat planes and the contours also are indicative of Fauvist influence. The broad use of colour in The Blue Mountain illustrates Kandinsky's inclination toward an art in which colour is presented independently of form, and in which each colour is given equal attention. The composition is more planar; the painting is divided into four sections: the sky, the red tree, the yellow tree, and the blue mountain with the three riders.
In 1909, Wassily Kandinsky witnessed a presentation Aleksandra Unkovskaya made (at the Theosophical Congress in Budapest) regarding her innovative system in music education, sound-to-colour synesthesia or Chromesthesia which is a type of synesthesia in which sound involuntarily evokes an experience of colour, shape and movement, which led to his own discoveries in his art. Kandinsky stated: "to impress a tune upon unmusical children with the help of colours ... She (Unkovskaya) has constructed a special, precise method of 'translating' the colorus of nature into music, of painting the sounds of nature, of seeing sounds." This transcended the spiritual in art and led him to develop the concept and formula of a chain reaction experience (reciprocal relationship/artist and viewer): "Emotion — sensation — the work of art — sensation — emotion." The concept was based on the principle of the resonance of string instruments.
=== Blue Rider Period (1911–1914) ===
Kandinsky's paintings from this period are large, expressive coloured masses evaluated independently from forms and lines; these serve no longer to delimit them, but overlap freely to form paintings of extraordinary force. Music was important to the birth of abstract art since it is abstract by nature; it does not try to represent the exterior world, but expresses the inner feelings of the soul in an immediate way. Kandinsky sometimes used musical terms to identify his works; he called his most spontaneous paintings "improvisations" and described more elaborate works as "compositions."
In addition to painting, Kandinsky was an art theorist; his influence on the history of Western art stems perhaps more from his theoretical works than from his paintings. He helped found the Neue Künstlervereinigung München (Munich New Artists' Association), becoming its president in 1909. However, the group could not integrate the radical approach of Kandinsky (and others) with conventional artistic concepts and the group dissolved in late 1911. Kandinsky then formed a new group, The Blue Rider (Der Blaue Reiter) with like-minded artists such as August Macke, Franz Marc, Albert Bloch, and Gabriele Münter. The group released an almanac (The Blue Rider Almanac) and held two exhibits. More of each were planned, but the outbreak of World War I in 1914 ended these plans and sent Kandinsky back to Russia via Switzerland and Sweden.
His writing in The Blue Rider Almanac and the treatise "On the Spiritual in Art" (which was released in 1910) were both a defence and promotion of abstract art and an affirmation that all forms of art were equally capable of reaching a level of spirituality. He believed that colour could be used in a painting as something autonomous, apart from the visual description of an object or other form.
These ideas had an almost-immediate international impact, particularly in the English-speaking world. As early as 1912, On the Spiritual in Art was reviewed by Michael Sadleir in the London-based Art News. Interest in Kandinsky grew quickly when Sadleir published an English translation of On the Spiritual in Art in 1914. Extracts from the book were published that year in Percy Wyndham Lewis's periodical Blast, and Alfred Orage's weekly cultural newspaper The New Age. Kandinsky had received some notice earlier in Britain, however; in 1910, he participated in the Allied Artists' Exhibition (organised by Frank Rutter) at London's Royal Albert Hall. This resulted in his work being singled out for praise in a review of that show by the artist Spencer Frederick Gore in The Art News.
Sadleir's interest in Kandinsky also led to Kandinsky's first works entering a British art collection; Sadleir's father, Michael Sadler, acquired several wood-prints and the abstract painting Fragment for Composition VII in 1913 following a visit by father and son to meet Kandinsky in Munich that year. These works were displayed in Leeds, either in the university or the premises of the Leeds Arts Club, between 1913 and 1923.
=== Return to Russia (1914–1921) ===
The sun melts all of Moscow down to a single spot that, like a mad tuba, starts all of the heart and all of the soul vibrating. But no, this uniformity of red is not the most beautiful hour. It is only the final chord of a symphony that takes every colour to the zenith of life that, like the fortissimo of a great orchestra, is both compelled and allowed by Moscow to ring out.
From 1918 to 1921, Kandinsky was involved in the cultural politics of Russia and collaborated in art education and museum reform. He painted little during this period, but devoted his time to artistic teaching with a program based on form and colour analysis; he also helped organize the Institute of Artistic Culture in Moscow (of which he was its first director). His spiritual, expressionistic view of art was ultimately rejected by the radical members of the institute as too individualistic and bourgeois. In 1921, Kandinsky was invited to go to Germany to attend the Bauhaus of Weimar by its founder, architect Walter Gropius.
=== Back in Germany and the Bauhaus (1922–1933) ===
In May 1922, he attended the International Congress of Progressive Artists and signed the "Founding Proclamation of the Union of Progressive International Artists".
Kandinsky taught the basic design class for beginners and the course on advanced theory at the Bauhaus; he also conducted painting classes and a workshop in which he augmented his colour theory with new elements of form psychology. The development of his works on forms study, particularly on points and line forms, led to the publication of his second theoretical book (Point and Line to Plane) in 1926. His examinations of the effects of forces on straight lines, leading to the contrasting tones of curved and angled lines, coincided with the research of Gestalt psychologists, whose work was also discussed at the Bauhaus. Geometrical elements took on increasing importance in both his teaching and painting—particularly the circle, half-circle, the angle, straight lines and curves. This period was intensely productive. This freedom is characterised in his works by the treatment of planes rich in colours and gradations—as in Yellow – red – blue (1925), where Kandinsky illustrates his distance from the constructivism and suprematism movements influential at the time.
The two-metre-wide (6 ft 7 in) Yellow – red – blue (1925) of several main forms: a vertical yellow rectangle, an inclined red cross and a large dark blue circle; a multitude of straight (or sinuous) black lines, circular arcs, monochromatic circles and scattered, coloured checker-boards contribute to its delicate complexity. This simple visual identification of forms and the main coloured masses present on the canvas is only a first approach to the inner reality of the work, whose appreciation necessitates deeper observation—not only of forms and colours involved in the painting but their relationship, their absolute and relative positions on the canvas and their harmony.
Kandinsky was one of Die Blaue Vier (The Blue Four), which was a group that was formed in 1923 with Paul Klee, Lyonel Feininger and Alexej von Jawlensky at the instigation of Galka Scheyer, who promoted their work in the United States from 1924 onward. Due to right-wing hostility, the Bauhaus left Weimar for Dessau in 1925. Following a Nazi smear campaign, the Bauhaus left Dessau in 1932 for Berlin, where it remained until its dissolution in July 1933. Kandinsky then left Germany, settling in Paris.
=== Great Synthesis (1934–1944) ===
Living in an apartment in Paris, Kandinsky created his work in a living-room studio. Biomorphic forms with supple, non-geometric outlines appear in his paintings—forms which suggest microscopic organisms but express the artist's inner life. Kandinsky used original colour compositions, evoking Slavic popular art. He also occasionally mixed sand with paint to give a granular, rustic texture to his paintings.
This period corresponds to a synthesis of Kandinsky's previous work in which he used all elements, enriching them. In 1936 and 1939, he painted his final two major compositions, the type of elaborate canvases he had not produced for many years. Composition IX has highly contrasted, powerful diagonals whose central form gives the impression of an embryo in the womb. Small squares of colours and coloured bands stand out against the black background of Composition X as star fragments (or filaments), while enigmatic hieroglyphs with pastel tones cover a large maroon mass which seems to float in the upper-left corner of the canvas. In Kandinsky's work, some characteristics are obvious, while certain touches are more discreet and veiled; they reveal themselves only progressively to those who deepen their connection with his work. He intended his forms (which he subtly harmonised and placed) to resonate with the observer's soul.
== Kandinsky's conception of art ==
=== The artist as prophet ===
Writing that "music is the ultimate teacher", Kandinsky embarked upon the first seven of his ten Compositions. The first three survive only in black-and-white photographs taken by fellow artist and friend Gabriele Münter. Composition I (1910) was destroyed by a British air raid on the city of Braunschweig in Lower Saxony on the night of 14 October 1944.
While studies, sketches, and improvisations exist (particularly of Composition II), a Nazi raid on the Bauhaus in the 1930s resulted in the confiscation of Kandinsky's first three Compositions. All three were destroyed during World War II.
Some of Kandinsky's works such as his now-lost painting Zweierlei Rot (1916) were displayed in the state-sponsored Degenerate Art exhibition. Works confiscated during the "degenerate art" campaign were either sold, exchanged or destroyed. A full inventory of more than 16,000 pieces of art can be accessed through the Victoria and Albert Museum website. This includes works by Kandinsky.
Fascinated by Christian eschatology and the perception of a coming New Age, a common theme among Kandinsky's first seven Compositions is the apocalypse (the end of the world as we know it). Writing of the "artist as prophet" in his book, Concerning the Spiritual in Art, Kandinsky created paintings in the years immediately preceding World War I showing a coming cataclysm which would alter individual and social reality. Having a devout belief in Orthodox Christianity, Kandinsky drew upon the biblical stories of Noah's Ark, Jonah and the whale, Christ's resurrection, the four horsemen of the Apocalypse in the book of Revelation, Russian folktales and the common mythological experiences of death and rebirth. Never attempting to picture any one of these stories as a narrative, he used their veiled imagery as symbols of the archetypes of death–rebirth and destruction–creation he felt were imminent in the pre-World War I world.
As he stated in Concerning the Spiritual in Art (see below), Kandinsky felt that an authentic artist creating art from "an internal necessity" inhabits the tip of an upward-moving pyramid. This progressing pyramid is penetrating and proceeding into the future. What was odd or inconceivable yesterday is commonplace today; what is avant garde today (and understood only by the few) is common knowledge tomorrow. The modern artist–prophet stands alone at the apex of the pyramid, making new discoveries and ushering in tomorrow's reality. Kandinsky was aware of recent scientific developments and the advances of modern artists who had contributed to radically new ways of seeing and experiencing the world.
Composition IV and later paintings are primarily concerned with evoking a spiritual resonance in viewer and artist. As in his painting of the apocalypse by water (Composition VI), Kandinsky puts the viewer in the situation of experiencing these epic myths by translating them into contemporary terms (with a sense of desperation, flurry, urgency, and confusion). This spiritual communion of viewer-painting-artist/prophet may be described within the limits of words and images.
=== Artistic and spiritual theorist ===
As the Der Blaue Reiter Almanac essays and theorising with composer Arnold Schoenberg indicate, Kandinsky also expressed the communion between artist and viewer as being available to both the senses and the mind (synesthesia). Hearing tones and chords as he painted, Kandinsky theorised that (for example), yellow is the colour of middle C on a brassy trumpet; black is the colour of closure, and the end of things; and that combinations of colours produce vibrational frequencies, akin to chords played on a piano. In 1871 the young Kandinsky learned to play the piano and cello.
Kandinsky also developed a theory of geometric figures and their relationships, claiming (for example) that the circle is the most peaceful shape and represents the human soul. These theories are explained in Point and Line to Plane.
Kandinsky's legendary stage design for a performance of Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition illustrates his synesthetic concept of a universal correspondence of forms, colours and musical sounds. In 1928, the stage production premiered at a theater in Dessau. In 2015, the original designs of the stage elements were animated with modern video technology and synchronized with the music according to the preparatory notes of Kandinsky and the director's script of Felix Klee.
In another episode with Münter during the Bavarian abstract expressionist years, Kandinsky was working on Composition VI. From nearly six months of study and preparation, he had intended the work to evoke a flood, baptism, destruction, and rebirth simultaneously. After outlining the work on a mural-sized wood panel, he became blocked and could not go on. Münter told him that he was trapped in his intellect and not reaching the true subject of the picture. She suggested he simply repeat the word uberflut ("deluge" or "flood") and focus on its sound rather than its meaning. Repeating this word like a mantra, Kandinsky painted and completed the monumental work in a three-day span.
== Signature style ==
Wassily Kandinsky's art has a confluence of music and spirituality. With his appreciation for music of his times and kinesthetic disposition, Kandinsky's artworks have a marked style of expressionism in his early years. But he embraced all types of artistic styles of his times and his predecessors i.e. Art Nouveau (sinuous organic forms), Fauvism and Blaue Reiter (shocking colours), Surrealism (mystery) and Bauhaus (constructivism) only to move towards abstractionism as he explored spirituality in art. His object-free paintings display spiritual abstraction suggested by sounds and emotions through a unity of sensation. Driven by the Christian faith and the inner necessity of an artist, his paintings have the ambiguity of the form rendered in a variety of colours as well as resistance against conventional aesthetic values of the art world.
His signature or individual style can be further defined and divided into three categories over the course of his art career: Impressions (representational element), Improvisations (spontaneous emotional reaction) and Compositions (ultimate works of art).
As Kandinsky started moving away from his early inspiration from Impressionism, his paintings became more vibrant, pictographic and expressive with more sharp shapes and clear linear qualities.
But eventually, Kandinsky went further, rejecting pictorial representation with more synesthetic swirling hurricanes of colours and shapes, eliminating traditional references to depth and laying out bare and abstracted glyphs; however, what remained consistent was his spiritual pursuit of expressive forms.
Emotional harmony is another salient feature in the later works of Kandinsky. With diverse dimensions and bright hues balanced through a careful juxtaposition of proportion and colours, he substantiated the universality of shapes in his artworks thus paving the way for further abstraction.
Kandinsky often used black in his paintings to heighten the impact of brightly coloured forms while his forms were often biomorphic approaches to bring surrealism in his art.
== Theoretical writings on art ==
Kandinsky's analyses on forms and colours result not from simple, arbitrary idea-associations but from the painter's inner experience. He spent years creating abstract/sensorially rich paintings, working with form and colour, tirelessly observing his own paintings (along with those of other artists) and noting their effects on his sense of colour. This subjective experience is something that anyone can do—not scientific/objective observations, but inner/subjective ones, referred to by French philosopher Michel Henry as "absolute subjectivity" or the "absolute phenomenological life".
Published in Munich in 1911, Kandinsky's text Über das Geistige in der Kunst (Concerning the spiritual in art) defines three types of painting: impressions, improvisations and compositions. While impressions are based on an external reality that serves as a starting point, improvisations and compositions depict images emergent from the unconscious, though composition is developed from a more formal point of view.
== Personal life ==
After graduating in 1892, Kandinsky married his cousin, Anja Chimiakina, and became a lecturer in Jurisprudence at the University of Moscow.
In the summer of 1902, Kandinsky invited Gabriele Münter to join him at his summer painting classes just south of Munich in the Alps. She accepted the offer and their relationship became more personal than professional. In 1911, the German expressionist painter was one of several artists joining Kandinsky in his Blue Rider (Der Blaue Reiter) group, which ended with the onset of World War I.
Kandinsky and Münter became engaged in the summer of 1903 while he was still married to Anja and travelled extensively through Europe, Russia and North Africa until 1908. He separated from Anja in 1911.
From 1906 to 1908, Kandinsky travelled across Europe. In 1909, Münter bought a summerhouse in the small Bavarian town of Murnau and the couple happily entertained colleagues there. The property is still known as Russenhaus and she would later use the basement to hide many works (by Kandinsky and others) from the Nazis. Upon returning to Munich, Kandinsky founded the Neue Kunstler Vereinigung (New Artists' Association) in 1909.
He returned to Moscow in 1914 when the first World War broke out. The relationship between Kandinsky and Münter worsened due to mutual tensions and disappointments over his lack of commitment to marriage. Their relationship formally ended in 1916 in Stockholm.
In 1916, he met Nina Nikolaevna Andreevskaya (1899–1980), whom he married on 11 February 1917 when she was 17 or 18 and he was 50 years old. At the end of 1917, they had a son, Wsevolod, or Lodya as he was called in the family. Lodya died in June 1920 and there were no more children.
After the Russian Revolution, he had opportunities in Germany, to which he returned in 1920. There, he taught at the Bauhaus school of art and architecture from 1922 until the Nazis closed it in 1933.
He then moved to France with his wife, where he lived for the rest of his life, becoming a French citizen in 1939 and producing some of his most prominent art.
He died in Neuilly-sur-Seine on 13 December 1944.
== Art market ==
In 2012, Christie's auctioned Kandinsky's Studie für Improvisation 8 (Study for Improvisation 8), a 1909 view of a man wielding a broadsword in a rainbow-hued village, for $23 million. The painting had been on loan to the Kunstmuseum Winterthur in Switzerland since 1960 and was sold to a European collector by the Volkart Foundation, the charitable arm of the Swiss commodities trading firm Volkart Brothers. Before this sale, the artist's last record was set in 1990 when Sotheby's sold his Fugue (1914) for $20.9 million. On 16 November 2016, Christie's auctioned Kandinsky's Rigide et courbé (Rigid and bent), a large 1935 abstract painting, for $23.3 million, a new record for Kandinsky. Solomon R. Guggenheim originally purchased the painting directly from the artist in 1936, but it was not exhibited after 1949; it was then sold at auction to a private collector in 1964 by the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum.
== Nazi-looted art ==
In July 2001, Jen Lissitzky, the son of artist El Lissitzky, filed a restitution claim against the Beyeler Foundation in Basel, Switzerland for Kandinsky's Improvisation No. 10. A settlement was reached in 2002.
In 2013, the Lewenstein family filed a claim for the restitution of Kandinsky's Painting with Houses held by the Stedelijk Museum. In 2020, a committee established by the Dutch minister of culture found fault with the behaviour of the Restitution Committee, causing a scandal where two of its members, including its chairman, resigned. Later that year, a court in Amsterdam ruled that the Stedelijk Museum could retain the painting from the Jewish Lewenstein collection despite the Nazi theft. However, in August 2021, the Amsterdam City Council decided to return the painting to the Lewenstein family.
In 2017, Robert Colin Lewenstein, Francesca Manuela Davis and Elsa Hannchen Guidotti filed suit against Bayerische Landesbank (BLB) for the restitution of Kandinsky's Das Bunte Leben.
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Books by Kandinsky ===
Wassily Kandinsky, M. T. Sadler (Translator), Adrian Glew (Editor). Concerning the Spiritual in Art. (New York: MFA Publications and London: Tate Publishing, 2001). 192 pp. ISBN 0-87846-702-5
Wassily Kandinsky, M. T. Sadler (Translator). Concerning the Spiritual in Art. Dover Publ. (Paperback). 80 pp. ISBN 0-486-23411-8. or: Lightning Source Inc Publ. (Paperback). ISBN 1-4191-1377-1
Wassily Kandinsky. Klänge. Verlag R. Piper & Co., Munich
Wassily Kandinsky. Point and Line to Plane. Dover Publications, New York. ISBN 0-486-23808-3
Wassily Kandinsky. Kandinsky, Complete Writings on Art. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80570-7
=== References in English ===
Ulrike Becks-Malorny. Wassily Kandinsky 1866–1944: The Journey to Abstraction (Taschen, 2007). ISBN 978-3-8228-3564-7
John E. Bowlt and Rose-Carol Washton Long, eds. The Life of Vasilii Kandinsky in Russian Art: A Study of "On the Spiritual in Art" by Wassily Kandinsky. (Newtonville, MA.: Oriental Research Partners, 1984). ISBN 0-89250-131-6
Magdalena Dabrowski. Kandinsky Compositions. (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2002). ISBN 0-87070-405-2
Esther da Costa Meyer, Fred Wasserman, eds. Schoenberg, Kandinsky, and the Blue Rider (New York: The Jewish Museum, and London: Scala Publishers Ltd, 2003). ISBN 1-85759-312-X
Hajo Düchting. Wassily Kandinsky 1866–1944: A Revolution in Painting. (Taschen, 2000). ISBN 3-8228-5982-6
Hajo Düchting. Wassily Kandinsky. (Prestel, 2008).
Sabine Flach. "Through the Looking Glass", in Intellectual Birdhouse (London: Koenig Books, 2012). ISBN 978-3-86335-118-2
Friedel, Helmut, and Hoberg, Annegret, eds. Vasily Kandinsky (2016). Prestel. ISBN 978-3791382920
Will Grohmann. Wassily Kandinsky: Life and Work. (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1958).
Michel Henry. Seeing the Invisible: On Kandinsky (Continuum, 2009). ISBN 1-84706-447-7
Thomas M. Messer. Vasily Kandinsky. (New York: Harry N Abrams Inc, 1997). (Illustrated). ISBN 0-8109-1228-7.
Margarita Tupitsyn. Against Kandinsky (Munich: Museum Villa Stuck, 2006).
Annette and Luc Vezin. Kandinsky and the Blue Rider (Paris: Pierre Terrail, 1992). ISBN 2-87939-043-5
Julian Lloyd Webber. "Seeing red, looking blue, feeling green", The Daily Telegraph 6 July 2006.
Peg Weiss. Kandinsky in Munich: The Formative Jugendstil Years (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979). ISBN 0-691-03934-8
Vasily Kandinsky: From Blaue Reiter to the Bauhaus, 1910-1925. Exhibition Catalogue, edited by Neue Galerie New York (Hatje Cantz, 2013). ISBN 978-3-77573-734-0
=== References in French ===
Michel Henry. Voir l'invisible. Sur Kandinsky (Presses Universitaires de France) ISBN 2-13-053887-8
Nina Kandinsky. Kandinsky et moi (éd. Flammarion) ISBN 2-08-064013-5
Jéléna Hahl-Fontaine. Kandinsky (Marc Vokar éditeur) ISBN 2-87012-006-0
François le Targat. Kandinsky (éd. Albin Michel, les grands maîtres de l'art contemporain) ISBN 2-226-02830-7
Kandinsky. Rétrospective (Foundation Maeght) ISBN 2-900923-26-3 ISBN 2-900923-27-1
Kandinsky. Œuvres de Vassily Kandinsky (1866–1944) (Centre Georges Pompidou) ISBN 2-85850-262-5
== External links ==
Video remake of the stage production of "Pictures at an Exhibition" by Kandinsky in 1928 in Dessau, 2015.
Wassily Kandinsky papers, 1911–1940. The Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, California.
Discussion of Yellow – Red – Blue by Janina Ramirez and Marc Canham: Art Detective Podcast, 19 April 2017 Archived 13 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine
Kandinsky's Introspective Path to Abstract Reality
"2021 French stamps featuring Kandinsky's works". Retrieved 21 August 2023.
Kandinsky in Russia: The Language of Music
Kandinsky. Watercolours. Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus, Munich 2004-05 exhibit at the Museo de Arte Abstracto Español, Cuenca and 2005 Museu Fundación Juan March, Palma, featuring works from the Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus in Munich
Kandinsky and the Harmony of Silence Painting with White Border 2011 exhibition at The Phillips Collection
Vasily Kandinsky: From Blaue Reiter to the Bauhaus, 1910-1925 2013-2014 exhibition at the Neue Galerie, New York City
Kandinsky: La musique des couleurs 2025-26 exhibition at the Philharmonie de Paris's Musée de la Musique
Writing by Kandinsky
Works by Wassily Kandinsky at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Wassily Kandinsky at the Internet Archive
Works by Wassily Kandinsky at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
"Concerning the Spiritual in Art". Guggenheim Internet Archives. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
Paintings by Kandinsky
Wassily Kandinsky at the Museum of Modern Art
Artcyclopedia.com, Wassily Kandinsky at ArtCyclopedia
Glyphs.com, Kandinsky's compositions with commentary
Wassilykandinsky.net – 500 paintings, 60+ photos, biography, quotes, articles |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda_Battle_of_the_Bands | Honda Battle of the Bands | The Honda Battle of the Bands (sometimes abbreviated The Honda or HBOB) is an annual marching band exhibition in the United States which features performances by bands from historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). Sponsored by the American Honda Motor Company, the Invitational Showcase took place in the Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia in late January from 2003 to 2020. In 2022, it was announced HBOB selected Alabama State University in Montgomery, Alabama to be the first ever HBCU campus to host the in-person event in February 2023. Since 2023, the HBOB has been moving to new locations. In 2025, HBOB was held in the SoFi Stadium in Inglewood, California.
The Honda Battle of the Bands Celebration Tour takes place between the months of September and November at regular season football games, although Honda Battle of the Bands (and its abbreviations) is often intended to refer only to the invitational showcase, which first took place in 2003. Seemingly contradictory to the name, Honda's "battle" is not a competition in the traditional sense; that is, no winner is crowned during the event. Rather, the bands compete for the favor of the audience, each other, and the greater community.
The event is historically one of the most popular collegiate marching band event in the nation, drawing over 50,000 fans and spectators annually.
== Participation ==
The Honda Battle of the Bands program includes two components — the Voting Process, which runs September through October, and the "Honda Battle of the Bands Invitational Showcase".
Voting:
The first band will be selected by popular vote (i.e. the top overall vote-getter will be selected regardless of category).
The next three bands will be selected, one from each category by a weighted vote of 1/3 from institution president, band director and online opinion poll from category I, II and III. The categories being 128 instruments or less, 129 instruments up to 160 and 161 or more. This count is total instrument count, no auxiliaries, drum majors, etc. but will include percussion.
a. Online Opinion Poll at hondabattleofthebands.com -- 1/3 weight
b. Band Directors’ Votes -- 1/3 weight
c. Presidents’ Votes -- 1/3 weight
Note: Presidents and Band Directors are not permitted to vote for their own institutions.
American Honda and Urban Sports & Entertainment Group will select the final four bands based on, but not limited to:
a. Showmanship
b. Social Media Buzz
c. Years of previous participation in the Celebration Tour
Once all the votes are tallied, a total of 8 bands are invited to perform their carefully choreographed, halftime time routines in front of 50,000+ fans.
== History ==
Started in 2003, the Honda Battle of the Bands was created to celebrate, support and recognize the excellence of Black college marching bands and the unique academic experience offered by Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs). Honda annually awards more than $205,000 in grants to participating marching bands during the program period and facilitates a HBCU recruitment fair preceding the band showcase.
The following HBCUs have participated in the Honda Invitational Showcase:
In 2018, Honda announced that the Battle of the Bands would be on a one-year hiatus in 2019, due to Super Bowl LIII being held in Atlanta. The event resumed in 2020.
In 2020, Honda announced the Battle of the Bands will be on a one-year hiatus in 2021, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
In 2021, Honda announced the Battle of the Bands in-person event is cancelled again due to the COVID-19 pandemic, however a virtual event will likely take place in 2022.
In 2022, Honda announced the Battle of the Bands will return as an in-person event in 2023 and they will release a four-part docuseries celebrating HBCU culture and bands on February 26, 2022.
In November 2023, Honda announced they will be on a one-year hiatus in 2024 because the Toad Bowl Game was being played there, and cannot be moved somewhere else.
In April 2024, Honda announced they will return in February 2025 in the SoFi Stadium in Southern California. It will be the first time the event was held on the West Coast.
== Trivia ==
The fictitious BET Big Southern Classic from the 2002 film Drumline was similar to the HBOB, with the main difference that the Big Southern Classic was a competition with a declared winner. The HBOB is an invitational showcase and there are usually no official winners.
In 2014, HBOB declared an official winner for the first time and it was North Carolina A&T's marching band. HBOB has only declared an official winner once in the history of the event.
With 13 appearances as of 2023, Bethune-Cookman's marching band leads with the most invitations to the HBOB.
== See also ==
Historically black colleges and universities
Honda Campus All-Star Challenge
African Americans in Atlanta
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
North Carolina A&T wins 12th annual Honda Battle of the Bands |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asahi_(baseball_team) | Asahi (baseball team) | The Asahi was a Japanese-Canadian baseball team of amateur and semi-professional players that was based in Vancouver from 1914 to 1941. The team won many league championships, particularly in the 1930s.
== History ==
The Asahi was established as a senior team in 1914, under its first manager and coach, Matsujiro Miyazaki. Team members included both issei and nisei. These include the notable players: Yo (Yoshitaro) Horii, Mickey (Hatsu) Kitagawa, and Tom Matoba. After 1918, Asahi was the sole Japanese Canadian team after the Vancouver Nippon team disbanded. Many of Vancouver Nippon's players joined the Asahi. The team was based in Vancouver's Oppenheimer Park—originally known as the Powell Street Grounds—in the city's Japantown.
Coach Miyazaki, who was raised in Japan, was largely influential to the team’s enduring success. He incorporated Japanese strategies into his coaching, which was dubbed “smartball” or “brainball” by the media, due to its reliance on speed and defense as opposed to power and heavy hitting. This strategy was devised to capitalize on the player’s small frames. Bunting, cutoff and base-stealing were among their most popular strategies, and emphasized teamwork to create an impenetrable defense.
=== Championships ===
In 1918, the newly formed team entered the City International Baseball League and against numerous Caucasian teams.
In 1919 the Asahi won their first local title by winning the pennant of the Vancouver International League.
While under Miyazaki's guidance, the team reached their goal of winning the Terminal League Championship in 1926. Their success continued into the 1930s with them also winning in 1930 and 1933.
In 1937-1941, the team won five consecutive Pacific Championships.
In 1938 the team won a Triple League Championship.
In 1939 and 1940 the team won the Burrard League Championship.
=== Racism ===
Asahi was active during a time of harsh anti-Asian racism. While players were praised in the media, they experienced racism in their everyday lives including limited employment opportunities and segregation in places like movie theatres. The success of the Asahi, in spite of these hardships, made the team a symbol of Japanese Canadian perseverance and cultural participation. The team has contributed to closing off the intergenerational gap between the issei and the children born during the interwar period. The team helped to mediate the relationship between Japanese Canadians and the white community by creating a common interest that brought the two together. During a time of prominent racial discrimination, Oppenheimer Park became a place where barriers fell as the Asahi and Occidental fans would support one another. The Asahi's style of play and determination on the field gave them "grudging respect" from European-Canadian fans.
After the Attack on Pearl Harbor, Canada invoked the 1914 War Measures Act and all Canadians of Japanese descent were registered as ‘enemy aliens’ and forcibly moved in internment camps. This resulted in the disbanding of the Asahi team. They never played as a team again.
== Legacy ==
The team was inducted into the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame in 2003, and the BC Sports Hall of Fame in 2005. The team was designated an Event of National Historic Significance on August 26, 2008. A plaque honoring the team was unveiled in Oppenheimer Park on September 18, 2011, the 70th anniversary of the team's last game. In 2014, the Japanese Canadian Cultural Centre in Toronto donated a small swatch of material from a surviving original Asahi jersey in their collection to the Six String Nation project. The swatch was mounted on the front of the guitar strap that supports the guitar at the heart of the project. The donation was publicly unveiled during a pre-game ceremony on August 10, 2014 at the Rogers Centre during the Toronto Blue Jays annual Canada Baseball Day festivities, where the guitar and strap were posed with on the field by Blue Jays mascot "Ace", Babe Ruth's granddaughter Ruth Tosetti and then Blue Jay Munenori Kawasaki. On April 24, 2019, the team was honoured with a postage stamp issued by Canada Post.
=== In media ===
In December 2014, a Japanese studio released a period drama movie called The Vancouver Asahi starring Satoshi Tsumabuki and Kazuya Kamenashi. The film premiered at the Vancouver International Film Festival, receiving the Top Audience Award, and was released in theatres on December 20.
A 2003 documentary about the team, Sleeping Tigers: The Asahi Baseball Story, was directed by Jari Osborne. Produced by the National Film Board of Canada, the documentary combines archival film and dramatic recreations, along with interviews with the last of the Asahi. The 50-minute film garnered four awards including a Rockie Award for Best Sports Program at the Banff Television Festival and a Golden Sheaf Award.
Heart of a Champion is a 2016 novel by Ellen Schwartz. The story is about a boy named Kenji "Kenny" Sakamoto who aspires to be a baseball player for the Vancouver Asahi, but his dreams were crushed when the Canadian government issued an order for all Japanese Canadians to be placed in internment camps, then got permission to clear the land and make a baseball field. The novel has won a Silver Birch Award.
On February 19, 2019, a Heritage Minute was released, depicting an Asahi baseball game and the subsequent internment of a player alongside other Japanese Canadians. The short segment was narrated by the last surviving member of the team, Koichi Kaye Kaminishi (11 January 1922 - 28 September 2024), and novelist Joy Kogawa.
== Notable alumni ==
Matsujiro Miyasaki was the team's first manager. He was known for his "Small Ball" strategy, which included their signature double steal. He emphasized speed and flawless defense.
Roy Yamamura was a regular with the team from 1924-1941. He became the team's manager in 1938 while he continued to play for the club. He was a fan favourite due to his prolific base stealing and defensive ability, which earned him the nickname "the dancing shortstop". He is the only Japanese Canadian to play for the Arrows team in Vancouver's top division for two years.
Kaye Koichi Kaminishi was the last known survivor from the team. He played between 1939 and 1941. He died on September 28, 2024, aged 102.
Kaz Suga was a star player during the team's last season in 1941. He had a batting average of 0.395 and was an expectation to the team's "smartball" playstyle.
Junji Ito was one of the Asahi Baseball team's legendary players. He became known as the 'King of Bunting' as his batting average climbed to over 0.400 and on the bases, his reactions were almost instant. He modelled the "smartball" strategy to perfection.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Adachi, Pat (1992). Asahi: a legend in baseball. Asahi Baseball Organization. ASIN B000TW10SA.
Furumoto, Ted Y.; Jackson, Douglas W. (2012). More Than a Baseball Team: The Saga of the Vancouver Asahi. Media Tectonics. ISBN 978-4990617202.
Goto, Norio (2016). Story of Vancouver Asahi, A Legend in Baseball. Translation by Masaki Watanabe. Asian Canadian Studies Society. ISBN 978-1771364409.
2003 Vancouver Sun article
The Vancouver Asahi
== External links ==
Virtual Museum of Canada: Asahi Canadian Baseball Legends via Wayback Machine
Sleeping Tigers: The Asahi Baseball Story at NFB.ca (full video)
"Heritage Minutes: Vancouver Asahi". Historica Canada. Archived from the original on 2021-12-20 – via YouTube.
Box score of the team's last game (September 18, 1941) via newspapers.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BClay_Adal%C4%B1#:~:text=In%202008%20she%20became%20a,Electronics%20Engineers%20%22For%20contributions%20to | Tülay Adalı | Tülay Adalı is a Distinguished University Professor of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, whose research interests include signal processing, machine learning, and data fusion.
With Simon Haykin, she is the author of the book Adaptive Signal Processing: Next Generation Solutions (Wiley, 2010), and with Eric Moreau, she is the author of Blind Identification and Separation of Complex-valued Signals (Wiley, 2013).
In 2008 she became a Fellow of the American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering "for outstanding research, mentorship, and leadership in the field of biomedical imaging and signal processing", and in 2009 she became a Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers "For contributions to
nonlinear and complex-valued statistical signal processing". She was an IEEE Signal Processing Society Distinguished Lecturer for 2012–2013, and has been named a Fulbright Scholar for 2015.
She is the sister of computer scientist Sibel Adalı.
== References ==
== External links ==
Home page
Tülay Adalı publications indexed by Google Scholar |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Andrews_(mathematician) | George Andrews (mathematician) | George Eyre Andrews (born December 4, 1938) is an American mathematician working in special functions, number theory, analysis and combinatorics.
== Education and career ==
He is currently an Evan Pugh Professor of Mathematics at Pennsylvania State University. He did his undergraduate studies at Oregon State University and received his PhD in 1964 at the University of Pennsylvania where his advisor was Hans Rademacher.
During 2008–2009 he was president of the American Mathematical Society.
== Contributions ==
Andrews's contributions include several monographs and over 250 research and popular articles on q-series, special functions, combinatorics and applications. He is considered to be the world's leading expert in the theory of integer partitions. In 1976 he discovered Ramanujan's Lost Notebook. He is interested in mathematical pedagogy.
His book The Theory of Partitions is the standard reference on the subject of integer partitions.
He has advanced mathematics in the theories of partitions and q-series. His work at the interface of number theory and combinatorics has also led to many important applications in physics.
== Awards and honors ==
In 2003 Andrews was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1997. In 1998 he was an Invited Speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Berlin. In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society.
He was given honorary doctorates from the University of Parma in 1998, the University of Florida in 2002, the University of Waterloo in 2004, SASTRA University in Kumbakonam, India in 2012, and University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign in 2014
== Publications ==
Selected Works of George E Andrews (With Commentary) (World Scientific Publishing, 2012, ISBN 978-1-84816-666-0)
Number Theory (Dover, 1994, ISBN 0-486-68252-8)
The Theory of Partitions (Cambridge University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-521-63766-X)
Integer Partitions (with Eriksson, Kimmo) (Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-84118-6)
Ramanujan's Lost Notebook: Part I (with Bruce C. Berndt) (Springer, 2005, ISBN 0-387-25529-X)
Ramanujan's Lost Notebook: Part II, (with Bruce C. Berndt) (Springer, 2008, ISBN 978-0-387-77765-8)
Ramanujan's Lost Notebook: Part III, (with Bruce C. Berndt) (Springer, 2012, ISBN 978-1-4614-3809-0)
Ramanujan's Lost Notebook: Part IV, (with Bruce C. Berndt) (Springer, 2013, ISBN 978-1-4614-4080-2)
"Special functions" by George Andrews, Richard Askey, and Ranjan Roy, Encyclopedia of Mathematics and Its Applications, The University Press, Cambridge, 1999.
== References ==
== External links ==
George Andrews's homepage
George Andrews publications indexed by Google Scholar
George Andrews at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Publications by George Andrews at ResearchGate
Author profile in the database zbMATH
"The Meaning of Ramanujan and His Lost Notebook" by George E. Andrews, Center for Advanced Study, U. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, YouTube, 2014
"Partitions, Dyson, and Ramanujan" - George Andrews, videosfromIAS, YouTube, 2016 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syed_Ali_Shah_Geelani#:~:text=mourn%20his%20death.-,Honours%20and%20awards,'%20right%20to%20self%2Ddetermination. | Syed Ali Shah Geelani | Syed Ali Shah Geelani (29 September 1929 – 1 September 2021) was a separatist leader active in separatist insurgency of the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. A pro-Pakistan separatist, he is regarded as the father of the Kashmir resistance movement.
He was a member of Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir since 1953, and was regarded as one of its most significant leaders. Geelani was also a three-time Member of the Legislative Assembly from the Sopore constituency, elected on a Jamaat-e-Islami ticket in 1972, 1977 and in 1987.
== Early life ==
Geelani was born in 1929 in a village called Zurimanz, in the Aloosa tehsil, in the Bandipora district of North Kashmir into a Syed family. He was the son of a landless labourer in the canals department. Geelani was educated partly in Sopore and the rest in Lahore. He studied in a madrasa attached to the Masjid Wazir Khan and later enrolled in the Oriental College. He completed Adib 'Alim, a course in Islamic theology.
== Career ==
Returning to Kashmir after studies in Lahore, Geelani became active in the Jammu & Kashmir National Conference. He was appointed the secretary of the party unit in Zurimanj. In 1946, during the Quit Kashmir movement of the National Conference, he came in contact with Maulana Sayeed Masoodi, the general secretary of the National Conference, who took a liking to him and made him a reporter to the party newspaper Akhbar-i-Khidmat.
Maulana Masoodi also sponsored further studies for Geelani, who completed an adib-i-fazil course in Urdu and other courses in Persian and English. After this, he took a job as a school teacher, first at Pathar Masjid and later at Rainawari in Srinagar. Here he came in contact with Saaduddin Tarabali, a follower of the Jamaat-e-Islami founder Maulana Abul A'la Maududi. Maududi advocated a hardline Islamist ideology, whereby Islam had to be the foundation of the entire political order. Geelani had borrowed a book of Maududi from the local book store, which made a deep impression upon him. He was to later say, Maududi had "beautifully.. expressed the feelings that lay deep down in my own heart". The National Conference headquarters, Mujahid Manzil, where Geelani apparently stayed, soon began to be seen as "a den of Pakistanis".
Geelani was soon moved out of Srinagar, and he came to work in the Intermediate College in Sopore. He stayed in this position for six years. During this time, he was reading the literature of Jamaat-e-Islami and conveying its contents to his students in lectures. He also addressed congregations in mosques. He had become a full-fledged member of Jamaat in 1952.
=== Electoral politics ===
Geelani entered into electoral politics ahead of the 1971 Indian general election. Geelani had claimed that the Jamaat-e-Islami wanted to use it as an opportunity to spread its ideology, keep the Kashmir issue in prominence and protect basic and fundamental rights of the people. Geelani contested as an independent candidate but lost to Syed Ahmed Aga, with the Jamaat alleging ballot-rigging.
He participated in the 1972 legislative assembly election from Sopore. He won from the seat in that year and again in the 1977 legislative assembly election. He was however defeated in the 1983 election due to the sympathy wave generated for the Jammu & Kashmir National Conference by the death of Sheikh Abdullah. Geelani also contested the 1977 Indian general election as an independent candidate due to the banning of Jamaat in 1975, but lost to Abdul Ahad Vakil.
In the 1987 legislative assembly election, Jamaat-e-Islami candidates including Geelani participated under a coalition of parties called the Muslim United Front (MUF). Geelani won the seat from Sopore, but was expelled from the MUF in 1988. Geelani resigned as an MLA in August 1989 due to alleged widespread ballot rigging in the 1987 election.
=== Separatist leader ===
Geelani was viewed as a key separatist leader in Kashmir. Omar Abdullah, former Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir, blamed Geelani for the rise in militancy and bloodshed in Kashmir, while his father and former Union Minister Farooq Abdullah urged Geelani to follow a path which would "save Kashmiri people from further destruction".
He was one of the founding members of the All Parties Hurriyat Conference (APHC), an alliance of Kashmiri social and political organisations who supported a referendum for Kashmir, in 1993 and was the initial choice for the position of its chairman. Mirwaiz Umar Farooq was however chosen instead due to the secular organisations forming majority of the alliance. Geelani became the chairman in 1998, and was replaced by Abdul Ghani Bhat on 20 July 2000.
He also criticised the Jammu and Kashmir People's Conference for fielding proxy candidates in the 2002 assembly election and sought its removal, threatening to launch his own party. In May 2003, the Jamaat-e-Islami removed him as its representative from the executive body of Hurriyat in order to counter hardliners in the organisation. In August 2003 it removed him from the position of head of its political bureau, appointing Ashraf Sehrai in his place.
The appointment of Mohammad Abbas Ansari as chairman of Hurriyat precipitated a crisis in the organisation and it split in September 2003. Geelani formed his own faction within the Hurriyat Conference, called the "All Parties Hurriyat Conference (G)", in September 2003 and was elected as its chairman for three years, replacing its interim chairman Masarat Alam Bhat. It consists of 24 parties. In 2006 he was re-elected for a term of three years despite expressing his desire to step down owing to ill health. In 2015, he was appointed as the lifetime chairman of the faction.
In February 2004, he sought to form his own party. The Jamaat-e-Islami prohibited him from doing so and suspended him. In response, he dropped the idea for launching the party and tried to take over the leadership of the organisation. Bowing to the pressure, the Jamaat readmitted him in August 2004 and allowed him to form his own party. In the same month he founded the Tehreek-e-Hurriyat and was elected as its chairman for three years in October 2004. He was re-elected to the position for three year-terms consecutively in 2007, 2010 and 2013. In 2017 he was given a year-long extension after the party failed to hold regular elections in 2016 due to the 2016–2017 Kashmir unrest.
Jammat-e-Islami removed Geelani from its advisory council in 2005. It later started distancing itself from him and stated that he did not represent them, but the Tehreek-e-Hurriyat. In April 2010 it temporarily expelled him from the organisation due to him defending the freedom of the author of his biography Qaid-e-Inqilab – Ek Tareekh, Ek Tehreek over making derogatory remarks against the party, but later restored him as a basic member (rukun).
Geelani had called for numerous general strikes or shutdowns, in response to the deaths of unnamed suspected militants, local militants and death of civilians in Kashmir.
Geelani had appealed to people of Kashmir to boycott the 2014 legislative assembly elections completely, not accepting the proposals for self-rule or autonomy that had been offered by the People's Democratic Party and the then ruling National Conference. Despite repeated boycott appeals, the elections had record voter turnout of more than 65%, which was the highest in 25 years of history of the state. After record voting percentage in Kashmir, Geelani, along with other separatists, were criticised by Indian media for misleading people of Kashmir and for not representing true sentiments of Kashmiri people.
Geelani received the invitation to participate in the annual meeting of the foreign ministers of member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and the Kashmir Contact Group to be held in New York from 27 September 2015. After the killing of Burhan Muzaffar Wani and the unrest that followed it, to restore normalcy in Kashmir, Geelani sent a letter to United Nations listing six confidence-building measures.
In March 2018, Geelani announced his resignation as chairman of the Tehreek-e-Hurriyat citing ill health, being replaced with Ashraf Sehrai. However he remained the chairman of his faction of the All Parties Hurriyat Conference. In June 2020 he announced his resignation from the faction, accusing it of nepotism and corruption, in addition to misinterpreting his speeches and taking decisions without him. It however refused to accept his resignation and did not name a new chairman until after his death.
=== Sedition charge ===
On 29 November 2010, Geelani, along with writer Arundhati Roy, activist Varavara Rao and three others, was charged under "sections 124A (sedition), 153A (promoting enmity between classes), 153B (imputations, assertions prejudicial to national integration), 504 (insult intended to provoke breach of peace) and 505 (false statement, rumour circulated with intent to cause mutiny or offence against public peace...) to be read with Section 13 of the Unlawful Activities Prevention Act of 1967". The charges, which carried a maximum sentence of life imprisonment, were the result of a self-titled seminar they gave in New Delhi, "Azadi-the Only Way" on 21 October, at which Geelani was heckled.
== Personal life ==
Geelani lived in Hyderpora, Srinagar. He had two sons; Nayeem and Naseem, and four daughters; Anisha, Farhat Jabeen, Zamshida, and Chamshida. Anisha and Farhat are Geelani's daughters from his second marriage. Nayeem and his wife are both doctors who used to live and practise medicine in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, but they returned to India in 2010. Geelani's younger son, Naseem works as a Senior scientist at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology in Srinagar. Geelani's grandson Izhaar is a crew member in a private airline in India. Geelani's daughter Farhat is a madani teacher in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia and her husband is an engineer there. Geelani's other grandchildren are studying in leading schools of India. His cousin Ghulam Nabi Fai is presently in London. Ruwa Shah, daughter of Kashmiri separatist Altaf Ahmad Shah (SAS Geelani's son-in-law) is a journalist. She previously worked as a journalist in India with organisations including the Al Jazeera, IANS and The Indian Express.
=== Health issues, passport suspension and house arrest ===
Geelani's passport was seized in 1981 due to accusations of "anti-India" activities. With the exception of his Hajj pilgrimage in 2006, he has not been allowed to leave India. He was diagnosed with renal cancer, and advised treatment from abroad in the same year. On the then Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's intervention, the government returned Geelani's passport to his son. In 2007, his condition worsened, although in the early stages of the cancer, it was life-threatening and surgery was advised. Geelani was set to travel to either the UK or the United States. However, his visa request was rejected by the American government citing his violent approach in Kashmir conflict and he went to Mumbai for surgery. His supporters and family alleged that this was a "human rights violation".
On 6 March 2014, Geelani fell ill with a severe chest infection, shortly after returning to his home in Srinagar. He has been under house arrest for most of the time since 2010, and was put under house arrest again on his return. In May 2015, Geelani applied for passport to visit his daughter in Saudi Arabia. The Indian government withheld it citing technical reasons, including the fact that he deliberately failed to fill in the nationality column required in the application. On 21 July, the Government granted him a passport on humanitarian grounds, with a validity of nine months, after Geelani acknowledged his nationality as an Indian.
=== Rumours of Geelani's death ===
On 12 March 2014, rumors of Geelani's death -- spread by false or inaccurate edits to his Wikipedia article, "a particular Hindi news channel", and Facebook pages -- led the government of Kashmir to suspend internet and phone service, according to some sources. However, the then Chief Minister Omar Abdullah said that the failures had nothing to do with Geelani's health and were due to a snapped power line as well as an optical fibre cut due to heavy snowfall, which left most of the valley without power. The cuts in Internet service, hours after a statement by Hurriyat that Geelani would be flown to New Delhi for medical treatment, were blamed for spreading the rumours.
=== FEMA case ===
After the 2019 Pulwama attack, India took stronger action against pro-Pakistan separatists including Geelani. The Enforcement Directorate levied a penalty of ₹14.40 lakh and ordered confiscation of nearly ₹6.8 lakh in connection with a Foreign Exchange Management Act case against him for illegal possession of foreign exchange.
== Death ==
Geelani reportedly developed breathing complications and died on 1 September 2021 at his Hyderpora residence in Srinagar due to his prolonged illness.
His son Naseem alleged that police raided the house, took the body forcibly and buried it in a graveyard in his Hyderpora locality in the middle of the night. According to Naseem, no one from the close family was allowed to attend the burial, but they visited the grave next morning. Dilbag Singh, the Director General of Jammu and Kashmir Police, however denied the allegations.
Restrictions on travel and internet were imposed in Kashmir soon after Geelani's death. On 2 September 2021, FIR was registered against his family members under UAPA for clothing his body with a Pakistani flag and for allegedly raising “anti-national” slogans.
Kashmiri political leaders, as well as members of Government of Pakistan, condoled his death. Prime Minister Imran Khan ordered flags to be flown at half-mast to mourn his death.
== Honours and awards ==
On 14 August 2020, Pakistani President Arif Alvi conferred Nishan-e-Pakistan, Pakistan's highest civil award on Geelani to recognise his decades-long struggle for Kashmiris’ right to self-determination.
== Views ==
In February 2014, he said prisoners in Kashmir "are the victims of custodial violence and are harassed in Indian jails especially in Tihar Jail" after an incident where parents of Javaid Ahmad Khan, serving a life sentence, "had travelled thousands of kilometres and invested a lot of money to reach Delhi to meet their jailed son but were denied a meeting with him. "This is state terrorism", he said.
He is viewed as sympathetic to Jamat-e-Islami. His official residence was viewed as Jamat property before he donated it to the Milli Trust.
In November 2011, Geelani called for protests against the alleged "objectionable anti-Islamic" content on the social networking website Facebook, which he described as a "satanic audacity". His call triggered protests in various parts of the Kashmir Valley, leading to minor clashes between the protestors and the security forces.
Geelani condemned the killing of Osama bin Laden by the United States. After Bin Laden's death in May 2011, Geelani said that he would lead last rite prayers in absentia in Srinagar for the slain al-Qaeda leader. After holding prayers for Osama in congregation of thousands of Kashmiris, a European Union delegation snubbed Geelani by cancelling a scheduled meeting with him. He further supported 2001 Indian Parliament attack accused Afzal Guru and one of 2008 Mumbai Attacks masterminds and Lashkar-e-Taiba chief Hafiz Saeed.
=== Kashmir ===
Geelani said that while Pakistan supported "the indigenous struggle of the people of Jammu and Kashmir, morally, diplomatically and politically ... this does not mean Pakistan can take a decision on our behalf."
Geelani would only support a dialogue process aimed at resolving Kashmir issue in accordance with the wishes and aspirations of the people of the state. But he believed that dialogue between India and Pakistan starts under diplomatic compulsions, and it is nothing but just a time delaying tactics. He was of the opinion that Kashmiris are not enemies of India or hold any grudge against its inhabitants. We are desirous of a strong India and Pakistan and it is only possible when Kashmir issue is resolved to pave the way for peace, prosperity and development in the region.
He said, "Kashmir is not any border dispute between India and Pakistan which they can solve by bilateral understandings. It is the issue concerning future of 15 million people. The Hurriyat is not in principle against a dialogue process but without involvement of Kashmiri people, such a process has proved meaningless in the past. We don't have any expectations of it being fruitful in future too." He further stated, "India should immediately and unconditionally release political prisoners, and withdraw cases against youth, which are pending in the courts for the past 20 years."
=== Separatism and relations with Pakistan ===
Geelani has been repeatedly criticised by Indian authorities for inciting violence in the Kashmir Valley and working as offshoot of Pakistan. Geelani said openly that he was not Indian. "Travelling on the Indian passport is a compulsion of every Kashmiri as Kashmir is an Internationally accepted Disputed region between India and Pakistan" are his words when applying for Indian Passport. "We are Pakistani; Pakistan is ours", he said in a big gathering of his supporters.
While Geelani's personal opinion about Kashmir was that it merge with Pakistan, he was known for standing up to both the Indian and Pakistani governments, snubbing anyone (including former President of Pakistan Pervez Musharraf) who did not support the right to self-determination for Kashmir.
Sheikh Mustafa Kamal, a senior leader of Jammu & Kashmir National Conference and son of Sheikh Abdullah criticised Geelani for working on "dictations" given by Pakistan. He accused Geelani of being "a double agent" on "the payroll of Pakistan's ISI".
Pakistan also openly supported Geelani, the three-member delegation from Pakistan High Commission led by Abdul Basit met Geelani at his Malviya Nagar residence in March 2015. Pakistan High Commissioner Abdul Basit assured Geelani of complete support conveying that the country's stand on Kashmir remains unchanged despite regime change in New Delhi. Abdul Basit also invited Geelani for Pakistan Day function on 23 March. Pakistan High Commission in New Delhi, ritually invites pro-separatist leadership of Jammu and Kashmir. On 14 August, the Pakistani government awarded him its highest civilian award, the Nishan-e-Pakistan.
In the last few decades, Geelani refused any proposal from Governments of India and Pakistan and was consistent in his demand for the United Nations promised plebiscite of 1948.
== Works ==
=== Books ===
Some of his works include:
Rūdād-i qafas (transl. Story of jailhouse), 1993. Author's memoirs of his imprisonment.
Navā-yi ḥurriyyat (transl. Voice of Hurriyat), 1994. Collection of letters, columns and interviews on Kashmir issue.
Dīd o shunīd (transl. Acquaintance), 2005. Compilation based on answers to the various questions relating to Kashmir issue.
Bhārat ke istiʻmārī ḥarbe! : Kurālah Gunḍ se Jodhpūr tak! (transl. India's colonial wars: From Kralgund to Jodhpur), 2006. Autobiographical reminiscences with special reference to his struggle for the liberation of Kashmir.
Sadāʼe dard : majmuvʻah taqārīr (transl. Cry of pain: collection of speeches), 2006. Collection of speeches on Kashmir issue.
Millat-i maz̤lūm (transl. Nation of oppressed), 2006. Collection of articles and columns on various issues of Jammu and Kashmir with special reference to autonomy and independence movements of Kashmir.
Safar-i Maḥmūd z̲ikr-i maẓlūm (transl. Journey of the commendable account of the oppressed), 2007. Compilation based on answers to the various questions relating to Kashmir issue.
Maqtal se vāpsī : Rāncī jail ke shab o roz (transl. Back from the gallows: night and day in Ranchi jail), 2008. Autobiographical reminiscences.
Iqbāl rūḥ-i dīn kā shanāsā (transl. Acquaintance with Iqbal's spirit of religion), 2009. Study on the works of Muhammad Iqbal.
ʻĪdain (transl. Eids), 2011. Collection of sermons delivered on the occasion of Eid ul Fitr, Eid ul Adha, and Friday prayers.
Vullar kināre : āp bītī (transl. By the Wular: autobiography), 2012. Autobiography.
Qissa e Dard (transl. Account of pain)
Muqadma al-haq (transl. Trial of truth)
Tu baaki nahi (transl. You are no more)
Mera pyaar aur hai (transl. My love is something else)
Talkh haqayak (transl. Bitter truth)
Elaan-e jungbandi (transl. Declaration of armistice)
Hijrat aur shahadat (transl. Migration and martyrdom)
Qurbani (transl. Sacrifice)
Umeed-i bahar (transl. Hope of spring)
Payam-e aakhreen (transl. The final message)
=== Letters ===
A letter to V.P. Singh.
A letter to Chandra Shekhar.
Source:
=== Others ===
Vinoba Bhave se mulaqaat (transl. A meeting with Vinoba Bhave). Pamphlet, about a meeting with Indian social reformer Vinoba Bhave.
Aulaad-e Ibrahim (transl. Children of Abraham). Pamphlet.
Ek pahlu yeh bhi hai Kashmir ki tasvir ka (transl. Another aspect of Kashmir's affairs). Pamphlet.
Qaul-e-Faisal (transl. Final judgment)
11 September ke baad (transl. After 9/11)
Rasool-e rahmat aasir-i hazir main (transl. Prophet Muhammad in present times)
Iqbal apni paygam ki roshni mein (transl. Iqbal in light of his message)
Shayad ki utar jaaye tere dil mein meri baat (transl. Maybe you will understand me)
Wa'tasimu bihablillahi jamia (Surah Al Imran Quran 3:103)
Shahadat Gahe Ulfat (transl. Martyred in love)
Rahravani ishq (transl. Travelers of love)
Kunu Ansarullah (transl. Willing helpers of Allah)
Kar-i jahan be-sabaat (transl. Unstable world affairs)
Kargil
Source:
== See also ==
Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir
All Parties Hurriyat Conference
Joint Resistance Leadership
Asiya Andrabi
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Garner, George (2013). "Chechnya and Kashmir: The Jihadist Evolution of Nationalism to Jihad and Beyond". Terrorism and Political Violence. 25 (3): 419–434. doi:10.1080/09546553.2012.664202. ISSN 0954-6553. S2CID 143798822.
Hakeem, Abdul (2014), Paradise on Fire: Syed Ali Geelani and the Struggle for Freedom in Kashmir, Markfield, Leicestershire, UK: Revival Publications, ISBN 978-0-9536768-6-6
Jamal, Arif (2009), Shadow War: The Untold Story of Jihad in Kashmir, Melville House, ISBN 978-1-933633-59-6
Sikand, Yoginder (July 2002), "The Emergence and Development of the Jama'at-i-Islami of Jammu and Kashmir (1940s-1990)", Modern Asian Studies, 36 (3): 705–751, doi:10.1017/s0026749x02003062, JSTOR 3876651, S2CID 145586329
Sikand, Yoginder (2–8 October 2010), "Jihad, Islam and Kashmir: Syed Ali Shah Geelani's Political Project", Economic and Political Weekly, 45 (40): 125–134, JSTOR 25742155 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_World_Series#:~:text=In%20the%20fourth%2C%20the%20Red,put%20them%20up%206%E2%80%931. | 2007 World Series | The 2007 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball's (MLB) 2007 season. The 103rd edition of the World Series, it was a best-of-seven playoff between the National League (NL) champion Colorado Rockies and the American League (AL) champion Boston Red Sox; the Red Sox swept the Rockies in four games.
It is the Rockies' first and only appearance in a World Series as of 2025. Boston’s victory was their second World Series championship in four seasons, their second consecutive World Series sweep and their seventh World Series victory overall; it also marked the third sweep in four years by the AL champions. The series began on Wednesday, October 24 and ended on Sunday, October 28.
Terry Francona became the second Red Sox manager to win two World Series titles, following Bill Carrigan, who won the 1915 and 1916 World Series. Including the last three games of the AL Championship Series, the Red Sox outscored their opposition 59–15 over their final seven games. Francona also became the first manager to win his first 8 World Series games. The Rockies, meanwhile, became the first NL team to get swept in a World Series after sweeping the League Championship Series, and just the second team ever to suffer such a fate, following the Oakland Athletics in 1990. This fate would again be suffered by the 2012 Detroit Tigers, being swept by the San Francisco Giants in the World Series after sweeping the New York Yankees in the ALCS. As of the conclusion of the 2024 season, 2007 remains the most recent season an American League team has swept a National League team in the World Series.
== Background ==
This was the fourth time since the beginning of interleague play in 1997 that a World Series matchup would be a rematch from the regular season. The Rockies beat the Red Sox 2-1 in a three game series at Fenway Park from June 12–14.
Over the course of 29 days in September through the middle of October, the Rockies won 21 games and lost just once, including sweeps of the Philadelphia Phillies in the NLDS and the division rival Arizona Diamondbacks in the NLCS. They also beat the San Diego Padres in the NL Wild Card tie-breaker. The Rockies run in 2007 proved to be one of the most unlikely postseason runs in MLB history, having just 33/1 odds at the start of 2007 to win the National League. The Rockies' eight-day layoff was the longest in MLB postseason history, caused by their sweep in the NLCS, the ALCS going seven games, and scheduling by MLB.
The Red Sox were more a conventionally dominant team, leading the American League East for most the season. In the postseason, the Red Sox swept the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim in the ALDS and defeated the Cleveland Indians in the ALCS after trailing three games to one, taking the final three contests by a combined score of 30–5. There were a number of the famed curse-breaking 2004 Red Sox players still with the team. Neither participating team was in the previous year's postseason.
Per the 2006 Collective Bargaining Agreement, the Red Sox had home-field advantage in the World Series following the American League's 5–4 win in the 2007 All-Star Game. The first two games took place in Boston, with games 3 and 4 in Denver.
=== Ticket controversy ===
On October 17, 2007, a week before the first game of the World Series, the Colorado Rockies announced that tickets would be made available to the general public via online sales only, despite prior arrangements to sell the tickets at local retail outlets. Five days later, California-based ticket vendor Paciolan, Inc., the sole contractor authorized by the Colorado Rockies to distribute tickets, was forced to suspend sales after less than an hour due to an exorbitant number of purchase attempts.
The Rockies organization said that they were the victims of a denial-of-service attack. The FBI started its own investigation into these claims. Ticket sales resumed the next day, with all three home games selling out within 2+1⁄2 hours.
The Red Sox also relied primarily on online sales to sell the game tickets, although some Fenway Park tickets were sold on the phone and at the box office. The Sox held a random drawing for the right to buy post season tickets on October 15, and winners bought tickets at a private online sale. Street prices were lower in Boston this time than in 2004: the average price, according to StubHub, was about $1500 in 2007, down about $300 from three years previously. Some Sox fans found that it was cheaper to travel to Denver to see World Series games than to pay the street price for Boston game tickets.
== Summary ==
Boston won the series, 4–0.
== Matchups ==
=== Game 1 ===
The Red Sox cruised to a blowout win in Game 1 behind ALCS MVP Josh Beckett, who struck out nine batters, including the first four he faced, over seven innings en route to his fourth win of the 2007 postseason. Mike Timlin and Éric Gagné pitched a perfect eighth and ninth, respectively.
Boston Hall of Famer Carl Yastrzemski threw the ceremonial first pitch, as he had done before Game 1 in 2004. Rookie Dustin Pedroia led off the Sox' first inning with a home run over the Green Monster in Fenway Park off of Jeff Francis. Pedroia's homer was only the second lead-off home run to start a World Series (the only other one was hit by Baltimore's Don Buford in 1969). Kevin Youkilis then doubled to right, moved to third on David Ortiz's groundout, and scored on Manny Ramirez's single. After Mike Lowell flew out, Jason Varitek singled before J. D. Drew doubled to score Ramirez and make it 3-0 Red Sox.
The Rockies got on the board in the second when Garrett Atkins doubled with one out off Beckett and scored on Troy Tulowitzki's double one out later, but the Red Sox got that run back off of Francis when Youkilis walked with two outs and scored on Ortiz's double. In the fourth, the Red Sox loaded the bases with two outs on a single, double, and intentional walk when Varitek's two-run double put them up 6–1.
They put the game out of reach with seven runs in the fifth. Julio Lugo hit a leadoff single off of reliever Franklin Morales before Jacoby Ellsbury bunted into a forceout at second. After Pedroia popped out, a balk moved Ellsbury to second before he scored on Youkilis's double. Ortiz's double and Ramirez's single scored a run each. The Red Sox loaded the bases on a double and walk before Drew's single scored another run. Ryan Speier relieved Morales and walked all three batters he faced to force in three more Boston runs. Matt Herges relieved Speier and got Youkilis to fly out to right to end the inning.
Though Herges and two relievers held Boston scoreless for the rest of the game, the Red Sox finished with 13 runs, the most ever in a World Series Game 1, and tied another record with nine extra base hits. The last 11 of the Red Sox runs came with two outs.
=== Game 2 ===
The ceremonial first pitch was thrown by Andrew Madden, a 13-year-old heart transplant recipient, accompanied by Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame member Dwight Evans. After the debacle of Game 1, Colorado appeared to return to form, scoring quickly on a groundout by Todd Helton with runners on second and third in the first. However, this would be the only time the Rockies ever led in the series as postseason veteran Curt Schilling (5+1⁄3 IP, one run, four hits) and Boston's bullpen (Okajima, 2+1⁄3 IP; Papelbon, 1+1⁄3 IP) allowed no other runs in the contest. The Red Sox tied the game in the fourth off of Ubaldo Jimenez on Jason Varitek's sacrifice fly with runners on second and third, then took the lead next inning on Mike Lowell's RBI double with runners on first and second. Matt Holliday had four of Colorado's five hits in Game 2, including a base hit off Papelbon with two outs in the eighth. Before throwing another pitch, Papelbon caught Holliday leaning too far off first base and picked him off—Papelbon's first career pickoff.
=== Game 3 ===
This was the first World Series game ever played in Colorado. At 4 hours 19 minutes, it became the longest nine-inning game in World Series history. Game 3 was also the 600th World Series game ever played. Starting pitcher Daisuke Matsuzaka pitched five innings of scoreless ball and left in the sixth with no runs allowed. The Red Sox struck first with a six-run third inning. Rookie Jacoby Ellsbury hit a leadoff double, moved to third on Dustin Pedroia's single, and scored on David Ortiz's double. After Manny Ramirez was intentionally walked, Mike Lowell's single scored two more runs. J. D. Drew popped out before Ramirez was thrown out at home on Jason Varitek's single with Lowell advancing to third. After Julio Lugo walked to load the bases, Matsuzaka hit a two-run single for his first base hit and RBI in the Major Leagues. Ellsbury capped the scoring with his second double of the inning to knock Colorado starter Josh Fogg out of the game. The Rockies' bats came to life in the sixth and seventh innings against a normally-solid but now-shaky Boston bullpen. After Matsuzaka walked two straight in the sixth with one out, reliever Javier López allowed back-to-back RBI singles to Brad Hawpe and Yorvit Torrealba. Mike Timlin allowed two straight leadoff singles in the seventh before NLCS MVP Matt Holliday brought the Rockies to within one run with a three-run home run off Hideki Okajima. Brian Fuentes gave back those runs in the eighth by walking Lugo with one out and allowing a subsequent single to Coco Crisp before Ellsbury and Dustin Pedroia, who had four and three hits, respectively, on the night (the first time in World Series history two rookies had at least three hits in a game) hit back-to-back RBI doubles, raising Boston's lead to 9–5. Jonathan Papelbon came on for a four-out save, getting Holliday to fly out on one pitch, leaving runners on first and second. Jason Varitek would tack on Boston's tenth run in the top of the ninth off of LaTroy Hawkins with a sacrifice fly, scoring Mike Lowell who, not generally considered a stolen base threat, had just stolen third base—the first time a Red Sox baserunner stole third base in the World Series since 1975—after hitting a leadoff single and moving to second on a sacrifice bunt. Papelbon came back out in the bottom of the ninth to complete the save, getting the first two outs before surrendering a two-out triple to Brad Hawpe, then finishing the game with a groundout from Yorvit Torrealba. The Red Sox took Game 3 by a final score of 10–5.
The Red Sox continued to set World Series records during Game 3:
Ellsbury (four hits) and Pedroia (three) combined to score three runs and drive in four, while being the first rookies to bat 1–2 in a World Series lineup.
Ellsbury became the third rookie in Series history with four hits in a game, joining Freddie Lindstrom of the New York Giants (Game 5, 1924) and Joe Garagiola of the Cardinals (Game 4, 1946).
Matsuzaka became the first Japanese pitcher to start and win a World Series game. The only pitchers in Red Sox history, other than Matsuzaka, to have two RBI and be the winning pitcher were Babe Ruth in 1918 and Cy Young in 1903.
The Red Sox' 16 doubles tied a World Series record, set by the 1982 Champion Cardinals. The Red Sox would break the record in Game 4, finishing with 18.
=== Game 4 ===
The Red Sox struck early. Rookie Jacoby Ellsbury began the first inning with a double and was advanced by Dustin Pedroia with a groundout, followed by an RBI single from David Ortiz. Series MVP Mike Lowell hit a leadoff double in the fifth and scored on Jason Varitek's single, making the score 2–0 Boston. In the seventh inning, Lowell hit a home run to give Boston a 3–0 lead and knock starter Aaron Cook out of the game. The Colorado offense answered when left fielder Brad Hawpe hit a home run off of a Manny Delcarmen fastball, bringing the Rockies within two. Relief pitcher Brian Fuentes gave back that run abruptly, allowing Boston pinch-hitter Bobby Kielty to hit a ball into the left field stands on the first pitch of the inning, extending the Red Sox lead to 4–1. In the bottom of the inning Boston pitcher Hideki Okajima allowed a one-out single to Todd Helton followed by a Garrett Atkins two-run home run, bringing the Rockies within one. Jonathan Papelbon relieved Okajima and earned his third save of the series. At 12:06 a.m. EDT on Monday, October 29, Papelbon struck out Colorado pinch hitter Seth Smith for the final out of the 2007 season. Boston had won its second World Series title in four years and seventh all-time.
There was controversy in the top of the eighth when Fox's broadcast announced that Alex Rodriguez would be opting out of his contract with the Yankees to become a free agent. Commissioner Bud Selig made it clear during the World Series that an embargo had been placed on all Major League Baseball stories until the sport's top event had come to an end. Rodriguez and his agent Scott Boras would later apologize for the incident.
The Rockies became the third team in Series history (the 1937 Yankees and 1966 Orioles were the others) not to commit an error in a World Series of any length. They were the first team to do so while losing the World Series.
== Composite line score ==
2007 World Series (4–0): Boston Red Sox (A.L.) beat Colorado Rockies (N.L.).
== Series Statistics ==
=== Boston Red Sox ===
==== Batting ====
Note: GP=Games Played; AB=At Bats; R=Runs; H=Hits; 2B=Doubles; 3B=Triples; HR=Home Runs; RBI=Runs Batted In; BB=Walks; AVG=Batting Average; OBP=On Base Percentage; SLG=Slugging Percentage
==== Pitching ====
Note: G=Games Played; GS=Games Started; IP=Innings Pitched; H=Hits; BB=Walks; R=Runs; ER=Earned Runs; SO=Strikeouts; W=Wins; L=Losses; SV=Saves; ERA=Earned Run Average
=== Colorado Rockies ===
==== Batting ====
Note: GP=Games Played; AB=At Bats; R=Runs; H=Hits; 2B=Doubles; 3B=Triples; HR=Home Runs; RBI=Runs Batted In; BB=Walks; AVG=Batting Average; OBP=On Base Percentage; SLG=Slugging Percentage
==== Pitching ====
Note: G=Games Played; GS=Games Started; IP=Innings Pitched; H=Hits; BB=Walks; R=Runs; ER=Earned Runs; SO=Strikeouts; W=Wins; L=Losses; SV=Saves; ERA=Earned Run Average
== Celebration ==
While the celebratory crowd at Kenmore Square was not as unruly as in 2004, cars were overturned and 37 arrests were made. The Red Sox victory parade, yet again in duck boats and called a "Rolling Rally" as in 2004, was on October 30, 2007 with closer Jonathan Papelbon doing his infamous "Irish Jig" while local punk band the Dropkick Murphys played their hit "I'm Shipping Up to Boston".
The Red Sox World Series win in 2007 continued the success of Boston-area teams in recent years. The Celtics won their 17th championship, their first championship since 1986, the last time the Red Sox lost in the World Series, 7+1⁄2 months later. They would win their 18th championship in 2024. Furthermore, the New England Patriots had victories in 2001, 2003, 2004, 2014, 2016 and 2018, the Boston Bruins in 2011, and the Red Sox three years earlier in 2004 and six years later in 2013 and five years after that in 2018.
== Broadcasting ==
The World Series was televised by Fox in the United States, with Joe Buck and Tim McCarver as booth announcers. The starting time for each television broadcast was 8:00 pm EDT (6:00 pm MDT). The series broke with the recent tradition of starting the World Series on a Saturday, as Major League Baseball had become convinced that weekend games drew lower television ratings. Prior to this season, every World Series since 1985 had opened on a Saturday, with the exception of the 1990 World Series. This was the first World Series to start on a Wednesday since 1968.
Rogers Sportsnet (RSN) in Canada used the MLB International feed with Dave O'Brien and Rick Sutcliffe as booth announcers. NASN showed the games live to most of Europe, while in the UK, all games were shown terrestrially on Five. NHK aired the Series in Japan.
On radio, the Series was broadcast nationally by ESPN Radio, with Jon Miller and Joe Morgan announcing. Locally, Joe Castiglione and Glenn Geffner called the Series for the Red Sox on WRKO in Boston, while Jack Corrigan and Jeff Kingery called it for the Rockies on KOA in Denver. Per contractual obligation, the non-flagship stations on the teams' radio networks carried the ESPN Radio broadcasts.
== Aftermath ==
=== Red Sox ===
The Red Sox won two more World Series titles in 2013 and 2018; both of those titles were managed by two members of the 2007 club. Pitching coach John Farrell served as the skipper of the 2013 Red Sox, featuring 2007 holdovers Clay Buchholz (DNP), Jacoby Ellsbury, Jon Lester, David Ortiz, and Dustin Pedroia. The 2018 Red Sox was managed by Alex Cora, an infielder on the 2007 team.
The Red Sox finished as a wild-card team in the 2008 season, winning 95 games. They were defeated in the ALCS by the Tampa Bay Rays in seven games. The Red Sox again qualified as a 95-win wild-card team in 2009, but lost 3–0 to the Los Angeles Angels in the ALDS. In both 2010 and 2011, the Red Sox missed the postseason despite winning 89 and 90 games, respectively. The 2011 season saw the Red Sox hold a nine-game lead in the wild card heading to September, only to lose 13 of their final 20 games to miss the playoffs. This led to the dismissal of skipper Terry Francona, and the end of an era for Red Sox baseball. By their next championship in 2013, they had both a new general manager and manager.
=== Rockies ===
The Rockies World Series run was nicknamed “Rocktober” — a portmanteau of the Rockies team name and October.
After making the World Series in 2007, the Rockies proceeded to appear in the playoffs only three times in the next 15 seasons with the 2007 season being the Rockies sole World Series berth. In 2009, the Rockies won a wild-card berth after winning 92 games, but in a rematch of the 2007 NLDS, the Rockies lost in four games to the Philadelphia Phillies. During that season, the Rockies fired Clint Hurdle and replaced him with Jim Tracy. The Rockies never finished higher than third place in the NL West between 2010 and 2017, though in the latter season, they returned to postseason play as a second wild-card team. There, the Rockies lost in the Wild Card Game to the Arizona Diamondbacks. The following season, the Rockies made consecutive postseason appearances for the first time in team history, winning the Wild Card Game against the Chicago Cubs, but losing in the NLDS to the Milwaukee Brewers 3–0.
After managing the Rockies, Hurdle was hired by the Pittsburgh Pirates in 2011, and in 2013, ended a major North American professional sports record 20-year drought without a winning season. The Pirates proceeded to make the postseason three consecutive years under Hurdle, winning the 2013 National League Wild Card Game during that span.
Three members of the 2007 Rockies went on to win a World Series ring with other teams. Outfielder Matt Holliday won in 2011 with the St. Louis Cardinals, pitcher Jeremy Affeldt won in 2010, 2012 and 2014 with the San Francisco Giants, and pitcher Franklin Morales won in 2013 with the Red Sox, and in 2015 with the Kansas City Royals.
== See also ==
2007 Asia Series
2007 Korean Series
2007 Japan Series
List of World Series sweeps
== Notes ==
== External links ==
2007 World Series at Baseball Almanac
2007 World Series at Baseball-Reference.com
The 2007 Post-Season Games (box scores and play-by-play) at Retrosheet |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jun_Takahashi | Jun Takahashi | Jun Takahashi (高橋 盾, Takahashi Jun; IPA: [takahaɕi dʑɯɴ]; born 21 September 1969) is a Japanese fashion designer who created the brand "UnderCover" (alternatively rendered as "Under Cover" or "Undercover").
== Early life and education ==
Takahashi was born in Kiryū, Gunma. He attended Gunma Kiryu Nishi High School. In 1988, he enrolled in Fashion Education at Bunka Fashion College. In his free time, he was the vocal lead for the cover band "Tokyo Sex Pistols", where his role model was Vivienne Westwood.
== Career ==
In 1993, he launched UnderCover, a high-end streetwear label for men, women and children. Also in 1993, he launched Nowhere, a retail venture in Ura-Harajuku with his friend Nigo, the founder of BAPE. In 1994–1995 he participated in Tokyo Fashion Week. In 1995 the Nowhere Ltd. company store opened in Harajuku.
Japanese designer Rei Kawakubo who created the brand Comme des Garçons, became Jun's mentor and persuaded him to come to Paris. The Paris store Colette liked his clothes so much that they asked Takahashi to present his 1998 collection "Exchange" in their store.
UnderCover made its debut at Paris Fashion Week in October 2002, for Spring/Summer 2003.
Takahashi also creates activewear lines for men and women under the label Nike x Undercover Gyakusou, with the sportswear giant. Additionally, Takahashi has collaborated with Uniqlo to create Uniqlo UnderCover, since 2011.
In 2021, Takahashi created artwork and an animated music video for "Creep (Very 2021 Rmx)", a remixed version of the 1992 Radiohead song "Creep". Radiohead singer Thom Yorke contributed the remix to one of Takahashi's fashion shows.
== Personal life ==
Takahashi is married to Morishita Riko, with whom he worked for the Uniqlo collaboration, and has a son, Rin, and daughter, Lala.
== Awards and achievements ==
In 1997, he received the New Face Prize in Mainichi fashion grand prize sponsored by the Mainichi national daily newspaper. In 2001, he received the Grand Prize in Mainichi fashion grand prize sponsored by the Mainichi national daily newspaper. In 2013, he received the Grand Prize in Mainichi fashion grand prize for the second time.
== References ==
== External links ==
Jun Takahashi Blog
Undercoverism |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lawrence_LeConte | John Lawrence LeConte | John Lawrence LeConte MD (May 13, 1825 – November 15, 1883) was an American entomologist, responsible for naming and describing approximately half of the insect taxa known in the United States during his lifetime, including some 5,000 species of beetles. He was recognized as the foremost authority on North American beetles during his career, and has been described as "the father of American beetle study".
== Early life ==
A member of the scientifically inclined LeConte family, John Lawrence was born in New York City, the son of naturalist John Eatton Le Conte. His mother, Mary A. H. Lawrence, died when John Lawrence was only a few months old, and he was raised by his father. Most reliable sources spell his name "LeConte" or "Leconte", without the space used by his father, and samples of his signature show the preference for "LeConte".
He graduated from Mount Saint Mary College, Emmittsburg, Maryland, in 1842, and from the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, in 1846. He worked as a chemical assistant to John Torrey and after receiving his medical degree he briefly practiced medicine. He also married Helen Grier and in the same year he gave up medical practice. During the civil war he again worked as a medical inspector and received the rank of lieutenant colonel. Having inherited enough money to make himself independent, LeConte did not practice medicine professionally. Influences in his life included Louis Agassiz and Hermann Rudolph Schaum who stayed in the Leconte home.
While still in medical college, in 1844, John Lawrence traveled with his cousin Joseph LeConte to the Great Lakes. Starting at Niagara Falls, they visited Detroit and Chicago and traversed Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa and Illinois before returning up the Ohio River to Pittsburgh and on to New York. John Lawrence published his first three papers on beetles that year.
== Travels ==
After graduating from medical college John Lawrence LeConte made several trips west, including to California via Panama in 1849. While in San Francisco, he sent 10,000 beetles preserved in ethanol back to his father. Another 20,000 beetle specimens were lost in a fire in 1852. LeConte also traveled to Europe, Egypt and Algiers. He spent two years exploring the Colorado River, and was in Honduras for the building of the Honduras Interoceanic Railway, and in Colorado and New Mexico with the party surveying for the Kansas Pacific Railroad. He moved to Philadelphia in 1852, residing there for the rest of his life. He died in Philadelphia on November 15, 1883.
== Military service ==
During the American Civil War he enlisted in the Army Medical Corps as a surgeon. He was promoted to the position of medical inspector and reached the rank of lieutenant colonel by the end of the war.
== U.S. Mint ==
In 1878 he became the chief clerk (assistant director) of the United States Mint in Philadelphia. He retained that position until his death in 1883.
== Scientific societies ==
LeConte was active in the scientific societies of his time, with stints as vice-president of the American Philosophical Society (1880–1883) and president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1873). He was a founder of the American Entomological Society, and a charter member of the National Academy of Sciences.
== Legacy ==
The genera Lecontella, Lecontellus, Lecontia, and Contia and several hundred species (mostly beetles) are named after him, including a bird, LeConte's thrasher (Toxostoma lecontei), which he discovered while on a beetle-collecting trip to Arizona, and was named after him by George Newbold Lawrence. LeConte communicated with and collected birds and other natural history specimens for Spencer Fullerton Baird, a distant cousin and assistant director and then director of the Smithsonian Institution for a total of 39 years. In turn Baird asked other naturalists to collect beetles for LeConte.
In the 1850s, LeConte collected some crystals from a cave in Honduras being mined for bat guano. It was later found to be a new mineral that was named "lecontite" in his honor.
== Works ==
Melsheimer, F.E.; Haldeman (rev.), S.S.; LeConte (rev.), J.L. (1853). Catalogue of the Described Coleoptera of the United States. Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
Catalogue of the Coleoptera of the United States. (1853) Frederick Ernst Melsheimer, revised by Samuel Stehman Haldeman and John Lawrence LeConte
Classification of the Coleoptera of North America (1861, 1873)
New Species of North American Coleoptera (1866, 1873)
LeConte, John; Horn, George H. (December 1876). "The Rhynchoptera of America, North of Mexico". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 15 (96): iii–xvi, 1–455.
Classification of the Coleoptera of North America. Part II (1883) - with George Henry Horn
== Taxon described by him ==
See Category:Taxa named by John Lawrence LeConte
== Notes ==
== References ==
Dow, R. P. (1914). "The Greatest Coleopterist". Journal of the New York Entomological Society. 22 (3): 185–191. JSTOR 25003617.
Essig, E. O. (1931). A History of Entomology. MacMillan Company. pp. 680–685.
Horn, George H. (1883). "John Lawrence LeConte". Science. 2 (46): 783–786. Bibcode:1883Sci.....2..783H. doi:10.1126/science.ns-2.46.783. PMID 17739760.
Mallis, Arnold (1971). American Entomologists. Rutgers University Press. pp. 242–248. ISBN 9780813506869.
Riley, Charles Valentine (1883). "Tribute to the Memory of John Lawrence LeConte". Psyche: A Journal of Entomology. 4 (115–116): 107–110. doi:10.1155/1883/37519.
Scudder, Samuel H. (1886). "Memoir of John Lawrence LeConte 1825-1883". Biographical Memoirs. National Academy of Sciences: 261–293.
Sorensen, W. Conner (1995). Brethren of the Net, American Entomology, 1840-1880. University of Alabama Press.
"John Lawrence LeConte" (1936). Dictionary of American Biography, Charles Scribner's Sons.
"John L. (John Lawrence) LeConte papers, 1812-1897". American Philosophical Society Library.
== External links ==
Media related to John Lawrence LeConte at Wikimedia Commons
Samuel Henshaw (1878) The entomological writings of John L. Leconte.:Dimmock's special bibliography. no. 1 Cambridge, Massachusetts, The editor (George Dimmock), 1878. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey_Epstein#:~:text=On%20July%2027%2C%202006%2C%20Epstein,released%20on%20a%20%243%2C000%20bond. | Jeffrey Epstein | Jeffrey Edward Epstein (January 20, 1953 – August 10, 2019) was an American financier and child sex offender. He began his professional career as a teacher at the Dalton School. After his dismissal from the school in 1976, he entered the banking and finance sector, working at Bear Stearns in various roles, before starting his own firm. Epstein cultivated an elite social circle and procured many women and girls whom he and his associates sexually abused.
In 2005, police in Palm Beach, Florida, began investigating Epstein after a parent reported that he had sexually abused her 14-year-old daughter. Federal officials identified 36 girls, some as young as 14 years old, whom Epstein had allegedly sexually abused. Epstein pleaded guilty and was convicted in 2008 by a Florida state court of procuring a child for prostitution and of soliciting a prostitute. He was convicted of only these two crimes as part of a controversial plea deal agreed by the US Department of Justice's Alex Acosta, and he served almost 13 months in custody but with extensive work release.
Epstein was arrested again on July 6, 2019, on federal charges for the sex trafficking of minors in Florida and New York. He died in his jail cell on August 10, 2019. Barbara Sampson, the New York City medical examiner, ruled that his death was a suicide by hanging. Forensic pathologist Michael Baden has disputed the ruling, and there has been significant public skepticism about the true cause of his death, resulting in conspiracy theories. In July 2025, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) released CCTV footage to support the conclusion that Epstein died by suicide in his jail cell. When the Department of Justice released the footage, approximately 2 minutes and 53 seconds of it was missing, and the video was found to have been modified despite the FBI's claim that it was raw.
Since Epstein's death precluded the possibility of pursuing criminal charges against him, a judge dismissed all criminal charges on August 29, 2019. Epstein had a decades-long association with the British socialite Ghislaine Maxwell, who recruited young girls for him, leading to her 2021 conviction on US federal charges of sex trafficking and conspiracy for helping him procure girls, including a 14-year-old, for child sexual abuse and prostitution.
According to The New York Times, Epstein made much of his fortune by providing tax and estate services to billionaires. He was also a renowned social networker, whose vast network included business people, royalty, politicians and academics. His friendships with public figures including Prince Andrew, Donald Trump, and Bill Clinton have attracted significant controversy. Documents released by the House Democratic Caucus in September 2025 show that he maintained connections with Peter Thiel, Elon Musk, Bill Gates, Larry Summers, and Steve Bannon. The documents included over 20,000 pages of Epstein emails dating from 2011 to 2018, many of which included conversations about Donald Trump.
== Early life ==
Jeffrey Edward Epstein was born on January 20, 1953, in Brooklyn, a borough of New York City. His parents, Pauline "Paula" Stolofsky (1918–2004) and Seymour George Epstein (1916–1991), were Jewish and had married in 1952 shortly before his birth. Pauline worked as a school aide and was a homemaker. Seymour worked for the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation as a groundskeeper and gardener.
Jeffrey was the older of two siblings; he and his brother Mark grew up in the neighborhood of Sea Gate, a private gated community in Coney Island, Brooklyn. Within the family, Epstein was nicknamed Bear, while Mark was called Puggie. A childhood friend described Paula as “a wonderful mother and homemaker,” and neighbors remembered the parents as being quiet and humble.
Epstein attended local public schools, first attending Public School 188, and then Mark Twain Junior High School nearby and usually earned money by tutoring classmates. Acquaintances considered Epstein "sweet and generous", although "quiet and nerdy", and nicknamed him "Eppy". "He was just an average boy, very smart in math, slightly overweight, freckles, always smiling", a female friend later described.
In 1967, Epstein attended the National Music Camp at the Interlochen Center for the Arts. He began playing the piano when he was five, and was regarded as a talented musician by friends. He graduated in 1969 from Lafayette High School at age 16, having skipped two grades. Later that year, he attended advanced math classes at Cooper Union until he changed colleges in 1971. From September 1971, he attended the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences at New York University, where he studied mathematical physiology, but left without receiving a degree in June 1974.
== Career ==
=== Private school teacher (1974–1976) ===
At age 21, Epstein started working in September 1974 as a physics and mathematics teacher for teens at the Dalton School on the Upper East Side of Manhattan. Donald Barr, who served as the headmaster until June 1974, was known to have made several unconventional recruitments at the time, although it is unclear whether he had a direct role in hiring Epstein. Three months after Barr's departure, Epstein began to teach at the school, despite his lack of credentials.
Epstein allegedly showed inappropriate behavior toward underage female students at the time, paying them constant attention, and even showing up at a party where young people were drinking, according to a former student. Other former students also often saw him flirting with female students. Eventually, Epstein became acquainted with Alan Greenberg, the chief executive officer of Bear Stearns, whose son and daughter were attending the school. Greenberg's daughter, Lynne Koeppel, pointed to a parent-teacher conference where Epstein influenced another Dalton parent into advocating for him to Greenberg. In June 1976, after Epstein was dismissed from Dalton for "poor performance", Greenberg offered him a job at Bear Stearns.
=== Bear Stearns (1976–1981) ===
Epstein joined Bear Stearns in 1976 as a low-level junior assistant to a floor trader. He swiftly moved up to become an options trader, working in the special products division, and then advised the bank's wealthiest clients, such as Seagram president Edgar Bronfman, on tax mitigation strategies. Jimmy Cayne, the bank's later chief executive officer, praised Epstein's skill with wealthy clients and complex products. In 1980, four years after joining Bear Stearns, Epstein became a limited partner. In 1981, Epstein was asked to leave Bear Stearns for, according to his sworn testimony, being guilty of a "Reg D violation". Even though Epstein departed abruptly, he remained close to Cayne and Greenberg and was a client of Bear Stearns until its collapse in 2008.
=== Financial troubleshooter (1981–1987) ===
In August 1981, Epstein founded his own consulting firm, Intercontinental Assets Group Inc. (IAG), which assisted clients in recovering stolen money from fraudulent brokers and lawyers. Epstein described his work at this time as being a high-level bounty hunter. He told friends that he worked sometimes as a consultant for governments and the very wealthy to recover embezzled funds, while at other times he worked for clients who had embezzled funds. Spanish actress and heiress Ana Obregón was one such wealthy client, whom Epstein helped in 1982 to recover her father's millions in lost investments, which had disappeared when Drysdale Government Securities collapsed because of fraud.
In the mid-1980s, Epstein traveled multiple times between the United States, Europe, and the Middle East. While in London, Epstein met Steven Hoffenberg. They had been introduced through Douglas Leese, a defense contractor, and John Mitchell, the former US attorney general. An anonymous source met with Epstein and Leese as early as 1981. Epstein also stated to some people at the time that he was an intelligence agent. Epstein associate Hoffenberg in 2020 alleged that Epstein was recruited in the 1980s by Leese to work for British intelligence, and that Hoffenberg introduced Epstein to Robert Maxwell.
During the 1980s, Epstein possessed an Austrian passport that had his photo, but with a false name. The passport showed his place of residence as Saudi Arabia. In 2017, "a former senior White House official" reported that Alexander Acosta, the US Attorney for the Southern District of Florida who had handled Epstein's criminal case at the end of the George W. Bush administration, had stated to interviewers of President Donald Trump's first transition team: "I was told Epstein 'belonged to intelligence' and to 'leave it alone'", and that Epstein was "above his pay grade."
During this period, one of Epstein's clients was the Saudi Arabian businessman Adnan Khashoggi, who was the middleman in transferring American weapons from Israel to Iran as part of the Iran–Contra affair in the 1980s. Khashoggi had been introduced to him by Leese. Khashoggi was one of several defense contractors that he knew.
=== Towers Financial Corporation (1987–1993) ===
Steven Hoffenberg hired Epstein in 1987 as a consultant for Towers Financial Corporation (unaffiliated with the company of the same name founded in 1998, and acquired by Old National Bancorp in 2014), a collection agency that bought debts people owed to hospitals, banks, and phone companies. Hoffenberg set Epstein up in offices in the Villard Houses in Manhattan and paid him US$25,000 per month for his consulting work (equivalent to $69,000 in 2024).
Hoffenberg and Epstein then refashioned themselves as corporate raiders using Towers Financial as their raiding vessel. One of Epstein's first assignments for Hoffenberg was to implement what turned out to be an unsuccessful bid to take over Pan American World Airways in 1987. A similar unsuccessful bid in 1988 was made to take over Emery Air Freight Corp. During this period, Hoffenberg and Epstein worked closely together and traveled everywhere on Hoffenberg's private jet.
In 1993, Towers Financial Corporation imploded when it was exposed as one of the biggest Ponzi schemes in American history, losing over US$450 million of its investors' money (equivalent to $1 billion in 2024). In court documents, Hoffenberg claimed that Epstein was intimately involved in the scheme. Epstein left the company by 1989 and was never charged for involvement in the massive investor fraud committed. It is unknown if Epstein acquired any stolen funds from the Towers Ponzi scheme.
=== J. Epstein & Company (1988–2019) ===
In 1988, while Epstein was still consulting for Hoffenberg, he founded his financial management firm, J. Epstein & Company. The company was said by Epstein to have been formed to manage the assets of clients with more than US$1 billion in net worth, although others have expressed skepticism that he was restrictive of the clients that he took.
The only publicly known billionaire client of Epstein was Leslie Wexner, chairman and CEO of L Brands (formerly The Limited, Inc.) and Victoria's Secret. In 1986, Epstein met Wexner through their mutual acquaintances, insurance executive Robert Meister and his wife, in Palm Beach. A year later, Epstein became Wexner's financial adviser and served as his right-hand man. Within the year, Epstein had sorted out Wexner's entangled finances. In July 1991, Wexner granted Epstein full power of attorney over his affairs. The power of attorney allowed Epstein to hire people, sign checks, buy and sell properties, borrow money, and do anything else of a legally binding nature on Wexner's behalf. Epstein managed Wexner's wealth and various projects such as the building of his yacht, the Limitless. It was during this time that Southern Air Transport relocated its headquarters to service Wexner's brands, and that Epstein dated models like Stacey Williams. Epstein represented himself as a global talent scout for Victoria's Secret during this time and used this powerful position to sexually manipulate young women.
By 1995, Epstein was a director of the Wexner Foundation and Wexner Heritage Foundation. He was also the president of Wexner's Property, which developed part of the town of New Albany outside Columbus, Ohio, where Wexner lived. Epstein made millions in fees by managing Wexner's financial affairs. Although never employed by L Brands, he frequently corresponded with the company executives. Epstein often attended Victoria's Secret fashion shows, and hosted the models at his New York City home, as well as helping aspiring models get work with the company.
In 1996, Epstein changed the name of his firm to the Financial Trust Company and, for tax advantages, based it on the island of St. Thomas in the US Virgin Islands. By relocating to the US Virgin Islands, Epstein was able to reduce federal income taxes by 90 percent. The US Virgin Islands acted as an offshore tax haven, while at the same time offering the advantages of being part of the United States banking system; Epstein, who capitalized on his relation with Jes Staley while the latter was employed by JP Morgan, maintained close relations with that bank's subsidiary in the USVI.
In 2002, according to New York Magazine, his financial-administrative staff numbered 150 employees (among whom 20 accountants) across three sites: Villard House in Manhattan, the Wexner operation in Columbus, and St Thomas USVI.
Although it took 12 years to deliver the story, as Matthew Goldstein of the New York Times tells it, JP Morgan banker Jes Staley and CEO Jamie Dimon had a falling-out over Staley's client Epstein sometime around 2012, after in October 2011 the general counsel of the bank, Stephen Cutler, complained to Staley and others that Epstein was "not an honorable person in any way. He should not be a client." During the meeting with Staley, Epstein, and Cutler, Cutler was reassured when Epstein lied to him directly and even brought up Bill Gates as a character reference. The bank did not discard Epstein until, facing increased pressure from federal regulators, 2013, coincidentally the year of Staley's departure from the bank. Epstein thereafter moved his trade to the American affiliate of Deutsche Bank.
According to Forbes in 2025, the great majority of Epstein's wealth between 1999 and 2018 came from $490 million in fees, (most of that from two billionaires, Leslie Wexner, $200 million, and Leon Black, $170 million) with the remaining $310 million reported as income during that period by his companies as being from investment returns, and was worth $600 million when he died.
In the course of his life Epstein engaged with no fewer than 75 lawyers, including Alan Dershowitz, Kenneth Starr, Roy Black and Jay Lefkowitz. Senator Ron Wyden said in Congress that the US Treasury Department file on Epstein detailed from one account no less than 4,725 wire transfers that totalled $1.1 billion, and that he had extensive financial correspondence from Russian banks over his sex trafficking activities. Another report from Forbes says that between four banks (JPMorgan Chase, Deutsche Bank, Bank of New York Mellon and Bank of America) the transfers totalled more than $1.9 billion.
==== Liquid Funding and the Bear Stearns explosion (2000–2008) ====
Epstein was the president of the Bermuda-incorporated company Liquid Funding Ltd. between 2000 and 2007. The company was an early pioneer in expanding the kind of debt that could be accepted on repurchase, or the repo market, which involves a lender giving money to a borrower in exchange for securities that the borrower then agrees to buy back at an agreed-upon later time and price. The innovation of Liquid Funding, and other early companies, was that instead of having stocks and bonds as the underlying securities, it had commercial mortgages and investment-grade residential mortgages bundled into complex securities as the underlying security.
Liquid Funding was initially 40 percent owned by Bear Stearns. Through the help of credit rating agencies—Standard & Poor's, Fitch Ratings and Moody's Investors Service—the new bundled securities were able to be created for companies so that they received a gold-plated AAA rating. The implosion of complex securities, because of their inaccurate ratings, led to the collapse of Bear Stearns in March 2008 and set in motion the 2008 financial crisis and the subsequent Great Recession. If Liquid Funding were left holding large amounts of such securities as collateral, it could have lost large amounts of money.
In August 2006, a month after the federal investigation of him began, Epstein invested $57 million in the Bear Stearns High-Grade Structured Credit Strategies Enhanced Leverage hedge fund. The SEC filings for the Bear Stearns fund show that Epstein's Financial Trust Company controlled the votes of a 10-percent share. This fund was highly leveraged in mortgage-backed collateralized debt obligations (CDOs).
On April 18, 2007, an investor in the fund, who had $57 million invested, discussed redeeming his investment. At this time, the fund had a leverage ratio of 17:1, which meant for every dollar invested there were 17 dollars of borrowed funds; therefore, the redemption of this investment would have been equivalent to removing $1 billion from the thinly traded CDO market. The selling of CDO assets to meet the redemptions that month began a repricing process and general freeze in the CDO market. The repricing of the CDO assets caused the collapse of the fund three months later in July, and the eventual collapse of Bear Stearns in March 2008. Losses to investors in the two Bear Stearns funds were estimated to exceed $1.6 billion.
By the time the Bear Stearns fund began to fail in May 2007, Epstein had begun to negotiate a plea deal with the US Attorney's Office concerning imminent charges for sex with minors. In August 2007, a month after the fund collapsed, the US attorney in Miami, Alexander Acosta, entered into direct discussions about the plea agreement. Acosta brokered a lenient deal, according to him, because he had been ordered by higher government officials, who told him that Epstein was an individual of importance to the government.
As part of the negotiations, according to the Miami Herald, Epstein provided "unspecified information" to the Florida federal prosecutors for a more lenient sentence and was supposedly "Unnamed investor #1" for the New York federal prosecutors in their unsuccessful June 2008 criminal case against Cioffi and Tannen, two of the managers of the failed Bear Stearns hedge fund.
Alan Dershowitz, one of Epstein's attorneys in the 2008 criminal case, told Fox Business Network in 2019, "We would have been touting that if he had [cooperated]. The idea that Epstein helped in any prosecution is news to me." Moody's reported that on April 18, 2008 "all outstanding rated liabilities" of Liquid Funding were "paid in full". At the time the liquidator had not yet sold the beleaguered fund to its new owner as of May 1: JP Morgan.
==== Epstein & Zuckerman (2003–2004) ====
In 2003, New York Daily News publisher Mortimer Zuckerman partnered with Epstein, advertising executive Donny Deutsch, and investor Nelson Peltz in a bid to acquire New York magazine. The ultimate buyer was Bruce Wasserstein, a longtime Wall Street investment banker, who paid US$55 million, over US$10 million above the offer from Zuckerman, Epstein, Deutsch, and Peltz.
In 2004, Epstein and Zuckerman committed up to US$25 million to finance Radar, a celebrity and pop culture magazine founded by Maer Roshan. Epstein and Zuckerman were equal partners in the venture. Roshan, as its editor-in-chief, retained a small ownership stake. It folded after three issues as a print publication and became exclusively an online one.
==== Zwirn (2002–2008) ====
Between 2002 and 2005, Epstein invested $80 million in the D.B. Zwirn Special Opportunities Fund, a hedge fund that invested in illiquid debt securities. In November 2006, Epstein attempted to redeem his investment after he was informed of accounting irregularities in the fund. By this time, his investment had grown to $140 million. The D.B. Zwirn fund refused to redeem the investment. Hedge funds that invest in illiquid securities typically have years-long "lockups" on their capital for all investors and require redemption requests to be made in writing 60 to 90 days in advance. The fund was closed in 2008, and its remaining assets of approximately $2 billion, including Epstein's investment, were transferred to Fortress Investment Group when that firm bought the assets in 2009. Epstein later went to arbitration with Fortress over his redemption attempt. The outcome of that arbitration is not publicly known.
==== Epstein and Barak: Carbyne (2014–2019) ====
After his first arrest, Epstein began an interest in the surveillance industry. Epstein maintained a close relationship with former Israeli prime minister and defense minister Ehud Barak, exchanging private emails with him and meeting more than 30 times between 2013 and 2017. He also facilitated Barak's interactions with prominent figures, including Peter Thiel, as well as Sergey Belyakov and Viktor Vekselberg, who were connected to Vladimir Putin's circle. These interactions are documented in the leaked Barak–Epstein emails released by the Handala hacker group, whose authenticity has been partially corroborated by independent reporting, including The Sunday Times.
In business, Epstein leveraged his relationship with Barak to get access to Thiel. In 2015, Epstein invested in Reporty Homeland Security (later rebranded as Carbyne), a startup headed by Barak which developed advanced emergency communication technologies. The company's leadership included CEO Amir Elihai, a former special forces officer, and director Pinchas Bukhris, a former defense ministry director general and commander of IDF cyber unit 8200. In many years, Epstein's acquaintances had repeatedly encouraged Thiel to meet him. Reid Hoffman, Thiel's friend from the PayPal Mafia, directly introduced the two and joined some meetings.
Epstein pitched Reporty to Thiel-founded Valar Ventures in 2016; although the firm declined, Valar partner Andrew McCormack indicated they might revisit the venture once the company matured. Epstein had previously invested US$40 million into funds managed by Valar in 2015 and 2016. In 2018, another Thiel co-founded firm, Founders Fund, participated in Carbyne's $15 million Series B funding round (non-leading role). Between 2014 and 2016, Thiel had half a dozen scheduled meetings with Epstein at his townhouse, including with other people such as Woody Allen and Kathryn Ruemmler. There is no record of Thiel's social visits to one of Epstein's homes or flights on his private jet.
==== Other businesses ====
Barak discussed with Epstein in the leaked Barak–Epstein emails about meeting Putin's ally Viktor Vekselberg on the 6th and 8th day of June 2014. An email sent in April 2015 shows that Barak asked Epstein for his opinion on Vekselberg-backed Fifth Dimension, a startup which later shut down after being sanctioned in 2018 by the US for alleged election meddling.
In August 2018 Epstein said in a New York Times interview that he was helping Elon Musk to find a new chairman for Tesla when Musk was in trouble with the SEC over his comments that he would privatize the car manufacturer.
=== Geopolitical activities (2012–2019) ===
==== Ivory Coast security agreement ====
Between 2012 and 2014, Epstein assisted former Israeli prime minister and defense minister Ehud Barak in what began as a private business initiative involving internal security-related projects in Ivory Coast, according to documents released by the U.S. House Oversight Committee from Epstein's files and leaked emails from Barak. Epstein played an operational role in advancing the effort: he coordinated Barak's meetings during the UN General Assembly, connected him with Ivory Coast President Alassane Ouattara's chief of staff and other officials, and helped arrange connections with the president's family. Barak, meanwhile, commissioned former Israeli intelligence officers to produce technical plans for nationwide phone and internet monitoring. The private initiative later was the bases of a 2014 defense and internal-security agreement between Israel and Ivory Coast.
==== Mongolia security initiative ====
Epstein performed similar facilitation work as in Ivory Coast for Barak in Mongolia. He assisted in the promotion of Israeli surveillance technology for the Mongolian government. During this period, the Israeli intelligence officer Yoni Koren – a longtime associate and former aide to Barak – stayed multiple times at Epstein's Manhattan residence, including while serving in Barak's office in 2013 and again during extended visits in 2014 and 2015.
== Video, photo and email archives ==
Multiple well-placed sources told Vicky Ward that Epstein lacked a moral compass, and decided to compromise influential people "by recording them doing things they wouldn't want made public."
Ghislaine Maxwell, Epstein's long-term girlfriend and companion, told a friend that Epstein's private island in the Virgin Islands was completely wired for video and the friend believed that Maxwell and Epstein were videotaping everyone on the island as an insurance policy. When police raided his Palm Beach residence in 2006, two hidden cameras were discovered in his home. It was also reported that Epstein's mansion in New York was wired extensively with a video surveillance system.
Maria Farmer, an artist who worked for Epstein in 1996, noted that Epstein showed her a media room in the New York mansion where there were people monitoring the pinhole cameras throughout the house. The media room was accessed through a hidden door. She stated that in the media room "there were men sitting here. And I looked on the cameras, and I saw toilet, toilet, bed, bed, toilet, bed." She added that "It was very obvious that they were, like, monitoring private moments."
Epstein allegedly "lent" girls to powerful people to ingratiate himself with them and also to gain possible blackmail information. According to the Department of Justice, he kept compact discs locked in his safe in his New York mansion with handwritten labels that included the description: "young [name] + [name]".
Epstein implied that he had blackmail material when he told a New York Times reporter in 2018, off the record, that he had dirt on powerful people, including information about their sexual proclivities and recreational drug use.
In August 2025, author Michael Wolff remarked that Epstein's email archives, which were seized when the FBI raided Herbert Strauss house and took possession of his computers, are likely to incriminate others.
== Audio recordings ==
In 2003, Bloomberg journalist David Bank spoke on Little St. James with Epstein in a 5-hour long interview, which Bank left unpublished prior to Epstein's death.
In 2017, Epstein spoke in interviews, over the course of more than one hundred hours, with journalist Michael Wolff, which began to be released in November 2024, as part of Wolff's Fire and Fury podcast.
== Legal issues ==
Maria Farmer alleges that she reported that Epstein raped her to the New York City Police Department and the FBI in 1996 but nothing was done and his depravity went unpunished for a decade longer. In October 2007, transgender model Ava Cordero alleged that Epstein had abused her and filed suit accordingly, however it was dismissed, with press at the time instead making allegations about Cordero's mental health and mocking her gender identity. Virginia Giuffre was among the first of Epstein's accusers to reveal her identity to the public, in 2011.
=== First criminal case (2005–2011) ===
==== Initial developments (2005–2006) ====
According to The Washington Post, in November 2004, Palm Beach police were tipped about young women coming and going from Epstein's home. In March 2005, a woman contacted Florida's Palm Beach Police Department and alleged that her 14-year-old stepdaughter had been taken to Epstein's mansion by an older girl. While there, she was allegedly paid $300 (equivalent to $480 in 2024) to strip and massage Epstein. She had allegedly undressed, but left the encounter wearing her underwear. Palm Beach Police began a 13-month undercover investigation of Epstein, including a search of his home. During the investigation, Palm Beach police chief Michael Reiter publicly accused the Palm Beach County state prosecutor, Barry Krischer, of being too lenient and called for help from the FBI.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) then became involved. Subsequently, the police alleged that Epstein had paid several girls to perform sexual acts with him. Interviews with five alleged victims and seventeen witnesses under oath, a high-school transcript and other items found in Epstein's trash and home allegedly showed that some of the girls involved were under 18, the youngest being 14, with many under 16. The police search of Epstein's home found two hidden cameras and large numbers of photos of girls throughout the house, some of whom the police had interviewed in the course of their investigation. Adriana Ross, a former model from Poland who became an Epstein assistant, reportedly removed computer drives and other electronic equipment from the financier's Florida mansion before Palm Beach Police searched the home as part of their investigation. The court documents record that a search of Epstein's residence by Palm Beach Police detective Joseph Recarey in 2005 uncovered an incriminating Amazon receipt containing books on sadomasochism.
A former employee told the police that Epstein would receive massages three times a day. Eventually the FBI compiled reports on "34 confirmed minors" eligible for restitution (increased to 40 in the non-prosecution agreement) whose allegations of sexual abuse by Epstein included corroborating details. Julie Brown's 2018 exposés in the Miami Herald identified 80 victims and located about 60 of them. She quotes the then police chief Reiter as saying "This was 50-something 'shes' and one 'he'—and the 'shes' all basically told the same story." Details from the investigation included allegations that 12-year-old triplets were flown in from France for Epstein's birthday, and flown back the following day after being sexually abused by the financier. It was alleged that young girls were recruited from Brazil and other South American countries, former Soviet countries, and Europe, and that Jean-Luc Brunel's "MC2" modeling agency was also supplying girls to Epstein, who actually financed the French agency.
In May 2006, Palm Beach police filed a probable cause affidavit saying that Epstein should be charged with four counts of unlawful sex with minors and one count of sexual abuse. On July 27, 2006, Epstein was arrested by the Palm Beach Police Department on state felony charges of procuring a minor for prostitution and solicitation of a prostitute. He was booked at the Palm Beach County jail and later released on a $3,000 bond. State prosecutor Krischer later convened a Palm Beach County grand jury, which was usually only done in capital cases. Presented evidence from only two victims, the grand jury returned a single charge of felony solicitation of prostitution, to which Epstein pleaded not guilty in August 2006. Epstein's defense lawyers included Roy Black, Gerald Lefcourt, Harvard Law School professor Alan Dershowitz, and former US solicitor general Ken Starr. Linguist Steven Pinker also assisted.
==== Non-prosecution agreement (NPA) (2006–2008) ====
In July 2006, the FBI began its own investigation of Epstein, nicknamed "Operation Leap Year". Epstein's lawyers met with federal prosecutors, asking them to end the federal investigation so Epstein could instead face a single Florida charge of solicitation of a prostitute. The federal investigation continued nonetheless, and in May 2007 federal prosecutor Marie Villafaña drafted a 53-page, 60-count indictment. She also wrote an 82-page memo for her supervisors, who included Alexander Acosta, then the US Attorney for the Southern District of Florida; Jeffrey Sloman, then the First Assistant US Attorney; and Matthew Menchel, then the chief of the Miami criminal division.
Acosta agreed to a plea deal, which Alan Dershowitz helped to negotiate, to grant immunity from all federal criminal charges to Epstein, along with four named co-conspirators and any unnamed "potential co-conspirators". According to the Miami Herald, the non-prosecution agreement "essentially shut down an ongoing FBI probe into whether there were more victims and other powerful people who took part in Epstein's sex crimes." At the time, this halted the investigation and sealed the indictment. The Miami Herald said: "Acosta agreed, despite a federal law to the contrary, that the deal would be kept from the victims."
Acosta later said he offered a lenient plea deal because he was told that Epstein "belonged to intelligence", was "above his pay grade" and to "leave it alone". Epstein agreed to plead guilty in Florida state court to two felony prostitution charges, serve 18 months in prison, register as a sex offender, and pay restitution to three dozen victims identified by the FBI. The plea deal was later described as a "sweetheart deal".
A federal judge later found that the prosecutors had violated victims' rights by concealing the agreement from the victims and instead urging them to have "patience". According to an internal review conducted by the Department of Justice's Office of Professional Responsibility, released in November 2020, Acosta showed "poor judgment" in granting Epstein a non-prosecution agreement and failing to notify Epstein's alleged victims about the agreement.
In 2019, Judge Kenneth Marra for the US District Court for the Southern District of Florida adjudicated that the Acosta NPA document had violated the Crime Victims' Rights Act. A later Appeals court judgment called the Acosta NPA "a national disgrace". The terms of the Acosta NPA were revealed only after Bradley Edwards, the representative of two of Epstein's teenaged victims, and press lawyers successfully sued to make them public.
==== Conviction and sentencing (2008–2011) ====
On June 30, 2008, after Epstein pleaded guilty to a state charge of procuring for prostitution a girl below age 18, he was sentenced to eighteen months in prison. While most convicted sex offenders in Florida are sent to state prison, Epstein was instead housed in a private wing of the Palm Beach County Stockade and, according to the sheriff's office, was, after 3+1⁄2 months, allowed to leave the jail on "work release" for up to twelve hours a day, six days a week. This contravened the sheriff's own policies requiring a maximum remaining sentence of ten months and making sex offenders ineligible for the privilege. He was allowed to come and go outside of specified release hours.
Epstein's cell door was left unlocked, and he had access to the attorney room where a television was installed for him, before he was moved to the Stockade's previously unstaffed infirmary. He worked at the office of a foundation he had created shortly before reporting to jail; he dissolved it after serving his time. The Sheriff's Office received $128,000 from Epstein's non-profit to cover the costs of additional services provided during his work release. His office was monitored by "permit deputies" whose overtime was paid by Epstein. They were required to wear suits and check in "welcomed guests" at the "front desk". Later, the Sheriff's Office said these guest logs were destroyed per the department's "records retention" rules, although the Stockade visitor logs were not. Epstein was allowed to use his own driver to drive him between jail and his office and other appointments.
Epstein served almost 13 months of his 18-month sentence before being released on July 22, 2009, and placed on a year of probation on house arrest until August 2010. His early release after 13 of 18 months served was because he provided information regarding Bear Stearns executives Ralph Cioffi and Matthew Tannin, whose conduct was scrutinized by the SDNY court in In re Bear Stearns Companies, Inc. Securities, Derivative and ERISA Litigation, before the bank was acquired by JPMorgan Chase.
While on probation, he was allowed numerous trips on his corporate jet to his residences in Manhattan and the US Virgin Islands. He was allowed long shopping trips and walks around Palm Beach "for exercise". After a contested hearing in January 2011, and an appeal, he stayed registered in New York State as a "level three" (high risk of repeat offense) sex offender, a lifelong designation.
At that hearing, the Manhattan assistant district attorney, Jennifer Gaffney, argued unsuccessfully that the level should be reduced to a low-risk "level one" and was chided by the judge. Despite opposition from Epstein's lawyer that he had a "main" home in the US Virgin Islands, the judge confirmed he personally must check in with the New York Police Department every 90 days. Though Epstein had been a level-three registered sex offender in New York since 2010, the New York Police Department never enforced the 90-day regulation, though non-compliance is a felony.
==== Reactions ====
The immunity agreement and Epstein's lenient treatment were the subject of ongoing public dispute. The Palm Beach police chief accused the state of giving him preferential treatment, and the Miami Herald said US attorney Acosta gave Epstein "the deal of a lifetime". Following Epstein's arrest in July 2019, on sex trafficking charges, Acosta resigned as Secretary of Labor effective July 19, 2019.
After the accusations against Epstein became public, several persons and institutions returned donations that they had received from him, including Eliot Spitzer, Bill Richardson, and the Palm Beach Police Department. Harvard University announced it would not return any money. Various charitable donations that Epstein had made to finance children's education were also questioned.
On June 18, 2010, Epstein's former house manager, Alfredo Rodriguez, was sentenced to 18 months' incarceration after being convicted on an obstruction charge for failing to turn over to police, and subsequently trying to sell, a journal in which he had recorded Epstein's activities. FBI special agent Christina Pryor reviewed the material and agreed it was information "that would have been extremely useful in investigating and prosecuting the case, including names and contact information of material witnesses and additional victims."
=== Second set of criminal charges (2019) ===
==== Sex trafficking charges ====
On July 6, 2019, Epstein was arrested when he returned to the US from France by the FBI-NYPD Crimes Against Children Task Force at Teterboro Airport in New Jersey on charges of sex trafficking during the years 2002 to 2005. He was jailed at the Metropolitan Correctional Center in New York City. According to witnesses and sources on the day of his arrest, about a dozen FBI agents forced open the door to his Manhattan townhouse, the Herbert N. Straus House, with search warrants. The search of his townhouse turned up evidence of sex trafficking and also found "hundreds—and perhaps thousands—of sexually suggestive photographs of fully—or partially—nude females." Some of the photos were confirmed as those of underage females. In a locked safe, compact discs were found with handwritten labels including the descriptions: "Young [Name] + [Name]", "Misc nudes 1", and "Girl pics nude". Ann Coulter alleges that the videotapes were mishandled and as a result those now in possession of the FBI may not be complete.
Also found in the safe were $70,000 in cash, 48 diamonds, and a fraudulent Austrian passport, which expired in 1987, that had Epstein's photo but another name. The passport had numerous entrance and exit stamps, including entrance stamps that showed the use of the passport to enter France, Spain, the United Kingdom, and Saudi Arabia in the 1980s. The passport showed his place of residence as Saudi Arabia. According to his attorneys, Epstein had been advised to acquire the passport because "as an affluent member of the Jewish faith", he was in danger of being kidnapped while traveling abroad.
On July 8, prosecutors with the Public Corruption Unit of the Southern District of New York under Geoffrey Berman charged him with sex trafficking and conspiracy to traffic minors for sex. The grand jury indictment alleges that "dozens" of underage girls were brought into Epstein's mansions for sexual encounters. Judge Kenneth Marra was to decide whether the non-prosecution agreement that protected Epstein from the more serious charges should still stand.
Epstein requested to be released on bond, offering to post $100 million with the condition that he would also submit to house arrest in his New York City mansion. US district judge Richard M. Berman denied the request on July 18, saying that Epstein posed a danger to the public and a serious flight risk to avoid prosecution. On August 29, 2019, 19 days after Epstein was found dead in his jail cell, the case against Epstein was closed by Judge Berman. Prosecutors stated they would continue an investigation for potential co-conspirators.
==== Investigation in France ====
On August 23, 2019, the prosecutor's office in Paris, France, opened a preliminary investigation into Epstein, after Yael Mellul wrote to the Paris prosecutor to report the international dimensions of the pedophile network involving Jeffrey Epstein, criticizing the slow pace of justice. He is being investigated for rape and sexual assault of minors under and over the age of 15, criminal association with a view to committing crimes, and association with criminals with a view to committing offenses. The prosecutors said that the goal of the investigation is to find possible crimes committed in France and elsewhere against French citizens. An associate of Epstein, modeling agent Jean-Luc Brunel, was arrested during this investigation, but was found dead in his jail cell in 2022.
=== Birthday book release ===
In September 2025, the House Oversight Committee released a 2003 birthday album created for Epstein's 50th birthday, titled The First Fifty Years. The album contained letters and drawings from various associates.
One letter in the collection was attributed to Donald Trump, though Trump has denied writing or signing it and his legal team has challenged its authenticity. Media coverage noted that the release drew renewed attention to Epstein's political and social connections.
=== Civil cases ===
== Personal life ==
Epstein had high self-regard and rose to his peak because he was skilled at human relations: "I saw lots of people doing lots of hard work, and hard work didn't translate into success either. It wasn't what you knew or how hard you worked. In fact, the people who were doing construction on Telegraph Avenue at that time, you know, coming in at seven o'clock in the morning and spending 12 hours working, they looked like they still were neither happy nor successful, so it was not, you know, and what I learned from [my job at the] Dalton [School], lots of it in fact, turns out to not necessarily be who you are but who you came in contact with."
=== Romances and procuresses ===
Girlfriends of Epstein include Eva Andersson-Dubin and Ghislaine Maxwell, daughter of British-Israeli publisher Robert Maxwell.
==== Eva Anderson-Dubin (1980s) ====
Epstein dated Andersson-Dubin for an 11-year period mostly in the 1980s. After her marriage to Glenn Dubin in 1994, she and her husband remained friends with Epstein.
==== Ghislaine Maxwell (1991–2006?) ====
Epstein met Maxwell, daughter of disgraced media baron Robert Maxwell, by 1991. Epstein had Ghislaine come to the US in 1991 to recover from her grief following her father's death. She was later implicated by several of Epstein's accusers as procuring or recruiting underage girls in addition to being, for an extended period, Epstein's chief girlfriend.
Epstein household employees testified in 2009 that Maxwell had a central role in his public and private life, referring to her as his "main girlfriend" who handled the hiring, supervising, and firing of staff starting around 1992. In 1995, Epstein renamed one of his companies the Ghislaine Corporation in Palm Beach, Florida; the company was dissolved in 1998. In 2000, Maxwell moved into a 7,000-square-foot townhouse, less than ten blocks from Epstein's New York mansion. This townhome was purchased for $5 million by an anonymous limited liability company, with an address that matches the office of J. Epstein & Co. Representing the buyer was Darren Indyke, Epstein's longtime lawyer. A picture of Epstein and Maxwell, sitting at a cabin on Queen Elizabeth II's Balmoral estate, around 1999, at the invitation of then prince Andrew Mountbatten-Windsor was shown to her jury to establish their status as romantic partners. In a 2003 Vanity Fair article, Epstein refers to Maxwell as "my best friend". In January 2003, for a 50th birthday gift, Maxwell assembled an album of well-wishes from his friends; among the bawdy greetings was one from Donald Trump. Two decades later, in July 2025, with Epstein files in the public spotlight, the Wall Street Journal revealed details of the album.
According to Virginia Giuffre, Epstein and Maxwell sought to use her as a surrogate mother for a baby they were planning to have together.
==== Karyna Shuliak (2010–2019) ====
Epstein's last female partner was Karyna Shuliak. He maintained his relationship even while jailed in 2019. She is "one of the largest beneficiaries" of several of his financial arrangements that continue post-mortem. She is Belarusian by birth and was nicknamed "the inspector" because of her "jealousy" and the care with which she combed through his agenda and contact list. The pair's relationship began after Epstein was released from jail in 2010 for procuring a child for prostitution and she was the last person to speak on the phone with Epstein. The couple had been together in Paris before his return to the US and his arrest as he deplaned, which she witnessed. He paid for her education as a dentist, her mother's medical care and the purchase of her parents' house in Belarus. She did not think he sounded suicidal when she spoke to him hours before his death, in a 15-minute call not logged and not recorded by his guards, as ought to have been the practice.
=== Juvenile victims ===
Virginia Giuffre said Epstein "picked vulnerable victims... By the time she was 13, she was living on the streets, where she was abused by older men. Life with Epstein provided a kind of security; he paid her, got her an apartment, and took her to New Mexico, London, Paris, Tangiers, and his island." A woman attested in a lawsuit that Epstein employed her to procure underage girls, including at the Port Authority Bus Terminal, and she had witnessed a rape by Epstein.
Anouska De Georgiou, who says "Jeffrey thought that we were disposable", came to Epstein via modelling. Chauntae Davies and Rachel Benavidez came via massage services. Epstein manipulated Benavidez when they met at Zorro Ranch over two years, only to expel her from his circle when she refused to sign a non-disclosure agreement. Benavidez said: "He provided me with promises of continuing education and a clientele that's a world-class clientele. And that's kind of how he lured his tentacles into me."
Ruslana Korshunova was 18 when she boarded Epstein's jet on her way to his USVI residence on June 7, 2006. They were accompanied by former UFC fighter Stephanie Tidwell, his bodyguard Igor Zinoviev, personal chef Lance Calloway, and assistant Sarah Kellen, on the Lolita Express. When Korshunova was 20, she committed suicide, jumping from her apartment's balcony.
Attorney Brad Edwards, who represents more than 200 victims, notes that while Epstein sexually abused all these women and girls, only a small percentage were sent to be sexually abused by other men, who were also a select few.
=== Acquaintances ===
Epstein was a longtime acquaintance of Andrew Mountbatten-Windsor and Tom Barrack, and attended parties with or otherwise frequented many prominent people, including Harvey Weinstein, David Copperfield, Bill Clinton, George Stephanopoulos, Mark Zuckerberg, Reid Hoffman, Elon Musk, Donald Trump, Katie Couric, Woody Allen, Jeff Bezos, Sergey Brin, Larry Page, Lewis Ranieri, Ronald Perelman, Tom Pritzker, Naomi Campbell, and Stephen Hawking. Two printed phone directories belonging to Epstein, commonly referred to as the "black books", included Rupert Murdoch, Michael Bloomberg, Andrew Cuomo, John Kerry, Richard Branson, Alec Baldwin, David Koch, and Michael Jackson. These books included Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak, British prime minister Tony Blair, and Saudi Arabian crown prince Mohammed bin Salman.
Epstein was involved with Sarah Ferguson and Maxwell maintains he bailed Ferguson out of financial difficulties. However, Epstein's relationship with Ferguson would become very hostile by April 2011. Epstein was seen at least once talking with Princess Diana; he negotiated a 1993 divorce settlement for Lynn Forester before she married Evelyn de Rothschild. Lady de Rothschild re-introduced Epstein to Alan Dershowitz; they had known each other at least since 1997, when their friendship was revealed by flight logs in 2015. Dershowitz said that "outside of his immediate family" he only showed manuscripts before they were published to his friend Epstein.
Epstein took Bill Clinton, Kevin Spacey and Chris Tucker on a trip aboard his Boeing 727 jet. Clinton and Trump said they never visited Little Saint James, an island Epstein had owned since 1998, until his death. A Freedom of Information Act request in 2017 for U.S. Secret Service records found no evidence that Clinton ever visited Epstein's island, with Ghislaine Maxwell also later revealing in August 2025 that Clinton, who ceased having contact with Epstein in 2003, was connected to Epstein through her. However, Clinton was listed on Epstein's flight logs at least 11 times with Sarah Kellen between 2002 and 2003.
In 2014 Epstein asked journalist Michael Wolff, an acquaintance, to write his biography. Dr Andrew Lownie, author of Entitled: The Rise and Fall of the House of York, remarks that Epstein circulated among his houseguests "catalogs of photographs. We know that there were books of photographs passed around Epstein's homes where powerful men could choose the [women] they wanted to meet." Epstein was a longtime acquaintance of Mette-Marit, crown princess of Norway, with whom he stayed in contact for several years after his release from prison.
Disgust with Epstein was cited by Melinda French Gates as one of the reasons for her divorce of Bill Gates, who met Epstein after he had been convicted for paedophilia. Bill Gates's relationship with Epstein started in 2011, a few years after Epstein's conviction, and continued for years. In 2021, Gates said he met with Epstein because he hoped Epstein could provide money for philanthropic work, though nothing came of it. Gates added, "It was a huge mistake to spend time with him, to give him the credibility of being there."
Political strategist Steve Bannon and Epstein were introduced not long after Bannon's 2017 ejection from the White House. Bannon met with Epstein several times at his mansion in New York. Via text message in August 2018, Epstein coached Bannon on messaging. In 2019, Bannon interviewed Epstein, generating 15 hours of video, to help prepare him for a 60 Minutes interview that never occurred.
==== Pre-penal Epstein ====
Michael Wolff, who met Epstein around 2001, advised him on press relations, and told Epstein that if he wanted a low profile it would be better not to return calls from reporters and issue a standard "no comment". Epstein took the opposite tack, leading to profiles in October 2002 by New York Magazine, and March 2003 by Vanity Fair. Wolff met Epstein at a party which included Malcolm Gladwell, Steven Pinker, John Brockman and David Rockwell. Epstein asked Rockwell to critique his architectural plans for Little St. James island. These events may have occurred in 2002 when Geraldine Laybourne is documented in the logs to have been a passenger between JFK and MRY. Wolff says TED conferences served Epstein as hunting grounds for interesting personalities who would otherwise have been outside his circle of acquaintance.
==== Post-penal Epstein ====
After his 2008 incarceration, Epstein was shunned by some acquaintances. Hollywood hostess Peggy Siegal helped facilitate his return to elite company through dinner parties at Herbert Straus house, and allowing his attendance at Oscar parties. Siegal, who was Epstein's connection to the entertainment world, was quoted: "He said he'd served his time and assured me that he changed his ways." But USVI attorney-general Denise George alleged in a 2020 lawsuit that Epstein raped girls on his island as young as 11.
As socialite Anne Hearst said, if Siegal's "personally P.R.'ing you as a friend, you'll wind up at the right hand of God." Weeks after Epstein's release, Siegal got Epstein an invitation to a screening of Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps in a Southampton NY mansion where he met with old friend Leon Black, then-Commerce Secretary Wilbur Ross and Rudy Giuliani. Siegal tempted Katie Couric, George Stephanopoulos, Charlie Rose, Chelsea Handler, Woody Allen and Soon-Yi Previn to attend a dinner organised in 2011 by Epstein for Prince Andrew; Stephanopoulos now says it was a mistake. Since Epstein's death, Siegal has been shunned by several in the film industry, as she is seen as one of Epstein's tools.
Brockman did not end his friendship with Epstein after the latter's conviction. Brockman's literary dinners, often held during the TED Conference, were, for several years after Epstein's conviction, funded by Epstein as documented in tax filings. This allowed Epstein to mingle with scientists, startup icons and tech billionaires.
==== Association with Trump ====
From the 1990s to mid-2000s, Epstein often socialized with Donald Trump. Trump, Epstein, and Tom Barrack were like a "set of nightlife musketeers" on the social scene. Epstein and Trump socialized in New York and Palm Beach, where they both had houses. In 2002 Trump remarked: "I've known Jeff for fifteen years. Terrific guy. He's a lot of fun to be with. It is even said that he likes beautiful women as much as I do, and many of them are on the younger side. No doubt about it – Jeffrey enjoys his social life." In 2019, Trump said "I knew him like everybody in Palm Beach knew him", stating four times he had not been "a fan" of Epstein and that he had not spoken to him in about 15 years. A video shot in 1992 surfaced showing them partying together at Mar-a-Lago. According to The Washington Post, someone who knew Epstein and Trump noted "they were tight...each other's wingmen."
In 2004, Epstein and Trump's friendship ran into trouble when they became embroiled in a bidding war for a $40 million mansion, Maison de L'Amitié, auctioned in Palm Beach. Trump won for $41 million, and sold it 4 years later for $95 million to billionaire Dmitry Rybolovlev. That was the last time Epstein and Trump were recorded to have interacted. By 2007, Trump reportedly banned Epstein from his Mar-a-Lago club for unseemly pursuit of young girls. The ban allegation was included in court documents filed by attorney Bradley Edwards, although Edwards later said it was a rumor he could not confirm. Epstein told Wolff in 2017: "I was Donald's closest friend for ten years", and Wolff opines after Trump's election Epstein feared Trump, because over their long friendship each had accumulated information that could incriminate the other. In August 2025 The Daily Beast published an article which claimed Epstein had remained a member at Mar-a-Lago for years after the date on which Trump had claimed to cancel Epstein's membership.
==== Association with Clinton ====
In 2002, a spokesman of Clinton lauded Epstein as "a committed philanthropist" with "insights and generosity". Epstein was on the board of Rockefeller University, a member of the Trilateral Commission and the Council on Foreign Relations, and a major donor to Harvard University. Epstein visited the White House while Clinton was president on four known occasions. In 1993, he went to a donor event at the White House with Maxwell. He also met with Clinton aide Mark Middleton on at least three occasions at the White House. In 1995, financier Lynn Forester discussed "Epstein and currency stabilization" with Clinton. Epstein traded large amounts in the unregulated forex market. In 1995, Epstein attended a fundraiser dinner for Clinton which included 14 other people including Ron Perelman, Don Johnson and Jimmy Buffett.
=== Notable criminal associates ===
Epstein associated with Harvey Weinstein, and they had a favourite outdoor table at a restaurant in the Hamptons. However, Epstein severed his relationship with Weinstein when the latter "acted too aggressively with one of his 'favorite girls.'"
=== Club memberships ===
Epstein was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1995 to 2009, the Trilateral Commission, the Rockefeller Institute, and the Institute of International Education.
=== Lolita Express ===
Epstein, who often is pictured with or in a Gulfstream G550 jet, owned company JEGE with which he chartered it, and owned a Boeing 727 and traveled in it frequently, logging "600 flying hours a year ... usually with guests on board." The jet was nicknamed the Lolita Express by locals in the Virgin Islands, because of its frequent arrivals at Little Saint James with underage girls.
Forbes reports that between 1990 and 2001, the Lolita jet was owned by Wexner, who then transferred it for an undisclosed sum to Epstein. Andrew Mountbatten-Windsor and Bill Clinton flew on Epstein's planes. Robert F. Kennedy Jr. was interviewed in the course of his 2024 bid for the presidency, and came clean about his travels with Epstein. In 2003, Epstein flew to Cuba with Colombian president Andrés Pastrana Arango at the invitation of Cuban president Fidel Castro. According the Miami Herald, Epstein was considering relocating to Cuba to evade US law enforcement.
Trump flew at least six times on Epstein's planes between 1993 and 1997. According to Michael Corcoran, Trump flew Epstein on his own airplane at least once. In September 2002, Epstein flew Clinton, Kevin Spacey, and Chris Tucker to Africa in this jet. Flight records obtained in 2016 show Clinton flew 27 times on the jet. In 2019, a Clinton spokesperson stated that, in 2002 and 2003, Clinton took four trips on Epstein's airplane, making stops on three continents, all with his staff and Secret Service detail.
=== Wealth ===
According to Forbes, most of Epstein's wealth between 1999 and 2018 came from $490 million in fees, (mainly from billionaires Leslie Wexner, $200 million, and Leon Black, $170 million) with the remaining $310 million reported as income by his companies from investment returns. Due to the US Virgin Islands' tax exemptions, his corporations saved $300 million in taxes and paid an effective tax rate of 4%, even though the top marginal tax rate was 39%. In 2025 Epstein's estate received $105 million in tax refunds.
Les Wexner was one source of Epstein's original wealth. An assistant of Epstein stated he got his fortune started through Robert Maxwell, the media mogul father of Ghislaine. When Epstein pleaded guilty in 2008 to soliciting and procuring prostitution, his lawyers stated he had a net worth of over a billion dollars. Several sources have questioned the extent of Epstein's wealth and his status as a billionaire. According to The New York Times, "Epstein's fortune may be more illusion than fact". He lost "large sums of money" in the 2008 financial crisis, and "friends and patrons"—including billionaire Leslie Wexner—"deserted him" following his pleading guilty to prostitution charges. New York magazine claimed "there's scant proof" of Epstein's "financial bona fides", and Forbes ran an article entitled "Why sex offender Jeffrey Epstein is not a billionaire."
Spencer Kuvin, an attorney for three Epstein victims, stated that "he and his team 'pursued every possible angle' to find out Epstein's net worth but found much of it to be offshore." An investigation by the Miami Herald of the Swiss Leaks documents indicated Epstein had financial accounts with millions of dollars in offshore tax havens. In the Paradise Papers, records showed that Epstein in 1997, became a client of Appleby, a Bermuda-based law firm which specialized in the creation of offshore companies and investment vehicles. A client profile of Epstein described his job cryptically as the "Manager of Fortune".
Federal prosecutors on July 12, 2019, stated in court documents that, based on records from one financial institution, Epstein had assets worth at least $500 million and earned more than $10 million a year. The extent of his wealth, however, was unknown, since he had not filled a financial affidavit for his bail application. According to Bloomberg News, "Today, so little is known about Epstein's current business or clients that the only things that can be valued with any certainty are his properties." The Miami Herald in their investigation of the Paradise Papers and Swiss Leaks documents concluded that Epstein's wealth is likely spread secretly across the globe.
In 2020, Epstein estate's finances revealed it had paid out nearly $50 million to more than 100 women who brought claims to the "Epstein Victims Compensation Fund" set up in the US Virgin Islands. By February 2021, the estate was valued at about $240 million, down from estimates of $630 million a year earlier. This prompted the attorney general of the US Virgin Islands, Denise George, to file an emergency motion seeking the immediate asset freeze. She contended in the court filing, which the victims joined, that the estate executors had "mismanaged" the money.
=== Residences ===
In a 2003 Bloomberg interview he said: "I can't be totally wacko in what I do. It affects lots of other people who will get angry with what I do because then it affects me again. But on my own island or on my own ranch, I can think the thoughts I want to think. I can do the work I want to do and I'm free to explore as I see fit."
==== Southern District of New York ====
Epstein owned the Herbert N. Straus House on 9 East 71st Street on the Upper East Side of Manhattan in New York City. It was originally purchased for $13.2 million in 1989 by Epstein's mentor, Les Wexner, who renovated it. Epstein moved into it in 1995 after Wexner married and moved with his wife to Columbus, Ohio, to raise their family. He took full possession of the mansion in 1998, when he paid Wexner $20 million. The house was valued in 2019 by federal prosecutors at $77 million, while the city assessed it at $56 million. The mansion is reputedly the largest private residence in Manhattan at 21,000 sq ft (2,000 m2).
Hidden under a flight of stairs, there is a lead-lined bathroom fitted with closed-circuit television screens and telephone, concealed in a cabinet under the sink. The house has a heated sidewalk to melt away the snow. The entrance hall is lined with prosthetic eyeballs made in England for injured soldiers.
Previous to his final Manhattan home at Herbert Straus House, Epstein resided in a spacious townhouse, which was a former Iranian government building taken over by the State Department during the Iranian revolution, at 34 East 69th Street. He leased it for a rate of $15,000 a month between 1992 and 1995.
Before the Herbert Straus house was sold to Epstein by Wexner, Wexner purchased in 1988 the adjacent townhouse at 11 East 71st Street. As in the case of the 9 East 71st Street house, Epstein was on the deed of the 11 East 71st Street house as the trustee. The 11 East 71st Street townhouse was sold in 1996 to the Comet trust, which as of 2019 held part of the assets of the de Gunzburg/Bronfman family. That same townhouse, 11 East 71st Street, was sold in 1998 to Howard Lutnick, Trump's secretary of commerce since 2025, who still owns the property as of 2025.
==== US Virgin Islands ====
Epstein owned two islands in the US Virgin Islands: Little Saint James, a private island near Saint Thomas in the US Virgin Islands purchased in 1998 which includes a mansion and guest houses, and the neighboring island of Great Saint James purchased in 2016.
It came to light after his second arrest that Epstein owned 50% of the American Yacht Harbour at Red Hook; the other half was owned by Trump associate Andrew Farkas. The partnership came about in 2007 when Epstein was having financial, regulatory and legal problems.
He structured two financial shells called Financial Trust Company (FTC) and Southern Trust around his activities there; this Trust's bank was JPMorganChase and the bank settled a lawsuit with the Attorney General there in 2022 for $105 million over allegations it helped a criminal enterprise to prosper. Epstein's Southern Trust "made fraudulent misrepresentations to the Virgin Islands Economic Development Authority regarding its qualifications for Economic development corporation tax benefits." The bank said the Trust obtained $300 million in tax credits, and paid the US Virgin Islands police. Epstein's estate was nearing settlement of another lawsuit filed by the Attorney General in March 2022.
According to Forbes, the FTC generated fee income from 2000 to 2006 of $300 million. FTC's main business was attentive to Wexner. After the two men fell out in 2007 and over the next six years, the FTC generated less than $5 million. The FTC was Epstein's primary source of income for the earlier period. According to Forbes the Southern Trust was attentive to the needs of Leon Black, and this trust business was set up in 2013 as the result of discussions between the principals. Southern Trust was headquartered at American Yacht Harbour, and was a "DSB-Providing extensive DNA database & data mining" according to government filings.
In 2023, Attorney-General of the US Virgin Islands Denise George was fired from her job by Governor Albert Bryan Jr. days after she filed charges against JP MorganChase over Epstein and his Southern Trust, which she characterized as a criminal enterprise. The wife of the Democratic governor of the USVI from 2007 to 2015, John de Jongh, was employed by the Southern Trust, in addition to being on the board of directors of the Jeffrey Epstein VI Foundation.
Stephen Deckoff, the founder of Black Diamond Capital Management, bought Epstein's islands in 2023 for $60 million.
==== Southern District of Florida ====
Epstein had a 14,000-square-foot, six-bedroom residence at 358 El Brillo Way in Palm Beach, Florida, which he purchased in 1990. It is two miles north of Mar-a-Lago and was bought for $18.5 million in 2021 by a property developer who demolished it and changed the address.
Ann Coulter maintains that the state attorney for Palm Beach in 2006, Barry Krischer, treated Epstein lightly after the police investigation turned up 17 girls who signed affidavits against him. Under Krischer, the state grand jury indicted him for solitication. After federal attorney Alex Acosta became involved, Epstein pled guilty to procuring a person under 18 for prostitution and was punished by day-release.
==== District of New Mexico ====
Epstein had a 7,500-acre (30 km2) ranch named Zorro Ranch near Stanley, New Mexico, purchased in 1993 for roughly $12 million.
==== Southern District of Ohio ====
Epstein owned a mansion outside Columbus, Ohio, at 5025 East Dublin Granville Road near Wexner's home, from 1992 to 1998, which he purchased from his mentor. It was there that he and Maxwell molested Marie Farmer who was prevented from leaving by his security guards, though that allegation was not tested in court because of the settlement that she signed with the Epstein estate before trial. In the event, she was rescued by her father 12 hours after her illegal detention.
==== France ====
Epstein possessed seven units in an apartment building near the Arc de Triomphe at 22 Avenue Foch in Paris.
==== Palm Beach residence gallery ====
==== Manhattan residence gallery ====
=== Offices ===
Epstein rented offices for his business dealings in the Villard House at 457 Madison Avenue. Steven Hoffenberg originally set up the offices for Epstein in 1987 when he was consulting for Tower Financial. Epstein used these offices until at least 2003. Around this time, Wolff saw the financier in his office, which in the past were the offices of Random House. Wolff noted that Epstein's offices were a strange place which did not have a corporate feel. Wolff stated that the offices were "almost European. It's old—old-fashioned, unrehabbed in its way." Wolff continued that "the trading floor is filled with guys in yarmulkes. Who they are, I have no idea. They're like a throwback, a bunch of guys from the fifties. So here is Jeffrey in this incredibly beautiful office, with pieces of art and a view of the courtyard, and he seems like the most relaxed guy in the world. You want to say 'What's going on here?' and he gives you that Cheshire smile."
Epstein rented multiple apartment units for his employees, models, and guests since the 1990s at 301 East 66th Street. Most of the apartment complex at this address is owned by Ossa properties, which is owned by Jeffrey Epstein's brother, Mark, who purchased the complex in the early 1990s from Wexner.
Over the years Epstein housed friends at 11 East 71st Street, including ex-girlfriend Eva Andersson, now married to his hedge-fund friend Glenn Dubin, and former Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak. He has housed some of his workers, including his pilot, housekeeper and office work staff, in the apartment complex. Epstein has housed underage girls. On August 6, 2012, a model and party promoter, who lived above another of the modeling agency's locations in Manhattan, died of what some consider to be a suspicious drug overdose.
=== Political donations ===
In 2002 Epstein said "I invest in people — be it politics or science. It's what I do." From 1989 until 2003, Epstein donated more than $139,000 to US Democratic Party federal candidates and committees and over $18,000 to Republican Party candidates and groups. Epstein contributed $10,000 to refurbish the West Wing of the White House in 1993, which bought him and Maxwell photos with Bill Clinton. He was noted for his contributions to senators Al d'Amato and George J. Mitchell.
Epstein contributed $50,000 to Democrat Bill Richardson's successful campaign for Governor of New Mexico in 2002 and again for his successful run for reelection in 2006. He contributed $15,000 to Democrat Gary King's successful campaign for Attorney General of New Mexico. He contributed $35,000 to King's 2014 campaign for Governor. Other contributions in New Mexico included $10,000 toward Jim Baca's campaign to become head of the land commission and $2,000 toward Santa Fe County sheriff Jim Solano's bid for reelection. In 2010, Epstein received a notice from New Mexico Department of Public Safety which said, "You are not required to register [as a sex offender] with the state of New Mexico." This was in contravention of federal law, which appears to say the conviction in Florida required him to register in New Mexico. In 2018, Epstein contributed $30,000 to Stacey Plaskett, the local Democrat Congresswoman of the U.S. Virgin Islands.
=== Alleged connections to intelligence agencies ===
Epstein was rumored in 2021 by Vicky Ward in Rolling Stone to be associated with intelligence agencies, and bragged to a journalist that he knew the owner of the African port of Djibouti so well that he could use it for contraband. Journalists Dylan Howard, Melissa Cronin and James Robertson linked Epstein to the Israeli Mossad in their book Epstein: Dead Men Tell No Tales. They relied for the most part on the former Israeli intelligence officer Ari Ben-Menashe. According to him, Epstein's activities as a spy served to gather compromising material on powerful people in order to blackmail them. There is a possible connection to the Mossad via Ghislaine Maxwell, whose father Robert Maxwell is said to have had contacts with the Mossad. Epstein's victim Virginia Giuffre alleged Epstein to be an intelligence asset, linking on Twitter to a Reddit page, that alleged Epstein was a spy, running a blackmail operation.
As US attorney in Florida, the later US secretary of labor Alexander Acosta reached a settlement with Epstein's lawyers in 2008, which allowed him to receive a light prison sentence. Acosta later reportedly stated that he was told that Epstein "belonged to intelligence" and that the issue was above his "pay grade". According to Acosta, he was pushed to give him a good deal. Former CIA director and diplomat William J. Burns met with Epstein three times. According to a CIA spokesperson, Burns hoped that Epstein would help him "transition to the private sector".
According to the Dossier Center, Epstein had ties at least as early as 2014 to Russian civil servant Sergei Belyakov, a graduate of the FSB Academy and sometime head of the St. Petersburg Economic Forum; during this engagement he advised Russian government circles on how to circumvent international sanctions against the country. According to journalist Michael Wolff, Epstein told him he flew at least once to Moscow, in 2017, to meet with Vladimir Putin, to whom Epstein bragged repeatedly about providing services in the final decade of his life. In 2020 reportedly his Belarusian "girlfriend" had yet to be investigated by Bill Barr's FBI.
John Mark Dougan was the deputy sheriff of Palm Beach County (where Epstein was first arrested) until his dismissal in 2009. He was then recruited by Russian intelligence and worked as a disseminator of disinformation on behalf of the Russian government. According to British media reports, Dougan may have come into possession of some of Epstein's kompromat, which he allegedly copied and handed over to Russia. Other intelligence agencies may also have obtained the material.
Ghislaine Maxwell told Todd Blanche in his July 2025 prison interview of her, that tales of Epstein's involvement with intelligence agencies during her relationship with him are "bullshit". Previously Maxwell maintained that Epstein's planes were "wire-tapped" for "leverage" and in conversation with Christina Oxenberg she speculated that the audio and video recordings could potentially incriminate co-conspirators and high-profile figures who were associates of Epstein.
According to emails that came to light in November 2025, an Israeli intelligence officer stayed at Epstein's apartment in Manhattan several times between 2013 and 2016. The emails also showed that Epstein was involved in the negotiation of security agreements between Israel and Mongolia and between Israel and the Ivory Coast. Epstein also attempted to establish a backchannel between the Russian and Israeli governments during the Syrian civil war.
=== Philanthropy ===
In 1991, Epstein was one of four donors who pledged to raise US$2 million for a Hillel student building Rosovsky Hall at Harvard University. In the 1990s Epstein donated $10,000 to the White House Historical Association. In 2000, Epstein established the Jeffrey Epstein VI Foundation, which funds science research and education. Prior to 2003, the foundation funded Martin Nowak's research at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. In 2003, Epstein pledged donations totaling US$30 million to create a mathematical biology and evolutionary dynamics program at Harvard which was run by Martin Nowak. The actual amount received from Epstein was US$6.5 million. Epstein was friends with and funded Gerald Edelman, Stephen Kosslyn, Danny Hillis, and Lawrence Krauss.
In 2019, Forbes deleted a 2013 article that called Epstein "one of the largest backers of cutting edge science" after The New York Times revealed that its author, Drew Hendricks, had been paid $600 to submit it falsely as his own.
According to attorney Gerald B. Lefcourt, Epstein was "part of the original group that conceived of the Clinton Global Initiative" and in 2006 he donated $25,000 to the Clinton Foundation.
Epstein co-organized a science event with illusionist and skeptic Al Seckel called the Mindshift Conference. The conference took place in 2010 on Epstein's private island Little Saint James. In attendance were scientists Murray Gell-Mann, Leonard Mlodinow, and Gerald Jay Sussman. The true extent of Epstein's donations is unknown. The Jeffrey Epstein VI Foundation fails to disclose information which other charities routinely disclose. In 2015, the Attorney General of the state of New York was reported to be trying to gain information but was refused since the charities were based outside of the state and did not solicit in New York State. According to a New York Times investigation, an Epstein-owned charity donated $2.3 million to former Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak between 2004 and 2006, and invested $1 million in a partnership with Barak in 2015. It was reported that Barak met with Epstein "dozens of times" from 2013 onwards.
Epstein, besides making donations through the Jeffrey Epstein VI Foundation, made charitable donations through his three private charities: Epstein Interest, the COUQ Foundation, and Gratitude American Ltd. According to federal tax filings, Epstein donated $30 million between 1998 and 2018, through these charities. Following his death, several scientists and institutions—including Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)—came under criticism for accepting money from Epstein, with some offering to give away money donated by Epstein.
==== Interest in eugenics and transhumanism ====
Beginning in the early-2000s Epstein developed an interest in "improving" the human race through genetic engineering and artificial intelligence, including using his own sperm. He addressed the scientific community at various events and occasions and communicated his fascination with eugenics. It was reported in 2019 that Epstein had planned to "seed the human race with his DNA" by impregnating up to 20 women using his New Mexico compound as a "baby ranch", where mothers would give birth to his offspring. He was an advocate of cryonics and his idiosyncratic version of transhumanism, and said he intended to have his penis and head frozen.
In response to the Jeffrey Epstein VI Foundation donations, Kathleen Hall Jamieson, director of the Annenberg Public Policy Center at the University of Pennsylvania said: "Scientists need funding for important work ... if the funding is for legitimate scientific work, there is nothing wrong with accepting support from a billionaire. However it would have been wrong for scientists to accept his funding if they were aware that he was planning a eugenics experiment that might draw legitimacy from his association with them." Professor George Church apologized for meeting Epstein after his 13-month sentence in 2009, saying: "There should have been more conversations about, should we be doing this, should we be helping this guy? There was just a lot of nerd tunnel vision."
=== Health and wellness ===
Epstein had recurring sleep issues. Deepak Chopra consulted for Epstein in relation to his sleep issues from 2016-19. In jail Epstein also experienced sleep issues and was given a continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machine.
Epstein is believed to have been partially under the care of the longevity doctor Peter Attia.
== Death ==
On July 23, 2019, Epstein was found injured and semiconscious at 1:30 a.m. on the floor of his cell, with marks around his neck. His cellmate, former New York City police officer Nicholas Tartaglione, who was awaiting trial for four counts of murder, was questioned about Epstein's condition. He denied having any knowledge of what happened. Correctional staff suspected attempted suicide, but did not rule out the possibility it was staged or that he was assaulted by another inmate. According to NBC News, two sources said that Epstein might have tried to hang himself, a third said the injuries were not serious and could have been staged, and a fourth source said that an assault by his cellmate had not been ruled out. After that incident, he was placed on suicide watch. Six days later, on July 29, 2019, Epstein was taken off suicide watch and placed in a special housing unit with another inmate. Epstein's close associates said he was in "good spirits".
When Epstein was placed in the special housing unit, the jail informed the Justice Department that he would have a cellmate, and that a guard would look into the cell every 30 minutes. These procedures were not followed on the night of his death. On August 9, 2019, Epstein's cellmate was transferred out, but no one took his place. Later in the evening, contrary to the jail's normal procedure, Epstein was not checked every 30 minutes. The two guards who were assigned to check his jail unit that night fell asleep and did not check on him for about three hours; the guards falsified related records. The two cameras in front of Epstein's cell were also claimed to have malfunctioned that night.
Epstein was found dead in his cell at the Metropolitan Correctional Center (MCC) in New York City at 6:30 a.m. EDT on August 10, 2019. The Bureau of Prisons said lifesaving measures were initiated immediately upon the discovery of Epstein's body. Emergency responders were called and he was taken to a hospital. On August 10, 2019, the Bureau of Prisons and US attorney general William Barr called the death an apparent suicide, although no final determination had been made. The United States Department of Justice's Inspector General's investigation report released on June 27, 2023, criticized jail officials for repeated "negligence, misconduct, and outright job performance failures" in connection with Epstein's incarceration and death. It also denied the suggestion that what happened was anything other than a suicide. In May 2025, the FBI announced plans to release surveillance footage from the night of Epstein's death, aiming to address ongoing conspiracy theories. Deputy Director Dan Bongino stated that the video clearly shows Epstein alone in his cell, with no evidence of outside involvement, reaffirming the official ruling of suicide.
=== Autopsy ===
On August 11, 2019, an autopsy was performed. It appeared likely that Epstein had thrown himself violently off the cell's top bunk, which would explain the damage he suffered, other than strangulation. The preliminary result of the autopsy found that Epstein sustained multiple breaks in his neck bones. Among the bones broken in Epstein's neck was the hyoid bone. Such breaks of the hyoid bone can occur from those who hang themselves from some substantial height, e.g. jumping from a chair into the rope, but they are more common in victims of homicide by strangulation. A 2010 study found broken hyoids in 25 percent of cases of hangings. A larger study conducted from 2010 to 2016 found hyoid damage in just 16 of 264, or six percent, of cases of hangings. Hyoid bone breaks become more common with age, as the bones become more brittle. Forensic pathologist Cyril Wecht noted that hanging by leaning forward would not result in broken cervical bones.
On August 16, 2019, Barbara Sampson, the New York City medical examiner, ruled Epstein's death a suicide by hanging. The medical examiner, according to Epstein's defense counsel, only saw nine minutes of footage from one security camera to help her arrive at her conclusion. Epstein's defense lawyers were not satisfied with the conclusion of the medical examiner and were conducting their own independent investigation into the cause of Epstein's death, including taking legal action, if necessary, to view the pivotal camera footage near his cell during the night of his death. Epstein's lawyers said that the evidence concerning Epstein's death was "far more consistent" with murder than suicide. Michael Baden, an independent pathologist hired by the Epstein estate, observed the autopsy. In October 2019, Baden said that Epstein had experienced a number of injuries—among them a broken bone in his neck—that "are extremely unusual in suicidal hangings and could occur much more commonly in homicidal strangulation." Baden stated that he thinks that the evidence points to homicide rather than suicide.
=== Final will ===
On August 18, 2019, it was reported that Epstein had signed his last will and testament on August 8, 2019, two weeks after being found injured in his cell and two days before his death. Until this time, Epstein had been depositing money in other inmates' commissary accounts to avoid being attacked.
=== Burial ===
Following the autopsy, Epstein's body was claimed by his brother Mark. On September 5, 2019, Epstein's body was interred in an unmarked crypt next to those of his parents at the I.J. Morris Star of David Cemetery in Palm Beach, Florida. The names of his parents were also removed from their crypt in order to prevent vandalism.
=== Investigations ===
Attorney General Barr ordered an investigation by the Department of Justice inspector general in addition to the investigation by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, saying he was "appalled" by Epstein's death in federal custody. Two days later Barr said there had been "serious irregularities" in the prison's handling of Epstein, promising: "We will get to the bottom of what happened, and there will be accountability." On August 14, 2019, Manhattan federal court judge Richard M. Berman, who was overseeing Epstein's criminal case, wrote to the Metropolitan Correctional Center warden Lamine N'Diaye inquiring as to whether an investigation into the millionaire's apparent suicide would include a probe into his prior (July 23) injuries. Judge Berman wrote that, to his knowledge, it has never been definitively explained what they concluded about the incident.
The national president of the Council of Prison Locals C-33, E. O. Young, stated that prisons "can't ever stop anyone who is persistent on killing themselves." 124 inmates killed themselves while in federal custody during the period 2010-2016, or 20 prisoners per year, out of an inmate population of 180,000. The previous reported inmate suicide in the MCC facility in Manhattan was in 1998. The union leader Young said it was unclear if there was video of Epstein's hanging or direct observations by jail officials. He said that while cameras are ubiquitous in the facility, he did not believe that the interior of inmates' cells was within their range. Young said union officials had long been raising concerns regarding staffing, as the Trump administration had imposed a hiring freeze and budget cuts on the Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP), adding: "All this was caused by the administration."
President Serene Gregg, of the American Federation of Government Employees Local 3148, said MCC was functioning with fewer than 70 percent of the needed correctional officers, forcing many to work mandatory overtime and 60-to-70-hour workweeks. In previous congressional testimony, Attorney General Barr admitted the BOP was "short" about 4,000 to 5,000 employees. He had lifted the freeze and was working to recruit sufficient new officers to replace those who had departed.
Epstein's attorneys asked Judge Berman to probe their client's death, alleging they could provide evidence that the incident resulting in his death was "far more consistent with assault" than suicide. One week after having signed his final will, it had been reported that at least one camera in the hallway outside Epstein's cell had footage that was unusable, although other usable footage was recorded in the area. Two cameras that malfunctioned in front of Epstein's cell were sent to an FBI crime lab for examination. Federal prosecutors subpoenaed up to 20 correctional officers concerning the cause of Epstein's death.
On November 19, 2019, federal prosecutors in New York charged Metropolitan Correctional Center guards Michael Thomas and Tova Noel with creating false records, and with conspiracy, after video footage obtained by prosecutors revealed that Epstein had, against regulation, been in his cell unchecked for eight hours prior to being found dead. On May 22, 2021, the two guards admitted they falsified records but were spared from any time behind bars under a deal with federal prosecutors. As part of a deferred prosecution agreement, on May 25, both officers pleaded guilty to falsifying records and conspiracy to defraud the United States. They were sentenced to six months supervisory release and were required to perform 100 hours of community service. On December 19, 2023, New York judge Loretta Preska ordered a list with names of more than 170 Epstein associates to be unsealed on January 1, 2024. Anyone on the list had until January 1 to appeal to have their name removed.
In February 2025, the second Trump administration's attorney general Pam Bondi stated that Jeffrey Epstein's client list was "sitting on my desk" for review, and in June, Elon Musk alleged that President Trump himself was in the Epstein files. On July 8, Bondi and FBI head Kash Patel announced that there was no client list, no evidence that Epstein had blackmailed anyone, that Epstein had killed himself, and released footage showing a partial view of a common area and obscured view of the stairs leading to Epstein's cell block—though that footage was not able to be independently verified. A minute was found missing from the footage soon after, where the clock jumps from 11:58:58 to 12:00:00. A Wired investigation found that the video had been modified despite the FBI's claim that it was raw, and that nearly three minutes were cut out of the video. CBS News cited an unnamed government official, who said that the video had been deliberately edited to remove a minute, and an unedited version is in possession of the FBI.
On July 15, 2025, Rep Thomas Massie submitted House Resolution 119-581, co-sponsored by Ro Khanna, to force the Department of Justice to release the Epstein files. The same pair announced on August 12 that they would bring a number of Epstein's victims to the Capitol on September 3, the day the House returns from August vacation. Massie told ABC's Jonathan Karl:
[this motion] would force a full release of the files. It has the force of law. It's not a subpoena. It's not a pretty please would you release the files. It's the force of law.. It's emblematic of the promise that President Trump brought with him to the White House, how he energized so many people who had checked out of the political system. He was going to be the guy who holds all the rich and powerful and politically connected people accountable, and that's why there's so much disappointment right now.
On August 25, 2025, the House Oversight Committee issued a subpoena to Acosta requesting his testimony in the Epstein file. His name was not in the initial batch of subpoenas the committee sent out earlier in August, which included Bill Clinton, Hillary Clinton and former attorneys general Loretta Lynch, Eric Holder, William Barr, Merrick Garland, Jeff Sessions and Alberto Gonzales. Acosta's testimony is scheduled for September 19.
On September 4, James O'Keefe published on Twitter an exposé on Deputy Chief Joseph Schnitt of DOJ Special Operations, in which the latter said that there were "thousands and thousands of pages of files" relating to Epstein and that the DOJ would "redact every Republican or conservative person in those files", while also "[leaving] all the liberal, Democratic people in those files." Epstein's brother Mark Epstein would allege much the same on November 17, stating he had heard from "a pretty good source" that a team in Virginia was "sanitizing" and "scrubbing the files to take Republican names out."
On November 12, 2025, Adelita Grijalva gave the final 218th signature to Thomas Massie's discharge position, forcing the creation of the Epstein Files Transparency Act.
== In popular culture ==
Epstein's death became the subject of widespread controversy and debate, with the belief that his death was a homicide becoming a popular meme.
=== Artworks ===
On July 1, 2020, a statue of Epstein was left outside the City Hall in Albuquerque, New Mexico as a satirical commentary on opposition to the removal of Confederate monuments and memorials.
A sculpture of Epstein frolicking with Trump titled Best Friends Forever was produced by an anonymous art group aliased "The Secret Handshake" in protest of their relationship. Its September 2025 debut at the National Mall made national news when the United States Park Police assigned with protecting the sculpture dismantled it.
=== Documentaries ===
HBO is creating a limited series on Epstein's life and death to be directed and executive produced by Adam McKay.
Sony Pictures Television is additionally developing a miniseries based on Epstein's life.
The Netflix documentary series Jeffrey Epstein: Filthy Rich premiered in May 2020.
The Lifetime documentary Surviving Jeffrey Epstein premiered in August 2020.
=== Film and television ===
In the season four finale of the CBS series The Good Fight, "The Gang Discovers Who Killed Jeffrey Epstein", the plot revolves around Epstein's death.
Footage of Trump and Epstein talking at the 1992 Mar-a-Lago party appears in the 2020 mockumentary comedy film Borat Subsequent Moviefilm, where the footage is shown inspiring Borat to gift his teen daughter to someone in Trump's inner circle (with Borat deciding on Mike Pence, and later Rudy Giuliani). Later in the film, one of Borat's children also changes his name to Jeffrey Epstein.
The Onion premiered in October 2025 a 20-minute satirical mockumentary, Jeffery Epstein: Bad Pedophile.
In the 2025 Smiling Friends episode "Le Voyage Incroyable de Monsieur Grenouille", a caricature of Epstein is briefly seen wearing "I'm with stupid" novelty t-shirts with Mr. Frog, a character that was a contentious television personality-turned-president of the United States.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
=== Articles ===
Brown, Julie K. (November 28, 2018). "Even from jail, sex abuser manipulated the system. His victims were kept in the dark". Miami Herald.
Brown, Julie K. (November 28, 2018). "For years, Jeffrey Epstein abused teen girls, police say. A timeline of his case". Miami Herald.
Brown, Julie K. (November 28, 2018). "How a future Trump Cabinet member gave a serial sex abuser the deal of a lifetime". Miami Herald.
Bruck, Connie (August 5, 2019). "Devil's Advocate: Alan Dershowitz's long, controversial career – and the accusations against him". The New Yorker. pp. 32–47.
Coaston, Jane; North, Anna (July 10, 2019). "Jeffrey Epstein, the convicted sex offender who is friends with Donald Trump and Bill Clinton, explained". Vox.
Sherman, Gabriel (July–August 2021). "The mogul and the monster". Vanity Fair. Vol. 730. pp. 60–65, 133–134.
Stewart, James B. (August 12, 2019). "The Day Jeffrey Epstein Told Me He Had Dirt on Powerful People". The New York Times. Retrieved August 12, 2019.
=== Books ===
Dylan Howard; Melissa Dylan; James Robertson: Epstein: Dead Men Tell No Tales. Simon and Schuster, 2019, ISBN 978-1-5107-5823-0.
Bradley J. Edwards; Brittany Henderson: Relentless Pursuit: My Fight for the Victims of Jeffrey Epstein. Simon & Schuster, 2020, ISBN 978-1-4711-9529-7.
Barry Levine: The Spider: Inside the Criminal Web of Jeffrey Epstein and Ghislaine Maxwell. Crown, 2020, ISBN 978-0-593-23718-2.
Julie K. Brown: Perversion of Justice. The Jeffrey Epstein Story. Dey Street, 2021, ISBN 978-0-06-300058-2.
Sarah Ransome: Silenced No More. Surviving My Journey to Hell and Back. HarperOne, 2021, ISBN 978-0-06-321371-5.
Whitney Alyse Webb: One Nation Under Blackmail: The Sordid Union Between Intelligence and Organized Crime that Gave Rise to Jeffrey Epstein. Trine Day, 2022, ISBN 978-1-63424-301-8. (online)
== External links ==
Jeffrey Epstein's Little Black Book (Epstein's first discovered redacted contact book)
Jeffrey Epstein's Other Black Book (Epstein's second discovered redacted contact book)
Jeffrey Epstein Flight Logs
2007 Non-prosecution agreement
State of Florida vs. Jeffrey E. Epstein (Criminal Information, 2008) Archived September 10, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
Jeffrey Epstein collected news and commentary at The New York Times
Collected news at the New York Daily News
FBI records
Epstein Indictment |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_(Swedish_band) | Ghost (Swedish band) | Ghost is a Swedish rock band known for combining costumed theatricality, heavy metal, and arena rock. Formed in Linköping in 2006, the band released their debut album, Opus Eponymous in 2010, which earned them international recognition. This was followed by Infestissumam in 2013 and in 2015 by Meliora, which reached number one in Sweden and number eight in the US. This was followed by the albums Prequelle in 2018 and Impera in 2022. The band's sixth studio album, Skeletá, was released in 2025; it subsequently became their first number one on the US Billboard 200 chart.
Known for their costumed on-stage presence, Ghost's members, except for the lead vocalist, are known as "Nameless Ghouls". The lead-singer has performed under the persona of "Papa Emeritus", a character known for its "demonic anti-pope" imagery, while changing this for subsequent tours.
In 2017, the identity of the lead singer was revealed to be Tobias Forge after several musicians who had worked with him on the Ghost project started legal action over royalties. The single, "Cirice", earned the band a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 2016, while they have been nominated for several Swedish Grammis awards.
== History ==
=== Formation and Opus Eponymous (2006–2011) ===
Ghost was formed in 2006, when future band leader Tobias Forge wrote the song "Stand by Him". He said, "I said that this is probably the most heavy metal riff that has ever existed ... When the chorus came to me, it haunted my dreams. Every time I picked up the guitar, I ended up playing that progression, and when I fit the words in, it seemed to cry out for a Satanically-oriented lyric." Forge then contacted his former Repugnant bandmate Gustaf Lindström to record the song.
In early 2008, the two entered the studio to record three songs: "Stand by Him", "Prime Mover" and "Death Knell". Afterwards Forge remarked to Lindström: "This definitely does not sound like two dudes that look like you and I". Thus Forge decided that they should be an anonymous "theater band", and use their love of horror films and "the traditions of Scandinavian metal" in the band's imagery. While other members of the band would wear black hooded robes and be called "Nameless Ghouls", Forge would go by "Papa Emeritus", dressed in Papal regalia and his face painted to resemble a skull. Forge then chose the name Ghost for the group. Initially Forge had no aspirations on becoming the band's vocalist, instead wanting to play guitar. He offered the position of lead vocalist to Messiah Marcolin, Mats Levén, Christer Göransson and JB Christoffersson, all of whom passed. As a result, Forge became the band's lead singer by default. On 12 March 2010, Forge posted the first three Ghost songs on MySpace and within two days was contacted by records labels and managers wanting to work with the group.
Ghost spent a few weeks in a basement studio in the band's hometown of Linköping recording their debut album. In June 2010, the band released their first single "Elizabeth". Ghost released their first studio album, Opus Eponymous, on 18 October 2010, on the independent record label Rise Above Records. The album earned them international recognition. The album reached number 50 on the Sverigetopplistan and was well received by critics, being nominated for the 2011 Grammis Award for "Best Hard Rock" album. Ghost played their first concert on 23 October 2010 at the Hammer of Doom festival in Würzburg, Germany.
Ghost supported gothic metal band Paradise Lost on their "Draconian Times MMXI" tour in April 2011. On 29 May, Ghost made their United States debut at the Maryland Deathfest. The band performed at Download Festival in Leicestershire, England, on 11 June. Following their performance, Phil Anselmo, lead singer of the band Down, performed wearing a Ghost T-shirt and invited three members of the band to join him on the main stage, where they performed Down's "Bury Me In Smoke" together. In December 2011, Ghost took part in the "Defenders of the Faith III" tour with Trivium, In Flames, Rise to Remain and Insense. The band then embarked on their first US tour, "13 Dates of Doom", beginning in New York on 18 January 2012, and ending on 2 February in Los Angeles. Afterwards Ghost joined Mastodon and Opeth as the opening act on the Heritage Hunter Tour throughout North America during April and May 2012. In June, Ghost received the award for "Breakthrough Band" at the Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards.
=== Infestissumam (2012–2014) ===
In February 2012, a Nameless Ghoul revealed that the band had completed writing their second album. Ghost entered the studio in October to record their second album in Nashville, Tennessee, with producer Nick Raskulinecz. The band had planned to record the album at the turn of 2012, but after starting their US tour in January, they were offered another tour immediately after. At the same time the band, their management and Rise Above Records all agreed that the group's next album should be released on a different label. Thus Ghost signed with Loma Vista Recordings in partnership with Republic Records—a division of Universal Music Group.
On 15 December 2012, Ghost played a show in Linköping, where they debuted a new song titled "Secular Haze", which was released online earlier that day. The band also released a cover of ABBA's "I'm a Marionette" with Dave Grohl. During the same show, the band introduced Papa Emeritus II as the successor to the first Papa Emeritus. On 20 December, the band announced that their second album, Infestissumam, would be released in early 2013. On 5 February 2013, the band announced a name change to "Ghost B.C." in the US for legal reasons. A Nameless Ghoul said: "B.C. is obviously a pun on 'Before Christ', but it's just an amendment. In our world, we're just gonna be called Ghost ... The B.C. is silent, and as soon as we can, it's gonna be taken away forever." They officially dropped the amendment from their name in 2015. From 23 February to 4 March 2013, Ghost toured Australia as a part of the Soundwave Festival.
Infestissumam was originally scheduled to be released on 9 April 2013, in the US, but the band could not find a US company that would manufacture the CD. Four US CD manufacturers rejected the job because the artwork for the deluxe edition of the album was described as "basically a 16th century illustration of an orgy." Rather than delay the album further, the band decided to use the artwork from the regular edition for the US pressings of the deluxe edition and announced the new release date of 16 April. All European copies and the US vinyl versions include the controversial artwork. Infestissumam charted in seven countries, including at number one in Sweden, eventually going gold. The album was also well received by critics, winning the Grammis Award and the P3 Guld Award for "Best Hard Rock/Metal Album" of 2013.
Ghost began their "Haze Over North America" tour on 14 April 2013, at the Coachella Festival, which continued until 18 May. On 27 July, Ghost began the "Still Hazing Over America" tour, which ended in Chicago at the Lollapalooza festival. Immediately after, Ghost toured South America supporting Iron Maiden and Slayer, which included a performance at Rock in Rio. In October 2013, Ghost opened for Avenged Sevenfold and Deftones on their US tour. In November, the band toured the UK with Alice in Chains, before a tour of Europe. On 20 November 2013, Ghost released the EP If You Have Ghost, consisting almost entirely of cover songs. It was produced by Dave Grohl of Nirvana and Foo Fighters fame.
In January 2014, Ghost received six nominations at the Loudwire Music Awards. From 17 January to 2 February 2014, the band toured Australia as a part of the Big Day Out festival. They then embarked on the "Tour Year Zero", which lasted from 17 April until 17 May 2014, in North America. In July, the band performed at the European Sonisphere Festival.
=== Meliora (2015–2017) ===
Ghost's third studio album, the follow-up to Infestissumam, Meliora was released on 21 August 2015. In an advertisement for the album that aired 28 May on VH1 Classic, it was announced that Papa Emeritus II was "fired" and that his successor Papa Emeritus III is his younger brother by a full three months. The song "Cirice" was released on 30 May, and won the 2016 Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance. Papa Emeritus III was officially unveiled with a debut performance in Linköping on 3 June 2015, where the band also performed new songs from the upcoming album.
The album was first promoted in August by a five date acoustic tour named "Unholy/Unplugged" of record shops in the US. Here Papa Emeritus III sported slicked-back jet black hair without his trademark mitre, and performed alongside the two guitarist Nameless Ghouls; accompanying them on the kazoo. A tour of the US titled "Black to the Future" began on 22 September and ran until 1 November. This was followed by a North America tour that took place in the spring 2016.
On 12 September 2016, the band released a new track on a radio show titled "Square Hammer" and a new EP, Popestar, was released on 16 September, the same day the Popestar Tour began. Following the conclusion of the North American tour that concluded on 12 November, was the European tour of the same name which started in late March and finished in late April 2017. They were the opening act for Iron Maiden on their 2017 North America tour from June to July 2017. A Nameless Ghoul stated that after the tour was over, they would be writing and recording the new album which they stated would be much darker than Meliora, with Tobias confirming in an interview that the fourth album would be released in 2018.
In early 2017, Tobias Forge was sued by former Ghost members Simon Söderberg, Mauro Rubino, Martin Hjertstedt, and Henrik Palm as part of a royalties dispute. The four, who left Ghost in 2016, filed the suit in the district court of Linköping, Sweden and accused Forge, who was in charge of the band's business affairs, of withholding financial information and payments to the other members. The former members also claimed that "Our vocalist and former friend is now attempting to, in an underhanded and shameless way, transform Ghost from a band into a solo project with hired musicians." Forge claimed that "no legal partnership" ever existed between the other members and himself; they were paid a fixed salary to perform and execute the band's image as he instructed as "musicians for hire". He also stated that he refers to Ghost as a solo project, "Even though I've never wanted it that way, but at the end of the day, that is what it is. I mean, I started it in 2006, and no one that was ever in the band in 2016 was even on the first record. Call it solo, if you want to, but I call it a project." The legal action against Forge is what revealed his identity.
On 24 August 2017, the band released their final music video from Meliora for their song "He Is". During the final show of the Popestar Tour on 30 September 2017, Papa Emeritus III was dragged off stage at the end of the performance. A new incarnation called "Papa Emeritus Zero" was introduced on stage, later named "Papa Nihil". The band released their first live album titled Ceremony and Devotion digitally on 8 December 2017, with a physical release following on 19 January 2018.
=== Prequelle (2018–2020) ===
On 13 April 2018, Ghost released a new single, titled "Rats", along with an accompanying music video. This marked the first release from the band, with their "new" frontman Cardinal Copia. Additionally, the band welcomed a new character, saxophonist Papa Nihil, extending Ghost into a septet. The album was titled Prequelle, and it was released on 1 June 2018. A second song, "Dance Macabre" was released ahead of the album on 17 May, and was later released as the album's second single.
To promote the album, Ghost began the Rats! on the Road tour in the US which ran from 5 May until 1 June. The band was an opening act for Guns N' Roses in Oslo, Norway on 19 July 2018.
Ghost began A Pale Tour Named Death in London, England, at Royal Albert Hall on 9 September 2018. A North American tour of the same name began later in the fall that year featuring two headlining arena shows in Los Angeles and New York City. An early 2019 European tour of the same name was announced on 10 September 2018. In March 2019, the band performed in Australia and Japan as part of Download Festival. Ghost was later announced as the opening act for Metallica's WorldWired Tour from May to August 2019. A second North American tour was announced on 1 April 2019, with Nothing More as support. A European tour at the end of 2019 with All Them Witches and Tribulation was announced on 8 July 2019.
The band released their second music video for the song "Dance Macabre" on 17 October 2018. A third music video, "Faith", was released on 20 December 2018 following the band's first North American leg of their tour.
Ghost announced their standalone single Kiss the Go-Goat / Mary on a Cross which was released on 13 September 2019 under the title Seven Inches of Satanic Panic. A video for "Kiss the Go-Goat" was released at midnight on September 12 as "Chapter 8" of their ongoing web series.
In an interview on 25 September 2019, Ghost confirmed that other than one show in Mexico City on 3 March 2020, there would be zero touring next year. The year would be spent working on a new studio album which is expected to be released at the beginning of 2021. At the final show of the tour in support of Prequelle, the band introduced the new frontman for the next album cycle, Papa Emeritus IV to which Tobias Forge had stated would be the next frontman.
=== Impera and film (2020–2024) ===
On 8 October 2020, Ghost confirmed that they would release their fifth studio album in winter 2020. There was a tour planned for March 2021, but it had been postponed to the fall of 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On the same day, the band was given the Music Export Prize of 2019 by the government of Sweden. On 21 October 2020, Ghost later announced that they would be entering the recording studio in January to begin recording the album for a late 2021 release. Ghost announced on their Facebook page on 30 December 2020, that 'several big things' were being worked on for 2021, indicating new music and live performances.
Papa Emeritus IV made his public debut on the Swedish television game show "På spåret" on 22 January 2021, joining alongside The Hellacopters to perform a cover of the Rolling Stones' "Sympathy for the Devil". Ghost later released a music video for "Life Eternal" on 3 March 2021, which featured live footage from the previous show in Mexico City the year before. Ghost became a featured artist on Metallica's tribute album The Metallica Blacklist which was released on 10 September 2021, in which they perform "Enter Sandman". On 30 September 2021, the band unveiled their single, "Hunter's Moon", which is featured on the soundtrack of the 2021 slasher film Halloween Kills.
In an interview on 30 October 2021, Forge announced that the concept of the album would be based on "the rise and fall of empires". On 20 January 2022, the band released the single, "Call Me Little Sunshine" as the second from their fifth studio album, Impera, which was released on 11 March 2022. On 2 March 2022, the band released the third single from the album, "Twenties". On 8 March, the band announced its sponsorship of the JD Motorsports No. 4 Chevrolet Camaro SS driven by Bayley Currey at the 12 March NASCAR Xfinity Series race at Phoenix Raceway. Ghost would later make an appearance on Jimmy Kimmel Live! to perform "Call Me Little Sunshine" which had previously been postponed due to touring commitments. On 27 July 2022, the band released a music video for the album's fourth single, "Spillways", which was rereleased in January 2023 with Joe Elliott as a featured guest.
Ghost kicked off on the Imperatour in the US from January to March 2022, co-headlining with Volbeat and Twin Temple. Ghost later announced a European tour of the same name on 23 November 2021, with Uncle Acid & the Deadbeats and Twin Temple joining as support. Ghost was featured as a headliner for Hellfest in Clisson, France on 18 June 2022. On 17 May 2022, the band announced the second North American leg with Mastodon and Spiritbox as opening acts. During an interview on 12 September 2022, Forge confirmed that there would be more touring in 2023, and later revealed further touring plans for Asia and Oceania, as well as stating that he was working on the follow-up for Impera. On 13 February 2023, the band announced that they would be touring the US again from August to September 2023, with Amon Amarth as special guests.
On 1 February 2023, the band temporarily hosted an archival exhibition in Los Angeles, in celebration of the band's "1969 era" which had featured Papa Nihil and other items from that era. Upon release of Chapter 16 in the band's web series, speculation began to spread that Papa Emeritus IV will be "killed off" at the end of the Imperatour, following the announcement of a second show at the Kia Forum in Inglewood. A South American leg was announced on 4 April 2023, which was the band's first time headlining in Brazil and Argentina, following reports that Ghost would release new music before their second European leg on the Imperatour. Prior to the second Europe leg, the band announced their fourth EP, Phantomime, a covers EP which was supported by a single of the band's cover of Genesis' "Jesus He Knows Me". The EP was originally set to be released on 18 May 2023, but was postponed to 19 May. Ghost later collaborated with actor Patrick Wilson and released a single of their cover of Shakespears Sister's "Stay", which was released on 7 July 2023 and featured in the 2023 film, Insidious: The Red Door.
On 7 September 2023, the band received its first platinum certification for the single "Mary On A Cross", from their EP, Seven Inches of Satanic Panic. After their performances in South America, the band concluded the Imperatour in October 2023 with three shows in Australia, in which the Brisbane performance on 7 October 2023 was the final show to feature Papa Emeritus IV. Forge later announced on 11 October 2023, that a Ghost movie was in the works, confirming that the Inglewood performances in September 2023 were filmed.
On 1 December 2023, Ghost released a compilation album titled 13 Commandments. This release marked the global release of Meliora Redux's exclusive track "Zenith" via streaming services, whereas before it was only available on physical formats. In an interview with Metal Hammer on 9 December 2023, Forge confirmed that work on the next studio album had begun, stating that a few songs had been written, and later acknowledged in a New Year's message that there was "lots to come" in 2024.
The band published a teaser for the movie on 4 April 2024. Without revealing the movie's title, the teaser depicted Papa Emeritus IV on stage and announced that the movie would be released worldwide soon. Later, the band revealed the film's name, Rite Here Rite Now, which was released on 20 June 2024. A single, "The Future Is a Foreign Land", was released on 21 June 2024, a day after the film was released. The soundtrack for the movie was released on 26 July 2024 through Loma Vista Recordings.
=== Skeletá (2024–present) ===
On 28 October 2024, the band announced a then-untitled world tour beginning in 2025, later called the "Skeletour". The tour began with its European leg from 15 April to 24 May, followed by the North American leg from 9 July to 16 August. The 2025 shows concluded in Mexico City on 25 September. The band had also confirmed that more dates would be announced.
Papa V Perpetua was revealed as the new frontman for Ghost on 5 February 2025. A month later, Ghost released the single, "Satanized", with an accompanied music video, as well as announcing the title of the sixth studio album, Skeletá, which was released on 25 April 2025. The album's second single, "Lachryma", was released on 11 April 2025. The album's third single, "Peacefield", was released on 22 April 2025. On 28 April, a music video was released for the song. In May 2025, the album topped the Billboard 200 album charts, driven by a combination of sales and streaming that "accumulated 86,000 "equivalent album units".
On 26 September 2025, the band revealed that the two shows in Mexico City were filmed for a future concert film. On 29 September 2025, a second North American leg for the Skeletour was announced for January to February 2026. In November 2025, "Lachryma" was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the upcoming 68th Annual Grammy Awards.
== Musical style and influences ==
Ghost's music has been categorized in many genres, including hard rock, heavy metal, arena rock, pop rock, doom metal, progressive rock, psychedelic rock, occult rock, shock rock, symphonic metal, and gothic rock.
Adrien Begrand of PopMatters stated that Ghost recalls "the early sounds of Black Sabbath, Pentagram, and Judas Priest, as well as the progressive and psychedelic rock of the late '60s." Speaking to Noisey.com, a Nameless Ghoul described Ghost as a black metal band in the traditional sense, but said that they probably do not fit into the norms of the current black metal scene. This Nameless Ghoul described Ghost's music as a mix between pop music and death metal.
In an interview, a Nameless Ghoul said they are influenced by "everything ranging from classic rock to the extreme underground metal bands of the '80s to film scores to the grandeur of emotional harmonic music." A member of the band said the Swedish and Scandinavian black metal movement of the early '90s plays a major role in their act, and said that each member has come from a metal background. However, the band has stated several times that they do not aim to be a metal band. For their second album, Ghost chose a more diverse songwriting style; a member said, "we tried to deliberately have every song have its own signature."
Only a few members actually write songs. The writers compose an acoustic outline of songs before other instrumentation is added so it sounds like a group, rather than being dominated by guitar. In 2017, Forge claimed that he was the main author of every song except "Year Zero" and "Zenith", which were Persner's ideas. Asked how he keeps Ghost's sound intact despite large lineup changes, Forge said he has to teach them to play like he does; explaining that while he is a good guitar player, he is only an "okay" drummer, bassist and keyboardist. So it is a matter of getting them to "underperform [laughs] together."
Their lyrics are often Satanic in nature; one Ghoul said, "the first album is about the forthcoming arrival of the Devil, spoken very much in biblical terms, much like the church will say that doomsday is near. [Infestissumam] is about the presence of the Devil and the presence of the Antichrist." However, the band has said several times their image is all tongue-in-cheek, citing that "We have no militant agenda. We are an entertainment group." The band uses humor during their shows. Infestissumam also deals with "how people relate to a deity or God, themes like submission and superstition, the horrors of being religious." Additionally, a Nameless Ghoul said the second album is about "how mankind—predominantly men—what they have deemed to be the presence of the Devil, throughout history and even nowadays. And that's why the record is so fueled with sexual themes and females ... the Inquisition was basically men accusing women of being the Devil just because they had a hard-on for them." The group's theatrics are influenced by Kiss, David Bowie and Alice Cooper, but a member said they are more influenced by Pink Floyd. A Ghoul later cited Death SS as an influence on their "gimmick" but not their music.
== Controversies ==
Ghost's Satanic theme has proven problematic for the group, especially in the US. While recording Infestissumam in Nashville, Tennessee, they were unable to find choral singers who would sing their lyrics, forcing them to record the parts in Hollywood. The group was unable to find a record manufacturer in the US to press the album because it featured artwork showing nudity, which resulted in a delay to the album's release. When one interviewer suggested that the band's music had become more "radio-friendly" and that they were being accepted into the US mainstream, a Nameless Ghoul replied that in the US their music was banned from major chain stores, most late-night television shows, and most commercial radio stations. He said, "So, yes, mainstream America is absolutely welcoming us with open legs." During an interview with Loudwire in October 2015, a band member stated that as of 2015, the US had become more accepting of their music and imagery, further evidenced by their appearance as the main musical guests on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert on 30 October 2015, during a Halloween-themed episode. This was Ghost's first live television appearance in the US.
Chicago heavy metal-themed restaurant Kuma's Corner added a hamburger called "The Ghost" to its menu in tribute to Ghost. Its recipe includes goat shoulder, red wine reduction, and a communion wafer. A local Catholic food blogger acknowledged that while the unconsecrated wafer is not the Eucharist, it is still symbolic, and that "it is a mockery of something that is holy". The restaurant's owner acknowledged the controversy and stated they respected religion while refusing to remove the burger, citing the First Amendment. To demonstrate his respect for opposing views, he also donated $1,500 to Catholic Charities of the Chicago Archdiocese.
== Members ==
Tobias Forge – lead vocals, guitars, bass, keyboards, percussion (2008–present)
Papa (2010–2017; 2020–present)
Emeritus I (2010–2012)
Emeritus II (2012–2015)
Emeritus III (2015–2017)
Emeritus IV (2020–2025)
V Perpetua (2025–present)
Cardinal Copia – vocals performance (2018–2020)
A Group of Nameless Ghouls – guitars, bass, keytars, drums, percussion, keyboards, organ, synthesizers, backing and choir vocals (2010–present)
Papa Nihil – saxophone (2018–2020; 2022–2023)
The members of Ghost mimic the Roman Catholic Church, but have reversed the image to worship Satan instead of the Holy Trinity. From 2010 to 2017, the band's instrumentalists, referred to as the "Nameless Ghouls", each represented one of the five elements, typically attached to their instrumental role; the lead guitarist was fire, the bassist was water, the keyboardist was wind, the drummer was earth, and the rhythm guitarist was ether, and wore their respective alchemical symbol on their instruments. With Meliora each Nameless Ghoul had all five elemental symbols embroidered on the right breast of their costumes, with the elemental symbol representing the individual Ghoul being highlighted to show the identity of the wearer. In 2018, the band's line-up was expanded to include a third guitarist, two female keyboardists referred to as the "Ghoulettes", and Papa Nihil on saxophone.
=== Papa Emeritus ===
The group's vocalist usually portrays the band's mascot character, a Satanic priest known as Papa Emeritus. There have been four different characters taking the name Papa Emeritus. They first welcomed the second Papa Emeritus on 12 December 2012, in Linköping. On 3 June 2015, the second Papa Emeritus welcomed his younger brother as the new Papa Emeritus in Linköping after being "fired" due to not performing his duty in overthrowing governments and churches. Papa Emeritus II and Papa Emeritus III were stated to only have a 3-month difference in age. On 30 September 2017 during a show in Gothenburg, Papa Emeritus III was dragged off stage by two men, who then escorted a new character, Papa Emeritus 0, to the stage to introduce the band's next chapter. Papa Emeritus 0 is portrayed as being significantly older than the previous Papas, making use of a walker and oxygen tank whilst walking on stage. On 19 January 2018, the band shared a video that features a character, implied to be Papa Emeritus IV, listening to Ceremony and Devotion on 8-track tape while critiquing Papa Emeritus III's vocal abilities. The character's face is hidden offscreen, but he is shown to wear red vestments similar to a cardinal priest. He was later revealed to be Cardinal Copia. At the final show of the tour in support of Prequelle, Papa Nihil had collapsed and "died", and Cardinal Copia became Papa Emeritus IV. Papa Nihil was later resurrected during the European leg of the Imperatour. In March 2025, the band announced in social media that Papa V Perpetua was to be their next frontman. All versions of Papa are actually the same vocalist, Tobias Forge.
Peter Hällje, a former bandmate of former Ghost member Martin Persner, claimed he designed the Papa Emeritus character in 2005, prior to the formation of Ghost. Hällje never performed as Papa Emeritus and agreed with Persner to let him use the character for his then-new band. His claim was later confirmed by Forge.
=== Cardinal Copia ===
In April 2018, it was revealed that the "new leader" of Ghost would be Cardinal Copia, who made his live debut with the group at a private acoustic show on 6 April; he is not a part of the Papa Emeritus lineage. Instead, Forge described the situation as "That's why we have a new guy," Forge explains. "The Cardinal is not the boss. He's just the toastmaster. A cardinal is junior to a pope figure. We still have Papa Emeritus [Zero, a.k.a. Papa Nihil] but he's passing on. He needs to teach the Cardinal to become a pope, to earn his skull paint."
Copia's costume consists of either cardinal vestments or a black or white tuxedo; he also sports a prosthetic mask with black eye makeup and multi-colored eyes, as with the prior Papa Emeritus characters.
In promotion for their 2018 US tour, a video showed that Papa Emeritus one through three had been killed and their bodies embalmed. In an interview the following month, Forge stated that unlike Ghost's previous frontmen, Cardinal Copia is planned to be around for about five years. The band also welcomed Papa Nihil, the first band member besides Forge to receive a character name. Originally introduced as Papa Emeritus Zero, Nihil is the ancestor of all previous Papa Emeritus characters, and after the "deaths" of his descendants, was the only surviving member of the Papa Emeritus lineage that we know of. During the final show of the tour in support of Prequelle, Cardinal Copia was "elevated" to become Papa Emeritus IV.
=== Identities ===
Anonymity is a major characteristic of Ghost; prior to 2017, the members had not publicly revealed their names, and the group's five instrumentalists are only referred to as "Nameless Ghouls". During signings, the Nameless Ghouls sign the merchandise by stamping their individual alchemical symbol, while Papa Emeritus signs with his stage name or the letters "P.E." One Ghoul said the idea that the band's members remain anonymous to gain attention is a misconception, and that the idea was to remove their personalities to allow their audiences to focus upon the artwork itself. He also said, "Had not the music been rocking, I don't think that people would have gone gaga just about our looks". In 2011, a Nameless Ghoul said, "We're often mistaken for roadies, which is helpful. We've almost been thrown out of venues we've played. Forgetting our backstage pass is a big problem." In early 2012, a member of the band said he enjoyed being an individual and that he could easily "step outside the bubble" when he wanted to. In May 2013, a Ghoul disclosed that they had started to reveal their membership in the group to their local friends and family "for house peace."
In an August 2013 interview with Jack Osbourne for Fuse News, a member of the band said that Dave Grohl has dressed up as a Nameless Ghoul and secretly performed with Ghost. In April 2014, a Nameless Ghoul revealed that the group has had several member changes through the years.
The Swedish Performing Rights Society was rumored to have Tobias Forge, vocalist of Swedish bands Subvision and Repugnant and former guitarist for Crashdïet (using the alias Mary Goore in the latter two), credited with songs as "A Ghoul Writer". All of the band's songs are credited to "A Ghoul Writer", causing people to suspect that Forge was Papa Emeritus. The online database for US-based performance rights society ASCAP, when having the name Tobias Forge entered into its search box, revealed all of Ghost's original songs (even though many of the tracks use the pseudonym "A Ghoul Writer" in the database itself) At the time, Ghost stated they would not comment on any rumors of their identities. Following a lawsuit in 2017, Forge's identity as Papa Emeritus was revealed.
In March 2017, Swedish musician Martin Persner of the band Magna Carta Cartel claimed in a short video clip that he was the rhythm guitarist, also known as Omega, from 2009 to July 2016. This marked the first time that someone has publicly identified themselves as a member of Ghost. A few months before Persner's announcement, the band recruited a new bass player who was suspected to be Lez Zeppelin bassist Megan Thomas, later confirmed by Forge. A lawsuit against Forge in April 2017 on behalf of four past members revealed their names, as well as the names of several more past members. When asked about the complete lineup change at the end of 2016, Forge stated that Ghost "was always sort of... I guess a Bathory sort of band, where there was people playing live, and the people playing live [were] not necessarily the same that played on the records." The lawsuit was dismissed by the court on 17 October 2018.
=== Timeline ===
==== Stage names / Character identities ====
As a band with a unique and complex theatrical presentation, the musicians in Ghost's live performances do not perform as themselves, but each play a character. Emphasis is placed on the singer, currently "Papa V Perpetua". The rest of the band are officially deemed "Nameless Ghouls" but there are general categories based on the roles of each of the "ghouls". The five classical elements of fire, earth, water, air, and aether were originally used to identify the ghouls with symbol patches on each ghoul's stage outfit, but with the touring cycle coinciding with the 2018 release of Prequelle, the live lineup expanded to include 7 ghouls, and thus the elemental symbols were no longer displayed or officially used.
As a general rule, Ghost does not directly identify any of the ghouls through their official accounts or spokespeople, but in recent years, they have become more relaxed in allowing this information to become public. Because of the band's long-standing practice of using NDAs, the ghouls are not allowed to discuss their involvement in the band publicly while they are active members, though the avid fanbase tends to deduce the ghouls' identities rather quickly once they have appeared on stage.
==== Real identities ====
== Discography ==
Studio albums
Opus Eponymous (2010)
Infestissumam (2013)
Meliora (2015)
Prequelle (2018)
Impera (2022)
Skeletá (2025)
== Concert tours ==
== Awards and nominations ==
American Music Awards
Bandit Rock Awards
Grammis Awards
Grammy Awards
iHeartRadio Music Awards
Kerrang! Awards
Loudwire Music Awards
Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards
P3 Guld Awards
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Ghost at AllMusic Ghost discography at Discogs Ghost discography at MusicBrainz
Official website
"Ghost First Video Interview". Metal Injection. Archived from the original on 27 June 2011. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nello_Formisano#:~:text=Aniello%20%22Nello%22%20Formisano%20(born,an%20Italian%20politician%20and%20lawyer.&text=Born%20in%20Torre%20del%20Greco,been%20also%20a%20SIAE%20representative. | Nello Formisano | Aniello "Nello" Formisano (born 10 June 1954) is an Italian politician and lawyer.
Born in Torre del Greco, Province of Naples, Formisano graduated in law and has been also a SIAE representative.
In the general election of 2001 he was elected senator in the uninominal constituency "Portici-San Giorgio" (in Campania) as member of The Daisy (with the support of The Olive Tree). In 2005 he left The Daisy to join the Italy of Values (IdV) party, led by Antonio Di Pietro.
In the general elections of 2006 he was re-elected to the Senate among the ranks of the Democrats of the Left (DS) in the Umbria region (thanks to an agreement between IdV and DS).
In the 2008 general elections he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, in the "Campania 1" constituency.
In 2012, following strong internal controversy within the IdV, Formisano and Massimo Donadi left the party and founded Rights and Freedom. This movement then merged into the Democratic Centre, a new centrist party founded by Bruno Tabacci, to which Donadi and Formisano also belong. In the general election of 2013 he was again candidate to the Chamber of Deputies, and he was re-elected. On 30 October 2014 Formisano decided to join the Italy of Values again.
Following the decision of IdV to support the re-candidacy of Luigi de Magistris as mayor of Naples, Formisano left the party again and joined to the Moderates of Giacomo Portas.
On 9 February 2017 he joined the Civics and Innovators group, while on 28 February of the same year he left the Moderates and the Civics and Innovators's group to join the Democratic and Progressive Movement.
On the occasion of the 2018 municipal elections he ran for mayor of Torre del Greco, but he was not elected.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goderich_35 | Goderich 35 | The Goderich 35, also known as the Huromic 35, is a Canadian sailboat that was designed by Ted Brewer of Brewer, Walstrom and Associates, as a cruiser and first built in 1977.
== Production ==
The design was built by Huromic Metal Industries Limited in Canada, but it is now out of production.
== Design ==
The Goderich 35 is a recreational keelboat, built predominantly of steel, with wood trim. It has a cutter rig sloop rig, a spooned raked stem, a plumb transom, a keel-mounted rudder controlled by a tiller and a fixed modified long keel, with a cutaway forefoot. It displaces 17,000 lb (7,711 kg) and carries 6,200 lb (2,812 kg) of ballast. The hull is made from steel, painted with urethane paint. Some of the boats were built with 37 foot LOAs, using an extended stern overhang and some were built with ketch rigs.
The boat has a draft of 4.75 ft (1.45 m) with the standard keel fitted.
The cutter staysail is mounted on a boom and the design uses no bowsprit.
The boat is fitted with a Swedish Volvo diesel engine of 24 hp (18 kW) for docking and maneuvering. The fuel tank holds 35 U.S. gallons (130 L; 29 imp gal) and the fresh water tank has a capacity of 75 U.S. gallons (280 L; 62 imp gal).
Below decks sleeping accommodation includes a bow "V"-berth, two main cabin settee berths and a pilot berth aft on the starboard side. The galley is located on the port side, at the foot of the companionway steps. It includes a three-burner stove and 14 cu ft (0.40 m3) icebox. The head is located forward and has a door for access from the main cabin and one from the forward cabin.
Ventilation is provided by five opening ports and five portlights, plus a main cabin hatch.
The steel hull is constructed from welded radius-rolled sheet steel used in the bilge area, in between flatter sheet steel in the sides and hull bottom.
== Operational history ==
Reviewer Richard Sherwood wrote in 1994, "this steel cutter is built in Canada. Stiffness comes from the beam, as the ballast is moderate. The ballast/displacement ratio is 37 percent. To minimize sweating, the hull is insulated with urethane foam."
Marvin Creamer, a geography professor from New Jersey did a circumnavigation in a Goderich 35, Globe Star, starting 21 December 1982 from Cape May, New Jersey, completing the voyage with use of any instruments, save an hourglass to determine watch lengths. The trip was completed on 17 May 1984, after 18 months, including 11 months at sea.
Another Goderich 35, Nomad, was built with aluminum construction for Ed Arnold in Washington state. It was shipped by road to the US east coast and he sailed it to Europe. On the return voyage Arnold sailed it around Cape Horn and on to Sitka, Alaska. He later used the boat to do a solo circumnavigation, intended to be non-stop. He completed it between 1 October 2001 and 6 September 2002, including a month for repairs at the Royal Cape Yacht Club in Cape Town after hitting an iceberg and a stop in Adelaide, Australia, to have his radar repaired.
== See also ==
List of sailing boat types
Similar sailboats
C&C 34/36
C&C 35
C&C 36R
Cal 35
Cal 35 Cruise
Express 35
Hughes 36
Hughes-Columbia 36
Island Packet 35
Landfall 35
Mirage 35
Niagara 35
Pilot 35
Southern Cross 35
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Burke#Paymaster_of_the_Forces | Edmund Burke | Edmund Burke (; 12 January [NS] 1729 – 9 July 1797) was an Anglo-Irish writer, philosopher, and politician who is widely credited as the founder of the cultural and political philosophy of conservatism. Regarded as one of the most influential conservative thinkers and political writers of the 18th century, Burke spent the majority of his career in Great Britain and was elected as a member of Parliament (MP) from 1766 to 1794 in the House of Commons of Great Britain with the Whig Party. His writings played a significant role in influencing public views and opinions in both Great Britain and France following the French Revolution in 1789, and he remains a major figure in modern conservative circles.
Burke was a proponent of underpinning virtues with manners in society and of the importance of religious institutions for the moral stability and good of the state. These views were expressed in his satirical work, A Vindication of Natural Society (1756). He also criticised the actions of the British government towards the American colonies, including its taxation policies. Burke supported the rights of the colonists to resist metropolitan authority, although he opposed the attempt to achieve independence. He is further remembered for his long-term support for Catholic emancipation, the impeachment of Warren Hastings from the East India Company, and his opposition to the French Revolution. In 1774, Burke was elected a member of Parliament for Bristol.
In his Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), Burke asserted that the revolution was destroying the fabric of good society and traditional institutions of state and society, and he condemned the persecution of the Catholic Church that resulted from it. This led to his becoming a popular leading figure within the conservative faction of the Whig Party which he dubbed the Old Whigs as opposed to the pro-French Revolution New Whigs led by Charles James Fox. Burke had a close relation with some of the public intellectuals of his time, including Samuel Johnson, David Garrick, Oliver Goldsmith and Joshua Reynolds. In his debates, he often argued against unrestricted ruling power and the importance of political parties having the ability to maintain a principled opposition that was capable of preventing abuse of power.
In the 19th century, Burke was praised by both conservatives and liberals. Subsequently, in the 20th century, he became widely regarded, especially in the United States and the United Kingdom, as the philosophical founder of conservatism, along with his ultra-royalist and ultramontane counterpart Joseph de Maistre. His writings and literary publications influenced British conservative thought to a great extent, and helped establish the earliest foundations for modern conservatism and liberal democracy.
== Early life ==
Burke was born in Dublin, Ireland. His mother Mary, née Nagle, was a Roman Catholic who hailed from a County Cork family and a cousin of the Catholic educator Nano Nagle, whereas his father Richard, a successful solicitor, was a member of the Church of Ireland. It remains unclear whether this is the same Richard Burke who converted from Catholicism. The Burgh (Burke) dynasty descends from the Anglo-Norman knight, William de Burgh, who arrived in Ireland in 1185 following Henry II's 1171 invasion of Ireland and is among the "chief Gall or Old English families that assimilated into Gaelic society" (the surname de Burgh (Latinised as de Burgo) was gaelicised in Irish as de Búrca or Búrc which over the centuries became Burke).
Burke adhered to his father's faith and remained a practising Anglican throughout his life, unlike his sister Juliana, who was brought up as and remained a Roman Catholic. Later, his political enemies repeatedly accused him of having been educated at the Jesuit College of St. Omer, near Calais, France; and of harbouring secret Catholic sympathies at a time when membership in the Catholic Church would disqualify him from public office per Penal Laws in Ireland. As Burke told Frances Crewe:
Mr. Burke's Enemies often endeavoured to convince the World that he had been bred up in the Catholic Faith, & that his Family were of it, & that he himself had been educated at St. Omer—but this was false, as his father was a regular practitioner of the Law at Dublin, which he could not be unless of the Established Church: & it so happened that though Mr. B was twice at Paris, he never happened to go through the Town of St. Omer.
After being elected to the House of Commons, Burke took the required oath of allegiance and abjuration, the oath of supremacy and the declaration against transubstantiation.
As a child, Burke sometimes spent time away from the unhealthy air of Dublin with his mother's family near Killavullen in the Blackwater Valley in County Cork. He received his early education at a Quaker school in Ballitore, County Kildare, some 67 kilometres (42 mi) from Dublin; and possibly like his cousin Nano Nagle at a hedge school near Killavullen. He remained in correspondence with his schoolmate from there, Mary Leadbeater, the daughter of the school's owner, throughout his life.
In 1744, Burke started at Trinity College Dublin, a Protestant establishment which up until 1793 did not permit Catholics to take degrees. In 1747, he set up a debating society, Edmund Burke's Club, which in 1770 merged with Trinity's Historical Club to form the College Historical Society, the oldest undergraduate society in the world. The minutes of the meetings of Burke's Club remain in the collection of the Historical Society. Burke graduated from Trinity in 1748. Burke's father wanted him to read Law and with this in mind, he went to London in 1750, where he entered the Middle Temple, before soon giving up legal study to travel in Continental Europe. After eschewing the Law, he pursued a livelihood through writing.
== Early writing ==
The late Lord Bolingbroke's Letters on the Study and Use of History was published in 1752 and his collected works appeared in 1754. This provoked Burke into writing his first published work, A Vindication of Natural Society: A View of the Miseries and Evils Arising to Mankind, appearing in Spring 1756. Burke imitated Bolingbroke's style and ideas in a reductio ad absurdum of his arguments for deistic rationalism in order to demonstrate their absurdity.
Burke claimed that Bolingbroke's arguments against revealed religion could apply to all social and civil institutions as well. Lord Chesterfield and Bishop Warburton as well as others initially thought that the work was genuinely by Bolingbroke rather than a satire. All the reviews of the work were positive, with critics especially appreciative of Burke's quality of writing. Some reviewers failed to notice the ironic nature of the book which led to Burke stating in the preface to the second edition (1757) that it was a satire.
Richard Hurd believed that Burke's imitation was near-perfect and that this defeated his purpose, arguing that an ironist "should take care by a constant exaggeration to make the ridicule shine through the Imitation. Whereas this Vindication is everywhere enforc'd, not only in the language, and on the principles of L. Bol., but with so apparent, or rather so real an earnestness, that half his purpose is sacrificed to the other". A minority of scholars have taken the position that in fact Burke did write the Vindication in earnest, later disowning it only for political reasons.
In 1757, Burke published a treatise on aesthetics titled A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful that attracted the attention of prominent Continental thinkers such as Denis Diderot and Immanuel Kant. It was his only purely philosophical work, completed in 1753. When asked by Sir Joshua Reynolds and French Laurence to expand it thirty years later, Burke replied that he was no longer fit for abstract speculation.
On 25 February 1757, Burke signed a contract with Robert Dodsley to write a "history of England from the time of Julius Caesar to the end of the reign of Queen Anne", its length being eighty quarto sheets (640 pages), nearly 400,000 words. It was to be submitted for publication by Christmas 1758. Burke completed the work to the year 1216 and stopped; it was not published until after Burke's death, in an 1812 collection of his works, An Essay Towards an Abridgement of the English History. G. M. Young did not value Burke's history and claimed that it was "demonstrably a translation from the French". On commenting on the story that Burke stopped his history because David Hume published his, Lord Acton said "it is ever to be regretted that the reverse did not occur".
During the year following that contract, Burke founded with Dodsley the influential Annual Register, a publication in which various authors evaluated the international political events of the previous year. The extent to which Burke contributed to the Annual Register is unclear. In his biography of Burke, Robert Murray quotes the Register as evidence of Burke's opinions, yet Philip Magnus in his biography does not cite it directly as a reference. Burke remained the chief editor of the publication until at least 1789 and there is no evidence that any other writer contributed to it before 1766.
On 12 March 1757, Burke married Jane Mary Nugent (1734–1812), daughter of Dr. Christopher Nugent, a Catholic physician who had provided him with medical treatment at Bath. Their son Richard was born on 9 February 1758 while a second son, Christopher (born that December), died in infancy. Burke also helped raise a ward, Edmund Nagle (later Admiral Sir Edmund Nagle), the son of a maternal cousin orphaned in 1763.
At about this same time, Burke was introduced to William Gerard Hamilton (known as "Single-speech Hamilton"). When Hamilton was appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland, Burke accompanied him to Dublin as his private secretary, a position he held for three years. In 1765, Burke became private secretary to the liberal Whig politician Charles, Marquess of Rockingham, then Prime Minister of Great Britain, who remained Burke's close friend and associate until his death in 1782.
== Member of Parliament ==
In December 1765, Burke entered the House of Commons of the British Parliament as Member for Wendover in Buckinghamshire, a pocket borough in the gift of Lord Fermanagh, later 2nd Earl Verney and a close political ally of Rockingham. After Burke delivered his maiden speech, William Pitt the Elder said he had "spoken in such a manner as to stop the mouths of all Europe" and that the Commons should congratulate itself on acquiring such a Member.
The first great subject Burke addressed was the controversy with the American colonies which soon developed into war and ultimate separation. In reply to the 1769 Grenvillite pamphlet The Present State of the Nation, he published his own pamphlet titled Observations on a Late State of the Nation. Surveying the finances of France, Burke predicts "some extraordinary convulsion in that whole system".
During the same year, with mostly borrowed money, Burke purchased Gregories, a 600-acre (2.4 km2) estate near Beaconsfield. Although the estate included saleable assets such as art works by Titian, Gregories proved a heavy financial burden in the following decades and Burke was never able to repay its purchase price in full. His speeches and writings, having made him famous, led to the suggestion that he was the author of the Letters of Junius.
At about this time, Burke joined the circle of leading intellectuals and artists in London of whom Samuel Johnson was the central luminary. This circle also included David Garrick, Oliver Goldsmith and Joshua Reynolds. Edward Gibbon described Burke as "the most eloquent and rational madman that I ever knew". Although Johnson admired Burke's brilliance, he found him a dishonest politician.
Burke took a leading role in the debate regarding the constitutional limits to the executive authority of the king. He argued strongly against unrestrained royal power and for the role of political parties in maintaining a principled opposition capable of preventing abuses, either by the monarch or by specific factions within the government. His most important publication in this regard was his Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents of 23 April 1770. Burke identified the "discontents" as stemming from the "secret influence" of a neo-Tory group he labelled as the "king's friends", whose system "comprehending the exterior and interior administrations, is commonly called, in the technical language of the Court, Double Cabinet". Britain needed a party with "an unshaken adherence to principle, and attachment to connexion, against every allurement of interest". Party divisions, "whether operating for good or evil, are things inseparable from free government".
During 1771, Burke wrote a bill that would have given juries the right to determine what was libel, if passed. Burke spoke in favour of the bill, but it was opposed by some, including Charles James Fox, not becoming law. When introducing his own bill in 1791 in opposition, Fox repeated almost verbatim the text of Burke's bill without acknowledgement. Burke was prominent in securing the right to publish debates held in Parliament.
Speaking in a Parliamentary debate on the prohibition on the export of grain on 16 November 1770, Burke argued in favour of a free market in corn: "There are no such things as a high, & a low price that is encouraging, & discouraging; there is nothing but a natural price, which grain brings at an universal market". In 1772, Burke was instrumental in the passing of the Repeal of Certain Laws Act 1772 which repealed various old laws against dealers and forestallers in corn.
In the Annual Register for 1772 (published in July 1773), Burke condemned the partition of Poland. He saw it as "the first very great breach in the modern political system of Europe" and as upsetting the balance of power in Europe.
On 3 November 1774, Burke was elected Member for Bristol, at the time "England's second city" with a large constituency in a genuine electoral contest. At the conclusion of the poll, he made his Speech to the Electors of Bristol at the Conclusion of the Poll, a remarkable disclaimer of the constituent-imperative form of democracy, for which he substituted his statement of the "representative mandate" form. He failed to win re-election for that seat in the subsequent 1780 general election.
In May 1778, Burke supported a Parliamentary motion revising restrictions on Irish trade. His constituents, citizens of the great trading city of Bristol, urged Burke to oppose free trade with Ireland. Burke resisted their protestations and said: "If, from this conduct, I shall forfeit their suffrages at an ensuing election, it will stand on record an example to future representatives of the Commons of England, that one man at least had dared to resist the desires of his constituents when his judgment assured him they were wrong."
Burke published Two Letters to Gentlemen of Bristol on the Bills relative to the Trade of Ireland in which he espoused "some of the chief principles of commerce; such as the advantage of free intercourse between all parts of the same kingdom ... the evils attending restriction and monopoly ... and that the gain of others is not necessarily our loss, but on the contrary an advantage by causing a greater demand for such wares as we have for sale."
Burke also supported the attempts of Sir George Savile to repeal some of the penal laws against Catholics. Burke also called capital punishment "the Butchery which we call justice" in 1776 and in 1780 condemned the use of the pillory for two men convicted for attempting to practice sodomy.
This support for unpopular causes, notably free trade with Ireland and Catholic emancipation, led to Burke losing his seat in 1780. For the remainder of his Parliamentary career, Burke represented Malton, another pocket borough under the Marquess of Rockingham's patronage.
== American War of Independence ==
Burke expressed his support for the grievances of the American Thirteen Colonies under the government of King George III and his appointed representatives. On 19 April 1774, Burke made a speech, "On American Taxation" (published in January 1775), on a motion to repeal the tea duty:
Again and again, revert to your old principles—seek peace and ensue it; leave America, if she has taxable matter in her, to tax herself. I am not here going into the distinctions of rights, nor attempting to mark their boundaries. I do not enter into these metaphysical distinctions; I hate the very sound of them. Leave the Americans as they anciently stood, and these distinctions, born of our unhappy contest, will die along with it .... Be content to bind America by laws of trade; you have always done it .... Do not burthen them with taxes.... But if intemperately, unwisely, fatally, you sophisticate and poison the very source of government by urging subtle deductions, and consequences odious to those you govern, from the unlimited and illimitable nature of supreme sovereignty, you will teach them by these means to call that sovereignty itself in question .... If that sovereignty and their freedom cannot be reconciled, which will they take? They will cast your sovereignty in your face. No body of men will be argued into slavery.
On 22 March 1775, Burke delivered in the House of Commons a speech (published in May 1775) on reconciliation with America. Burke appealed for peace as preferable to civil war and reminded the House of Commons of America's growing population, its industry and its wealth. He warned against the notion that the Americans would back down in the face of force since most Americans were of British descent:
[T]he people of the colonies are descendants of Englishmen.... They are therefore not only devoted to liberty, but to liberty according to English ideas and on English principles. The people are Protestants ... a persuasion not only favourable to liberty, but built upon it .... My hold of the colonies is in the close affection which grows from common names, from kindred blood, from similar privileges, and equal protection. These are ties which, though light as air, are as strong as links of iron. Let the colonies always keep the idea of their civil rights associated with your government—they will cling and grapple to you, and no force under heaven will be of power to tear them from their allegiance. But let it be once understood that your government may be one thing and their privileges another, that these two things may exist without any mutual relation—the cement is gone, the cohesion is loosened, and everything hastens to decay and dissolution. As long as you have the wisdom to keep the sovereign authority of this country as the sanctuary of liberty, the sacred temple consecrated to our common faith, wherever the chosen race and sons of England worship freedom, they will turn their faces towards you. The more they multiply, the more friends you will have; the more ardently they love liberty, the more perfect will be their obedience. Slavery they can have anywhere. It is a weed that grows in every soil. They may have it from Spain, they may have it from Prussia. But, until you become lost to all feeling of your true interest and your natural dignity, freedom they can have from none but you.
Burke prized peace with America above all else, pleading with the House of Commons to remember that the interest by way of money received from the American colonies was far more attractive than any sense of putting the colonists in their place:
The proposition is peace. Not peace through the medium of war, not peace to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations, not peace to arise out of universal discord ... [I]t is simple peace, sought in its natural course and in its ordinary haunts. It is peace sought in the spirit of peace, and laid in principles purely pacific.
Burke was not merely presenting a peace agreement to Parliament, but rather he stepped forward with four reasons against using force, carefully reasoned. He laid out his objections in an orderly manner, focusing on one before moving to the next. His first concern was that the use of force would have to be temporary and that the uprisings and objections to British governance in Colonial America would not be. Second, Burke worried about the uncertainty surrounding whether Britain would win a conflict in America. "An armament," Burke said, "is not a victory." Third, Burke brought up the issue of impairment, stating that it would do the British government no good to engage in a scorched earth war and have the object they desired (America) become damaged or even useless. The American colonists could always retreat into the mountains, but the land they left behind would most likely be unusable, whether by accident or design. The fourth and final reason to avoid the use of force was experience, as the British had never attempted to rein in an unruly colony by force and they did not know if it could be done, let alone accomplished thousands of miles away from home. Not only were all of these concerns reasonable, but some turned out to be prophetic—the American colonists did not surrender, even when things looked extremely bleak and the British were ultimately unsuccessful in their attempts to win a war fought on American soil.
It was not temporary force, uncertainty, impairment, or even experience that Burke cited as the primary reason for avoiding war with the American colonies. Rather, it was the character of the American people themselves: "In this character of Americans, a love of freedom is the predominating feature which marks and distinguishes the whole ... [T]his fierce spirit of liberty is stronger in the English colonies, probably, than in any other people of the earth ... [The] men [are] acute, inquisitive, dextrous, prompt in attack, ready in defence, full of resources." Burke concludes with another plea for peace and a prayer that Britain might avoid actions which in Burke's words "may bring on the destruction of this Empire."
Burke proposed six resolutions to settle the American conflict peacefully:
Allow the American colonists to elect their own representatives, settling the dispute about taxation without representation.
Acknowledge this wrongdoing and apologise for grievances caused.
Procure an efficient manner of choosing and sending these delegates.
Set up a General Assembly in America itself, with powers to regulate taxes.
Stop gathering taxes by imposition (or law) and start gathering them only when they are needed.
Grant needed aid to the colonies.
Had they been passed, though the effect of these resolutions can never be known, they might have quelled the colonials' revolutionary spirit. Unfortunately, Burke delivered this speech less than a month before the explosive conflict at Concord and Lexington. As these resolutions were not enacted, little was done that would help to prevent armed conflict.
Among the reasons this speech was so greatly admired was its passage on Lord Bathurst (1684–1775) in which Burke describes an angel in 1704 prophesying to Bathurst the future greatness of England and also of America: "Young man, There is America—which at this day serves little more than to amuse you with stories of savage men, and uncouth manners; yet shall, before you taste of death, shew itself equal to the whole of that commerce which now attracts the envy of the world." Samuel Johnson was so irritated at hearing it continually praised that he made a parody of it, where the devil appears to a young Whig and predicts that in a short time Whiggism will poison even the paradise of America.
The administration of Lord North (1770–1782) tried to defeat the colonist rebellion by military force. British and American forces clashed in 1775 and in 1776 came the United States Declaration of Independence. Burke was appalled by celebrations in Britain of the defeat of the Americans in New York and Pennsylvania. He claimed the English national character was being changed by this authoritarianism. Burke wrote: "As to the good people of England, they seem to partake every day more and more of the Character of that administration which they have been induced to tolerate. I am satisfied, that within a few years there has been a great Change in the National Character. We seem no longer that eager, inquisitive, jealous, fiery people, which we have been formerly."
In Burke's view, the British government was fighting "the American English" ("our English Brethren in the Colonies"), employing "the hireling sword of German boors and vassals" to destroy the "English privileges" of the colonists. On American independence, Burke wrote: "I do not know how to wish success to those whose Victory is to separate from us a large and noble part of our Empire. Still less do I wish success to injustice, oppression and absurdity."
During the Gordon Riots in 1780, Burke became a target of hostility and his home was placed under armed guard by the military.
== Paymaster of the Forces ==
The fall of North led to Rockingham being recalled to power in March 1782. Burke was appointed Paymaster of the Forces and a Privy Counsellor, but without a seat in Cabinet. Rockingham's unexpected death in July 1782 and replacement with Shelburne as Prime Minister put an end to his administration after only a few months, but Burke did manage to introduce two Acts.
The Paymaster General Act 1782 ended the post as a lucrative sinecure. Previously, Paymasters had been able to draw on money from HM Treasury at their discretion. Instead, now they were required to put the money they had requested to withdraw from the Treasury into the Bank of England, from where it was to be withdrawn for specific purposes. The Treasury would receive monthly statements of the Paymaster's balance at the Bank. This Act was repealed by Shelburne's administration, but the Act that replaced it repeated verbatim almost the whole text of the Burke Act.
The Civil List and Secret Service Money Act 1782 was a watered-down version of Burke's original intentions as outlined in his famous Speech on Economical Reform of 11 February 1780. However, he managed to abolish 134 offices in the royal household and civil administration. The third Secretary of State and the Board of Trade were abolished and pensions were limited and regulated. The Act was anticipated to save £72,368 a year.
In February 1783, Burke resumed the post of Paymaster of the Forces when Shelburne's government fell and was replaced by a coalition headed by North that included Charles James Fox. That coalition fell in 1783 and was succeeded by the long Tory administration of William Pitt the Younger which lasted until 1801. Accordingly, having supported Fox and North, Burke was in opposition for the remainder of his political life.
== Representative government ==
In 1774, Burke's Speech to the Electors at Bristol at the Conclusion of the Poll was noted for its defence of the principles of representative government against the notion that those elected to assemblies like Parliament are, or should be, merely delegates:
Certainly, Gentlemen, it ought to be the happiness and glory of a Representative, to live in the strictest union, the closest correspondence, and the most unreserved communication with his constituents. Their wishes ought to have great weight with him; their opinion, high respect; their business, unremitted attention. It is his duty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasures, his satisfactions, to theirs; and above all, ever, and in all cases, to prefer their interest to his own. But his unbiassed opinion, his mature judgment, his enlightened conscience, he ought not to sacrifice to you, to any man, or to any sett of men living. These he does not derive from your pleasure; no, nor from the Law and the Constitution. They are a trust from Providence, for the abuse of which he is deeply answerable. Your Representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgment; and he betrays, instead of serving you, if he sacrifices it to your opinion.My worthy Colleague says, his Will ought to be subservient to yours. If that be all, the thing is innocent. If Government were a matter of Will upon any side, yours, without question, ought to be superior. But Government and Legislation are matters of reason and judgement, and not of inclination; and, what sort of reason is that, in which the determination precedes the discussion; in which one sett of men deliberate, and another decide; and where those who form the conclusion are perhaps three hundred miles distant from those who hear the arguments?To deliver an opinion is the right of all men; that of constituents is a weighty and respectable opinion which a Representative ought always to rejoice to hear; and which he ought always most seriously to consider. But authoritative instructions; mandates issued, which the member is bound blindly and implicitly to obey, to vote, and to argue for, though contrary to the clearest conviction of his judgment and conscience; these are things utterly unknown to the laws of this land, and which arise from a fundamental mistake of the whole order and tenour of our constitution.Parliament is not a congress of ambassadors from different and hostile interests; which interests each must maintain, as an agent and advocate, against other agents and advocates; but Parliament is a deliberative assembly of one nation, with one interest, that of the whole; where, not local purposes, not local prejudices ought to guide, but the general good, resulting from the general reason of the whole. You choose a member, indeed; but when you have chosen him, he is not a member of Bristol, but he is a member of Parliament.
It is often forgotten in this connection that Burke, as detailed below, was an opponent of slavery, and therefore his conscience was refusing to support a trade in which many of his Bristol electors were lucratively involved.
Political scientist Hanna Pitkin points out that Burke linked the interest of the district with the proper behaviour of its elected official, explaining: "Burke conceives of broad, relatively fixed interest, few in number and clearly defined, of which any group or locality has just one. These interests are largely economic or associated with particular localities whose livelihood they characterize, in his over-all prosperity they involve".
Burke was a leading sceptic with respect to democracy. While admitting that theoretically in some cases it might be desirable, he insisted a democratic government in Britain in his day would not only be inept, but also oppressive. He opposed democracy for three basic reasons. First, government required a degree of intelligence and breadth of knowledge of the sort that occurred rarely among the common people. Second, he thought that if they had the vote, common people had dangerous and angry passions that could be aroused easily by demagogues, fearing that the authoritarian impulses that could be empowered by these passions would undermine cherished traditions and established religion, leading to violence and confiscation of property. Third, Burke warned that democracy would create a tyranny over unpopular minorities, who needed the protection of the upper classes.
== Opposition to the slave trade ==
Burke proposed a bill to ban slaveholders from being able to sit in the House of Commons, claiming they were a danger incompatible with traditional notions of English liberty. He described slavery as a "weed that grows on every soil. While Burke did believe that Africans were "barbaric" and needed to be "civilised" by Christianity, Gregory Collins argues that this was not an unusual attitude amongst abolitionists at the time. Furthermore, Burke seemed to believe that Christianity would provide a civilising benefit to any group of people, as he believed Christianity had "tamed" European civilisation and regarded Southern European peoples as equally savage and barbarous. Collins also suggests that Burke viewed the "uncivilised" behaviour of African slaves as being partially caused by slavery itself, as he believed that making someone a slave stripped them of any virtues and rendered them mentally deficient, regardless of race. Burke proposed a gradual program of emancipation called Sketch of a Negro Code, which Collins argues was quite detailed for the time. Collins concludes that Burke's "gradualist" position on the emancipation of slaves, while perhaps seeming ridiculous to some modern-day readers, was nonetheless sincere.
== India and the impeachment of Warren Hastings ==
For years, Burke pursued impeachment efforts against Warren Hastings, formerly Governor-General of Bengal, that resulted in the trial during 1786. His interaction with the British dominion of India began well before Hastings' impeachment trial. For two decades prior to the impeachment, Parliament had dealt with the Indian issue. This trial was the pinnacle of years of unrest and deliberation. In 1781, Burke was first able to delve into the issues surrounding the East India Company when he was appointed Chairman of the Commons Select Committee on East Indian Affairs—from that point until the end of the trial, India was Burke's primary concern. This committee was charged "to investigate alleged injustices in Bengal, the war with Hyder Ali, and other Indian difficulties". While Burke and the committee focused their attention on these matters, a second secret committee was formed to assess the same issues. Both committee reports were written by Burke. Among other purposes, the reports conveyed to the Indian princes that Britain would not wage war on them, along with demanding that the East India Company should recall Hastings. This was Burke's first call for substantive change regarding imperial practices. When addressing the whole House of Commons regarding the committee report, Burke described the Indian issue as one that "began 'in commerce' but 'ended in empire'".
On 28 February 1785, Burke delivered a now-famous speech, The Nabob of Arcot's Debts, wherein he condemned the damage to India by the East India Company. In the province of the Carnatic, the Indians had constructed a system of reservoirs to make the soil fertile in a naturally dry region, and centred their society on the husbandry of water:
These are the monuments of real kings, who were the fathers of their people; testators to a posterity which they embraced as their own. These are the grand sepulchres built by ambition; but by the ambition of an insatiable benevolence, which, not contented with reigning in the dispensation of happiness during the contracted term of human life, had strained, with all the reachings and graspings of a vivacious mind, to extend the dominion of their bounty beyond the limits of nature, and to perpetuate themselves through generations of generations, the guardians, the protectors, the nourishers of mankind.
Burke claimed that the advent of East India Company domination in India had eroded much that was good in these traditions and that as a consequence of this and the lack of new customs to replace them the Indian populace under Company rule was needlessly suffering. He set about establishing a set of imperial expectations, whose moral foundation would in his opinion warrant an overseas empire.
On 4 April 1786, Burke presented the House of Commons with the Article of Charge of High Crimes and Misdemeanors against Hastings. The impeachment in Westminster Hall which did not begin until 14 February 1788 would be the "first major public discursive event of its kind in England", bringing the morality of imperialism to the forefront of public perception. Burke was already known for his eloquent rhetorical skills and his involvement in the trial only enhanced its popularity and significance. Burke's indictment, fuelled by emotional indignation, branded Hastings a "captain-general of iniquity" who never dined without "creating a famine", whose heart was "gangrened to the core" and who resembled both a "spider of Hell" and a "ravenous vulture devouring the carcasses of the dead". The House of Commons eventually impeached Hastings, but subsequently the House of Lords acquitted him of all charges.
== French Revolution: 1688 versus 1789 ==
Initially, Burke did not condemn the French Revolution. In a letter of 9 August 1789, he wrote: "England gazing with astonishment at a French struggle for Liberty and not knowing whether to blame or to applaud! The thing indeed, though I thought I saw something like it in progress for several years, has still something in it paradoxical and Mysterious. The spirit it is impossible not to admire; but the old Parisian ferocity has broken out in a shocking manner". The events of 5–6 October 1789, when a crowd of Parisian women marched on Versailles to compel King Louis XVI to return to Paris, turned Burke against it. In a letter to his son Richard Burke dated 10 October, he said: "This day I heard from Laurence who has sent me papers confirming the portentous state of France—where the Elements which compose Human Society seem all to be dissolved, and a world of Monsters to be produced in the place of it—where Mirabeau presides as the Grand Anarch; and the late Grand Monarch makes a figure as ridiculous as pitiable". On 4 November, Charles-Jean-François Depont wrote to Burke, requesting that he endorse the Revolution. Burke replied that any critical language of it by him should be taken "as no more than the expression of doubt", but he added: "You may have subverted Monarchy, but not recover'd freedom". In the same month, he described France as "a country undone". Burke's first public condemnation of the Revolution occurred during the debate in Parliament on the army estimates on 9 February 1790 provoked by praise of the Revolution by Pitt and Fox:
Since the House had been prorogued in the summer much work was done in France. The French had shewn themselves the ablest architects of ruin that had hitherto existed in the world. In that very short space of time they had completely pulled down to the ground, their monarchy; their church; their nobility; their law; their revenue; their army; their navy; their commerce; their arts; and their manufactures...[There was a danger of] an imitation of the excesses of an irrational, unprincipled, proscribing, confiscating, plundering, ferocious, bloody and tyrannical democracy...[In religion] the danger of their example is no longer from intolerance, but from Atheism; a foul, unnatural vice, foe to all the dignity and consolation of mankind; which seems in France, for a long time, to have been embodied into a faction, accredited, and almost avowed.
In January 1790, Burke read Richard Price's sermon of 4 November 1789 entitled A Discourse on the Love of Our Country to the Revolution Society. That society had been founded to commemorate the Glorious Revolution of 1688. In this sermon, Price espoused the philosophy of universal "Rights of Men". Price argued that love of our country "does not imply any conviction of the superior value of it to other countries, or any particular preference of its laws and constitution of government". Instead, Price asserted that Englishmen should see themselves "more as citizens of the world than as members of any particular community".
A debate between Price and Burke ensued that was "the classic moment at which two fundamentally different conceptions of national identity were presented to the English public". Price claimed that the principles of the Glorious Revolution included "the right to choose our own governors, to cashier them for misconduct, and to frame a government for ourselves".
Immediately after reading Price's sermon, Burke wrote a draft of what eventually became Reflections on the Revolution in France. On 13 February 1790, a notice in the press said that shortly Burke would publish a pamphlet on the Revolution and its British supporters, but he spent the year revising and expanding it. On 1 November, he finally published the Reflections and it was an immediate best-seller. Priced at five shillings, it was more expensive than most political pamphlets, but by the end of 1790, it had gone through ten printings and sold approximately 17,500 copies. A French translation appeared on 29 November and on 30 November the translator Pierre-Gaëton Dupont wrote to Burke saying 2,500 copies had already been sold. The French translation ran to ten printings by June 1791.
What the Glorious Revolution had meant was as important to Burke and his contemporaries as it had been for the last one hundred years in British politics. In the Reflections, Burke argued against Price's interpretation of the Glorious Revolution and instead, gave a classic Whig defence of it. Burke argued against the idea of abstract, metaphysical rights of humans and instead advocated national tradition:
The Revolution was made to preserve our antient indisputable laws and liberties, and that antient constitution of government which is our only security for law and liberty...The very idea of the fabrication of a new government, is enough to fill us with disgust and horror. We wished at the period of the Revolution, and do now wish, to derive all we possess as an inheritance from our forefathers. Upon that body and stock of inheritance we have taken care not to inoculate any cyon [scion] alien to the nature of the original plant...Our oldest reformation is that of Magna Charta. You will see that Sir Edward Coke, that great oracle of our law, and indeed all the great men who follow him, to Blackstone, are industrious to prove the pedigree of our liberties. They endeavour to prove that the ancient charter...were nothing more than a re-affirmance of the still more ancient standing law of the kingdom...In the famous law...called the Petition of Right, the parliament says to the king, "Your subjects have inherited this freedom", claiming their franchises not on abstract principles "as the rights of men", but as the rights of Englishmen, and as a patrimony derived from their forefathers.
Burke said: "We fear God, we look up with awe to kings; with affection to Parliaments; with duty to magistrates; with reverence to priests; and with respect to nobility. Why? Because when such ideas are brought before our minds, it is natural to be so affected". Burke defended this prejudice on the grounds that it is "the general bank and capital of nations, and of ages" and superior to individual reason, which is small in comparison. "Prejudice", Burke claimed, "is of ready application in the emergency; it previously engages the mind in a steady course of wisdom and virtue, and does not leave the man hesitating in the moment of decision, sceptical, puzzled, and unresolved. Prejudice renders a man's virtue his habit". Burke criticised social contract theory by claiming that society is indeed a contract, although it is "a partnership not only between those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born".
The most famous passage in Burke's Reflections was his description of the events of 5–6 October 1789 and the part of Marie-Antoinette in them. Burke's account differs little from modern historians who have used primary sources. His use of flowery language to describe it provoked both praise and criticism. Philip Francis wrote to Burke saying that what he wrote of Marie-Antoinette was "pure foppery". Edward Gibbon reacted differently: "I adore his chivalry". Burke was informed by an Englishman who had talked with the Duchesse de Biron that when Marie-Antoinette was reading the passage she burst into tears and took considerable time to finish reading it. Price had rejoiced that the French king had been "led in triumph" during the October Days, but to Burke, this symbolised the opposing revolutionary sentiment of the Jacobins and the natural sentiments of those who shared his own view with horror—that the ungallant assault on Marie-Antoinette was a cowardly attack on a defenceless woman.
Louis XVI translated the Reflections "from end to end" into French. Fellow Whig MPs Richard Sheridan and Charles James Fox disagreed with Burke and split with him. Fox thought the Reflections to be "in very bad taste" and "favouring Tory principles". Other Whigs such as the Duke of Portland and Earl Fitzwilliam privately agreed with Burke, but they did not wish for a public breach with their Whig colleagues. Burke wrote on 29 November 1790: "I have received from the Duke of Portland, Lord Fitzwilliam, the Duke of Devonshire, Lord John Cavendish, Montagu (Frederick Montagu MP), and a long et cetera of the old Stamina of the Whiggs a most full approbation of the principles of that work and a kind indulgence to the execution". The Duke of Portland said in 1791 that when anyone criticised the Reflections to him, he informed them that he had recommended the book to his sons as containing the true Whig creed.
In the opinion of Paul Langford, Burke crossed something of a Rubicon when he attended a levee on 3 February 1791 to meet the King, later described by Jane Burke as follows:
On his coming to Town for the Winter, as he generally does, he went to the Levee with the Duke of Portland, who went with Lord William to kiss hands on his going into the Guards—while Lord William was kissing hands, The King was talking to The Duke, but his Eyes were fixed on [Burke] who was standing in the Crowd, and when He said His say to The Duke, without waiting for [Burke]'s coming up in his turn, The King went up to him, and, after the usual questions of how long have you been in Town and the weather, He said you have been very much employed of late, and very much confined. [Burke] said, no, Sir, not more than usual—You have and very well employed too, but there are none so deaf as those that w'ont hear, and none so blind as those that w'ont see—[Burke] made a low bow, Sir, I certainly now understand you, but was afraid my vanity or presumption might have led me to imagine what Your Majesty has said referred to what I have done—You cannot be vain—You have been of use to us all, it is a general opinion, is it not so Lord Stair? who was standing near. It is said Lord Stair;—Your Majesty's adopting it, Sir, will make the opinion general, said [Burke]—I know it is the general opinion, and I know that there is no Man who calls himself a Gentleman that must not think himself obliged to you, for you have supported the cause of the Gentlemen—You know the tone at Court is a whisper, but The King said all this loud, so as to be heard by every one at Court.
Burke's Reflections sparked a pamphlet war. Mary Wollstonecraft was one of the first into print, publishing A Vindication of the Rights of Men a few weeks after Burke. Thomas Paine followed with the Rights of Man in 1791. James Mackintosh, who wrote Vindiciae Gallicae, was the first to see the Reflections as "the manifesto of a Counter Revolution". Mackintosh later agreed with Burke's views, remarking in December 1796 after meeting him that Burke was "minutely and accurately informed, to a wonderful exactness, with respect to every fact relating to the French Revolution". Mackintosh later said: "Burke was one of the first thinkers as well as one of the greatest orators of his time. He is without parallel in any age, excepting perhaps Lord Bacon and Cicero; and his works contain an ampler store of political and moral wisdom than can be found in any other writer whatever".
In November 1790, François-Louis-Thibault de Menonville, a member of the National Assembly of France, wrote to Burke, praising Reflections and requesting more "very refreshing mental food" that he could publish. This Burke did in April 1791 when he published A Letter to a Member of the National Assembly. Burke called for external forces to reverse the Revolution and included an attack on the late French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau as being the subject of a personality cult that had developed in revolutionary France. Although Burke conceded that Rousseau sometimes showed "a considerable insight into human nature", he mostly was critical. Although he did not meet Rousseau on his visit to Britain in 1766–1767, Burke was a friend of David Hume, with whom Rousseau had stayed. Burke said Rousseau "entertained no principle either to influence of his heart, or to guide his understanding—but vanity"—which he "was possessed to a degree little short of madness". He also cited Rousseau's Confessions as evidence that Rousseau had a life of "obscure and vulgar vices" that was not "chequered, or spotted here and there, with virtues, or even distinguished by a single good action". Burke contrasted Rousseau's theory of universal benevolence and his having sent his children to a foundling hospital, stating that he was "a lover of his kind, but a hater of his kindred".
These events and the disagreements that arose from them within the Whigs led to its break-up and to the rupture of Burke's friendship with Fox. In a debate in Parliament on Britain's relations with Russia, Fox praised the principles of the Revolution, although Burke was not able to reply at this time as he was "overpowered by continued cries of question from his own side of the House". When Parliament was debating the Quebec Bill for a constitution for Canada, Fox praised the Revolution and criticised some of Burke's arguments such as hereditary power. On 6 May 1791, Burke used the opportunity to answer Fox during another debate in Parliament on the Quebec Bill and condemn the new French Constitution and "the horrible consequences flowing from the French idea of the Rights of Man". Burke asserted that those ideas were the antithesis of both the British and the American constitutions. Burke was interrupted and Fox intervened, saying that Burke should be allowed to carry on with his speech. However, a vote of censure was moved against Burke for noticing the affairs of France which was moved by Lord Sheffield and seconded by Fox. Pitt made a speech praising Burke and Fox made a speech—both rebuking and complimenting Burke. He questioned the sincerity of Burke, who seemed to have forgotten the lessons he had learned from him, quoting from Burke's own speeches of fourteen and fifteen years before. Burke's response was as follows:
It certainly was indiscreet at any period, but especially at his time of life, to parade enemies, or give his friends occasion to desert him; yet if his firm and steady adherence to the British constitution placed him in such a dilemma, he would risk all, and, as public duty and public experience taught him, with his last words exclaim, "Fly from the French Constitution".
At this point, Fox whispered that there was "no loss of friendship". "I regret to say there is", Burke replied, "I have indeed made a great sacrifice; I have done my duty though I have lost my friend. There is something in the detested French constitution that envenoms every thing it touches". This provoked a reply from Fox, yet he was unable to give his speech for some time since he was overcome with tears and emotion. Fox appealed to Burke to remember their inalienable friendship, but he also repeated his criticisms of Burke and uttered "unusually bitter sarcasms". This only aggravated the rupture between the two men. Burke demonstrated his separation from the party on 5 June 1791 by writing to Fitzwilliam, declining money from him.
Burke was dismayed that some Whigs, instead of reaffirming the principles of the Whig Party he laid out in the Reflections, had rejected them in favour of "French principles" and that they criticised Burke for abandoning Whig principles. Burke wanted to demonstrate his fidelity to Whig principles and feared that acquiescence to Fox and his followers would allow the Whig Party to become a vehicle for Jacobinism.
Burke knew that many members of the Whig Party did not share Fox's views and he wanted to provoke them into condemning the French Revolution. Burke wrote that he wanted to represent the whole Whig Party "as tolerating, and by a toleration, countenancing those proceedings" so that he could "stimulate them to a public declaration of what every one of their acquaintance privately knows to be...their sentiments". On 3 August 1791, Burke published his Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs in which he renewed his criticism of the radical revolutionary programmes inspired by the French Revolution and attacked the Whigs who supported them as holding principles contrary to those traditionally held by the Whig Party.
Burke owned two copies of what has been called "that practical compendium of Whig political theory", namely The Tryal of Dr. Henry Sacheverell (1710). Burke wrote of the trial: "It rarely happens to a party to have the opportunity of a clear, authentic, recorded, declaration of their political tenets upon the subject of a great constitutional event like that of the [Glorious] Revolution". Writing in the third person, Burke asserted in his Appeal:
[The] foundations laid down by the Commons, on the trial of Doctor Sacheverel, for justifying the revolution of 1688, are the very same laid down in Mr. Burke's Reflections; that is to say,—a breach of the original contract, implied and expressed in the constitution of this country, as a scheme of government fundamentally and inviolably fixed in King, Lords and Commons.—That the fundamental subversion of this antient constitution, by one of its parts, having been attempted, and in effect accomplished, justified the Revolution. That it was justified only upon the necessity of the case; as the only means left for the recovery of that antient constitution, formed by the original contract of the British state; as well as for the future preservation of the same government. These are the points to be proved.
Burke then provided quotations from Paine's Rights of Man to demonstrate what the New Whigs believed. Burke's belief that Foxite principles corresponded to Paine's was genuine. Finally, Burke denied that a majority of "the people" had, or ought to have, the final say in politics and alter society at their pleasure. People had rights, but also duties and these duties were not voluntary. According to Burke, the people could not overthrow morality derived from God.
Although Whig grandees such as Portland and Fitzwilliam privately agreed with Burke's Appeal, they wished he had used more moderate language. Fitzwilliam saw the Appeal as containing "the doctrines I have sworn by, long and long since". Francis Basset, a backbench Whig MP, wrote to Burke that "though for reasons which I will not now detail I did not then deliver my sentiments, I most perfectly differ from Mr. Fox & from the great Body of opposition on the French Revolution". Burke sent a copy of the Appeal to the King and the King requested a friend to communicate to Burke that he had read it "with great Satisfaction". Burke wrote of its reception: "Not one word from one of our party. They are secretly galled. They agree with me to a title; but they dare not speak out for fear of hurting Fox... They leave me to myself; they see that I can do myself justice". Charles Burney viewed it as "a most admirable book—the best & most useful on political subjects that I have ever seen", but he believed the differences in the Whig Party between Burke and Fox should not be aired publicly.
Eventually, most of the Whigs sided with Burke and gave their support to William Pitt the Younger's Tory government which in response to France's declaration of war against Britain declared war on France's Revolutionary Government in 1793.
In December 1791, Burke sent government ministers his Thoughts on French Affairs where he put forward three main points, namely that no counter-revolution in France would come about by purely domestic causes; that the longer the Revolutionary Government exists, the stronger it becomes; and that the Revolutionary Government's interest and aim is to disturb all of the other governments of Europe.
As a Whig, Burke did not wish to see an absolute monarchy again in France after the extirpation of Jacobinism. Writing to an émigré in 1791, Burke expressed his views against a restoration of the Ancien Régime:
When such a complete convulsion has shaken the State, and hardly left any thing whatsoever, either in civil arrangements, or in the Characters and disposition of men's minds, exactly where it was, whatever shall be settled although in the former persons and upon old forms, will be in some measure a new thing and will labour under something of the weakness as well as other inconveniences of a Change. My poor opinion is that you mean to establish what you call 'L'ancien Régime,' If any one means that system of Court Intrigue miscalled a Government as it stood, at Versailles before the present confusions as the thing to be established, that I believe will be found absolutely impossible; and if you consider the Nature, as well of persons, as of affairs, I flatter myself you must be of my opinion. That was tho' not so violent a State of Anarchy as well as the present. If it were even possible to lay things down exactly as they stood, before the series of experimental politicks began, I am quite sure that they could not long continue in that situation. In one Sense of L'Ancien Régime I am clear that nothing else can reasonably be done.
Burke delivered a speech on the debate of the Aliens Bill on 28 December 1792. He supported the Bill as it would exclude "murderous atheists, who would pull down Church and state; religion and God; morality and happiness". The peroration included a reference to a French order for 3,000 daggers. Burke revealed a dagger he had concealed in his coat and threw it to the floor: "This is what you are to gain by an alliance with France". Burke picked up the dagger and continued:
When they smile, I see blood trickling down their faces; I see their insidious purposes; I see that the object of all their cajoling is—blood! I now warn my countrymen to beware of these execrable philosophers, whose only object it is to destroy every thing that is good here, and to establish immorality and murder by precept and example—'Hic niger est hunc tu Romane caveto' ['Such a man is evil; beware of him, Roman'. Horace, Satires I. 4. 85.].
Burke supported the war against Revolutionary France, seeing Britain as fighting on the side of the royalists and émigres in a civil war, rather than fighting against the whole nation of France. Burke also supported the royalist uprising in La Vendée, describing it on 4 November 1793 in a letter to William Windham as "the sole affair I have much heart in". Burke wrote to Henry Dundas on 7 October urging him to send reinforcements there as he viewed it as the only theatre in the war that might lead to a march on Paris, but Dundas did not follow Burke's advice.
Burke believed the British government was not taking the uprising seriously enough, a view reinforced by a letter he had received from the Prince Charles of France (S.A.R. le comte d'Artois), dated 23 October, requesting that he intercede on behalf of the royalists to the government. Burke was forced to reply on 6 November: "I am not in His Majesty's Service; or at all consulted in his Affairs". Burke published his Remarks on the Policy of the Allies with Respect to France, begun in October, where he said: "I am sure every thing has shewn us that in this war with France, one Frenchman is worth twenty foreigners. La Vendée is a proof of this".
On 20 June 1794, Burke received a vote of thanks from the House of Commons for his services in the Hastings Trial and he immediately resigned his seat, being replaced by his son Richard. A blow fell upon Burke with the loss of Richard in August 1794, to whom he was tenderly attached and in whom he saw signs of promise which were not patent to others and which in fact appear to have been non-existent, although this view may have rather reflected the fact that his son Richard had worked successfully in the early battle for Catholic emancipation. King George III, whose favour he had gained by his attitude on the French Revolution, wished to create him Earl of Beaconsfield, but the death of his son deprived the opportunity of such an honour and all its attractions, so the only award he would accept was a pension of £2,500. Even this modest reward was attacked by the Duke of Bedford and the Earl of Lauderdale, to whom Burke replied in his Letter to a Noble Lord (1796): "It cannot at this time be too often repeated; line upon line; precept upon precept; until it comes into the currency of a proverb, To innovate is not to reform". He argued that he was rewarded on merit, but the Duke of Bedford received his rewards from inheritance alone, his ancestor being the original pensioner: "Mine was from a mild and benevolent sovereign; his from Henry the Eighth". Burke also hinted at what would happen to such people if their revolutionary ideas were implemented and included a description of the English Constitution:
But as to our country and our race, as long as the well compacted structure of our church and state, the sanctuary, the holy of holies of that ancient law, defended by reverence, defended by power, a fortress at once and a temple, shall stand inviolate on the brow of the British Sion—as long as the British Monarchy, not more limited than fenced by the orders of the State, shall, like the proud Keep of Windsor, rising in the majesty of proportion, and girt with the double belt of its kindred and coeval towers, as long as this awful structure shall oversee and guard the subjected land—so long as the mounds and dykes of the low, fat, Bedford level will have nothing to fear from all the pickaxes of all the levellers of France.
Burke's last publications were the Letters on a Regicide Peace (October 1796), called forth by negotiations for peace with France by the Pitt government. Burke regarded this as appeasement, injurious to national dignity and honour. In his Second Letter, Burke wrote of the French Revolutionary government: "Individuality is left out of their scheme of government. The State is all in all. Everything is referred to the production of force; afterwards, everything is trusted to the use of it. It is military in its principle, in its maxims, in its spirit, and in all its movements. The State has dominion and conquest for its sole objects—dominion over minds by proselytism, over bodies by arms".
This is held to be the first explanation of the modern concept of totalitarian state. Burke regarded the war with France as ideological, against an "armed doctrine". He wished that France would not be partitioned due to the effect this would have on the balance of power in Europe and that the war was not against France, but against the revolutionaries governing her. Burke said: "It is not France extending a foreign empire over other nations: it is a sect aiming at universal empire, and beginning with the conquest of France".
== Later life ==
In November 1795, there was a debate in Parliament on the high price of corn and Burke wrote a memorandum to Pitt on the subject. In December, Samuel Whitbread MP introduced a bill giving magistrates the power to fix minimum wages and Fox said he would vote for it. This debate probably led Burke to edit his memorandum as there appeared a notice that Burke would soon publish a letter on the subject to the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture Arthur Young, but he failed to complete it. These fragments were inserted into the memorandum after his death and published posthumously in 1800 as Thoughts and Details on Scarcity. In it, Burke expounded "some of the doctrines of political economists bearing upon agriculture as a trade". Burke criticised policies such as maximum prices and state regulation of wages and set out what the limits of government should be:
That the State ought to confine itself to what regards the State, or the creatures of the State, namely, the exterior establishment of its religion; its magistracy; its revenue; its military force by sea and land; the corporations that owe their existence to its fiat; in a word, to every thing that is truly and properly public, to the public peace, to the public safety, to the public order, to the public prosperity.
The economist Adam Smith remarked that Burke was "the only man I ever knew who thinks on economic subjects exactly as I do, without any previous communications having passed between us".
Writing to a friend in May 1795, Burke surveyed the causes of discontent: "I think I can hardly overrate the malignity of the principles of Protestant ascendency, as they affect Ireland; or of Indianism [i.e. corporate tyranny, as practised by the British East Indies Company], as they affect these countries, and as they affect Asia; or of Jacobinism, as they affect all Europe, and the state of human society itself. The last is the greatest evil". By March 1796, Burke had changed his mind: "Our Government and our Laws are beset by two different Enemies, which are sapping its foundations, Indianism, and Jacobinism. In some Cases they act separately, in some they act in conjunction: But of this I am sure; that the first is the worst by far, and the hardest to deal with; and for this amongst other reasons, that it weakens discredits, and ruins that force, which ought to be employed with the greatest Credit and Energy against the other; and that it furnishes Jacobinism with its strongest arms against all formal Government".
== Illness and death ==
For more than a year prior to his death, Burke knew that his stomach was "irrecoverably ruind". He is believed to have had stomach cancer.
After hearing that Burke was nearing death, Fox wrote to Mrs. Burke enquiring after him. Fox received the reply the next day:
Mrs. Burke presents her compliments to Mr. Fox, and thanks him for his obliging inquiries. Mrs. Burke communicated his letter to Mr. Burke, and by his desire has to inform Mr. Fox that it has cost Mr. Burke the most heart-felt pain to obey the stern voice of his duty in rending asunder a long friendship, but that he deemed this sacrifice necessary; that his principles continue the same; and that in whatever of life may yet remain to him, he conceives that he must live for others and not for himself. Mr. Burke is convinced that the principles which he has endeavoured to maintain are necessary to the welfare and dignity of his country, and that these principles can be enforced only by the general persuasion of his sincerity.
Burke died in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, on 9 July 1797 and was buried there alongside his son and brother.
== Personal life ==
Burke married Jane Mary Nugent (1734–1812) in 1757. They had 2 sons: Christopher died age 5, and Richard age 36. Jane managed Burke's household affairs for him, and was involved in his work.
== Legacy ==
Burke is regarded by most political historians in the English-speaking world as a liberal conservative and the father of modern British conservatism. Burke was utilitarian and empirical in his arguments while Joseph de Maistre, a fellow European conservative, was more providentialist and sociological and deployed a more confrontational tone in his arguments.
Burke believed that property was essential to human life. Because of his conviction that people desire to be ruled and controlled, the division of property formed the basis for social structure, helping develop control within a property-based hierarchy. He viewed the social changes brought on by property as the natural order of events which should be taking place as the human race progressed. With the division of property and the class system, he also believed that it kept the monarch in check to the needs of the classes beneath the monarch. Since property largely aligned or defined divisions of social class, class too was seen as natural—part of a social agreement that the setting of persons into different classes, is the mutual benefit of all subjects. Concern for property is not Burke's only influence. Christopher Hitchens summarises as follows: "If modern conservatism can be held to derive from Burke, it is not just because he appealed to property owners in behalf of stability but also because he appealed to an everyday interest in the preservation of the ancestral and the immemorial".
Burke's support for the causes of the "oppressed majorities", such as Irish Catholics and Indians, led him to be at the receiving end of hostile criticism from Tories; while his opposition to the spread of the French Republic (and its radical ideals) across Europe led to similar charges from Whigs. As a consequence, Burke often became isolated in Parliament.
In the 19th century, Burke was praised by both liberals and conservatives. Burke's friend Philip Francis wrote that Burke "was a man who truly & prophetically foresaw all the consequences which would rise from the adoption of the French principles", but because Burke wrote with so much passion, people were doubtful of his arguments. William Windham spoke from the same bench in the House of Commons as Burke had when he had separated from Fox and an observer said Windham spoke "like the ghost of Burke" when he made a speech against peace with France in 1801. William Hazlitt, a political opponent of Burke, regarded him as amongst his three favourite writers (the others being Junius and Rousseau) and made it "a test of the sense and candour of any one belonging to the opposite party, whether he allowed Burke to be a great man". William Wordsworth was originally a supporter of the French Revolution and attacked Burke in A Letter to the Bishop of Llandaff (1793), but by the early 19th century he had changed his mind and came to admire Burke. In his Two Addresses to the Freeholders of Westmorland, Wordsworth called Burke "the most sagacious Politician of his age", whose predictions "time has verified". He later revised his poem The Prelude to include praise of Burke ("Genius of Burke! forgive the pen seduced/By specious wonders") and portrayed him as an old oak. Samuel Taylor Coleridge came to have a similar conversion as he had criticised Burke in The Watchman, but in his Friend (1809–1810) had defended Burke from charges of inconsistency. Later in his Biographia Literaria (1817), Coleridge hails Burke as a prophet and praises Burke for referring "habitually to principles. He was a scientific statesman; and therefore a seer". Henry Brougham wrote of Burke that "all his predictions, save one momentary expression, had been more than fulfilled: anarchy and bloodshed had borne sway in France; conquest and convulsion had desolated Europe...[T]he providence of mortals is not often able to penetrate so far as this into futurity". George Canning believed that Burke's Reflections "has been justified by the course of subsequent events; and almost every prophecy has been strictly fulfilled". In 1823, Canning wrote that he took Burke's "last works and words [as] the manual of my politics". The Conservative Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli "was deeply penetrated with the spirit and sentiment of Burke's later writings".
The 19th-century Liberal Prime Minister William Gladstone considered Burke "a magazine of wisdom on Ireland and America" and in his diary recorded: "Made many extracts from Burke—sometimes almost divine". The Radical MP and anti-Corn Law activist Richard Cobden often praised Burke's Thoughts and Details on Scarcity. The Liberal historian Lord Acton considered Burke one of the three greatest Liberals, along with Gladstone and Thomas Babington Macaulay. Lord Macaulay recorded in his diary: "I have now finished reading again most of Burke's works. Admirable! The greatest man since Milton". The Gladstonian Liberal MP John Morley published two books on Burke (including a biography) and was influenced by Burke, including his views on prejudice. The Cobdenite Radical Francis Hirst thought Burke deserved "a place among English libertarians, even though of all lovers of liberty and of all reformers he was the most conservative, the least abstract, always anxious to preserve and renovate rather than to innovate. In politics, he resembled the modern architect who would restore an old house instead of pulling it down to construct a new one on the site". Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France was controversial at the time of its publication, but after his death, it was to become his best-known and most influential work and a manifesto for Conservative thinking.
Two contrasting assessments of Burke also were offered long after his death by Karl Marx and Winston Churchill. In a footnote to Volume One of Das Kapital, Marx wrote:
The sycophant—who in the pay of the English oligarchy played the romantic laudator temporis acti against the French Revolution just as, in the pay of the North American colonies at the beginning of the American troubles, he had played the liberal against the English oligarchy—was an out-and-out vulgar bourgeois. "The laws of commerce are the laws of Nature, and therefore the laws of God." (E. Burke, l.c., pp. 31, 32) No wonder that, true to the laws of God and Nature, he always sold himself in the best market.
In Consistency in Politics, Churchill wrote:
On the one hand [Burke] is revealed as a foremost apostle of Liberty, on the other as the redoubtable champion of Authority. But a charge of political inconsistency applied to this life appears a mean and petty thing. History easily discerns the reasons and forces which actuated him, and the immense changes in the problems he was facing which evoked from the same profound mind and sincere spirit these entirely contrary manifestations. His soul revolted against tyranny, whether it appeared in the aspect of a domineering Monarch and a corrupt Court and Parliamentary system, or whether, mouthing the watch-words of a non-existent liberty, it towered up against him in the dictation of a brutal mob and wicked sect. No one can read the Burke of Liberty and the Burke of Authority without feeling that here was the same man pursuing the same ends, seeking the same ideals of society and Government, and defending them from assaults, now from one extreme, now from the other.
The historian Piers Brendon asserts that Burke laid the moral foundation for the British Empire, epitomised in the trial of Warren Hastings, that was ultimately to be its undoing. When Burke stated that "[t]he British Empire must be governed on a plan of freedom, for it will be governed by no other", this was "an ideological bacillus that would prove fatal. This was Edmund Burke's paternalistic doctrine that colonial government was a trust. It was to be so exercised for the benefit of subject people that they would eventually attain their birthright—freedom". As a consequence of these opinions, Burke objected to the opium trade which he called a "smuggling adventure" and condemned "the great Disgrace of the British character in India". According to political scientist Jennifer Pitts, Burke "was arguably the first political thinker to undertake a comprehensive critique of British imperial practice in the name of justice for those who suffered from its moral and political exclusions." The extent of Burke's critique of imperial practices has been challenged by other political scientists and literary theorists who highlight Burke's strong support of British imperial practices in the New World.
A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque commemorates Burke at 37 Gerrard Street now in London's Chinatown.
Statues of Burke are in Bristol, England, Trinity College Dublin and Washington, D.C. Burke is also the namesake of a private college preparatory school in Washington, Edmund Burke School.
Burke Avenue, in The Bronx, New York, is named for him.
== Criticism ==
One of Burke's largest and most developed critics was the American political theorist Leo Strauss. In his book Natural Right and History, Strauss makes a series of points in which he somewhat harshly evaluates Burke's writings.
One of the topics that he first addresses is the fact that Burke creates a definitive separation between happiness and virtue and explains that "Burke, therefore, seeks the foundation of government 'in a conformity to our duties' and not in 'imaginary rights of man". Strauss views Burke as believing that government should focus solely on the duties that a man should have in society as opposed to trying to address any additional needs or desires. Government is simply a practicality to Burke and not necessarily meant to function as a tool to help individuals live as well as possible. Strauss also argues that in a sense Burke's theory could be seen as opposing the very idea of forming such philosophies. Burke expresses the view that theory cannot adequately predict future occurrences and therefore men need to have instincts that cannot be practised or derived from ideology.
This leads to an overarching criticism that Strauss holds regarding Burke which is his rejection of the use of logic. Burke dismisses a widely held view amongst theorists that reason should be the primary tool in the forming of a constitution or contract. Burke instead believes that constitutions should be made based on natural processes as opposed to rational planning for the future. However, Strauss points out that criticising rationality actually works against Burke's original stance of returning to traditional ways because some amount of human reason is inherent and therefore is in part grounded in tradition. In regards to this formation of legitimate social order, Strauss does not necessarily support Burke's opinion—that order cannot be established by individual wise people, but exclusively by a culmination of individuals with historical knowledge of past functions to use as a foundation. Strauss notes that Burke would oppose more newly formed republics due to this thought, although Lenzner adds the fact that he did seem to believe that America's constitution could be justified given the specific circumstances. On the other hand, France's constitution was much too radical as it relied too heavily on enlightened reasoning as opposed to traditional methods and values.
== Religious thought ==
Burke's religious writing comprises published works and commentary on the subject of religion. Burke's religious thought was grounded in the belief that religion is the foundation of civil society. He sharply criticised deism and atheism and emphasised Christianity as a vehicle of social progress. Born in Ireland to a Catholic mother and a Protestant father, Burke vigorously defended the Church of England, but he also demonstrated sensitivity to Catholic concerns. He linked the conservation of a state-established religion with the preservation of citizens' constitutional liberties and highlighted Christianity's benefit not only to the believer's soul, but also to political arrangements.
== Misattributed quotation ==
=== "When good men do nothing" ===
The well-known maxim that "The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing" is widely misattributed to Burke. It is known that, in 1770, Burke wrote the following passage in "Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents":
[W]hen bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall, one by one, an unpitied sacrifice in a contemptible struggle.
In 1867, John Stuart Mill made a similar statement in an inaugural address delivered at the University of St Andrews:
Bad men need nothing more to compass their ends, than that good men should look on and do nothing.
== Timeline ==
== Bibliography ==
A Vindication of Natural Society (1756)
A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757)
An Account of the European Settlement in America (1757)
The Abridgement of the History of England (1757)
Annual Register editor for some 30 years (1758)
Tracts on the Popery Laws (Early 1760s)
On the Present State of the Nation (1769)
Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents (1770)
On American Taxation (1774)
Conciliation with the Colonies (1775)
A Letter to the Sheriffs of Bristol (1777)
Reform of the Representation in the House of Commons (1782)
Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
Letter to a Member of the National Assembly (1791)
An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs (1791)
Thoughts on French Affairs (1791)
Remarks on the Policy of the Allies (1793)
Thoughts and Details on Scarcity (1795)
Letters on a Regicide Peace (1795–97)
Letter to a Noble Lord (1796)
== See also ==
House of Burgh, an Anglo-Norman and Hiberno-Norman dynasty founded in 1193
Conservative Party
List of abolitionist forerunners
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Sources ===
=== Main sources ===
=== Further reading ===
== External links ==
Edmund Burke Society at Columbia University
Harris, Ian. "Edmund Burke". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Burke's works at The Online Library of Liberty
Burke's "Reflections on the Revolution in France", lightly modified for easier reading
Works by Edmund Burke at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Edmund Burke at the Internet Archive
Works by Edmund Burke at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Edmund Burke on In Our Time at the BBC
Burke according to Dr Jesse Norman MP at bbc.co.uk
"Edmund Burke for a Postmodern Age" Archived 19 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine, William F. Byrne, Berfrois, 29 June 2011
"Archival material relating to Edmund Burke". UK National Archives.
Portraits of Edmund Burke at the National Portrait Gallery, London
"The Liberalism/Conservatism of Edmund Burke and F. A. Hayek: A Critical Comparison" Archived 24 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine by Linda C. Raeder. From Humanitas, Volume X, No. 1, 1997. National Humanities Institute.
Edmund Burke at Find a Grave |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatsuo_Miyajima#:~:text=Miyajima's%20first%20solo%20exhibitions%20include,Maki%20Gallery%2C%20Tokyo%20in%201986. | Tatsuo Miyajima | Tatsuo Miyajima (宮島 達男, Miyajima Tatsuo; January 16, 1957 –) is a Japanese sculptor and installation artist who lives in Moriya, in Ibaraki prefecture, Japan. His work frequently employs digital LED counters and is primarily concerned with the function and significance of time and space, especially within the context of Buddhist thought.
== Early life ==
Miyajima was born in Edogawa City, Tokyo on January 16, 1957. He graduated from the Oil Painting course in the Fine Arts department of Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music in 1984, and completed his MA at the same university in 1986.
== Work ==
Although Miyajima originally trained as a painter, and briefly considered himself to be a performance artist, the majority of his work now takes the form of installation and sculpture. He has admitted that, in effect, his work now "performs" on his behalf. His core artistic concepts are: "Keep Changing, Connect with Everything, Continue Forever."
=== Early work ===
In 1970s, Miyajima practised performance art. He was initially influenced by the work of Joseph Beuys, Allan Krapow and Christo, and considered his performance work as an "action for society". The desire to create more enduring work - in contrast to the necessarily ephemeral nature of his performance and actions - motivated him to begin working on sculpture and installations.
=== LED works ===
Miyajima made his first LED counter in 1988; this has formed the basis for much of his later work. Typically, a block will display two digits in red or green, and count from 1 to 9. The counters never register zero, because, for Miyajima, the idea of zero is a purely Western concept. He has subsequently linked together different displays so that they can respond to each other; he calls these systems 'regions'.
== Kaki Tree Project ==
On the 9th of August, 1945, an atomic bomb was dropped in Nagasaki. Tens of thousands of people died suffering from the intense blast and heat, and the city of Nagasaki was reduced to ashes. However, there was a kaki tree which miraculously survived while more than half of the trunk was burnt black, and barely standing and about to die at any moment. In 1994, Masayuki Ebinuma, an arborist, started to treat the fragile tree and restored its health as to be able to produce “seedlings” from the bombed tree. Then Ebinuma started to hand out the “saplings” from the survivor tree to children who visited Nagasaki as a symbol of peace. After Miyajima learned Ebinuma's activity, he wanted to support Ebinuma as an artist. So then he displayed the saplings and recruited foster parents at an art exhibition in 1995. They received ten applications and selected the former Ryuhoku Elementary School in Taito-ku, Tokyo as a planting site. Through the process, Miyajima had conceived an art project called “Revive Time: Kaki Tree Project” and launched the executive committee. In 1996, the first planting of the project took place at the former Ryuhoku Elementary School. Miyajima himself conducted a workshop at the tree-planting ceremony. The counters in some of his works, he has explained, represent the lives of anonymous individuals.
== Exhibitions ==
Miyajima's first solo exhibitions include "Human Stone" at Gallery Parergon, Tokyo in 1983, and "Time" at Maki Gallery, Tokyo in 1986. More recently he has shown at Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth (1996), Fondation Cartier pour l'Art Contemporain (1996), San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (1997), Miyanomori Art Museum, Hokkaido (2010), and Ullens Center for Contemporary Art, Beijing (2011).
He has exhibited as part of numerous group exhibitions, notably the Venice Biennale in 1988 and 1999, as well Hiroshima City Museum of Contemporary Art (2008), and Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney (2012) and the Third Asia-Pacific Triennial of Contemporary Art, Queensland Art Gallery, Brisbane (1999)
In 2020, Miyajima's works will be featured in STARS: Six Contemporary Artists from Japan to the World exhibition in Tokyo. In this exhibition will feature a new work, "Sea of Time – TOHOKU" alongside documentary footage of members of the public helping to set the counter speeds.
== Collections ==
The following museums and institutions have works by Miyajima in their collection:
== References ==
== External links ==
http://tatsuomiyajima.com
http://www.buchmanngalerie.com/artists/tatsuo-miyajima/works
http://www.lissongallery.com/artists/tatsuo-miyajima |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss | Carl Friedrich Gauss | Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss ( ; German: Gauß; [kaʁl ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈɡaʊs] ; Latin: Carolus Fridericus Gauss; 30 April 1777 – 23 February 1855) was a German mathematician, astronomer, geodesist, and physicist, who contributed to many fields in mathematics and science. His mathematical contributions spanned the branches of number theory, algebra, analysis, geometry, statistics, and probability. Gauss was director of the Göttingen Observatory in Germany and professor of astronomy from 1807 until his death in 1855.
From an early age, Gauss was known as a child prodigy in mathematics. While studying at the University of Göttingen, he propounded several mathematical theorems. As an independent scholar, he wrote the masterpieces Disquisitiones Arithmeticae and Theoria motus corporum coelestium. Gauss produced the second and third complete proofs of the fundamental theorem of algebra. He also introduced the triple bar symbol (≡) for congruence. In number theory, he made numerous contributions, such as the composition law, the law of quadratic reciprocity, and proved the triangular case of the Fermat polygonal number theorem. He also contributed to the theory of binary and ternary quadratic forms, and the theory of hypergeometric series. When Gauss was only 19 years old, he proved the construction of the heptadecagon, the first progress in regular polygon construction in over 2000 years. He also introduced the concept of Gaussian curvature and proved its key properties, especially with his Theorema Egregium. Gauss was the first to prove Gauss's inequality. Further, he was instrumental in the development of the arithmetic–geometric mean. Due to Gauss's extensive and fundamental contributions to science and mathematics, more than 100 mathematical and scientific concepts are named after him.
Gauss was instrumental in the identification of Ceres as a dwarf planet. His work on the motion of planetoids disturbed by large planets led to the introduction of the Gaussian gravitational constant and the method of least squares, which he had discovered before Adrien-Marie Legendre published it. Gauss also introduced the algorithm known as recursive least squares. Gauss led the geodetic survey of the Kingdom of Hanover together with an arc measurement project from 1820 to 1844; Gauss was one of the founders of geophysics and formulated the fundamental principles of magnetism. His practical work led to the invention of the heliotrope in 1821, a magnetometer in 1833 and – with Wilhelm Eduard Weber – the first electromagnetic telegraph in 1833.
Gauss was the first to discover and study non-Euclidean geometry, which he also named. Gauss was the first to develop a fast Fourier transform, doing so some 160 years before John Tukey and James Cooley.
Gauss was awarded the Lalande Prize in 1809 for his work on planetary theory and determination of orbits, and the Copley Medal in 1838 for his mathematical research in magnetism. He is known for not publishing incomplete work and left several works to be edited posthumously. He believed that the act of learning, not possession of knowledge, provided the greatest enjoyment. While Gauss was not a committed or enthusiastic teacher, generally preferring to focus on his own work, some of his students, such as Richard Dedekind and Bernhard Riemann, became well-known and influential mathematicians in their own right.
== Biography ==
=== Youth and education ===
Gauss was born on 30 April 1777 in Brunswick, in the Duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (now in the German state of Lower Saxony). His family was of relatively low social status. His father Gebhard Dietrich Gauss (1744–1808) worked variously as a butcher, bricklayer, gardener, and treasurer of a death-benefit fund. Gauss characterized his father as honourable and respected, but rough and dominating at home. He was experienced in writing and calculating, whereas his second wife Dorothea, Carl Friedrich's mother, was nearly illiterate. He had one elder brother from his father's first marriage.
Gauss was a child prodigy in mathematics. When the elementary teachers noticed his intellectual abilities, they brought him to the attention of the Duke of Brunswick who sent him to the local Collegium Carolinum, which he attended from 1792 to 1795 with Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann as one of his teachers. Thereafter the Duke granted him the resources for studies of mathematics, sciences, and classical languages at the University of Göttingen until 1798. His professor in mathematics was Abraham Gotthelf Kästner, whom Gauss called "the leading mathematician among poets, and the leading poet among mathematicians" because of his epigrams. Astronomy was taught by Karl Felix Seyffer, with whom Gauss stayed in correspondence after graduation; Olbers and Gauss mocked him in their correspondence. On the other hand, he thought highly of Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, his teacher of physics, and of Christian Gottlob Heyne, whose lectures in classics Gauss attended with pleasure. Fellow students of this time were Johann Friedrich Benzenberg, Farkas Bolyai, and Heinrich Wilhelm Brandes.
He was likely a self-taught student in mathematics since he independently rediscovered several theorems. He solved a geometrical problem that had occupied mathematicians since the Ancient Greeks when he determined in 1796 which regular polygons can be constructed by compass and straightedge. This discovery ultimately led Gauss to choose mathematics instead of philology as a career. Gauss's mathematical diary, a collection of short remarks about his results from the years 1796 until 1814, shows that many ideas for his mathematical magnum opus Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801) date from this time.
As an elementary student, Gauss and his class were tasked by their teacher, J.G. Büttner, to sum the numbers from 1 to 100. Much to Büttner's surprise, Gauss replied with the correct answer of 5050 in a vastly faster time than expected. Gauss had realised that the sum could be rearranged as 50 pairs of 101 (1 + 100 = 101, 2 + 99= 101, etc.). Thus, he simply multiplied 50 by 101. Other accounts state that he computed the sum as 100 sets of 101 and divided by 2.
=== Private scholar ===
Gauss graduated as a Doctor of Philosophy in 1799, not in Göttingen, as is sometimes stated, but at the Duke of Brunswick's special request from the University of Helmstedt, the only state university of the duchy. Johann Friedrich Pfaff assessed his doctoral thesis, and Gauss got the degree in absentia without further oral examination. The Duke then granted him the cost of living as a private scholar in Brunswick. Gauss subsequently refused calls from the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Peterburg and Landshut University. Later, the Duke promised him the foundation of an observatory in Brunswick in 1804. Architect Peter Joseph Krahe made preliminary designs, but one of Napoleon's wars cancelled those plans: the Duke was killed in the battle of Jena in 1806. The duchy was abolished in the following year, and Gauss's financial support stopped.
When Gauss was calculating asteroid orbits in the first years of the century, he established contact with the astronomical communities of Bremen and Lilienthal, especially Wilhelm Olbers, Karl Ludwig Harding, and Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, forming part of the informal group of astronomers known as the Celestial police. One of their aims was the discovery of further planets. They assembled data on asteroids and comets as a basis for Gauss's research on their orbits, which he later published in his astronomical magnum opus Theoria motus corporum coelestium (1809).
=== Professor in Göttingen ===
In November 1807, Gauss was hired by the University of Göttingen, then an institution of the newly founded Kingdom of Westphalia under Jérôme Bonaparte, as full professor and director of the astronomical observatory, and kept the chair until his death in 1855. He was soon confronted with the demand for two thousand francs from the Westphalian government as a war contribution, which he could not afford to pay. Both Olbers and Laplace wanted to help him with the payment, but Gauss refused their assistance. Finally, an anonymous person from Frankfurt, later discovered to be Prince-primate Dalberg, paid the sum.
Gauss took on the directorship of the 60-year-old observatory, founded in 1748 by Prince-elector George II and built on a converted fortification tower, with usable but partly out-of-date instruments. The construction of a new observatory had been approved by Prince-elector George III in principle since 1802, and the Westphalian government continued the planning, but Gauss could not move to his new place of work until September 1816. He got new up-to-date instruments, including two meridian circles from Repsold and Reichenbach, and a heliometer from Fraunhofer.
The scientific activity of Gauss, besides pure mathematics, can be roughly divided into three periods: astronomy was the main focus in the first two decades of the 19th century, geodesy in the third decade, and physics, mainly magnetism, in the fourth decade.
Gauss made no secret of his aversion to giving academic lectures. But from the start of his academic career at Göttingen, he continuously gave lectures until 1854. He often complained about the burdens of teaching, feeling that it was a waste of his time. On the other hand, he occasionally described some students as talented. Most of his lectures dealt with astronomy, geodesy, and applied mathematics, and only three lectures on subjects of pure mathematics. Some of Gauss's students went on to become renowned mathematicians, physicists, and astronomers: Moritz Cantor, Dedekind, Dirksen, Encke, Gould, Heine, Klinkerfues, Kupffer, Listing, Möbius, Nicolai, Riemann, Ritter, Schering, Scherk, Schumacher, von Staudt, Stern, Ursin; as geoscientists Sartorius von Waltershausen, and Wappäus.
Gauss did not write any textbook and disliked the popularization of scientific matters. His only attempts at popularization were his works on the date of Easter (1800/1802) and the essay Erdmagnetismus und Magnetometer of 1836. Gauss published his papers and books exclusively in Latin or German. He wrote Latin in a classical style but used some customary modifications set by contemporary mathematicians.
Gauss gave his inaugural lecture at Göttingen University in 1808. He described his approach to astronomy as based on reliable observations and accurate calculations, rather than on belief or empty hypothesizing. At university, he was accompanied by a staff of other lecturers in his disciplines, who completed the educational program; these included the mathematician Thibaut with his lectures, the physicist Mayer, known for his textbooks, his successor Weber since 1831, and in the observatory Harding, who took the main part of lectures in practical astronomy. When the observatory was completed, Gauss occupied the western wing of the new observatory, while Harding took the eastern. They had once been on friendly terms, but over time they became alienated, possibly – as some biographers presume – because Gauss had wished the equal-ranked Harding to be no more than his assistant or observer. Gauss used the new meridian circles nearly exclusively, and kept them away from Harding, except for some very seldom joint observations.
Brendel subdivides Gauss's astronomic activity chronologically into seven periods, of which the years since 1820 are taken as a "period of lower astronomical activity". The new, well-equipped observatory did not work as effectively as other ones; Gauss's astronomical research had the character of a one-man enterprise without a long-time observation program, and the university established a place for an assistant only after Harding died in 1834.
Nevertheless, Gauss twice refused the opportunity to solve the problem, turning down offers from Berlin in 1810 and 1825 to become a full member of the Prussian Academy without burdening lecturing duties, as well as from Leipzig University in 1810 and from Vienna University in 1842, perhaps because of the family's difficult situation. Gauss's salary was raised from 1000 Reichsthaler in 1810 to 2500 Reichsthaler in 1824, and in his later years he was one of the best-paid professors of the university.
When Gauss was asked for help by his colleague and friend Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel in 1810, who was in trouble at Königsberg University because of his lack of an academic title, Gauss provided a doctorate honoris causa for Bessel from the Philosophy Faculty of Göttingen in March 1811. Gauss gave another recommendation for an honorary degree for Sophie Germain but only shortly before her death, so she never received it. He also gave successful support to the mathematician Gotthold Eisenstein in Berlin.
Gauss was loyal to the House of Hanover. After King William IV died in 1837, the new Hanoverian King Ernest Augustus annulled the 1833 constitution. Seven professors, later known as the "Göttingen Seven", protested against this, among them his friend and collaborator Wilhelm Weber and Gauss's son-in-law Heinrich Ewald. All of them were dismissed, and three of them were expelled, but Ewald and Weber could stay in Göttingen. Gauss was deeply affected by this quarrel but saw no possibility to help them.
Gauss took part in academic administration: three times he was elected as dean of the Faculty of Philosophy. Being entrusted with the widow's pension fund of the university, he dealt with actuarial science and wrote a report on the strategy for stabilizing the benefits. He was appointed director of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Göttingen for nine years.
Gauss remained mentally active into his old age, even while suffering from gout and general unhappiness. On 23 February 1855, he died of a heart attack in Göttingen; and was interred in the Albani Cemetery there. Heinrich Ewald, Gauss's son-in-law, and Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen, Gauss's close friend and biographer, gave eulogies at his funeral.
Gauss was a successful investor and accumulated considerable wealth with stocks and securities, amounting to a value of more than 150,000 Thaler; after his death, about 18,000 Thaler were found hidden in his rooms.
=== Gauss's brain ===
The day after Gauss's death his brain was removed, preserved, and studied by Rudolf Wagner, who found its mass to be slightly above average, at 1,492 grams (3.29 lb). Wagner's son Hermann, a geographer, estimated the cerebral area to be 219,588 square millimetres (340.362 sq in) in his doctoral thesis. In 2013, a neurobiologist at the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in Göttingen discovered that Gauss's brain had been mixed up soon after the first investigations, due to mislabelling, with that of the physician Conrad Heinrich Fuchs, who died in Göttingen a few months after Gauss. A further investigation showed no remarkable anomalies in the brains of either person. Thus, all investigations of Gauss's brain until 1998, except the first ones of Rudolf and Hermann Wagner, actually refer to the brain of Fuchs.
=== Family ===
Gauss married Johanna Osthoff on 9 October 1805 in St. Catherine's church in Brunswick. They had two sons and one daughter: Joseph (1806–1873), Wilhelmina (1808–1840), and Louis (1809–1810). Johanna died on 11 October 1809, one month after the birth of Louis, who himself died a few months later. Gauss chose the first names of his children in honour of Giuseppe Piazzi, Wilhelm Olbers, and Karl Ludwig Harding, the discoverers of the first asteroids.
On 4 August 1810, Gauss married Wilhelmine (Minna) Waldeck, a friend of his first wife, with whom he had three more children: Eugen (later Eugene) (1811–1896), Wilhelm (later William) (1813–1879), and Therese (1816–1864). Minna Gauss died on 12 September 1831 after being seriously ill for more than a decade. Therese then took over the household and cared for Gauss for the rest of his life; after her father's death, she married actor Constantin Staufenau. Her sister Wilhelmina married the orientalist Heinrich Ewald. Gauss's mother Dorothea lived in his house from 1817 until she died in 1839.
The eldest son Joseph, while still a schoolboy, helped his father as an assistant during the survey campaign in the summer of 1821. After a short time at university, in 1824 Joseph joined the Hanoverian army and assisted in surveying again in 1829. In the 1830s he was responsible for the enlargement of the survey network into the western parts of the kingdom. With his geodetical qualifications, he left the service and engaged in the construction of the railway network as director of the Royal Hanoverian State Railways. In 1836 he studied the railroad system in the US for some months.
Eugen left Göttingen in September 1830 and emigrated to the United States, where he spent five years with the army. He then worked for the American Fur Company in the Midwest. He later moved to Missouri and became a successful businessman. Wilhelm married a niece of the astronomer Bessel; he then moved to Missouri, started as a farmer and became wealthy in the shoe business in St. Louis in later years. Eugene and William have numerous descendants in America, but the Gauss descendants left in Germany all derive from Joseph, as the daughters had no children.
=== Personality ===
==== Scholar ====
In the first two decades of the 19th century, Gauss was the only important mathematician in Germany comparable to the leading French mathematicians. His Disquisitiones Arithmeticae was the first mathematical book from Germany to be translated into the French language.
Gauss was "in front of the new development" with documented research since 1799, his wealth of new ideas, and his rigour of demonstration. In contrast to previous mathematicians like Leonhard Euler, who let their readers take part in their reasoning, including certain erroneous deviations from the correct path, Gauss introduced a new style of direct and complete exposition that did not attempt to show the reader the author's train of thought.
Gauss was the first to restore that rigor of demonstration which we admire in the ancients and which had been forced unduly into the background by the exclusive interest of the preceding period in new developments.
But for himself, he propagated a quite different ideal, given in a letter to Farkas Bolyai as follows:
It is not knowledge, but the act of learning, not possession but the act of getting there, which grants the greatest enjoyment. When I have clarified and exhausted a subject, then I turn away from it, in order to go into darkness again.
His posthumous papers, his scientific diary, and short glosses in his own textbooks show that he empirically worked to a great extent. He was a lifelong busy and enthusiastic calculator, working extraordinarily quickly and checking his results through estimation. Nevertheless, his calculations were not always free from mistakes. He coped with the enormous workload by using skillful tools. Gauss used numerous mathematical tables, examined their exactness, and constructed new tables on various matters for personal use. He developed new tools for effective calculation, for example the Gaussian elimination. Gauss's calculations and the tables he prepared were often more precise than practically necessary. Very likely, this method gave him additional material for his theoretical work.
Gauss was only willing to publish work when he considered it complete and above criticism. This perfectionism was in keeping with the motto of his personal seal Pauca sed Matura ("Few, but Ripe"). Many colleagues encouraged him to publicize new ideas and sometimes rebuked him if he hesitated too long, in their opinion. Gauss defended himself by claiming that the initial discovery of ideas was easy, but preparing a presentable elaboration was a demanding matter for him, for either lack of time or "serenity of mind". Nevertheless, he published many short communications of urgent content in various journals, but left a considerable literary estate, too. Gauss referred to mathematics as "the queen of sciences" and arithmetics as "the queen of mathematics", and supposedly once espoused a belief in the necessity of immediately understanding Euler's identity as a benchmark pursuant to becoming a first-class mathematician.
On certain occasions, Gauss claimed that the ideas of another scholar had already been in his possession previously. Thus his concept of priority as "the first to discover, not the first to publish" differed from that of his scientific contemporaries. In contrast to his perfectionism in presenting mathematical ideas, his citations were criticized as negligent. He justified himself with an unusual view of correct citation practice: he would only give complete references, with respect to the previous authors of importance, which no one should ignore, but citing in this way would require knowledge of the history of science and more time than he wished to spend.
==== Private man ====
Soon after Gauss's death, his friend Sartorius published the first biography (1856), written in a rather enthusiastic style. Sartorius saw him as a serene and forward-striving man with childlike modesty, but also of "iron character" with an unshakeable strength of mind. Apart from his closer circle, others regarded him as reserved and unapproachable "like an Olympian sitting enthroned on the summit of science". His close contemporaries agreed that Gauss was a man of difficult character. He often refused to accept compliments. His visitors were occasionally irritated by his grumpy behaviour, but a short time later his mood could change, and he would become a charming, open-minded host. Gauss disliked polemic natures; together with his colleague Hausmann he opposed to a call for Justus Liebig on a university chair in Göttingen, "because he was always involved in some polemic."
Gauss's life was overshadowed by severe problems in his family. When his first wife Johanna suddenly died shortly after the birth of their third child, he revealed the grief in a last letter to his dead wife in the style of an ancient threnody, the most personal of his surviving documents. His second wife and his two daughters suffered from tuberculosis. In a letter to Bessel, dated December 1831, Gauss hinted at his distress, describing himself as "the victim of the worst domestic sufferings".
Because of his wife's illness, both younger sons were educated for some years in Celle, far from Göttingen. The military career of his elder son Joseph ended after more than two decades at the poorly paid rank of first lieutenant, although he had acquired a considerable knowledge of geodesy. He needed financial support from his father even after he was married. The second son Eugen shared a good measure of his father's talent in computation and languages but had a lively and sometimes rebellious character. He wanted to study philology, whereas Gauss wanted him to become a lawyer. Having run up debts and caused a scandal in public, Eugen suddenly left Göttingen under dramatic circumstances in September 1830 and emigrated via Bremen to the United States. He wasted the little money he had taken to start, after which his father refused further financial support. The youngest son Wilhelm wanted to qualify for agricultural administration, but had difficulties getting an appropriate education, and eventually emigrated as well. Only Gauss's youngest daughter Therese accompanied him in his last years of life.
In his later years Gauss habitually collected various types of useful or useless numerical data, such as the number of paths from his home to certain places in Göttingen or peoples' ages in days; he congratulated Humboldt in December 1851 for having reached the same age as Isaac Newton at his death, calculated in days.
Beyond his excellent knowledge of Latin, he was also acquainted with modern languages. Gauss read both classical and modern literature, and English and French works in the original languages. His favorite English author was Walter Scott, his favorite German Jean Paul. At the age of 62, he began to teach himself Russian, very likely to understand scientific writings from Russia, among them those of Lobachevsky on non-Euclidean geometry. Gauss liked singing and went to concerts. He was a busy newspaper reader; in his last years, he would visit an academic press salon of the university every noon. Gauss did not care much for philosophy, and mocked the "splitting hairs of the so-called metaphysicians", by which he meant proponents of the contemporary school of Naturphilosophie.
Gauss had an "aristocratic and through and through conservative nature", with little respect for people's intelligence and morals, following the motto "mundus vult decipi". He disliked Napoleon and his system and was horrified by violence and revolution of all kinds. Thus he condemned the methods of the Revolutions of 1848, though he agreed with some of their aims, such as that of a unified Germany. He had a low estimation of the constitutional system and he criticized parliamentarians of his time for their perceived ignorance and logical errors.
Some Gauss biographers have speculated on his religious beliefs. He sometimes said "God arithmetizes" and "I succeeded – not on account of my hard efforts, but by the grace of the Lord." Gauss was a member of the Lutheran church, like most of the population in northern Germany, but it seems that he did not believe all Lutheran dogma or understand the Bible fully literally. According to Sartorius, Gauss's religious tolerance, "insatiable thirst for truth" and sense of justice were motivated by his religious convictions.
== Mathematics ==
=== Algebra and number theory ===
==== Fundamental theorem of algebra ====
In his doctoral thesis from 1799, Gauss proved the fundamental theorem of algebra which states that every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one complex root. Mathematicians including Jean le Rond d'Alembert had produced false proofs before him, and Gauss's dissertation contains a critique of d'Alembert's work. He subsequently produced three other proofs, the last one in 1849 being generally rigorous. His attempts led to considerable clarification of the concept of complex numbers.
==== Disquisitiones Arithmeticae ====
In the preface to the Disquisitiones, Gauss dates the beginning of his work on number theory to 1795. By studying the works of previous mathematicians like Fermat, Euler, Lagrange, and Legendre, he realized that these scholars had already found much of what he had independently discovered. The Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, written in 1798 and published in 1801, consolidated number theory as a discipline and covered both elementary and algebraic number theory. Therein he introduces the triple bar symbol (≡) for congruence and uses it for a clean presentation of modular arithmetic. It deals with the unique factorization theorem and primitive roots modulo n. In the main sections, Gauss presents the first two proofs of the law of quadratic reciprocity and develops the theories of binary and ternary quadratic forms.
The Disquisitiones include the Gauss composition law for binary quadratic forms, as well as the enumeration of the number of representations of an integer as the sum of three squares. As an almost immediate corollary of his theorem on three squares, he proves the triangular case of the Fermat polygonal number theorem for n = 3. From several analytic results on class numbers that Gauss gives without proof towards the end of the fifth section, it appears that Gauss already knew the class number formula in 1801.
In the last section, Gauss gives proof for the constructibility of a regular heptadecagon (17-sided polygon) with straightedge and compass by reducing this geometrical problem to an algebraic one. This was the first progress in regular polygon construction in over 2000 years. He shows that a regular polygon is constructible if the number of its sides is either a power of 2 or the product of a power of 2 and any number of distinct Fermat primes. In the same section, he gives a result on the number of solutions of certain cubic polynomials with coefficients in finite fields, which amounts to counting integral points on an elliptic curve. An unfinished chapter, consisting of work done during 1797–1799, was found among his papers after his death.
==== Further investigations ====
One of Gauss's first results was the empirically found conjecture of 1792 – the later called prime number theorem – giving an estimation of the number of prime numbers by using the integral logarithm.
In 1816, Olbers encouraged Gauss to compete for a prize from the French Academy for a proof for Fermat's Last Theorem; he refused, considering the topic uninteresting. However, after his death a short undated paper was found with proofs of the theorem for the cases n = 3 and n = 5. The particular case of n = 3 was proved much earlier by Leonhard Euler, but Gauss developed a more streamlined proof which made use of Eisenstein integers; though more general, the proof was simpler than in the real integers case.
Gauss contributed to solving the Kepler conjecture in 1831 with the proof that a greatest packing density of spheres in the three-dimensional space is given when the centres of the spheres form a cubic face-centred arrangement, when he reviewed a book of Ludwig August Seeber on the theory of reduction of positive ternary quadratic forms. Having noticed some lacks in Seeber's proof, he simplified many of his arguments, proved the central conjecture, and remarked that this theorem is equivalent to the Kepler conjecture for regular arrangements.
In two papers on biquadratic residues (1828, 1832) Gauss introduced the ring of Gaussian integers
Z
[
i
]
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} [i]}
, showed that it is a unique factorization domain, and generalized some key arithmetic concepts, such as Fermat's little theorem and Gauss's lemma. The main objective of introducing this ring was to formulate the law of biquadratic reciprocity – as Gauss discovered, rings of complex integers are the natural setting for such higher reciprocity laws.
In the second paper, he stated the general law of biquadratic reciprocity and proved several special cases of it. In an earlier publication from 1818 containing his fifth and sixth proofs of quadratic reciprocity, he claimed the techniques of these proofs (Gauss sums) can be applied to prove higher reciprocity laws.
=== Analysis ===
One of Gauss's first discoveries was the notion of the arithmetic-geometric mean (AGM) of two positive real numbers. He discovered its relation to elliptic integrals in the years 1798–1799 through Landen's transformation, and a diary entry recorded the discovery of the connection of Gauss's constant to lemniscatic elliptic functions, a result that Gauss stated "will surely open an entirely new field of analysis". He also made early inroads into the more formal issues of the foundations of complex analysis, and from a letter to Bessel in 1811 it is clear that he knew the "fundamental theorem of complex analysis" – Cauchy's integral theorem – and understood the notion of complex residues when integrating around poles.
Euler's pentagonal numbers theorem, together with other researches on the AGM and lemniscatic functions, led him to plenty of results on Jacobi theta functions, culminating in the discovery in 1808 of the later called Jacobi triple product identity, which includes Euler's theorem as a special case. His works show that he knew modular transformations of order 3, 5, 7 for elliptic functions since 1808.
Several mathematical fragments in his Nachlass indicate that he knew parts of the modern theory of modular forms. In his work on the multivalued AGM of two complex numbers, he discovered a deep connection between the infinitely many values of the AGM and its two "simplest values". In his unpublished writings he recognized and made a sketch of the key concept of fundamental domain for the modular group. One of Gauss's sketches of this kind was a drawing of a tessellation of the unit disk by "equilateral" hyperbolic triangles with all angles equal to
π
/
4
{\displaystyle \pi /4}
.
An example of Gauss's insight in analysis is the cryptic remark that the principles of circle division by compass and straightedge can also be applied to the division of the lemniscate curve, which inspired Abel's theorem on lemniscate division. Another example is his publication "Summatio quarundam serierum singularium" (1811) on the determination of the sign of quadratic Gauss sums, in which he solved the main problem by introducing q-analogs of binomial coefficients and manipulating them by several original identities that seem to stem from his work on elliptic function theory; however, Gauss cast his argument in a formal way that does not reveal its origin in elliptic function theory, and only the later work of mathematicians such as Jacobi and Hermite has exposed the crux of his argument.
In the "Disquisitiones generales circa series infinitam..." (1813), he provides the first systematic treatment of the general hypergeometric function
F
(
α
,
β
,
γ
,
x
)
{\displaystyle F(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma ,x)}
, and shows that many of the functions known at the time are special cases of the hypergeometric function. This work is the first exact inquiry into convergence of infinite series in the history of mathematics. Furthermore, it deals with infinite continued fractions arising as ratios of hypergeometric functions, which are now called Gauss continued fractions.
In 1823, Gauss won the prize of the Danish Society with an essay on conformal mappings, which contains several developments that pertain to the field of complex analysis. Gauss stated that angle-preserving mappings in the complex plane must be complex analytic functions, and used the later-named Beltrami equation to prove the existence of isothermal coordinates on analytic surfaces. The essay concludes with examples of conformal mappings into a sphere and an ellipsoid of revolution.
==== Numerical analysis ====
Gauss often deduced theorems inductively from numerical data he had collected empirically. As such, the use of efficient algorithms to facilitate calculations was vital to his research, and he made many contributions to numerical analysis, such as the method of Gaussian quadrature, published in 1816.
In a private letter to Gerling from 1823, he described a solution of a 4x4 system of linear equations with the Gauss-Seidel method – an "indirect" iterative method for the solution of linear systems, and recommended it over the usual method of "direct elimination" for systems of more than two equations.
Gauss invented an algorithm for calculating what is now called discrete Fourier transforms when calculating the orbits of Pallas and Juno in 1805, 160 years before Cooley and Tukey found their similar Cooley–Tukey algorithm. He developed it as a trigonometric interpolation method, but the paper Theoria Interpolationis Methodo Nova Tractata was published only posthumously in 1876, well after Joseph Fourier's introduction of the subject in 1807.
=== Geometry ===
==== Differential geometry ====
The geodetic survey of Hanover fuelled Gauss's interest in differential geometry and topology, fields of mathematics dealing with curves and surfaces. This led him in 1828 to the publication of a work that marks the birth of modern differential geometry of surfaces, as it departed from the traditional ways of treating surfaces as cartesian graphs of functions of two variables, and that initiated the exploration of surfaces from the "inner" point of view of a two-dimensional being constrained to move on it. As a result, the Theorema Egregium (remarkable theorem), established a property of the notion of Gaussian curvature. Informally, the theorem says that the curvature of a surface can be determined entirely by measuring angles and distances on the surface, regardless of the embedding of the surface in three-dimensional or two-dimensional space.
The Theorema Egregium leads to the abstraction of surfaces as doubly-extended manifolds; it clarifies the distinction between the intrinsic properties of the manifold (the metric) and its physical realization in ambient space. A consequence is the impossibility of an isometric transformation between surfaces of different Gaussian curvature. This means practically that a sphere or an ellipsoid cannot be transformed to a plane without distortion, which causes a fundamental problem in designing projections for geographical maps. A portion of this essay is dedicated to a profound study of geodesics. In particular, Gauss proves the local Gauss–Bonnet theorem on geodesic triangles, and generalizes Legendre's theorem on spherical triangles to geodesic triangles on arbitrary surfaces with continuous curvature; he found that the angles of a "sufficiently small" geodesic triangle deviate from that of a planar triangle of the same sides in a way that depends only on the values of the surface curvature at the vertices of the triangle, regardless of the behaviour of the surface in the triangle interior.
Gauss's memoir from 1828 lacks the conception of geodesic curvature. However, in a previously unpublished manuscript, very likely written in 1822–1825, he introduced the term "side curvature" (German: "Seitenkrümmung") and proved its invariance under isometric transformations, a result that was later obtained by Ferdinand Minding and published by him in 1830. This Gauss paper contains the core of his lemma on total curvature, but also its generalization, found and proved by Pierre Ossian Bonnet in 1848 and known as the Gauss–Bonnet theorem.
==== Non-Euclidean geometry ====
During Gauss's lifetime, the parallel postulate of Euclidean geometry was heavily discussed. Numerous efforts were made to prove it in the frame of the Euclidean axioms, whereas some mathematicians discussed the possibility of geometrical systems without it. Gauss thought about the basics of geometry from the 1790s on, but only realized in the 1810s that a non-Euclidean geometry without the parallel postulate could solve the problem. In a letter to Franz Taurinus of 1824, he presented a short comprehensible outline of what he named a "non-Euclidean geometry", but he strongly forbade Taurinus to make any use of it. Gauss is credited with having been the one to first discover and study non-Euclidean geometry, even coining the term as well.
The first publications on non-Euclidean geometry in the history of mathematics were authored by Nikolai Lobachevsky in 1829 and Janos Bolyai in 1832. In the following years, Gauss wrote his ideas on the topic but did not publish them, thus avoiding influencing the contemporary scientific discussion. Gauss commended the ideas of Janos Bolyai in a letter to his father and university friend Farkas Bolyai claiming that these were congruent to his own thoughts of some decades. However, it is not quite clear to what extent he preceded Lobachevsky and Bolyai, as his written remarks are vague and obscure.
Sartorius first mentioned Gauss's work on non-Euclidean geometry in 1856, but only the publication of Gauss's Nachlass in Volume VIII of the Collected Works (1900) showed Gauss's ideas on the matter, at a time when non-Euclidean geometry was still an object of some controversy.
==== Early topology ====
Gauss was also an early pioneer of topology or Geometria Situs, as it was called in his lifetime. The first proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra in 1799 contained an essentially topological argument; fifty years later, he further developed the topological argument in his fourth proof of this theorem.
Another encounter with topological notions occurred to him in the course of his astronomical work in 1804, when he determined the limits of the region on the celestial sphere in which comets and asteroids might appear, and which he termed "Zodiacus". He discovered that if the Earth's and comet's orbits are linked, then by topological reasons the Zodiacus is the entire sphere. In 1848, in the context of the discovery of the asteroid 7 Iris, he published a further qualitative discussion of the Zodiacus.
In Gauss's letters of 1820–1830, he thought intensively on topics with close affinity to Geometria Situs, and became gradually conscious of semantic difficulty in this field. Fragments from this period reveal that he tried to classify "tract figures", which are closed plane curves with a finite number of transverse self-intersections, that may also be planar projections of knots. To do so he devised a symbolical scheme, the Gauss code, that in a sense captured the characteristic features of tract figures.
In a fragment from 1833, Gauss defined the linking number of two space curves by a certain double integral, and in doing so provided for the first time an analytical formulation of a topological phenomenon. On the same note, he lamented the little progress made in Geometria Situs, and remarked that one of its central problems will be "to count the intertwinings of two closed or infinite curves". His notebooks from that period reveal that he was also thinking about other topological objects such as braids and tangles.
Gauss's influence in later years to the emerging field of topology, which he held in high esteem, was through occasional remarks and oral communications to Mobius and Listing.
=== Minor mathematical accomplishments ===
Gauss applied the concept of complex numbers to solve well-known problems in a new concise way. For example, in a short note from 1836 on geometric aspects of the ternary forms and their application to crystallography, he stated the fundamental theorem of axonometry, which tells how to represent a 3D cube on a 2D plane with complete accuracy, via complex numbers. He described rotations of this sphere as the action of certain linear fractional transformations on the extended complex plane, and gave a proof for the geometric theorem that the altitudes of a triangle always meet in a single orthocenter.
Gauss was concerned with John Napier's "Pentagramma mirificum" – a certain spherical pentagram – for several decades; he approached it from various points of view, and gradually gained a full understanding of its geometric, algebraic, and analytic aspects. In particular, in 1843 he stated and proved several theorems connecting elliptic functions, Napier spherical pentagons, and Poncelet pentagons in the plane.
Furthermore, he contributed a solution to the problem of constructing the largest-area ellipse inside a given quadrilateral, and discovered a surprising result about the computation of area of pentagons.
== Sciences ==
=== Astronomy ===
On 1 January 1801, Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi discovered a new celestial object, presumed it to be the long searched planet between Mars and Jupiter according to the so-called Titius–Bode law, and named it Ceres. He could track it only for a short time until it disappeared behind the glare of the Sun. The mathematical tools of the time were not sufficient to predict the location of its reappearance from the few data available. Gauss tackled the problem and predicted a position for possible rediscovery in December 1801. This turned out to be accurate within a half-degree when Franz Xaver von Zach on 7 and 31 December at Gotha, and independently Heinrich Olbers on 1 and 2 January in Bremen, identified the object near the predicted position.
Gauss's method leads to an equation of the eighth degree, of which one solution, the Earth's orbit, is known. The solution sought is then separated from the remaining six based on physical conditions. In this work, Gauss used comprehensive approximation methods which he created for that purpose.
The discovery of Ceres led Gauss to the theory of the motion of planetoids disturbed by large planets, eventually published in 1809 as Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientum. It introduced the Gaussian gravitational constant.
Since the new asteroids had been discovered, Gauss occupied himself with the perturbations of their orbital elements. Firstly he examined Ceres with analytical methods similar to those of Laplace, but his favorite object was Pallas, because of its great eccentricity and orbital inclination, whereby Laplace's method did not work. Gauss used his own tools: the arithmetic–geometric mean, the hypergeometric function, and his method of interpolation. He found an orbital resonance with Jupiter in proportion 18:7 in 1812; Gauss gave this result as cipher, and gave the explicit meaning only in letters to Olbers and Bessel. After long years of work, he finished it in 1816 without a result that seemed sufficient to him. This marked the end of his activities in theoretical astronomy.
One fruit of Gauss's research on Pallas perturbations was the Determinatio Attractionis... (1818) on a method of theoretical astronomy that later became known as the "elliptic ring method". It introduced an averaging conception in which a planet in orbit is replaced by a fictitious ring with mass density proportional to the time the planet takes to follow the corresponding orbital arcs. Gauss presents the method of evaluating the gravitational attraction of such an elliptic ring, which includes several steps; one of them involves a direct application of the arithmetic-geometric mean (AGM) algorithm to calculate an elliptic integral.
Even after Gauss's contributions to theoretical astronomy came to an end, more practical activities in observational astronomy continued and occupied him during his entire career. As early as 1799, Gauss dealt with the determination of longitude by use of the lunar parallax, for which he developed more convenient formulas than those were in common use. After appointment as director of observatory he attached importance to the fundamental astronomical constants in correspondence with Bessel. Gauss himself provided tables of nutation and aberration, solar coordinates, and refraction. He made many contributions to spherical geometry, and in this context solved some practical problems about navigation by stars. He published a great number of observations, mainly on minor planets and comets; his last observation was the solar eclipse of 28 July 1851.
=== Chronology ===
Gauss's first publication following his doctoral thesis dealt with the determination of the date of Easter (1800), an elementary mathematical topic. Gauss aimed to present a convenient algorithm for people without any knowledge of ecclesiastical or even astronomical chronology, and thus avoided the usual terms of golden number, epact, solar cycle, domenical letter, and any religious connotations. This choice of topic likely had historical grounds. The replacement of the Julian calendar by the Gregorian calendar had caused confusion in the Holy Roman Empire since the 16th century and was not finished in Germany until 1700, when the difference of eleven days was deleted. Even after this, Easter fell on different dates in Protestant and Catholic territories, until this difference was abolished by agreement in 1776. In the Protestant states, such as the Duchy of Brunswick, the Easter of 1777, five weeks before Gauss's birth, was the first one calculated in the new manner.
=== Error theory ===
Gauss likely used the method of least squares to minimize the impact of measurement error when calculating the orbit of Ceres. The method was published first by Adrien-Marie Legendre in 1805, but Gauss claimed in Theoria motus (1809) that he had been using it since 1794 or 1795. In the history of statistics, this disagreement is called the "priority dispute over the discovery of the method of least squares". Gauss proved that the method has the lowest sampling variance within the class of linear unbiased estimators under the assumption of normally distributed errors (Gauss–Markov theorem), in the two-part paper Theoria combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae (1823).
In the first paper he proved Gauss's inequality (a Chebyshev-type inequality) for unimodal distributions, and stated without proof another inequality for moments of the fourth order (a special case of the Gauss-Winckler inequality). He derived lower and upper bounds for the variance of the sample variance. In the second paper, Gauss described recursive least squares methods, which he discovered. Gauss's work on the theory of errors was extended in several directions by the geodesist Friedrich Robert Helmert to the Gauss-Helmert model.
Gauss also contributed to problems in probability theory that are not directly concerned with the theory of errors. One example appears as a diary note where he tried to describe the asymptotic distribution of entries in the continued fraction expansion of a random number uniformly distributed in (0,1). He derived this distribution, now known as the Gauss-Kuzmin distribution, as a by-product of the discovery of the ergodicity of the Gauss map for continued fractions. Gauss's solution is the first-ever result in the metrical theory of continued fractions.
=== Geodesy ===
Gauss was busy with geodetic problems since 1799 when he helped Karl Ludwig von Lecoq with calculations during his survey in Westphalia. Beginning in 1804, he taught himself some practical geodesy in Brunswick and Göttingen.
Since 1816, Gauss's former student Heinrich Christian Schumacher, then professor in Copenhagen, but living in Altona (Holstein) near Hamburg as head of an observatory, carried out a triangulation of the Jutland peninsula from Skagen in the north to Lauenburg in the south. This project was the basis for map production but also aimed at determining the geodetic arc between the terminal sites. Data from geodetic arcs were used to determine the dimensions of the earth geoid, and long arc distances brought more precise results. Schumacher asked Gauss to continue this work further to the south in the Kingdom of Hanover; Gauss agreed after a short time of hesitation. Finally, in May 1820, King George IV gave the order to Gauss.
An arc measurement needs a precise astronomical determination of at least two points in the network. Gauss and Schumacher used the coincidence that both observatories in Göttingen and Altona, in the garden of Schumacher's house, lay nearly in the same longitude. The latitude was measured with both their instruments and a zenith sector of Ramsden that was transported to both observatories.
Gauss and Schumacher had already determined some angles between Lüneburg, Hamburg, and Lauenburg for the geodetic connection in October 1818. During the summers of 1821 until 1825 Gauss directed the triangulation work personally, from Thuringia in the south to the river Elbe in the north. The triangle between Hoher Hagen, Großer Inselsberg in the Thuringian Forest, and Brocken in the Harz mountains was the largest one Gauss had ever measured with a maximum size of 107 km (66.5 miles). In the thinly populated Lüneburg Heath without significant natural summits or artificial buildings, he had difficulties finding suitable triangulation points; sometimes cutting lanes through the vegetation was necessary.
For pointing signals, Gauss invented a new instrument with movable mirrors and a small telescope that reflects the sunbeams to the triangulation points, and named it heliotrope. Another suitable construction for the same purpose was a sextant with an additional mirror which he named vice heliotrope. Gauss was assisted by soldiers of the Hanoverian army, among them his eldest son Joseph. Gauss took part in the baseline measurement (Braak Base Line) of Schumacher in the village of Braak near Hamburg in 1820, and used the result for the evaluation of the Hanoverian triangulation.
An additional result was a better value for the flattening of the approximative Earth ellipsoid. Gauss developed the universal transverse Mercator projection of the ellipsoidal shaped Earth (what he named conform projection) for representing geodetical data in plane charts.
When the arc measurement was finished, Gauss began the enlargement of the triangulation to the west to get a survey of the whole Kingdom of Hanover with a Royal decree from 25 March 1828. The practical work was directed by three army officers, among them Lieutenant Joseph Gauss. The complete data evaluation laid in the hands of Gauss, who applied his mathematical inventions such as the method of least squares and the elimination method to it. The project was finished in 1844, and Gauss sent a final report of the project to the government; his method of projection was not edited until 1866.
In 1828, when studying differences in latitude, Gauss first defined a physical approximation for the figure of the Earth as the surface everywhere perpendicular to the direction of gravity; later his doctoral student Johann Benedict Listing called this the geoid.
=== Magnetism and telegraphy ===
==== Geomagnetism ====
Gauss had been interested in magnetism since 1803. After Alexander von Humboldt visited Göttingen in 1826, both scientists began intensive research on geomagnetism, partly independently, partly in productive cooperation. In 1828, Gauss was Humboldt's guest during the conference of the Society of German Natural Scientists and Physicians in Berlin, where he got acquainted with the physicist Wilhelm Weber.
When Weber got the chair for physics in Göttingen as successor of Johann Tobias Mayer by Gauss's recommendation in 1831, both of them started a fruitful collaboration, leading to a new knowledge of magnetism with a representation for the unit of magnetism in terms of mass, charge, and time. They founded the Magnetic Association (German: Magnetischer Verein), an international working group of several observatories, which carried out measurements of Earth's magnetic field in many regions of the world using equivalent methods at arranged dates in the years 1836 to 1841.
In 1836, Humboldt suggested the establishment of a worldwide net of geomagnetic stations in the British dominions with a letter to the Duke of Sussex, then president of the Royal Society; he proposed that magnetic measures should be taken under standardized conditions using his methods. Together with other instigators, this led to a global program known as "Magnetical crusade" under the direction of Edward Sabine. The dates, times, and intervals of observations were determined in advance, the Göttingen mean time was used as the standard. 61 stations on all five continents participated in this global program. Gauss and Weber founded a series for publication of the results, six volumes were edited between 1837 and 1843. Weber's departure to Leipzig in 1843 as late effect of the Göttingen Seven affair marked the end of Magnetic Association activity.
Following Humboldt's example, Gauss ordered a magnetic observatory to be built in the garden of the observatory, but the scientists differed over instrumental equipment; Gauss preferred stationary instruments, which he thought to give more precise results, whereas Humboldt was accustomed to movable instruments. Gauss was interested in the temporal and spatial variation of magnetic declination, inclination, and intensity and differentiated, unlike Humboldt, between "horizontal" and "vertical" intensity. Together with Weber, he developed methods of measuring the components of the intensity of the magnetic field and constructed a suitable magnetometer to measure absolute values of the strength of the Earth's magnetic field, not more relative ones that depended on the apparatus. The precision of the magnetometer was about ten times higher than that of previous instruments. With this work, Gauss was the first to derive a non-mechanical quantity by basic mechanical quantities.
Gauss carried out a General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism (1839), in what he believed to describe the nature of magnetic force; according to Felix Klein, this work is a presentation of observations by use of spherical harmonics rather than a physical theory. The theory predicted the existence of exactly two magnetic poles on the Earth, thus Hansteen's idea of four magnetic poles became obsolete, and the data allowed to determine their location with rather good precision.
Gauss influenced the beginning of geophysics in Russia, when Adolph Theodor Kupffer, one of his former students, founded a magnetic observatory in St. Petersburg, following the example of the observatory in Göttingen, and similarly, Ivan Simonov in Kazan.
==== Electromagnetism ====
The discoveries of Hans Christian Ørsted on electromagnetism and Michael Faraday on electromagnetic induction drew Gauss's attention to these matters. Gauss and Weber found rules for branched electric circuits, which were later found independently and first published by Gustav Kirchhoff and named after him as Kirchhoff's circuit laws, and made inquiries into electromagnetism. They constructed the first electromechanical telegraph in 1833, and Weber himself connected the observatory with the institute for physics in the town centre of Göttingen, but they made no further commercial use of this invention.
Gauss's main theoretical interests in electromagnetism were reflected in his attempts to formulate quantitive laws governing electromagnetic induction. In notebooks from these years, he recorded several innovative formulations; he discovered the vector potential function, independently rediscovered by Franz Ernst Neumann in 1845, and in January 1835 he wrote down an "induction law" equivalent to Faraday's law, which stated that the electromotive force at a given point in space is equal to the instantaneous rate of change (with respect to time) of this function.
Gauss tried to find a unifying law for long-distance effects of electrostatics, electrodynamics, electromagnetism, and induction, comparable to Newton's law of gravitation, but his attempt ended in a "tragic failure".
=== Potential theory ===
Since Isaac Newton had shown theoretically that the Earth and rotating stars assume non-spherical shapes, the problem of attraction of ellipsoids gained importance in mathematical astronomy. In his first publication on potential theory, the "Theoria attractionis..." (1813), Gauss provided a closed-form expression to the gravitational attraction of a homogeneous triaxial ellipsoid at every point in space. In contrast to previous research of Maclaurin, Laplace and Lagrange, Gauss's new solution treated the attraction more directly in the form of an elliptic integral. In the process, he also proved and applied some special cases of the so-called Gauss's theorem in vector analysis.
In the General theorems concerning the attractive and repulsive forces acting in reciprocal proportions of quadratic distances (1840) Gauss gave a basic theory of magnetic potential, based on Lagrange, Laplace, and Poisson; it seems rather unlikely that he knew the previous works of George Green on this subject. However, Gauss could never give any reasons for magnetism, nor a theory of magnetism similar to Newton's work on gravitation, that enabled scientists to predict geomagnetic effects in the future.
=== Optics ===
Gauss's calculations enabled instrument maker Johann Georg Repsold in Hamburg to construct a new achromatic lens system in 1810. A main problem, among other difficulties, was that the refractive index and dispersion of the glass used were not precisely known. In a short article from 1817 Gauss dealt with the problem of removal of chromatic aberration in double lenses, and computed adjustments of the shape and coefficients of refraction required to minimize it. His work was noted by the optician Carl August von Steinheil, who in 1860 introduced the achromatic Steinheil doublet, partly based on Gauss's calculations. Many results in geometrical optics are scattered in Gauss's correspondences and hand notes.
In the Dioptrical Investigations (1840), Gauss gave the first systematic analysis of the formation of images under a paraxial approximation (Gaussian optics). He characterized optical systems under a paraxial approximation only by its cardinal points, and he derived the Gaussian lens formula, applicable without restrictions in respect to the thickness of the lenses.
=== Mechanics ===
Gauss's first work in mechanics concerned the earth's rotation. When his university friend Benzenberg carried out experiments to determine the deviation of falling masses from the perpendicular in 1802, what today is known as the Coriolis force, he asked Gauss for a theory-based calculation of the values for comparison with the experimental ones. Gauss elaborated a system of fundamental equations for the motion, and the results corresponded sufficiently with Benzenberg's data, who added Gauss's considerations as an appendix to his book on falling experiments.
After Foucault had demonstrated the earth's rotation by his pendulum experiment in public in 1851, Gerling questioned Gauss for further explanations. This instigated Gauss to design a new apparatus for demonstration with a much shorter length of pendulum than Foucault's one. The oscillations were observed with a reading telescope, with a vertical scale and a mirror fastened at the pendulum. It is described in the Gauss–Gerling correspondence and Weber made some experiments with this apparatus in 1853, but no data were published.
Gauss's principle of least constraint of 1829 was established as a general concept to overcome the division of mechanics into statics and dynamics, combining D'Alembert's principle with Lagrange's principle of virtual work, and showing analogies to the method of least squares.
=== Metrology ===
In 1828, Gauss was appointed as head of the board for weights and measures of the Kingdom of Hanover. He created standards for length and measure. Gauss himself took care of the time-consuming measures and gave detailed orders for the mechanical construction. In the correspondence with Schumacher, who was also working on this matter, he described new ideas for high-precision scales. He submitted the final reports on the Hanoverian foot and pound to the government in 1841. This work achieved international importance due to an 1836 law that connected the Hanoverian measures with the English ones.
== Honours and awards ==
Gauss first became member of a scientific society, the Russian Academy of Sciences, in 1802. Further memberships (corresponding, foreign or full) were awarded by the Academy of Sciences in Göttingen (1802/ 1807), the French Academy of Sciences (1804/ 1820), the Royal Society of London (1804), the Royal Prussian Academy in Berlin (1810), the National Academy of Science in Verona (1810), the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1820), the Bavarian Academy of Sciences of Munich (1820), the Royal Danish Academy in Copenhagen (1821), the Royal Astronomical Society in London (1821), the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1821), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in Boston (1822), the Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences in Prague (1833), the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium (1841/1845), the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala (1843), the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin (1843), the Royal Institute of the Netherlands (1845/ 1851), the Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences in Madrid (1850), the Russian Geographical Society (1851), the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna (1848), the American Philosophical Society (1853), the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and the Royal Hollandish Society of Sciences in Haarlem.
Both the University of Kazan and the Philosophy Faculty of the University of Prague appointed him honorary member in 1848.
Gauss received the Lalande Prize from the French Academy of Science in 1809 for the theory of planets and the means of determining their orbits from only three observations, the Danish Academy of Science prize in 1823 for his memoir on conformal projection, and the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1838 for "his inventions and mathematical researches in magnetism".
Gauss was appointed Knight of the French Legion of Honour in 1837, and became one of the first members of the Prussian Order Pour le Merite (Civil class) when it was established in 1842. He received the Order of the Crown of Westphalia (1810), the Danish Order of the Dannebrog (1817), the Hanoverian Royal Guelphic Order (1815), the Swedish Order of the Polar Star (1844), the Order of Henry the Lion (1849), and the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art (1853).
The Kings of Hanover appointed him the honorary titles "Hofrath" (1816) and "Geheimer Hofrath" (1845). In 1949, on the occasion of his golden doctor degree jubilee, he received honorary citizenship of both Brunswick and Göttingen. Soon after his death a medal was issued by order of King George V of Hanover with the back inscription dedicated "to the Prince of Mathematicians".
The "Gauss-Gesellschaft Göttingen" ("Göttingen Gauss Society") was founded in 1964 for research on the life and work of Carl Friedrich Gauss and related persons. It publishes the Mitteilungen der Gauss-Gesellschaft (Communications of the Gauss Society).
== Names and commemorations ==
List of things named after Carl Friedrich Gauss
== Selected writings ==
=== Mathematics and astronomy ===
1799: Demonstratio nova theorematis omnem functionem algebraicam rationalem integram unius variabilis in factores reales primi vel secundi gradus resolvi posse [New proof of the theorem that every integral algebraic function of one variable can be resolved into real factors of the first or second degree]. Helmstedt: C. G. Fleckeisen. (Doctoral thesis on the fundamental theorem of algebra, University of Helmstedt) Original book
1816: "Demonstratio nova altera theorematis omnem functionem algebraicam rationalem integram unius variabilis in factores reales primi vel secundi gradus resolvi posse". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 3: 107–134. Original
1816: "Theorematis de resolubilitate functionum algebraicarum integrarum in factores reales demonstratio tertia". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 3: 135–142. Original
1850: "Beiträge zur Theorie der algebraischen Gleichungen". Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen. 4: 34–35. Original (Lecture from 1849)
Die vier Gauss'schen Beweise für die Zerlegung ganzer algebraischer Funktionen in reelle Faktoren ersten und zweiten Grades. (1799–1849) [The four Gaussian proofs of the fundamental theorem of algebra]. Translated by Netto. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. 1890. (German)
1800: "Berechnung des Osterfestes" [Calculation of Easter]. Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beförderung der Erd- und Himmelskunde (in German). 2: 121–130. Original
1801: Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. Leipzig: Gerh. Fleischer jun.
Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1986). Disquisitiones Arithmeticae & other papers on number theory. Translated by Clarke, Arthur A. (2nd, corrected ed.). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-7560-0. ISBN 978-0-387-96254-2. (translated from the second German edition, Göttingen 1860)
1802: "Berechnung des jüdischen Osterfestes" [Calculation of Jewish Easter]. Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beförderung der Erd- und Himmelskunde (in German). 5: 435–437. Original
1804: "Über die Grenzen der geocentrischen Oerter der Planeten" [On the limits of the geocentric places of the planets]. Monatliche Correspondenz zur Beförderung der Erd- und Himmelskunde (in German). 10: 171–193. Original (on the Zodiacus)
1808: "Theorematis arithmetici demonstratio nova". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis. Comm. Math. 16: 69–74. Original (Introduces Gauss's lemma, uses it in the third proof of quadratic reciprocity)
1808: Methodus peculiaris elevationem poli determinandi (in Latin). Göttingen.
1809: Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientium (in Latin). Hamburg: Friedrich Perthes & Johann Heinrich Besser. Original book
Theory of the Motion of Heavenly Bodies Moving about the Sun in Conic Sections. Translated by Davis, Charles Henry. Little, Brown & Co. 1857.
Theory of the motion of the celestial bodies moving around the Sun in conic sections. Reprint of the 1809 original. (Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientium.) (Latin). Cambridge Library Collection - Mathematics. Cambridge University Press. 2011. ISBN 978-1-108-14311-0. Zbl 1234.01016.
1811: "Disquisitio de elementis ellipticis Palladis ex oppositionibus annorum 1803, 1804, 1805, 1806, 1807, 1808, 1809". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Math. 1: 1–26. Original (from 1810) (Orbit of Pallas)
1811: "Summatio quarundam serierum singularium". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 1: 1–40. Original (from 1808) (Determination of the sign of the quadratic Gauss sum, uses this to give the fourth proof of quadratic reciprocity)
1813: "Disquisitiones generales circa seriem infinitam
1
+
α
β
γ
.1
+
etc.
{\displaystyle 1+{\frac {\alpha \beta }{\gamma .1}}+{\mbox{etc.}}}
". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 2: 1–42. Original (from 1812, contains the Gauss's continued fraction)
1816: "Methodus nova integralium valores per approximationem inveniendi". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 3: 39–76. Original (from 1814)
1818: "Theorematis fundamentalis in doctrina de residuis quadraticis demonstrationes et ampliationes novae". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 4: 3–20. Original (from 1817) (Fifth and sixth proofs of quadratic reciprocity)
1818: "Determinatio attractionis, quam in punctum positionis datae exerceret planeta, si eius massa per totamorbitam, ratione temporis, quo singulae partes describuntur, uniformiter esset dispertita". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 4: 21–48. Original (Only reference to the – mostly unpublished – work on the algorithm of the arithmetic-geometric mean.)
1823: "Theoria combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae. Pars Prior". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 5: 33–62. Original (from 1821)
1823: "Theoria combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae. Pars Posterior". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 5: 63–90. Original
1825: "Allgemeine Auflösung der Aufgabe die Theile einer gegebnen Fläche auf einer andern gegebnen Fläche so abzubilden dass die Abbildung dem Abgebildeten in den kleinsten Theilen ähnlich wird". Astronomische Abhandlungen. 3. Altona. (Prize winning essay from 1822 on conformal mapping)
1828: Bestimmung des Breitenunterschiedes zwischen den Sternwarten von Göttingen und Altona durch Beobachtungen am Ramsdenschen Zenithsector [Determination of the Difference in Latitude between the Observatories of Göttingen and Altona by Observations with Ramsden's Zenith sector] (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. 1828. Original book
1828: Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1828). "Supplementum theoriae combinationis observationum erroribus minimis obnoxiae". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 6: 57–98. Bibcode:1828stco.book.....G. (from 1826)
Gauss, Carl Friedrich; Stewart, G. W. (1995). Theory of the Combination of Observations Least Subject to Errors. Part One, Part Two, Supplement (Classics in Applied Mathematics). Translated by G. W. Stewart. Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. doi:10.1137/1.9781611971248. ISBN 978-0-89871-347-3. (Three essays concerning the calculation of probabilities as the basis of the Gaussian law of error propagation)
1828: "Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 6: 99–146. Original (from 1827)
General Investigations of Curved Surfaces (PDF). Translated by J. C. Morehead and A. M. Hiltebeitel. The Princeton University Library. 1902.
1828: "Theoria residuorum biquadraticorum, Commentatio prima". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 6: 27–56. Original (from 1825)
1832: "Theoria residuorum biquadraticorum, Commentatio secunda". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 7: 89–148. Original (from 1831) (Introduces the Gaussian integers, states (without proof) the law of biquadratic reciprocity, proves the supplementary law for 1 + i)
1845: "Untersuchungen über Gegenstände der Höheren Geodäsie. Erste Abhandlung". Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Göttingen. Zweiter Band, von den Jahren 1842–1844: 3–46. Original (from 1843)
1847: "Untersuchungen über Gegenstände der Höheren Geodäsie. Zweite Abhandlung". Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Göttingen. Dritter Band, von den Jahren 1845–1847: 3–44. Original (from 1846)
1848: Gauss (1848). "Schreiben des Herrn Geheimen Hofrathes Gauss an den Herausgeber" [Letter of Mr. Secret Councillor of the Court Gauss to the editor]. Astronomische Nachrichten (in German). 27: 1–3. Bibcode:1848AN.....27....1G. doi:10.1002/asna.18480270102. Original
1903: Wissenschaftliches Tagebuch (Klein, Felix, ed. (1903). "Gauß' wissenschaftliches Tagebuch 1796–1814". Mathematische Annalen (in Latin and German). 57: 1–34. doi:10.1007/BF01449013. S2CID 119641638.) Original book (from 1847, on the Zodiacus)
Jeremy Gray (1984). "A commentary on Gauss's mathematical diary, 1796–1814". Expositiones Mathematicae. 2: 97–130.
=== Physics ===
1804: Fundamentalgleichungen für die Bewegung schwerer Körper auf der Erde ( in original book: Benzenberg, Johann Friedrich. Versuche über das Gesetz des Falls, über den Widerstand der Luft und über die Umdrehung der Erde [Experiments on the Law of falling Bodies, on the Resistance of Air, and of the Rotation of the Earth]. Dortmund: Gebrüder Mallinckrodt. pp. 363–371. Original)
1813: "Theoria attractionis corporum sphaeroidicorum ellipticorum homogeneorum methodo nova tractata". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. Comm. Class. Math. 2: 1–24. Original (contains Gauss's theorem of vector analysis)
1817: "Ueber die achromatischen Doppelobjective besonders in Rücksicht der vollkommnern Aufhebung der Farbenzerstreuung" [On achromatic double lenses with special regard to a more complete dispersion of colours]. Zeitschrift für Astronomie und verwandte Wissenschaften (in German). IV: 345–351.
1829: "Über ein neues allgemeines Grundgesetz der Mechanik" [On a new General Fundamental Law of Mechanics]. Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik. 1829 (4): 232–235. 1829. doi:10.1515/crll.1829.4.232. S2CID 199545985.
1830: "Principia generalia theoriae figurae fluidorum in statu aequilibrii". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. 7: 39–88. Original (from 1829)
1841: "Intensitas vis magneticae terrestris ad mensuram absolutam revocata". Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingensis Recentiores. 8: 3–44. Original (from 1832)
The Intensity of the Earth's Magnetic Force Reduced to Absolute Measurement. Translated by Susan P. Johnson.
1836: Erdmagnetismus und Magnetometer (Original book: H.C. Schumacher (ed.). Jahrbuch für 1836 (in German). Vol. 1836. Tübingen: J.G.Cotta'sche Buchhandlung. pp. 1–47.)
1840: Allgemeine Lehrsätze in Beziehung auf die im verkehrten Verhältnis des Quadrats der Entfernung wirkenden Anziehungs- und Abstoßungskräfte (Original book: Allgemeine Lehrsätze in Beziehung auf die im verkehrten Verhältnis des Quadrats der Entfernung wirkenden Anziehungs- und Abstoßungskräfte [General Theorems concerning the attractive and repulsive Forces acting in reciprocal Proportions of quadratic Distances] (in German). Leipzig: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung. 1840.
1843: "Dioptrische Untersuchungen" [Dioptrical Investigations]. Abhandlungen der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften in Göttingen (in German). Erster Band: 1–34. Original (from 1840)
==== Together with Wilhelm Weber ====
1837–1839: Weber, Wilhelm Eduard; Gauss, Carl Friedrich. Resultate aus den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins im Jahre 1836–1838 (in German). Göttingen: Dieterichsche Buchhandlung. pp. 6 v.
1840–1843: Weber, Wilhelm Eduard; Gauss, Carl Friedrich. Resultate aus den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins im Jahre 1839–1841 (in German). Leipzig: Weidmannsche Verlagsbuchhandlung. pp. 6 v.
1840: Weber, Wilhelm Eduard; Gauss, Carl Friedrich. Atlas des Erdmagnetismus nach den Elementen der Theorie entworfen. Supplement zu den Resultaten aus den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins (in German). Leipzig: Weidmannsche Verlagsbuchhandlung. pp. 6 v.
=== Collected works ===
Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften, ed. (1863–1933). Carl Friedrich Gauss. Werke (in Latin and German). Vol. 1–12. Göttingen: (diverse publishers). (includes unpublished literary estate)
=== Correspondence ===
Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften, ed. (1880). Briefwechsel zwischen Gauss und Bessel (in German). Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. (letters from December 1804 to August 1844)
Schoenberg, Erich; Perlick, Alfons (1955). Unbekannte Briefe von C. F. Gauß und Fr. W. Bessel. Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Math.-nat. Klasse, Neue Folge, No. 71 (in German). Munich: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 5–21. (letters to Boguslawski from February 1835 to January 1848)
Schwemin, Friedhelm, ed. (2014). Der Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauß und Johann Elert Bode. Acta Historica Astronomica (in German). Vol. 53. Leipzig: Akademische Verlaganstalt. ISBN 978-3-944913-43-8. (letters from February 1802 to October 1826)
Franz Schmidt, Paul Stäckel, ed. (1899). Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauss und Wolfgang Bolyai (in German). Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. (letters from September 1797 to February 1853; added letters of other correspondents)
Axel Wittmann, ed. (2018). Obgleich und indeßen. Der Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauss und Johann Franz Encke (in German). Remagen: Verlag Kessel. ISBN 978-3945941379. (letters from June 1810 to June 1854)
Clemens Schaefer, ed. (1927). Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauss und Christian Ludwig Gerling (in German). Berlin: Otto Elsner. (letters from June 1810 to June 1854)
Karl Christian Bruhns, ed. (1877). Briefe zwischen A. v. Humboldt und Gauss (in German). Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. (letters from July 1807 to December 1854; added letters of other correspondents)
Reich, Karin; Roussanova, Elena (2018). Karl Kreil und der Erdmagnetismus. Seine Korrespondenz mit Carl Friedrich Gauß im historischen Kontext. Veröffentlichungen der Kommission für Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften, Mathematik und Medizin, No. 68 (in German). Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. (letters from 1835 to 1843)
Gerardy, Theo, ed. (1959). Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauß und Carl Ludwig von Lecoq. Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse, No. 4 (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 37–63. (letters from February 1799 to September 1800)
Forbes, Eric G. (1971). "The Correspondence between Carl Friedrich Gauss and the Rev. Nevil Maskelyne (1802–05)". Annals of Science. 27 (3): 213–237. doi:10.1080/00033797100203767.
Cunningham, Clifford (2004). "Discovery of the Missing Correspondence between Carl Friedrich Gauss and the Rev. Nevil Maskelyne (1802–05)". Annals of Science. 61 (4): 469–481. doi:10.1080/00033790310001660164.
Carl Schilling, ed. (1900). Briefwechsel zwischen Olbers und Gauss: Erste Abtheilung. Wilhelm Olbers. Sein Leben und seine Werke. Zweiter Band (in German). Berlin: Julius Springer. (letters from January 1802 to October 1819)
Carl Schilling, ed. (1909). Briefwechsel zwischen Olbers und Gauss: Zweite Abtheilung. Wilhelm Olbers. Sein Leben und seine Werke. Zweiter Band (in German). Berlin: Julius Springer. (letters from January 1820 to May 1839; added letters of other correspondents)
Christian August Friedrich Peters, ed. (1860–1865). Briefwechsel zwischen C. F. Gauss und H. C. Schumacher (in German). Altona: Gustav Esch.
Volumes 1+2 (letters from April 1808 to March 1836)
Volumes 3+4 (letters from March 1836 to April 1845)
Volumes 5+6 (letters from April 1845 to November 1850)
Poser, Hans, ed. (1987). Briefwechsel zwischen Carl Friedrich Gauß und Eberhard August Zimmermann. Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse, Folge 3, No. 39 (in German). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 978-3525821169. (letters from 1795 to 1815)
The Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities provides a complete collection of the known letters from and to Carl Friedrich Gauss that is accessible online. The literary estate is kept and provided by the Göttingen State and University Library. Written materials from Carl Friedrich Gauss and family members can also be found in the municipal archive of Brunswick.
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Citations ===
=== Sources ===
== Further reading ==
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elkay_Apartments#:~:text=Designed%20in%201948%20in%20the,is%20derived%20from%20his%20initials. | Elkay Apartments | The Elkay Apartments is a historic five-unit two-story multi-family building located at 638-642 Kelton Avenue, in the Westwood neighborhood of Los Angeles, California.
== History ==
Designed in 1948 in the International Style of architecture by Los Angeles architect Richard Neutra, it was completed in 1948 for violist Louis Kievman. The name Elkay is derived from his initials.
The building is a part of a collection of homes designed by Neutra and built in North West Westwood Village, including the Landfair Apartments and Strathmore Apartments. It is next door to the Kelton Apartments, which Neutra designed in 1941 for himself. The Elkay Apartments is the last home designed by Neutra in North Westwood Village. On June 21, 1988, despite objections from the owners of the Apartments at the time, the City of Los Angeles designated the building as a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garbage_Patch_State#:~:text=On%20April%2011%2C%202013%2C%20in,scale%20installation%20and%20performance%20artwork. | Garbage Patch State | The Garbage Patch State – Wasteland is an ongoing transmedia, environmental artwork by Maria Cristina Finucci. The project aims to raise awareness about the environmental hazard of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch caused by the dispersion of plastic debris in the oceans. Installations, performances, and videos have been carried out under the patronage of UNESCO and the Italian Ministry of the Environment.
== Installations ==
Paris UNESCO: 11 April 2013
Venice Biennale: 12 April 2013
Madrid ARCO: 18 February 2014
Rome MAXXI: 11 April 2014
New York UNHQ: 29 September 2014
Geneva UNOG: 29 June 2015 for World Environment Day celebrations
Milan EXPO: 15 June 2015
Venice BLUEMED: 16 October 2015
Paris COP21: 30 November 2015
Palermo UNIPA: 11 April 2016
Mozia, Sicily: 25 September 2016
Roman Forum, Rome: 8 June - 29 July 2018, HELP the Ocean
Fuorisalone, Milan: 8 April - 14 April 2019, HELP
Italian Cultural Institute of Los Angeles: 14 October 2022, What About the 8%?
Fuorisalone, Milan: 17 April - 23 April 2023, H2o Help
== Description ==
On April 11, 2013, in the "Salle des pas perdus" of the UNESCO headquarters in Paris, the first presentation of The Garbage Patch State took place with the display of a large scale installation and performance artwork. Hundreds of transparent plastic bags, each filled with water and a multitude of brightly colored plastic caps, were created. These bags were meant to be small reproductions of the "islands" present in The Garbage Patch.
The bags were arranged in front of a mirror approximately 30 m (98 ft) long. It looked as if there were twice as many as there were in reality. On the back wall, opposite the mirrors, there was a large image representing distant clouds made of large pixels.
Viewers who were present at this exhibition not only felt as if they were standing in front of the Garbage Patch State, but could also see their own reflection in the mirror, becoming themselves protagonists in the piece.
In the presence of UNESCO's Director-General Irina Bokova, of the Permanent Representative and Ambassador of Italy before UNESCO Maurizio Serra, and of UNESCO's Director for Culture Francesco Bandarin, as well as the public, Cristina Finucci pronounced a speech for the inauguration of the Garbage Patch State.
During the Venice Biennale 2013, the Garbage Patch State, like the majority of other states, has had its own pavilion in the yard of the Ca' Foscari University. Thousands of colored plastic cups climb over the walls surrounding the ancient building as if they are going to reach the lagoon.
In 2014, the Garbage Patch State went to Madrid for ARCO, the international art fair, with a public installation on Gran Vía. This work consists of a "sheet" made out of plastic bottles containing flower sprouts, that at night lighten with camera's flashes.
For the first National day of the State, the artist has inaugurated the first embassy in the MAXXI Museum of Rome. She also created a new installation consisting of a long plastic "wave" composed by thousands of fragments of recycled plastic bottles.
From September to October 2014 the Garbage Patch State is hosted in the UN Secretariat of New York, place symbolizing peace, cooperation and development of all countries of the world.
Among the collateral events of Milan EXPO 2015, the artist has created a new installation "The Vortex", commissioned by Bracco Foundation. The Vortex is still nowadays part of the permanent collection of the Bracco Foundation.
On the same year, the hall of the High Level Conference Bluemed for climate in Venice has hosted a mysterious animal formed by plastic wastes from the oceans, the Bluemedsaurus.
Crawling through the masses of wastes of the world, the plastic snake reached Paris to show itself to the heads of states present for the Climate Conference COP 21.
The Wasteland cycle continues on the island of Mozia (Trapani), with a monumental installation that consists of five millions of plastic cups contained in metallic cages. The structure, seen from above, forms the word HELP.
In June 2018, for the World Oceans Day, Maria Cristina Finucci launches her lates work in a very special location. A new HELP appears in the Roman Forum, as a sign of alarm to the millions of tourists that visit the famous archeological place.
In April 2019, during the Milan Design Week FuoriSalone, the installation HELP has been exhibited in the courtyard of Milan State University as part of INTERNI Magazine's "Re-evolution" exhibition. In the main courtyard of the University, the writing "HELP" had a luminous effect that made it appear to be glowing like lava.
After Fuorisalone 2019, the fluorescent installation titled "What about the 8%?" was created for the Italian Institute of Culture in Los Angeles and serves as a thought-provoking exploration of ocean pollution caused by detergents. Designed for the patio of the Italian Institute of Culture in Los Angeles, the artwork replicates the surface of water, where dissolved detergents are vividly transformed by chemical reactants, resulting in an unnatural fluorescent effect. In the darkness, the detergent film on the ocean's surface cries out for help through the graffiti inscription "HELP."
In April 2023, during Fuorisalone, the artist unveiled the installation "H2o Help", illuminating the Unipol building. This artwork delves into the urgent issue of ocean pollution and underscores the paramount importance of water conservation. The installation played a significant role in the exhibition, aligning seamlessly with the annual theme of INTERNI design re-evolution.
Stretching across the lawn for over 70 meters in front of the Unipol building, the installation's public message gained heightened visibility at night. A colossal H2O symbol stood out in the darkness against the building's façade, reinforcing the critical message of environmental responsibility and the need to safeguard our planet's precious water resources.
== Collaborations ==
Collaborators of this project have been academic institutions such as Ca' Foscari University of Venice, the universities La Sapienza and Roma Tre in Rome, and the European Institute of Design in Madrid. The project's main partners were ENI for the installations in Paris, Rome, and Venice and ENDESA for the installation in Madrid.
Enel group and Enel X have been the sponsors of the HELP project in Rome together with Maccaferri Group. The Bracco Foundation has been supporting the Wasteland project in the events of Milan Expo 2015, and the Roman Forum. The foundation "Terzo Pilastro" has promoted the installation of HELP in Mozia.
== See also ==
Marina DeBris
Marine pollution
== References ==
== External links ==
The Garbage Patch State official website
The Garbage Patch State at unesco.org |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchestra_of_the_Age_of_Enlightenment | Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment | The Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment (OAE) is a British period instrument orchestra. The OAE is resident orchestra at Southbank Centre and Glyndebourne Festival Opera, Artistic Associate at Kings Place, and has its headquarters at Acland Burghley School. The leadership is rotated between four musicians: Matthew Truscott, Kati Debretzeni, Huw Daniel and Margaret Faultless.
A group of period instrumentalist players formed the OAE as a self-governing ensemble in 1986, and took its name from the historical period in the late 18th century where the core of its repertoire is based. The OAE does not have a principal conductor, but chooses conductors individually. The current Principal Artists are Sir Simon Rattle, Vladimir Jurowski, Iván Fischer, John Butt, Sir Mark Elder and András Schiff. William Christie is Emeritus Conductor, as were the late Frans Brüggen, Sir Roger Norrington, and Sir Charles Mackerras. Other conductors to have worked with the OAE at its invitation include Marin Alsop, Anu Tali, Yannick Nézet-Séguin, Sian Edwards, Edward Gardner, Suzi Digby, Robin Ticciati, Joanna Tomlinson, Philippe Herreweghe, Gustav Leonhardt, René Jacobs, Harry Bicket, Christopher Hogwood, Sigiswald Kuijken, Ivor Bolton, Monica Huggett, and Bruno Weil.
Sir Martin Smith was instrumental in establishing the OAE, securing crucial private funding for its inaugural work and serving on the Board for many years. He is Life President of the orchestra.
== Ethos and beginnings ==
The Ethos of the Orchestra is based on democracy; with the idea that the players are not simply technicians but also actively guide the artistic direction of the orchestra. When it began anyone who wanted to could become a member of the orchestra, although they would not necessarily be asked to play. Responsibility for concert planning is given to a Players' Artistic Committee (members of which also sit on the OAE Board of Directors) which is elected annually by the members.
An early mission statement stated that the Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment was to "Avoid the dangers implicit in:
playing as a matter of routine,
pursuing exclusively commercial creative options,
under-rehearsal,
undue emphasis as imposed by a single musical director,
recording objectives being more important than creative objectives."
The OAE's first concerts, in June 1986, were booked at Oxford's Town Hall and London's Queen Elizabeth Hall. Conducted by Sigiswald Kuijken, their first programme consisted of an Overture Suite by Telemann, Rameau's Suite from Dardanus, a symphony by Gossec and Haydn's Symphony No. 83. The founding leaders were Catherine Mackintosh, Elizabeth Wallfisch, Alison Bury and Margaret Faultless.
== Since 2000 ==
The OAE's current recurring season at the Southbank Centre in London includes concerts at the Queen Elizabeth Hall and Royal Festival Hall. In May 2006, the OAE started a series of informal late night concerts called "The Night Shift", which has twice been nominated for a Royal Philharmonic Society Award for audience development.
The OAE celebrated the 21st anniversary of its founding with a concert at the Royal Festival Hall on 30 June 2007, conducted by Norrington, Elder, Mackerras and Jurowski respectively.
In 2007 the OAE also won the RPS Ensemble award "for its stunning delivery of a breadth of repertoire, indefatigable advocacy of the interpretation of music played on original instruments and pioneering work in education and through a range of media – not to mention the artistry of its individual members in making each listening experience uniquely creative, engaging and thrilling."
In July 2008 the OAE moved its headquarters to Kings Place in London where it shared an office with the London Sinfonietta.
On 29 January 2010 The Night Shift (and the OAE) made its first appearance at The Roundhouse in Camden, North London.
In August 2010 the OAE played at the Royal Albert Hall as part of the BBC Proms season, performing Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde (Act 2) and the Love Scene from Romeo and Juliet by Berlioz. The concert was conducted by Sir Simon Rattle and included soloists Sarah Connolly, Ben Heppner and Violeta Urmana.
In September 2020 the orchestra, led by Jonathan Cohen and featuring Nicola Benedetti, Rodolfo Richter and Matthew Truscott, again played at the Royal Albert Hall as part of the BBC Proms season, performing Vivaldi's Concerto in D major for two violins, Concerto in D minor for two violins and Concerto in A minor for two oboes, Handel's Concerto grosso in B flat major and Passacaglia from Radamisto, Charles Avison's Concerto grosso no. 5 in D minor and Bach's Concerto in D minor for two violins.
In September 2020, the Orchestra moved its headquarters again - this time to Acland Burghley Secondary School in Tufnell Park, Camden, North London.
The OAE has toured many countries, including South America and the US in 2002, and toured South East Asia for the first time in autumn 2003. The Orchestra's discography covers over fifty recordings in music from Henry Purcell to Verdi working with guest artists including Lorraine Hunt Lieberson, Renée Fleming, Susan Graham, Andreas Scholl, Ian Bostridge, Elizabeth Wallfisch, Emanuel Ax, Thomas Hampson, Cecilia Bartoli, Gerald Finley, Bob van Asperen, Anner Bylsma, Viktoria Mullova, and Michael Chance.
The OAE does much work with schools, especially in the area surrounding Kings Place, and is very active in performing concerts for local schools, leading projects with young people and teaching children to play musical instruments. Over the spring/summer of 2010, the OAE are running a series of three concerts inspired by Monteverdi’s Vespers for the schools in which they work.
=== Acland Burghley Residency ===
In September 2020, the Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment moved into Acland Burghley School in Tufnell Park, Camden. The administrative office, library and recording studio are based on campus and the musicians use the school’s grade II listed assembly hall for rehearsals, workshops and small performances.
"However, the partnership — underwritten for the first three years by £120,000 from the Sainsbury family’s Linbury Trust — goes a lot further than that. Burghley’s pupils will have the chance to listen to rehearsals and collaborate on artistic projects. The first of these happens this term, when the school’s outstanding dance students explore music by the 18th-century French composer Rameau. Indeed, the hope is that the OAE’s continuous presence at the school’s heart will be transformational in many ways, not just in music.
The model is a project that happened in Bremen, Germany, where the Deutsche Kammerphilharmonie moved into a comprehensive in a deprived area. According to the OAE, the project has resulted in “improved academic performance and language skills, reputational benefits, greater engagement with music among pupils . . . and even an improvement in the orchestra’s own playing”.
=== The Night Shift ===
The Night Shift is a concert series where classical music is presented in a relaxed and informal setting. Established in 2006 by the Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment, the aim is to work outside the traditions associated with concert of the classical genre. Unusual characteristics include the concise length of each performance, the invitation to bring alcoholic drinks into the concert hall, and the ability to clap and talk at your own convenience. Since its creation, The Night Shift has proven successful among people under age 35. Over 80% of the audience falls within this age bracket and approximately 20% of the audience is attending a classical concert for the first time.
=== Ann and Peter Law OAE Experience for young players ===
The Ann and Peter Law OAE Experience scheme is an apprenticeship scheme for young period instrumentalists, and is the only scheme of its type with a period orchestra. Established in 2002, the scheme is consistently over-subscribed and offers its participants the opportunity to be mentored by OAE musicians, play in rehearsals alongside the OAE’s roster of guest conductors and also perform with the OAE, as well as sometimes giving concerts as an ensemble in itself.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment Blog
The Night Shift Archived 2012-01-28 at the Wayback Machine
Bach Cantatas page on the OAE
2007 Royal Philharmonic Society Music Awards page
"Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment, registered charity no. 295329". Charity Commission for England and Wales. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atogepant | Atogepant | Atogepant, sold under the brand name Qulipta among others, is a medication used to prevent migraines. It is a gepant, a calcitonin gene-related peptide receptor antagonist administered orally.
The most common side effects include nausea, constipation, tiredness, somnolence (sleepiness), decreased appetite, and decreased weight.
Atogepant was approved for medical use in the United States in September 2021, and in the European Union in August 2023.
== Medical Uses ==
Atogepant is indicated for the preventive treatment of episodic migraine in adults.
In the European Union, atogepant (Aquipta) is indicated for prophylaxis (prevention) of migraine in adults who have at least four migraine days per month.
== History ==
Atogepant was developed by the biopharmaceutical company AbbVie. The benefits and side effects of atogepant were evaluated in two clinical trials of 1,562 participants with a history of migraine headaches occurring on 4 to 14 days per month. The two trials to show the benefits were designed similarly. Trials 1 and 2 assigned participants to one of several doses of atogepant or placebo daily for three months. Neither the participants nor the health care providers knew which treatment was being given until after the trial was completed. The benefit of atogepant was assessed based on the change from baseline in the number of migraine days per month to the last month of the three-month treatment period, comparing participants in the atogepant and placebo groups. The trials were conducted at over 100 sites in the United States. The safety of atogepant was evaluated in 1,958 participants with migraine who received at least one dose of atogepant; therefore, the number of participants representing efficacy findings may differ from the number of participants representing safety findings due to different pools of study participants analyzed for efficacy and safety.
The UK’s National Institute for Health and Care Excellence has issued draft guidance recommending atogepant for preventing episodic and chronic migraine in NHS patients. It's approved for those experiencing at least 4 migraine days per month after failing 3 prior treatments. Atogepant costs £463 monthly but includes a confidential discount.
== Research ==
Atogepant demonstrated efficacy in two phase 3 trials (ADVANCE and PROGRESS) by significantly reducing monthly migraine days, acute medication use, and improving quality of life in patients with episodic and chronic migraine over 12 weeks compared to placebo. Common side effects included nausea, constipation, and fatigue/somnolence.
A study presented at the 2023 meeting for the American Academy of Neurology also showed that atogepant may help prevent migraines in patients who have had no prior success with other preventative drugs.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE/RSE_James_Clerk_Maxwell_Medal | IEEE/RSE James Clerk Maxwell Medal | The IEEE/RSE James Clerk Maxwell Medal is an award given by the IEEE and Royal Society of Edinburgh, UK. It is named after James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), who made fundamental contributions to the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation. The award is presented annually, and was established in 2006.
The award is given annually to outstanding individuals in recognition of: "groundbreaking contributions that have had an exceptional impact on the development of electronics and electrical engineering, or related fields".
== Background ==
The medal was jointly established in 2006 by the IEEE and Royal Society of Edinburgh UK, with initial funding by Wolfson Microelectronics Ltd. Following the acquisition of Wolfson Electronics by Cirrus Logic Inc., in 2014, the medal is now supported by Cirrus Logic. Recipients receive an honorarium, a gold medal, a bronze replica and a certificate. The award is given to one or two individuals. Award recommendations are established by a committee for the award, and typically are approved by the IEEE Board of Directors in November of each year.
== Recipients ==
The following people have received the IEEE/RSE James Clerk Maxwell Medal:
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana_Ramos#:~:text=4%20References-,Education,the%20University%20of%20California%2C%20Irvine. | Diana Ramos | Diana Ramos is an American obstetrician and gynecologist who was appointed to serve as the Surgeon General of California by Governor Gavin Newsom.
== Education ==
Ramos earned both a Bachelor's Degree and Doctor of Medicine from the University of Southern California. She also earned a Master of Public Health from the University of California, Los Angeles and a Master of Business Administration from the University of California, Irvine. Ramos completed her residency in Obstetrics and Gynecology at Los Angeles General Medical Center.
== Career ==
Ramos serves as a health administrator at the California Department of Public Health's Center for Healthy Communities. She is also an Adjunct Associate Clinical Professor at the Keck School of Medicine of USC, and is a member of the Keck School of Medicine Alumni Association Board.
In 2019, she became president of the Orange County Medical Association. Ramos is the secretary and member of the board of directors for the National Hispanic Medical Association.
== California Surgeon General ==
Ramos began her position as California's second Surgeon General in 2022. She outlined three primary priorities for progress, including reproductive health, mental health, and Adverse Childhood Experiences. Ramos has said she aims to particularly target mental health challenges faced by transitional age youth. She is also working to increase the number of medical students who are Latino, in order to address the growing need for physicians in the United States and California.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenum | Molybdenum | Molybdenum is a chemical element; it has symbol Mo and atomic number 42. The name is derived from Ancient Greek μόλυβδος mólybdos, meaning lead, since its ores were sometimes confused with those of lead. Molybdenum minerals have been known throughout history, but the element was discovered (in the sense of differentiating it as a new entity from the mineral salts of other metals) in 1778 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele. The metal was first isolated in 1781 by Peter Jacob Hjelm.
Molybdenum does not occur naturally as a free metal on Earth; in its minerals, it is found only in oxidized states. The free element, a silvery metal with a grey cast, has the sixth-highest melting point of any element. It readily forms hard, stable carbides in alloys, and for this reason most of the world production of the element (about 80%) is used in steel alloys, including high-strength alloys and superalloys.
Most molybdenum compounds have low solubility in water. Heating molybdenum-bearing minerals under oxygen and water affords molybdate ion MoO2−4, which forms quite soluble salts. Industrially, molybdenum compounds (about 14% of world production of the element) are used as pigments and catalysts.
Molybdenum-bearing enzymes are by far the most common bacterial catalysts for breaking the chemical bond in atmospheric molecular nitrogen in the process of biological nitrogen fixation. At least 50 molybdenum enzymes are now known in bacteria, plants, and animals, although only bacterial and cyanobacterial enzymes are involved in nitrogen fixation. Most nitrogenases contain an iron–molybdenum cofactor FeMoco, which is believed to contain either Mo(III) or Mo(IV). By contrast Mo(VI) and Mo(IV) are complexed with molybdopterin in all other molybdenum-bearing enzymes. Molybdenum is an essential element for all higher eukaryote organisms, including humans. A species of sponge, Theonella conica, is known for hyperaccumulation of molybdenum.
== Characteristics ==
=== Physical properties ===
In its pure form, molybdenum is a silvery-grey metal with a Mohs hardness of 5.5 and a standard atomic weight of 95.95 g/mol. It has a melting point of 2,623 °C (4,753 °F), sixth highest of the naturally occurring elements; only tantalum, osmium, rhenium, tungsten, and carbon have higher melting points. It has one of the lowest coefficients of thermal expansion among commercially used metals.
=== Chemical properties ===
Molybdenum is a transition metal with an electronegativity of 2.16 on the Pauling scale. It does not visibly react with oxygen or water at room temperature, but is attacked by halogens and hydrogen peroxide. Weak oxidation of molybdenum starts at 300 °C (572 °F); bulk oxidation occurs at temperatures above 600 °C, resulting in molybdenum trioxide. Like many heavier transition metals, molybdenum shows little inclination to form a cation in aqueous solution, although the Mo3+ cation is known to form under carefully controlled conditions.
Gaseous molybdenum consists of the diatomic species Mo2. That molecule is a singlet, with two unpaired electrons in bonding orbitals, in addition to 5 conventional bonds. The result is a sextuple bond.
=== Isotopes ===
There are 39 known isotopes of molybdenum, ranging in atomic mass from 81 to 119, as well as 13 metastable nuclear isomers. Seven isotopes occur naturally, with atomic masses of 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, and 100. Molybdenum-98 is the most abundant, comprising 24.14% of natural molybdenum, and only molybdenum-100 is unstable; it undergoes double beta decay into ruthenium-100 with half-life 7.07×1018 years.
All the synthetic isotopes of molybdenum decay into isotopes of niobium, technetium, or zirconium. The most stable of them is 93Mo, with a half-life of 4,839 years to electron capture, giving stable niobium.
The most common isotopic molybdenum application involves molybdenum-99, which is a fission product. It is a parent radioisotope to the short-lived gamma-emitting daughter radioisotope technetium-99m, a nuclear isomer used in various imaging applications in medicine.
=== Redox buffer in the irradiated fuel matrix ===
Molybdenum behaves as a redox buffer in the spent nuclear fuel matrix. 99Mo is one of the most abundant fission product, with a fission yield of 6.1% close to that of xenon (135Xe, 6.33%). Molybdenum plays a critical role in nuclear fuel chemistry because it affects the fuel's oxygen fugacity. Molybdenum produced by nuclear fission in the fuel matrix inhibits the oxidation of the uranium dioxide.
== Compounds ==
Molybdenum forms chemical compounds in oxidation states −4 and from −2 to +6. Higher oxidation states are more relevant to its terrestrial occurrence and its biological roles, mid-level oxidation states are often associated with metal clusters, and very low oxidation states are typically associated with organomolybdenum compounds. The chemistry of molybdenum and tungsten show strong similarities. The relative rarity of molybdenum(III), for example, contrasts with the pervasiveness of the chromium(III) compounds. The highest oxidation state is seen in molybdenum(VI) oxide (MoO3), whereas the normal sulfur compound is molybdenum disulfide MoS2.
From the perspective of commerce, the most important compounds are molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) and molybdenum trioxide (MoO3). The black disulfide is the main mineral. It is roasted in air to give the trioxide:
2 MoS2 + 7 O2 → 2 MoO3 + 4 SO2
The trioxide, which is volatile at high temperatures, is the precursor to virtually all other Mo compounds as well as alloys. Molybdenum has several oxidation states, the most stable being +4 and +6 (bolded in the table at left).
Molybdenum(VI) oxide is soluble in strong alkaline water, forming molybdates (MoO42−). Molybdates are weaker oxidants than chromates. They tend to form structurally complex oxyanions by condensation at lower pH values, such as [Mo7O24]6− and [Mo8O26]4−. Polymolybdates can incorporate other ions, forming polyoxometalates. The dark-blue phosphorus-containing heteropolymolybdate P[Mo12O40]3− is used for the spectroscopic detection of phosphorus.
The broad range of oxidation states of molybdenum is reflected in various molybdenum chlorides:
Molybdenum(II) chloride MoCl2, which exists as the hexamer Mo6Cl12 and the related dianion [Mo6Cl14]2-.
Molybdenum(III) chloride MoCl3, a dark red solid, which converts to the anion trianionic complex [MoCl6]3-.
Molybdenum(IV) chloride MoCl4, a black solid, which adopts a polymeric structure.
Molybdenum(V) chloride MoCl5 dark green solid, which adopts a dimeric structure.
Molybdenum(VI) chloride MoCl6 is a black solid, which is monomeric and slowly decomposes to MoCl5 and Cl2 at room temperature.
The accessibility of these oxidation states depends quite strongly on the halide counterion: although molybdenum(VI) fluoride is stable, molybdenum does not form a stable hexachloride, pentabromide, or tetraiodide.
Like chromium and some other transition metals, molybdenum forms quadruple bonds, such as in Mo2(CH3COO)4 and [Mo2Cl8]4−. The Lewis acid properties of the butyrate and perfluorobutyrate dimers, Mo2(O2CR)4 and Rh2(O2CR) 4, have been reported.
The oxidation state 0 and lower are possible with carbon monoxide as ligand, such as in molybdenum hexacarbonyl, Mo(CO)6.
== History ==
Molybdenite—the principal ore from which molybdenum is now extracted—was previously known as molybdena. Molybdena was confused with and often utilized as though it were graphite. Like graphite, molybdenite can be used to blacken a surface or as a solid lubricant. Even when molybdena was distinguishable from graphite, it was still confused with the common lead ore PbS (now called galena); the name comes from Ancient Greek μόλυβδος mólybdos, meaning lead. (The Greek word itself has been proposed as a loanword from Anatolian Luvian and Lydian languages).
Although (reportedly) molybdenum was deliberately alloyed with steel in one 14th-century Japanese sword (mfd. c. 1330), that art was never employed widely and was later lost. In the West in 1754, Bengt Andersson Qvist examined a sample of molybdenite and determined that it did not contain lead and thus was not galena.
By 1778 Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele stated firmly that molybdena was (indeed) neither galena nor graphite. Instead, Scheele correctly proposed that molybdena was an ore of a distinct new element, named molybdenum for the mineral in which it resided, and from which it might be isolated. Peter Jacob Hjelm successfully isolated molybdenum using carbon and linseed oil in 1781.
For the next century, molybdenum had no industrial use. It was relatively scarce, the pure metal was difficult to extract, and the necessary techniques of metallurgy were immature. Early molybdenum steel alloys showed great promise of increased hardness, but efforts to manufacture the alloys on a large scale were hampered with inconsistent results, a tendency toward brittleness, and recrystallization. In 1906, William D. Coolidge filed a patent for rendering molybdenum ductile, leading to applications as a heating element for high-temperature furnaces and as a support for tungsten-filament light bulbs; oxide formation and degradation require that molybdenum be physically sealed or held in an inert gas. In 1913, Frank E. Elmore developed a froth flotation process to recover molybdenite from ores; flotation remains the primary isolation process.
During World War I, demand for molybdenum spiked; it was used both in armor plating and as a substitute for tungsten in high-speed steels. Some British tanks were protected by 75 mm (3 in) manganese steel plating, but this proved to be ineffective. The manganese steel plates were replaced with much lighter 25 mm (1.0 in) molybdenum steel plates allowing for higher speed, greater maneuverability, and better protection. The Germans also used molybdenum-doped steel for heavy artillery, like in the super-heavy howitzer Big Bertha, because traditional steel melts at the temperatures produced by the propellant of the one ton shell. After the war, demand plummeted until metallurgical advances allowed extensive development of peacetime applications. In World War II, molybdenum again saw strategic importance as a substitute for tungsten in steel alloys.
== Occurrence and production ==
Molybdenum is the 54th most abundant element in the Earth's crust with an average of 1.5 parts per million and the 25th most abundant element in the oceans, with an average of 10 parts per billion; it is the 42nd most abundant element in the Universe. The Soviet Luna 24 mission discovered a molybdenum-bearing grain (1 × 0.6 μm) in a pyroxene fragment taken from Mare Crisium on the Moon. The comparative rarity of molybdenum in the Earth's crust is offset by its concentration in a number of water-insoluble ores, often combined with sulfur in the same way as copper, with which it is often found. Though molybdenum is found in such minerals as wulfenite (PbMoO4) and powellite (CaMoO4), the main commercial source is molybdenite (MoS2). Molybdenum is mined as a principal ore and is also recovered as a byproduct of copper and tungsten mining.
The world's production of molybdenum was 250,000 tonnes in 2011, the largest producers being China (94,000 t), the United States (64,000 t), Chile (38,000 t), Peru (18,000 t) and Mexico (12,000 t). The total reserves are estimated at 10 million tonnes, and are primarily concentrated in China (4.3 Mt), the US (2.7 Mt) and Chile (1.2 Mt). By continent, 93% of the world's molybdenum production is distributed approximately evenly among North America, South America (mainly Chile), and China. Europe and the rest of Asia (mostly Armenia, Russia, Iran and Mongolia) produce the remainder.
In molybdenite processing, the ore is first roasted in air at 700 °C (1,292 °F). The process gives gaseous sulfur dioxide and the molybdenum(VI) oxide:
2
MoS
2
+
7
O
2
⟶
2
MoO
3
+
4
SO
2
{\displaystyle {\ce {2MoS2 + 7O2 -> 2MoO3 + 4SO2}}}
The resulting oxide is then usually extracted with aqueous ammonia to give ammonium molybdate:
MoO
3
+
2
NH
3
+
H
2
O
⟶
(
NH
4
)
2
(
MoO
4
)
{\displaystyle {\ce {MoO3 + 2NH3 + H2O -> (NH4)2(MoO4)}}}
Copper, an impurity in molybdenite, is separated at this stage by treatment with hydrogen sulfide. Ammonium molybdate converts to ammonium dimolybdate, which is isolated as a solid. Heating this solid gives molybdenum trioxide:
(
NH
4
)
2
Mo
2
O
7
⟶
2
MoO
3
+
2
NH
3
+
H
2
O
{\displaystyle {\ce {(NH4)2Mo2O7 -> 2MoO3 + 2NH3 + H2O}}}
Crude trioxide can be further purified by sublimation at 1,100 °C (2,010 °F).
Metallic molybdenum is produced by the reduction of the oxide with hydrogen:
MoO
3
+
3
H
2
⟶
Mo
+
3
H
2
O
{\displaystyle {\ce {MoO3 + 3H2 -> Mo + 3H2O}}}
The molybdenum for steel production is reduced by the aluminothermic reaction with the addition of iron to produce ferromolybdenum. A common form of ferromolybdenum contains 60% molybdenum.
Molybdenum was valued at approximately $30,000 per tonne as of August 2009. It maintained a price at or near $10,000 per tonne from 1997 through 2003, and reached a peak of $103,000 per tonne in June 2005. In 2008, the London Metal Exchange announced that molybdenum would be traded as a commodity.
=== Mining ===
The Knaben mine in southern Norway, opened in 1885, was the first dedicated molybdenum mine. Closed in 1973 but reopened in 2007, it now produces 100,000 kilograms (98 long tons; 110 short tons) of molybdenum disulfide per year. Large mines in Colorado (such as the Henderson mine and the Climax mine) and in British Columbia yield molybdenite as their primary product, while many porphyry copper deposits such as the Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah and the Chuquicamata mine in northern Chile produce molybdenum as a byproduct of copper-mining.
=== Molybdenum traces in seawater ===
Mo is found in the oceans at an average submicromolar concentration of ~10–7 M.
Because it is present in seawater as molybdate (MoO2−4), a divalent oxyanion, it is not sorbed onto negatively charged clay minerals and interacts weakly with negatively charged particulate organic matter (POM). Therefore, it behaves as a conservative trace metal. Molybdenum is a transition metal that is evenly and consistently distributed in the oceans, similar to conservative tracers such as the chloride anion or deuterated water.
Transition metals that exist as negatively charged species have oceanic residence times exceeding 10,000 years, which is much longer than the ocean's mixing time. They maintain concentrations that remain relatively constant with respect to salinity over long periods. Mo has an oceanic residence time of 80,000 years. It shows an almost even distribution across the oceans, with only a slight decrease near the surface.
These characteristics make molybdenum likely the most crucial transition metal in seawater, as marine geochemists can use it as a stable reference tracer for other transition metals at trace levels.
== Applications ==
=== Alloys ===
About 86% of molybdenum produced is used in metallurgy, with the rest used in chemical applications. The estimated global use is structural steel 35%, stainless steel 25%, chemicals 14%, tool & high-speed steels 9%, cast iron 6%, molybdenum elemental metal 6%, and superalloys 5%.
Molybdenum can withstand extreme temperatures without significantly expanding or softening, making it useful in environments of intense heat, including military armor, aircraft parts, electrical contacts, industrial motors, and supports for filaments in light bulbs.
Most high-strength steel alloys (for example, 41xx steels) contain 0.25% to 8% molybdenum. Even in these small portions, more than 43,000 tonnes of molybdenum are used each year in stainless steels, tool steels, cast irons, and high-temperature superalloys.
Molybdenum is also used in steel alloys for its high corrosion resistance and weldability. Molybdenum contributes corrosion resistance to type-300 stainless steels (specifically type-316) and especially so in the so-called superaustenitic stainless steels (such as alloy AL-6XN, 254SMO and 1925hMo). Molybdenum increases lattice strain, thus increasing the energy required to dissolve iron atoms from the surface. Molybdenum is also used to enhance the corrosion resistance of ferritic (for example grade 444) and martensitic (for example 1.4122 and 1.4418) stainless steels.
Because of its lower density and more stable price, molybdenum is sometimes used in place of tungsten. An example is the 'M' series of high-speed steels such as M2, M4 and M42 as substitution for the 'T' steel series, which contain tungsten. Molybdenum can also be used as a flame-resistant coating for other metals. Although its melting point is 2,623 °C (4,753 °F), molybdenum rapidly oxidizes at temperatures above 760 °C (1,400 °F) making it better-suited for use in vacuum environments.
TZM (Mo (~99%), Ti (~0.5%), Zr (~0.08%) and some C) is a corrosion-resisting molybdenum superalloy that resists molten fluoride salts at temperatures above 1,300 °C (2,370 °F). It has about twice the strength of pure Mo, and is more ductile and more weldable, yet in tests it resisted corrosion of a standard eutectic salt (FLiBe) and salt vapors used in molten salt reactors for 1100 hours with so little corrosion that it was difficult to measure. Due to its excellent mechanical properties under high temperature and high pressure, TZM alloys are extensively applied in the military industry. It is used as the valve body of torpedo engines, rocket nozzles and gas pipelines, where it can withstand extreme thermal and mechanical stresses. It is also used as radiation shields in nuclear applications.
Other molybdenum-based alloys that do not contain iron have only limited applications. For example, because of its resistance to molten zinc, both pure molybdenum and molybdenum-tungsten alloys (70%/30%) are used for piping, stirrers and pump impellers that come into contact with molten zinc.
=== Pure element applications ===
Molybdenum powder is used as a fertilizer for some plants, such as cauliflower.
Elemental molybdenum is used in NO, NO2, NOx analyzers in power plants for pollution controls. At 350 °C (662 °F), the element acts as a catalyst for NO2/NOx to form NO molecules for detection by infrared light.
Molybdenum anodes replace tungsten in certain low voltage X-ray sources for specialized uses such as mammography.
The radioactive isotope molybdenum-99 is used to generate technetium-99m, a short-lived daughter radionuclide (t½ ≃ 6.0 h) needed for medical imaging. The radioisotope is handled and stored as the molybdate (MoO2−4).
=== Compound applications ===
Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) is used as a solid lubricant and a high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) anti-wear agent. It forms strong films on metallic surfaces and is a common additive to HPHT greases — in the event of a catastrophic grease failure, a thin layer of molybdenum prevents contact of the lubricated parts.
When combined with small amounts of cobalt, MoS2 is also used as a catalyst in the hydrodesulfurization (HDS) of petroleum. In the presence of hydrogen, this catalyst facilitates the removal of nitrogen and especially sulfur from the feedstock, which otherwise would poison downstream catalysts. HDS is one of the largest scale applications of catalysis in industry.
Molybdenum oxides are important catalysts for selective oxidation of organic compounds. The production of the commodity chemicals acrylonitrile and formaldehyde relies on MoOx-based catalysts.
Molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) is an electrically conducting ceramic with primary use in heating elements operating at temperatures above 1500 °C in air.
Molybdenum trioxide (MoO3) is used as an adhesive between enamels and metals.
Lead molybdate (wulfenite) co-precipitated with lead chromate and lead sulfate is a bright-orange pigment used with ceramics and plastics.
The molybdenum-based mixed oxides are versatile catalysts in the chemical industry. Some examples are the catalysts for the oxidation of carbon monoxide, propylene to acrolein and acrylic acid, the ammoxidation of propylene to acrylonitrile.
Molybdenum carbides, nitride and phosphides can be used for hydrotreatment of rapeseed oil.
Ammonium heptamolybdate is used in biological staining.
Molybdenum coated soda lime glass is used in CIGS (copper indium gallium selenide) solar cells, called CIGS solar cells.
Phosphomolybdic acid is a stain used in thin-layer chromatography and trichrome staining in histochemistry.
Molybdenum is added to stainless steel (e.g., AISI 316L hMo) to improve its corrosion resistance, especially in the presence of harmful reduced sulfur species such as sulfide (H2S, HS−, S2−, sulfide stress cracking) and thiosulfate (S2O2−3, pitting corrosion).
== Biological role ==
Molybdenum, despite its low concentration in the environment, is a critically important element for Earth's biosphere due to its presence in the most common nitrogenases. Without molybdenum, nitrogen fixation would be greatly reduced, and a large part of biosynthesis as we know it would not occur. Molybdenum is also essential to many individual organisms as a component of enzymes, particularly as part of the molybdopterin class of cofactors.
=== Mo-containing enzymes ===
Molybdenum is an essential element in most organisms; a 2008 research paper speculated that a scarcity of molybdenum in the Earth's early oceans may have strongly influenced the evolution of eukaryotic life (which includes all plants and animals).
At least 50 molybdenum-containing enzymes have been identified, mostly in bacteria. Those enzymes include aldehyde oxidase, sulfite oxidase and xanthine oxidase. With one exception, Mo in proteins is bound by molybdopterin to give the molybdenum cofactor. The only known exception is nitrogenase, which uses the FeMoco cofactor, which has the formula Fe7MoS9C.
In terms of function, molybdoenzymes catalyze the oxidation and sometimes reduction of certain small molecules in the process of regulating nitrogen, sulfur, and carbon. In some animals, and in humans, the oxidation of xanthine to uric acid, a process of purine catabolism, is catalyzed by xanthine oxidase, a molybdenum-containing enzyme. The activity of xanthine oxidase is directly proportional to the amount of molybdenum in the body. An extremely high concentration of molybdenum reverses the trend and can inhibit purine catabolism and other processes. Molybdenum concentration also affects protein synthesis, metabolism, and growth.
Mo is a component in most nitrogenases. Among molybdoenzymes, nitrogenases are unique in lacking the molybdopterin. Nitrogenases catalyze the production of ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen:
N
2
+
8
H
+
+
8
e
−
+
16
A
T
P
+
16
H
2
O
⟶
2
N
H
3
+
H
2
+
16
A
D
P
+
16
P
i
{\displaystyle \mathrm {N_{2}+8\ H^{+}+8\ e^{-}+16\ ATP+16\ H_{2}O\longrightarrow 2\ NH_{3}+H_{2}+16\ ADP+16\ P_{i}} }
The biosynthesis of the FeMoco active site is highly complex.
Molybdate is transported in the body as MoO42−.
=== Human metabolism and deficiency ===
Molybdenum is an essential trace dietary element. Four mammalian Mo-dependent enzymes are known, all of them harboring a pterin-based molybdenum cofactor (Moco) in their active site: sulfite oxidase, xanthine oxidoreductase, aldehyde oxidase, and mitochondrial amidoxime reductase. People severely deficient in molybdenum have poorly functioning sulfite oxidase and are prone to toxic reactions to sulfites in foods. The human body contains about 0.07 mg of molybdenum per kilogram of body weight, with higher concentrations in the liver and kidneys and lower in the vertebrae. Molybdenum is also present within human tooth enamel and may help prevent its decay.
Acute toxicity has not been seen in humans, and the toxicity depends strongly on the chemical state. Studies on rats show a median lethal dose (LD50) as low as 180 mg/kg for some Mo compounds. Although human toxicity data is unavailable, animal studies have shown that chronic ingestion of more than 10 mg/day of molybdenum can cause diarrhea, growth retardation, infertility, low birth weight, and gout; it can also affect the lungs, kidneys, and liver. Sodium tungstate is a competitive inhibitor of molybdenum. Dietary tungsten reduces the concentration of molybdenum in tissues.
Low soil concentration of molybdenum in a geographical band from northern China to Iran results in a general dietary molybdenum deficiency and is associated with increased rates of esophageal cancer. Compared to the United States, which has a greater supply of molybdenum in the soil, people living in those areas have about 16 times greater risk for esophageal squamous cell carcinoma.
Molybdenum deficiency has also been reported as a consequence of non-molybdenum supplemented total parenteral nutrition (complete intravenous feeding) for long periods of time. It results in high blood levels of sulfite and urate, in much the same way as molybdenum cofactor deficiency. Since pure molybdenum deficiency from this cause occurs primarily in adults, the neurological consequences are not as marked as in cases of congenital cofactor deficiency.
A congenital molybdenum cofactor deficiency disease, seen in infants, is an inability to synthesize molybdenum cofactor, the heterocyclic molecule discussed above that binds molybdenum at the active site in all known human enzymes that use molybdenum. The resulting deficiency results in high levels of sulfite and urate, and neurological damage.
=== Excretion ===
Most molybdenum is excreted from the human body as molybdate in the urine. Furthermore, urinary excretion of molybdenum increases as dietary molybdenum intake increases. Small amounts of molybdenum are excreted from the body in the feces by way of the bile; small amounts also can be lost in sweat and in hair.
=== Excess and copper antagonism ===
High levels of molybdenum can interfere with the body's uptake of copper, producing copper deficiency. Molybdenum prevents plasma proteins from binding to copper, and it also increases the amount of copper that is excreted in urine. Ruminants that consume high levels of molybdenum suffer from diarrhea, stunted growth, anemia, and achromotrichia (loss of fur pigment). These symptoms can be alleviated by copper supplements, either dietary and injection. The effective copper deficiency can be aggravated by excess sulfur.
Copper reduction or deficiency can also be deliberately induced for therapeutic purposes by the compound ammonium tetrathiomolybdate, in which the bright red anion tetrathiomolybdate is the copper-chelating agent. Tetrathiomolybdate was first used therapeutically in the treatment of copper toxicosis in animals. It was then introduced as a treatment in Wilson's disease, a hereditary copper metabolism disorder in humans; it acts both by competing with copper absorption in the bowel and by increasing excretion. It has also been found to have an inhibitory effect on angiogenesis, potentially by inhibiting the membrane translocation process that is dependent on copper ions. This is a promising avenue for investigation of treatments for cancer, age-related macular degeneration, and other diseases that involve a pathologic proliferation of blood vessels.
In some grazing livestock, most strongly in cattle, molybdenum excess in the soil of pasturage can produce scours (diarrhea) if the pH of the soil is neutral to alkaline; see teartness.
=== Mammography ===
Molybdenum targets are used in mammography because they produce X-rays in the energy range of 17-20 keV, which is optimal for imaging soft tissues like the breast. The characteristic X-rays emitted from molybdenum provide high contrast between different types of tissues, allowing for the effective visualization of microcalcifications and other subtle abnormalities in breast tissue. This energy range also minimizes radiation dose while maximizing image quality, making molybdenum targets particularly suitable for breast cancer screening.
== Dietary recommendations ==
In 2000, the then U.S. Institute of Medicine (now the National Academy of Medicine, NAM) updated its Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for molybdenum. If there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs, an estimate designated Adequate Intake (AI) is used instead.
An AI of 2 micrograms (μg) of molybdenum per day was established for infants up to 6 months of age, and 3 μg/day from 7 to 12 months of age, both for males and females. For older children and adults, the following daily RDAs have been established for molybdenum: 17 μg from 1 to 3 years of age, 22 μg from 4 to 8 years, 34 μg from 9 to 13 years, 43 μg from 14 to 18 years, and 45 μg for persons 19 years old and older. All these RDAs are valid for both sexes. Pregnant or lactating females from 14 to 50 years of age have a higher daily RDA of 50 μg of molybdenum.
As for safety, the NAM sets tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of molybdenum, the UL is 2000 μg/day. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs).
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL are defined the same as in the United States. For women and men ages 15 and older, the AI is set at 65 μg/day. Pregnant and lactating women have the same AI. For children aged 1–14 years, the AIs increase with age from 15 to 45 μg/day. The adult AIs are higher than the U.S. RDAs, but on the other hand, the European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and set its UL at 600 μg/day, which is much lower than the U.S. value.
=== Labeling ===
For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For molybdenum labeling purposes, 100% of the Daily Value was 75 μg, but as of May 27, 2016 it was revised to 45 μg. A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.
== Food sources ==
Average daily intake varies between 120 and 240 μg/day, which is higher than dietary recommendations. Pork, lamb, and beef liver each have approximately 1.5 parts per million of molybdenum. Other significant dietary sources include green beans, eggs, sunflower seeds, wheat flour, lentils, cucumbers, and cereal grain.
== Precautions ==
Molybdenum dusts and fumes, generated by mining or metalworking, can be toxic, especially if ingested (including dust trapped in the sinuses and later swallowed). Low levels of prolonged exposure can cause irritation to the eyes and skin. Direct inhalation or ingestion of molybdenum and its oxides should be avoided. OSHA regulations specify the maximum permissible molybdenum exposure in an 8-hour day as 5 mg/m3. Chronic exposure to 60 to 600 mg/m3 can cause symptoms including fatigue, headaches and joint pains. At levels of 5000 mg/m3, molybdenum is immediately dangerous to life and health.
== See also ==
List of molybdenum mines
Molybdenum mining in the United States
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Lettera di Giulio Candida al signor Vincenzo Petagna – Sulla formazione del molibdeno. Naples: Giuseppe Maria Porcelli. 1785.
== External links ==
Molybdenum at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Mineral & Exploration – Map of World Molybdenum Producers 2009
"Mining A Mountain" Popular Mechanics, July 1935 pp. 63–64
Site for global molybdenum info
CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
usgs.gov: Molybdenum (Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._G._Ernst | W. G. Ernst | W. Gary Ernst (born December 14, 1931) is an American geologist specializing in petrology and geochemistry. He currently is the Benjamin M. Page Professor Emeritus in Stanford University's department of geological sciences.
== Career ==
Ernst was born in St. Louis, Missouri. He received a B.A. degree in Geology from Carleton College in 1953, an M.S. in Geology from the University of Minnesota of 1955, and a Ph.D. in Geochemistry from Johns Hopkins University in 1959.
From 1960 to 1989, he was a professor in the Department of Earth and Space Sciences and Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics at UCLA, where he also served terms as chair of the Department of Geology, chair of the Department of Earth and Space Sciences, and director of the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics. In 1989, he joined Stanford University as professor in the Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences and dean of the School of Earth Sciences. He retired in 2004, but has continued to be active professionally.
Ernst's research interests have included the petrology, geochemistry, and plate tectonics of Circumpacific and Alpine mobile belts, ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism in Eurasia, geology of the California Coast Ranges, the central Klamath Mountains, and White-Inyo Range, geobotany and remote sensing of the southwestern United States; and mineralogy and human health.
== Honors and awards ==
Ernst has been a member of the National Academy of Sciences since 1975. He has served as a trustee of the Carnegie Institution of Washington since 1990. He was the 2004 recipient of the Penrose Medal of the Geological Society of America, 2006 recipient of the Roebling Medal of the Mineralogical Society of America, and 2008 recipient of the Marcus Milling Legendary Geoscientist Medal. Other honors include selection as a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and Member of the American Philosophical Society. He was president of the Geological Society of America in 1986.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Carlos_Menem#Cabinet | Presidency of Carlos Menem | The presidency of Carlos Saúl Menem lasted from July 8, 1989, the date of his inauguration, to December 10, 1999, the date on which his second term ended and his successor, Fernando de la Rúa, took office. It was a government described as liberal-conservative, which in Argentina is normally associated with the right.
He won the 1989 elections in the first round with 48.51% of the votes and was re-elected in the 1995 elections with 49.95% of the votes.
== Economic policy ==
When Menem began his presidency, there was a huge hyperinflation and recession. The first measure was a mandatory conversion of time deposits into government bonds. It generated more recession, but hyperinflation was lowered. Despite being a Peronist, Menem privatized several state-owned companies, such as telephones and airlines. One of the leading privatizations was YPF, engaged in the exploration and production of oil and gas.
His fourth economy minister, Domingo Cavallo, deepened the neoliberal reforms. He proposed a Convertibility Plan that set a one-to-one fixed exchange rate between the Argentine peso and the US dollar. The law also limited public expenditures, but this was frequently ignored.
A dramatic influx of foreign direct investment funds helped tame inflation (from 5,000% a year in 1989 to single digits by 1993) and improved long-stagnant productivity, though at the cost of considerable unemployment.
Menem's successful turnaround of the economy made the country one of the top performers in the world of the developing countries. Argentina's GDP (below 1973 levels when Menem took office) increased 35% from 1990 to 1994 and fixed investment, by 150%. Negotiations with Brazil resulted in the Mercosur customs union in March 1991. On November 14 that year, Menem addressed a joint session of the U.S. Congress, one of only three Argentine presidents to do so (others were Raúl Alfonsín and Arturo Frondizi).
With these successes, Menem was reelected to the presidency by a large majority in the 1995 elections. The early success of the dollar peg (when the dollar was falling) was followed by increasing economic difficulties when the dollar began to rise from 1995 onwards in international markets. High external debt also caused increasing problems. Financial crises affecting other countries (the Tequila Crisis in Mexico, the East Asian financial crisis, the Russian financial crisis in 1998) led to higher interest rates for Argentina as well. By the end of Menem's term, Argentina's country risk premium was a low 6.10 percentage points above yield on comparable US Treasuries.
== Domestic policy ==
Menem began his presidency assuming a nonconfrontational approach, and appointing people from the conservative opposition and business people in his cabinet.
Menem's presidency was initially bolstered by the significant economic recovery following Cavallo's appointment as Economy Minister. His Justicialist Party enjoyed victories in mid-term elections in 1991 and 1993, as well as in his 1995 campaign for reelection.
In domestic policy, his administration created programs to improve AIDS awareness, increased flood prevention, vaccination, and improved child nutrition. In addition, his government launched a Social Plan to increase spending on antipoverty programs, while other social programs addressed needs for poor Argentines. These policies arguably had a positive impact on poverty reduction, with the percentage of Argentines estimated to be living in poverty falling during Menem's first term as president. The Argentine quota law, proposed by the UCR, increased the number of women in the Argentine Congress.
In 1994, after a political agreement (the Olivos Pact) with the Radical Civic Union party leader, former president Raúl Alfonsín, Menem succeeded in having the Constitution modified to allow presidential re-election. He ran for office once again in 1995.
The new Constitution also introduced decisive checks and balances to presidential power. It made the Mayor of Buenos Aires an elective position (previously the office was designated for political appointees, who controlled a huge budget in the capital). The opposition candidate was elected as mayor in 1996. The president of the Central Bank and the Director of the AFIP (Federal Tax & Customs Central Agency), while political appointees, could be removed only with the approval of Congress. The new constitution created an ombudsman position, and a board to review and propose new judicial candidates.
The majority of the population criticized Menem's neoliberal policies, as did some in the Catholic Church. Opponents among unemployed workers developed the Piquetero movement. Some economists said his financial policies were anti-liberal. These mounting problems and a rise in crime rates contributed to defeat for his party during the 1997 mid-term elections, the first time his administration faltered.
== Armed forces ==
On 3 December 1990, Menem had ordered the forceful repression of a politically motivated uprising by a far-right figure, Col. Mohamed Alí Seineldín, ending the military's involvement in the country's political life.
Menem was strongly criticized for his pardon on 29 December 1990, of Jorge Videla, Emilio Massera, Leopoldo Galtieri and other men who had been leaders of the 1976–83 dictatorship responsible for government terrorism and the disappearance of an estimated 15,000 political prisoners. They were convicted in the 1985 Trial of the Juntas. He also pardoned some guerrilla leaders on the grounds of national reconciliation. Nearly 50,000 people gathered in protest in Buenos Aires. Former President Raúl Alfonsín called it "the saddest day in Argentine history."
The president effected drastic cuts to the military budget, and appointed Lt. Gen. Martín Balza as the Army's General Chief of Staff (head of the military hierarchy). Balza, a man of strong democratic convictions and a vocal critic of the Falklands War, had stood up for the legitimate government in every attempted coup d'état throughout his senior career. He gave the first institutional self-criticism about the Armed Forces' involvement in the 1976 coup and the ensuing reign of terror. Following the brutal death of a conscript, Menem abolished conscription in 1994, decisively ending a military prerogative over society.
== Death of his son ==
Carlos Menem Jr., son of the president, died in a helicopter accident on 15 March 1995. He was 26 years old. His death remains a mystery, but his father and mother, Zulema Yoma de Menem, suspect he was murdered. Roberto Locles, a ballistics expert, believes that "Carlitos" died in an attempted assassination.
== Foreign policy ==
Menem's government re-established relations with the United Kingdom, suspended since the Falklands War, within months of taking office. He also earned plaudits for resolving territorial disputes with neighboring Chile. His administration peacefully solved more than 20 border issues with Chile, including the arbitration of the especially serious Laguna del Desierto dispute.
Menem's tenure suffered most from local economic fallout due to the Mexican peso crisis of 1995. It became tainted by repeated accusations by opponents of corruption. Menem administration's handling of the investigations of the 1992 Israeli Embassy bombing and the 1994 bombing of the AMIA Jewish community center in Buenos Aires were criticised as being dishonest and superficial. He is suspected of diverting the investigation from clues suggesting Iranian involvement, to avoid engaging with that power over the attacks as well as covering for a family friend, Alberto Kanoore Edul, a Syrian-Argentine businessman suspected of involvement in the attacks.
== Cabinet ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities:_Skylines | Cities: Skylines | Cities: Skylines is a 2015 city-building game developed by Colossal Order and published by Paradox Interactive. The game is a single-player open-ended city-building simulation. Players engage in urban planning by controlling zoning, road placement, taxation, public services, and public transportation of an area. They also work to manage various elements of the city, including its budget, health, employment, traffic, and pollution levels. It is also possible to maintain a city in a sandbox mode, which provides more creative freedom for the player.
Cities: Skylines is a progression of development from Colossal Order's previous Cities in Motion titles, which focused on designing effective transportation systems. While Colossal felt they had the technical expertise to expand the Cities gameplay into a more full-featured city simulation game, their publisher Paradox Interactive initially held off on the idea, fearing the market dominance of the SimCity series. However, they reconsidered after the critical failure of the 2013 SimCity game, which provided an opportunity for Paradox to establish a competing franchise. Colossal's goal was to create a game engine capable of simulating the daily routines of nearly a million unique citizens, while presenting this to the player in a simple way, allowing the player to easily understand various problems in their city's design. This includes realistic traffic congestion, and the effects of congestion on city services and districts. Since the game's release, various expansions and other DLC have been released for the game. The game also has built-in support for user-generated content.
The game was first released for the Linux, OS X, and Windows operating systems on 10 March 2015. Console ports by Tantalus Media were released for the Xbox One and PlayStation 4 game consoles in 2017, for the Nintendo Switch in September 2018, and for Google Stadia in May 2022. A remastered edition, also by Tantalus, was released for the PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S in February 2023. The game received favourable reviews from critics, and was a commercial success, with more than twelve million copies sold on all platforms as of June 2022. A sequel, Cities: Skylines II, was released on 24 October 2023.
== Gameplay ==
The player starts with a plot of land – equivalent to a 2-by-2-kilometre (1.2 mi × 1.2 mi) area – along with an interchange exit from a nearby highway, access to a body of water, as well as a starting amount of in-game money. The player proceeds to add roads and residential, industrial and commercial zones, and basic services like power, water and sewage, to encourage residents to move in and supply them with jobs.
As the city grows beyond certain population tiers, the player unlocks new city improvements, including schools, fire stations, police stations, health care facilities and waste management systems, tax and government edicts, mass transit systems, and other features for managing the city. One such feature enables the player to designate parts of their city as districts. Each district can be configured by the player to restrict the types of developments permitted or to enforce specific regulations within the district's bounds, such as only allowing for industrial sectors devoted to agriculture, offering free public transportation for the district to reduce traffic, raising or reducing taxes for the various classes of development, or, with the Green Cities DLC, discouraging fossil-fuel vehicles from entering a district while not discouraging electric vehicles, reducing noise pollution caused by traffic.
Buildings in the city have various development levels that are met by improving the local area, with higher levels providing more benefits to the city. For example, a commercial store will increase in level if nearby residents are more educated, which in turn will allow it to hire more employees and increase tax revenue for the city. When the player has accumulated enough residents and money, they can purchase neighbouring plots of land, each equivalent in size to the starting land area, allowing them to build up eight additional parcels out of 25 within a 10-by-10-kilometre (6.2 mi × 6.2 mi) area. The parcel limitation is to allow the game to run across the widest range of personal computers, but players can use Steam Workshop modifications to open not only all of the game's standard 25-tile building area, but the entire map (81 tiles, 324 square kilometres or 125 square miles).
The game also features a robust transportation system based on Colossal Order's previous Cities in Motion, allowing the player to plan out effective public transportation for the city in order to reduce traffic congestion and generate transit revenue. Roads can be built straight or free-form, and the grid used for zoning adapts to the shape of the adjacent roads; cities need not follow a square grid plan. Roads of varying widths (up to major freeways) accommodate different traffic volumes, and variant road types (for example, avenues lined with trees or highways with sound barriers) offer reduced noise pollution or increased property values in the surrounding area at an increased cost to the player. The road system can be augmented with various forms of public transportation such as buses, taxis, trams, trains, ferries, and metro systems.
Modding, via the addition of user-generated content such as buildings or vehicles, is supported in Cities: Skylines through the Steam Workshop. The creation of an active content-generating community was stated as an explicit design goal. The game includes several pre-made terrains to build on, and also includes a map editor to allow users to create their own maps, including the use of real-world geographic features. Mods are also available to affect core gameplay elements; pre-packaged mods include the ability to bypass the aforementioned population tier unlock system (Unlock All), unlimited funds, and a higher difficulty setting.
== Development ==
Finnish developer Colossal Order, a thirteen-person studio at the time Cities: Skylines was released, had established its reputation with the Cities in Motion series, which primarily dealt with constructing transportation systems in pre-defined cities. They wanted to move from this into a larger city simulation like the SimCity franchise, and in preparation, developed Cities in Motion 2 using the Unity game engine to assure they had the capability to develop this larger effort. They pitched their ideas to their publisher, Paradox Interactive, but these initial pitches were focused on a political angle of managing a city rather than planning of it; the player would have been mayor of the city and set edicts and regulations to help their city grow. Paradox felt that these ideas did not present a strong enough case as to go up against the well-established SimCity, and had Colossal Order revise their approach.
The situation changed when the 2013 version of SimCity was released, and was critically panned due to several issues. Having gone back and forth with Colossal Order on the city simulation idea, Paradox used the market opportunity to greenlight the development of Cities: Skylines.
One goal of the game was to successfully simulate a city with up to a million residents. To help achieve this goal, the creators decided to simulate citizens navigating the city's roads and transit systems, to make the effects of road design and transit congestion a factor in city design. In this, they found that the growth and success of a city was fundamentally tied to how well the road system was laid out. Colossal Order had already been aware of the importance of road systems from Cities in Motion, and felt that the visual indication of traffic and traffic congestion was an easy-to-comprehend sign of larger problems in a city's design.
To represent traffic, Colossal Order developed a complex system that would determine the fastest route available for a simulated person going to and from work or other points of interest, taking into account available roads and public transit systems nearby. This simulated person would not swerve from their predetermined path unless the route was changed mid-transit, in which case they would be teleported back to their origin instead of calculating a new path from their current location. If the journey required the person to drive, a system of seven rules regulated their behaviour in traffic and how this was shown to the user, such as skipping some rules in locations of the simulation that had little impact while the player was not looking at those locations. This was done to avoid cascading traffic problems if the player adjusted the road system in real time. The city's user-designed transportation system creates a node-based graph used to determine these fastest paths and identifies intersections for these nodes. The system then simulates the movement of individuals on the roads and transit systems, accounting for other traffic on the road and basic physics (such as speed along slopes and the need for vehicles to slow down on tight curves), in order to accurately model traffic jams created by the layout and geography of the system. The developers found that their model accurately demonstrates the efficiency, or lack thereof, of some less common roadway intersections, such as the single-point urban interchange or the diverging diamond interchange.
== Release ==
Cities: Skylines was announced by publisher Paradox Interactive on 14 August 2014 at Gamescom. The announcement trailer emphasized that players could "build [their] dream city," "mod and share online" and "play offline"—the third feature was interpreted by journalists as a jab at SimCity, which initially required an Internet connection during play. Skylines uses an adapted Unity engine with official support for modding. The game was released on 10 March 2015, with Colossal Order committed to continuing to support the game after release.
Tantalus Media assisted Paradox in porting the game to the Xbox One console and for Windows 10, which was released on 21 April 2017. This version includes the After Dark expansion bundled with the game, and supports all downloadable content. Tantalus also ported the game and the After Dark expansion for PlayStation 4, released on 15 August 2017. Both Xbox One and PlayStation 4 versions received physical release versions distributed by Koch Media. Tantalus also ported the game for the Nintendo Switch, which was released on 13 September 2018 and included the "After Dark" and "Snowfall" expansions.
The game was built from the ground up to be friendly to player-created modifications, interfacing with Steam Workshop. Colossal Order found that with Cities in Motion, players had quickly begun to modify the game and expand on it. They wanted to encourage that behaviour in Cities: Skylines, as they recognized that modding ability was important to players and would not devalue the game. Within a month of the game's release, over 20,000 assets had been created in the Workshop, including modifications that enabled a first-person mode and a flying simulator. As of February 2020, over 200,000 user-created items were available. Many of these fans have been able to use crowd-funding services like Patreon to fund their creation efforts. Paradox, recognizing fan-supported mods, started to engage with some of the modders to create official content packs for the game starting in 2016. The first of these was a new set of art deco-inspired buildings created by Matt Crux. Crux received a portion of the sales of the content from Paradox.
An educational version of Cities: Skylines was developed by Colossal Order in conjunction with the group TeacherGaming and released in May 2018. This version includes tutorials and scenarios designed for use in a classroom, as well as a means for teachers to track a student's progress.
=== Remastered edition ===
A remastered version of Cities: Skylines was released exclusively for PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S on 15 February 2023. The upgraded version includes a building area of up to 25 tiles, performance enhancements and other quality of life improvements. The upgrade released as a free download to players who previously owned the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions, respectively.
=== VR version ===
A virtual reality adaptation of the game titled Cities: VR, developed by Fast Travel Games, was released for Meta Quest 2 on 28 April 2022 and released on PlayStation VR2.
== Reception ==
Upon release, Cities: Skylines received "generally positive" reception from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. IGN awarded the game a score of 8.5 and said "Don’t expect exciting scenarios or random events, but do expect to be impressed by the scale and many moving parts of this city-builder." Destructoid gave the game a 9 out of 10 with the reviewer stating, "Cities: Skylines not only returns to the ideals which made the city-building genre so popular, it expands them. I enjoyed every minute I played this title, and the planning, building, and nurturing of my city brought forth imagination and creativity from me like few titles ever have." The Escapist gave Cities: Skylines a perfect score, noting its low price point and stated that despite a few minor flaws, it is "the finest city builder in over a decade."
Much critical comparison was drawn between SimCity and Cities: Skylines, with the former seen as the benchmark of the genre by many, including the CEO of Colossal Order. When the game was first announced, journalists perceived it as a competitor to the poorly received, 2013 reboot of SimCity, describing it as "somewhat ... the antidote to Maxis' most recent effort with SimCity" and "out to satisfy where SimCity couldn't." A Eurogamer article touched upon "something of a size mismatch" between developer Colossal Order (then staffed by nine people) and Maxis, and their respective ambitions with Skylines and SimCity. Critics generally considered Cities: Skylines to have superseded SimCity as the leading game of the genre, with The Escapist comparing the two on a variety of factors and finding Cities: Skylines to be the better game in every category considered. However, some critics did consider the absence of disasters and random events to be something that the game lacked in comparison to SimCity, as well as a helpful and substantial tutorial. Disasters were added to the game in the aptly titled Natural Disasters DLC, as well as special buildings for detecting and responding to them.
The city government of Stockholm, where Paradox's headquarters are located, used Cities: Skylines to plan a new transportation system. The developer of Bus Simulator 18 planned out the roads and highways of the game's world map through Cities: Skylines before recreating it within their game to provide a seemingly realistic city and its facilities for the game. A Polish YouTuber recreated an interchange which was due to be built near Kraków in the game, showcasing its issues such as causing congestion and multiple lane-switching. In response, the Polish General Directorate for National Roads and Highways ordered additional analysis, which confirmed the issues and the interchange was redesigned.
In 2020, Rock, Paper, Shotgun rated Cities: Skylines the fourth best management game on the PC. During the 19th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated Cities: Skylines for "Strategy/Simulation Game of the Year".
=== Sales ===
Cities: Skylines has been Paradox's best-selling game. Within 24 hours, 250,000 copies had been sold; within a week, 500,000 copies; within a month, one million copies; and on its first anniversary, the game had reached two million copies sold. By its second anniversary, the game had reached 3.5 million sales. In March 2018, it was revealed that the game had sold more than five million copies on the PC platform alone. On the game's fourth anniversary in March 2019, Colossal Order announced that Cities: Skylines had surpassed six million units sold across all platforms. In June 2022, it was announced that the game had sold 12 million copies on all platforms. It is the best-selling Finnish-developed game to date.
=== Research ===
Research has examined using Cities: Skylines as a potential teaching tool for many different academic subjects, including real estate, environmental science, urban planning, and even news and journalism.
The marketing behind the game also encouraged people to view it as an educational tool in part through its video series "city builders", which also promoted Justin Roczniak's educational series, which uses Cities: Skylines as visual aid.
== Downloadable content ==
Cities: Skylines has received several paid and free downloadable content packs since its release in 2015, and multiple types of content packs have been released: expansion packs, cosmetic packs, content creator packs, flavour packs, music packs, and map packs. Downloadable content for the game was previously developed and released for the PC versions of the game first before being released on consoles a few months later. Newer DLC has since been released simultaneously on both PC and consoles.
== Sequel ==
Paradox Interactive announced a sequel to Cities: Skylines in March 2023, titled Cities: Skylines II. The game was released on 24 October 2023 for Windows. The Xbox Series X/S and PlayStation 5 release was scheduled for Q2 of 2024, then postponed until October 2024 and was later indefinitely postponed.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Official wiki |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaku_Homma | Gaku Homma | Homma Gaku (本間 学 Honma Gaku), born May 12, 1950, is an aikido teacher and direct student of the founder Morihei Ueshiba.
He is an author; the books Children and the Martial Arts and Aikido for Life are his most prominent publications.
Homma, whose father was a Shinto priest and an officer in the Japanese Imperial Army during the war, was born in Akita Prefecture. According to Homma, at the age of 14, he was sent by his father to train in Iwama under aikido founder Ueshiba Morihei. Homma also says that he trained as an uchi deshi in Iwama and at the Aikikai Hombu Dojo in Tokyo, under the founder and under Saito Morihiro in the late 1960s. Along with Hideo Hirasawa, Homma is one of a number of aikidoka who claim to be the last uchi deshi to have been trained directly by Ueshiba Morihei.
His early career as a teacher was on a US air force base. In 1976 Homma moved to Denver, Colorado, and founded the Nippon Kan as an independent dojo in 1978. This dojo has grown into the largest aikido dojo in the Rocky Mountain region and is well known for its international uchi-deshi program. He has organized several large aikido seminars in Denver, many of them taught by Saito Morihiro.
== Humanitarian work ==
In addition to the aikido dojo, which is a non-profit institution, Homma has founded the Aikido Humanitarian Active Network (AHAN), whose mission is "to extend the philosophy of Aikido into the world beyond the dojo". AHAN activities have included sending computers and aid to an orphanage in Mongolia, supporting a sick aikido student in Nicaragua, and assisting dojo in Turkey and Brazil with charitable fundraising efforts.
Homma is also known for his work in his community, including serving meals to the homeless. Homma calls the work he does "support" because, he says, "Help is 'I am reaching down to you." Support is, 'I am on your level and I am lifting up."
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_FIFA_World_Cup_opening_ceremony#Performances | 2018 FIFA World Cup opening ceremony | The 2018 FIFA World Cup opening ceremony took place on Thursday, 14 June 2018, at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, Russia at 3:30 (BST), about a half hour before the opening match which Russia won 5–0 over Saudi Arabia.
== Mascots ==
Zabivaka (English: "The one who scores"), was the official mascot for the 2018 FIFA World Cup and was voted for by a 53% margin. The design is of a wolf who represents fun, charm, and character. Former world cup winning, Brazilian striker Ronaldo was another mascot of the tournament. Ronaldo was the intended man to deliver the ceremonial first kick of the tournament but instead, he gave that honor to the child mascot who passed the official match ball to Zabivaka in order to start the tournament. The match ball (an Adidas Telstar 18) was sent into space with the International Space Station crew in March and came back to Earth in early June.
== Speeches ==
Russian President Vladimir Putin gave the opening speech of the tournament in which he talked about an "open, hospitable and friendly" Russia hosting the tournament. He also described Russia's love for football, calling the tournament and the game "a unity which cannot be affected by a different language, ideology or faith". Putin ended by saying:
“Our duty is to preserve this power of humanity for generations to come for the sake of developing sports and strengthening peace and mutual understanding between people. I wish all the teams’ success and an unforgettable experience for the fans. Welcome to Russia.”
Putin's speech was immediately followed by a short speech from FIFA President Gianni Infantino who said:
“Welcome to the FIFA World Cup here in Russia. As of today, for one month, football will conquer Russia and from Russia, football will conquer the world. Enjoy the biggest celebration on earth. Thank you President Putin, thank you Moscow, Spasibo [thank you] Russia.”
Following the two speeches the performance of the ceremony were allowed to commence before the opening match between Russia and Saudi Arabia.
== Performances ==
British pop singer Robbie Williams took centre stage at the end of the ceremony with a rendition of "Let Me Entertain You" before Russian soprano Aida Garifullina was carried out on to the pitch on the back of a "firebird" float. Williams sang a section of "Feel" before he and Garifullina performed a duet of "Angels" as performers emerged, dressed in the flags of all 32 teams and carrying a sign bearing the name of each nation. Williams then sang "Rock DJ" in an encore as the pitch was being cleared for the first match.
=== Controversy ===
During the encore, Williams gave the middle finger. Fox in the US apologised for the incident. The incident was not shown on ITV in the UK who had cut away prior to the encore. In addition, while singing Rock DJ, Williams sung, "Pimpin' ain't easy. Most of them fleece me, but I did this for free." The lyrics "But I did this for free" replaced the lyrics "Every night".
Williams appeared on This Morning on 19 June and explained what happened, “It was one minute to kick off, I was under a lot of pressure, because there was one minute left and I didn't know how I was going to do half a minute, so I just did a one-minute countdown [using his middle finger].” Asked by presenter Phillip Schofield whether he regrets it, he said: "Yeah, of course, yeah. I cannot trust me. And the last thing I said to my manager before we sat down on the sofa here was, 'what could go wrong,' because I don't know what I'm going to do at any time. There's no, sort of, plan. The plan was, sing in key, don't fall over. That was the plan and 99% of the plan, I pulled off.” When asked did the idea just enter his head he responded, “Nothing actually pops into my head. There's a block between me and sense... then something happens and then five minutes later, I'm like, 'Did I? Yeah, I did, didn't I?”. Williams changing his lyrics "every night" is still unexplained.
== Dignitaries in attendance ==
A total of 21 foreign heads of state attended this match. It was the largest gathering of leaders for a FIFA World Cup match.
President of Abkhazia – Raul Khajimba
Prime Minister of Armenia – Nikol Pashinyan
President of Azerbaijan – Ilham Aliyev
President of Belarus – Alexander Lukashenko
President of Bolivia – Evo Morales
Vice Premier of the State Council of China – Sun Chunlan
Secretary General of CIS – Sergei Lebedev
Former President of France – Nicolas Sarkozy
President of FIFA – Gianni Infantino
Former Chancellor of Germany – Gerhard Schroeder
President of Gabon – Ali Bongo Ondimba
President of Kazakhstan – Nursultan Nazarbayev
President of Kyrgyzstan – Sooronbay Jeenbekov
Prime Minister of Hungary – Viktor Orban
Prime Minister of Lebanon – Saad Hariri
President of Moldova – Igor Dodon
Prince of Monaco – Albert II
President of the Supreme People's Assembly of North Korea – Kim Yong-nam
President of Panama – Juan Carlos Varela
President of Paraguay – Mario Abdo Benítez
President of Portugal – Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa
President of Russia – Vladimir Putin
President of Rwanda – Paul Kagame
Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia – Mohammed bin Salman
President of South Ossetia – Anatoly Bibilov
President of Tajikistan – Emomali Rahmon
President of Turkmenistan – Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow
Secretary-General of the United Nations – António Guterres
President of Uzbekistan – Shavkat Mirziyoyev
== References ==
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Njongonkulu_Ndungane | Njongonkulu Ndungane | Njongonkulu Winston Hugh Ndungane (born 2 April 1941) is a retired South African Anglican bishop and a former prisoner on Robben Island. He was the Bishop of Kimberley and Kuruman and Archbishop of Cape Town.
== Early life ==
Ndungane was born in Kokstad. He attended Lovedale High School, Alice, Eastern Cape and completed his schooling there in December 1958.
== Political life and imprisonment ==
In March 1960 he was involved in anti-Pass Law demonstrations while a student at the University of Cape Town and was later arrested for his anti-apartheid activities. From August 1963 he served a three-year sentence on Robben Island as a political prisoner. On his release he was served with a two-year banning order.
== Church ministry ==
Ndungane decided to seek ordination during his imprisonment on Robben Island. In 1971 the Most Reverend Robert Selby Taylor, Archbishop of Cape Town, sent him to St Peter’s College, Alice, Eastern Cape. He was ordained a deacon in December 1973 and a priest in July 1974. He served his first curacy in Athlone, Cape Town in the Diocese of Cape Town. In 1975 he left South Africa for King's College London, where he earned his Bachelor of Divinity and Master of Theology degrees while he was a curate in London.
After his time in London he had a short time as an assistant chaplain at St George’s Church in Paris. He returned to South Africa in 1980 and was appointed the rector of St Nicholas' Matroosfontein. Phillip Russell, archbishop of Cape Town, appointed him as his representative in the Diocese of Johannesburg
In 1984 he was mandated by Archbishop Russell to take responsibility for reopening St Bede’s Theological College, Umtata, which had been closed. In 1985 he was appointed principal of St Bede’s.
In 1991 he was elected Bishop of Kimberley and Kuruman. In September 1996 he was elected archbishop of Cape Town and Metropolitan of the Anglican Church of Southern Africa.
In 2006, he founded African Monitor, a pan-African non-profit organization that monitors both the fulfillment of the promises of both aid-giving and aid-receiving countries.
== Awards ==
Order of the Baobab in Silver (2008)
Doctor of Divinity (honoris causa) Rhodes University
Freedom of the City of Cape Town (2016)
== Publications ==
Primate Speaks Out on Debt and Arms. Anglican Communion Office. 1997.
Oppression, Faith and the Future: The Archbishop of Cape Town : a Conversation With, and Address by the Most Revd Njongonkulu Ndungane. Great St. Mary's. 1997.
Address[es] by the Archbishop of Cape Town the Most Reverend Njongonkulu Ndungane, at a Conference on "Local Communities, Global Realities" Held in Toronto, Canada, June 21, 1999. 1999.
A World with a Human Face: A Voice from Africa. David Philip. 2003. ISBN 978-0-86486-614-1.
"Don't cut aid to Africa now". The Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited. 2009. Retrieved 4 October 2013.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Sindiwe Magona (1 October 2012). From Robben Island to Bishop's Court: The Biography of Archbishop Njongonkulu Ndungane. David Philip. ISBN 978-0-86486-738-4.
Sarah Rowland Jones (March 2011). Faith in Action: Njongonkulu Ndungane : Archbishop for the Church and the World. Lux Verbi. ISBN 978-0-7963-0763-7. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherry_Hospital#:~:text=A%20monument%20in%20memoriam%20of%20the%20patients%20interred%20on%20the%20old%20Cherry%20Hospital%20campus%20was%20dedicated%20on%20June%203%2C%202004.%5B5%5D | Cherry Hospital | Cherry Hospital is an inpatient regional referral psychiatric hospital located in Goldsboro, North Carolina, United States. As one of three psychiatric hospitals operated by the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, it provides services to 38 counties in the eastern region of North Carolina. It is part of the Division of State Operated Healthcare Facilities within the Department of Health and Human Services, which oversees and manages 14 state-operated healthcare facilities that treat adults and children with mental illness, developmental disabilities, and substance use disorders. The Division's psychiatric hospitals provide comprehensive inpatient mental health services to people with psychiatric illness who cannot be safely treated at a lower level of care.
Cherry Hospital's treatment units include Adolescent, Adult Acute Admissions, Geriatric Admissions, Psychiatric Rehabilitation, and Psychiatric Medical to serve those with complex acute care needs, providing a level of care not available in their own communities.
== History ==
In 1877, the North Carolina General Assembly appointed a committee to recommend the selection of a site for a facility for the black mentally ill which would serve the state. On April 11, 1878, 171 acres (69 ha) of land two miles (3 km) west of Goldsboro were purchased. The site was described by Governor Zebulon Baird Vance as ideal for a hospital building because of good elevation in a high state of cultivation and central location for the black population.
On August 1, 1880, the first patient was admitted to the then named "Asylum for Colored Insane". Since that time, there have been several name changes including: The Eastern North Carolina Insane Asylum, Eastern Hospital, and State Hospital at Goldsboro. The name was changed to Cherry Hospital in 1959 in honor of Governor R. Gregg Cherry, who focused his administration on expanding mental health services and increasing hospital facilities and personnel during his tenure.
The bed capacity for the hospital when established was seventy-six but over one hundred patients were crowded into the facility by Christmas of 1880. On March 5, 1881, the Eastern North Carolina Insane Asylum was incorporated and a board of nine directors appointed. A separate building was established for treating tubercular patients. In addition, a building for the criminally insane was opened in 1924.
For the first eighty-five years of its history, Cherry Hospital served the entire black population for the State of North Carolina. In 1965, the hospital joined other state hospitals in implementing the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Cherry began serving patients from the thirty-three counties in the Eastern Region in 1965 by providing services for all races. Black patients at Cherry were transferred to hospitals in their appropriate region while Cherry received white patients from other hospitals in other regions.
=== Cherry Farm ===
From the opening of the institution, much of the cultivation was performed on the hospital grounds under the management of the steward. By 1960, Cherry Farm had 2,300 acres in cultivation, including fruit trees, an apple orchard, vegetables, and sugar cane, with livestock consisting of hogs, chickens, turkeys and cows. The farm supplied the hospital's requirement of milk, eggs, and pork (except cured bacon), 70% of the hospital's beef requirement; nothing was sold except hides.
=== Early treatment ===
The early treatment program was mainly custodial, while able-bodied patients worked on the farm. In 1884, a battery was purchased as electricity was said to be beneficial to the treatment of early insanity. An occupational therapist was employed in 1932, but therapy was mainly confined to the farm, laundry, kitchen and yard work. During the 1930s and 1940s, laxatives, castor oil, salts, aspirin, and sedatives were the standard medications given to patients. Hydrotherapy was attempted, but soon abandoned. Seclusion in the form of 6’x9’ steel cages was also utilized, but was completely removed from the treatment program in 1956. Chapel facilities and chaplain services were not available until the early 1950s, but selected patients were allowed to visit churches in Goldsboro under the supervision of an attendant.
By 1955, tranquilizing medications were widely used and helped revolutionize patient treatment. As a result of extensive use of psychotropic drugs, the rate of discharges began to increase and the length of hospitalization decreased. While discharges increased, the admission rate also increased significantly and the resident population remained virtually stable at approximately 3,000 patients between 1950 and 1965. The highest rate of occupancy was approximately 3,500 patients. During its first 100 years of service, Cherry Hospital served 91,045 patients.
=== From segregation to integration ===
For the first 85 years of its history, Cherry Hospital served only the mentally ill African-American population for the entire state of North Carolina, and remained the only mental hospital available to those citizens until the mid-1960s. The hospital remained segregated until 1965, when, to comply with the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Cherry Hospital joined other state mental institutions in implementing the law, initiating the desegregation of the patient population. The state was divided into four (4) regions, with each region containing a mental hospital for adults. Cherry Hospital began to provide services to all races from the thirty-three designated counties in the Eastern Region of North Carolina. African-American patients at Cherry Hospital were transferred to hospitals within their appropriate region, while white patients designated for the Eastern Region were received and admitted from other hospitals in other regions.
=== Cemeteries ===
There are two cemeteries located on the old campus of Cherry Hospital. One is located behind the Chase Laundry Building where patients were interred between 1905 and 1928; the other is located behind the McFarland Building where the earliest known interment is 1927. It is known that there are 3000 people buried on the grounds, with approximately 700 graves marked with upright brass crosses bearing patient names and dates. A monument in memoriam of the patients interred on the old Cherry Hospital campus was dedicated on June 3, 2004. The two known burial grounds mentioned above may account for those buried since 1905 but do not account for those buried between 1880 and 1905. It is known that there have been over 3800 people buried on the hospital grounds since 1913.
=== Dorothea Dix influence ===
The mid-nineteenth century in North Carolina marked a time of great change in the methods of caring for the mentally ill. Despite the push by other states to develop and build asylums, North Carolina continued to resist these efforts due to the high cost of construction. North Carolina was twelfth of the original 13 colonies to pass legislation allowing for the construction of a state hospital. The efforts of Dorothea Lynde Dix were of paramount importance in swaying legislators to consider the cost savings, and fundamental humanity, of treating the insane. Dix addressed the North Carolina General Assembly in 1848, petitioning the members to establish formal, humane institutional care for those suffering from mental illness. Her advocacy efforts, including those of North Carolina General Assembly Representative Kenneth Rayner, led to the beginning of construction of the first asylum in North Carolina. Only two other asylums for the mentally ill, Broughton Hospital in Morganton and Cherry Hospital in Goldsboro, were approved and built before the turn of the twentieth century in North Carolina.
A Founders Gallery exhibit, located in the first floor lobby of the New Cherry Hospital, was established to pay tribute to the influence and impact of the efforts championed by Dorothea Dix to care for the mentally ill.
== "New" Cherry Hospital ==
In the fall of 2016, the old Cherry Hospital facility closed and was replaced by a new psychiatric facility of the same name, located at 1401 West Ash Street, Goldsboro, North Carolina, on a site approximately one-half mile from the old hospital. The new hospital, designed by Perkins+Will, of Durham, North Carolina, is a single structure, three-story building containing approximately 410,000 square feet, including 9.4 acres of floor space, consisting of residential patient care units, therapy and medical facilities, and service and administrative support areas. The site, including buildings, parking lots, grounds and buffer zones, covers approximately 51 acres and is located on a 171-acre tract. The basic construction contract for the building, utilities, and grounds was awarded to Archer Western Contractors, LTD, of Morrisville, North Carolina. Total funding for the new construction, design, medical equipment, furniture, telecommunications, information technology, equipment and other necessities totaling $138,325,814 was derived from special indebtedness bonds approved by the North Carolina General Assembly.
A Groundbreaking Ceremony was held at the new site on October 1, 2010, with then Governor Beverly Eves Perdue and North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services Secretary Lanier M. Cansler in attendance. A subsequent Dedication and Official Ribbon-Cutting Ceremony was held on August 30, 2016, with then Governor Pat McCrory, North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services Secretary Rick Brajer, and Deputy Secretary Dale Armstrong in attendance.
The previous hospital, located at 201 Stevens Mill Road, Goldsboro, North Carolina, was composed of several buildings disseminated campus-wide. The new hospital provides expanded services and additional capacity encompassed in one building. Amenities include a modern laboratory, dental and radiology departments and equipment, internal and external courtyards, a treatment mall (known as the "Hope and Wellness Center") decorated with flexible pictures hung magnetically, gymnasium and exercise room, library equipped with computers, cosmetology and barber shops, and anti-ligature doors/hinges/hooks and tempered glass.
The process of transferring patients to the new hospital was initiated in late September 2016. A press release on the North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services website, dated October 5, 2016, states all patients were safely moved and now occupy the new Cherry Hospital as of Thursday, September 29, 2016.
== Counties served ==
Cherry Hospital serves patients from thirty-eight (38) Eastern North Carolina counties including: Beaufort, Bertie, Bladen, Brunswick, Camden, Carteret, Chowan, Columbus, Craven, Cumberland, Currituck, Dare, Duplin, Edgecombe, Gates, Greene, Hertford, Hyde, Johnston, Jones, Lenoir, Martin, Nash, New Hanover, Northampton, Onslow, Pamlico, Pasquotank, Pender, Perquimans, Pitt, Robeson, Sampson, Scotland, Tyrrell, Washington, Wayne, and Wilson.
== Services provided ==
Cherry Hospital employs licensed psychiatrists, internal and family medicine physicians, and mid-level practitioners who provide short and long term mental health care and services to adolescents, adults and geriatric patients. Comprehensive treatment includes physical and diagnostic, with utilization of an array of therapeutic approaches including group, behavior, milieu therapy, occupational, as well as recreational and creative arts therapies.
== Treatment units ==
Cherry Hospital's treatment units include:
The Adolescent Unit is a specialty unit providing inpatient treatment for mentally, emotionally, and behaviorally disturbed adolescents between the ages of 12 and 17. The unit provides diagnostic evaluation that includes psychiatric, medical, nursing, individual and group therapy, family counseling, nutritional services, therapeutic activities, structured group living, vocational evaluation and rehabilitation, and interagency correlation. Adolescents are enrolled in a year-round accredited school program ("Riverbend School"), which allows patients to remain up-to date in their education while receiving the care they need.
The Adult and Acute Admissions Unit is for patients between the ages of 18 and 60. It is designed for patients who are admitted in crisis and with many types of mental illness. It is a short term unit and family and community involvement is encouraged to assist with the transition back to the community.
The Geriatric Admissions Unit provides treatment for patients 60 years and older. While most of the patients in the unit have confusion and/or disorientation associated with dementia, there are others with persistent mental illness. Although patients are usually ambulatory, many suffer from age-related physical illnesses such as diabetes, hypertension, arthritis or cardiovascular disease. Most require some assistance with their basic needs. The objective of the unit is re-motivation, reorientation, and rehabilitation of patients in an effort to return them to their community and families.
The Psychiatric Rehabilitation Unit provides treatment and rehabilitation services to adults 18 and older with severe and persistent psychiatric illness. Efforts are aimed at reducing symptoms and developing the skills needed to achieve independent functioning. Patients participate in work therapy, Therapaws, and in counseling sessions. A wellness clinic is part of the patients' program in order to familiarize them with routine health checks and to encourage follow-up with physicians after discharge.
The Psychiatric Medical Unit is a unit for the treatment of psychiatric patients with physical illness who cannot be managed on a general psychiatric unit due to the nature and severity of the medical illness. Patients are admitted to this unit from other hospital units.
== Riverbend School ==
Riverbend School, housed within the new Cherry Hospital facility, is an accredited school program for adolescent patients between the ages of 12 and 17. Classrooms are structured as small groups for multi-age and grade, including both regular and special education classes. Liaison teachers work with home-school personnel, parents/guardians, and staff to meet each student's individual needs.
== Expanded capacity ==
Cherry Hospital expanded its capacity by more than 100 psychiatric beds following the move to a new facility in 2016. Now, a 300-bed facility, Cherry Hospital has the capacity to serve 130+ adults, 28 adolescents, 35 geriatric, 10 medical psychiatric, and 104 psychiatric rehabilitation. There are 12 patient care units that include 228 bedrooms with one bathroom per room, 146 private bedrooms and 82 semi-private bedrooms.
== Accreditations ==
Cherry Hospital is accredited by the North Carolina Medical Society to provide Continuing Medical Education (CME) to physicians and is accredited as a provider of continuing nursing education by the American Nurses Credentialing Center's Commission on Accreditation(ANCC). The hospital provides continuing education to psychologists, social workers, and teachers by working closely with Area Health Education Centers (AHEC) Eastern AHEC, Southeast AHEC, Southern Regional AHEC, and North Carolina Psychological Association.
The Joint Commission, 2012 Top Performer on Key Quality Measures
North Carolina Medical Society
American Nurses Credentialing Center's Commission on Accreditation
College of American Pathologists
Member, North Carolina Hospital Association
== Teaching affiliations and internships ==
Cherry Hospital is affiliated with thirteen (13) schools of nursing. Annually, these schools complete clinical rotations in various treatment areas. The objective of the clinical experience is to provide nursing students with learning opportunities regarding the care of individuals with mental health needs.
Appalachian University
Campbell University
Coastal Carolina Community College
East Carolina University
Edgecombe Community College
James Sprunt Community College
Johnston Community College
Lenoir Community College
Sampson Community College
University of Mount Olive
University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Wayne Community College
Wilson Tech Community College
Cherry Hospital is affiliated with several colleges and universities for internship placements in the areas of social work, psychology, teaching (exceptional children), dental hygiene, pharmacy and therapeutic recreation, and has affiliations with colleges/universities in other states for occupational therapy internships. The hospital is routinely utilized as a teaching site for both the Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University and Campbell University where psychiatry residents, fellows and medical students train with the hospital's professional staff holding clinical faculty appointments.
== Cherry Hospital Museum ==
The Cherry Hospital Museum is located in the Special Services house on the old hospital campus, located at 201 Stevens Mill Road, in Goldsboro, North Carolina. Displaying written documents, photographs and other artifacts, the museum depicts the history of the psychiatric hospital opened in 1880 for the African American mentally ill from all 100 counties of North Carolina.
Due to the damage sustained by the effects of the flooding of Hurricane Matthew in October 2016, the museum officially closed its doors on Friday, January 13, 2017. All artifacts housed in the museum were moved to storage with future plans to rotate these pieces and display them in exhibits in the Founders Gallery, located in the First Floor of the New Cherry Hospital. An electronic presentation of these artifacts will be featured on electronic message boards located throughout the new hospital.
== Cherry Foundation, Inc. ==
The Cherry Foundation is a not-for-profit and tax exempt organization established to provide further assistance to those affected by mental illness while admitted at Cherry Hospital This organization is a separate entity from Cherry Hospital and was officially recognized and chartered March 31, 1997, by the State of North Carolina, and was granted federal tax-exempt status, 501(c)(3) by Internal Revenue Service guidelines. Tax deductible contributions and gifts made to the foundation are utilized directly for the therapeutic care of the patients.
== References ==
== External links ==
NC DHHS - Division of State Operated Healthcare Facilities
The Joint Commission - Accreditation/Quality Report for Cherry Hospital
Photos of Cherry Hospital
"Moving Forward" - The Progress of the New Cherry Hospital
Cherry Hospital Museum
The Cherry Foundation, Inc. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olga_von_Root#:~:text=Baroness%20Olga%20Vadimovna%20von%20Root%20was%20born%20in%20Sevastopol%2C%20Crimea,a%20Polish%20landed%20gentry%20family. | Olga von Root | Baroness Olga Vadimovna von Root (2 December 1901 – 28 June 1967) was a Russian stage actress and singer. Born into a noble family of German, Polish, and Greek background, Root was educated at the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens in the Russian Empire. As a teenager, she ran away from home and travelled with a Romani family, studying their music and dance. During the Russian Revolution, while her father served in the White Army, Root performed in cabarets and nightclubs to help support her family. After the war, she performed in Russia and other European countries as a stage actress and singer under the stage name Olga Vadina. She later married the American industrialist Armand Hammer and moved to the United States, taking up residence in Manhattan. While living in New York, she worked to transcribe numerous Romani ballads. Root is the grandmother of American businessman Michael Armand Hammer and the great-grandmother of American actor Armie Hammer.
== Early life and family ==
Baroness Olga Vadimovna von Root was born in Sevastopol, Crimea in 1901. She was the daughter of Baron Vadim Nikolayevich von Root, a Czarist military officer and nobleman, and Lubov Karlovna Kostsyushko-Valyuzhinich, a member of a Polish landed gentry family. Root's paternal ancestors were Volga German nobility who came to the Russian Empire during the reign of Peter the Great to serve in the Imperial Russian Army. Her maternal grandfather, Karl Kazimirovich Kostsyushko-Valyuzhinich, was Catholic and the founder of the Archeological Museum in Chersonesus. Her maternal grandmother, Maria Pavlovna Reveliotis, was a Russian Orthodox woman of Greek descent and the granddaughter of the Russian landowner and leader of the Greek War of Independence General Theodosios Reveliotis. Through her mother, Root was also a descendant of the Polish national hero Tadeusz Kościuszko.
== Revolution and stage career ==
Root was educated at the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens in Saint Petersburg, where she trained as a singer. at the age of fifteen, she ran away and took up performing with a troop of Romani performers, learning their music and dances from Nikolai Kroutchine. She was later found and returned to her family.
During the October Revolution, Olga von Root's family moved from Moscow to Kyiv. Her father, loyal to Nicholas II of Russia, commanded troops in the White Army throughout the war. To support her family while her father was off fighting, Root began singing in cabarets and night clubs. She was rounded up with other members of the White Movement by Bolsheviks during a raid, imprisoned, and was ordered to be executed. Her life was spared after a Bolshevik colonel, who recognized her from the stage, released her. The colonel later spared her mother and siblings from arrest during a raid on their home. The colonel informed Root that her father would be granted amnesty if he defected from the White Army and joined the Red Army. She wrote to her father and persuaded him to change sides, after which he took a post as an instructor at the Soviety Military Academy.
During the rise of Communism, Root became a star of the stage, as a singer and actress, performing under the name of Olga Vadina. She was one of the top stars of post-Revolutionary Russia's concert theatre and married her manager. She performed a program of Romani ballads at a theatre in Paris, later performing in other European capitals.
While living in New York City with her second husband, Armand Hammer, Root worked with a musician to transcribe Russian and Romani music that she learned throughout her training.
== Personal life ==
In 1925, while performing in Yalta, Root was introduced to the Jewish-American millionaire industrialist Armand Hammer. The two fell in love, and Root obtained a divorce from her first husband in Moscow. She and Hammer were married in a civil ceremony in 1927. They had one son, Julian Armand Hammer, who was born in Moscow in 1928. The family left Moscow in 1930 and took up residence on Fifth Avenue in Manhattan. She and Hammer divorced in 1943.
Root was the grandmother of American businessman Michael Armand Hammer and the great-grandmother of American actor Armie Hammer.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_Norwegian_European_Union_membership_referendum#:~:text=A%20referendum%20on%20joining%20the,turnout%20of%2088.6%20per%20cent. | 1994 Norwegian European Union membership referendum | A referendum on joining the European Union was held in Norway on 27 and 28 November 1994. After a long period of heated debate, the "no" side won with 52.2 per cent of the vote, on a turnout of 88.6 per cent. Membership of what was then the European Community had previously been rejected in a 1972 referendum, and by French veto in 1962.
As of 2025, this was the most recent referendum in Norway.
== Campaign ==
The "No" campaign was led by Anne Enger Lahnstein, leader of the Centre Party. The main themes of the "No" campaign were loss of sovereignty if Norway should join the Union, as well as the fundamental differences in economic structure between Norway and the EU, as Norway has an economy based heavily on natural resources (especially oil and fish), in contrast to the EU's more industrial economy.
Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland led the "Yes" campaign. Her party, the Labour Party, was divided on the question of Norwegian membership of the Union. Unlike Trygve Bratteli in 1972, she refused to threaten to resign if the referendum failed to result in a "Yes" vote, on the grounds that more serious divisions could have arisen in the Labour Party. The main arguments of the "Yes" side were that as a European country, Norway belonged in the European Union, and that Norway's economy would benefit from membership.
According to John Erik Fossum, a political science professor at ARENA, Centre for European Studies, University of Oslo, "the fact that Norway had already signed the EEA agreement made it easier for people to vote no because they knew that Norway had assured EU market access."
=== Debates ===
=== Official party positions ===
== Results ==
=== Countrywide ===
=== By constituency ===
== See also ==
Norway–European Union relations
== References ==
== External links ==
The European Movement in Norway
No to the EU - Norwegian eurosceptics
Norway. EU Referendum 1994, Electoral Geography 2.0 website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_Fox_Prize_for_Numerical_Analysis | Leslie Fox Prize for Numerical Analysis | The Leslie Fox Prize for Numerical Analysis of the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications (IMA) is a biennial prize established in 1985 by the IMA in honour of mathematician Leslie Fox (1918-1992). The prize honours "young numerical analysts worldwide" (any person who is less than 31 years old), and applicants submit papers for review. A committee reviews the papers, invites shortlisted candidates to give lectures at the Leslie Fox Prize meeting, and then awards First Prize and Second Prizes based on "mathematical and algorithmic brilliance in tandem with presentational skills."
== Prize winners list ==
Source: Institute of Mathematics and its Applications
1985 - Lloyd N. Trefethen (inaugural prize winner)
1986 - J. W. Demmel and N. I. M. Gould
1988 - Nicholas J. Higham
1989 - 3 first prizes: Martin Buhmann ("Multivariable cardinal interpolation with radial basis functions"), Bart De Moor ("The restrictricted singular value decomposition: properties and applications"), Andrew M. Stuart ("Linear instability implies spurious periodic solutions")
1991 - Christopher Budd and J. F. B. M. Kraaijevanger
1993 - Yuying Li
1995 - Adrian Hill
1997 - Wim Sweldens, ("The Lifting Scheme: A Construction of Second Generation Wavelets")
1999 - Niles Pierce and Reha Tütüncü
2001 - Anna-Karin Tornberg
2003 - Jared Tanner
2005 - Roland Opfer and Paul Tupper
2007 - Yoichiro Mori and Ioana Dumitriu
2009 - Brian Sutton
2011 - Yuji Nakatsukasa
2013 - Michael Neilan
2015 - Iain Smears and Alex Townsend
2017 - Nicole Spillane
2019 - Yunan Yang
2021 - Lindon Roberts
2023 - Alice Cortinovis and Melanie Weber
2025 - James Foster and Tizian Wenzel
== Second Prize awardees ==
Source: Institute of Mathematics and its Applications
1985 - Nicholas Higham (Manchester), S.P.J. Matthews (Dundee), P.K. Sweby (Reading), Y. Yuan (Cambridge)
1986 - J.L. Barlow (Penn State), J. Scott (Oxford), A.J. Wathen (Bristol)
1988 - T. Hagstrom (SUNY, Stony Brook), P.T. Harker (Univ of Pennsylvania), I.R.H. Jackson (Cambridge), T. Tang (Leeds)
1989 - M. Ainsworth (Durham), R.H. Chan (Hong Kong), Alan Edelman (MIT), Desmond Higham (Toronto)
1991 - J. Levesley (Coventry), P.D. Loach (Bristol), B.F. Smith (Argonne), H. Zha (Stanford)
1993 - A. Edelman (Berkeley), D.J. Higham (Dundee), Z. Jia (Bielefeld), P. Lin (Oxford), R. Mathias (Minnesota)
1995 - X-W. Chang (McGill), L. Jay (Minnesota), Y. Liu (Cambridge), K-C. Toh (Cornell), D. Wang (Purdue)
1997 - T.A. Driscoll (Boulder), Valeria Simoncini (Pavia), Eric de Sturler (Zurich), R.H. Tütüncü (Carnegie-Mellon), Antonella Zanna (Cambridge), T. Zhang (Stanford)
1999 - Aurelian Bejancu (Cambridge), Vincent Heuveline (Heidelberg), Paul Houston (Oxford), Ross Lippert (Sandia National Laboratories)
2001 - Tilo Arens (Brunel University), Begona Cano (University of Valladolid), Eric Darve (Stanford University), Jing-Rebecca Li (Courant Institute NYU), Dominik Schötzau (University of Minnesota), Divakar Viswanath (University of Chicago)
2003 - Melvin Leok (California Institute of Technology), Adam Oberman (University of Texas), Marc Schweitzer (University of Bonn), Tatjana Stykel (University of Calgary), Boris Vexler (University of Heidelberg)
2005 - Lehel Banjai (MPI, Leipzig), Coralia Cartis (University of Oxford), Johan Hoffman (Chalmers University), Fabio Nobile (Politecnico di Milano), Adam Oberman (Simon Fraser University)
2007 - Timo Betcke (University of Manchester), Laurent Demanet (Stanford University), Daniel Kressner (University of Zagreb), Emre Mengi (UC San Diego), Sheehan Olver (University of Cambridge)
2009 - Stefano Giani (Nottingham University), Daan Huybrechs (Katholieke Universiteit Leuven), Armin Lechleiter (CMAPX, Polytechnique), Colin B. Macdonald (Mathematics, UCLA), Liuqiang Zhong (Xiangtan University)
2011 - Ben Adcock (Simon Fraser University), Arnulf Jentzen (Princeton University), Richard Norton (University of Oxford), Bart Vandereycken (ETH), Konstantinos Zygalakis (University of Oxford)
2013 - Ingrid von Glehn (University of Oxford), Georges Klein (University of Fribourg), Martin Takáč (University of Edinburgh), Alex Townsend (University of Oxford), Andre Uschmajew (Technische Universität Berlin).
2015 - Patrick Farrell (University of Oxford), Olivier Fercoq (Telecom ParisTech), John Pearson (University of Kent), Clarice Poon (Cambridge University)
2017 - Mario Berljafa (KU Leuven), Evan Gawlik (University of California, San Diego), Robert Gower (Ecole Normale Superieure), Lise-Marie Imbert-Gerard (New York University), Aretha Teckentrup (University of Edinburgh)
2019 - Alexander Bastounis (Cambridge University), Simone Brugiapaglia (Simon Fraser University), Daniel Fortunato (Harvard University), Abdul-Lateef Haji-Ali (Heriot-Watt University)
2021 - Nicolas Boulle (University of Oxford), Derek Driggs (University of Cambridge), Theo Mary (Sorbonne University), Barbara Verfurth (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology)
2023 - Matthew Colbrook (Cambridge), Matteo Croci (UT Austin), Ioannis Papadopoulos (Imperial College London), Shanyin Tong (Columbia University)
2025 - Sara Fraschini (Vienna), Georg Maierhofer (Cambridge), David Persson (NYU), Wenqi Zhu (Oxford)
== See also ==
List of mathematics awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Rugby_Europe_Championship#Week_3:~:text=27%20February%202022,Paterson%20(Scotland) | 2022 Rugby Europe Championship | The 2022 Rugby Europe Championship was the sixth Rugby Europe Championship, the annual rugby union for the top European national teams outside the Six Nations Championship, and the 52nd edition of the competition (including all its previous incarnations as the FIRA Tournament, Rugby Union European Cup, FIRA Nations Cup, FIRA Trophy and European Nations Cup).
The 2022 Championship was contested by Georgia, The Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Russia and Spain.
Georgia enter the tournament as defending champions. They topped the table after winning all of their matches in the 2021 tournament, claiming their 13th title and 10th Grand Slam as a result.
As in several other sports, Russia were disqualified after Week 3 due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
This year's edition of the Rugby Europe Championship doubles as the second year of the 2023 Rugby World Cup qualifiers for the European region. The winner and runner-up of the two-year cycle automatically qualify for the tournament as Europe 1 and Europe 2 respectively while the team in third place advances to the final qualification tournament as Europe 3.
== Participants ==
== Table ==
== Fixtures ==
=== Week 1 ===
Touch judges:
George Selwood (England)
Mike Woods (England)
Television match official:
Rowan Kitt (England)
Touch judges:
Manuel Bottino (Italy)
Leonardo Masini (Italy)
Television match official:
Emanuele Tomo (Italy)
Touch judges:
Ludovic Cayre (France)
Stéphane Boyer (France)
Television match official:
Denis Grenouillet (France)
=== Week 2 ===
Touch judges:
Federico Vedovelli (Italy)
Filippo Bertelli (Italy)
Television match official:
Stefano Roscini (Italy)
Touch judges:
Cédric Marchat (France)
Stéphane Crapoix (France)
Television match official:
Patrick Pechambert (France)
Touch judges:
Oisin Quinn (Ireland)
Nigel Correll (Ireland)
Television match official:
Leo Colgan (Ireland)
=== Week 3 ===
Touch judges:
Riccardo Angelucci (Italy)
Simone Boaretto (Italy)
Television match official:
Alan Falzone (Italy)
Touch judges:
Graeme Ormiston (Scotland)
Jonny Perriam (Scotland)
Television match official:
Neil Paterson (Scotland)
Georgia awarded 4 points.
=== Week 4 ===
Netherlands awarded 4 points.
Touch judges:
Gareth Newman (Wales)
Mark Butcher (Wales)
Television match official:
Elgan Williams (Wales)
Touch judges:
David Beun (France)
Christophe Bultet (France)
Television match official:
Eric Briquet-Campin (France)
=== Week 5 ===
Touch judges: Ru Campbell (Scotland) Bob Nevins (Scotland) Television match official: Andrew Mac Menemy (Scotland)
Portugal awarded 4 points.
Touch judges: Ben Breakspear (Wales) Ian Davies (Wales) Television match official: Jon Mason (Wales)
== International broadcasters ==
== See also ==
Rugby Europe International Championships
Antim Cup
Kiseleff Cup
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toda%27s_theorem | Toda's theorem | Toda's theorem is a result in computational complexity theory that was proven by Seinosuke Toda in his paper "PP is as Hard as the Polynomial-Time Hierarchy" and was given the 1998 Gödel Prize.
== Statement ==
The theorem states that the entire polynomial hierarchy PH is contained in PPP; this implies a closely related statement, that PH is contained in P#P.
== Definitions ==
#P is the class of problems of the form of exactly counting the number of solutions to a polynomially-verifiable question (that is, to a question in NP), while loosely speaking, PP is the class of problems for which there is a polynomial-time algorithm that gives a correct answer more than half the time. The class P#P consists of all problems that can be solved in polynomial time if you have access to instantaneous answers to any counting problem in #P (polynomial time relative to a #P oracle). Thus Toda's theorem implies that for any problem in the polynomial hierarchy there is a deterministic polynomial-time Turing reduction to a counting problem.
An analogous result in the complexity theory over the reals (in the sense of Blum–Shub–Smale real Turing machines) was proved by Saugata Basu and Thierry Zell in 2009 and a complex analogue of Toda's theorem was proved by Saugata Basu in 2011.
== Proof ==
The proof is broken into two parts.
First, it is established that
Σ
P
⋅
B
P
⋅
⊕
P
⊆
B
P
⋅
⊕
P
{\displaystyle \Sigma ^{P}\cdot {\mathsf {BP}}\cdot \oplus {\mathsf {P}}\subseteq {\mathsf {BP}}\cdot \oplus {\mathsf {P}}}
The proof uses a variation of Valiant–Vazirani theorem. Because
B
P
⋅
⊕
P
{\displaystyle {\mathsf {BP}}\cdot \oplus {\mathsf {P}}}
contains
P
{\displaystyle {\mathsf {P}}}
and is closed under complement, it follows by induction that
P
H
⊆
B
P
⋅
⊕
P
{\displaystyle {\mathsf {PH}}\subseteq {\mathsf {BP}}\cdot \oplus {\mathsf {P}}}
.
Second, it is established that
B
P
⋅
⊕
P
⊆
P
#
P
{\displaystyle {\mathsf {BP}}\cdot \oplus {\mathsf {P}}\subseteq {\mathsf {P}}^{\#P}}
Together, the two parts imply
P
H
⊆
B
P
⋅
⊕
P
⊆
P
⋅
⊕
P
⊆
P
#
P
{\displaystyle {\mathsf {PH}}\subseteq {\mathsf {BP}}\cdot \oplus {\mathsf {P}}\subseteq {\mathsf {P}}\cdot \oplus {\mathsf {P}}\subseteq {\mathsf {P}}^{\#P}}
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lystrup | Lystrup | Lystrup is a suburb of Aarhus, Denmark. It is located 9 km north of Aarhus city centre, west of Egå and the Bay of Aarhus. It had a population of 10,153 (1 January 2025), and is the second most populous urban area of Aarhus Municipality.
The larger local community of Lystrup-Elsted-Elev had a population of 12,034 as of 1 January 2023. Including Hjorthøj, with which the town has gradually merged, the total population of the combined urban area was 15,653.
== The name Lystrup (Etymology) ==
The name Lystrup originates from a local chieftain named Lyr, who lived in the area around the 13th century. Lyr was a devoted worshiper of the Norse gods and rejected both Christianity and the idea of ever having a church built on his land. Lyr’s burial mound still exists near the present-day Lystrup Church, which was built in 1989.
For many years, the area was known as Lyrstrup, and later it received its current name, Lystrup.
== Schools ==
Two schools (Lystrup Skole, Elsted Skole), several kindergartens, after-school centres and private daycarers makes Lystrup a suburb full of childlife, and the town has seen a substantial inflow of family residents in recent years.
== Shopping ==
Lystrup also provides good shopping possibilities, with several smaller, specialized boutiques along with one major, and three minor supermarkets. SuperBrugsen is one of the big co-operative supermarket chains in Denmark, Lystrup also have a Netto. Lystrup also provides a local library, for all citizens of Aarhus to loan books, free of charge.
== Sports ==
Lystrup also has great sport facilities, and the local club Lystrup IF offers a wide range of activities on all levels, including association football, water polo, tennis, handball, swimming, badminton, squash and basketball.
== Public transport ==
=== Light Rail ===
Lystrup serves as a hub in Denmark's first light rail network, which extends from Odder in the south through Aarhus to Grenå in the east. The town has two light rail stops: Lystrup Station and Hovmarken Station. There are departures nine times an hour, six towards Aarhus Central Station, taking 18 minutes with L1 and 32 minutes with L2.
Lystrup Station
Lystrup Station is located in the town center. It serves as the terminus for the inner route (L2), which runs from Aarhus Central Station to Lystrup via Aarhus University Hospital. Additionally, the station is served by the Grenå Line (L1), which runs from Aarhus Central Station to Grenaa. Lystrup Station is the larger of the two light rail stops in the town, with three tracks.
Lystrup Station had 69,694 passengers in the first quarter of 2024, making it the seventh most used stop on the entire light rail system (L1 and L2), with Aarhus Central Station, Aarhus University Hospital, and Aarhus University occupying the top three spots. Of the passengers, 46,804 boarded L1 (Grenå Line) and 22,890 boarded L2 (inner route/Odder Line).
Hovmarken Station
Hovmarken Station is a light rail station in eastern Lystrup, served exclusively by the Grenå Line (L1). In the winter of 2023/2024, the Aarhus City Council proposed closing the Hovmarken light rail stop. The proposal was made due to Aarhus Letbane's difficulty in adhering to the timetable on the Grenå Line. The proposal was approved in April 2024, and the station will be closed in late summer 2024.
Hovmarken Station had 4,286 boardings in the first quarter of 2024.
=== Buses ===
Lystrup is served by the yellow city bus lines from Aarbus, owned by the regional transit company Midttrafik. Aarbus handles all city bus operations in Aarhus Municipality. Aarbus serves Lystrup with city bus lines 16 and 18, night bus 45, and a school bus to Egå Gymnasium.
Line 16 runs from Mejlby through Lystrup over Aarhus University to Mårslet.
Line 18 runs from Lystrup over Aarhus University to Moesgaard Museum.
Line 32 (School Bus) runs from Lystrup to Egå Gymnasium.
Line 45 (Night Bus) runs from Aarhus City Hall to Lystrup via AUH/University Hospital.
== Recreational areas ==
Lystrup has a forest and four parks.
Centrally in the town, north of the railroad, lies Southern Forest (Danish: Sønderskov), officially rated as a dog forest where visitors may let their dogs roam freely. Southern forest is used for a wide range of recreational activities such as horseback-riding, jogging and scouting.
The four parks are Hovmarken, Indelukket, Æblehaven and Hedeskovparken.
Egå Engsø lies south of the city and from it the river New Egå (Danish: Ny Egå) runs to the coast and bay.
== Churches ==
In Lystrup, there are two parishes: Elsted Parish and Lystrup Parish.
Lystrup Parish was separated from Elsted Parish in 1990. The division was both geographical and based on population. At the time of the division, Elsted Parish had 3,901 residents, and Lystrup Parish had 3,926 residents.
Lystrup Church is the new church in town, built in 1989. Elsted Church was built in 1210.
== Industry ==
Lystrup is home to a large business area with several well-known companies such as Elopak, Terma, and Millarco. A total of 3,507 companies were registered in the postal code 8520 as of 1 March 2024.
List of major companies in the town:
Elopak Denmark A/S
Terma A/S
HiFi Klubben Danmark A/S
Millarco International A/S
Plantorama A/S
Inspari A/S
Swire Renewable Energy A/S
ID Hair Company A/S
Firtal Web A/S
Stantræk A/S
== Media ==
Local news in Lystrup is covered by the media outlets Aarhus Stiftstidende, LystrupLiv og Jyllands-posten (JP Aarhus, Aarhus Onsdag og Din Avis Aarhus).
== Notable people ==
Erik Bue Pedersen (born 1952 in Lystrup) a former Danish handball player; competed in the 1980 Summer Olympics
== Neighbouring towns ==
Elsted
Elev
Nye
Hjortshøj
Egå
== References == |
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