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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy_tu_fan | Soy tu fan | Soy tu fan (English: I'm your fan) is a Mexican romantic comedy television series produced by Canana Films, Fox Television Studios and Once TV México, and is an adaptation of the Argentina series of the same name created by Dolores Fonzi and Constanza Novick. It is directed by Álvaro Hernández, Mariana Chenillo & Gerardo Naranjo, produced by Pablo Cruz, Constanza Novick, Gael García Bernal, Diego Luna, Geminiano Pineda, Jorge Mondragón, Diego Martínez Ulanosky and Ana Claudia Talancón and written by Constanza Novick. It premiered Wednesday, April 28, 2010 in Mexico on Once TV Mexico, and in the United States on mun2, October 17, 2010. Season 2 began airing on October 19, 2011 on Once TV in Mexico.
== Synopsis ==
Charly (Ana Claudia Talancón) and Nicolas meet in a coffee shop in Mexico City after Charly's breakup with Julián, the frontman of an upcoming band. Nicolas shows interest in Charly and tells her to tell her therapist, with whom she has an appointment later, that she just met the love of her life. Charly appreciates the attention but she feels harassed by him, until after Nicolas's endless attempts to get her to go out with him, he gives up and starts dating a struggling actress. The lack of attention brings Charly back and they engage in a relationship. Rocío and Fernanda, Charly's best friends witness her in her fight to make it work with Nicolas while still trying to get over Julián and put up with his obnoxious new girlfriend, Vanesa.
== Cast and characters ==
Ana Claudia Talancón as Carla "Charly" García
Martín Altomaro as Nicolás "Nico" Cruz
Osvaldo Benavides as Julián Muñoz
Edwarda Gurrola as Vanesa
Maya Zapata as Rocío Lozano
Joahanna Murillo as Fernanda De la Peza
Verónica Langer as Marta Molina
Juan Pablo Medina as Iñaki Díaz de Olavarrieta
Gonzalo García Vivanco as Diego García
Marcela Guirado as Ana
Juan Pablo Campa as Federico
Alfonso Borbolla as Javier
Fernando Carrillo Serrano as Facu González
Iván Arana as Emilio Cruz
Camila Selser as Nini
Tara Parra as Beba
Francisco Rubio as Rodrigo
Mar Carrera as Claudia
Mariana Gajá as Caro
Fernando Carrillo as Willy
Leonardo de Lozanne as Tutor de Charly
Randy Ebright as Kevin
Jorge Luke as Roly
Jorge Mondragón as Director de teatro
Alejandra Ambrosi as Fer
Salvador Zerboni as Junior
Alejandra Ambrosi as Marce
Rubén Zamora as Español
== Songs heard in the series ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Soy tu fan at IMDb
Soy tu fan at epguides.com
Soy tu fan at mun2 (in English)
Soy tu fan at Once TV |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floral_clock | Floral clock | A floral clock, or flower clock, is a large decorative clock with the clock face formed by carpet bedding, usually found in a park or other public recreation area. Most have the mechanism set in the ground under the flowerbed, which is then planted to visually appear as a clock face with moving hands which may also hold bedding plants.
The first floral clock was the idea of John McHattie, Superintendent of Parks in Edinburgh, Scotland. It was first planted up in the spring of 1903 in West Princes Street Gardens. In that year it had only an hour hand but a minute hand was added the following year. A cuckoo which pops out every quarter hour was added in 1952. The clock was soon imitated across the United Kingdom and later throughout the world.
In Edinburgh, the clock mechanism is set inside the plinth of the statue to Allan Ramsay adjacent. The first mechanism using salvaged parts from Elie Parish Church in Fife was installed by James Ritchie & Son. A new mechanism was installed in 1934 and has been electrically operated since 1973. It is still maintained by James Ritchie Clockmakers.
The only flower clock with two faces moved by the same system is located in Zacatlán, Puebla, Mexico. It has two faces, each five metres (16 ft) in diameter. It was built by Relojes Centenario, a local manufacturer.
== Examples ==
Michael Jackson had a floral clock at his Neverland Ranch.
Other floral clocks can be seen in the International Peace Garden on the border between North Dakota and Manitoba, Rockford, Illinois and in Frankfort, Kentucky.
On 19 May 2016, Camarillo Plaza in California unveiled a 13-foot (4.0 m) in diameter floral clock. The clock was created as a dedication to Mr. David Pick.
== Images ==
== References ==
Brent Elliott, 'Floral Clock', Oxford Companion to Gardens, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986
Clifford-Smith, Silas; 'Floral Clocks', Oxford Companion to Australian Gardens, Oxford University Press, South Melbourne, 2002
== External links ==
Michael Jackson's Floral Clock
World's Biggest Flower Clock
Edinburgh Floral Clock |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock# | Clock | A clock or chronometer is a device that measures and displays time. The clock is one of the oldest human inventions, meeting the need to measure intervals of time shorter than the natural units such as the day, the lunar month, and the year. Devices operating on several physical processes have been used over the millennia.
Some predecessors to the modern clock may be considered "clocks" that are based on movement in nature: A sundial shows the time by displaying the position of a shadow on a flat surface. There is a range of duration timers, a well-known example being the hourglass. Water clocks, along with sundials, are possibly the oldest time-measuring instruments. A major advance occurred with the invention of the verge escapement, which made possible the first mechanical clocks around 1300 in Europe, which kept time with oscillating timekeepers like balance wheels.
Traditionally, in horology (the study of timekeeping), the term clock was used for a striking clock, while a clock that did not strike the hours audibly was called a timepiece. This distinction is not generally made any longer. Watches and other timepieces that can be carried on one's person are usually not referred to as clocks. Spring-driven clocks appeared during the 15th century. During the 15th and 16th centuries, clockmaking flourished. The next development in accuracy occurred after 1656 with the invention of the pendulum clock by Christiaan Huygens. A major stimulus to improving the accuracy and reliability of clocks was the importance of precise time-keeping for navigation. The mechanism of a timepiece with a series of gears driven by a spring or weights is referred to as clockwork; the term is used by extension for a similar mechanism not used in a timepiece. The electric clock was patented in 1840, and electronic clocks were introduced in the 20th century, becoming widespread with the development of small battery-powered semiconductor devices.
The timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a physical object (resonator) that vibrates or oscillates at a particular frequency.
This object can be a pendulum, a balance wheel, a tuning fork, a quartz crystal, or the vibration of electrons in atoms as they emit microwaves, the last of which is so precise that it serves as the formal definition of the second.
Clocks have different ways of displaying the time. Analog clocks indicate time with a traditional clock face and moving hands. Digital clocks display a numeric representation of time. Two numbering systems are in use: 12-hour time notation and 24-hour notation. Most digital clocks use electronic mechanisms and LCD, LED, or VFD displays. For the blind and for use over telephones, speaking clocks state the time audibly in words. There are also clocks for the blind that have displays that can be read by touch.
== Etymology ==
The word clock derives from the medieval Latin word for 'bell'—clocca—and has cognates in many European languages. Clocks spread to England from the Low Countries, so the English word came from the Middle Low German and Middle Dutch Klocke.
The word is also derived from the Middle English clokke, Old North French cloque, or Middle Dutch clocke, all of which mean 'bell'.
== History of time-measuring devices ==
=== Sundials ===
The apparent position of the Sun in the sky changes over the course of each day, reflecting the rotation of the Earth. Shadows cast by stationary objects move correspondingly, so their positions can be used to indicate the time of day. A sundial shows the time by displaying the position of a shadow on a (usually) flat surface that has markings that correspond to the hours. Sundials can be horizontal, vertical, or in other orientations. Sundials were widely used in ancient times. With knowledge of latitude, a well-constructed sundial can measure local solar time with reasonable accuracy, within a minute or two. Sundials continued to be used to monitor the performance of clocks until the 1830s, when the use of the telegraph and trains standardized time and time zones between cities.
=== Devices that measure duration, elapsed time and intervals ===
Many devices can be used to mark the passage of time without respect to reference time (time of day, hours, minutes, etc.) and can be useful for measuring duration or intervals. Examples of such duration timers are candle clocks, incense clocks, and the hourglass. Both the candle clock and the incense clock work on the same principle, wherein the consumption of resources is more or less constant, allowing reasonably precise and repeatable estimates of time passages. In the hourglass, fine sand pouring through a tiny hole at a constant rate indicates an arbitrary, predetermined passage of time. The resource is not consumed, but re-used.
=== Water clocks ===
Water clocks, along with sundials, are possibly the oldest time-measuring instruments, with the only exception being the day-counting tally stick. Given their great antiquity, where and when they first existed is not known and is perhaps unknowable. The bowl-shaped outflow is the simplest form of a water clock and is known to have existed in Babylon and Egypt around the 16th century BC. Other regions of the world, including India and China, also have early evidence of water clocks, but the earliest dates are less certain. Some authors, however, write about water clocks appearing as early as 4000 BC in these regions of the world.
The Macedonian astronomer Andronicus of Cyrrhus supervised the construction of the Tower of the Winds in Athens in the 1st century BC, which housed a large clepsydra inside as well as multiple prominent sundials outside, allowing it to function as a kind of early clocktower. The Greek and Roman civilizations advanced water clock design with improved accuracy. These advances were passed on through Byzantine and Islamic times, eventually making their way back to Europe. Independently, the Chinese developed their own advanced water clocks (水鐘) by 725 AD, passing their ideas on to Korea and Japan.
Some water clock designs were developed independently, and some knowledge was transferred through the spread of trade. Pre-modern societies do not have the same precise timekeeping requirements that exist in modern industrial societies, where every hour of work or rest is monitored and work may start or finish at any time regardless of external conditions. Instead, water clocks in ancient societies were used mainly for astrological reasons. These early water clocks were calibrated with a sundial. While never reaching the level of accuracy of a modern timepiece, the water clock was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for millennia until it was replaced by the more accurate pendulum clock in 17th-century Europe.
Islamic civilization is credited with further advancing the accuracy of clocks through elaborate engineering. In 797 (or possibly 801), the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, Harun al-Rashid, presented Charlemagne with an Asian elephant named Abul-Abbas together with a "particularly elaborate example" of a water clock. Pope Sylvester II introduced clocks to northern and western Europe around 1000 AD.
=== Mechanical water clocks ===
The first known geared clock was invented by the great mathematician, physicist, and engineer Archimedes during the 3rd century BC. Archimedes created his astronomical clock, which was also a cuckoo clock with birds singing and moving every hour. It is the first carillon clock as it plays music simultaneously with a person blinking his eyes, surprised by the singing birds. The Archimedes clock works with a system of four weights, counterweights, and strings regulated by a system of floats in a water container with siphons that regulate the automatic continuation of the clock. The principles of this type of clock are described by the mathematician and physicist Hero, who says that some of them work with a chain that turns a gear in the mechanism. Another Greek clock probably constructed at the time of Alexander was in Gaza, as described by Procopius. The Gaza clock was probably a Meteoroskopeion, i.e., a building showing celestial phenomena and the time. It had a pointer for the time and some automations similar to the Archimedes clock. There were 12 doors opening one every hour, with Hercules performing his labors, the Lion at one o'clock, etc., and at night a lamp becomes visible every hour, with 12 windows opening to show the time.
The Tang dynasty Buddhist monk Yi Xing along with government official Liang Lingzan made the escapement in 723 (or 725) to the workings of a water-powered armillary sphere and clock drive, which was the world's first clockwork escapement. The Song dynasty polymath and genius Su Song (1020–1101) incorporated it into his monumental innovation of the astronomical clock tower of Kaifeng in 1088. His astronomical clock and rotating armillary sphere still relied on the use of either flowing water during the spring, summer, and autumn seasons or liquid mercury during the freezing temperatures of winter (i.e., hydraulics).
In Su Song's waterwheel linkwork device, the action of the escapement's arrest and release was achieved by gravity exerted periodically as the continuous flow of liquid-filled containers of a limited size. In a single line of evolution, Su Song's clock therefore united the concepts of the clepsydra and the mechanical clock into one device run by mechanics and hydraulics. In his memorial, Su Song wrote about this concept:
According to your servant's opinion there have been many systems and designs for astronomical instruments during past dynasties all differing from one another in minor respects. But the principle of the use of water-power for the driving mechanism has always been the same. The heavens move without ceasing but so also does water flow (and fall). Thus if the water is made to pour with perfect evenness, then the comparison of the rotary movements (of the heavens and the machine) will show no discrepancy or contradiction; for the unresting follows the unceasing.
Song was also strongly influenced by the earlier armillary sphere created by Zhang Sixun (976 AD), who also employed the escapement mechanism and used liquid mercury instead of water in the waterwheel of his astronomical clock tower. The mechanical clockworks for Su Song's astronomical tower featured a great driving-wheel that was 11 feet in diameter, carrying 36 scoops, into each of which water was poured at a uniform rate from the "constant-level tank". The main driving shaft of iron, with its cylindrical necks supported on iron crescent-shaped bearings, ended in a pinion, which engaged a gear wheel at the lower end of the main vertical transmission shaft. This great astronomical hydromechanical clock tower was about ten metres high (about 30 feet), featured a clock escapement, and was indirectly powered by a rotating wheel either with falling water or liquid mercury. A full-sized working replica of Su Song's clock exists in the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s National Museum of Natural Science, Taichung city. This full-scale, fully functional replica, approximately 12 meters (39 feet) in height, was constructed from Su Song's original descriptions and mechanical drawings. The Chinese escapement spread west and was the source for Western escapement technology.
In the 12th century, Al-Jazari, an engineer from Mesopotamia (lived 1136–1206) who worked for the Artuqid king of Diyar-Bakr, Nasir al-Din, made numerous clocks of all shapes and sizes. The most reputed clocks included the elephant, scribe, and castle clocks, some of which have been successfully reconstructed. As well as telling the time, these grand clocks were symbols of the status, grandeur, and wealth of the Urtuq State. Knowledge of these mercury escapements may have spread through Europe with translations of Arabic and Spanish texts.
=== Fully mechanical ===
The word horologia (from the Greek ὥρα—'hour', and λέγειν—'to tell') was used to describe early mechanical clocks, but the use of this word (still used in several Romance languages) for all timekeepers conceals the true nature of the mechanisms. For example, there is a record that in 1176, Sens Cathedral in France installed an 'horologe', but the mechanism used is unknown. According to Jocelyn de Brakelond, in 1198, during a fire at the abbey of St Edmundsbury (now Bury St Edmunds), the monks "ran to the clock" to fetch water, indicating that their water clock had a reservoir large enough to help extinguish the occasional fire. The word clock (via Medieval Latin clocca from Old Irish clocc, both meaning 'bell'), which gradually supersedes "horologe", suggests that it was the sound of bells that also characterized the prototype mechanical clocks that appeared during the 13th century in Europe.
In Europe, between 1280 and 1320, there was an increase in the number of references to clocks and horologes in church records, and this probably indicates that a new type of clock mechanism had been devised. Existing clock mechanisms that used water power were being adapted to take their driving power from falling weights. This power was controlled by some form of oscillating mechanism, probably derived from existing bell-ringing or alarm devices. This controlled release of power – the escapement – marks the beginning of the true mechanical clock, which differed from the previously mentioned cogwheel clocks. The verge escapement mechanism appeared during the surge of true mechanical clock development, which did not need any kind of fluid power, like water or mercury, to work.
These mechanical clocks were intended for two main purposes: for signalling and notification (e.g., the timing of services and public events) and for modeling the Solar System. The former purpose is administrative; the latter arises naturally given the scholarly interests in astronomy, science, and astrology and how these subjects integrated with the religious philosophy of the time. The astrolabe was used both by astronomers and astrologers, and it was natural to apply a clockwork drive to the rotating plate to produce a working model of the solar system.
Simple clocks intended mainly for notification were installed in towers and did not always require faces or hands. They would have announced the canonical hours or intervals between set times of prayer. Canonical hours varied in length as the times of sunrise and sunset shifted. The more sophisticated astronomical clocks would have had moving dials or hands and would have shown the time in various time systems, including Italian hours, canonical hours, and time as measured by astronomers at the time. Both styles of clocks started acquiring extravagant features, such as automata.
In 1283, a large clock was installed at Dunstable Priory in Bedfordshire in southern England; its location above the rood screen suggests that it was not a water clock. In 1292, Canterbury Cathedral installed a 'great horloge'. Over the next 30 years, there were mentions of clocks at a number of ecclesiastical institutions in England, Italy, and France. In 1322, a new clock was installed in Norwich, an expensive replacement for an earlier clock installed in 1273. This had a large (2 metre) astronomical dial with automata and bells. The costs of the installation included the full-time employment of two clockkeepers for two years.
=== Astronomical ===
An elaborate water clock, the 'Cosmic Engine', was invented by Su Song, a Chinese polymath, designed and constructed in China in 1092. This great astronomical hydromechanical clock tower was about ten metres high (about 30 feet) and was indirectly powered by a rotating wheel with falling water and liquid mercury, which turned an armillary sphere capable of calculating complex astronomical problems.
In Europe, there were the clocks constructed by Richard of Wallingford in Albans by 1336, and by Giovanni de Dondi in Padua from 1348 to 1364. They no longer exist, but detailed descriptions of their design and construction survive, and modern reproductions have been made. They illustrate how quickly the theory of the mechanical clock had been translated into practical constructions, and also that one of the many impulses to their development had been the desire of astronomers to investigate celestial phenomena.
The Astrarium of Giovanni Dondi dell'Orologio was a complex astronomical clock built between 1348 and 1364 in Padua, Italy, by the doctor and clock-maker Giovanni Dondi dell'Orologio. The Astrarium had seven faces and 107 moving gears; it showed the positions of the Sun, the Moon and the five planets then known, as well as religious feast days. The astrarium stood about 1 metre high, and consisted of a seven-sided brass or iron framework resting on 7 decorative paw-shaped feet. The lower section provided a 24-hour dial and a large calendar drum, showing the fixed feasts of the church, the movable feasts, and the position in the zodiac of the Moon's ascending node. The upper section contained 7 dials, each about 30 cm in diameter, showing the positional data for the Primum Mobile, Venus, Mercury, the Moon, Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars. Directly above the 24-hour dial is the dial of the Primum Mobile, so called because it reproduces the diurnal motion of the stars and the annual motion of the Sun against the background of stars. Each of the 'planetary' dials used complex clockwork to produce reasonably accurate models of the planets' motion. These agreed reasonably well both with Ptolemaic theory and with observations.
Wallingford's clock had a large astrolabe-type dial, showing the Sun, the Moon's age, phase, and node, a star map, and possibly the planets. In addition, it had a wheel of fortune and an indicator of the state of the tide at London Bridge. Bells rang every hour, the number of strokes indicating the time. Dondi's clock was a seven-sided construction, 1 metre high, with dials showing the time of day, including minutes, the motions of all the known planets, an automatic calendar of fixed and movable feasts, and an eclipse prediction hand rotating once every 18 years. It is not known how accurate or reliable these clocks would have been. They were probably adjusted manually every day to compensate for errors caused by wear and imprecise manufacture. Water clocks are sometimes still used, and can be examined in places such as ancient castles and museums. The Salisbury Cathedral clock, built in 1386, is considered to be the world's oldest surviving mechanical clock that strikes the hours.
=== Spring-driven ===
Clockmakers developed their art in various ways. Building smaller clocks was a technical challenge, as was improving accuracy and reliability. Clocks could be impressive showpieces to demonstrate skilled craftsmanship, or less expensive, mass-produced items for domestic use. The escapement in particular was an important factor affecting the clock's accuracy, so many different mechanisms were tried.
Spring-driven clocks appeared during the 15th century, although they are often erroneously credited to Nuremberg watchmaker Peter Henlein (or Henle, or Hele) around 1511. The earliest existing spring driven clock is the chamber clock given to Phillip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, around 1430, now in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum. Spring power presented clockmakers with a new problem: how to keep the clock movement running at a constant rate as the spring ran down. This resulted in the invention of the stackfreed and the fusee in the 15th century, and many other innovations, down to the invention of the modern going barrel in 1760.
Early clock dials did not indicate minutes and seconds. A clock with a dial indicating minutes was illustrated in a 1475 manuscript by Paulus Almanus, and some 15th-century clocks in Germany indicated minutes and seconds.
An early record of a seconds hand on a clock dates back to about 1560 on a clock now in the Fremersdorf collection.
During the 15th and 16th centuries, clockmaking flourished, particularly in the metalworking towns of Nuremberg and Augsburg, and in Blois, France. Some of the more basic table clocks have only one time-keeping hand, with the dial between the hour markers being divided into four equal parts making the clocks readable to the nearest 15 minutes. Other clocks were exhibitions of craftsmanship and skill, incorporating astronomical indicators and musical movements. The cross-beat escapement was invented in 1584 by Jost Bürgi, who also developed the remontoire. Bürgi's clocks were a great improvement in accuracy as they were correct to within a minute a day. These clocks helped the 16th-century astronomer Tycho Brahe to observe astronomical events with much greater precision than before.
=== Pendulum ===
The next development in accuracy occurred after 1656 with the invention of the pendulum clock. Galileo had the idea to use a swinging bob to regulate the motion of a time-telling device earlier in the 17th century. Christiaan Huygens, however, is usually credited as the inventor. He determined the mathematical formula that related pendulum length to time (about 99.4 cm or 39.1 inches for the one second movement) and had the first pendulum-driven clock made. The first model clock was built in 1657 in the Hague, but it was in England that the idea was taken up. The longcase clock (also known as the grandfather clock) was created to house the pendulum and works by the English clockmaker William Clement in 1670 or 1671. It was also at this time that clock cases began to be made of wood and clock faces to use enamel as well as hand-painted ceramics.
In 1670, William Clement created the anchor escapement, an improvement over Huygens' crown escapement. Clement also introduced the pendulum suspension spring in 1671. The concentric minute hand was added to the clock by Daniel Quare, a London clockmaker and others, and the second hand was first introduced.
=== Hairspring ===
In 1675, Huygens and Robert Hooke invented the spiral balance spring, or the hairspring, designed to control the oscillating speed of the balance wheel. This crucial advance finally made accurate pocket watches possible. The great English clockmaker Thomas Tompion, was one of the first to use this mechanism successfully in his pocket watches, and he adopted the minute hand which, after a variety of designs were trialled, eventually stabilised into the modern-day configuration. The rack and snail striking mechanism for striking clocks, was introduced during the 17th century and had distinct advantages over the 'countwheel' (or 'locking plate') mechanism. During the 20th century there was a common misconception that Edward Barlow invented rack and snail striking. In fact, his invention was connected with a repeating mechanism employing the rack and snail. The repeating clock, that chimes the number of hours (or even minutes) on demand was invented by either Quare or Barlow in 1676. George Graham invented the deadbeat escapement for clocks in 1720.
=== Marine chronometer ===
A major stimulus to improving the accuracy and reliability of clocks was the importance of precise time-keeping for navigation. The position of a ship at sea could be determined with reasonable accuracy if a navigator could refer to a clock that lost or gained less than about 10 seconds per day. This clock could not contain a pendulum, which would be virtually useless on a rocking ship. In 1714, the British government offered large financial rewards to the value of 20,000 pounds for anyone who could determine longitude accurately. John Harrison, who dedicated his life to improving the accuracy of his clocks, later received considerable sums under the Longitude Act.
In 1735, Harrison built his first chronometer, which he steadily improved on over the next thirty years before submitting it for examination. The clock had many innovations, including the use of bearings to reduce friction, weighted balances to compensate for the ship's pitch and roll in the sea and the use of two different metals to reduce the problem of expansion from heat. The chronometer was tested in 1761 by Harrison's son and by the end of 10 weeks the clock was in error by less than 5 seconds.
=== Mass production ===
The British had dominated watch manufacture for much of the 17th and 18th centuries, but maintained a system of production that was geared towards high quality products for the elite. Although there was an attempt to modernise clock manufacture with mass-production techniques and the application of duplicating tools and machinery by the British Watch Company in 1843, it was in the United States that this system took off. In 1816, Eli Terry and some other Connecticut clockmakers developed a way of mass-producing clocks by using interchangeable parts. Aaron Lufkin Dennison started a factory in 1851 in Massachusetts that also used interchangeable parts, and by 1861 was running a successful enterprise incorporated as the Waltham Watch Company.
=== Early electric ===
In 1815, the English scientist Francis Ronalds published the first electric clock powered by dry pile batteries. Alexander Bain, a Scottish clockmaker, patented the electric clock in 1840. The electric clock's mainspring is wound either with an electric motor or with an electromagnet and armature. In 1841, he first patented the electromagnetic pendulum. By the end of the nineteenth century, the advent of the dry cell battery made it feasible to use electric power in clocks. Spring or weight-driven clocks that use electricity, either alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), to rewind the spring or raise the weight of a mechanical clock would be classified as an electromechanical clock. This classification would also apply to clocks that employ an electrical impulse to propel the pendulum. In electromechanical clocks, electricity serves no time-keeping function. These types of clocks were made as individual timepieces but are more commonly used in synchronized time installations in schools, businesses, factories, railroads and government facilities as a master clock and slave clocks.
Where an AC electrical supply of stable frequency is available, timekeeping can be maintained very reliably by using a synchronous motor, essentially counting the cycles. The supply current alternates with an accurate frequency of 50 hertz in many countries, and 60 hertz in others. While the frequency may vary slightly during the day as the load changes, generators are designed to maintain an accurate number of cycles over a day, so the clock may be a fraction of a second slow or fast at any time, but will be perfectly accurate over a long time. The rotor of the motor rotates at a speed that is related to the alternation frequency. Appropriate gearing converts this rotation speed to the correct ones for the hands of the analog clock. Time in these cases is measured in several ways, such as by counting the cycles of the AC supply, vibration of a tuning fork, the behaviour of quartz crystals, or the quantum vibrations of atoms. Electronic circuits divide these high-frequency oscillations into slower ones that drive the time display.
=== Quartz ===
The piezoelectric properties of crystalline quartz were discovered by Jacques and Pierre Curie in 1880. The first crystal oscillator was invented in 1917 by Alexander M. Nicolson, after which the first quartz crystal oscillator was built by Walter G. Cady in 1921. In 1927 the first quartz clock was built by Warren Marrison and J.W. Horton at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Canada. The following decades saw the development of quartz clocks as precision time measurement devices in laboratory settings—the bulky and delicate counting electronics, built with vacuum tubes at the time, limited their practical use elsewhere. The National Bureau of Standards (now NIST) based the time standard of the United States on quartz clocks from late 1929 until the 1960s, when it changed to atomic clocks. In 1969, Seiko produced the world's first quartz wristwatch, the Astron. Their inherent accuracy and low cost of production resulted in the subsequent proliferation of quartz clocks and watches.
=== Atomic ===
Currently, atomic clocks are the most accurate clocks in existence. They are considerably more accurate than quartz clocks as they can be accurate to within a few seconds over trillions of years. Atomic clocks were first theorized by Lord Kelvin in 1879. In the 1930s the development of magnetic resonance created practical method for doing this. A prototype ammonia maser device was built in 1949 at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS, now NIST). Although it was less accurate than existing quartz clocks, it served to demonstrate the concept. The first accurate atomic clock, a caesium standard based on a certain transition of the caesium-133 atom, was built by Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK. Calibration of the caesium standard atomic clock was carried out by the use of the astronomical time scale ephemeris time (ET). As of 2013, the most stable atomic clocks are ytterbium clocks, which are stable to within less than two parts in 1 quintillion (2×10−18).
== Operation ==
The invention of the mechanical clock in the 13th century initiated a change in timekeeping methods from continuous processes, such as the motion of the gnomon's shadow on a sundial or the flow of liquid in a water clock, to periodic oscillatory processes, such as the swing of a pendulum or the vibration of a quartz crystal, which had the potential for more accuracy. All modern clocks use oscillation.
Although the mechanisms they use vary, all oscillating clocks, mechanical, electric, and atomic, work similarly and can be divided into analogous parts. They consist of an object that repeats the same motion over and over again, an oscillator, with a precisely constant time interval between each repetition, or 'beat'. Attached to the oscillator is a controller device, which sustains the oscillator's motion by replacing the energy it loses to friction, and converts its oscillations into a series of pulses. The pulses are then counted by some type of counter, and the number of counts is converted into convenient units, usually seconds, minutes, hours, etc. Finally some kind of indicator displays the result in human readable form.
=== Power source ===
=== Oscillator ===
The timekeeping element in every modern clock is a harmonic oscillator, a physical object (resonator) that vibrates or oscillates repetitively at a precisely constant frequency.
In mechanical clocks, this is either a pendulum or a balance wheel.
In some early electronic clocks and watches such as the Accutron, they use a tuning fork.
In quartz clocks and watches, it is a quartz crystal.
In atomic clocks, it is the vibration of electrons in atoms as they emit microwaves.
In early mechanical clocks before 1657, it was a crude balance wheel or foliot which was not a harmonic oscillator because it lacked a balance spring. As a result, they were very inaccurate, with errors of perhaps an hour a day.
The advantage of a harmonic oscillator over other forms of oscillator is that it employs resonance to vibrate at a precise natural resonant frequency or "beat" dependent only on its physical characteristics, and resists vibrating at other rates. The possible precision achievable by a harmonic oscillator is measured by a parameter called its Q, or quality factor, which increases (other things being equal) with its resonant frequency. This is why there has been a long-term trend toward higher frequency oscillators in clocks. Balance wheels and pendulums always include a means of adjusting the rate of the timepiece. Quartz timepieces sometimes include a rate screw that adjusts a capacitor for that purpose. Atomic clocks are primary standards, and their rate cannot be adjusted.
==== Synchronized or slave clocks ====
Some clocks rely for their accuracy on an external oscillator; that is, they are automatically synchronized to a more accurate clock:
Slave clocks, used in large institutions and schools from the 1860s to the 1970s, kept time with a pendulum, but were wired to a master clock in the building, and periodically received a signal to synchronize them with the master, often on the hour. Later versions without pendulums were triggered by a pulse from the master clock and certain sequences used to force rapid synchronization following a power failure.
Synchronous electric clocks do not have an internal oscillator, but count cycles of the 50 or 60 Hz oscillation of the AC power line, which is synchronized by the utility to a precision oscillator. The counting may be done electronically, usually in clocks with digital displays, or, in analog clocks, the AC may drive a synchronous motor which rotates an exact fraction of a revolution for every cycle of the line voltage, and drives the gear train. Although changes in the grid line frequency due to load variations may cause the clock to temporarily gain or lose several seconds during the course of a day, the total number of cycles per 24 hours is maintained extremely accurately by the utility company, so that the clock keeps time accurately over long periods.
Computer real-time clocks keep time with a quartz crystal, but can be periodically (usually weekly) synchronized over the Internet to atomic clocks (UTC), using the Network Time Protocol (NTP).
Radio clocks keep time with a quartz crystal, but are periodically synchronized to time signals transmitted from dedicated standard time radio stations or satellite navigation signals, which are set by atomic clocks.
=== Controller ===
This has the dual function of keeping the oscillator running by giving it 'pushes' to replace the energy lost to friction, and converting its vibrations into a series of pulses that serve to measure the time.
In mechanical clocks, this is the escapement, which gives precise pushes to the swinging pendulum or balance wheel, and releases one gear tooth of the escape wheel at each swing, allowing all the clock's wheels to move forward a fixed amount with each swing.
In electronic clocks this is an electronic oscillator circuit that gives the vibrating quartz crystal or tuning fork tiny 'pushes', and generates a series of electrical pulses, one for each vibration of the crystal, which is called the clock signal.
In atomic clocks the controller is an evacuated microwave cavity attached to a microwave oscillator controlled by a microprocessor. A thin gas of caesium atoms is released into the cavity where they are exposed to microwaves. A laser measures how many atoms have absorbed the microwaves, and an electronic feedback control system called a phase-locked loop tunes the microwave oscillator until it is at the frequency that causes the atoms to vibrate and absorb the microwaves. Then the microwave signal is divided by digital counters to become the clock signal.
In mechanical clocks, the low Q of the balance wheel or pendulum oscillator made them very sensitive to the disturbing effect of the impulses of the escapement, so the escapement had a great effect on the accuracy of the clock, and many escapement designs were tried. The higher Q of resonators in electronic clocks makes them relatively insensitive to the disturbing effects of the drive power, so the driving oscillator circuit is a much less critical component.
=== Counter chain ===
This counts the pulses and adds them up to get traditional time units of seconds, minutes, hours, etc. It usually has a provision for setting the clock by manually entering the correct time into the counter.
In mechanical clocks this is done mechanically by a gear train, known as the wheel train. The gear train scales the rotation speed to give a shaft rotating once per hour to which the minute hand of the clock is attached, a shaft rotating once per 12 hours to which the hour hand of the clock is attached, and in some clocks a shaft rotating once per minute, to which the second hand is attached. The gear train also has a second function; to transmit mechanical power from the power source to run the oscillator. There is a friction coupling called the 'cannon pinion' between the gears driving the hands and the rest of the clock, allowing the hands to be turned to set the time.
In digital clocks a series of integrated circuit counters or dividers add the pulses up digitally, using binary logic. Often pushbuttons on the case allow the hour and minute counters to be incremented and decremented to set the time.
=== Indicator ===
This displays the count of seconds, minutes, hours, etc. in a human readable form.
The earliest mechanical clocks in the 13th century did not have a visual indicator and signalled the time audibly by striking bells. Many clocks to this day are striking clocks which strike the hour.
Analog clocks display time with an analog clock face, which consists of a dial with the numbers 1 through 12 or 24, the hours in the day, around the outside. The hours are indicated with an hour hand, which makes one or two revolutions in a day, while the minutes are indicated by a minute hand, which makes one revolution per hour. In mechanical clocks a gear train drives the hands; in electronic clocks the circuit produces pulses every second which drive a stepper motor and gear train, which move the hands.
Digital clocks display the time in periodically changing digits on a digital display. A common misconception is that a digital clock is more accurate than an analog wall clock, but the indicator type is separate and apart from the accuracy of the timing source.
Talking clocks and the speaking clock services provided by telephone companies speak the time audibly, using either recorded or digitally synthesized voices.
== Types ==
Clocks can be classified by the type of time display, as well as by the method of timekeeping.
=== Time display methods ===
==== Analog ====
Analog clocks usually use a clock face which indicates time using rotating pointers called "hands" on a fixed numbered dial or dials. The standard clock face, known universally throughout the world, has a short "hour hand" which indicates the hour on a circular dial of 12 hours, making two revolutions per day, and a longer "minute hand" which indicates the minutes in the current hour on the same dial, which is also divided into 60 minutes. It may also have a "second hand" which indicates the seconds in the current minute. The only other widely used clock face today is the 24 hour analog dial, because of the use of 24 hour time in military organizations and timetables. Before the modern clock face was standardized during the Industrial Revolution, many other face designs were used throughout the years, including dials divided into 6, 8, 10, and 24 hours. During the French Revolution the French government tried to introduce a 10-hour clock, as part of their decimal-based metric system of measurement, but it did not achieve widespread use. An Italian 6 hour clock was developed in the 18th century, presumably to save power (a clock or watch striking 24 times uses more power).
Another type of analog clock is the sundial, which tracks the sun continuously, registering the time by the shadow position of its gnomon. Because the sun does not adjust to daylight saving time, users must add an hour during that time. Corrections must also be made for the equation of time, and for the difference between the longitudes of the sundial and of the central meridian of the time zone that is being used (i.e. 15 degrees east of the prime meridian for each hour that the time zone is ahead of GMT). Sundials use some or part of the 24 hour analog dial. There also exist clocks which use a digital display despite having an analog mechanism—these are commonly referred to as flip clocks. Alternative systems have been proposed. For example, the "Twelv" clock indicates the current hour using one of twelve colors, and indicates the minute by showing a proportion of a circular disk, similar to a moon phase.
==== Digital ====
Digital clocks display a numeric representation of time. Two numeric display formats are commonly used on digital clocks:
the 24-hour notation with hours ranging 00–23;
the 12-hour notation with AM/PM indicator, with hours indicated as 12AM, followed by 1AM–11AM, followed by 12PM, followed by 1PM–11PM (a notation mostly used in domestic environments).
Most digital clocks use electronic mechanisms and LCD, LED, or VFD displays; many other display technologies are used as well (cathode-ray tubes, nixie tubes, etc.). After a reset, battery change or power failure, these clocks without a backup battery or capacitor either start counting from 12:00, or stay at 12:00, often with blinking digits indicating that the time needs to be set. Some newer clocks will reset themselves based on radio or Internet time servers that are tuned to national atomic clocks. Since the introduction of digital clocks in the 1960s, there has been a notable decline in the use of analog clocks.
Some clocks, called 'flip clocks', have digital displays that work mechanically. The digits are painted on sheets of material which are mounted like the pages of a book. Once a minute, a page is turned over to reveal the next digit. These displays are usually easier to read in brightly lit conditions than LCDs or LEDs. Also, they do not go back to 12:00 after a power interruption. Flip clocks generally do not have electronic mechanisms. Usually, they are driven by AC-synchronous motors.
==== Hybrid (analog-digital) ====
Clocks with analog quadrants, with a digital component, usually minutes and hours displayed analogously and seconds displayed in digital mode.
==== Auditory ====
For convenience, distance, telephony or blindness, auditory clocks present the time as sounds. The sound is either spoken natural language, (e.g. "The time is twelve thirty-five"), or as auditory codes (e.g. number of sequential bell rings on the hour represents the number of the hour like the bell, Big Ben). Most telecommunication companies also provide a speaking clock service as well.
==== Word ====
Word clocks are clocks that display the time visually using sentences. E.g.: "It's about three o'clock." These clocks can be implemented in hardware or software.
==== Projection ====
Some clocks, usually digital ones, include an optical projector that shines a magnified image of the time display onto a screen or onto a surface such as an indoor ceiling or wall. The digits are large enough to be easily read, without using glasses, by persons with moderately imperfect vision, so the clocks are convenient for use in their bedrooms. Usually, the timekeeping circuitry has a battery as a backup source for an uninterrupted power supply to keep the clock on time, while the projection light only works when the unit is connected to an A.C. supply. Completely battery-powered portable versions resembling flashlights are also available.
==== Tactile ====
Auditory and projection clocks can be used by people who are blind or have limited vision. There are also clocks for the blind that have displays that can be read by using the sense of touch. Some of these are similar to normal analog displays, but are constructed so the hands can be felt without damaging them. Another type is essentially digital, and uses devices that use a code such as Braille to show the digits so that they can be felt with the fingertips.
==== Multi-display ====
Some clocks have several displays driven by a single mechanism, and some others have several completely separate mechanisms in a single case. Clocks in public places often have several faces visible from different directions, so that the clock can be read from anywhere in the vicinity; all the faces show the same time. Other clocks show the current time in several time-zones. Watches that are intended to be carried by travellers often have two displays, one for the local time and the other for the time at home, which is useful for making pre-arranged phone calls. Some equation clocks have two displays, one showing mean time and the other solar time, as would be shown by a sundial. Some clocks have both analog and digital displays. Clocks with Braille displays usually also have conventional digits so they can be read by sighted people.
== Purposes ==
Clocks are in homes, offices and many other places; smaller ones (watches) are carried on the wrist or in a pocket; larger ones are in public places, e.g. a railway station or church. A small clock is often shown in a corner of computer displays, mobile phones and many MP3 players.
The primary purpose of a clock is to display the time. Clocks may also have the facility to make a loud alert signal at a specified time, typically to waken a sleeper at a preset time; they are referred to as alarm clocks. The alarm may start at a low volume and become louder, or have the facility to be switched off for a few minutes then resume. Alarm clocks with visible indicators are sometimes used to indicate to children too young to read the time that the time for sleep has finished; they are sometimes called training clocks.
A clock mechanism may be used to control a device according to time, e.g. a central heating system, a VCR, or a time bomb (see: digital counter). Such mechanisms are usually called timers. Clock mechanisms are also used to drive devices such as solar trackers and astronomical telescopes, which have to turn at accurately controlled speeds to counteract the rotation of the Earth.
Most digital computers depend on an internal signal at constant frequency to synchronize processing; this is referred to as a clock signal. (A few research projects are developing CPUs based on asynchronous circuits.) Some equipment, including computers, also maintains time and date for use as required; this is referred to as time-of-day clock, and is distinct from the system clock signal, although possibly based on counting its cycles.
=== Time standards ===
For some scientific work timing of the utmost accuracy is essential. It is also necessary to have a standard of the maximum accuracy against which working clocks can be calibrated. An ideal clock would give the time to unlimited accuracy, but this is not realisable. Many physical processes, in particular including some transitions between atomic energy levels, occur at exceedingly stable frequency; counting cycles of such a process can give a very accurate and consistent time—clocks which work this way are usually called atomic clocks. Such clocks are typically large, very expensive, require a controlled environment, and are far more accurate than required for most purposes; they are typically used in a standards laboratory.
=== Navigation ===
Until advances in the late twentieth century, navigation depended on the ability to measure latitude and longitude. Latitude can be determined through celestial navigation; the measurement of longitude requires accurate knowledge of time. This need was a major motivation for the development of accurate mechanical clocks. John Harrison created the first highly accurate marine chronometer in the mid-18th century. The Noon gun in Cape Town still fires an accurate signal to allow ships to check their chronometers. Many buildings near major ports used to have (some still do) a large ball mounted on a tower or mast arranged to drop at a pre-determined time, for the same purpose. While satellite navigation systems such as GPS require unprecedentedly accurate knowledge of time, this is supplied by equipment on the satellites; vehicles no longer need timekeeping equipment.
=== Sports and games ===
Clocks can be used to measure varying periods of time in games and sports. Stopwatches can be used to time the performance of track athletes. Chess clocks are used to limit the board game players' time to make a move. In various sports, game clocks measure the duration the game or subdivisions of the game, while other clocks may be used for tracking different durations; these include play clocks, shot clocks, and pitch clocks.
== Culture ==
=== Folklore and superstition ===
In the United Kingdom, clocks are associated with various beliefs, many involving death or bad luck. In legends, clocks have reportedly stopped of their own accord upon a nearby person's death, especially those of monarchs. The clock in the House of Lords supposedly stopped at "nearly" the hour of George III's death in 1820, the one at Balmoral Castle stopped during the hour of Queen Victoria's death, and similar legends are related about clocks associated with William IV and Elizabeth I. Many superstitions exist about clocks. One stopping before a person has died may foretell coming death. Similarly, if a clock strikes during a church hymn or a marriage ceremony, death or calamity is prefigured for the parishioners or a spouse, respectively. Death or ill events are foreshadowed if a clock strikes the wrong time. It may also be unlucky to have a clock face a fire or to speak while a clock is striking.
In Chinese culture, giving a clock (traditional Chinese: 送鐘; simplified Chinese: 送钟; pinyin: sòng zhōng) is often taboo, especially to the elderly, as it is a homophone of the act of attending another's funeral (traditional Chinese: 送終; simplified Chinese: 送终; pinyin: sòngzhōng).
== Specific types ==
== Awards ==
Grand Prix d'Horlogerie de Genève (GPHG)
Goldene Unruh
== See also ==
== Notes and references ==
== Bibliography ==
Baillie, G.H., O. Clutton, & C.A. Ilbert. Britten's Old Clocks and Watches and Their Makers (7th ed.). Bonanza Books (1956).
Bolter, David J. Turing's Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC (1984). ISBN 0-8078-4108-0 pbk. Summary of the role of "the clock" in its setting the direction of philosophic movement for the "Western World". Cf. picture on p. 25 showing the verge and foliot. Bolton derived the picture from Macey, p. 20.
Bruton, Eric (1982). The History of Clocks and Watches. New York: Crescent Books Distributed by Crown. ISBN 978-0-517-37744-4.
Cowan, Harrison J. (1958). Time and Its Measurement: From the stone age to the nuclear age. Ohio: The World Publishing Company. Bibcode:1958tmfs.book.....C.
Dohrn-van Rossum, Gerhard (1996). History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders. Trans. Thomas Dunlap. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-15510-4.
Edey, Winthrop. French Clocks. New York: Walker & Co. (1967).
Kak, Subhash, Babylonian and Indian Astronomy: Early Connections. 2003.
Kumar, Narendra "Science in Ancient India" (2004). ISBN 81-261-2056-8.
Landes, David S. Revolution in Time: Clocks and the Making of the Modern World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press (1983).
Landes, David S. Clocks & the Wealth of Nations, Daedalus Journal, Spring 2003.
Lloyd, Alan H. "Mechanical Timekeepers", A History of Technology, Vol. III. Edited by Charles Joseph Singer et al. Oxford: Clarendon Press (1957), pp. 648–675.
Macey, Samuel L., Clocks and the Cosmos: Time in Western Life and Thought, Archon Books, Hamden, Conn. (1980).
Needham, Joseph (2000) [1965]. Science & Civilisation in China, Vol. 4, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-05803-2.
North, John. God's Clockmaker: Richard of Wallingford and the Invention of Time. London: Hambledon and London (2005).
Opie, Iona, & Moira Tatem. "A Dictionary of Superstitions". Oxford: Oxford University Press (1990).
Palmer, Brooks. The Book of American Clocks, The Macmillan Co. (1979).
Robinson, Tom. The Longcase Clock. Suffolk, England: Antique Collector's Club (1981).
Smith, Alan. The International Dictionary of Clocks. London: Chancellor Press (1996).
Stephens, Carlene E. (2002). On Time: How America Has Learned to Live by the Clock (First ed.). Boston: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-8212-2779-3.
Tardy. French Clocks the World Over. Part I and II. Translated with the assistance of Alexander Ballantyne. Paris: Tardy (1981).
Turner, Anthony J. (1984). The Time Museum. Vol. I: Time Measuring Instruments. Rockford, IL: The Museum. ISBN 0-912947-01-2. OCLC 159866762.
Yoder, Joella Gerstmeyer. Unrolling Time: Christiaan Huygens and the Mathematization of Nature. New York: Cambridge University Press (1988).
Zea, Philip, & Robert Cheney. Clock Making in New England: 1725–1825. Old Sturbridge Village (1992).
== External links ==
Media related to Clocks at Wikimedia Commons
The dictionary definition of clock at Wiktionary
National Association of Watch & Clock Collectors Museum
"Clocks" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. VI (9th ed.). 1878. pp. 13–35.
"Clock" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 536–553.
Blackboard clock |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Zorrilla#:~:text=In%202008%2C%20Zorrilla%20was%20invested,postage%20stamps%20dedicated%20to%20her. | China Zorrilla | China Zorrilla (Spanish: [ˈtʃina soˈriʝa]; born Concepción Matilde Zorrilla de San Martín y Muñoz del Campo; 14 March 1922 – 17 September 2014) was an Uruguayan theater, film, and television actress, also director, producer and writer. An immensely popular star in the Rioplatense area, she is often regarded as a "Grand Dame" of the South American theater stage.
After a long career in the Uruguayan theater, Zorrilla made over fifty appearances in Argentina's film, theater and TV. Her career took off in Uruguay in the 1950 and 1960s, later she settled in Argentina, where she lived for over 35 years and was popular on TV, theater, and cinema. At 90, she retired and returned to Uruguay, where she died in 2014.
In 2008, Zorrilla was invested Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres by the French Government and in 2011, the Correo Uruguayo (the national postal service in Uruguay) released a print run of 500 commemorative postage stamps dedicated to her.
== Early life ==
Born in Montevideo into an aristocratic Uruguayan family, "China" was the second of the five daughters of Guma Muñoz del Campo and sculptor José Luis Zorrilla de San Martín (1891–1975), a disciple of Antoine Bourdelle, responsible for monuments in Uruguay and Argentina. Revered as Uruguay's national poet, her paternal grandfather was Juan Zorrilla de San Martín, author of Tabaré. An artistic family, her older sister, Guma Zorrilla (1919–2001), was a theater costume designer for the Uruguayan stage.
She grew up in Paris with her four sisters. Back in Montevideo, she attended Sagrado Corazón (Sacred Heart) School. In 1946, she earned a British Council scholarship to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London, where she studied under Greek actress Katina Paxinou.
== Uruguay ==
Back in her hometown, Zorrilla made her theater debut in Paul Claudel's The Tidings Brought to Mary in 1948. Immediately after, she joined the ensemble of the National Comedy of Uruguay working for 10 years at the Solís Theatre, where Spanish actress Margarita Xirgu directed her in García Lorca's Blood Wedding, Fernando de Rojas' La Celestina, Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, Romeo and Juliet, and other classics
During the 1950s and 1960s, Zorrilla appeared in Bertolt Brecht' Mother Courage and Her Children, "Filomena Marturano", Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Tartuffe. The Seagull, Wilder's Our Town, Neil Simon's Plaza Suite, Giraudoux's The Madwoman of Chaillot, and plays by Pirandello, Peter Ustinov, Tirso de Molina, Lope de Vega, Henrik Ibsen, August Strindberg, J.B. Priestley, and Ferenc Molnár. She received critical acclaim for her performances in Thornton Wilder's The Matchmaker and in Hay Fever as Judith Bliss.
After a decade at the Comedia Nacional, Zorrilla went on to found the Teatro de la Ciudad de Montevideo with actor Enrique Guarnero and actor-writer Antonio Larreta. The company toured Buenos Aires, Paris, and Madrid, where they won the Spanish Critics Award for their stagings of Federico García Lorca's La zapatera prodigiosa and Lope de Vega in the summer of 1961.
Between 1964 and 1966, Zorrilla took a sabbatical year and lived in New York, where she worked as a French teacher and Broadway secretary. In New York, she staged Canciones para mirar, a children's musical based on texts by Argentine poet Maria Elena Walsh. During her stay in the U.S., Zorrilla was rumoured to have an affair with comedian Danny Kaye, who often mentioned her in interviews.
As a correspondent for the Uruguayan newspaper El País, she covered events such as the Cannes Film Festival for Homero Alsina Thevenet and other international events (later published in a book Diarios de viaje) and also hosted a talk show for many years.
In opera, she directed Puccini's La bohème, Verdi's Un ballo in maschera at the Solís Theatre and the Montevideo's SODRE and Rossini's Il barbiere di Siviglia at the Teatro Argentino de La Plata in 1977.
2011 – The voice of the narrations of OTRA VIDA by the English composer Clive Nolan and the writer Elizeth Schluk
== Argentina ==
=== Stage ===
Summoned by actor and director Lautaro Murúa to appear as Donna Natividad in the third movie version of Un Guapo del 900, China Zorrilla's film debut came late in 1971 at age 49. The following summer she made replaced actress Ana María Campoy in Butterflies are Free, which was performed in Mar del Plata. She settled in Buenos Aires. Her stay coincided with the civilian-military dictatorship in Uruguay (1973–1985), which forced her to stay abroad. Zorrilla expressed her solidarity by protecting and helping Uruguayans flee the dictatorship. During that period, she was banned by the military regime from performing in Uruguayan theatres. After the country's return to democracy in the 1980s, Zorrilla made a triumphal comeback at the Teatro Solís as Emily Dickinson.
During the mid-1970s and 1980s, Zorrilla toured and performed nationally and internationally, including the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.
On stage she has portrayed historical figures such as Emily Dickinson in William Luce's The Belle of Amherst, Monica Ottino's Victoria Ocampo, Mrs. Patrick Campbell in Jerome Kilty's Dear Liar: A Comedy of Letters. Zorrilla performed in plays by Jean Cocteau, Lucille Fletcher, Oscar Viale, and fellow countryman Jacobo Langsner who wrote several plays for her. She reprised one of her theater earlier successes, the part of Judith Bliss in Hay Fever.
In 1995, she appeared in Buenos Aires's main opera house, the Teatro Colón as Persephone in Stravinsky and Gide's Perséphone.
Zorrilla adapted, directed, and produced plays and musicals: Goldoni's Servant of Two Masters, Reginald Rose's 12 Angry Men, Georges Feydeau's A Flea in Her Ear and Neil Simon's Lost in Yonkers.
In the last decade, she won four awards as sculptor Helen Martins in Athol Fugard's The Road to Mecca and as Eve in an adaption of Mark Twain's Eve's Diary.
=== Film and TV ===
After her debut in 1971 as Mother Natividad in Murua's Un guapo del 900, Zorrilla appeared in more than 40 Argentinian movies. In 1973, she became a popular star in Alberto Migré's soap operas. In 1984, she won Best Actress at the La Habana Film Festival for "Darse Cuenta". She performed in Summer of the Colt (a Canadian coproduction), Maria Luisa Bemberg's Nobody's Wife, The Jewish Gauchos, the coproduction The Plague (starring William Hurt and Raúl Juliá), Edgardo Cozarinsky's Guerriers et captives, Manuel Puig's "Pubis Angelical", Adolfo Aristarain's Lasts Days of the Victim, and in the Argentine black comedy Esperando la carroza (Waiting for the Hearse).
Later, Zorrilla earned international recognition for her performances in Conversaciones con mamá in 2005 (2004 Best Actress Award at the 26th Moscow International Film Festival and the Málaga Film Festival) and in Elsa & Fred, which won her several awards, including the Silver Condor for Best Actress.
== Death ==
Zorrilla died on 17 September 2014 from pneumonia in a hospital in Montevideo, Uruguay, aged 92. The government of Argentina and Uruguay declared two days of national mourning
defining her as "a true representative of River Plate culture". She was waked at Montevideo's Congress. Before reaching the cemetery, the procession made a brief stopover at the Teatro Solís.
== Honors ==
Orden de Mayo by the Argentine government
Orden Gabriela Mistral by the Chilean government
Illustrious Citizen of Buenos Aires, Montevideo, and other Argentine cities, and two theaters bear her name
Knight (Chevalier) of the Légion d'honneur by the French Government
Honorary Medal, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento del Senado de la Nación Argentina 2010
Commemorative Postage Stamp, Uruguayan Post
China Zorrilla, the largest electric ferry, scheduled to connect Uruguay and Argentina
== Books ==
Diego Fischer, A mi me aplauden, 2012, Uruguay, ISBN 9789974 701 22 9
China Zorrilla, Diario de viaje, Ediciones La Plaza, 2013, Uruguay, ISBN 9789974482265
Julio Maria Sanguinetti (2015). "Retratos desde la memoria" Montevideo: Debolsillo. ISBN 9789974899179
Miguel Ángel Campodónico, Nuevo Diccionario de la Cultura Uruguaya, Librería Linardi y Risso, 2003, S.361
== Music ==
Otra Vida – Composed by Clive Nolan written by Elizeth Schluk, year 2011 Altagama Producciones.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
== Bibliography ==
Fischer, Diego (2012). A mí me aplauden. Las historias que China no contó. Montevideo: Editorial Sudamericana.
== References ==
== External links ==
China Zorrilla at IMDb
Obituary Buenos Aires Herald
Diego Fischer, A mi me aplauden (Montevideo 2012), Biographical Essay (in Spanish)
Clive Nolan – Elizeth Schluk, Disco Otra Vida
https://www.tvshow.com.uy/personajes/fotogaleria-video-recordar-china-zorrilla-seis-anos-partida.html |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazprom | Gazprom | PJSC Gazprom (Russian: Газпром, IPA: [ɡɐsˈprom]) is a Russian majority state-owned multinational energy corporation headquartered in the Lakhta Center in Saint Petersburg. The Gazprom name is a contraction of the Russian words gazovaya promyshlennost (газовая промышленность, gas industry). In January 2022, Gazprom displaced Sberbank from the first place in the list of the largest company in Russia by market capitalization. In 2023, the company's revenue amounted to 8.5 trillion rubles, a significant decline from the 11.7 trillion rubles it reported in 2022.
Gazprom is vertically integrated and is active in every area of the gas industry, including exploration and production, refining, transport, distribution and marketing, and power generation. In 2018, Gazprom produced twelve percent of the global output of natural gas, producing 497.6 billion cubic meters of natural and associated gas and 15.9 million tonnes of gas condensate. Gazprom then exports the gas through pipelines that the company builds and owns across Russia and abroad, such as Power of Siberia and TurkStream. It produced 359 billion cubic meters of natural and associated gas, a decline of approximately 13 percent from the previous year.In the same year, Gazprom has proven reserves of 35.1 trillion cubic meters of gas and 1.6 billion tons of gas condensate. Gazprom is also a large oil producer through its subsidiary Gazprom Neft, producing about 41 million tons of oil with reserves amounting to 2 billion tons. The company also has subsidiaries in industrial sectors, including finance, media and aviation, and majority stakes in other companies.
Gazprom was created in 1989, when the Soviet Ministry of Gas Industry was converted to a corporation, becoming the first state-run corporate enterprise in the Soviet Union. After the Soviet Union's dissolution, Gazprom was privatized, retaining its Russia-based assets. At that time, Gazprom evaded taxes and state regulations and engaged in asset stripping. The company later returned to government control in the early 2000s, and since then, the company has been involved in the Russian government's diplomatic efforts, setting of gas prices, and access to pipelines.
The company is majority-owned by the Russian government, via the Federal Agency for State Property Management and Rosneftegaz, while the remaining shares are traded publicly. Gazprom is listed on the Moscow Exchange. Many arbitration cases have been decided against Gazprom.
== History ==
=== Origins ===
In 1943, during World War II, the government of the Soviet Union developed a domestic gas industry. In 1965, it centralized gas exploration, development, and distribution within the Ministry of Gas Industry. In the 1970s and 1980s, the Ministry of Gas Industry found large natural gas reserves in Siberia, the Ural region, and the Volga Region. The Soviet Union became a significant producer of gas. In August 1989, under the leadership of the minister of Gas Industry of the Soviet Union (1985-1989) Viktor Chernomyrdin, the Ministry of Gas Industry was renamed the State Gas Concern Gazprom, and became the Soviet Union's first state-run corporate enterprise. In late 1991, when the Soviet Union dissolved, gas industry assets were transferred to newly established national companies, such as Naftogaz and Turkmengaz. Gazprom kept assets located in Russia and secured a monopoly in the gas sector.
=== Privatization ===
In December 1992, when Boris Yeltsin, the Russian president, appointed Viktor Chernomyrdin, Gazprom's chairman, his prime minister, the company's political influence increased. Rem Viakhirev took the chairmanship of Gazprom's Board of Directors and Managing Committee. Following the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of 5 November 1992, and the Resolution of the Government of Russia of 17 February 1993, Gazprom became a joint-stock company. Gazprom began to distribute shares under the voucher method. (Each Russian citizen received vouchers to purchase shares of formerly state-owned companies). By 1994, 33% of Gazprom's shares had been bought by 747,000 members of the public, mostly in exchange for vouchers. Fifteen percent of the stock was allocated to Gazprom employees. The state retained 40% of the shares. That amount was gradually lowered to thirty-eight percent. Trading of Gazprom's shares was heavily regulated. Foreigners were prohibited from owning more than nine percent of the shares. In October 1996, 1% of Gazprom's equity was offered for sale to foreigners as Global Depository Receipts. In 1997, Gazprom offered a bond issue of US$2.5 billion.
Chernomyrdin, as Prime Minister of Russia, ensured Gazprom avoided tight state regulation. Gazprom evaded taxes, and the Government of Russia received little in dividends. Gazprom managers and board members, such as Chernomyrdin and the Gazprom Chief Executive Officer, Rem Viakhirev, engaged in asset-stripping. Gazprom assets were shared amongst their relatives. Itera, a gas trading company, also received Gazprom assets. In March 1998, for reasons unrelated to his activities at Gazprom, Chernomyrdin was fired by Yeltsin. On 30 June 1998, Chernomyrdin was made chairman of the board of directors of Gazprom.
=== State control ===
When, in June 2000, Vladimir Putin became the president of Russia, he acted to gain control over Russia's oligarchs, and increase the Government of Russia's control in important companies through a program of national champions. Putin fired Chernomyrdin from his position as the chairman of the Gazprom board. The Russian Government's stock in Gazprom gave Putin the power to vote out Viakhirev. Chernomyrdin and Viakhirev were replaced by Dmitry Medvedev and Alexei Miller. They were Putin's prior employees in Saint Petersburg. Putin's actions were aided by the shareholder activism of Hermitage Capital Management Chief Executive Officer William Browder, and the former Russian finance minister Boris Fyodorov. Miller and Medvedev were tasked with halting asset stripping at Gazprom and recovering the associated losses. Itera was denied access to Gazprom's pipelines and came close to bankruptcy. In 2006, Itera agreed to return stolen assets to Gazprom for a fee. Browder was deported from Russia in 2005, and the Russian arm of Hermitage Capital Management was seized two years later.
In April 2001, Gazprom acquired NTV, Russia's only nationwide state-independent television station, from Vladimir Gusinsky's company, Media-Most Holdings. Gusinsky fell out of Putin's favor after using NTV to publish criticism from the families of sailors who died during the Kursk submarine disaster and additional criticism of Putin's handling of the Second Chechen War. Gusinsky then fled Russia, allowing Gazprom to take over NTV without his opposition.
In June 2005, Gazprombank, Gazpromivest Holding, Gazfond and Gazprom Finance B. V., subsidiaries of Gazprom, sold a 10.7399% share of their stock for $7 billion to Rosneftegaz, a state-owned company. Some analysts said the amount paid by Rosneftegaz for the stock was too low. The sale was completed by 25 December 2005, and with the purchased stock and the thirty-eight percent share held by the State Property Committee, the Government of Russia gained control of Gazprom. The Government of Russia revoked the Gazprom twenty percent foreign ownership rule; the company became open to foreign investment. In September 2005, Gazprom bought 72.633 percent of the oil company Sibneft for $13.01 billion. Sibneft was renamed Gazprom Neft. The purchase was aided by a $12 billion loan. Gazprom became Russia's largest company. On the day of the deal the company worth was valued at £69.7 billion (US$123.2 billion).
In July 2006, On Gas Export was enacted with a nearly unanimous vote from the State Duma. This law gave Gazprom the exclusive right to export natural gas from Russia. In December 2006, Gazprom signed an agreement with Royal Dutch Shell, Mitsui and Mitsubishi, to take over fifty percent plus one share of Sakhalin Energy.
In June 2007, TNK-BP, a subsidiary of BP plc, agreed to sell its stake in Kovykta field in Siberia to Gazprom after the Government of Russia questioned BP's right to export gas from Russia.
On 1 August 2007, Gazprom's Sergey Kuprianov threatened Belarus with the stoppage of their gas flow if the latter failed to pay off their debts, and if so, they would experience a 300% price increase. Two days later, he saw significant progress towards payment, and he expected to be paid by the following week.
On 23 June 2007, the governments of Russia and Italy signed a memorandum of understanding towards a joint venture between Gazprom and Eni SpA to construct a 558-mile (900 km) gas pipeline to carry 1.05 trillion cubic feet (30 km3) gas per year from Russia to Europe. This South Stream pipeline would extend under the Black Sea to Bulgaria with a south fork to Italy and a north fork to Hungary.
On 18 December 2007, Frank-Walter Steinmeier (who was then Foreign Minister of Germany) and Dmitry Medvedev signed an agreement on behalf of BASF to exploit another gas field. At the time, German demand was 40% covered by Russian supply. Some German academics warned that Germany had become too dependent on Russia, but Steinmeier, citing the new Ostpolitik, disregarded them.
On 11 February 2008, Kuprianov threatened Ukraine with a halt to the flow; in January 2009, the threat was carried out, marking the beginning of the 2009 Russia–Ukraine gas dispute. BASF's Jürgen Hambrecht was concerned about the reliability of his firm's supply, but Miller assuaged his worries in a phone call, and the Europeans did nothing to change course for more than a decade.
On 1 December 2014, during a visit to Turkey, Putin said the SouthStream project would not proceed and 63 billion cubic metres per year (bcm/y) of gas would be shipped to Turkey instead of Bulgaria. Bulgaria was being sued by the European Union for signing a contract with Russia, which was not aligned with European Union regulations. The president of Bulgaria, Rosen Plevneliev, pressured the European Union and Russia to resolve the matter quickly.
=== Continual rise ===
On 4 September 2012, the European Commission announced an anti-trust investigation into Gazprom's activities. This was based on "concerns that Gazprom may be abusing its dominant market position in upstream gas supply markets." In late November 2013, Gazprom expanded its media interests by acquiring Profmedia from Vladimir Potanin.
On 21 May 2014, in Shanghai, Gazprom and the China National Petroleum Corporation made a contract worth $400 billion over thirty years. The contract was for Gazprom to deliver 38 billion cubic meters of natural gas per year to China beginning in 2018. In August 2014, construction began with pipes for the Power of Siberia pipeline delivered to Lensk, Yakutia. Russia will start supplying natural gas to China through the Power of Siberia pipeline on 20 December 2019 as part of the two countries' $400 billion energy pact. Beijing and Moscow are now negotiating over a second Far Eastern gas pipeline.
In June 2014, Gazprom negotiated with the International Petroleum Investment Company (IPIC of Abu Dhabi) over a 24.9 percent stake in the Austrian oil and gas firm OMV. In July 2014, Gazprom acquired Central Partnership, one of the largest film distributors in Russia.
In September 2015, the Nord Stream 2 contracts were signed, and by July 2021, the pipeline was commissioned.
=== Loss of EU revenue ===
Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, the threat by Russia of reducing the supply of gas to Europe risked the Gazprom export market. When it was implemented, exports by Gazprom decreased from the 185 Bcm achieved in 2021 to 100 Bcm in 2022 and further declined in 2023. The revenue of Gazprom, initially supported by high prices, collapsed in 2023, resulting in a trading loss and necessitating a 34% price increase in the domestic market over three years. Gazprom has also opened itself up to compensation claims for failure to supply gas under long term contracts. In April 2025, Gazprom announced that it will begin producing home appliances.
== Supply and reserves ==
=== Production ===
In 2011, Gazprom produced 513.17 billion cubic metres (18.122 trillion cubic feet) of natural gas, which was 17 percent of the worldwide production and 83 percent of Russian production. Of this amount, the Yamburg subsidiary produced 41 percent, Urengoy 23.6 percent, Nadym 10.9 percent, Noyabrsk 9.3 percent and others 15.2 percent. Additionally, the company produced 32.28 million tons of oil and 12.07 million tons of gas condensate.
The majority of Gazprom's fields are located in the Nadym-Pur-Taz region (near the Gulf of Ob) in Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug in Western Siberia. Historically, the three largest fields are Medvezhe, Urengoy and Yamburg. After more than twenty years of production, the fields are now in decline. Production from the fields has decreased by twenty to twenty-five bcm per year. The production at Zaporliarnoe, Gazprom's fourth largest field, increased until 2004, offsetting the decline in the other fields. Since 2004, Gazprom has maintained production by activating new smaller fields and by purchasing production assets from other companies.
Gazprom Neft produces crude oil. In 2005, Gazprom purchased 75 percent of the Gazprom Neft shares for $13.1 billion.
=== Imports from Central Asia ===
Gazprom's ability to supply natural gas to the domestic market and for reexport relied to a large extent on imports from Central Asia. In 2007, Gazprom imported a total of 60.7 billion cubic metres (2.14 trillion cubic feet) from Central Asia: 42.6 billion cubic metres (1.50 trillion cubic feet) from Turkmenistan, 8.5 billion cubic metres (300 billion cubic feet) from Kazakhstan, and 9.6 billion cubic metres (340 billion cubic feet) from Uzbekistan. In particular, Gazprom purchased seventy-five percent of Turkmenistan gas exports to supply gas to Ukraine. In 2008, Gazprom paid $130/mcm to $180/mcm for gas from Central Asia.
=== Reserves ===
In 2015, Gazprom's proved and probable reserves of natural gas were 23.705 trillion cubic metres (837.1 trillion cubic feet), a 3.8% increase from the 2011 figure, which represented 18.4% of the world's reserves. In 2015, the reserves of crude oil were 1.355 billion tons and the reserves of gas condensate were 933.3 billion tons. 59.8 percent of Gazprom's natural gas reserves (Categories A+B+C1) were located in the Urals Federal District (decreasing), 20.5 percent in the Arctic shelf (increasing), and 8.3 percent in the Southern Federal District and North Caucasus Federal District.
== Development and exploration ==
Gazprom invested approximately 480 billion rubles ($20 billion) in new major projects to maintain its supply. Nearly 37 percent of Gazprom's reserves are located in the Yamal Peninsula and in the Barents Sea.
=== Blue Stream Pipeline ===
One of Gazprom's major projects is the Blue Stream Pipeline. The Blue Stream Pipeline delivers natural gas to Turkey via the Black Sea. In 1997, the Blue Stream Pipeline agreement was signed between Turkey and Russia. In 2000, the first joint was welded. The pipeline transports 16 billion cubic meters each year.
=== Yamal Peninsula ===
Exploration of the Yamal Peninsula has found reserves of over 10 trillion cubic metres of natural gas and over 500 million tons of oil and gas condensate. About 60 percent of these reserves are located in Bovanenkovo, Kharasavey, and Novoportovo. The natural gas production capacity of the Bovanenkovo field was estimated to be 115 billion cubic metres per annum (4.1 trillion cubic feet per annum), with potential to increase to 140 billion cubic metres per annum (4.9 trillion cubic feet per annum).
=== Shtokman field ===
The Shtokman field is one of the world's largest natural gas fields. It is located in the central part of the Barents Sea, 650 kilometres (400 mi) northeast of the city of Murmansk and 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) west of the Yamal Peninsula. The field is estimated to contain up to 3.7 trillion cubic metres (130 trillion cubic feet) of gas. Potential production is 71 billion cubic metres per annum (2.5 trillion cubic feet per annum) in the initial phases, with a potential increase to 95 billion cubic metres per annum (3.4 trillion cubic feet per annum). Gazprom, TotalEnergies (France), and Statoil (Norway) created a joint company, Shtokman Development AG, for the development of the field.
=== Khanty-Mansiysk autonomous area (Arctic shelf) ===
In 2013, in Amsterdam, Alexey Miller, chairman of the Gazprom management committee, and Jorma Ollila, chairman of the board of directors of Royal Dutch Shell, signed in the presence of Putin and Mark Rutte, prime minister of the Netherlands, a memorandum outlining the principles of cooperation within hydrocarbons exploration and development in the Arctic shelf and a section of the deep-water shelf.
=== Exploration ===
In 2008, Gazprom carried out 284.9 kilometres (177.0 mi) of explorative well drilling; 124,000 kilometres (77,000 mi) of 2D seismic and 6,600 square kilometres (2,500 sq mi) of 3D seismic survey. As a result, gas reserves grew by 583.4 billion cubic metres (20.60 trillion cubic feet), and crude oil and gas condensate reserves grew by 61 million tons.
Gazprom carries out prospecting and exploration in foreign countries such as India, Pakistan, Algeria, Venezuela, Vietnam, Libya, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.
== Transportation ==
Gazprom's Unified Gas Supply System (UGSS) includes 158,200 kilometres (98,300 mi) of gas trunklines and branches and 218 compressor stations with a 41.4 GW capacity. The UGSS is the largest gas transmission system in the world. In 2008, the transportation system carried 714.3 billion cubic metres (25.23 trillion cubic feet) of gas. Gazprom has claimed the UGSS has reached its capacity. Major transmission projects included the Nord Stream pipelines, as well as pipelines inside Russia.
=== Liquefied Natural Gas ===
In 2021, Russia had two large liquefied natural gas (LNG) production plants, Yamal LNG and Sakhalin-2 LNG, both of which Gazprom has an interest in.
In March 2021, the Russian Government authorised a long-term programme to develop and expand the liquefied natural gas industry in Russia with nine more LNG plants, to address the growing global LNG market.
In August 2021 Russia's first LNG bunkering vessel, Dmitry Mendeleev, was completed for Gazprom.
In October 2021, Gazprom and RusGazDobycha announced they would build a new plant, Baltic LNG, at Ust-Luga, with access to the Baltic Sea for sea transportation westward. It would process ethane-containing natural gas with a capacity of 13 million tons of LNG per year.
In 2024, Gazprom faced a significant shortage of LNG tankers, leading the company to use the Marshal Vasilevskiy floating storage and regasification unit (FSRU) for exporting LNG from its Portovaya facility. This shortage occurred because Gazprom's regular tankers, such as the Pskov, were involved in extended voyages to Asia, avoiding the Suez Canal and Red Sea due to security threats from Houthi attacks.
== Sales ==
In 2006, Gazprom sold 316 billion cubic metres (11.2 trillion cubic feet) of gas to domestic customers; 162 billion cubic metres (5.7 trillion cubic feet) to the rest of Europe; and 101 billion cubic metres (3.6 trillion cubic feet) to CIS countries and the Baltic states. Gazprom received about 60 percent of its revenue from its sales to European customers. In 2008, the average gas price paid by Russian industrial customers was $71/mcm, while households paid $54/mcm.
Since 2000, Natural gas prices have fluctuated. In late 2007, the price of natural gas at the New York NYMEX was $7.53 per million British thermal units ($25.7/MWh). At a conversion of 26,4 m3 per million Btu, it would correspond to a price of $285 per 1,000 cubic metres. At the same time, based on their respective contracts with Gazprom, German customers paid $250 per cubic metre (m3), Polish customers $290 per m3, Ukraine customers $130 per m3 and Russian customers $49 per m3.
Since the start of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, and as a result of falling export revenue, the domestic market is expected to see price rises of 34% by July 2025.
=== Exports ===
Gazprom delivered gas to 25 European countries. Its main export arm is Gazprom Export LLC, founded in 1973 and previously known as Gazexport until November 1, 2006, which has a monopoly on gas exports to countries outside the former Soviet Union. The majority of Russian gas in Europe was sold on 25-year contracts. In late 2004, Gazprom was the sole gas supplier to Bosnia and Herzegovina, Estonia, Finland, Macedonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Serbia, and Slovakia. It provided 97 percent of Bulgaria's gas, 89 percent of Hungary's gas, 86 percent of Poland's gas, nearly 75 percent of the Czech Republic's, 67 percent of Turkey's, 65 percent of Austria's, about 40 percent of Romania's, 36 percent of Germany's, 27 percent of Italy's, and 25 percent of France's gas. By December 2010 with strong support from Alexander Medvedev and Antonio Fallico, who was Russia's honorary consul in Verona, a former Italian communist and a close associate of both Alexey Anatolievich Matveev (Russian: Алексей Анатольевич Матвеев; born 21 December 1963) and Vladimir Putin, Italy's gas supplied by Russia had greatly increased from 25 percent in 2004 to 70 percent. In May 2006, the European Union received about 25 percent of its gas supply from Gazprom. In 2006, Gazprom entered several long-term gas contracts with European companies. The contract prices were mainly linked to oil prices.
In 2014, Europe accounted for 40% of Gazprom's revenue. The proportion of Europe's gas bought in the spot market rose from 15 percent in 2008 to 44 percent in 2012.
In September 2013, during the G20 summit, Gazprom signed an agreement with China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) that the Henry Hub index would not be used to settle prices for their trades. In May 2014, Russian president Putin met with General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Xi Jinping and negotiated a $400bn deal between the Gazprom and the CNPC. Under the contract, Russia was to supply 38 billion cubic meters of gas annually over 30 years for $350 per thousand cubic meters beginning in 2018. In 2013, the average price of Gazprom's gas in Europe was about $380 per thousand cubic meters. China offered a loan of about $50bn to finance the development of the gas fields and the construction of the pipeline by Russia up to the Chinese border, with the Chinese to build the remaining pipeline.
In January 2023, as a result of the sanctions imposed on Russia following the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Gazprom announced that its gas exports had fallen 45% from 185 billion cubic meters (Bcm) to 101 Bcm, mainly due to the loss of the European market. During 2023 exports fell again, with Europe purchasing just 28Bcm, a level not seen since the 1970s.
In December 2025, it was announced that Turkey finalized a one-year extension of its expiring gas import contracts with Russia that total 22 Bcm. When asked about the short-term contract, Turkish Energy Minister Bayraktar stated: "They will continue to be supplied by Gazprom next year. But we are focusing on more like short term... like one year".
=== Price disputes ===
On 1 January 2006, during the Russia-Ukraine gas dispute, Gazprom ceased the supply of gas to the Ukrainian market. Gazprom has called on the Ukrainian government to increase its payment for natural gas in line with global fuel price increases. During the night of 3 January 2006, and early morning of 4 January 2006, Naftogas of Ukraine and Gazprom negotiated a deal that temporarily resolved the long-standing gas price conflict between Russia and Ukraine.
On 3 April 2006, Gazprom announced it would triple the price of natural gas to Belarus after 31 December 2006. In December 2006, Gazprom threatened to cease supply of gas to Belarus at 10 am Moscow time on 1 January 2007, unless Belarus increased payments from $47 to $200 per 1,000 cubic metres or to cede control over its distribution network. Some analysts suggested Moscow was penalising Alexander Lukashenko, the president of Belarus, for not delivering on pledges of closer integration with Russia, while others noted that other countries like Armenia were paying as much for their gas as Belarus would with the new price levels.
Gazprom later requested a price of $105, yet Belarus still refused the agreement. Belarus responded that if supplies were cut, it would deny Gazprom access to its pipelines, which would impair gas transportation to Europe. However, on 1 January 2007, just a few hours before the deadline, Belarus and Gazprom signed a last-minute agreement. Under the agreement, Belarus undertook to pay $100 per 1,000 cubic metres in 2007. The agreement also allowed Gazprom to purchase 50 percent of the shares in Beltransgaz, the Belarusian pipeline network. Immediately following the signing of this agreement, Belarus declared a $42/ton transportation tax on Russian oil traveling through the Gazprom pipelines crossing its territory.
On 13 March 2008, after a three-day period during which gas supplies to Ukraine were halved, Gazprom agreed to supply Ukraine with gas for the remainder of the year. The contract removed intermediary companies.
On 1 April 2014, Gazprom increased the gas price charged to Ukraine from $268.50 to $385.50 (£231.00) per 1,000 cubic metres. Ukraine's unpaid gas bills to Russia stood at $1.7bn (£1.02bn). On 30 October 2014, Russia agreed to resume gas supplies to Ukraine over the winter in a deal brokered by the European Union.
== Corporate affairs ==
Gazprom is a vertically integrated company, one that owns its supply and distribution activities. Gazprom owns all its main gas processing facilities in Russia. It operates Russia's high-pressure gas pipelines and, since 2006, it has held a legal export monopoly. Other natural gas producers, such as Novatek, Russia's second largest gas company, are forced to use Gazprom's facilities for processing and transport of natural gas.
At the end of 2008, Gazprom had 221,300 employees across its major subsidiaries involved in gas production, transportation, underground storage, and processing. Of these employees, 9.5 percent were in management, 22.9 percent were specialists, 63.4 percent were workers and 4.2 percent were other employees. Gazprom's headquarters were in the Cheryomushki District, South-Western Administrative Okrug, Moscow until 2021, when they moved to the Lakhta Center in Saint Petersburg.
Gazprom is a national champion, a concept advocated by Putin, in which large companies in strategic sectors are expected not only to seek profit, but also to advance Russia's national interests. For example, Gazprom sells gas to its domestic market at a price less than that of the global market. In 2008, Gazprom's activities made up 10 percent of the Russian gross domestic product
Due to its large-scale projects, including international pipelines like Nord Stream 1 and Turkish Stream, Gazprom was once a substantial source of revenue for several domestic suppliers and contractors.
=== Shareholders ===
As of 2017, Gazprom's main shareholders were the Federal Agency for State Property Management with 38.37% and Rosneftegaz with 10.97%. Together with a 0.89 share of Rosgazifikatsiya, they guaranteed a majority control of the company by the Russian government. The rest of the shares were held by investors, including 25.20% by ADR holders on foreign stock markets, and 24.57% by other legal entities and individuals.
Gazprom is listed on the stock markets of Moscow and Karachi. It is the top component of the MICEX and RTS indices. Gazprom used to be listed on the London, Berlin, Frankfurt and Singapore markets before the 2022 sanctions.
=== Subsidiaries ===
Gazprom has several hundred subsidiaries in Russia and abroad, which are either directly or indirectly owned and controlled by the company. It has incorporated a subsidiary in the United Kingdom, named Gazprom International UK Ltd, and the Netherlands, named Gazprom International Projects BV.
=== Management ===
Gazprom's Board of Directors as of 9 August 2015:
Viktor Zubkov (Chairman, Russian Special Presidential Representative for Cooperation with Gas Exporting Countries Forum, First Deputy Prime Minister of Russia, former Prime Minister of Russia)
Alexey Miller (Deputy Chairman, Chairman of the Management Committee, CEO, Chairman of Gazprombank, former Deputy Minister of Energy of Russia)
Andrey Akimov (Chairman of Gazprombank)
Farit Gazizullin (former Minister of State Property of Russia, former Minister of Property Relations of Russia)
Timur Kulibaev (Chairman of Legal Entities Department)
Vitaly Markelov (Deputy Chairman of the Management Committee)
Viktor Martynov (Rector of Gubkin Russian State University of Oil and Gas, Professor)
Vladimir Mau (Rector of the Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration)
Valery Musin (Head of the Civil Procedure Department, Faculty of Law, Saint Petersburg State University)
Alexander Novak (Minister of Energy of the Russian Federation)
Mikhail Sereda (Deputy Chairman of the Management Committee, Head of the Administration of the Management Committee of Gazprom)
Gazprom's management committee as of December 2006:
Alexei Miller (Chairman, Deputy Chairman of the Board, CEO, Chairman of Gazprombank, former Deputy Minister of Energy of Russia, member since 2001)
Alexander Ananenkov (Deputy Chairman, Deputy Chairman of the Board, Gazprom shareholder, member since 17 December 2001)
Valery Golubev (Deputy Chairman, Head of the Department for Construction and Investment, former Head of the Vasileostrovsky District, former member of the Federation Council of Russia, member since 18 April 2003)
Alexander Kozlov (Deputy Chairman, member since 18 March 2005)
Andrey Kruglov (Deputy Chairman, Head of the Department for Finance and Economics, member since 2002)
Alexander Medvedev (Deputy Chairman, Deputy Chairman of the Board, former Director General of Gazprom Export, President of Kontinental Hockey League, member of the Coordination Committee of RosUkrEnergo, member since 2002)
Mikhail Sereda (Deputy Chairman, Head of Administration, Deputy Chairman of Gazprombank, member since 28 September 2004)
Sergei Ushakov (Deputy Chairman, member since 18 April 2003)
Elena Vasilyeva (Deputy Chairman, Chief Accountant, member since 2001)
Bogdan Budzulyak (Head of the Department of Gas Transportation, Underground Storage and Utilization, member since 1989)
Nikolai Dubik (Head of Legal Department, member since 2008)
Konstantin Chuychenko (Head of the Control Department of Russia, presidential aide to Dmitry Medvedev, former chairman of Gazprom Media, executive director of RosUkrEnergo, former KGB officer, member since 2002)
Viktor Ilyushin (Head of the Department of Relationships with Regional Authorities of the Russian Federation, member since 1997)
Olga Pavlova (Head of the Department of Asset Management and Corporate Relations, member since 2004)
Vasiliy Podyuk (Head of the Department of Gas, Gas Condensate and Oil Production, member since 1997)
Vlada Rusakova (Head of the Department of Strategic Development, member since 5 September 2003)
Kirill Seleznev (Head of the Department of Marketing and Processing of Gas and Liquid Hydrocarbons, member since 27 September 2002, Director-General of Mezhregiongaz)
== Sports sponsorships ==
Gazprom is the owner and sponsor of the Russian Premier League football club FC Zenit Saint Petersburg and its other sporting departments (Basketball and volleyball), as well as volleyball club VC Zenit-Kazan and Gazprom-Ugra Surgut at Russian Volleyball Super League. Gazprom also owns SKA St Petersburg of the KHL.
On 1 January 2007, Gazprom became the sponsor of the German Bundesliga club FC Schalke 04 at a cost of up to €25 million per year. On 23 November 2009, the partnership was extended for a further five years. Schalke then suspended their sponsorship of Gazprom after the Russian invasion of Ukraine. The sponsorship was worth $150m (USD) over five years.
On 9 July 2010, Gazprom became a sponsor of the Serbian SuperLiga football club Red Star Belgrade. In 2010, Gazprom was a Gold Partner of the Russian professional cycling team, Team Katusha, together with Itera, and Russian Technologies (Rostekhnologii).
On 17 July 2012, Gazprom became the official Global Energy partner of the UEFA Champions League 2012 winners Chelsea. The sponsorship continued for three years until 2015.
In September 2013, Gazprom became an official partner of FIFA tournaments from 2015 to 2018. The contract included the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia.
Gazprom was also a sponsor for the defunct-Minardi F1 team in 2002–2003.
In April 2021, Gazprom became a sponsor of the International Amateur Boxing Association (AIBA, now the International Boxing Association) as "general partner". The sponsorship became controversial due to the IBA's increased Russian ties under president Umar Kremlev. This partnership ended in 2023.
On 9 July 2012, Gazprom became a sponsor of the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Super Cup. The sponsorship continued for three seasons until 2015. In 2021, the partnership was also extended until 2024. The company was also set to serve as the global partner for UEFA Euro 2020 and 2024; however, due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Gazprom's sponsorship for the Champions League and Euro 2024 was voided, marking the end of their 10-year partnership with UEFA.
== Environmental record ==
Gazprom is one of the world's largest greenhouse gas emitters, considering the use of its products. A large part of greenhouse gas emissions by Russia are from methane leaks and its many gas-fired power plants.
== Controversies ==
=== Geopolitical leverage ===
Repeatedly, Gazprom has been accused of being a political and economical weapon of Russia, using the supply and price of natural gas to gain control over Europe and most noteworthy, Ukraine. "Regardless of how the stand-off over Ukraine develops, one lesson is clear: excessive dependence on Russian energy makes Europe weak," said Donald Tusk, former prime minister of Poland in April 2014. The friction resulted in two boycott campaigns in Ukraine, one that started in 2005, the other in 2013. Russia denies weaponizing energy via Gazprom. In December 2019, Gazprom paid $2.9 billion to Ukrainian counterpart Naftogaz as ordered by a Stockholm court ruling's award on damage claims stemming from alleged economic harassment.
In the wake of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Gazprom had issues with many EU countries, and stated it would cut off supplies to French energy supplier, Engie, over failure to pay in full for deliveries. This was disputed, with France's Energy Transition Minister Agnes Pannier-Runacher stating, "Very clearly Russia is using gas as a weapon of war and we must prepare for the worst case scenario of a complete interruption of supplies."
=== Yukos Oil fraud ===
Yuganskneftegaz was the core production subsidiary of the Yukos Oil Company, which was previously run by a Russian businessman, Mikhail Khodorkovsky. In 2003, the Russian tax authorities charged Yukos and its founder, Khodorkovsky, with tax evasion. On 14 April 2004, Yukos was presented with a bill for over US$35 bn in back taxes and a demand to pay the entire bill the same day. Requests by Yukos to defer payment, allow payment by installments, or to discharge the debt by sale of peripheral assets, including its shareholding in the Sibneft oil company, were also refused.
The bailiffs froze Yukos' shares in Yuganskneftegaz and on 19 November 2004, they placed a notice in the Russian government newspaper Rossiyskaya Gazeta. Yuganskneftegaz would be sold at an auction thirty days later on 19 December 2004. The conditions for participation in the auction included an advance deposit of US$1.7 bn and prior clearance by the Russian Federal Antimonopoly Service. In early December 2004, Gazprom applied to participate in the auction via its wholly owned subsidiary, Gazpromneft.
On 15 December 2004, Yukos filed for bankruptcy protection in a Houston court and obtained a temporary injunction prohibiting Gazprom from participating in the auction. On 16 December 2004, a group of Western banks withdrew their financial support for Gazprom's application. On the same day, Baikalfinansgrup, a previously unknown company, submitted an application to participate in the auction.
On 19 December 2004, only two companies appeared at the auction, Gazpromneft and Baikalfinansgrup. Gazpromneft declined to place any offer. Baikalfinansgrup acquired Yuganskneftegaz on its first bid. On 23 December 2004, Baikalfinansgrup was acquired by Rosneft. Rosneft later disclosed in its annual financial statement that it had financed the acquisition of Yuganskneftegaz. At the time, Sergey Bogdanchikov was the president of Rosneft and the chief executive officer of Gazpromneft.
Shortly after the auction, the planned merger between Gazprom and Rosneft was abandoned, and Bogdanchikov resigned as Chief Executive Officer of Gazpromneft.
On 7 February 2006, in response to a question by a Spanish journalist, Vladimir Putin disclosed that Rosneft had used Baikalfinansgrup as a vehicle to acquire Yuganskneftegaz to protect itself against litigation.
=== Antitrust ===
On 22 April 2015, Gazprom was charged by the European Commission with using territorial restrictions to engage in anticompetitive behavior and using its dominant position to impose unfair prices. The company was accused of preventing competition in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Slovakia. The territorial restrictions prevented the import of gas at potentially more competitive prices. The restrictions also prevented gas from reaching areas of high demand and avoiding areas of excessive supply. Gazprom was also accused of compelling entities to consent to the now-defunct South Stream pipeline by necessitating a consent clause in long-term contracts.
In 2018, Gazprom agreed to a settlement that involved dropping all contractual barriers to the free flow of gas in Central and Eastern European gas markets and taking various steps to improve economic cooperation. Customers would be given an explicit contractual right to trigger a price review when prices paid diverged from competitive price benchmarks, and be allowed more frequent and efficient price reviews. Gazprom agreed not to seek any damages from its Bulgarian partners following the termination of the South Stream project. Had the case gone to court, the company could have been forced to pay fines of up to $12 billion.
In 2020, Gazprom agreed to reimburse Poland's PGNiG close to $1.5 billion for years of compelling it to overpay for its gas supply.
=== Methane leaks ===
In June 2021, a massive methane plume over Russia resulted from the partial shutdown of a Gazprom PJSC pipeline for emergency repair. The company stated that the repairs, which took place on 4 June, released 2.7 million cubic meters (1,830 metric tons) of methane. That amount has roughly the same short-term planet-warming impact as 40,000 internal-combustion cars in the U.S. driving for a year, according to the Environmental Defense Fund. The climate-warming effect of methane is estimated to be 86 times more potent than that of carbon dioxide.
=== Nord Stream pipelines ===
Nord Stream is a system of offshore natural gas pipelines in Europe, running under the Baltic Sea from Russia to Germany. The pipelines are owned and operated by subsidiaries of Gazprom. The Nord Stream projects have been fiercely opposed by the United States and Ukraine, as well as by other Central and Eastern European countries, because of concerns that the pipelines would increase Russia's influence in Europe, and because of the knock-on reduction of transit fees for use of the existing pipelines in Central and Eastern European countries. German chancellor Olaf Scholz suspended certification of Nord Stream 2 on 22 February 2022 because Vladimir Putin led Russia to recognize the Donetsk and Luhansk regions of Ukraine as independent republics. On 2 March 2022, it was reported that Nord Stream 2 AG, a Gazprom subsidiary, had ended business operations and laid off all 106 members of its staff as a result of International sanctions, though earlier reports that it had filed for bankruptcy were denied.
On 26 September 2022, a severe drop in pressure in both NS1 and NS2 was associated with a rupture in both pipes due to sabotage.
=== Greenpeace protest against Arctic drilling ===
Gazprom's oil drilling in the Arctic has drawn protests from environmental groups, particularly Greenpeace. Greenpeace has opposed oil drilling in the Arctic because it believes that oil drilling damages the Arctic ecosystem and that there are no safety plans in place to prevent oil spills.
In August 2012, Greenpeace staged protests against the Prirazlomnaya oil platform, the world's first offshore Arctic drill site. On 18 September 2013, the Greenpeace vessel MV Arctic Sunrise staged a protest and attempted to board Gazprom's Prirazlomnaya oil platform. Greenpeace stated that the drill site could cause massive disruption to the Arctic ecosystem. After arresting two campaigners attempting to climb the rig, the Russian Coast Guard seized control of the Greenpeace ship by dropping down from a helicopter and arresting thirty Greenpeace activists. Arctic Sunrise was towed by the Russian Coast Guard to Murmansk.
The Russian government intended to charge the Greenpeace campaigners with piracy and hooliganism, which carried a maximum penalty of fifteen years imprisonment. Greenpeace argued their operatives were in international waters. The Russian government's actions generated protests from governments and environmentalists worldwide. According to Phil Radford, Executive Director of Greenpeace in the US at the time, the reaction of the Russian Coast Guard and the courts were the "stiffest response that Greenpeace has encountered from a government since the bombing of the Rainbow Warrior in 1985." The charges of piracy were dropped in October 2013. In November 2013, 27 of the 30 activists were released on bail.
In May 2014, the first shipment of Arctic oil arrived at a refinery in the Netherlands and was purchased by the French company, TotalEnergies.
The episode is portrayed in the 3-hour television documentary On Thin Ice: Putin v Greenpeace.
=== Sanctions ===
Following Russia's continued aggression towards Ukraine, the US tightened its debt financing restrictions on Gazprombank on 17 July 2014. On 12 September 2014, the United States barred U.S. persons from selling goods and services to Gazprom and Gazprom Neft in connection with certain deepwater, Arctic offshore and shale projects. On 31 July 2014, the EU placed financial restrictions on Gazprombank. On 8 September 2014, the EU placed financial restrictions on Gazprom Neft.
In April 2018, the United States placed CEO Alexey Miller among the Specially Designated Nationals. This sanction bars U.S. individuals and entities from having any dealings with him. Entities outside the U.S. jurisdiction may also face punishment if the U.S. government deems they are aiding a sanctioned entity. Miller himself claimed to be proud of the sanction: "Not being included in the first list I even had some doubts – may be something is wrong (with me)? But I am finally included. This means that we are doing everything right," Miller said through his spokesman.
In December 2019, the U.S. sanctioned firms involved in the Nord Stream 2 project.
On 24 February 2022, upon the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the U.S. expanded penalties on Nord Stream 2 AG, a subsidiary of Gazprom, and sanctioned its CEO Matthias Warnig. It also expanded debt and equity prohibitions against Gazprombank, Gazprom, and Gazprom Neft. In addition, following the invasion, in March 2022 the European Union formally approved a ban on investments in the Russian energy sector, including Gazprom Neft.
The UK banned Gazprom from its debt and equity markets on 2 March 2022, sanctioned Gazprombank on 24 March 2022, and Gazprom board members on 1 March 2023. Gazprom Energy, a UK firm, stated that "supplies 20.8% of non-domestic gas volume in Great Britain. We source our gas through commodity exchanges in exactly the same way as our competitors and we do not depend on gas supplies from Russia."
Effect of sanctions
In 2022, due to economic sanctions, Gazprom took the unprecedented step of suspending dividends for the first time since 1998.
On 18 July 2022, amid the Nord Stream 1 maintenance period, Gazprom sent a letter declaring force majeure, claiming that due to extraordinary circumstances it could not guarantee a gas supply. On 26 September 2022, a rupture occurred in both pipes due to sabotage.
In the first half of 2022, Gazprom reported high profits, roughly equal to the profit for the whole of 2021, due to high prices. In the second half of 2022 and into 2023, Gazprom likely did not make a profit at all due to falling exports. Overall, Gazprom made a profit of 1.226 trillion roubles ($15.77 billion) in 2022, down 40%, after an extra tax was levied in late 2022.
On 19 December 2022 the European Energy ministers agreed on a price cap for natural Gas at €180 per megawatt-hour aiming to stop Russia forcing European gas prices upwards.
Exports of gas by Gazprom from Russia in 2021 was 185Bcm, in 2022 it fell by 45% to 100Bcm and in 2023 it fell again to 62Bcm.
=== Private army ===
In February 2023 Russian prime minister Mikhail Mishustin signed an order giving Gazprom Neft the right to form its own private army.
=== Reducing and ceasing supplies to gas companies ===
After the February 2022 invasion of Ukraine and the West's introduction of sanctions, Western gas companies continued to pay, normally Gazprom Bank accounts in euros and dollars, which meant that the funds became blocked by sanctions. On 31 March, President Vladimir Putin signed a decree − decree 172, requiring payment to be made by alternate means. Many Western companies refused to pay except in accordance with their contracts; accordingly, Gazprom ceased supplying those companies. There had also been cases of short delivery by Gazprom. This created the 2022–2023 Russia–European Union gas dispute
Arbitration cases through the International Court of Arbitration have been started by many western companies with long term contracts, for damages due to short supply or cessation of supplies in breach of Gazprom's contractual obligations, including Germany's Uniper, who is claiming €11.6 billion compensation from Gazprom and Engie which opened proceedings in February 2023 for short delivery,
Gazprom went to arbitration for €300m for unpaid gas from Gasum in Finland, which the arbitration decided was payable, but not in rubles.
India's GAIL is also seeking compensation through a London arbitration court over Gazprom's short delivery of LNG to India, which was disrupted by sanctions against a Gazprom subsidiary in Germany.
== See also ==
Naftogaz
CentGas consortium
Gazpromavia airline
Fakel - military wing of Gazprom Neft
List of Russian companies
Enerco Energy
Lakhta Center
Obskaya–Bovanenkovo Line
Energy Triangle
List of countries by natural gas production
List of countries by natural gas exports
List of countries by natural gas proven reserves
2022 Russian businessmen suspicious deaths
== References ==
== Sources ==
Goldmann, Marshall (2008), Petrostate: Putin, Power and the New Russia, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-534073-0
Gazprom in figures 2004-2008, Gazprom, 2008
== External links ==
Media related to Gazprom at Wikimedia Commons
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Bieberbach | Ludwig Bieberbach | Ludwig Georg Elias Moses Bieberbach (German: [ˈbiːbɐbax]; 4 December 1886 – 1 September 1982) was a German mathematician and leading representative of National Socialist German mathematics ("Deutsche Mathematik").
== Biography ==
Born in Goddelau, near Darmstadt, he studied at Heidelberg and under Felix Klein at Göttingen, receiving his doctorate in 1910. His dissertation was titled On the theory of automorphic functions (German: Theorie der automorphen Funktionen). He began working as a Privatdozent at Königsberg in 1910 and as Professor ordinarius at the University of Basel in 1913. He taught at the University of Frankfurt in 1915 and the University of Berlin from 1921–45.
Bieberbach wrote a habilitation thesis in 1911 about groups of Euclidean motions – identifying conditions under which the group must have a translational subgroup whose vectors span the Euclidean space – that helped solve Hilbert's 18th problem. He worked on complex analysis and its applications to other areas in mathematics. He is known for his work on dynamics in several complex variables, where he obtained results similar to Fatou's. In 1916 he formulated the Bieberbach conjecture, stating a necessary condition for a holomorphic function to map the open unit disc injectively into the complex plane in terms of the function's Taylor series. In 1984 Louis de Branges proved the conjecture (for this reason, the Bieberbach conjecture is sometimes called de Branges' theorem). There is also a Bieberbach theorem on space groups. In 1928 Bieberbach wrote a book with Issai Schur titled Über die Minkowskische Reduktiontheorie der positiven quadratischen Formen.
Bieberbach was a speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians held at Zurich in 1932.
== Politics ==
Bieberbach joined the Sturmabteilung in 1933 and the NSDAP in 1937. He was enthusiastically involved in the efforts to dismiss his Jewish colleagues, including Edmund Landau and his former coauthor Issai Schur, from their posts. He also facilitated the Gestapo arrests of some close colleagues, such as Juliusz Schauder. Bieberbach was heavily influenced by Theodore Vahlen, another German mathematician and anti-Semite, who along with Bieberbach founded the "Deutsche Mathematik" ("German mathematics") movement and journal of the same name. The purpose of the movement was to encourage and promote a "German" (in this case meaning intuitionistic) style in mathematics. For example, Bieberbach claimed that "the Cauchy–Goursat theorem arouses intolerable displeasure" in Germans, and was representative of an abstract style of reasoning and "pronounced shrewdness" characteristic of "Jewish mathematics". Bieberbach's and Vahlen's idea of German mathematics was part of a wider trend in the scientific community in Nazi Germany towards giving the sciences racial character; there were also pseudoscientific movements for "Deutsche Physik", "German chemistry", and "German biology".
In 1945, Bieberbach was dismissed from all his academic positions because of his support of Nazism, but in 1949 was invited to lecture at the University of Basel by Ostrowski, who considered Bieberbach's political views irrelevant to his contributions to mathematics.
== See also ==
Bieberbach conjecture
Bieberbach groups
Angle trisection
Periodic graph (geometry)
Topological rigidity
== References ==
== External links ==
Author profile in the database zbMATH
== Further reading ==
Bieberbach, Ludwig (1955), Analytische Fortsetzung, Berlin-Göttingen-Heidelberg-: Springer-Verlag
Bieberbach, Ludwig (1940). Die völkische Verwurzelung der Wissenschaft: Typen mathematischen Schaffens (Report). Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Klasse. Heidelberg: Weiß.
Cornwell, John (2003), Hitler's Scientist: Science, War and the Devil's Pact, New York: Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-200480-4
Grunsky, Helmut (1986). Ludwig Bieberbach zum Gedächtnis. (Ludwig Bieberbach in memoriam). (German) (PDF) (Report). Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung (DMV). Vol. 88. Berlin-Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 190–205. Zbl 0593.01005.
Mehrtens, Herbert (1987), "Ludwig Bieberbach and "Deutsche Mathematik"", in Phillips, Esther R. (ed.), Studies in the history of mathematics, MAA Stud. Math., vol. 26, Washington, DC: Math. Assoc. America, pp. 195–241, ISBN 978-0-88385-128-9, MR 0913104
Segal, Sanford L. (2003), "Chapter seven: Ludwig Bieberbach and Deutsche Mathematik", Mathematicians under the Nazis, Princeton University Press, pp. 334–418, ISBN 978-0-691-00451-8, MR 1991149 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Scripcaru | George Scripcaru | George Scripcaru (born September 3, 1966, Doljești, Neamț County) is a Romanian politician and mayor of Brașov. He was the mayor of Brașov between 2004 and 2020, and was elected in 2024 for a new term. In 2011, he was elected as one of the 15 vice-presidents of the Democratic Liberal Party.
He is a graduate of the Faculty of Physical Education and Sport of the West University, Timișoara.
He is married and has one daughter.
== Political activity ==
1992–1994: member of Democratic Party (PD), president of the Youth Organisation
1994–2000: president of Brașov County Youth Organisation; vice-president of the National Youth Organisation
1996–2000: councillor in Brașov Local Council
1998–1999: president of APR Brașov
2001–2014: president of Brașov County Democratic Liberal Party (PDL) Organisation
2004–2020: Mayor of Brașov
2024-: Mayor of Brașov
== Notes ==
== External links ==
Personal website
Brașov County PD-L Organisation Archived 2009-12-31 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Zabadani_District | Al-Zabadani District | al-Zabadani District (Arabic: منطقة الزبداني, romanized: manṭiqat al-Zabadani) is a district of the Rif Dimashq Governorate in southern Syria. Administrative centre is the city of al-Zabadani. At the 2004 census, the district had a population of 63,780.
Until February 2009, the sub-districts of Ayn al-Fijah and al-Dimas were part of Al-Zabadani District before being incorporated to form the newly established Qudsaya District.
The town-resort of Bloudan in the al-Zabadani district is a favourite tourist destination for locals and foreigners.
== Sub-districts ==
The district of al-Zabadani is divided into three sub-districts or nawāḥī (population as of 2004):
== Settlements ==
According to the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), the following villages, towns and cities make up the district of al-Zabadani:
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Steel_Chess_Tournament_2020 | Tata Steel Chess Tournament 2020 | The Tata Steel Chess Tournament 2020 was the 82nd edition of the Tata Steel Chess Tournament. It was held in Wijk aan Zee from 10–26 January 2020. The tournament was won by Fabiano Caruana, matching Garry Kasparov's best score in 1999 and Magnus Carlsen's best score in 2013. This tournament also saw the highest ever performance rating achieved in the history of the Tata Steel Chess Tournament, with Caruana having a 2945 performance, allowing him to reach 2840+ rating for the second time of his career.
== Results ==
=== Crosstable ===
=== Results by round ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Website Tata Steel 2020 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rewind_(Johnny_Rivers_album) | Rewind (Johnny Rivers album) | Rewind is the fourth studio album by the American musician Johnny Rivers, released in 1967 by Imperial Records. The album includes cover versions of "Baby, I Need Your Lovin'" and "The Tracks of My Tears". Produced by Lou Adler with arrangements by Jimmy Webb, who wrote seven of the songs. Noted Los Angeles session musicians the Wrecking Crew provided the music. The album spent 21 weeks on the Billboard albums chart and peaked at #14 . "Tracks of my Tears" spent nine weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 and peaked at #9, while "Baby I Need Your Lovin'" spent eleven weeks and peaked at #3.
== Reception ==
In his review in AllMusic, Zach Curd called Rewind, with its "big, clean production, and quality L.A. session musicians", a "great collection of blue-eyed soul and rock." Curd concluded that the album was "a solid, tight recording, with excellent production and inventive arrangements provided by Webb."
== Track listing ==
All songs written by Jimmy Webb except where noted.
=== Side one ===
"The Tracks of My Tears" (Warren "Pete" Moore, Smokey Robinson, Marvin Tarplin) – 2:53
"Carpet Man" – 3:02
"Tunesmith" – 3:10
"Sidewalk Song / 27th Street" – 2:25
"It'll Never Happen Again" (Tim Hardin) – 3:25
"Do What You Gotta Do" – 2:19
=== Side two ===
"Baby I Need Your Lovin'" (Lamont Dozier, Brian Holland, Eddie Holland) – 3:08
"For Emily, Whenever I May Find Her" (Paul Simon) – 2:47
"Rosecrans Boulevard" – 2:31
"The Eleventh Song" – 2:19
"Sweet Smiling Children" – 2:10
== Personnel ==
=== Musicians ===
Johnny Rivers – vocals, guitar
The Blossoms – backing vocals
Larry Knechtel – piano
Mike Deasy Sr. – guitar
Joe Osborn – bass guitar
Hal Blaine – drums
Mike Deasy Jr. – vocals
=== Technical ===
Lou Adler – producer
Armin Steiner, Michael Lietz – engineers
Jimmy Webb – arranger, conductor, liner notes
Marty Paich – horns and strings arranger/conductor
Woody Woodward – art direction
Bernard Yeszin, George Rodriguez, Ivan Nagy – photography
== References ==
== External links ==
Johnny Rivers official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-Eight_Mansions | Twenty-Eight Mansions | The Twenty-Eight Mansions (Chinese: 二十八宿; pinyin: Èrshíbā Xiù), also called xiu or hsiu, are part of the Chinese constellations system. They can be considered as the equivalent to the zodiacal constellations in Western astronomy, though the Twenty-eight Mansions reflect the movement of the Moon through a sidereal month rather than the Sun in a tropical year. Each mansion is roughly a day of the month.
The lunar mansion system was in use in other parts of East Asia, such as ancient Japan; the Bansenshūkai, written by Fujibayashi Yasutake, mentions the system several times and includes an image of the twenty-eight mansions.
A similar system, called nakshatra, is used in traditional Indian astronomy.
== Overview ==
Ancient Chinese astronomers divided the sky ecliptic into four regions, collectively known as the Four Symbols, each assigned a mysterious animal. They are Azure Dragon (青龍) on the east, Black Tortoise (玄武) on the north, White Tiger (白虎) on the west, and Vermilion Bird (朱雀) on the south. Each region contains seven mansions, making a total of 28 mansions. These mansions or xiù correspond to the longitudes along the ecliptic that the Moon crosses during its 27.32-day journey around the Earth and serve as a way to track the Moon's progress. In Taoism they are related to 28 Chinese generals.
== List of mansions ==
The names and determinative stars of the mansions are:
The Twenty-Eight Mansions are matched with Day of the week and animal to calculate a person's fortune and luck.
== See also ==
Four Symbols (Chinese constellation)
Lunar mansion
Three enclosures
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanum_albidum | Solanum albidum | Solanum albidum is a species of nightshade that is native to western South America, from southern Ecuador to northern Argentina, and grows well at mid elevations in the Andes. Common names include lumo (Ecuador) huaritar (Peru) and lavaplato plateado (Bolivia). It can be either a shrub or small tree. The plant has dull yellow berries 0.8–1.5 cm (0.31–0.59 in) in diameter.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_YM2203 | Yamaha YM2203 | The YM2203, a.k.a. OPN (FM Operator Type-N), is a six-channel (3 FM and 3 SSG) sound chip developed by Yamaha. It was the progenitor of Yamaha's OPN family of FM synthesis chips used in many video game and computer systems throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. It was used in a variety of NEC computers, along with various arcade game machines.
The YM2203 has the following features:
Three concurrent FM synthesis channels (voices)
Four operators per channel
Two interval timers
For channel three, operator frequencies can be set independently, making dissonant harmonics possible. (Normally, they would have a simple relation like e.g. 2× or 3× relative to a common base frequency)
Internal implementation of Yamaha's YM2149F SSG chip
The YM2203 and the rest of the OPN synthesizer family generate sound via frequency-modulated digital sine waves. It included 12 operator "cells", each generating a 13-bit sine wave at a programmable frequency, the volume of which is controlled by a programmable ADSR envelope generator. The output of these cells could be either summed together by the mixer, or fed into the input of another cell, in 4-cell batches creating the final sound values or "channels". 4 operator cells per channel allowed a total of 8 different permutations of cell connections, known as "algorithms". The ADSR parameters, multiplier and detune settings for each operator, combined with the algorithm, make up what are known as instrument patches.
The resulting digital sound output of each channel through the mixer was then converted to analog sound via a digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The YM2203 is used with a YM3014 external DAC companion chip.
The SSG module implemented the YM2149F's three SSG channels, noise generator and dual GPIO ports.
== Usage ==
Several arcade games used the YM2203:
1943
Black Tiger
Bomb Jack
Bubble Bobble
Capcom Bowling
Commando
Darius
Enduro Racer
Ghosts 'n Goblins
Gun.Smoke
Hang-On
Hyper Dyne Side Arms
Legendary Wings
Space Harrier
The Legend of Kage
The Speed Rumbler
The YM2203 was also used in certain models of the Fujitsu FM-7, NEC PC-8801, and NEC PC-9801 personal computers.
== See also ==
VGM – an audio file format for multiple video game platforms
Yamaha YM2149
Yamaha YM2608, aka OPNA
Yamaha YM2610, aka OPNB
Yamaha YM2612, aka OPN2
== References ==
YM2203 Datasheet (Translated) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animation_Kobe | Animation Kobe | The Animation Kobe (Japanese: アニメーション神戸) was an event established by Kobe in 1996 to promote anime and other visual media. The Animation Kobe Awards (アニメーション神戸賞) were given annually until 2015 by Kobe and the Organising Committee to creators and creations.
== Event ==
Animation Kobe was held annually in Kobe from 1996 to 2015. In addition to the awards ceremony, the event held talk shows and screenings of the prize winners. In 2006, the 11th event was carried live on the official website.
=== Major staff ===
Chairman of the Committee
Yasuki Hamano, 1996–2005
Akira Kamiya, 2006–2015
Chairman of the examination
The examination was done mainly by a panel of chief editors of magazines covering anime, such as Newtype, Animedia and Animage. Usually, a city employee sent by Kobe City would also participate. The panel voted for one of its members to serve as chairman:
Nobuo Oda, 1998 – chief editor of Animedia
Susumu Asaka, 1999 – chief editor of CD-ROM Fan
Toshihiro Fukuoka, 2000 – chief editor of Weekly Ascii
Masahito Arinaga, 2001 – chief editor of a new magazine of MediaWorks
Akitaro Daichi, 2002–2003 – animation director
Kenji Yano, 2004 – chief editor of Newtype
Yasushi Nakaji, 2006 – chief editor of Animedia
Toshihiro Fukuoka, 2007 – chief editor of Weekly Ascii
Isao Fujioka, 2008 – chairman of MdN Corporation
== Winners ==
The committee chooses most of the winners. Only the Animation Kobe Theme Song Award is chosen by fans' votes in the first selection, though the decision is by the committee. Therefore, the tendency of the prize winners is a little different from other
prizes by the fans' vote. (See: Animage Grand Prix)
=== Individual Award ===
The activities from September of the previous year to August of the event year become objects for the examination. Newcomers expected to have future prominence are noted.
* Watanabe, Okiura, Nagahama, Iso and Katō received the award for their first films as director.
=== Special Award ===
Awards for individual(s) or group that contributed to Japanese anime during a long period.
In the first year, the Yomiuri Award was posthumously given to Fujiko F. Fujio who died two months before the event.
=== Theatrical Film Award ===
Animation films released in Japan from September of the previous year to August of the event year become candidates. The candidates are selected not only from Japan, but also from other countries. However, the committee sees more importance in a point of view promoting young creators of Japan.
=== Television Award ===
The TV animations broadcast in Japan from September of the previous year to August of the event year, excluding rebroadcasts, become candidates. The candidates are selected not only from Japan but also from other countries. However, the committee sees more importance in a point of view promoting young creators of Japan.
=== Packaged Work Award ===
The packaged media distributed in Japan from September of the previous year to August of the event year become candidates. The candidates are selected not only from Japan but also from other countries. However, the committee sees more importance in a point of view promoting young creators of Japan.
=== Network Award ===
Re-created in 2000 as Network Media Award, the anime-related media making the best use of interactive distribution in Japan from September of the previous year to August of the event year become candidates.
The word Network does not mean only Internet. The candidates are selected not only from Japan but also from other countries. However, the committee sees more importance in a point of view promoting young creators of Japan.
=== Theme Song Award ===
The theme songs of either anime or other forms of animated media distributed in Japan from September of the previous year to August of the event year become candidates. The voting by fans is counted, and the five songs with the highest number of votes become the candidates for the final competition. Especially, the committee sees more importance in original songs made for an anime, sung in the 'spirit' of the work.
Only the Theme Song Award is influenced by the fans. This format started from the 4th event. The total number of votes in a year is about 10,000 votes. The result of the vote is also announced on the official sites of Radio Kansai, Anitama.com and the programs of Radio Kansai before the event. Though this is a preliminary vote to reduce the candidates to final, as of 2013, the candidates chosen in first by the vote have always won the award.
== See also ==
List of animation awards
Lists of animated feature films
BAFTA Award for Best Animated Film
Annie Award for Best Animated Feature
Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film
Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Animated Feature
Annie Award for Best Animated Feature — Independent
Saturn Award for Best Animated Film
Japan Media Arts Festival
Tokyo Anime Award
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website (in Japanese) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clan_Bannerman | Clan Bannerman | Clan Bannerman (Scottish Gaelic: Mac a' Bhrataich) is a Lowland Scottish clan.
== History ==
=== Origins of the clan ===
==== Traditional origins ====
The surname Bannerman has its origin in the privilege of the family's ancestors having been the carriers of the royal standard (banner bearers) in the 10th and 11th centuries. The chief's arms also show this honorable office. It is not known exactly when this right passed to the family but according to one tradition it was during the reign of either Malcolm III of Scotland or Alexander I of Scotland. The king is said to have braved the raging waters of the River Spey and Sir Alexander Carron, the king's chamberlain carried the royal standard and the rest of the Scottish army followed. The rebels were defeated and Carron was rewarded by being named the hereditary Standard Bearer to the King. His descendants still bear this privilege.
==== Recorded origins ====
In June 1367 Donald Bannerman was granted the lands of Clyntrees, Waterton and Weltown in the parish of Ellon, Aberdeenshire from David II of Scotland. The Bannermans were required to build a chapel for weekly mass said for the repose of the soul of David II's father, King Robert the Bruce. The Abbot of Kinloss granted to the Bannermans land lying to the west of the city of Aberdeen in 1370.
=== 16th and 17th centuries ===
The Bannermans became involved in the politics of north-east Scotland which included taking sides in the great feud between the powerful Clan Gordon and their enemies the Clan Forbes during the 16th century. The Bannermans generally supported the Forbeses. However, in 1608 Margaret Bannerman married George Gordon of Haddo, son of Sir John Gordon. George Gordon was a loyal supporter of the king and was later executed for opposing the National Covenant. Alexander Bannerman was also a supporter of Charles I of England against the Scottish presbyterians and his estates were only saved from being forfeited by passing them to his brother-in-law, Sir George Hamilton of Tulliallan.
In 1644 Alexander Bannerman fought a duel with his cousin, Sir George Gordon of Haddo in which Gordon was wounded. The family lands were eventually restored to Alexander Bannerman's son, Alexander Bannerman of Elsick. This Alexander Bannerman was created a Baronet of Nova Scotia by Charles II of England on 28 December 1682 for his constant loyalty during the civil war.
=== 18th century and Jacobite risings ===
Alexander Bannerman's youngest son, Sir Patrick, supported the deposed Stuart monarchs during the Jacobite rising of 1715. Sir Patrick was Provost of Aberdeen and presented a loyal address from the town to James Francis Edward Stuart (the Old Pretender) welcoming him to his ancient kingdom of Scotland. James promptly knighted Sir Patrick. Sir Patrick was arrested after the rising had failed and taken as a prisoner to Carlisle to await execution, but he managed to escape to France.
During the Jacobite rising of 1745, Sir Alexander Bannerman, son of the second Baronet, with 160 men of the clan joined Prince Charles Edward Stuart at Stirling in 1745 and was also with the Prince when he escaped the disaster at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. Bannerman fled north to Dingwall and then to Sutherland. He later escaped to France having narrowly escaped government troops by hiding in a secret closet at Elsick. Sir Alexander Bannerman, the fourth Baronet was forced to sell the estates at Elsick due to the threat of forfeiture and suspected Jacobite intrigues.
=== Modern history ===
Henry Campbell-Bannerman was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1905 to 1908. He had assumed the name of Bannerman through his mother in 1868. His first government office was as financial secretary to the War Office. He rapidly rose through the ranks and became Secretary of State for War in 1886. He became a close friend of Edward VII who later made him Prime Minister.
Sir Athur Bannerman, the twelfth Baronet served in the Indian Army and from 1921 to 1928 was a political aide to the Secretary of State for India. He was also appointed as a Gentleman Usher to George V, Edward VIII and also George VI. He was also made a Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1928.
John Bannerman, Baron Bannerman of Kildonan was one of Scotland's greatest rugby players, winning 39 caps for his country.
The thirteenth Baronet served in the Cameron Highlanders and became a Russian interpreter.
== Clan chief ==
The current Chief of Clan Bannerman is Sir David Gordon Bannerman of Elsick, 15th Baronet, OBE.
Sir David was educated at Gordonstoun School and New College Oxford. He lives in Suffolk and has four children: Claire (b. 1961), Margot (b. 1962), Arabella (b. 1965) and Clodagh (b. 1975) and seven grandchildren Constance, Alexander, Hector, Milo, Ruby, Dylan and Evie. His wife, Lady Mary Prudence Bannerman (née Ardagh Walter) died on 21st April, 2023.
== References ==
== External links ==
Website of the Standing Council of Scottish Chiefs |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syed_Bashir_Ahmad#:~:text=Syed%20Bashir%20Ahmad%20(Urdu%3A%20%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AF,the%20cause%20of%20weaker%20sections. | Syed Bashir Ahmad | Syed Bashir Ahmad (Urdu: سید بشیر احمد) (born 2 January 1952 in Sheikhar, Pulwama district in Jammu and Kashmir) is a Kashmiri politician. He has worked for the social upliftment of people living in rural areas and has championed the cause of weaker sections. He was the Member of Legislative Assembly from Rajpora Constituency and Chairman of Petitions Committee of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly.
== Political career ==
He was associated with politics from a very young age and remained associated with Janata Dal, Indian National Congress and Jan Morcha. When elections for the state assembly were held in 1996, Syed Bashir contested the elections from Pulwama constituency on a Janata Dal ticket against the National Conference candidate, but lost by a thin margin.
In 1999, he along with other leaders founded Jammu & Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), which was then headed by the former Home Minister of India and Jammu and Kashmir Chief Minister Mufti Mohammad Sayeed. In 2002, he contested and won the Assembly Elections from Rajpora Constituency and was made a Minister for Education in the Mufti Mohammad Sayeed led Government. He later held the portfolios of 'PHE, Irrigation and Flood Control', and 'Roads & Buildings'. He again won from the same constituency in the 2008 Assembly Elections.
In July 2005, militants made a bid on the life of Syed Bashir Ahmad at crowded Budshah Chowk in Srinagar when he was on way from Civil Secretariat. He escaped unhurt but two of his personnel security officers (PSO) and a civilian were injured in the shooting incident.
In July 2014, PDP dropped the name of Syed Bashir Ahmad from its list of candidates for 2014 Assembly elections. Soon after that hundreds of his party workers from Rajpora Constituency took to streets and staged a massive protest outside Housing Colony in Pulwama which houses top politicians and legislative members. The protesters amid anti-party slogans castigated Mufti Muhammad Sayeed for ignoring Syed Bashir. These protesters later on drove their vehicles towards Srinagar and staged a protest outside PDP president’s official Gupkar residence and demanded mandate in favour of Syed Bashir. Syed Bashir later revealed that he was not taken into confidence before dropping his name from the list which had earlier included his name as the party candidate from Rajpora constituency and was just told on phone that the candidate was changed.
In October 2014, Syed Bashir was expelled from PDP. According to a statement by PDP, Syed Bashir was expelled from the party for holding anti-party activities. In an interview to press, Syed Bashir refuted those allegations and said:
"I do not know why I have been expelled. I did not receive any notice from the party stating the cause of my expulsion. I was phoned by a journalist yesterday evening that I have been expelled from the party. They should have exposed my anti-party activities. I never involved myself in any anti-party activity. I didn't speak against PDP. I respected the party symbol even when I was denied the party mandate."
On 30 October 2014, Syed Bashir Ahmad announced that he would contest the J&K Legislative Assembly elections 2014, as an independent candidate. Addressing a press conference at his Sheikhar residence, Syed Bashir said, "Though many political parties had offered me the ticket but I declined them as my workers and supporters wanted me to contest independently. I was left with no option but to respect their aspirations and emotions."
On 22 August 2024, Syed Bashir Ahmad rejoined the People's Democratic Party.
== Electoral performance ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Callister_Hales | Thomas Callister Hales | Thomas Callister Hales (born June 4, 1958) is an American mathematician working in the areas of representation theory, discrete geometry, and formal verification. In representation theory he is known for his work on the Langlands program and the proof of the fundamental lemma over the group Sp(4) (many of his ideas were incorporated into the final proof of the fundamental lemma, due to Ngô Bảo Châu). In discrete geometry, he settled the Kepler conjecture on the density of sphere packings, the honeycomb conjecture, and the dodecahedral conjecture. In 2014, he announced the completion of the Flyspeck Project, which formally verified the correctness of his proof of the Kepler conjecture.
== Biography ==
He received his Ph.D. from Princeton University in 1986 with a dissertation titled The Subregular Germ of Orbital Integrals. Hales taught at Harvard University and the University of Chicago, and from 1993 and 2002 he worked at the University of Michigan.
In 1998, Hales submitted his paper on the computer-aided proof of the Kepler conjecture, a centuries-old problem in discrete geometry which states that the most space-efficient way to pack spheres is in a tetrahedron shape. He was aided by graduate student Samuel Ferguson. In 1999, Hales proved the honeycomb conjecture, and also stated that the conjecture may have been in the minds of mathematicians before Marcus Terentius Varro. The conjecture is mentioned by Pappus of Alexandria in his Book V.
After 2002, Hales became the University of Pittsburgh's Mellon Professor of Mathematics. In 2003, Hales started work on Flyspeck to vindicate his proof of the Kepler conjecture. His proof relied on computer calculation to verify conjectures. The project used two proof assistants, HOL Light and Isabelle. Annals of Mathematics accepted the proof in 2005; but was only 99% sure of the proof. In August 2014, the Flyspeck team's software finally verified the proof to be correct.
In 2017, he initiated the Formal Abstracts project which aims to provide formalised statements of the main results of each mathematical research paper in the language of an interactive theorem prover. The goal of this project is to benefit from the increased precision and interoperability that computer formalisation provides while circumventing the effort that a full-scale formalisation of all published proofs currently entails. In the long term, the project hopes to build a corpus of mathematical facts which would allow for the application of machine learning techniques in interactive and automated theorem proving.
Hales worked on a conjecture of Karl Reinhardt with Koundinya Vajjha, that the smoothed octagon has the lowest maximum packing density of all centrally symmetric convex shapes in the plane. Although they failed to prove Reinhardt's conjecture, in 2024 they claim to have proved a related conjecture of Kurt Mahler:
It seems highly probable from the convexity condition, that the boundary of an extreme convex domain consists of line segments and arcs of hyperbolae.
== Awards ==
Hales was an invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in 2002. He won the Chauvenet Prize in 2003, the R. E. Moore Prize in 2004, a Lester R. Ford Award in 2008, and a Fulkerson Prize in 2009. He was awarded the inaugural Robbins Prize of the American Mathematical Society in 2007. In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society. He was invited to give the Tarski Lectures in 2019. His three lectures were titled "A formal proof of the Kepler conjecture", "Formalizing mathematics", and "Integrating with Logic". He was awarded the Senior Berwick Prize of the London Mathematical Society in 2020.
== Publications ==
Hales, Thomas C. (1994). "The status of the Kepler conjecture". The Mathematical Intelligencer. 16 (3): 47–58. doi:10.1007/BF03024356. ISSN 0343-6993. MR 1281754. S2CID 123375854.
Hales, Thomas C. (2001). "The Honeycomb Conjecture". Discrete and Computational Geometry. 25 (1): 1–22. arXiv:math/9906042. doi:10.1007/s004540010071. MR 1797293. S2CID 14849112.
Hales, Thomas C. (2005). "A proof of the Kepler conjecture". Annals of Mathematics. 162 (3): 1065–1185. arXiv:math/9811078. doi:10.4007/annals.2005.162.1065.
Hales, Thomas C. (2006). "Historical overview of the Kepler conjecture". Discrete & Computational Geometry. 36 (1): 5–20. doi:10.1007/s00454-005-1210-2. ISSN 0179-5376. MR 2229657.
Hales, Thomas C.; Ferguson, Samuel P. (2006). "A formulation of the Kepler conjecture". Discrete & Computational Geometry. 36 (1): 21–69. arXiv:math/9811078. doi:10.1007/s00454-005-1211-1. ISSN 0179-5376. MR 2229658. S2CID 6529590.
Hales, Thomas C.; Ferguson, Samuel P. (2011), The Kepler Conjecture: The Hales-Ferguson Proof, New York: Springer, ISBN 978-1-4614-1128-4
Hales, Thomas C.; Adams, Mark; Bauer, Gertrud; Dang, Tat Dat; Harrison, John; Hoang, Truong Le; Kaliszyk, Cezary; Magron, Victor; McLaughlin, Sean; Nguyen, Tat Thang; Nguyen, Quang Truong; Nipkow, Tobias; Obua, Steven; Pleso, Joseph; Rute, Jason; Solovyev, Alexey; An Hoai Thi Ta; Tran, Nam Trung; Trieu, Thi Diep; Urban, Josef; Vu, Ky; Zumkeller, Roland (2017). "A formal proof of the Kepler conjecture". Forum of Mathematics, Pi. 5 e2. arXiv:1501.02155. doi:10.1017/fmp.2017.1.
== Notes ==
== External links ==
Thomas Callister Hales at the Mathematics Genealogy Project |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy | Game Boy | The Game Boy is a handheld game console developed by Nintendo, launched in the Japanese home market on April 21, 1989, followed by North America later that year and other territories from 1990 onwards. Following the success of the Game & Watch single-game handhelds, Nintendo developed the Game Boy to be a portable console, with interchangeable cartridges. The concept proved highly successful, and the Game Boy line became a cultural icon of the 1990s and early 2000s.
The Game Boy was designed by the Nintendo Research & Development 1 team, led by Gunpei Yokoi and Satoru Okada. The device features a dot-matrix display, a D-pad, four game buttons, a single speaker, and uses Game Pak cartridges. Its two-toned gray design included black, blue, and magenta accents, with softly rounded corners and a distinctive curved bottom-right edge. At launch in Japan it was sold as a standalone console, but in North America and Europe it came bundled with the wildly popular Tetris which fueled sales.
Despite mixed reviews criticizing its monochrome display compared to full-color competitors like the Sega Game Gear, Atari Lynx, and NEC TurboExpress, the Game Boy's affordability, battery life, and extensive game library propelled it to market dominance. An estimated 118.69 million units of the Game Boy and its successor, the Game Boy Color, released in 1998, have been sold worldwide, making them the fourth-best-selling system of all time. The Game Boy received several redesigns during its lifespan, including the smaller Game Boy Pocket, released in 1996, and the backlit Game Boy Light, released in 1998.
== History and development ==
=== Background ===
The Game Boy was designed by Nintendo Research & Development 1 (R&D1), the team behind the Mario Bros. and Donkey Kong arcade games and the successful Game & Watch series of handhelds, which had helped stabilize Nintendo financially. By 1983, while Game & Watch remained popular internationally, sales in Japan had begun to decline, pressuring R&D1 to innovate. At the same time, they faced competition from Nintendo Research & Development 2 (R&D2), an in-house rival created by Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi. That same year, R&D2 had launched the Family Computer, intensifying the pressure on R&D1. Looking to improve Game & Watch, R&D1 researched new screens from supplier Sharp, including dot-matrix displays that could support multiple games—unlike Game & Watch, which used pre-printed segmented LCDs, limiting each device to a single game.
=== Start of development ===
On June 10, 1987, division director Gunpei Yokoi informed R&D1 that Yamauchi wanted a successor to Game & Watch priced under ¥10,000 (equivalent to ¥11,796 in 2019). From the very first meeting, the team knew they wanted to use a dot-matrix display and codenamed the project Dot Matrix Game (DMG), a name later reflected in the Game Boy's official model number: DMG-01.
Within R&D1, Yokoi championed "lateral thinking with withered technology", a design philosophy which eschewed cutting-edge technology in favor of finding innovative uses of mature technologies, which tended to be more affordable and reliable. This led to early clashes between Yokoi and his assistant director Satoru Okada. Yokoi envisioned a simple toy, akin to an advanced Game & Watch, while Okada pushed for a more powerful system with interchangeable cartridges—essentially a portable NES. Some within R&D1 believed Yokoi resisted the idea simply to avoid links to the NES, developed by their rivals at R&D2. Eventually, in a heated meeting, Yokoi relented, approving Okada's vision and giving him full responsibility for the project.
=== Choosing the hardware ===
Initially, R&D1 considered using a Ricoh CPU, similar to the NES, for potential compatibility. However, R&D2—then building the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES)—blocked this, claiming it would strain Ricoh's resources. R&D1 suspected this was simply an attempt to hinder their project. Ultimately, they opted for a Sharp CPU. A key side effect of this choice was the CPU's built-in communication feature. In the early 1980s, Okada had worked on an earlier Nintendo project called Computer Mah-jong Yakuman that featured multiplayer gaming over a cable connection between two devices. He saw an opportunity to implement a similar feature. Despite skepticism from his team that the feature would be too difficult to use, he personally developed the Game Link Cable technology, which later enabled Pokémon's "battle" and "trade" game mechanics. The Game Boy also retained a key innovation from Game & Watch: the D-pad. Yokoi had designed it as a compact alternative to joysticks, making it ideal for handheld devices. Its use on the NES controller also helped ease the transition for players.
Early in development, R&D1 evaluated dot-matrix displays from Sharp but found them unsuitable due to severe ghosting. Seeking alternatives, they approached Citizen, Epson, Hosiden, Matsushita, and Seiko. Most declined, but Citizen, already producing LCDs for portable TVs, was eager to collaborate. The team was impressed by Citizen's chip-on-glass technology, which integrated the screen controller into the display, reducing cost and production time. They offered Nintendo a monochrome screen for ¥1,300 or a color version for ¥3,900. However, following Yokoi's philosophy, the team rejected color due to higher power consumption and cost, opting for a simple grayscale screen without a backlight. This decision proved wise, as competing color handhelds would suffer from poor battery life, giving the Game Boy a significant advantage.
However, Sharp was still an important partner, so Nintendo asked if they could match Citizen on technology and price. Sharp responded with vague answers on their screen technologies and quoted a price of ¥2,500 to ¥3,000 per screen. In response, Citizen lowered its price to ¥1,000. With Yamauchi's approval, R&D1 finalized a deal with Citizen on September 1, 1987. However, as Citizen's representatives left Nintendo's offices, they saw Sharp's team arriving for a meeting with Yamauchi. Without explanation, Yamauchi canceled the Citizen deal and awarded the contract to Sharp. To soften the blow, R&D1 fabricated a story, telling Citizen they were interested in buying color screens the next year, even drafting fake project documents. Citizen later supplied color screens for Sega's Game Gear, which had a design closely resembling Nintendo's fake project. Citizen never admitted to sharing the design.
=== Near cancellation ===
The R&D1 team soon discovered that Sharp was unprepared to make the screens they needed, leading to months of delays. Early prototypes with low-quality twisted nematic (TN) screens sparked internal skepticism, with some employees mockingly referring to the project as DameGame (with dame (だめ) meaning "hopeless" in Japanese). In the summer of 1988, R&D1 presented a prototype to Yamauchi, who immediately canceled the project, citing the poor visibility of the display. Team members argued that minor screen adjustments or a slightly higher budget could resolve the issue, but Yamauchi refused, leading them to suspect other teams had already convinced him the device would be a commercial failure. Furthermore, with the NES still thriving and the SNES on the horizon, a Game & Watch successor was no longer seen as essential.
Most of R&D1, including Okada, was reassigned. However, Yokoi remained committed to the project. Defying Yamauchi's decision, he continued refining the display. During discussions with a Sharp director involved in Game & Watch, the team learned of a super-twisted nematic (STN) display secretly in development. While it had a green tint and slightly lower contrast, it dramatically improved the viewing angle. Yokoi devised a plan. In a meeting with a Sharp board member, he pressed them about new technologies, leading them to reveal the STN display. R&D1 secured a prototype and installed it in a Game Boy.
Three months after canceling the project, Yamauchi was shown the STN prototype. Though still unimpressed by the screen, he approved the console for sale, perhaps influenced by delays in SNES development, which was now two years away from launch.
Using the STN display significantly increased production costs. To mitigate expenses, the team reduced the screen's size, though it was too late in development to shrink the console's overall dimensions. The target price of ¥10,000 was ultimately not met due to the cost of the display, and the Game Boy would retail for ¥12,500 (equivalent to ¥14,327 in 2019). To enhance the perceived value of the product, Yamauchi decided to include headphones and four AA batteries in the box, which cost Nintendo very little but made the Game Boy appear like a better deal.
=== Launch and success ===
On January 17, 1989, Nintendo officially announced the Game Boy. It launched in Japan on April 21, selling out its initial production run of 300,000 units within the first two weeks. By August, sales had reached 720,000 consoles and 1.9 million games across just four launch titles. The Game Boy debuted in North America on July 31, 1989, at a retail price of US$89.99 (equivalent to $228 in 2024), and backed by a US$20 million marketing campaign (equivalent to $51 million in 2024) aimed at making it the must-have, hard-to-find holiday toy. On its release day, 40,000 units were sold, and within just a few weeks, sales reached one million.
Learning from one of the NES launch's shortcomings, Okada pushed to offer third-party developers a development manual and development kit, built by Intelligent Systems, to encourage software creation for the Game Boy. Meanwhile, R&D1 developed Super Mario Land as the console's flagship title, but another game captured the attention of Okada and Yokoi—Tetris. While a team within R&D1 was porting the Soviet-made puzzle game to the NES, they recognized its potential for a handheld platform. Although the Game Boy version of Tetris would not be ready for the console's Japanese debut, it was completed in time for its North American launch in July 1989. Henk Rogers, who had acquired the rights to Tetris, convinced Nintendo of America president Minoru Arakawa to make it the pack-in game with the Game Boy instead of Super Mario Land, arguing that while Mario primarily appealed to young boys, Tetris would appeal to everyone. As a result, Tetris was bundled with the Game Boy in every region except Japan.
== Hardware ==
The Game Boy uses a custom system on a chip (SoC), to house most of the components, named the DMG-CPU by Nintendo and the LR35902 by its manufacturer, the Sharp Corporation.
Within the DMG-CPU, the main processor is a Sharp SM83, a hybrid of the Intel 8080 and Zilog Z80 processors. It combines the seven 8-bit registers of the 8080 (omitting the alternate registers of the Z80) with the programming syntax and additional bit manipulation instructions of the Z80. The SM83 also includes new instructions optimized for operations specific to the Game Boy's hardware arrangement. It operates at a clock rate of 4.194304 MHz.
The DMG-CPU also incorporates the Picture Processing Unit, essentially a basic GPU, that renders visuals using an 8 KB bank of Video RAM located on the motherboard. The display is a 2.5-inch (diagonal) reflective super-twisted nematic (STN) monochrome liquid-crystal display (LCD), measuring 47 millimeters (1.9 in) wide by 43 millimeters (1.7 in) high with a resolution of 160 pixels wide by 144 pixels high in a 10:9 aspect ratio. The screen displays four shades of grey/green.
Additionally, the SoC includes a 256 byte "bootstrap" ROM which is used to start up the device, 127 bytes of High RAM that can be accessed faster (similar to a CPU cache), and the Audio Processing Unit, a programmable sound generator with four channels: a pulse wave generation channel with frequency and volume variation, a second pulse wave generation channel with only volume variation, a wave channel that can reproduce any waveform recorded in RAM, and a white noise channel with volume variation. The motherboard also contains an 8 KB "work RAM" chip providing storage for general operations.
The Game Boy's physical controls include a D-pad (directional pad), four action buttons (labeled 'A', 'B', 'SELECT', 'START'), a sliding power switch with a cartridge lock to prevent accidental removal, along with volume and contrast dials on either side of the device.
The original Game Boy was powered internally by four AA batteries. For extended use, an optional AC adapter or rechargeable battery pack can be connected via a coaxial power connector on the left side. The right side also has a Game Link Cable port for connecting to up to four Game Boy devices for multiplayer games or data transfer. For sound output, the Game Boy includes a single monaural speaker and a 3.5 mm headphone jack that offered stereo sound.
=== Revisions ===
The Game Boy remained a strong seller throughout the 1990s, driven by popular releases like Pokémon, which kept demand high. However, its continued success presented a challenge for Nintendo: while the hardware was aging, the company was reluctant to replace it due to its strong sales.
At a press conference in San Francisco on March 14, 1994, Peter Main, Nintendo's vice president of marketing, answered queries about when Nintendo was coming out with a color handheld system by stating that sales of the Game Boy were strong enough that it had decided to hold off on developing a successor handheld for the near future. Instead, Nintendo would introduce several updates over the following years to extend the system's relevance.
==== Play It Loud! ====
The first update to the Game Boy's hardware design came on March 20, 1995, nearly six years after the console was first released, when Nintendo introduced various colored cases as part of the "Play It Loud!" campaign, known in Japan as Game Boy Bros. This revision was purely cosmetic, with consoles now available in red, yellow, green, blue, black, white, and clear plastic cases, with screens featuring a darker gray bezel than on the original model.
==== Game Boy Pocket ====
A major revision to the Game Boy came in 1996 with the introduction of the Game Boy Pocket, a slimmed-down unit that required just two smaller AAA batteries, albeit at the expense of providing just 10 hours of gameplay. The other major change was that the screen was changed to a much-improved film compensated super-twisted nematic (FSTN) LCD with a larger viewable area. The screen's visibility and pixel response-time had been improved, mostly eliminating ghosting. Additionally, the film compensation layer produced a true black-and-white display, rather than the green hues of the original Game Boy. The Pocket also has a smaller Game Link Cable port, which requires an adapter to link with the original Game Boy. This smaller port design would be used on all subsequent Game Boy models. Internally, the Game Boy Pocket had a new SoC, the CPU MGB, which moved the Video RAM from the motherboard to the SoC.
The Game Boy Pocket launched in Japan on July 20, 1996, and in North America on September 2, 1996, for US$69.99 (equivalent to $140 in 2024). The Game Boy Pocket helped to revitalize hardware sales and its release was ultimately well-timed as it coincided with the massively successful launch of Pokémon, which further fueled Game Boy sales. Reviewers praised the device's compact size and improved display, though some critics dismissed it as a minor upgrade with the Los Angeles Times remarking that Nintendo was, "repacking the same old black-and-white stuff and selling it as new". The device also faced criticism for its relatively short 10-hour battery life and the absence of a power LED, which had been used in previous models to indicate battery strength.
In early 1997, a revision was released featuring the return of the power LED, a broader range of case colors (red, green, yellow, black, gold metal, clear, and blue, in addition to the launch silver), and a price drop to US$54.95 (equivalent to $108 in 2024). By mid-1998, just before the launch of the Game Boy Color, the price had dropped further to US$49.95 (equivalent to $96 in 2024).
==== Game Boy Light ====
The Game Boy Light, released exclusively in Japan on April 14, 1998, retained all of the Pocket's improvements, including a more compact design and clearer FSTN LCD screen, while introducing several enhancements of its own. The most notable addition was an electroluminescent backlight, enabling gameplay in low-light conditions for the first time without external accessories. The backlight emitted a blue-green glow, similar to the illumination used in digital wristwatches at the time. To address the criticism of the Pocket's battery life, the Game Boy Light used two AA batteries with greater capacity, offering approximately 12 hours of gameplay with the backlight on and up to 20 hours with it off. These upgrades resulted in a slightly larger and heavier form factor compared to the Game Boy Pocket, though it remained significantly smaller and lighter than the original Game Boy. The Game Boy Light was available in gold and silver color variants and launched at a retail price of ¥6,800 (equivalent to ¥6,892 in 2019).
=== Technical specifications ===
== Games ==
More than 1,000 games were released for the Game Boy, excluding cancelled and unlicensed games. Additionally, more than 300 games developed for the Game Boy Color were backward compatible with the monochrome Game Boy models.
Games are stored on cartridges called the Game Boy Game Pak, using read-only memory (ROM) chips. Initially, due to the limitations of the 8-bit architecture of the device, ROM size was limited to 32 KB. However, Nintendo overcame this limitation with a Memory Bank Controller (MBC) inside the cartridge. This chip sits between the processor and the ROM chips. The CPU can only access 32 KB at a time, but the MBC can switch between several banks of 32 KB ROM. Using this technology, Nintendo created Game Boy games that used up to 1 megabyte of ROM. Game Paks could also provide additional functionality to the Game Boy system. Some cartridges included up to 128 KB of RAM to increase performance, which could also be battery-backed to save progress when the handheld was off, real-time clock chips could keep track of time even when the device was off and Rumble Pak cartridges added vibration feedback to enhance gameplay.
The top-selling franchise for the Game Boy were Pokémon Red, Blue, and Yellow, the first installments of the Pokémon video game series, which sold more than 46 million copies. The best-selling single game was Tetris, with more than 35 million copies shipped, it was a pack-in game included with the purchase of many original Game Boy devices.
Beyond the platform's official titles, as of 2025, an active online community continues to create new games for the Game Boy and Game Boy Color through tools like GB Studio, a free and user-friendly game-building engine that simplifies the process compared to manual coding.
=== Launch titles ===
When the Game Boy launched in Japan in April 1989, it featured four launch titles: Alleyway (a Breakout clone), Baseball (a port of the NES game), Super Mario Land (an adaptation of the Mario franchise for the handheld format) and Yakuman (a Japanese mahjong game). When the console debuted in North America, two additional launch titles were added: Tetris and Tennis (another NES port), while Yakuman never saw a wide international release.
== Reception ==
=== Critical reception ===
Though it was less technically advanced than the Sega Game Gear, Atari Lynx, NEC TurboExpress and other competitors, notably by not supporting color, the Game Boy's lower price along with longer battery life made it a success.
The console received mixed reviews from critics. In a 1997 year-end review, a team of four Electronic Gaming Monthly editors gave the Game Boy scores of 7.5, 7.0, 8.0, and 2.0. The reviewer who contributed the 2.0 panned the system due to its monochrome display and motion blur, while his three co-reviewers praised its long battery life and strong games library, as well as the sleek, conveniently sized design of the new Game Boy Pocket model.
=== Sales ===
The Game Boy launched in Japan on April 21, 1989, with an initial shipment of 300,000 units, which sold out within two weeks. In the United States, 40,000 units were sold on its release day, July 31, 1989, and sales reached one million within weeks. By 1995, Nintendo of America reported that 46% of Game Boy players were female, a higher proportion than for the Nintendo Entertainment System (29%) and Super Nintendo Entertainment System (14%).
Before the introduction of the Game Boy Color, over 59.89 million units of the various monochrome Game Boy models had been sold worldwide as of 30 September 1997. Nintendo subsequently reported only combined sales figures for the Game Boy and Game Boy Color. By the time of the system's discontinuation in 2003, the monochrome Game Boy models and the Game Boy Color had sold a combined total of 118.69 million units globally: 32.47 million in Japan, 44.06 million in the Americas, and 42.16 million in other regions.
At the time of its discontinuation, the Game Boy line was the best-selling game console of all time. It was later surpassed by the Nintendo DS, PlayStation 2, and Nintendo Switch, making it the fourth-best-selling console as of 2025.
By 1997, the Game Boy and Game Boy Pocket had sold over 64 million units worldwide. Combined lifetime sales of the Game Boy and Game Boy Color models reached approximately 118.69 million units worldwide by the time of discontinuation.
=== Cultural legacy ===
Beyond its commercial success, the Game Boy has had a lasting cultural impact. It helped popularize handheld gaming through an affordable, durable design that brought video games into daily life. The system is frequently cited in retrospectives as a gateway to gaming for a generation of players.
Smithsonian Magazine describes the Game Boy as a permanent fixture of American cultural history, citing its economic significance and enduring appeal. Reflections in The Guardian characterize it as "a portal to other magical worlds", with players recalling formative gaming experiences.
An original 1989 Game Boy is on display at the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History as part of the "American Enterprise" exhibition, alongside early mobile devices. It is also featured in the Nintendo Museum in Kyoto, Japan. In 2009, the Game Boy was inducted into the U.S. National Toy Hall of Fame.
The Game Boy became a staple within the chiptune scene as hardware for composing music through music trackers such as Little Sound DJ and Nanoloop.
Lego created a set based on the Game Boy in partnership with Nintendo. The set came out October 2025.
The Game Boy remains a cultural icon. The Game Boy is frequently cited in retrospectives as a foundational device in portable gaming, praised for its durability, long battery life, and affordability. It is often displayed in museum exhibits and referenced in discussions of portable device design evolution.
== Notes ==
== References ==
Nintendo IR — Hardware & Software Sales Units (Game Boy: 118.69 million units)
PBS NewsHour – “Nintendo’s Game Boy turns 25” (noting combined Game Boy + Game Boy Color sales over 118 million)
== External links ==
Official website archived at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haddo_House | Haddo House | Haddo House is a Scottish stately home located near Tarves in Aberdeenshire, approximately 20 miles (32 km) north of Aberdeen (grid reference NJ868347). The former seat of the Earls and Marquesses of Aberdeen and Temair, Haddo House has been owned by the National Trust for Scotland since 1979.
== Establishment and architectural style ==
The Gordons, who later became the Earls of Aberdeen and Marquesses of Aberdeen, lived on the site for more than 500 years. Haddo House sits in or near the site of the old Kellie Castle, the family's previous dwelling which was burnt down by the Covenanters. Dating from 1732, it was designed by William Adam in the Georgian Palladian style. The interior of the house though is late Victorian in style, having undergone refurbishment in 1880 by Wright and Mansfield. Haddo contains a large art collection, including a series of 85 castles by James Giles and an early work by Claude Lorrain. There are also several portraits of 19th-century British politicians.
== Dinner service ==
A specially made display cabinet contains the Cabot Commemorative State Dinner Service. The hand-painted porcelain service with twenty-four settings for an eight-course meal was made by members of the Woman's Art Association of Canada in 1897. The Canadian government declined to pay the CDN$1,000 asking price. It was purchased privately by members of the House and Senate of Canada and presented on 12 June 1898 to Lady Aberdeen on the occasion of her husband, John Hamilton-Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair, ending his term as Governor-General of Canada.
== Peripheral buildings ==
John Smith did the design work for the kitchens and peripheral buildings in 1843. He returned there in 1845 and built the gate houses at the North and South entrances. Constructed in a rough coarse granite, these single storey buildings are in a Tudor style.
== Prime ministerial residence ==
Haddo House's most notable former resident was George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen, the British prime minister from 1852–1855.
== World War II hospital ==
Another notable period in its history was during World War II when the house became a maternity hospital for the evacuated mothers of Glasgow. Nearly 1200 babies were born at Haddo Emergency Hospital, as it was known, and many of these 'Haddo Babies' still come back to visit.
== Theatre ==
The house has a small chapel attached. In the grounds is a theatre, Haddo House Hall, and rehearsal rooms, known as the Peatyards. Haddo House Choral & Operatic Society (HHCOS), a large and vibrant choral society formed in 1945, has its operations base there. For over sixty years it has been noted for its annual musical and operatic productions.
== Damages by Storm Arwen ==
In 2021, around 100,000 trees were destroyed during Storm Arwen. It is estimated that it will take a generation for the estate to return to its pre-storm way.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Ground_Country_Fair | Common Ground Country Fair | The Common Ground Country Fair, also known as the Common Ground Fair, is an agricultural fair in Unity, Maine held the third weekend after Labor Day and sponsored by the Maine Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association (MOFGA). It is held at the Common Ground Education Center. It was first held in 1977. The fair "celebrates organic living, farming and growing," and all the food sold at the event must be organic. The fair regularly hosts 50,000 to 60,000 people.
== History ==
The fair began in 1977 in Litchfield, Maine. In 1981, it moved to Windsor, Maine and in 1996, MOFGA purchased 200 acres in Unity, Maine, where the fair now takes place yearly.
The first fair was held at the Litchfield Fairgrounds as a fundraiser for MOFGA. It raised $22,000. In 2016, a Portland Press Herald article about the fair's history said: A very small item about the first Common Ground Country Fair ran in the Portland Press Herald on Sept. 2, 1977 under the headline “Fair to Have Extra Features.” The “few touches” that would make the fair “a cut above the traditional” were “a roster of speakers that includes Helen and Scott Nearing, renowned homesteaders and authors.” The story is 102 words long, which suggests that editors at the Press Herald had limited expectations for the future of the Common Ground Country Fair.In the Nov.-Dec. 1977 Maine Organic Farmer & Gardner magazine, Lloyd Ferris wrote:The Common Ground Country Fair was really too big to define in words. One is left with a lot of pleasant memory pictures; a lot of good thoughts. I will never forget, for instance, that incredible tent that looked a bit like an Egyptian pyramid or a star. And what food there was beneath it: The Strong Brothers’ egg rolls for which people lined up 50 deep, the Hungry Hunza sandwiches loaded with cheeses and sprouts and other good things, Mary’s home-made ice cream with hot apples, Krystina’s delightful bakery goods and that fine swichel (if I’m spelling it right) cooked up by the Sagadahoc County Chapter of MOFGA. It was a kind of hot cider mixture, they told me, consumed by workers long ago during haying season.In 1989, Hurricane Hugo flooded the fairgrounds and delayed the Saturday opening.
In 2008, MOFGA installed water bottle filling stations to test the viability of no longer offering the sale of bottled water. The test run was deemed a success and the sale and use of bottled water wasn't offered the following year.
Coffee sales were not offered at the fair for many decades. By 2011 vendors could sell organic, fair-trade coffee.
For the first time in 2017, the fair was powered entirely by alternative sources, including a 102-Kilowatt solar array, a series of heat pumps and a small wind turbine.
In May 2020, MOFGA announced the fair wouldn't take place for the first time since its inception due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Fair director April Bouchard said in a statement the cancellation "allows us to begin planning a marquee virtual event."
Turnout for the fair had been falling in the years before the Covid pandemic, but has since rebounded and reached an all-time high of more than 70,000 attendees in 2024.
== Fair atmosphere ==
The fair commonly features traditional skills demonstrations, alternative energy demonstrations, handicraft vendors, farmers markets, and food courts selling a range of organic foods.
The fair is also host to a large number of political groups and activists. In 2009, there were 64 political or social activism groups in attendance.
In 2012, Anne Raver of The New York Times visited the fair and wrote: "The fair is a grand celebration not only for organic growers, but also for spinners and weavers; woodworkers and jewelry-makers; drovers of oxen, horses and mules; and sheep herders and their dogs. Not to mention poets and fiddlers, reflexologists and herbalists, solar and wind power gurus, seed savers and worm-keepers." The Times also noted: "It wasn’t the toasty smell of cotton candy that filled the air; it was the fruity fragrance of sweet Annie (Artemisia annua), a European herb that can self-seed in the garden like an invading army. Women old and young wore golden crowns of it on their heads."
In 2013, the Portland Press Herald reported: "Instead of the typical fair staples such as cotton candy and carnival rides, the Common Ground Country Fair draws crowds seeking veggie burgers and workshops on worm composting."
The fair is known for its numerous vegetarian, vegan and gluten-free options. Vegan columnist Avery Yale Kamila wrote in 2014: "for vegetarians there is no contest when it comes to the agricultural event with the largest selection of meat-free options. The Common Ground Country Fair wins the blue ribbon for consistent veg-friendliness year after year."
The Maine Campus newspaper wrote in 2019 the fair "has significantly more vegan and vegetarian options than an average fair."
== Keynote speakers ==
Each day of the fair features one keynote address plus hundreds of other speeches, talks, panel discussions, demonstrations and other educational events. Some past keynote addresses at the Common Ground Country Fair were delivered by: Wendell Berry, Scott Nearing, Helen Nearing, Elliot Coleman, Vandana Shiva, Will Bonsall, Kent Whealy, Jim Hightower, Ross Gelbspan, Percy Schmeiser.
== Poster art & competition ==
MOFGA holds an annual competition for the artwork to be featured on the next year's fair poster and merchandise. Maine residents and MOFGA members can enter the contest. In 1987, the featured artwork was from Dahlov Ipcar. The 2011 poster was a still life oil painting of canned goods by Dacia Klinkerch. In 2014, Kate Seaver's medicinal herb drawing won the competition. The 2018 poster was a painting of two kunekune pigs by Arika von Edler, who painted them to highlight livestock not being raised for meat.
== References ==
== External links ==
Common Ground Country Fair |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Aishwarya_of_Nepal#:~:text=She%20was%20the%20wife%20of,Prince%20Nirajan%2C%20and%20Princess%20Shruti. | Queen Aishwarya of Nepal | Aishwarya Rajya Laxmi Devi Shah (Nepali: ऐश्वर्य राज्य लक्ष्मी देवी शाह) (7 November 1949 – 1 June 2001) was Queen of Nepal from 1972 until her death in 2001. She played a significant role as the consort of King Birendra and was a prominent figure in the royal family throughout her lifetime.
Queen Aishwarya is regarded by many Nepalese as an influential figure, known for her steadfast presence. During the pre-1990 era of absolute monarchy, she was often considered to be a central influence behind the throne. While her sense of style shaped the cultural ideal for many, her influence went beyond appearance. She was seen as a figure of composure and support alongside her husband during a period of both political change and royal tradition.
In addition to her public role, Queen Aishwarya was a patron of the arts and made contributions to the cultural landscape of Nepal. She was known for her literary works and involvement in music, composing and writing songs under the pen-name "Chandani Shah".
== Education ==
She had her school education at St. Helen's Convent of Kurseong, India, and St Mary's of Jawalakhel, Nepal. She passed S.L.C. from Kanti Ishwari Rajya Laxmi High School in 1963. She was enrolled in the Tribhuvan University-affiliated school, Padmakanya College and graduated in arts in 1967.
== Family life ==
Queen Aishwarya was born into the aristocratic Rana family, which had ruled Nepal as hereditary Prime Ministers for 104 years until the 1950s. She was the eldest daughter of General Kendra Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana (1921–1982) and Shree Rajya Lakshmi Shah (1926–2005). She had two brothers, Suraj Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana and Uday Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana, and two sisters, Komal Rajya Lakshmi Devi Shah and Prekshya Rajya Lakshmi Devi Shah.
In 1970, Aishwarya married her second cousin, then-Crown Prince Birendra of Nepal, becoming Crown Princess. Both of her sisters also married into the Shah family and became princesses by marriage—Komal married Gyanendra, who later became King, while Prekshya married Dhirendra, the youngest brother of Birendra and Gyanendra.
Following Aishwarya's death in 2001, her younger sister Komal became Nepal's queen consort, a position she held until the monarchy was abolished in 2008.
== Queen of Nepal ==
After King Mahendra's death in 1972, Birendra ascended the throne, and Aishwarya became Queen consort. The couple formally assumed their roles that year, with their coronation taking place in 1975. During their reign, they traveled extensively and hosted numerous royal dignitaries from around the world.
Queen Aishwarya was known for her intelligence, eloquence, and active involvement in social and cultural initiatives. She organized various cultural and charitable programs and played a significant role in supporting King Birendra throughout his reign.
During the 1970s and 1980s, as Nepal faced growing political tension and movements from anti-monarchist groups, Queen Aishwarya was the subject of various rumours. Her strong presence and influence were sometimes perceived as dominance over King Birendra. Known for her outspoken and assertive nature, she was often contrasted with her more reserved husband. During the period of absolute monarchy, she was perceived as a key influence in the palace, with some believing she advocated for retaining absolute rule. However, in 1990, King Birendra ultimately agreed to transition Nepal to a constitutional monarchy, relinquishing his absolute powers.
The extent of Queen Aishwarya's influence remains debated, but over time, perceptions of her shifted. While she was once seen as a dominant figure, later accounts described her as a steadfast companion to King Birendra, whose popularity and stature grew throughout his reign.
== Literary works ==
She was interested in literature and, under the pen-name Chadani Shah, wrote dozens of poems, which have been collected under the title Aphnai Akash Aphnai Paribesh. The anthology is prefaced with criticisms about Chadani Shah's writing by veteran critics of Nepalese literature. She was also a song writer, and her songs were frequently aired by Radio Nepal and Nepal Television.
== Murder ==
Queen Aishwarya was shot dead along with her husband, King Birendra; her son, Prince Nirajan; her daughter, Princess Shruti; and seven other royal family members in the June 1, 2001 palace massacre. It is widely believed that the motive for the murder was the strong opposition to the Crown Prince's proposed marriage to Devyani Rana. Queen Aishwarya's face was so badly disfigured by the gunshot wound that, for the widely attended state funeral procession, it was covered by a porcelain mask bearing her likeness.
== Honours ==
=== National ===
Kingdom of Nepal:
Member with Collar of the Order of Mahendra
Member Grand Cross of the Order of Honour
Member Grand Cross of the Order of the Benevolent Ruler
Member Grand Cross of the Order of Gorkha Dakshina Bahu
King Birendra Investiture Medal (24 February 1975)
Commemorative Silver Jubilee Medal of King Birendra (31 January 1997)
=== Foreign ===
Denmark: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog
Egypt: Grand Cross of the Order of the Virtues, Special Class
Finland: Grand Cross of the Order of the White Rose
France: Grand Cross of the Order of National Merit
Germany: Grand Cross Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Japan: Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum
Lao Royal Family: Dame Grand Cross of Royal Order of the Million Elephants and the White Parasol
Pakistan: Grand Cross of the Order of Excellence
Socialist Republic of Romania: Grand Cross of the Order of 23 August
Spain:
Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III
Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic
Thailand: Dame Grand Cordon of the Order of Chula Chom Klao (1986)
Yugoslavia: Grand Cross Great Star of the Order of the Yugoslav Star
== References ==
== External links ==
"Aishwarya: Nepal's forceful queen" 5 June 2001, BBC news |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comrades_Marathon#:~:text=The%20constitution%20of%20the%20race,on%20Republic%20Day%2C%2031%20May. | Comrades Marathon | The Comrades Marathon is an ultramarathon of approximately 88 kilometres (55 mi) which is run annually in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa between the cities of Durban and Pietermaritzburg. It is the world's largest and oldest ultramarathon race. The direction of the race alternates each year between the "up" run (87.6 km) starting from Durban (elevation: 101 metres (331 ft)) and the "down" run (89.98 km) starting from Pietermaritzburg (elevation: 921 metres (3,022 ft)).
In all but three editions since 1988, over 10,000 runners have reached the finish within the allowed 11 or 12 hours. Since the 1980s, increased participation has coincided with substantial rises in both average finish times and the average age of finishers.
== Course ==
“Listen, listen, laduma, laduma. There’s a distant sound of thunder and a crackling of lightning on the horizon, and a great black and gold mist is starting to roll down the road from Pietermaritzburg, down Polly Shortts, through Camperdown, through Cato Ridge, through Drummond Village, over mighty Inchanga Mountain, all the way to Kingsmead. And they’re calling. They’re calling me. They’re calling me—the singing, the thunder, and the black and gold mist. So I must answer that call. And I must go. Ziyasha. This is it.”
The Comrades Marathon is run on the roads of KwaZulu-Natal province between Durban and Pietermaritzburg, with the direction alternating each year between the "up" and "down" runs. The route is defined by five major hills—Cowies Hill, Fields Hill, Botha's Hill, Inchanga, and Polly Shortts—collectively known as the “Big Five.” These hills vary in length, gradient, and strategic placement, and feature prominently in both directions of the race. The highest point on the course lies near the Umlaas Road interchange at about 2,850 feet (870 m) above sea level. Approximately 40 official refreshment stations line the course, offering runners water, energy drinks, fruit, and snacks, along with first aid and physiotherapy points at key locations.
=== 'Up' Run ===
In an "up" run year, the Comrades Marathon covers approximately 87 kilometres from Durban on the Indian Ocean coast to the inland city of Pietermaritzburg, gaining over 1,800 metres in elevation. The early stages feature the most sustained climbing, with a net elevation gain of over 500 metres in the first 22 kilometres. The route begins with a gradual ascent out of Durban, including long pulls through Tollgate and Mayville, before encountering the first of the five major hills.
Cowies, Fields, and Botha’s Hills appear in the first half of the route, demanding early restraint from runners seeking to conserve energy. After the halfway mark near Drummond, the course continues to undulate through the KwaZulu-Natal countryside. Inchanga, a long and winding ascent, tests endurance just after halfway. The highest point on the course is reached at Umlaas Road, before the route drops briefly into Ashburton and rises again for the steep climb of Polly Shortts, located within the final 10 kilometres. Though shorter in distance than some earlier hills, Polly Shortts is the steepest and often the most decisive, arriving when fatigue is at its peak. The final stretch into Pietermaritzburg features several smaller climbs and descents before reaching the finish line.
=== 'Down' Run ===
In a "down" run year, the Comrades Marathon follows a route of approximately 90 kilometres from Pietermaritzburg to Durban, descending from around 660 metres above sea level to near sea level. While the net elevation profile trends downhill, the course includes significant climbs and undulations throughout. From the start at the Pietermaritzburg City Hall, runners ascend gently through the suburbs before tackling early challenges such as Polly Shortts and Little Polly’s. The route then rises to Umlaas Road—the highest point on the course—before descending through Camperdown and Cato Ridge into the Harrison Flats region.
The second half of the race includes the long descent from Inchanga into Drummond (the halfway point), followed by a climb through Alverstone and Botha’s Hill. Notable features include Fields Hill, a steep and sustained descent into Pinetown, and Cowies Hill shortly afterward. These downhill sections, while advantageous for pacing, are known to strain the quadriceps and test runners' resilience. After navigating the M13 through Westville and 45th Cutting, participants descend toward Durban, finishing outside the Moses Mabhida Stadium via contraflow routes and city streets. Despite its name, the down run demands careful pacing, as late-race climbs and cumulative impact can be decisive.
== History ==
The Comrades Marathon, first held on 24 May 1921, is one of the world’s oldest and most prestigious ultramarathons. Conceived by World War I veteran Vic Clapham to honour fallen soldiers, the race was intended as a test of endurance and resilience.
Apart from brief interruptions during World War II and the COVID-19 pandemic (2020–2021), it has taken place annually. Over 300,000 runners have completed the course between Durban and Pietermaritzburg, alternating annually between the "up" and "down" routes.
The early decades of the race saw significant individual achievements and growing popularity. Bill Rowan won the first edition in 1921, and Arthur Newton dominated the 1920s with five wins. Women were initially unofficial participants—Frances Hayward ran in 1923 without formal entry. The 1930s were defined by runners like Hardy Ballington and Wally Hayward, with the latter continuing his legacy into the 1950s and eventually becoming the oldest finisher at age 80 in 1989.The 1940s introduced traditions like Max Trimborn’s rooster crow at the start, which replaced the starter's gun and remains part of the race to this day.
From the 1960s through the 1980s, the Comrades expanded significantly. The race opened to international competitors and, in 1975, officially welcomed black runners and women with Vincent Rakabele becoming the first black runner to officially win a medal and Elizabeth Cavanaugh becoming the first official women's winner. Milestones included Bruce Fordyce’s nine titles and Frith van der Merwe’s remarkable women's course record in 1989. The 1980s also marked the emergence of black champions like Sam Tshabalala and pioneering black female finishers like Olive Anthony. Television coverage, increased participation, and record-breaking performances made this era foundational for the race’s modern stature.
In the 1990s and 2000s, the Comrades became more global and professional. Prize money was introduced in 1995, attracting elite international athletes. The race date shifted from Republic Day to Youth Day, reflecting South Africa’s changing political context. The 2000 race drew nearly 24,000 entrants to celebrate the 75th anniversary, and in 2010, the event entered the Guinness World Records for most finishers in an ultramarathon. Runners like Leonid Shvetsov (2007 & 2008) and David Gatebe (2016) set course records, while athletes such as Stephen Muzhingi and the Russian identical twin sisters Olesya and Elena Nurgalieva dominating multiple editions - the sisters winning 10 races between them.
After a two-year hiatus due to COVID-19, the Comrades returned in 2022 with a capped field and the slogan "The Return – Sishay' Ibuya." Recent years have seen athletes like Gerda Steyn and Tete Dijana achieving multiple victories.
== Rules ==
Runners over the age of 20 are eligible to qualify after completion of an officially recognised marathon (42.2 km) in under 4:50 (5 hours before 2019). During the event an athlete must also reach five cut-off points in specified times to complete the race.
Athletes currently have 12 hours to complete the course, extended from 11 hours in 2003 (including a special 12 hour allowance in the year 2000). The original Comrades cut-off time from 1921 to 1927 was also 12 hours, reduced to 11 hours in 1928. There are a number of cut-off points along the routes which runners must reach by a prescribed time or be forced to retire from the race.
A runner who successfully completed nine marathons wears a yellow number, while those who completed ten races wear a green number permanently allocated to the runner for all future races. Runners running their 20th, 30th and 40th races are also indicated by yellow numbers – differently formatted on different years.
== Medals ==
Medals are awarded to all runners completing the course in under 12 hours. Medals are currently awarded as follows:
== Traditions ==
The Comrades Marathon has several long-standing traditions that are central to its identity. One of the most notable is the annual alternation between the “up” run and the “down” run, with each route offering distinct physical challenges.
At the start line, runners observe a set sequence: the South African National Anthem is played, Shosholoza is sung, Chariots of Fire by Vangelis is played, a recording of Max Trimborn’s rooster crow is played, and then the starting gun is fired.
About halfway into the race, runners pass Arthur’s Seat, a small recess in the bank near Drummond. It is believed to have been a race-day resting spot for five-time winner Arthur Newton. Tradition holds that greeting "Arthur" or placing a flower there brings good luck for the second half of the race.
As they enter the final straight, the leading man and woman are given a scroll bearing a goodwill message from the mayor of the starting city to the mayor of the finishing city, symbolizing the link between Durban and Pietermaritzburg. In addition, each of the top 10 male and female finishers is handed a red rose as they enter the finishing straight.
At the end, the 12-hour cutoff is strictly enforced. A gun is fired exactly at the time limit, and runners who haven’t finished are not counted as official finishers. Immediately after, The Last Post is played by a lone bugler to mark the close of the event.
== Results ==
The Comrades Marathon results show over a century of competitive endurance running. Bill Rowan won the first race in 1921 in 8:59:00, and Arthur Newton dominated the 1920s with five wins. Wally Hayward and Bruce Fordyce became major figures, with Hayward winning five times across the 1930s to 1950s, and Fordyce winning nine times in the 1980s. The women’s race, officially recognised from 1975, saw standout performances like Frith van der Merwe’s 5:54:43 in 1989, a record that stood for decades. In the 2000s, Russian athletes Elena and Olesya Nurgalieva were dominant, winning most of the women's races between 2003 and 2015.
From 2014 onwards, South African athletes began winning more consistently. Bongmusa Mthembu won three titles, and David Gatebe set the men’s down run record of 5:18:19 in 2016. Gerda Steyn has become the leading figure in the women’s field, breaking the down run record in 2023 (5:44:54) and the up run record in 2024 (5:49:46). On the men’s side, Tete Dijana broke the down run record on his way to his second victory in 2023, while Dutch runner Piet Wiersma won in 2024 and finished second in 2023. Since the end of COVID-related cancellations in 2020 and 2021, the race has returned with faster times and stronger fields, both local and international. The 2025 down run was won by Tete Dijana (5:25:28) and Gerda Steyn (5:51:19).
To date, Bruce Fordyce holds the record for the most men's victories with nine wins, while Elena Nurgalieva leads the women's field with eight wins.
== Records and statistics ==
The Comrades Marathon's fastest recorded times are 5:13:58 for men (Tete Dijana, 2023 down run) and 5:44:54 for women (Gerda Steyn, 2023 down run). Steyn also holds the up-run record, becoming the first woman to break 6 hours with her 5:49:46 in 2024. The most gold medals earned in the women's race is 13 by Elena Nurgalieva, while Allan Robb leads the men's race with 12 gold medals won.
The race also highlights endurance over decades. Louis Massyn has completed 50 Comrades Marathons — the most in history. In 2023 Johannes Maros Mosehla became the oldest known finisher aged 81, a record he extended in 2024 and 2025. He beat the record held by Wally Hayward, who completed the race at age 80 in 1989, 58 years after his first win.
== Waypoints ==
== Health issues ==
As with every ultramarathon, there are potentially lethal health risks involved in extreme physical events. In the history of the Comrades, there have been 8 deaths up to the 2022 event. In a survey among a sample of 2005 participants, 25% reported cramps, 18% nausea, 8% vomiting, 13% dizziness, 3% diarrhoea, 23% pain, excluding the expected sore legs, and 14% reported fatigue of such a nature that they believed themselves to be incapable of continuing the race. Among silver medalists there was a higher incidence of cramps (42.9%), nausea (21.4%) and diarrhoea (7.1%), though a lower incidence of pain and fatigue than the average runner.
== Charts ==
== Depictions in other media ==
The Long Run was a 2001 film set in 1999, in which a retired running coach trains a woman for the race. 'Comrades' was a 2008 film about seven diverse runners attempting the race.
In 2023, the documentary Down: A Comrades Story was released. It explores the history of the Comrades Marathon through the personal stories of the many athletes who have competed in it. As of 2025, it is available on YouTube.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Comrades Marathon Association
Comrades tables
Detailed profile of the 2009 Comrades route (PDF)
The Long Run. A movie about the Comrades marathon
The Comrades marathon, by Brad Morgan
The Famous Comrades Marathon, by Amby Burfoot (Account of the 2007 race)
1920 – 1925: A Soldier's Dream
FT article |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Rockwell | Norman Rockwell | Norman Percevel Rockwell (February 3, 1894 – November 8, 1978) was an American painter and illustrator. His works have a broad popular appeal in the United States for their reflection of the country's culture. Rockwell is most famous for the cover illustrations of everyday life he created for The Saturday Evening Post magazine over nearly five decades. Among the best-known of Rockwell's works are the Willie Gillis series, Rosie the Riveter, the Four Freedoms series, Saying Grace, and The Problem We All Live With. He is also noted for his 64-year relationship with the Boy Scouts of America (BSA), during which he produced covers for their publication Boys' Life (now Scout Life), calendars, and other illustrations. These works include popular images that reflect the Scout Oath and Scout Law such as The Scoutmaster, A Scout Is Reverent, and A Guiding Hand.
Rockwell was a prolific artist, producing more than 4,000 original works in his lifetime. Most of his surviving works are in public collections. Rockwell was also commissioned to illustrate more than 40 books, including Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn and to paint portraits of Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon, as well as those of foreign figures, including Gamal Abdel Nasser and Jawaharlal Nehru. His portrait subjects also included Judy Garland. One of his last portraits was of Colonel Sanders in 1973. His annual contributions for the Boy Scouts calendars between 1925 and 1976 were only slightly overshadowed by his most popular of calendar works: the "Four Seasons" illustrations for Brown & Bigelow that were published for 17 years beginning in 1947 and reproduced in various styles and sizes since 1964. He created artwork for advertisements for Coca-Cola, Jell-O, General Motors, Scott Tissue, and other companies. Illustrations for booklets, catalogs, posters (particularly movie promotions), sheet music, stamps, playing cards, and murals (including "Yankee Doodle Dandy" and "God Bless the Hills", which was completed in 1936 for the Nassau Inn in Princeton, New Jersey) rounded out Rockwell's oeuvre as an illustrator.
Rockwell's work was dismissed by serious art critics in his lifetime. Many of his works appear overly sweet in the opinion of modern critics, especially The Saturday Evening Post covers, which tend toward idealistic or sentimentalized portrayals of American life. This has led to the often deprecatory adjective "Rockwellesque". Consequently, Rockwell is not considered a "serious painter" by some contemporary artists, who regard his work as bourgeois and kitsch. Writer Vladimir Nabokov stated that Rockwell's brilliant technique was put to "banal" use, and wrote in his novel Pnin: "That Dalí is really Norman Rockwell's twin brother kidnapped by gypsies in babyhood." He is called an "illustrator" instead of an artist by some critics, a designation he did not mind, as that was what he called himself.
In his later years, Rockwell began receiving more attention as a painter when he chose more serious subjects such as the series on racism for Look magazine. One example of this more serious work is The Problem We All Live With, which dealt with the issue of school racial integration. The painting depicts Ruby Bridges, flanked by white federal marshals, walking to school past a wall defaced by racist graffiti. This 1964 painting was displayed in the White House when Bridges met with President Barack Obama in 2011.
== Life ==
=== Early years ===
Norman Rockwell was born on February 3, 1894, in New York City, to Jarvis Waring Rockwell and Anne Mary "Nancy" (née Hill) Rockwell. His father was a Presbyterian and his mother was an Episcopalian; two years after their engagement, he converted to the Episcopal faith. Rockwell's earliest American ancestor was John Rockwell (1588–1662), from Somerset, England, who immigrated to colonial North America, probably in 1635, aboard the ship Hopewell and became one of the first settlers of Windsor, Connecticut. Rockwell had one brother, Jarvis Jr., older by a year and a half. Jarvis Sr. was the manager of the New York office of a Philadelphia textile firm, George Wood, Sons & Company, where he spent his entire career.
Rockwell transferred from high school to the Chase Art School (later Parsons School of Design) at the age of 14. He then went on to the National Academy of Design and finally to the Art Students League of New York. There, Rockwell was taught by Thomas Fogarty, George Bridgman, and Frank Vincent DuMond; his early works were produced for St. Nicholas Magazine, the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) magazine Boys' Life, and other youth publications. As a student, Rockwell had some small jobs, including one as a supernumerary at the Metropolitan Opera. His first major artistic job came at age 18, illustrating Carl H. Claudy's book Tell Me Why: Stories about Mother Nature.
After that, Rockwell was hired as a staff artist for Boys' Life. In this role, he received 50 dollars' compensation each month for one completed cover and a set of story illustrations. It is said to have been his first paying job as an artist. At 19, Rockwell became the art editor for Boys' Life, published by the Boy Scouts of America. He held the job for three years, during which Rockwell painted several covers, beginning with his first published magazine cover, Scout at Ship's Wheel, which appeared on the Boys' Life September 1913 edition.
=== Association with The Saturday Evening Post ===
Rockwell's family moved to New Rochelle, New York, when Norman was 21 years old. They shared a studio with the cartoonist Clyde Forsythe, who worked for The Saturday Evening Post. With Forsythe's help, Rockwell submitted his first successful cover painting to the Post in 1916, Mother's Day Off (published on May 20). He followed that success with Circus Barker and Strongman (published on June 3), Gramps at the Plate (August 5), Redhead Loves Hatty Perkins (September 16), People in a Theatre Balcony (October 14), and Man Playing Santa (December 9). Rockwell was published eight times on the Post cover within the first year. Ultimately, Rockwell published 323 original covers for The Saturday Evening Post over 47 years. His Sharp Harmony appeared on the cover of the issue dated September 26, 1936; it depicts a barber and three clients, enjoying an a cappella song. The image was adopted by SPEBSQSA in its promotion of the art.
Rockwell's success on the cover of the Post led to covers for other magazines of the day, most notably the Literary Digest, the Country Gentleman, Leslie's Weekly, Judge, Peoples Popular Monthly and Life magazine.
When Rockwell's tenure began with The Saturday Evening Post in 1916, he left his salaried position at Boys' Life, but continued to include scouts in Post cover images and the monthly magazine of the American Red Cross. He resumed work with the Boy Scouts of America in 1926 with production of his first of fifty-one original illustrations for the official Boy Scouts of America annual calendar, which still may be seen in the Norman Rockwell Art Gallery at the National Scouting Museum in Cimarron, New Mexico.
During World War I, he tried to enlist into the U.S. Navy but was refused entry because, at 140 pounds (64 kg), he was eight pounds underweight for someone 6 feet (1.8 m) tall. To compensate, he spent one night gorging himself on bananas, liquids and doughnuts, and weighed enough to enlist the next day. He was given the role of a military artist, however, and did not see any action during his tour of duty.
=== World War II ===
In 1943, during World War II, Rockwell painted the Four Freedoms series, which was completed in seven months and resulted in him losing fifteen pounds. The series was inspired by a speech by Franklin D. Roosevelt, wherein Roosevelt described and articulated Four Freedoms for universal rights. Rockwell then painted Freedom from Want, Freedom of Speech, Freedom of Worship and Freedom from Fear.
The paintings were published in 1943 by The Saturday Evening Post. Rockwell used the Pennell shipbuilding family from Brunswick, Maine as models for two of the paintings, Freedom from Want and A Thankful Mother, and would combine models from photographs and his own vision to create his idealistic paintings. The United States Department of the Treasury later promoted war bonds by exhibiting the originals in sixteen cities. Rockwell considered Freedom of Speech to be the best of the four.
That same year, a fire in his studio destroyed numerous original paintings, costumes, and props. Because the period costumes and props were irreplaceable, the fire split his career into two phases, the second phase depicting modern characters and situations. Rockwell was contacted by writer Elliott Caplin, brother of cartoonist Al Capp, with the suggestion that the three of them should make a daily comic strip together, with Caplin and his brother writing and Rockwell drawing. King Features Syndicate is reported to have promised a $1,000 per week deal, knowing that a Capp–Rockwell collaboration would gain strong public interest. The project was ultimately aborted, however, as it turned out that Rockwell, known for his perfectionism as an artist, could not deliver material so quickly as would be required of him for a daily comic strip.
=== Later career ===
During the late 1940s, Norman Rockwell spent the winter months as artist-in-residence at Otis College of Art and Design. Occasionally, students were models for his Saturday Evening Post covers. In 1949, Rockwell donated an original Post cover, April Fool, to be raffled off in a library fund raiser.
In 1959, after his wife Mary died suddenly from a heart attack, Rockwell took time off from his work to grieve. It was during that break that he and his son Thomas produced Rockwell's autobiography, My Adventures as an Illustrator, which was published in 1960. The Post printed excerpts from this book in eight consecutive issues, the first containing Rockwell's famous Triple Self-Portrait.
Rockwell's last painting for the Post was published in 1963, marking the end of 47 years of a publishing relationship that had included 321 cover paintings. He spent the next 10 years painting for Look magazine, where his work depicted his interests in civil rights, poverty, and space exploration.
In 1966, Rockwell was invited to Hollywood to paint portraits of the stars of the film Stagecoach, and also found himself appearing as an extra in the film, playing a "mangy old gambler".
In 1968, Rockwell was commissioned to do an album cover portrait of Mike Bloomfield and Al Kooper for their record, The Live Adventures of Mike Bloomfield and Al Kooper.
As a tribute on the 75th anniversary of Rockwell's birth, officials of Brown & Bigelow and the Boy Scouts of America asked Rockwell to pose in Beyond the Easel as the illustration for the 1969 Boy Scout calendar.
In 1969 the U. S. Bureau of Reclamation commissioned Rockwell to paint the Glen Canyon Dam.
His last commission for the Boy Scouts of America was a calendar illustration titled The Spirit of 1976, which was completed when Rockwell was 82, concluding a partnership which generated 471 images for periodicals, guidebooks, calendars, and promotional materials. His connection to the BSA spanned 64 years, marking the longest professional association of his career. His legacy and style for the BSA has been carried on by Joseph Csatari.
For "vivid and affectionate portraits of our country", Rockwell was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States of America's highest civilian honor, in 1977 by President Gerald Ford. Rockwell's son, Jarvis, accepted the award.
==== Death ====
Rockwell, a heavy smoker, died on November 8, 1978, of emphysema at the age of 84 in his Stockbridge, Massachusetts, home. First Lady Rosalynn Carter attended Rockwell's funeral.
== Personal life ==
Rockwell married his first wife, Irene O'Connor, on July 1, 1916. Irene was Rockwell's model in Mother Tucking Children into Bed, published on the cover of The Literary Digest on January 19, 1921. The couple divorced on January 13, 1930.
Depressed, Rockwell moved briefly to Alhambra, California, as a guest of his old friend Clyde Forsythe. There, Rockwell painted some of his best-known paintings, including The Doctor and the Doll. While there, he met and married schoolteacher Mary Barstow on April 17, 1930. The couple returned to New York shortly after their marriage. They had three sons: Jarvis, Thomas, and Peter. The family lived at 24 Lord Kitchener Road in the Bonnie Crest neighborhood of New Rochelle, New York.
Rockwell and his wife were not regular church attendees, although they were members of St. John's Wilmot Church, an Episcopal church near their home, and their sons were baptized there. Rockwell moved to Arlington, Vermont, in 1939 where his work began to reflect small-town life. He would later be joined by his good friend John Carlton Atherton.
In 1953, the Rockwell family moved to Stockbridge, Massachusetts, so that his wife could be treated at the Austen Riggs Center, a psychiatric hospital at 25 Main Street, close to where Rockwell set up his studio. Rockwell also received psychiatric treatment, seeing the analyst Erik Erikson, who was on staff at Riggs. Erikson told biographer Laura Claridge that Rockwell painted his happiness, but did not live it. On August 25, 1959, Mary died unexpectedly of a heart attack.
Rockwell married his third wife, retired Milton Academy English teacher Mary Leete "Mollie" Punderson (1896–1985), on October 25, 1961. His Stockbridge studio was located on the second floor of a row of buildings. Directly underneath Rockwell's studio was, for a time in 1966, the Back Room Rest, better known as the famous "Alice's Restaurant". During his time in Stockbridge, chief of police William Obanhein was a frequent model for Rockwell's paintings.
From 1961 until his death, Rockwell was a member of the Monday Evening Club, a men's literary group based in Pittsfield, Massachusetts. At his funeral, five members of the club served as pallbearers, along with Jarvis Rockwell.
== Legacy ==
A custodianship of his original paintings and drawings was established with Rockwell's help near his home in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and the Norman Rockwell Museum still is open today year-round. The museum's collection includes more than 700 original Rockwell paintings, drawings, and studies. The Rockwell Center for American Visual Studies at the Norman Rockwell Museum is a national research institute dedicated to American illustration art.
Rockwell's work was exhibited at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in 2001. Rockwell's Breaking Home Ties sold for $15.4 million at a 2006 Sotheby's auction. A 12-city U.S. tour of Rockwell's works took place in 2008.
In 2008, Rockwell was named the official state artist of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The 2013 sale of Saying Grace for $46 million (including buyer's premium) established a new record price for Rockwell. Rockwell's work was exhibited at the Reading Public Museum and the Church History Museum in 2013–2014.
Films have made references to Rockwell's work. In "Annie Hall" (1977) Alvy (Woody Allen) teases Annie (Diane Keaton) saying: "What did you do, grow up in a Norman Rockwell painting?". In the Steven Spielberg film Empire of the Sun, a young boy (played by Christian Bale) is put to bed by his loving parents in a scene also inspired by a Rockwell painting—a reproduction of which is later kept by the young boy during his captivity in a prison camp ("Freedom from Fear", 1943). The 1994 film Forrest Gump includes a shot in a school that re-creates Rockwell's "Girl with Black Eye" with young Forrest in place of the girl. Much of the film drew heavy visual inspiration from Rockwell's art. Film director George Lucas owns Rockwell's original of "The Peach Crop", and his colleague Steven Spielberg owns a sketch of Rockwell's Triple Self-Portrait. Each of the artworks hangs in the respective filmmaker's work space. Rockwell is a major character in an episode of George Lucas' The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, "Passion for Life", portrayed by Lukas Haas.
Some albums and tracks have had inspiration taken from Rockwell. In 1981, Rockwell's painting Girl at Mirror was used for the cover of Prism's fifth studio album Small Change. "Dreamland", a track from Canadian alternative rock band Our Lady Peace's 2009 album Burn Burn, was inspired by Rockwell's paintings. The cover for the Oingo Boingo album Only a Lad is a parody of the Boy Scouts of America 1960 official handbook cover illustrated by Rockwell. Lana Del Rey named her sixth studio album, Norman Fucking Rockwell! (2019), after Rockwell.
Rockwell is among the figures depicted in Our Nation's 200th Birthday, The Telephone's 100th Birthday (1976) by Stanley Meltzoff for Bell System which Meltzoff based on Rockwell's 1948 painting The Gossips.
Museum director Thomas S. Buechner said that Rockwell's art is important for standing the test of time, "When the last half century is explored by the future, a few paintings will continue to communicate with the same immediacy and veracity they have today."
In 2005, May Corporation, that previously bought Marshall Field's from Target Corp., was bought by Federated Department Stores. After the sale, Federated discovered that Rockwell's The Clock Mender displayed in the store was a reproduction. Rockwell had donated the painting, which depicts a repairman setting the time on one of the Marshall Field and Company Building clocks, and was depicted on the cover of the November 3, 1945 Saturday Evening Post, to the store in 1948. Target had since donated the original to the Chicago History Museum.
On an anniversary of Norman Rockwell's birth, on February 3, 2010, Google featured Rockwell's iconic image of young love "Boy and Girl Gazing at the Moon", which is also known as "Puppy Love", on its home page. The response was so great that day that the Norman Rockwell museum's servers were overwhelmed by the volume of traffic.
In 2017, the original 1948 oil study for Tough Call (also known as Game Called Because of Rain), one of Rockwell’s best-known baseball-themed works, sold for US $1.68 million at Heritage Auctions. The painting had hung for years in a Texas family’s home before being identified as a Rockwell and became one of the highest prices ever achieved for a Rockwell study.
On November 2, 2025, the Norman Rockwell family published an essay in the opinion section of USA Today denouncing the Donald Trump administration's Department of Homeland Security's unauthorized use of several Rockwell paintings in social media posts along with nationalist slogans promoting anti-immigration policy initiatives."If Norman Rockwell were alive today, he would be devastated to see [...] his own work has been marshalled for the cause of persecution toward immigrant communities and people of color".
== Major works ==
Children Dancing at a Party (1918)
The Love Song (1926)
The Four Freedoms (1943)
Freedom of Speech (1943)
Freedom of Worship (1943)
Freedom from Want (1943)
Freedom from Fear (1943)
Rosie the Riveter (1943)
Little Girl Observing Lovers on a Train (1944)
We, Too, Have a Job to Do (1944)
Working on the Statue of Liberty (1946)
The Dugout (1948)
Tough Call (1948)
Saying Grace (1951)
Walking to Church (1953)
Breaking Home Ties (1954)
Marriage License (1955)
The Scoutmaster (1956)
The Rookie (1957)
The Runaway (1958)
Triple Self-Portrait (1960)
Golden Rule (1961)
The Connoisseur (1962
Growth of a Leader (1964)
The Problem We All Live With (1964)
Murder in Mississippi (1965)
New Kids in the Neighborhood (1967)
Russian Schoolroom (1967)
The Spirit of 1976 (1976)
== Film posters and album covers ==
Rockwell provided illustrations for several film posters.
The Adventures of Marco Polo (1938)
The Magnificent Ambersons (1942)
The Song of Bernadette (1943)
Along Came Jones (1945)
The Razor's Edge (1946)
Cinderfella (1960)
Stagecoach (1966)
He designed an album cover for The Live Adventures of Mike Bloomfield and Al Kooper (1969). He was also commissioned by English musician David Bowie to design the cover artwork for his 1975 album Young Americans, but the offer was retracted after Rockwell informed him he would need at least half a year to complete a painting for the album.
== Displays ==
Norman Rockwell Museum in Stockbridge, Massachusetts
Rockwell Collection at the National Museum of American Illustration
Rockwell illustrations for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn at the Mark Twain Museum in Hannibal MO.
Norman Rockwell World War II posters, hosted by the University of North Texas Libraries Digital Collections
Norman Rockwell and the Art of Scouting at the National Scouting Museum, Irving, Texas
Norman Rockwell Exhibit in Arlington, Vermont
== Honors ==
Society of Illustrators Hall of Fame, first inductee 1958
== See also ==
J. C. Leyendecker, Rockwell's predecessor and stylistic inspiration
James K. Van Brunt, a frequent model for Rockwell
William Obanhein, another one of Rockwell's models who would later become famous elsewhere
Norman Rockwell's World... An American Dream, a 1972 short documentary film
== References ==
== Sources ==
Claridge, Laura P. (2001). Norman Rockwell: A Life. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-50453-2 – via the Internet Archive (registration required).
Gherman, Beverly (2000). Norman Rockwell: Storyteller with a Brush. New York: Atheneum Books. ISBN 978-0-689-82001-4 – via the Internet Archive (registration required).
Moline, Mary (1979). Norman Rockwell Encyclopedia: A Chronological Catalog of the Artist's Work, 1910–1978. Indianapolis: Curtis Publishing Company. ISBN 0-89387-032-3 – via the Internet Archive (registration required).
== Further reading ==
Buechner, Thomas S (1992). The Norman Rockwell Treasury. Galahad. ISBN 978-0-88365-411-8.
Carson, Tom (February 26, 2020). "The awakening of Norman Rockwell". Vox.
Finch, Christopher (1990). Norman Rockwell: 332 Magazine Covers. Abbeville. ISBN 978-0-89660-000-3.
Christopher, Finch (1985). Norman Rockwell's America. Harry N Abram. ISBN 978-0-8109-8071-6.
Hennessey, Maureen Hart; Larson, Judy L. (1999). Norman Rockwell: Pictures for the American People. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-6392-4.
Parker, James (November 20, 2013). "How Norman Rockwell Captured the Inner Life of a Nation". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013.
Rockwell, Tom (2005). Best of Norman Rockwell. Courage Books. ISBN 978-0-7624-2415-3.
Schick, Ron (2009). Norman Rockwell: Behind the Camera. Little, Brown & Co. ISBN 978-0-316-00693-4.
Solomon, Deborah (July 1, 2010). "America, Illustrated". The New York Times.
Solomon, Deborah (2013). American Mirror: The Life and Art of Norman Rockwell. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 978-0-3741-1309-4.
== External links ==
Booknotes interview with Laura Claridge on Norman Rockwell: A Life, December 2, 2001, C-SPAN
Collection of mid-twentieth century advertising featuring Norman Rockwell illustrations Archived October 16, 2021, at the Wayback Machine from the TJS Labs Gallery of Graphic Design
Norman Rockwell at Library of Congress, with 127 library catalog records
Works by or about Norman Rockwell at the Internet Archive
Norman Rockwell Museum website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harees | Harees | Harees, haresa, hareesa, arizah, harise, jarish, jareesh, (Arabic: هريس), harisa (Armenian: հարիսա), or korkot (Armenian: կորկոտ) is a dish of boiled, cracked, or coarsely-ground cracked wheat or bulgur, mixed with meat and seasoned. Its consistency varies between a porridge and a gruel. Harees is a popular dish known throughout Armenia where it is served on Easter day, and the Arab world, where it is commonly eaten in Arab states of the Persian Gulf in the month of Ramadan, and in Iraq, Lebanon and Bahrain during Ashura by Shia Muslims.
== Etymology ==
"Harisa", also transliterated as "horisa", derived from the Arabic verb "haras" meaning "to squish" to describe the action of breaking and pounding the grains before mixing it with water to create a porridge.
In Arabic, "Harees" (Arabic: هريس) is linked to the verb (Arabic: هَرَسَ, romanized: harasa) which still means to mash or to squash.
== History ==
Harisa is mentioned by Ibn al-Karim in Kitab Al-Tabikh as early as the seventh century. In the anecdotal cookbook, the Umayyad Caliph, Mu'awiya, returns from a trip to Arabia after returning to his newly won Persian lands. In some versions of the story, Mu'awiya is met with some Yemenite Jews whom he asks to prepare the porridge he tasted abroad while in other versions, he approaches locals. This story should be taken with a grain of salt as the author penned the story three centuries after it supposedly occurred.
Harees is documented in Ibn Sayyar al-Warraq's 10th-century cookbook Kitab Al Tabikh., as well as in al-Baghdadi's 13th-century cookbook Kitab Al Tabikh and Ibn Razīn al-Tujībī's 13th-century Andalusian cookbook Kitab Fadalat al-khiwan fi tayyibat al-ta'am w'al-alwan.
Harees is also the origin of haleem, and cholent.
== Preparation ==
The wheat is soaked overnight, then simmered in water along with meat and butter or sheep tail fat. Any remaining liquid is strained and the mixture is beaten and seasoned. Harees may be garnished with cinnamon, sugar, and clarified butter.
== Variants and traditions ==
There is a different traditional way of preparing Harees in each of the Arab countries in the Arabian Peninsula area, and among the tribes of these countries. Some variations include the use of cardamom pods in Saudi Arabia, or a garnish with parsley. Before the Armenian genocide where Armenians were spread through a larger area they also had different variations of Harisa. The wheat used in Armenian harissa is typically shelled (pelted) wheat, though in Adana, harissa was made with կորկոտ (korkot; ground, par-boiled shelled wheat). Harissa can be made with lamb, beef, or chicken.
Harees was only made by the wealthy during Ramadan and Eid, for the duration of a three- to seven-day wedding. It was, however, customary for the Harees dishes to be shared with poorer neighbours on such occasions.
It is similar to kashkeg, a kind of homogeneous porridge made of previously stewed and boned chicken or lamb and coarsely ground soaked wheat (typically shelled wheat).
=== Arab cuisine ===
Harees is a popular dish in Arab cuisine, from the Levant to the Persian Gulf. It is often served during Ramadan, festivals such as Eid ul-Fitr, and at weddings. In Lebanon, it is often cooked on religious occasions in a communal pot, such as in Ashura. Harise is also a common dish in Syrian cuisine and Iraqi cuisine.
Formerly found only in homes, it is now served in restaurants as well.
=== Armenian cuisine ===
Harisa (Armenian: հարիսա, romanized: harisa) is traditionally served on Easter day, and is considered a national dish of Armenia. It is a thick porridge made from korkot (dried or roasted cracked wheat) and fat-rich meat, usually chicken or lamb. Herbs were substituted for meat in harissa when Armenian religious days required fasting and penance. The extremely long cooking process is an essential part of the harisa tradition. Like other ritual dishes, the time taken for preparation is part of its cherished value.
Harisa is known for helping the Armenians of Musa Ler (in modern-day Turkey) to survive during the resistance of 1915.
=== Egyptian cuisines ===
In Egyptian cuisine, "freekeh", unripened, crushed durum wheat, was used to cook harisa, giving the resulting ferik a unique green hue. The origin of the variation could be linked to the Sephardic migration of the 13th century, but historians remain uncertain.
=== Kashmiri cuisine ===
Harisa or Hareesa (Kashmiri : ۂرؠ سہٕ [hərʲsɨ]) in Kashmir is prepared during winter (Chillai Kalan), typically made of mutton and rice flour and eaten with Kashmiri Bread called Girda (Kashmiri : گِردٕ [girdɨ] ). It is cooked in huge degs (earthen pots) placed in wood fired ovens. Downtown Srinagar is considered as the hub of harisa making in Kashmir.
=== Zanzibari ===
In Zanzibar, the dish is called boko boko and may be cooked with lamb, beef, or chicken. This same dish is also served across Tanzania and Kenya.
=== Ethiopia ===
Hareesa, or harees, is a popular dish mainly in the Harari region. It is cooked with lamb or beef and served on Eid or special occasions such as the birth of a baby.
=== Emirati Cuisine ===
Harees is a traditional Emirati dish made from wheat, meat (usually chicken or lamb), and a pinch of salt. The wheat is soaked overnight, then cooked with meat until it reaches a smooth, porridge-like consistency. This hearty dish is particularly popular during Ramadan and festive occasions. It is often garnished with ghee for added flavor. Harees is a staple in Emirati households and showcases the simplicity and richness of Emirati culinary traditions.
== See also ==
Haleem
Keşkek
List of porridges
Hrisseh
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madonna_of_Bruges#:~:text=In%201504%2C%20it%20was%20bought,(Mouscron)%20for%20100%20ducats. | Madonna of Bruges | The Madonna of Bruges is a marble sculpture by Michelangelo of the Virgin and Child.
Michelangelo's depiction of the Madonna and Child differs significantly from earlier representations of the same subject, which tended to feature a pious Virgin smiling down on an infant held in her arms. Instead, Jesus stands upright, almost unsupported, only loosely restrained by Mary's left hand, and appears to be about to step away from his mother. Meanwhile, Mary does not cling to her son or even look at him, but gazes down and away. It is believed the work was originally intended for an altar piece. If this is so, then it would have been displayed facing slightly to the right and looking down. The early 16th-century sculpture also displays the High Renaissance Pyramid style frequently seen in the works of Leonardo da Vinci during the late 1400s.
Madonna and Child shares certain similarities with Michelangelo's Pietà, which was completed shortly before – mainly, Mary's flowing robe, and the movement of the drapery. The long, oval face of Mary is also reminiscent of the Pietà.
The work is also notable in that it was the first sculpture by Michelangelo to leave Italy during his lifetime. In 1504, it was bought by Giovanni and Alessandro Moscheroni (Mouscron) for 100 ducats. The Mouscron brothers were wealthy cloth merchants in Bruges, then one of the leading commercial cities in Europe.
The sculpture was removed twice from Belgium after its initial arrival. The first was in 1794 after French Revolutionaries had conquered the Austrian Netherlands during the French Revolutionary Wars; the citizens of Bruges were ordered to ship it and several other valuable works of art to Paris. It was returned after Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo in 1815.
The second removal was in 1944, during World War II, with the retreat of German soldiers, who smuggled the sculpture to Germany enveloped in mattresses in a Red Cross truck. It was discovered a year later in Altaussee, Austria within a salt mine and again returned. It now sits in the Church of Our Lady in Bruges, Belgium. This is represented in the 2014 film The Monuments Men.
== See also ==
List of works by Michelangelo
Roman Catholic Marian art
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Brugge Madonna by Michelangelo Buonarroti at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenny_Ludlam | Jenny Ludlam | Jennifer Kay Ludlam (born 23 July 1951 in Taumarunui, New Zealand) is a New Zealand-born actress, who remains best known for her roles in Australian television.
== Acting roles ==
In Australia, she was a regular cast member in the short-lived soap opera Waterloo Station (1983) followed by guest stints on Prisoner (as Janice Grant in 1985), and Sons and Daughters. She was also a presenter on the long-running ABC children's TV series Play School. Returning to New Zealand, Ludlam has had roles in several television shows, movies and theatre productions.
== Honours ==
In the 2005 New Year Honours, Ludlam was appointed a Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to the theatre.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Jenny Ludlam at IMDb
Profile at NZ On Screen |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Strauss#Career | Leo Strauss | Leo Strauss (September 20, 1899 – October 18, 1973) was a German-American political philosopher and historian of philosophy whose work greatly influenced twentieth-century political theory in the United States and the study of classical political thought. He is known best for his interpretation of ancient and medieval philosophy, his account of classical natural right, and his claim that philosophers often wrote esoterically, presenting different teachings to general and specialist readers. Strauss argued that the modern turn in philosophy, beginning with Niccolò Machiavelli and culminating in historicism and relativism, marked a decisive break with the classical understanding of politics and the good life. His work sought to recover the questions and methods of ancient political philosophy as a corrective to the perceived crisis of modern thought.
Strauss's scholarship ranges from studies of Plato, Aristotle, and Xenophon to examinations of Thomas Hobbes, Baruch Spinoza, Friedrich Nietzsche, and the medieval Islamic and Jewish philosophical traditions, particularly Al-Farabi and Maimonides. Central to his writings is the tension between reason and revelation, the nature of political prudence, and the relationship between philosophy and political authority. His methodological emphasis on close textual reading, the pedagogical value of classical texts, and the critique of modernity formed the basis of what came to be known as "Straussian" approaches to political theory.
Born in Germany to Jewish parents, he emigrated to the United States in 1937, going on to hold positions at the New School for Social Research and later at the University of Chicago, where he taught from 1949 to 1969. His seminars shaped several generations of political theorists, many of whom became influential scholars in their own right at major American universities. Strauss's students and interlocutors played significant roles in the development of political philosophy in the postwar United States, particularly in the neoconservative movement, and his ideas have been taken up and debated within fields including political theory, classics, intellectual history, and religious studies. His major works include Natural Right and History (1953), Persecution and the Art of Writing (1952), The City and Man (1964), and On Tyranny (1948). Strauss's work has also been the subject of debate, including disputes over his interpretations of ancient texts and discussions of the political influence of some of his students, though these issues remain contested within academic scholarship.
== Biography ==
=== Early life and education ===
Leo Strauss was born on September 20, 1899, in the small town of Kirchhain in Hesse-Nassau, a province of the Kingdom of Prussia (part of the German Empire), to Jennie Strauss (née David) and Hugo Strauss. According to Allan Bloom's 1974 obituary in Political Theory, Strauss "was raised as an Orthodox Jew", but the family does not appear to have completely embraced Orthodox practice. Strauss himself noted that he came from a "conservative, even orthodox Jewish home", but one which knew little about Judaism except strict adherence to ceremonial laws. His father and uncle operated a farm supply and livestock business that they inherited from their father, Meyer (1835–1919), a leading member of the local Jewish community.
After attending the Kirchhain Volksschule and the Protestant Rektoratsschule, Leo Strauss was enrolled at the Gymnasium Philippinum (affiliated with the University of Marburg) in nearby Marburg (from which Johannes Althusius and Carl Joachim Friedrich also graduated) in 1912, graduating in 1917. He boarded with the Marburg cantor Strauss (no relation), whose residence served as a meeting place for followers of the neo-Kantian philosopher Hermann Cohen. Strauss served in the German army during World War I from July 5, 1917, to December 1918.
Strauss subsequently enrolled in the University of Hamburg, where he received his doctorate in 1921; his thesis, On the Problem of Knowledge in the Philosophical Doctrine of F. H. Jacobi (Das Erkenntnisproblem in der philosophischen Lehre Fr. H. Jacobis), was supervised by Ernst Cassirer. He also attended courses at the Universities of Freiburg and Marburg, including some taught by Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger. Strauss joined a Jewish fraternity and worked for the German Zionist movement, which introduced him to various German Jewish intellectuals, such as Norbert Elias, Leo Löwenthal, Hannah Arendt and Walter Benjamin. Benjamin was and remained an admirer of Strauss and his work throughout his life.
Strauss's closest friend was Jacob Klein but he also was intellectually engaged with Gerhard Krüger—and also Karl Löwith, Julius Guttmann, Hans-Georg Gadamer, and Franz Rosenzweig (to whom Strauss dedicated his first book), as well as Gershom Scholem, Alexander Altmann, and the Arabist Paul Kraus, who married Strauss's sister Bettina (Strauss and his wife later adopted Paul and Bettina Kraus's child when both parents died in the Middle East). With several of these friends, Strauss carried on vigorous epistolary exchanges later in life, many of which are published in the Gesammelte Schriften (Collected Writings), some in translation from the German. Strauss had also been engaged in a discourse with Carl Schmitt. However, after Strauss left Germany, he broke off the discourse when Schmitt failed to respond to his letters.
=== Career ===
After receiving a Rockefeller Fellowship in 1932, Strauss left his position at the Higher Institute for Jewish Studies in Berlin for Paris. He returned to Germany only once, for a few short days twenty years later. In Paris, he married Marie (Miriam) Bernsohn, a widow with a young child, whom he had known previously in Germany. He adopted his wife's son, Thomas, and later his sister's child, Jenny Strauss Clay (later a professor of classics at the University of Virginia); he and Miriam had no biological children of their own. At his death, he was survived by Thomas, Jenny Strauss Clay, and three grandchildren. Strauss became a lifelong friend of Alexandre Kojève and was on friendly terms with Raymond Aron and Étienne Gilson. Because of the Nazis' rise to power, he chose not to return to his native country. Strauss found shelter, after some vicissitudes, in England, where, in 1935 he gained temporary employment at the University of Cambridge with the help of his in-law David Daube, who was affiliated with Gonville and Caius College. While in England, he became a close friend of R. H. Tawney and was on less friendly terms with Isaiah Berlin.
Unable to find permanent employment in England, Strauss moved to the United States in 1937, under the patronage of Harold Laski, who made introductions and helped him obtain a brief lectureship. After a short stint as a research fellow in the Department of History at Columbia University, Strauss secured a position at The New School, where, between 1938 and 1948, he worked in the political science faculty and also took on adjunct jobs. In 1939, he served for a short term as a visiting professor at Hamilton College. He became a U.S. citizen in 1944, and in 1949 became a professor of political science at the University of Chicago, holding the Robert Maynard Hutchins Distinguished Service Professorship until he left in 1969.
In 1953, Strauss coined the phrase reductio ad Hitlerum, a play on reductio ad absurdum, suggesting that comparing an argument to one of Hitler's, or "playing the Nazi card", is often a fallacy of irrelevance.
In 1954, he met Karl Löwith and Hans-Georg Gadamer in Heidelberg and delivered a public speech on Socrates. He had received a call for a temporary lectureship in Hamburg in 1965 (which he declined for health reasons) and received and accepted an honorary doctorate from the University of Hamburg and the German Order of Merit via the German representative in Chicago. In 1969, Strauss moved to Claremont McKenna College (formerly Claremont Men's College) in California for a year, and then to St. John's College, Annapolis in 1970, where he was the Scott Buchanan Distinguished Scholar in Residence until his death from pneumonia in 1973. He was buried in Annapolis Hebrew Cemetery, with his wife Miriam Bernsohn Strauss, who died in 1985. Psalm 114 was read in the funeral service at the request of family and friends.
== Thought ==
Strauss's thought can be characterized by two main themes: the critique of modernity and the recovery of classical political philosophy. He argued that modernity, which emerged among the 15th century Italian city states particularly in the writings of Niccolò Machiavelli, was a radical break from the tradition of Western civilization, and that it led to a crisis of nihilism, relativism, historicism, and scientism. He claimed that modern political and social sciences, which were based on empirical observation and rational analysis, failed to grasp the essential questions of human nature, morality, and justice, and that they reduced human beings to mere objects of manipulation and calculation. He also criticized modern liberalism, which he saw as a product of modernity, for its lack of moral and spiritual foundations, and for its tendency to undermine the authority of religion, tradition, and natural law.
To overcome the crisis of modernity, Strauss proposed a return to the classical political philosophy of the ancient Greeks and the medieval thinkers, who he believed had a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of human nature and society. He advocated a careful and respectful reading of the classical texts, arguing that their authors wrote in an esoteric manner, which he called "the art of writing". He suggested that the classical authors hid their true teachings behind a surface layer of conventional opinions, in order to avoid persecution and to educate only the few who were capable of grasping them, and that they engaged in a dialogue with each other across the ages. Strauss called this dialogue "the great conversation", and invited his readers to join it.
Strauss's interpretation of the classical political philosophy was influenced by his own Jewish background and his encounter with Islamic and Jewish medieval philosophy, especially the works of Al-Farabi and Maimonides. He argued that these philosophers, who lived under the rule of Islam, faced similar challenges as the ancient Greeks. He also claimed that these philosophers, who were both faithful to their revealed religions and loyal to the rational pursuit of philosophy, offered a model of how to reconcile reason and revelation, philosophy and theology, Athens and Jerusalem.
== Views ==
=== Philosophy ===
For Strauss, politics and philosophy were necessarily intertwined. He regarded the trial and death of Socrates as the moment when political philosophy came into existence. Strauss considered one of the most important moments in the history of philosophy Socrates' argument that philosophers could not study nature without considering their own human nature, which, in the words of Aristotle, is that of "a political animal." However, he also held that the ends of politics and philosophy were inherently irreconcilable and irreducible to one another.
Strauss distinguished "scholars" from "great thinkers," identifying himself as a scholar. He wrote that most self-described philosophers are in actuality scholars, cautious and methodical. Great thinkers, in contrast, boldly and creatively address big problems. Scholars deal with these problems only indirectly by reasoning about the great thinkers' differences.
In Natural Right and History, Strauss begins with a critique of Max Weber's epistemology, briefly engages the relativism of Martin Heidegger (who goes unnamed) and continues with a discussion of the evolution of natural rights via an analysis of the thought of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. He concludes by critiquing Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Edmund Burke. At the heart of the book are excerpts from Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero. Much of his philosophy is a reaction to the works of Heidegger. Indeed, Strauss wrote that Heidegger's thinking must be understood and confronted before any complete formulation of modern political theory is possible, and this means that political thought has to engage with issues of ontology and the history of metaphysics.
Strauss wrote that Friedrich Nietzsche was the first philosopher to properly understand historicism, an idea grounded in a general acceptance of Hegelian philosophy of history. Heidegger, in Strauss's view, sanitized and politicized Nietzsche, whereas Nietzsche believed "our own principles, including the belief in progress, will become as unconvincing and alien as all earlier principles (essences) had shown themselves to be" and "the only way out seems to be ... that one voluntarily choose life-giving delusion instead of deadly truth, that one fabricate a myth." Heidegger believed that the tragic nihilism of Nietzsche was itself a "myth" guided by a defective Western conception of Being that Heidegger traced to Plato. In his published correspondence with Alexandre Kojève, Strauss wrote that Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was correct when he postulated that an end of history implies an end to philosophy as understood by classical political philosophy.
=== On reading ===
In the late 1930s, Strauss called for the first time for a reconsideration of the "distinction between exoteric (or public) and esoteric (or secret) teaching." In 1952 he published Persecution and the Art of Writing, arguing that serious writers write esoterically, that is, with multiple or layered meanings, often disguised within irony or paradox, obscure references, even deliberate self-contradiction. Esoteric writing serves several purposes: protecting the philosopher from the retribution of the regime, and protecting the regime from the corrosion of philosophy; it attracts the right kind of reader and repels the wrong kind; and ferreting out the interior message is in itself an exercise of philosophic reasoning.
Taking his bearings from his study of Maimonides and Al-Farabi, and pointing further back to Plato's discussion of writing as contained in the Phaedrus, Strauss proposed that the classical and medieval art of esoteric writing is the proper medium for philosophic learning: rather than displaying philosophers' thoughts superficially, classical and medieval philosophical texts guide their readers in thinking and learning independently of imparted knowledge. Thus, Strauss agrees with the Socrates of the Phaedrus, where the Greek indicates that, insofar as writing does not respond when questioned, good writing provokes questions in the reader—questions that orient the reader towards an understanding of problems the author thought about with utmost seriousness. Strauss thus, in Persecution and the Art of Writing, presents Maimonides "as a closet nonbeliever obfuscating his message for political reasons".
Strauss' hermeneutical argument—rearticulated throughout his subsequent writings (most notably in The City and Man [1964])—is that, before the 19th century, Western scholars commonly understood that philosophical writing is not at home in any polity, no matter how liberal. Insofar as it questions conventional wisdom at its roots, philosophy must guard itself especially against those readers who believe themselves authoritative, wise, and liberal defenders of the status quo. In questioning established opinions, or in investigating the principles of morality, philosophers of old found it necessary to convey their messages in an oblique manner. Their "art of writing" was the art of esoteric communication. This was especially apparent in medieval times when heterodox political thinkers wrote under the threat of the Inquisition or comparably obtuse tribunals.
Strauss's argument is not that the medieval writers he studies reserved one exoteric meaning for the many (hoi polloi) and an esoteric, hidden one for the few (hoi oligoi), but that, through rhetorical stratagems including self-contradiction and hyperboles, these writers succeeded in conveying their proper meaning at the tacit heart of their writings—a heart or message irreducible to "the letter" or historical dimension of texts.
Explicitly following Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's lead, Strauss indicates that medieval political philosophers, no less than their ancient counterparts, carefully adapted their wording to the dominant moral views of their time, lest their writings be condemned as heretical or unjust, not by "the many" (who did not read), but by those "few" whom the many regarded as the most righteous guardians of morality. It was precisely these righteous personalities who would be most inclined to persecute/ostracize anyone who was in the business of exposing the noble or great lie upon which the authority of the few over the many stands or falls.
=== On politics ===
According to Strauss, modern social science is flawed because it assumes the fact–value distinction, a concept which Strauss found dubious. He traced its roots in Enlightenment philosophy to Max Weber, a thinker whom Strauss described as a "serious and noble mind". Weber wanted to separate values from science but, according to Strauss, was really a derivative thinker, deeply influenced by Nietzsche's relativism. Strauss treated politics as something that could not be studied from afar. A political scientist examining politics with a value-free scientific eye, for Strauss, was self-deluded. Positivism, the heir to both Auguste Comte and Weber in the quest to make purportedly value-free judgments, failed to justify its own existence, which would require a value judgment.
While modern-era liberalism had stressed the pursuit of individual liberty as its highest goal, Strauss felt that there should be a greater interest in the problem of human excellence and political virtue. Through his writings, Strauss constantly raised the question of how, and to what extent, freedom and excellence can coexist. Strauss refused to provide any straightforward answer to the Socratic question: What is the good for the city and man?
=== Encounters with Carl Schmitt and Alexandre Kojève ===
Two significant political-philosophical dialogues Strauss had with living thinkers were those he held with Carl Schmitt and Alexandre Kojève. Schmitt, who would later become, for a short time, the chief jurist of Nazi Germany, was one of the first important German academics to review Strauss's early work positively. Schmitt's positive reference for, and approval of, Strauss's work on Hobbes was instrumental in winning Strauss the scholarship funding that allowed him to leave Germany.
According to Heinrich Meier's interpretation, Strauss's critique and clarifications of The Concept of the Political led Schmitt to make significant emendations in its second edition. Writing to Schmitt in 1932, Strauss summarised Schmitt's political theology that "because man is by nature evil, he, therefore, needs dominion. But dominion can be established, that is, men can be unified only in a unity against—against other men. Every association of men is necessarily a separation from other men ... the political thus understood is not the constitutive principle of the state, of order, but a condition of the state." But Robert Howse argues that there is no clear evidence to support these claims and that the relationship between them was merely professional.
Strauss, however, directly opposed Schmitt's position. For Strauss, Schmitt and his return to Hobbes helpfully clarified the nature of our political existence and our modern self-understanding. Schmitt's position was therefore symptomatic of the modern-era liberal self-understanding. Strauss believed that such an analysis, as in Hobbes's time, served as a useful "preparatory action," revealing our contemporary orientation towards the eternal problems of politics (social existence). However, Strauss believed that Schmitt's reification of our modern self-understanding of the problem of politics into a political theology was not an adequate solution. Strauss instead advocated a return to a broader classical understanding of human nature and a tentative return to political philosophy, in the tradition of the ancient philosophers.
With Kojève, Strauss had a close and lifelong philosophical friendship. They had first met as students in Berlin. The two thinkers shared boundless philosophical respect for each other. Kojève would later write that, without befriending Strauss, "I never would have known ... what philosophy is". The political-philosophical dispute between Kojève and Strauss centered on the role that philosophy should and can be allowed to play in politics.
Kojève, a senior civil servant in the French government, was instrumental in the creation of the European Economic Community. He argued that philosophers should have an active role in shaping political events. Strauss, on the contrary, believed that philosophers should play a role in politics only to the extent that they can ensure that philosophy, which he saw as mankind's highest activity, can be free from political intervention.
=== Liberalism and nihilism ===
Strauss argued that liberalism in its modern form (which is oriented toward universal freedom as opposed to "ancient liberalism" which is oriented toward human excellence), contained within it an intrinsic tendency towards extreme relativism, which in turn led to two types of nihilism:
The first was a "brutal" nihilism, expressed in Nazi and Bolshevik regimes. In On Tyranny, he wrote that these ideologies, both descendants of Enlightenment thought, tried to destroy all traditions, history, ethics, and moral standards and replace them by force under which nature and mankind are subjugated and conquered.
The second type—the "gentle" nihilism expressed in Western liberal democracies—was a kind of value-free aimlessness and a hedonistic "permissive egalitarianism," which he saw as permeating the fabric of contemporary American society.
In the belief that 20th-century relativism, scientism, historicism, and nihilism were all implicated in the deterioration of modern society and philosophy, Strauss sought to uncover the philosophical pathways that had led to this situation. The resultant study led him to advocate a tentative return to classical political philosophy as a starting point for judging political action.
=== Strauss's interpretation of Plato's Republic ===
According to Strauss, the Republic by Plato is not "a blueprint for regime reform" (a play on words from Karl Popper's The Open Society and Its Enemies, which attacks The Republic for being just that). Strauss quotes Cicero: "The Republic does not bring to light the best possible regime but rather the nature of political things—the nature of the city."
Strauss argued that the city-in-speech was unnatural, precisely because "it is rendered possible by the abstraction from eros". Though skeptical of "progress," Strauss was equally skeptical about political agendas of "return"—that is, going backward instead of forward. In fact, he was consistently suspicious of anything claiming to be a solution to an old political or philosophical problem. He spoke of the danger in trying finally to resolve the debate between rationalism and traditionalism in politics. In particular, along with many in the pre-World War II German Right, he feared people trying to force a world state to come into being in the future, thinking that it would inevitably become a tyranny. Hence he kept his distance from the two totalitarianisms that he denounced in his century, both fascists and communists.
=== Strauss and Karl Popper ===
Strauss rejected Karl Popper's views as illogical. He agreed with a letter of response to his request of Eric Voegelin to look into the issue. In the response, Voegelin wrote that studying Popper's views was a waste of precious time, and "an annoyance". Specifically about The Open Society and Its Enemies and Popper's understanding of Plato's The Republic, after giving some examples, Voegelin wrote:
Popper is philosophically so uncultured, so fully a primitive ideological brawler, that he is not able even approximately to reproduce correctly the contents of one page of Plato. Reading is of no use to him; he is too lacking in knowledge to understand what the author says.
Strauss proceeded to show this letter to Kurt Riezler, who used his influence in order to oppose Popper's appointment at the University of Chicago.
=== Ancients and Moderns ===
Strauss constantly stressed the importance of two dichotomies in political philosophy, namely Athens and Jerusalem (reason and revelation) and Ancient versus Modern. The "Ancients" were the Socratic philosophers and their intellectual heirs; the "Moderns" start with Niccolò Machiavelli. The contrast between Ancients and Moderns was understood to be related to the unresolvable tension between Reason and Revelation. The Socratics, reacting to the first Greek philosophers, brought philosophy back to earth, and hence back to the marketplace, making it more political.
The Moderns reacted to the dominance of revelation in medieval society by promoting the possibilities of Reason. They objected to Aquinas's merger of natural right and natural theology, for it made natural right vulnerable to sideshow theological disputes. Thomas Hobbes, under the influence of Francis Bacon, re-oriented political thought to what was most solid but also most low in man—his physical hopes and fears—setting a precedent for John Locke and the later economic approach to political thought, as in David Hume and Adam Smith.
=== Strauss and Zionism ===
As a youth, Strauss belonged to the German Zionist youth group, along with his friends Gershom Scholem and Walter Benjamin. Both were admirers of Strauss and would continue to be throughout their lives. When he was 17, as he said, he was "converted" to political Zionism as a follower of Ze'ev Jabotinsky. He wrote several essays about its controversies but left these activities behind by his early twenties. While Strauss maintained a sympathetic interest in Zionism, he later came to refer to Zionism as "problematic" and became disillusioned with some of its aims.
Strauss taught at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem during the 1954–55 academic year. In his letter to a National Review editor, Strauss asked why Israel had been called a racist state by one of their writers. He argued that the author did not provide enough proof for his argument. He ended his essay with this statement: "Political Zionism is problematic for obvious reasons. But I can never forget what it achieved as a moral force in an era of complete dissolution. It helped to stem the tide of 'progressive' leveling of venerable, ancestral differences; it fulfilled a conservative function."
=== Religious belief ===
Although Strauss accepted the utility of religious belief, there is some question about his religious views. He was openly disdainful of atheism and disapproved of contemporary "dogmatic disbelief", which he considered intemperate and irrational. However, like Thomas Aquinas, he felt that revelation must be subject to examination by reason. At the end of The City and Man, Strauss invites the reader to "be open to ... the question quid sit deus ["What is God?"]" (p. 241). Edward Feser writes that "Strauss was not himself an orthodox believer, neither was he a convinced atheist. Since whether or not to accept a purported divine revelation is itself one of the 'permanent' questions, orthodoxy must always remain an option equally as defensible as unbelief."
In Natural Right and History, Strauss distinguishes a Socratic (Platonic, Ciceronian, Aristotelian) from a conventionalist (materialistic, Epicurean) reading of divinity, and argues that "the question of religion" (what is religion?) is inseparable from the question of the nature of civil society and civil authority. Throughout the volume he argues for the Socratic reading of civil authority and rejects the conventionalist reading (of which atheism is an essential component). This is incompatible with interpretations by Shadia Drury and other scholars who argue that Strauss viewed religion purely instrumentally.
== Reception and legacy ==
=== Reception by contemporaries ===
Strauss's works were read and admired by thinkers as diverse as the philosophers Gershom Scholem, Walter Benjamin, Hans-Georg Gadamer, and Alexandre Kojève, and the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan. Benjamin had become acquainted with Strauss as a student in Berlin, and expressed admiration for Strauss throughout his life. Gadamer stated that he 'largely agreed' with Strauss's interpretations.
=== The Straussian school ===
Straussianism is the name given "to denote the research methods, common concepts, theoretical presuppositions, central questions, and pedagogic style (teaching style) characteristic of the large number of conservatives who have been influenced by the thought and teaching of Leo Strauss". While it "is particularly influential among university professors of historical political theory ... it also sometimes serves as a common intellectual framework more generally among conservative activists, think tank professionals, and public intellectuals". Harvey Mansfield, Steven B. Smith and Steven Berg, though never students of Strauss, are "Straussians" (as some followers of Strauss identify themselves). Mansfield has argued that there is no such thing as "Straussianism" yet there are Straussians and a school of Straussians. Mansfield describes the school as "open to the whole of philosophy" and without any definite doctrines that one has to believe in order to belong to it.
Within the discipline of political theory, the method calls for its practitioners to use "a 'close reading' of the 'Great Books' of political thought; they strive to understand a thinker 'as he understood himself'; they are unconcerned with questions about the historical context of, or historical influences on, a given author" and strive to be open to the idea that they may find something timelessly true in a great book. The approach "resembles in important ways the old New Criticism in literary studies."
There is some controversy in the approach over what distinguishes a great book from lesser works. Great books are held to be written by authors/philosophers "of such sovereign critical self-knowledge and intellectual power that they can in no way be reduced to the general thought of their time and place," with other works "understood as epiphenomenal to the original insights of a thinker of the first rank." This approach is seen as a counter "to the historicist presuppositions of the mid-twentieth century, which read the history of political thought in a progressivist way, with past philosophies forever cut off from us in a superseded past." Straussianism puts forward the possibility that past thinkers may have "hold of the truth—and that more recent thinkers are therefore wrong."
=== The Chinese Straussians ===
Almost the entirety of Strauss's writings has been translated into Chinese. There even is a school of Straussians in China, the most prominent being Liu Xiaofeng (Renmin University) and Gan Yang. "Chinese Straussians" (who often are also fascinated by Carl Schmitt) represent an example of the hybridization of Western political theory in a non-Western context. As the editors of a recent volume write, "the reception of Schmitt and Strauss in the Chinese-speaking world (and especially in the People's Republic of China) not only says much about how Schmitt and Strauss can be read today, but also provides important clues about the deeper contradictions of Western modernity and the dilemmas of non-liberal societies in our increasingly contentious world."
== Criticism ==
=== Conservatism ===
Some critics of Strauss have accused him of being elitist, illiberal and anti-democratic. Journalists such as Seymour Hersh have opined that Strauss endorsed noble lies, "myths used by political leaders seeking to maintain a cohesive society". In The City and Man, Strauss discusses the myths outlined in Plato's Republic that are required for all governments. These include a belief that the state's land belongs to it even though it may have been acquired illegitimately and that citizenship is rooted in something more than accidents of birth.
Shadia Drury, in Leo Strauss and the American Right (1999), claimed that Strauss inculcated an elitist strain in American political leaders linked to imperialist militarism, neoconservatism and Christian fundamentalism. Drury argues that Strauss teaches that "perpetual deception of the citizens by those in power is critical because they need to be led, and they need strong rulers to tell them what's good for them".
=== Anti-historicism ===
Strauss has also been criticized by some conservatives. According to Claes G. Ryn, Strauss's anti-historicist thinking creates an artificial contrast between moral universality and "the conventional", "the ancestral", and "the historical". Strauss, Ryn argues, wrongly and reductively assumes that respect for tradition must undermine reason and universality. Contrary to Strauss's criticism of Edmund Burke, the historical sense may be indispensable to an adequate apprehension of universality. Strauss's abstract, ahistorical conception of natural right distorts genuine universality, Ryn contends. Strauss does not consider the possibility that real universality becomes known to human beings in a concretized, particular form. Strauss and the Straussians have paradoxically taught philosophically unsuspecting American conservatives, not least Catholic intellectuals, to reject tradition in favor of ahistorical theorizing, a bias that flies in the face of the central Christian notion of the Incarnation, which represents a synthesis of the universal and the historical. According to Ryn, the propagation of a purely abstract idea of universality has contributed to the neoconservative advocacy of allegedly universal American principles, which neoconservatives see as justification for American intervention around the world—bringing the blessings of the "West" to the benighted "rest". Strauss's anti-historical thinking connects him and his followers with the French Jacobins, who also regarded tradition as incompatible with virtue and rationality.
What Ryn calls the "new Jacobinism" of the "neoconservative" philosophy is, writes Paul Gottfried, also the rhetoric of Louis Antoine de Saint-Just and Leon Trotsky, which the philosophically impoverished American Right has taken over with mindless alacrity; Republican operators and think tanks apparently believe they can carry the electorate by appealing to yesterday's leftist clichés.
=== Response to criticism ===
In his 2009 book Straussophobia, Peter Minowitz provides a detailed critique of Drury, Xenos, and other critics of Strauss whom he accuses of "bigotry and buffoonery".
In Reading Leo Strauss, Steven B. Smith rejects the link between Strauss and neoconservative thought, arguing that Strauss was never personally active in politics, never endorsed imperialism, and questioned the utility of political philosophy for the practice of politics. In particular, Strauss argued that Plato's myth of the philosopher king should be read as a reductio ad absurdum, and that philosophers should understand politics not in order to influence policy but to ensure philosophy's autonomy from politics. In his review of Reading Leo Strauss, Robert Alter writes that Smith "persuasively sets the record straight on Strauss's political views and on what his writing is really about".
Strauss's daughter, Jenny Strauss Clay, defended him against the charge that he was the "mastermind behind the neoconservative ideologues who control United States foreign policy." "He was a conservative", she says, "insofar as he did not think change is necessarily change for the better." Since contemporary academia "leaned to the left", with its "unquestioned faith in progress and science combined with a queasiness regarding any kind of moral judgment", Strauss stood outside of the academic consensus. Had academia leaned to the right, he would have questioned it, too—and on certain occasions did question the tenets of the right.
Mark Lilla has argued that the attribution to Strauss of neoconservative views contradicts a careful reading of Strauss' actual texts, in particular On Tyranny. Lilla summarizes Strauss as follows:
Philosophy must always be aware of the dangers of tyranny, as a threat to both political decency and the philosophical life. It must understand enough about politics to defend its own autonomy, without falling into the error of thinking that philosophy can shape the political world according to its own lights.
Responding to charges that Strauss's teachings fostered the neoconservative foreign policy of the administration of George W. Bush, such as "unrealistic hopes for the spread of liberal democracy through military conquest", Nathan Tarcov, director of the Leo Strauss Center at the University of Chicago, asserts that Strauss as a political philosopher was essentially non-political. After an exegesis of the very limited practical political views to be gleaned from Strauss's writings, Tarcov concludes that "Strauss can remind us of the permanent problems, but we have only ourselves to blame for our faulty solutions to the problems of today."
== Bibliography ==
Books and articles
Gesammelte Schriften. Ed. Heinrich Meier. Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1996. Four vols. published to date: Vol. 1, Die Religionskritik Spinozas und zugehörige Schriften (rev. ed. 2001); vol. 2, Philosophie und Gesetz, Frühe Schriften (1997); Vol. 3, Hobbes' politische Wissenschaft und zugehörige Schrifte – Briefe (2001); Vol. 4, Politische Philosophie. Studien zum theologisch-politischen Problem (2010). The full series will also include Vol. 5, Über Tyrannis (2013) and Vol. 6, Gedanken über Machiavelli. Deutsche Erstübersetzung (2014).
Leo Strauss: The Early Writings (1921–1932). (Trans. from parts of Gesammelte Schriften). Trans. Michael Zank. Albany: SUNY Press, 2002.
Die Religionskritik Spinozas als Grundlage seiner Bibelwissenschaft: Untersuchungen zu Spinozas Theologisch-politischem Traktat. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1930.
Spinoza's Critique of Religion. (English trans. by Elsa M. Sinclair of Die Religionskritik Spinozas, 1930.) With a new English preface and a trans. of Strauss's 1932 German essay on Carl Schmitt. New York: Schocken, 1965. Reissued without that essay, Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1997.
"Anmerkungen zu Carl Schmitt, Der Begriff des Politischen". Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik 67, no. 6 (August–September 1932): 732–49.
"Comments on Carl Schmitt's Begriff des Politischen". (English trans. by Elsa M. Sinclair of "Anmerkungen zu Carl Schmitt", 1932.) 331–51 in Spinoza's Critique of Religion, 1965. Reprinted in Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, ed. and trans. George Schwab. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers U Press, 1976.
"Notes on Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political". (English trans. by J. Harvey Lomax of "Anmerkungen zu Carl Schmitt", 1932.) In Heinrich Meier, Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss: The Hidden Dialogue, trans. J. Harvey Lomax. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995. Reprinted in Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political, ed. and trans. George Schwab. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1996, 2007.
Philosophie und Gesetz: Beiträge zum Verständnis Maimunis und seiner Vorläufer. Berlin: Schocken, 1935.
Philosophy and Law: Essays Toward the Understanding of Maimonides and His Predecessors. (English trans. by Fred Baumann of Philosophie und Gesetz, 1935.) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1987.
Philosophy and Law: Contributions to the Understanding of Maimonides and His Predecessors. (English trans. with introd. by Eve Adler of Philosophie und Gesetz, 1935.) Albany: SUNY Press, 1995.
The Political Philosophy of Hobbes: Its Basis and Its Genesis. (English trans. by Elsa M. Sinclair from German manuscript.) Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1936. Reissued with new preface, Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1952.
Hobbes' politische Wissenschaft in ihrer Genesis. (1935 German original of The Political Philosophy of Hobbes, 1936.) Neuwied am Rhein: Hermann Luchterhand, 1965.
"The Spirit of Sparta or the Taste of Xenophon". Social Research 6, no. 4 (Winter 1939): 502–36.
"On German Nihilism" (1999, originally a 1941 lecture), Interpretation 26, no. 3 edited by David Janssens and Daniel Tanguay.
"Farabi's Plato" American Academy for Jewish Research, Louis Ginzberg Jubilee Volume, 1945. 45 pp.
"On a New Interpretation of Plato's Political Philosophy". Social Research 13, no. 3 (Fall 1946): 326–67.
"On the Intention of Rousseau". Social Research 14, no. 4 (Winter 1947): 455–87.
On Tyranny: An Interpretation of Xenophon's Hiero. Foreword by Alvin Johnson. New York: Political Science Classics, 1948. Reissued Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1950.
De la tyrannie. (French trans. of On Tyranny, 1948, with "Restatement on Xenophon's Hiero" and Alexandre Kojève's "Tyranny and Wisdom".) Paris: Librairie Gallimard, 1954.
On Tyranny. (English edition of De la tyrannie, 1954.) Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1963.
On Tyranny. (Revised and expanded edition of On Tyranny, 1963.) Includes Strauss–Kojève correspondence. Ed. Victor Gourevitch and Michael S. Roth. New York: The Free Press, 1991.
"On Collingwood's Philosophy of History". Review of Metaphysics 5, no. 4 (June 1952): 559–86.
Persecution and the Art of Writing. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1952. Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1988.
Natural Right and History. (Based on the 1949 Walgreen lectures.) Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1953. Reprinted with new preface, 1971. ISBN 978-0-226-77694-1.
"Existentialism" (1956), a public lecture on Martin Heidegger's thought, published in Interpretation, Spring 1995, Vol.22 No. 3: 303–18.
Seminar on Plato's Republic, (1957 Lecture), (1961 Lecture). University of Chicago.
Thoughts on Machiavelli. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1958. Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1978.
What Is Political Philosophy? and Other Studies. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1959. Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago Press, 1988.
On Plato's Symposium [1959]. Ed. Seth Benardete. (Edited transcript of 1959 lectures.) Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2001.
"'Relativism'". 135–57 in Helmut Schoeck and James W. Wiggins, eds., Relativism and the Study of Man. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, 1961. Partial reprint, 13–26 in The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism, 1989.
History of Political Philosophy. Co-editor with Joseph Cropsey. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1963 (1st ed.), 1972 (2nd ed.), 1987 (3rd ed.).
"The Crisis of Our Time", 41–54, and "The Crisis of Political Philosophy", 91–103, in Howard Spaeth, ed., The Predicament of Modern Politics. Detroit: U of Detroit P, 1964.
"Political Philosophy and the Crisis of Our Time". (Adaptation of the two essays in Howard Spaeth, ed., The Predicament of Modern Politics, 1964.) 217–42 in George J. Graham, Jr., and George W. Carey, eds., The Post-Behavioral Era: Perspectives on Political Science. New York: David McKay, 1972.
The City and Man. (Based on the 1962 Page-Barbour lectures.) Chicago: Rand McNally, 1964.
Socrates and Aristophanes. New York: Basic Books, 1966. Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1980.
Liberalism Ancient and Modern. New York: Basic Books, 1968. Reissued with foreword by Allan Bloom, 1989. Reissued Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995.
Xenophon's Socratic Discourse: An Interpretation of the Oeconomicus. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1970.
Note on the Plan of Nietzsche's "Beyond Good & Evil". St. John's College, 1971.
Xenophon's Socrates. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1972.
The Argument and the Action of Plato's Laws. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1975.
Political Philosophy: Six Essays by Leo Strauss. Ed. Hilail Gilden. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1975.
An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss. (Expanded version of Political Philosophy: Six Essays by Leo Strauss, 1975.) Ed. Hilail Gilden. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1989.
Studies in Platonic Political Philosophy. Introd. by Thomas L. Pangle. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1983.
The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism: An Introduction to the Thought of Leo Strauss – Essays and Lectures by Leo Strauss. Ed. Thomas L. Pangle. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1989.
Faith and Political Philosophy: the Correspondence Between Leo Strauss and Eric Voegelin, 1934–1964. Ed. Peter Emberley and Barry Cooper. Introd. by Thomas L. Pangle. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State UP, 1993.
Hobbes's Critique of Religion and Related Writings. Ed. and trans. Gabriel Bartlett and Svetozar Minkov. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2011. (Trans. of materials first published in the Gesammelte Schriften, Vol. 3, including an unfinished manuscript by Leo Strauss of a book on Hobbes, written in 1933–1934, and some shorter related writings.)
Leo Strauss on Moses Mendelssohn. Edited and translated by Martin D. Yaffe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012. (Annotated translation of ten introductions written by Strauss to a multi-volume critical edition of Mendelssohn's work.)
"Exoteric Teaching" (Critical Edition by Hannes Kerber). In Reorientation: Leo Strauss in the 1930s. Edited by Martin D. Yaffe and Richard S. Ruderman. New York: Palgrave, 2014, pp. 275–86.
"Lecture Notes for 'Persecution and the Art of Writing'" (Critical Edition by Hannes Kerber). In Reorientation: Leo Strauss in the 1930s. Edited by Martin D. Yaffe and Richard S. Ruderman. New York: Palgrave, 2014, pp. 293–304.
Leo Strauss on Nietzsche's "Thus Spoke Zarathustra". Edited by Richard L. Velkley. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017.
Leo Strauss on Political Philosophy: Responding to the Challenge of Positivism and Historicism. Edited by Catherine H. Zuckert. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018.
Leo Strauss on Hegel. Edited by Paul Franco. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019.
Writings about Maimonides and Jewish philosophy
Spinoza's Critique of Religion (see above, 1930).
Philosophy and Law (see above, 1935).
"Quelques remarques sur la science politique de Maïmonide et de Farabi". Revue des études juives 100 (1936): 1–37.
"Der Ort der Vorsehungslehre nach der Ansicht Maimunis". Monatschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums 81 (1936): 448–56.
"The Literary Character of The Guide for the Perplexed" [1941]. 38–94 in Persecution and the Art of Writing. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1952.
[1944] "How to Study Medieval Philosophy" [. Interpretation 23, no. 3 (Spring 1996): 319–338. Previously published, less annotations and fifth paragraph, as "How to Begin to Study Medieval Philosophy" in Pangle (ed.), The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism, 1989 (see above).
[1952]. Modern Judaism 1, no. 1 (May 1981): 17–45. Reprinted Chap. 1 (I–II) in Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity, 1997 (see below).
[1952]. Independent Journal of Philosophy 3 (1979), 111–18. Reprinted Chap. 1 (III) in Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity, 1997 (see below).
"Maimonides' Statement on Political Science". Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research 22 (1953): 115–30.
[1957]. L'Homme 21, n° 1 (janvier–mars 1981): 5–20. Reprinted Chap. 8 in Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity, 1997 (see below).
"How to Begin to Study The Guide of the Perplexed". In The Guide of the Perplexed, Volume One. Trans. Shlomo Pines. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1963.
[1965] "On the Plan of the Guide of the Perplexed" . Harry Austryn Wolfson Jubilee. Volume (Jerusalem: American Academy for Jewish Research), pp. 775–91.
"Notes on Maimonides' Book of Knowledge". 269–83 in Studies in Mysticism and Religion Presented to G. G. Scholem. Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1967.
Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity: Essays and Lectures in Modern Jewish Thought. Ed. Kenneth Hart Green. Albany: SUNY P, 1997.
Leo Strauss on Maimonides: The Complete Writings. Edited by Kenneth Hart Green. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013.
== See also ==
American philosophy
List of American philosophers
Neoconservatism, often referred to as inspired by the work of Strauss
Lev Shestov
Allan Bloom
Seth Benardete
Jacob Klein
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Altman, William H. F., The German Stranger: Leo Strauss and National Socialism. Lexington Books, 2011
Andreacchio, Marco. "Philosophy and Religion in Leo Strauss : Critical Review of Menon's Interpretation". Interpretation: A Journal of Political Philosophy 46, no. 2 (Spring 2020): 383–98.
Batnitzky, Leora, Leo Strauss and Emmanuel Levinas : philosophy and the politics of revelation, Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Behnegar, Nasser, Leo Strauss, Max Weber, And The Scientific Study Of Politics. University of Chicago Press, 2005.
Benardete, Seth. Encounters and Reflections: Conversations with Seth Benardete. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2002.
Bloom, Allan. "Leo Strauss". 235–55 in Giants and Dwarfs: Essays 1960–1990. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990.
Bluhm, Harald. Die Ordnung der Ordnung : das politische Philosophieren von Leo Strauss. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 2002.
Brague, Rémi. "Leo Strauss and Maimonides". 93–114 in Leo Strauss's Thought. Ed. Alan Udoff. Boulder: Lynne Reiner, 1991.
Brittain, Christopher Craig. "Leo Strauss and Resourceful Odysseus: Rhetorical Violence and the Holy Middle". Canadian Review of American Studies 38, no. 1 (2008): 147–63.
Bruell, Christopher. "A Return to Classical Political Philosophy and the Understanding of the American Founding". Review of Politics 53, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 173–86.
Chivilò, Giampiero and Menon, Marco (eds). Tirannide e filosofia: Con un saggio di Leo Strauss ed un inedito di Gaston Fessard sj. Venezia: Edizioni Ca' Foscari, 2015. ISBN 978-88-6969-032-7.
Colen, Jose. Facts and values. London: Plusprint, 2012.
Deutsch, Kenneth L. and John A. Murley, eds. Leo Strauss, the Straussians, and the American Regime. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999. ISBN 978-0-8476-8692-6.
Drury, Shadia B. Leo Strauss and the American Right. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999.
Drury, Shadia B. The Political Ideas of Leo Strauss. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988.
Ghibellini, Alberto Marco. Leo Strauss and the Recovery of "Natural Philosophizing". State University of New York Press, 2025.
Gottfried, Paul. Leo Strauss and the Conservative Movement in America: A Critical Appraisal (Cambridge University Press; 2011)
Gourevitch, Victor. "Philosophy and Politics I–II". Review of Metaphysics 22, nos. 1–2 (September–December 1968): 58–84, 281–328.
Green, Kenneth. Jew and Philosopher: The Return to Maimonides in the Jewish Thought of Leo Strauss. Albany: SUNY Press, 1993.
"A Giving of Accounts: Jacob Kelin and Leo Strauss". In Jewish Philosophy and the Crisis of Modernity: Essays and Lectures in Modern Jewish Thought. Ed. Kenneth H. Green. Albany: SUNY Press, 1997.
Havers, Grant N. Leo Strauss and Anglo-American Democracy: A Conservative Critique. DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2013.
Holmes, Stephen. The Anatomy of Antiliberalism. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1996. ISBN 978-0-674-03185-2.
Howse, Robert. Leo Strauss, Man of Peace, Cambridge University Press, 2014]
Ivry, Alfred L. "Leo Strauss on Maimonides". 75–91 in Leo Strauss's Thought. Ed. Alan Udoff. Boulder: Lynne Reiner, 1991.
Janssens, David. Between Athens and Jerusalem. Philosophy, Prophecy, and Politics in Leo Strauss's Early Thought. Albany: SUNY Press, 2008.
Kartheininger, Markus. "Heterogenität. Politische Philosophie im Frühwerk von Leo Strauss". München: Fink, 2006. ISBN 978-3-7705-4378-6.
Kartheininger, Markus. "Aristokratisierung des Geistes". In: Kartheininger, Markus/ Hutter, Axel (ed.). "Bildung als Mittel und Selbstzweck". Freiburg: Alber, 2009, pp. 157–208. ISBN 978-3-495-48393-0.
Kerber, Hannes. "Strauss and Schleiermacher. An Introduction to 'Exoteric Teaching". In Reorientation: Leo Strauss in the 1930s. Ed. Yaffe/Ruderman. New York: Palgrave, 2014, pp. 203–14.
Kerber, Hannes. "Leo Strauss on Exoteric Writing". Interpretation. 46, no. 1 (2019): 3–25.
Kinzel, Till. Platonische Kulturkritik in Amerika. Studien zu Allan Blooms The Closing of the American Mind. Berlin: Duncker und Humblot, 2002.
Kochin, Michael S. "Morality, Nature, and Esotericism in Leo Strauss's Persecution and the Art of Writing". Review of Politics 64, no. 2 (Spring 2002): 261–83.
Lampert, Laurence. Leo Strauss and Nietzsche. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1996.
Lutz, Mark J. "Living the Theologico-Political Problem: Leo Strauss on the Common Ground of Philosophy and Theology." The European Legacy. 2018. Vol. 23. No. 8. pp. 1–25.
Macpherson, C. B. "Hobbes's Bourgeois Man". In Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972.
Major, Rafael (ed.). Leo Strauss's Defense of the Philosophic Life: Reading "What is Political Philosophy?". University of Chicago Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-226-92420-5 (cloth)
Marchal, Kai, Shaw, Carl K.Y. Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss in the Chinese-speaking World: Reorienting the Political. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2017.
McAllister, Ted V. Revolt Against Modernity: Leo Strauss, Eric Voegelin & the Search for Postliberal Order. Lawrence, KS: UP of Kansas. 1996.
McWilliams, Wilson Carey. "Leo Strauss and the Dignity of American Political Thought". Review of Politics 60, no. 2 (Spring 1998): 231–46.
Meier, Heinrich. Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss: The Hidden Dialogue, Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995.
Meier, Heinrich. "Editor's Introduction[s]". Gesammelte Schriften. Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1996. 3 vols.
Meier, Heinrich. Leo Strauss and the Theologico-Political Problem. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006.
Meier, Heinrich. How Strauss Became Strauss". 363–82 in Enlightening Revolutions: Essays in Honor of Ralph Lerner. Ed. Svetozar Minkov. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2006.
Melzer, Arthur. "Esotericism and the Critique of Historicism". American Political Science Review 100 (2006): 279–95.
Minowitz, Peter. "Machiavellianism Come of Age? Leo Strauss on Modernity and Economics". The Political Science Reviewer 22 (1993): 157–97.
Minowitz, Peter. Straussophobia: Defending Leo Strauss and Straussians against Shadia Drury and Other Accusers. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009.
Momigliano, Arnaldo. "Hermeneutics and Classical Political Thought in Leo Strauss", 178–89 in Essays on Ancient and Modern Judaism. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1994.
Moyn, Samuel. "From experience to law: Leo Strauss and the Weimar crisis of the philosophy of religion." History of European Ideas 33, (2007): 174–94.
Neumann, Harry. Liberalism. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic P, 1991.
Norton, Anne. Leo Strauss and the Politics of American Empire. New Haven & London: Yale UP, 2004.
Pangle, Thomas L. "The Epistolary Dialogue Between Leo Strauss and Eric Voegelin". Review of Politics 53, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 100–25.
Minowitz, Peter. "Leo Strauss's Perspective on Modern Politics". Perspectives on Political Science 33, no. 4 (Fall 2004): 197–203.
Minowitz, Peter. Leo Strauss: An Introduction to His Thought and Intellectual Legacy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2006.
Pelluchon, Corine. Leo Strauss and the Crisis of Rationalism: Another Reason, Another Enlightenment, Robert Howse (tr.), SUNY Press, 2014.
Piccinini, Irene Abigail. Una guida fedele. L'influenza di Hermann Cohen sul pensiero di Leo Strauss. Torino: Trauben, 2007. ISBN 978-88-89909-31-7.
Rosen, Stanley. "Hermeneutics as Politics". 87–140 in Hermeneutics as Politics, New York: Oxford UP, 1987.
Sheppard, Eugene R. Leo Strauss and the Politics of Exile: The Making of a Political Philosopher. Waltham, MA: Brandeis UP, 2006. ISBN 978-1-58465-600-5.
Shorris, Earl. "Ignoble Liars: Leo Strauss, George Bush, and the Philosophy of Mass Deception". Harper's Magazine 308, issue 1849 (June 2004): 65–71.
Smith, Steven B. Reading Leo Strauss: Politics, Philosophy, Judaism. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2006. ISBN 978-0-226-76402-3. (Introd: "Why Strauss, Why Now?", online posting, press.uchicago.edu.)
Smith, Steven B. (editor). The Cambridge Companion to Leo Strauss. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. ISBN 978-0-521-70399-4.
Steiner, Stephan: Weimar in Amerika. Leo Strauss' Politische Philosophie, Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck 2013.
Strong, Tracy B. "Leo Strauss and the Demos," The European Legacy (October, 2012)
Tanguay, Daniel. Leo Strauss: une biographie intellectuelle. Paris, 2005. ISBN 978-2-253-13067-3.
Tarcov, Nathan. "On a Certain Critique of 'Straussianism' ". Review of Politics 53, no. 1 (Winter 1991): 3–18.
Tarcov, Nathan. "Philosophy and History: Tradition and Interpretation in the Work of Leo Strauss". Polity 16, no. 1 (Autumn 1983): 5–29.
Tarcov, Nathan and Thomas L. Pangle, "Epilogue: Leo Strauss and the History of Political Philosophy". 907–38 in History of Political Philosophy. Ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey. 3rd ed. 1963; Chicago and London, U of Chicago P, 1987.
Tepper, Aryeh. "Progressive Minds, Conservative Politics: Leo Strauss' Later Writings on Maimonides." SUNY: 2013.
Thompson, Bradley C. (with Yaron Brook). Neoconservatism. An Obituary for an Idea. Boulder/London: Paradigm Publishers, 2010. pp. 55–131. ISBN 978-1-59451-831-7.
Velkley, Richard. Heidegger, Strauss, and the Premises of Philosophy: On Original Forgetting. University of Chicago Press, 2011.
Weinstein, David and Zakai, Avihu, Jewish exiles and European thought in the shadow of the Third Reich : Baron, Popper, Strauss, Auerbach. Cambridge, United Kingdom : Cambridge University Press, 2017.
West, Thomas G. "Jaffa Versus Mansfield: Does America Have a Constitutional or a "Declaration of Independence" Soul?" Perspectives on Political Science 31, no. 4 (Fall 2002): 35–46.
Xenos, Nicholas. Cloaked in virtue: Unveiling Leo Strauss and the Rhetoric of American Foreign Policy. New York, Routledge Press, 2008.
Zuckert, Catherine H. Postmodern Platos. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1996.
Zuckert, Catherine H., and Michael Zuckert. The Truth about Leo Strauss. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 2006.
Robertson, Neil G. (June 2021). Leo Strauss: An Introduction. Key Contemporary Thinkers. Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN 9781509516315.
=== Strauss family ===
Lüders, Joachim and Ariane Wehner. Mittelhessen – eine Heimat für Juden? Das Schicksal der Familie Strauss aus Kirchhain. Marburg: Gymnasium Philippinum, 1989. (In German; English translation: Central Hesse – a Homeland for Jews? The Fate of the Strauss Family from Kirchhain.)
== External links ==
The Leo Strauss Center
The Leo Strauss Foundation
Guide to the Leo Strauss Papers circa 1930–1997 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
Works by or about Leo Strauss at the Internet Archive
Leora Batnitzky. "Leo Strauss". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_Zimmerman | World War Zimmerman | "World War Zimmerman" is the third episode in the seventeenth season of the American animated television series South Park. The 240th episode of the series overall, it premiered on Comedy Central in the United States on October 9, 2013. The episode parodies the 2013 film World War Z and the killing of Trayvon Martin by George Zimmerman.
== Plot ==
Eric Cartman draws attention by acting unusually nice to Token Black, and having nightmares while asleep in class. When his counselor, Mr. Mackey, questions him, Cartman says he thinks Token is a "ticking time bomb". It is revealed that his nightmares feature himself as Brad Pitt's character in the feature film World War Z, with the role of the zombies in that film being played by African Americans, including Token, who are rioting after the verdict of the Zimmerman trial. With Mackey's encouragement, Cartman reads a poem to Token, and later performs a musical adaptation of it at a student assembly, disavowing any involvement with the Zimmerman case. When Token takes offense at the notion that he should feel bad because of Cartman's feelings, Cartman, feeling the "outbreak has started", goes to his house for his survival kit, picks up a random woman, and commandeers a passenger plane at an airport, warning the passengers they can only stop the end of the world by finding a place where the "contagion" cannot reach them.
On the airplane, Cartman discovers a black passenger in the bathroom, and barricades him in. When the passenger tries to break out, the other passengers begin to panic, causing the plane to crash in the Rocky Mountains. Cartman and the woman survive and go to Jimbo's gun store to purchase a rifle to kill Token, but Jimbo informs him he can not shoot anybody unless he is threatened in his own home. After considering this, Cartman and the woman head for Florida to shoot George Zimmerman, as a way to stop the outbreak. She is run over and killed. Cartman goes to Zimmermans' house wearing black paint on his face. Zimmerman shoots Cartman, to the praise of the officials for apparently saving them, before one of the agents discovers that Cartman is white. Zimmerman is tried, found guilty, and executed via electrocution for attempted murder.
Cartman survives the shooting, and back in South Park, he apologizes to Token, who is upset. Cartman then tricks Token into moving close enough to shoot him in accordance with the stand-your-ground law. At school, Cartman is sent to Mackey's office along with a bandaged Token. When Mackey demands that the two apologize to each other in order to resolve their "feud", Token angrily denounces the stand-your-ground law for not also applying to black people. Once more, Cartman panics and flees, causing yet another plane to crash.
== Production ==
The animation for Cartman's dream sequences was completed very early in the production cycle of the season, as series co-creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone came up with the idea on the annual "writers retreat" during the break between seasons sixteen and seventeen. They intended to expand on the dream sequence and use it for the season's premiere episode. They originally intended the episode to consist almost entirely of the dream sequence and reveal this at the end by having Cartman wake up. Parker was pleased that they ultimately decided against the idea because this episode is one of the very few that Parker's father told him he did not understand. Parker felt this would have been worsened if they had remained with their original idea, concluding that his father disliked the episode because he had not seen World War Z.
Commenting on how the writers were pleased with the episode, Parker said that the season's third episode is usually when the writers have “shaken off the rust”. Token being shot towards the end of the episode was originally going to be expanded into a permanent death because The Simpsons had done a similar story, but it was quickly decided against because Parker and Stone "love having Token around".
== Reception ==
In its original American broadcast, "World War Zimmerman" was watched by 2.056 million overall households, according to Nielsen Media Research. The episode received a 1.2 rating/5 share among adults aged between 18 and 49.
Marcus Gilmer of The A.V. Club gave the episode an "A−", saying, "Some of those moments were brutal but it in a meaningful, impactful, and, yes, even funny way. That's what satire does when it works: It scorches."
Max Nicholson of IGN graded the episode an 8.7 out of 10 and opined that "I always know it's a great episode of South Park when I have to walk on eggshells just to review it." He praised the "great social commentary" and concluded that the episode was "a return to form for South Park".
Chris Longo of Den of Geek gave the episode four and a half stars out of five. He described it as featuring "classic Cartman" and concluded by saying "when South Park took an extended hiatus, we dreamed it would pay off in well-thought out, precisely executed performances like these. Bravo, Matt and Trey."
Josh Kurp of Uproxx described being left "speechless", and compared Cartman's behavior in the episode to his acts in the fifth season episode "Scott Tenorman Must Die".
== References ==
== External links ==
"World War Zimmerman" Full episode at South Park Studios
"World War Zimmerman" at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzz_Aldrin | Buzz Aldrin | Buzz Aldrin ( AWL-drin; born Edwin Eugene Aldrin Jr.; January 20, 1930) is an American former astronaut, aeronautical engineer, and fighter pilot. He made three spacewalks as pilot of the 1966 Gemini 12 mission, and was the Lunar Module Eagle pilot on the 1969 Apollo 11 mission. He was the second person to walk on the Moon after mission commander Neil Armstrong. Following the deaths of Armstrong in 2012 and pilot Michael Collins in 2021, he is the last surviving Apollo 11 crew member. Following Jim Lovell's death in 2025, Aldrin became the oldest living astronaut.
Born in Glen Ridge, New Jersey, Aldrin graduated third in the class of 1951 from the United States Military Academy at West Point with a degree in mechanical engineering. He was commissioned into the United States Air Force and served as a jet fighter pilot during the Korean War. He flew 66 combat missions and shot down two MiG-15 fighter jets.
After earning a Doctor of Science degree in astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Aldrin was selected as a member of NASA's Astronaut Group 3, making him the first astronaut with a doctoral degree. His doctoral thesis, Line-of-Sight Guidance Techniques for Manned Orbital Rendezvous, earned him the nickname "Dr. Rendezvous" from fellow astronauts. His first space flight was in 1966 on Gemini 12, during which he spent over five hours on extravehicular activity. Three years later, Aldrin set foot on the Moon at 03:15:16 on July 21, 1969 (UTC), nineteen minutes after Armstrong first touched the surface, while command module pilot Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit. A Presbyterian elder, Aldrin became the first person to hold a religious ceremony on the Moon, when he privately took communion, which was the first food and liquid to be consumed there.
After leaving NASA in 1971, Aldrin became Commandant of the U.S. Air Force Test Pilot School. He retired from the Air Force in 1972 after 21 years of service. His autobiographies Return to Earth (1973) and Magnificent Desolation (2009) recount his struggles with clinical depression and alcoholism in the years after leaving NASA. Aldrin continues to advocate for space exploration, particularly a human mission to Mars. He developed the Aldrin cycler, a special spacecraft trajectory that makes travel to Mars more efficient in terms of time and propellant. He has been accorded numerous honors, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1969.
== Early life and education ==
Aldrin was born Edwin Eugene Aldrin Jr. on January 20, 1930, at Mountainside Hospital in Glen Ridge, New Jersey. His parents, Edwin Eugene Aldrin Sr. and Marion Aldrin (née Moon), lived in neighboring Montclair. His father was an Army aviator during World War I and the assistant commandant of the Army's test pilot school at McCook Field, Ohio, from 1919 to 1922, but left the Army in 1928 and became an executive at Standard Oil. Aldrin had two sisters: Madeleine, who was four years older, and Fay Ann, who was a year and a half older. His nickname, which became his legal first name in 1988, arose as a result of Fay's mispronouncing "brother" as "buzzer", which was then shortened to "Buzz". He was a Boy Scout, achieving the rank of Tenderfoot Scout.
Aldrin did well in school, maintaining an A average. He played football and was the starting center for Montclair High School's undefeated 1946 state champion team. His father wanted him to go to the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, and enrolled him at nearby Severn School, a preparatory school for Annapolis, and even secured him a Naval Academy appointment from Albert W. Hawkes, one of the United States senators from New Jersey. Aldrin attended Severn School in 1946, but had other ideas about his future career. He suffered from seasickness and considered ships a distraction from flying airplanes. He faced down his father and told him to ask Hawkes to change the nomination to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York.
Aldrin entered West Point in 1947. He did well academically, finishing first in his class his plebe (first) year. Aldrin was also an excellent athlete, competing in pole vault for the academy track and field team. In 1950, he traveled with a group of West Point cadets to Japan and the Philippines to study the military government policies of Douglas MacArthur. During the trip, the Korean War broke out. On June 5, 1951, Aldrin graduated third in the class of 1951 with a Bachelor of Science degree in mechanical engineering.
== Military career ==
Among the top of his class, Aldrin had his choice of assignments. He chose the United States Air Force, which had become a separate service in 1947 while Aldrin was still at West Point and did not yet have its own academy. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant and underwent basic flight training in T-6 Texans at Bartow Air Base in Florida. His classmates included Sam Johnson, who later became a prisoner of war in Vietnam; the two became friends. At one point, Aldrin attempted a double Immelmann turn in a T-28 Trojan and suffered a grayout. He recovered in time to pull out at about 2,000 feet (610 m), averting what would have been a fatal crash.
When Aldrin was deciding what sort of aircraft he should fly, his father advised him to choose bombers, because command of a bomber crew gave an opportunity to learn and hone leadership skills, which could open up better prospects for career advancement. Aldrin chose instead to fly fighters. He moved to Nellis Air Force Base in Las Vegas, where he learned to fly the F-80 Shooting Star and the F-86 Sabre. Like most jet fighter pilots of the era, he preferred the latter.
In December 1952, Aldrin was assigned to the 16th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, which was part of the 51st Fighter-Interceptor Wing. At the time it was based at Suwon Air Base, about 20 miles (32 km) south of Seoul, and was engaged in combat operations as part of the Korean War. During an acclimatization flight, his main fuel system froze at 100 percent power, which would have soon used up all his fuel. He was able to override the setting manually, but this required holding a button down, which in turn made it impossible to also use his radio. He barely managed to make it back under enforced radio silence. He flew 66 combat missions in F-86 Sabres in Korea and shot down two MiG-15 aircraft.
The first MiG-15 he shot down was on May 14, 1953. Aldrin was flying about 5 miles (8.0 km) south of the Yalu River, when he saw two MiG-15 fighters below him. Aldrin opened fire on one of the MiGs, whose pilot may never have seen him coming. The June 8, 1953, issue of Life magazine featured gun camera footage taken by Aldrin of the pilot ejecting from his damaged aircraft.
Aldrin's second aerial victory came on June 4, 1953, when he accompanied aircraft from the 39th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron in an attack on an airbase in North Korea. Their newer aircraft were faster than his and he had trouble keeping up. He then spotted a MiG approaching from above. This time, Aldrin and his opponent spotted each other at about the same time. They went through a series of scissor maneuvers, attempting to get behind the other. Aldrin was first to do so, but his gun sight jammed. He then manually sighted his gun and fired. He then had to pull out, as the two aircraft had gotten too low for the dogfight to continue. Aldrin saw the MiG's canopy open and the pilot eject, although Aldrin was uncertain whether there was sufficient time for a parachute to open. For his service in Korea, he was awarded two Distinguished Flying Crosses and three Air Medals.
Aldrin's year-long tour ended in December 1953, by which time the fighting in Korea had ended. Aldrin was assigned as an aerial gunnery instructor at Nellis. In December 1954 he became an aide-de-camp to Brigadier General Don Z. Zimmerman, the Dean of Faculty at the nascent United States Air Force Academy, which opened in 1955. That same year, he graduated from the Squadron Officer School at Maxwell Air Force Base in Alabama. From 1956 to 1959 he flew F-100 Super Sabres equipped with nuclear weapons as a flight commander in the 22nd Fighter Squadron, 36th Fighter Wing, stationed at Bitburg Air Base in West Germany. Among his squadron colleagues was Ed White, who had been a year behind him at West Point. After White left West Germany to study for a master's degree at the University of Michigan in aeronautical engineering, he wrote to Aldrin encouraging him to do the same.
Through the Air Force Institute of Technology, Aldrin enrolled as a graduate student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1959 intending to earn a master's degree. Richard Battin was the professor for his astrodynamics class. Two other USAF officers who later became astronauts, David Scott and Edgar Mitchell, took the course around this time. Another USAF officer, Charles Duke, also took the course and wrote his 1964 master's degree at MIT under the supervision of Laurence R. Young.
Aldrin enjoyed the classwork and soon decided to pursue a doctorate instead. In January 1963, he earned a Sc.D. degree in astronautics. His doctoral thesis was Line-of-Sight Guidance Techniques for Manned Orbital Rendezvous, the dedication of which read: "In the hopes that this work may in some way contribute to their exploration of space, this is dedicated to the crew members of this country's present and future manned space programs. If only I could join them in their exciting endeavors!" Aldrin chose his doctoral thesis in the hope that it would help him be selected as an astronaut, although it meant foregoing test pilot training, which was a prerequisite at the time.
After completing his doctorate Aldrin was assigned to the Gemini Target Office of the Air Force Space Systems Division in Los Angeles, working with the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation on enhancing the maneuver capabilities of the Agena target vehicle which was to be used by NASA's Project Gemini. He was then posted to the Space Systems Division's field office at NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, where he was involved in integrating Department of Defense experiments into Project Gemini flights.
== NASA career ==
Aldrin initially applied to join the astronaut corps when NASA's Astronaut Group 2 was selected in 1962. His application was rejected on the grounds that he was not a test pilot. Aldrin was aware of the requirement and asked for a waiver but the request was turned down. On May 15, 1963, NASA announced another round of selections, this time with the requirement that applicants had either test pilot experience or 1,000 hours of flying time in jet aircraft. Aldrin had over 2,500 hours of flying time, of which 2,200 was in jets. His selection as one of fourteen members of NASA's Astronaut Group 3 was announced on October 18, 1963. This made him the first astronaut with a doctoral degree which, combined with his expertise in orbital mechanics, earned him the nickname "Dr. Rendezvous" from his fellow astronauts. Although Aldrin was both the most educated and the rendezvous expert in the astronaut corps, he was aware that the nickname was not always intended as a compliment. Upon completion of initial training, each new astronaut was assigned a field of expertise; in Aldrin's case, it was mission planning, trajectory analysis, and flight plans.
=== Gemini program ===
Jim Lovell and Aldrin were selected as the backup crew of Gemini 10, commander and pilot respectively. Backup crews usually became the prime crew of the third following mission, but the last scheduled mission in the program was Gemini 12. The February 28, 1966, deaths of the Gemini 9 prime crew, Elliot See and Charles Bassett, in an air crash, led to Lovell and Aldrin being moved up one mission to backup for Gemini 9, which put them in position as prime crew for Gemini 12. They were designated its prime crew on June 17, 1966, with Gordon Cooper and Gene Cernan as their backups.
==== Gemini 12 ====
Initially, Gemini 12's mission objectives were uncertain. As the last scheduled mission, it was primarily intended to complete tasks that had not been successfully or fully carried out on earlier missions. While NASA had successfully performed rendezvous during Project Gemini, the gravity-gradient stabilization test on Gemini 11 was unsuccessful. NASA also had concerns about extravehicular activity (EVA). Cernan on Gemini 9 and Richard Gordon on Gemini 11 had suffered from fatigue carrying out tasks during EVA, but Michael Collins had a successful EVA on Gemini 10, which suggested that the order in which he had performed his tasks was an important factor.
It therefore fell to Aldrin to complete Gemini's EVA goals. NASA formed a committee to give him a better chance of success. It dropped the test of the Air Force's astronaut maneuvering unit (AMU) that had given Gordon trouble on Gemini 11 so Aldrin could focus on EVA. NASA revamped the training program, opting for underwater training over parabolic flight. Aircraft flying a parabolic trajectory had given astronauts an experience of weightlessness in training, but there was a delay between each parabola which gave astronauts several minutes of rest. It also encouraged performing tasks quickly, whereas in space they had to be done slowly and deliberately. Training in a viscous, buoyant fluid gave a better simulation. NASA also placed additional handholds on the capsule, which were increased from nine on Gemini 9 to 44 on Gemini 12, and created workstations where he could anchor his feet.
Gemini 12's main objectives were to rendezvous with a target vehicle, and fly the spacecraft and target vehicle together using gravity-gradient stabilization, perform docked maneuvers using the Agena propulsion system to change orbit, conduct a tethered stationkeeping exercise and three EVAs, and demonstrate an automatic reentry. Gemini 12 also carried 14 scientific, medical, and technological experiments. It was not a trailblazing mission; rendezvous from above had already been successfully performed by Gemini 9, and the tethered vehicle exercise by Gemini 11. Even gravity-gradient stabilization had been attempted by Gemini 11, albeit unsuccessfully.
Gemini 12 was launched from Launch Complex 19 at Cape Canaveral on 20:46 UTC on November 11, 1966. The Gemini Agena Target Vehicle had been launched about an hour and a half before. The mission's first major objective was to rendezvous with this target vehicle. As the target and Gemini 12 capsule drew closer together, radar contact between the two deteriorated until it became unusable, forcing the crew to rendezvous manually. Aldrin used a sextant and rendezvous charts he helped create to give Lovell the right information to put the spacecraft in position to dock with the target vehicle. Gemini 12 achieved the fourth docking with an Agena target vehicle.
The next task was to practice undocking and docking again. On undocking, one of the three latches caught, and Lovell had to use the Gemini's thrusters to free the spacecraft. Aldrin then docked again successfully a few minutes later. The flight plan then called for the Agena main engine to be fired to take the docked spacecraft into a higher orbit, but eight minutes after the Agena had been launched, it had suffered a loss of chamber pressure. The Mission and Flight Directors therefore decided not to risk the main engine. This would be the only mission objective that was not achieved. Instead, the Agena's secondary propulsion system was used to allow the spacecraft to view the solar eclipse of November 12, 1966, over South America, which Lovell and Aldrin photographed through the spacecraft windows.
Aldrin performed three EVAs. The first was a standup EVA on November 12, in which the spacecraft door was opened and he stood up, but did not leave the spacecraft. The standup EVA mimicked some of the actions he would do during his free-flight EVA, so he could compare the effort expended between the two. It set an EVA record of two hours and twenty minutes. The next day Aldrin performed his free-flight EVA. He climbed across the newly installed hand-holds to the Agena and installed the cable needed for the gravity-gradient stabilization experiment. Aldrin performed numerous tasks, including installing electrical connectors and testing tools that would be needed for Project Apollo. A dozen two-minute rest periods prevented him from becoming fatigued. His second EVA concluded after two hours and six minutes. A third, 55-minute standup EVA was conducted on November 14, during which Aldrin took photographs, conducted experiments, and discarded some unneeded items.
On November 15, the crew initiated the automatic reentry system and splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean, where they were picked up by a helicopter, which took them to the awaiting aircraft carrier USS Wasp. After the mission, his wife realized he had fallen into a depression, something she had not seen before.
=== Apollo program ===
Lovell and Aldrin were assigned to an Apollo crew with Neil Armstrong as commander, Lovell as command module pilot (CMP), and Aldrin as lunar module pilot (LMP). Their assignment as the backup crew of Apollo 9 was announced on November 20, 1967. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the lunar module (LM), Apollo 8 and Apollo 9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong's crew became the backup for Apollo 8. Under the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong was expected to command Apollo 11.
Michael Collins, the CMP on the Apollo 8 prime crew, required surgery to remove a bone spur on his spine. Lovell took his place on the Apollo 8 crew. When Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime, Fred Haise filled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8. While the CMP usually occupied the center couch on launch, Aldrin occupied it rather than Collins, as he had already been trained to operate its console on liftoff before Collins arrived.
Apollo 11 was the second American space mission made up entirely of astronauts who had already flown in space, the first being Apollo 10. The next would not be flown until STS-26 in 1988. Deke Slayton, who was responsible for astronaut flight assignments, gave Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell, since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong thought it over for a day before declining. He had no issues working with Aldrin, and thought Lovell deserved his own command.
Early versions of the EVA checklist had the lunar module pilot as the first to step onto the lunar surface. However, when Aldrin learned that this might be amended, he lobbied within NASA for the original procedure to be followed. Multiple factors contributed to the final decision, including the physical positioning of the astronauts within the compact lunar lander, which made it easier for Armstrong to be the first to exit the spacecraft. Furthermore, there was little support for Aldrin's views among senior astronauts who would command later Apollo missions. Collins has commented that he thought Aldrin "resents not being first on the Moon more than he appreciates being second".
Aldrin and Armstrong did not have time to perform much geological training. The first lunar landing focused more on landing on the Moon and making it safely back to Earth than the scientific aspects of the mission. The duo was briefed by NASA and USGS geologists. They made one geological field trip to West Texas. The press followed them, and a helicopter made it hard for Aldrin and Armstrong to hear their instructor.
==== Apollo 11 ====
On the morning of July 16, 1969, an estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches in the vicinity of Cape Canaveral, Florida. The launch was televised live in 33 countries, with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more listened to radio broadcasts. Propelled by a Saturn V rocket, Apollo 11 lifted off from Launch Complex 39 at the Kennedy Space Center on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00 UTC (9:32:00 EDT), and entered Earth orbit twelve minutes later. After one and a half orbits, the S-IVB third-stage engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon. About thirty minutes later, the transposition, docking, and extraction maneuver was performed: this involved separating the command module Columbia from the spent S-IVB stage; turning around; and docking with, and extracting, the lunar module Eagle. The combined spacecraft then headed for the Moon, while the S-IVB stage continued on a trajectory past the Moon.
On July 19 at 17:21:50 UTC, Apollo 11 passed behind the Moon and fired its service propulsion engine to enter lunar orbit. In the thirty orbits that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquillity about 12 miles (19 km) southwest of the crater Sabine D. At 12:52:00 UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong entered Eagle, and began the final preparations for lunar descent. At 17:44:00 Eagle separated from the Columbia. Collins, alone aboard Columbia, inspected Eagle as it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged and that the landing gear had correctly deployed.
Throughout the descent, Aldrin called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy piloting the Eagle. Five minutes into the descent burn, and 6,000 feet (1,800 m) above the surface of the Moon, the LM guidance computer (LGC) distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected alarms that indicated that it could not complete all its tasks in real time and had to postpone some of them. Due to the 1202/1201 program alarms caused by spurious rendezvous radar inputs to the LGC, Armstrong manually landed the Eagle instead of using the computer's autopilot. The Eagle landed at 20:17:40 UTC on Sunday July 20 with about 25 seconds of fuel left.
As a Presbyterian elder, Aldrin was the first and only person to hold a religious ceremony on the Moon. He radioed Earth: "I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours, and to give thanks in his or her own way." Using a kit given to him by his pastor, he took communion and read Jesus's words from the New Testament's John 15:5, as Aldrin records it: "I am the vine. You are the branches. Whoever remains in me, and I in him, will bear much fruit; for you can do nothing without me." But he kept this ceremony secret because of a lawsuit over the reading of Genesis on Apollo 8. In 1970 he commented: "It was interesting to think that the very first liquid ever poured on the Moon, and the first food eaten there, were communion elements."
On reflection in his 2009 book, Aldrin said, "Perhaps, if I had it to do over again, I would not choose to celebrate communion. Although it was a deeply meaningful experience for me, it was a Christian sacrament, and we had come to the moon in the name of all mankind – be they Christians, Jews, Muslims, animists, agnostics, or atheists. But at the time I could think of no better way to acknowledge the enormity of the Apollo 11 experience than by giving thanks to God." Aldrin shortly hit upon a more universally human reference on the voyage back to Earth by publicly broadcasting his reading of the Old Testament's Psalm 8:3–4, as Aldrin records: "When I considered the heavens, the work of Thy fingers, the moon and the stars which Thou hast ordained, what is man that Thou art mindful of him." Photos of these liturgical documents reveal the conflict's development as Aldrin expresses faith.
Preparations for the EVA began at 23:43. Once Armstrong and Aldrin were ready to go outside, Eagle was depressurized, and the hatch was opened at 02:39:33 on July 21. Aldrin set foot on the Moon at 03:15:16 on July 21, 1969 (UTC), nineteen minutes after Armstrong first touched the surface. Armstrong and Aldrin became the first and second people, respectively, to walk on the Moon. Aldrin's first words after he set foot on the Moon were "Beautiful view", to which Armstrong asked "Isn't that something? Magnificent sight out here." Aldrin answered, "Magnificent desolation." Aldrin and Armstrong had trouble erecting the Lunar Flag Assembly, but with some effort secured it into the surface. Aldrin saluted the flag while Armstrong photographed the scene. Aldrin positioned himself in front of the video camera and began experimenting with different locomotion methods to move about the lunar surface to aid future moonwalkers. During these experiments, President Nixon called the duo to congratulate them on the successful landing. Nixon closed with, "Thank you very much, and all of us look forward to seeing you on the Hornet on Thursday." Aldrin replied, "I look forward to that very much, sir."
After the call, Aldrin began photographing and inspecting the spacecraft to document and verify its condition before their flight. Aldrin and Armstrong then set up a seismometer, to detect moonquakes, and a laser beam reflector. While Armstrong inspected a crater, Aldrin began the difficult task of hammering a metal tube into the surface to obtain a core sample. Most of the iconic photographs of an astronaut on the Moon taken by the Apollo 11 astronauts are of Aldrin; Armstrong appears in just two color photographs. "As the sequence of lunar operations evolved," Aldrin explained, "Neil had the camera most of the time, and the majority of the pictures taken on the Moon that include an astronaut are of me. It wasn't until we were back on Earth and in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory looking over the pictures that we realized there were few pictures of Neil. My fault perhaps, but we had never simulated this during our training."
Aldrin reentered Eagle first but, as he tells it, before ascending the module's ladder he became the first person to urinate on the Moon. With some difficulty they lifted film and two sample boxes containing 21.55 kilograms (47.5 lb) of lunar surface material to the hatch using a flat cable pulley device. Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag of memorial items in his sleeve pocket, and Aldrin tossed the bag down. It contained a mission patch for the Apollo 1 flight that Ed White never flew due to his death in a cabin fire during the launch rehearsal; medallions commemorating Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space (who had died the previous year in a test flight accident), and Vladimir Komarov, the first man to die in a space flight, and a silicon disk etched with goodwill messages from 73 nations. After transferring to LM life support, the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return to lunar orbit by tossing out their backpacks, lunar overshoes, an empty Hasselblad camera, and other equipment. The hatch was closed again at 05:01, and they repressurized the lunar module and settled down to sleep.
At 17:54 UTC, they lifted off in Eagle's ascent stage to rejoin Collins aboard Columbia in lunar orbit. After rendezvous with Columbia, the ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit, and Columbia made its way back to Earth. It splashed down in the Pacific 2,660 km (1,440 nmi) east of Wake Island at 16:50 UTC (05:50 local time) on July 24. The total mission duration was 195 hours, 18 minutes, 35 seconds.
Bringing back pathogens from the lunar surface was considered a possibility, albeit remote, so divers passed biological isolation garments (BIGs) to the astronauts, and assisted them into the life raft. The astronauts were winched on board the recovery helicopter, and flown to the aircraft carrier USS Hornet, where they spent the first part of the Earth-based portion of 21 days of quarantine. On August 13, the three astronauts rode in ticker-tape parades in their honor in New York and Chicago, attended by an estimated six million people. An official state dinner that evening in Los Angeles celebrated the flight. President Richard Nixon honored each of them with the highest American civilian award, the Presidential Medal of Freedom (with distinction).
On September 16, 1969, the astronauts addressed a joint session of Congress where they thanked the representatives for their past support and implored them to continue funding the space effort. The astronauts embarked on a 38-day world tour on September 29 that brought the astronauts to 22 foreign countries and included visits with leaders of multiple countries. The last leg of the tour included Australia, South Korea, and Japan; the crew returned to the US on November 5, 1969.
After Apollo 11, Aldrin was kept busy giving speeches and making public appearances. In October 1970, he joined Soviet cosmonauts Andriyan Nikolayev and Vitaly Sevastyanov on their tour of the NASA space centers. He was also involved in the design of the Space Shuttle. With the Apollo program coming to an end, Aldrin, now a colonel, saw few prospects at NASA, and decided to return to the Air Force on July 1, 1971. During his NASA career, he had spent 289 hours and 53 minutes in space, of which 7 hours and 52 minutes was in EVA.
== Post-NASA activities ==
=== Aerospace Research Pilot School ===
Aldrin hoped to become Commandant of Cadets at the United States Air Force Academy, but the job went to his West Point classmate Hoyt S. Vandenberg Jr. Aldrin was made Commandant of the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Aldrin had neither managerial nor test pilot experience, but a third of the training curriculum was devoted to astronaut training and students flew a modified F-104 Starfighter to the edge of space. Fellow Group 3 astronaut and moonwalker Alan Bean considered him well qualified for the job.
Aldrin did not get along well with his superior, Brigadier General Robert M. White, who had earned his USAF astronaut wings flying the X-15. Aldrin's celebrity status led people to defer to him more than the higher-ranking general. There were two crashes at Edwards, of an A-7 Corsair II and a T-33. No people died, but the aircraft were destroyed and the accidents were attributed to insufficient supervision, which placed the blame on Aldrin. What he had hoped would be an enjoyable job became a highly stressful one.
Aldrin went to see the base surgeon. In addition to signs of depression, he experienced neck and shoulder pains, and hoped that the latter might explain the former. He was hospitalized for depression at Wilford Hall Medical Center for four weeks. His mother had committed suicide in May 1968, and he was plagued with guilt that his fame after Gemini 12 had contributed. His mother's father had also committed suicide, and he believed he inherited depression from them. At the time there was great stigma related to mental illness and he was aware that it could not only be career-ending, but could result in his being ostracized socially.
In February 1972, General George S. Brown paid a visit to Edwards and informed Aldrin that the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School was being renamed the USAF Test Pilot School and the astronaut training was being dropped. With the Apollo program winding down, and Air Force budgets being cut, the Air Force's interest in space diminished. Aldrin elected to retire as a colonel on March 1, 1972, after 21 years of service. His father and General Jimmy Doolittle, a close friend of his father, attended the formal retirement ceremony.
=== Post retirement ===
Aldrin's father died on December 28, 1974, from complications following a heart attack. Aldrin's autobiographies, Return to Earth (1973) and Magnificent Desolation (2009), recounted his struggles with clinical depression and alcoholism in the years after leaving NASA. Encouraged by a therapist to take a regular job, Aldrin worked selling used cars, at which he had no talent. Periods of hospitalization and sobriety alternated with bouts of heavy drinking. Eventually he was arrested for disorderly conduct. Finally, in October 1978, he quit drinking for good. Aldrin attempted to help others with drinking problems, including actor William Holden. Holden's girlfriend Stefanie Powers had portrayed Marianne, a woman with whom Aldrin had an affair, in the 1976 TV movie version of Return to Earth. Aldrin was saddened by Holden's alcohol-related death in 1981.
=== Bart Sibrel incident ===
On September 9, 2002, Aldrin was lured to a Beverly Hills hotel on the pretext of being interviewed for a Japanese children's television show on the subject of space. When he arrived, Moon landing conspiracy theorist Bart Sibrel accosted him with a film crew and demanded he swear on a Bible that the Moon landings were not faked. After a brief confrontation, during which Sibrel followed Aldrin despite being told to leave him alone, and called him "a coward, a liar, and a thief" the 72-year-old Aldrin punched Sibrel in the jaw, an act caught on camera by Sibrel's film crew. Aldrin said he had acted to defend himself and his stepdaughter. Witnesses said Sibrel had aggressively poked Aldrin with a Bible. Additional mitigating factors were that Sibrel sustained no visible injury and did not seek medical attention, and that Aldrin had no criminal record. The police declined to press charges against Aldrin, and the deputy district attorney of the Beverly Hills office declared that Sibrel had provoked him.
=== Detached adapter panel sighting ===
In 2005, while being interviewed for a Science Channel documentary titled First on the Moon: The Untold Story, Aldrin told an interviewer the Apollo 11 crew had seen an unidentified flying object (UFO). The documentary makers omitted the crew's conclusion that they probably saw one of the four detached spacecraft adapter panels from the upper stage of the Saturn V rocket. The panels had been jettisoned before the separation maneuver so they closely followed the spacecraft until the first mid-course correction. When Aldrin appeared on The Howard Stern Show on August 15, 2007, Stern asked him about the supposed UFO sighting. Aldrin confirmed that there was no such sighting of anything deemed extraterrestrial and said they were, and are, "99.9 percent" sure the object was the detached panel. According to Aldrin his words had been taken out of context. He made a request to the Science Channel to make a correction, but was refused.
=== Polar expedition ===
In December 2016, Aldrin was part of a tourist group visiting the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica when he fell ill and was evacuated, first to McMurdo Station and from there to Christchurch, New Zealand. At 86 years of age, Aldrin's visit made him the oldest person to reach the South Pole. He had traveled to the North Pole in 1998.
== Mission to Mars advocacy ==
After leaving NASA, Aldrin continued to advocate for space exploration. In 1985 he joined the University of North Dakota (UND)'s College of Aerospace Sciences at the invitation of John D. Odegard, the dean of the college. Aldrin helped to develop UND's Space Studies program and brought David Webb from NASA to serve as the department's first chair. To further promote space exploration, and to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the first lunar landing, Aldrin teamed up with Snoop Dogg, Quincy Jones, Talib Kweli, and Soulja Boy to create the rap single and video "Rocket Experience", proceeds from which were donated to Aldrin's non-profit foundation, ShareSpace. He is also a member of the Mars Society's Steering committee.
In 1985, Aldrin proposed a special spacecraft trajectory now known as the Aldrin cycler. Cycler trajectories offer reduced cost of repeated travel to Mars by using less propellant. The Aldrin cycler provided a five and a half month journey from the Earth to Mars, with a return trip to Earth of the same duration on a twin cycler orbit. Aldrin continues to research this concept with engineers from Purdue University. In 1996 Aldrin founded Starcraft Boosters, Inc. (SBI) to design reusable rocket launchers.
In December 2003, Aldrin published an opinion piece in The New York Times criticizing NASA's objectives. In it, he voiced concern about NASA's development of a spacecraft "limited to transporting four astronauts at a time with little or no cargo carrying capability" and declared the goal of sending astronauts back to the Moon was "more like reaching for past glory than striving for new triumphs".
In a June 2013 opinion piece in The New York Times, Aldrin supported a human mission to Mars and which viewed the Moon "not as a destination but more a point of departure, one that places humankind on a trajectory to homestead Mars and become a two-planet species." In August 2015, Aldrin, in association with the Florida Institute of Technology, presented a master plan to NASA for consideration where astronauts, with a tour of duty of ten years, establish a colony on Mars before the year 2040.
== Awards and honors ==
Aldrin was awarded the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal (DSM) in 1969 for his role as Lunar Module pilot on Apollo 11. He was awarded an oak leaf cluster in 1972 in lieu of a second DSM for his role in both the Korean War and in the space program, and the Legion of Merit for his role in the Gemini and Apollo programs. During a 1966 ceremony marking the end of the Gemini program, Aldrin was awarded the NASA Exceptional Service Medal by President Johnson at LBJ Ranch. He was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal in 1970 for the Apollo 11 mission. Aldrin was one of ten Gemini astronauts inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1982. He was also inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1993, the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 2000, and the New Jersey Hall of Fame in 2008.
The Toy Story character Buzz Lightyear was named in honor of Buzz Aldrin.
In 1999, while celebrating the 30th anniversary of the lunar landing, Vice President Al Gore, who was also the vice-chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution's Board of Regents, presented the Apollo 11 crew with the Smithsonian Institution's Langley Gold Medal for aviation. After the ceremony, the crew went to the White House and presented President Bill Clinton with an encased Moon rock. The Apollo 11 crew was awarded the New Frontier Congressional Gold Medal in the Capitol Rotunda in 2011. During the ceremony, NASA administrator Charles Bolden said, "Those of us who have had the privilege to fly in space followed the trail they forged."
The Apollo 11 crew were awarded the Collier Trophy in 1969. The National Aeronautic Association president awarded a duplicate trophy to Collins and Aldrin at a ceremony. The crew was awarded the 1969 General Thomas D. White USAF Space Trophy. The National Space Club named the crew the winners of the 1970 Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy, awarded annually for the greatest achievement in spaceflight. They received the international Harmon Trophy for aviators in 1970, conferred to them by Vice President Spiro Agnew in 1971. Agnew also presented them the Hubbard Medal of the National Geographic Society in 1970. He told them, "You've won a place alongside Christopher Columbus in American history". In 1970, the Apollo 11 team were co-winners of the Iven C. Kincheloe award from the Society of Experimental Test Pilots along with Darryl Greenamyer who broke the world speed record for piston engine airplanes. For contributions to the television industry, they were honored with round plaques on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
In 2001, President George W. Bush appointed Aldrin to the Commission on the Future of the United States Aerospace Industry. Aldrin received the 2003 Humanitarian Award from Variety, the Children's Charity, which, according to the organization, "is given to an individual who has shown unusual understanding, empathy, and devotion to mankind." In 2006, the Space Foundation awarded him its highest honor, the General James E. Hill Lifetime Space Achievement Award.
Aldrin received honorary degrees from six colleges and universities, and was named as the Chancellor of the International Space University in 2015. He was a member of the National Space Society's Board of Governors, and has served as the organization's chairman. In 2016, his hometown middle school in Montclair, New Jersey, was renamed Buzz Aldrin Middle School. The Aldrin crater on the Moon near the Apollo 11 landing site and Asteroid 6470 Aldrin are named in his honor.
In 2019, Aldrin was awarded the Starmus Festival's Stephen Hawking Medal for Science Communication for Lifetime Achievement. On his 93rd birthday he was honored by Living Legends of Aviation. On May 5, 2023, he received an honorary promotion to the rank of brigadier general in the United States Air Force, as well as being made an honorary Space Force guardian.
== Personal life ==
=== Marriages and children ===
Aldrin has been married four times. His first marriage was on December 29, 1954, to Joan Archer (1930–2015), a Rutgers University and Columbia University alumna with a master's degree. They filed for divorce in 1974. They had three children, James, Janice and Andrew. As of 2025, he had one grandson, Jeffrey Schuss, born to his daughter Janice, and three great-grandsons and one great-granddaughter.
His second wife was Beverly Van Zile, whom he married on December 31, 1975, and divorced in 1978.
His third wife was Lois Driggs Cannon (1929–2018), whom he married on February 14, 1988. Their divorce was finalized in December 2012. The settlement included 50 percent of their $475,000 bank account and $9,500 a month plus 30 percent of his annual income, estimated at more than $600,000.
On January 20, 2023, his 93rd birthday, Aldrin married for the fourth time, to his 63-year-old companion, Anca Faur. She died peacefully on October 28, 2025, at the age of 66. Aldrin described Faur as "the love of [his] life."
=== Legal disputes ===
In 2018, Aldrin was involved in a legal dispute with his children Andrew and Janice and former business manager Christina Korp over their claims that he was mentally impaired through dementia and Alzheimer's disease. His children alleged that he made new friends who were alienating him from the family and encouraging him to spend his savings at a high rate. They sought to be named legal guardians so they could control his finances. In June, Aldrin filed a lawsuit against Andrew, Janice, Korp, and businesses and foundations run by the family. Aldrin alleged that Janice was not acting in his financial interest and that Korp was exploiting the elderly. He sought to remove Andrew's control of Aldrin's social media accounts, finances, and businesses. The situation ended when his children withdrew their petition and he dropped the lawsuit in March 2019, several months before the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission.
=== Politics ===
Aldrin is an active supporter of the Republican Party, headlining fundraisers for its members of Congress and endorsing its candidates. He appeared at a rally for George W. Bush in 2004 and campaigned for Paul Rancatore in Florida in 2008, Mead Treadwell in Alaska in 2014 and Dan Crenshaw in Texas in 2018. He appeared at the 2019 State of the Union Address as a guest of President Donald Trump.
In the 2024 presidential election, he endorsed Trump. Aldrin cited Trump's promotion of space exploration policy as a reason for his endorsement, claiming that interest in it has waned in previous years. He was quoted with saying "For me, for the future of our Nation, to meet enormous challenges, and for the proven policy accomplishments above, I believe the nation is best served by voting for Donald J. Trump". He added, "I wholeheartedly endorse him for President of the United States. Godspeed President Trump, and God Bless the United States of America".
=== Freemasonry ===
Buzz Aldrin is the first Freemason to set foot on the Moon. Aldrin was initiated into Freemasonry at Oak Park Lodge No. 864 in Alabama and raised at Lawrence N. Greenleaf Lodge, No. 169 in Colorado.
By the time Aldrin stepped onto the lunar surface, he was a member of two Masonic lodges: Montclair Lodge No. 144 in New Jersey and Clear Lake Lodge No. 1417 in Seabrook, Texas, where he was invited to serve on the High Council and was ordained in the 33rd degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite.
Aldrin is also a member of York Rite and Arabia Shrine Temple of Houston.
=== Other ===
In 2007, Aldrin confirmed to Time magazine that he had recently had a face-lift, joking that the g-forces he was exposed to in space "caused a sagging jowl that needed some attention".
Following the 2012 death of his Apollo 11 colleague Neil Armstrong, Aldrin said he was
... deeply saddened by the passing ... I know I am joined by many millions of others from around the world in mourning the passing of a true American hero and the best pilot I ever knew ... I had truly hoped that on July 20, 2019, Neil, Mike and I would be standing together to commemorate the 50th Anniversary of our moon landing.
Aldrin has primarily resided in the Los Angeles area, including Beverly Hills and Laguna Beach since 1985. In 2014, he sold his Westwood condominium; this was after his third divorce in 2012. He also lives in Satellite Beach, Florida.
Aldrin has been a teetotaler since 1978.
== In the media ==
=== Filmography ===
=== Portrayed by others ===
Aldrin has been portrayed by:
Cliff Robertson in Return to Earth (1976) Aldrin worked with Robertson on the role.
Larry Williams in Apollo 13 (1995)
Xander Berkeley in Apollo 11 (1996). He was also a technical advisor for the film.
Bryan Cranston in From the Earth to the Moon (1998) and Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D (2005)
James Marsters in Moonshot (2009)
Cory Tucker as a younger Buzz Aldrin of 1969 in Transformers: Dark of the Moon (2011)
Corey Stoll in First Man (2018)
Chris Agos in For All Mankind (2019). 6 episodes.
Felix Scott in The Crown (2019)
Roger Craig Smith (as real Buzz Aldrin) and Henry Winkler (as crisis actor Melvin Stupowitz) in Inside Job (2021–2022)
Bryn Thomas in Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny (2023)
Colin Woodell in Fly Me to the Moon (2024)
=== Video games ===
Aldrin was a consultant on the video game Buzz Aldrin's Race Into Space (1993).
== Works ==
Aldrin, Edwin E. Jr. 1970. "Footsteps on the Moon Archived September 4, 2015, at the Wayback Machine". Edison Electric Institute Bulletin. Vol. 38, No. 7, pp. 266–272.
Armstrong, Neil; Michael Collins; Edwin E. Aldrin; Gene Farmer; and Dora Jane Hamblin. 1970. First on the Moon: A Voyage with Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. Boston: Little, Brown. ISBN 9780316051606.
Aldrin, Buzz and Wayne Warga. 1973. Return to Earth. New York: Random House. ISBN 9781504026444.
Aldrin, Buzz and Malcolm McConnell. 1989. Men from Earth. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 9780553053746.
Aldrin, Buzz and John Barnes. 1996. Encounter with Tiber. London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 9780340624500.
Aldrin, Buzz and John Barnes. 2000. The Return. New York: Forge. ISBN 9780312874247.
Aldrin, Buzz and Wendell Minor. 2005. Reaching for the Moon. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 9780060554453.
Aldrin, Buzz and Ken Abraham. 2009. Magnificent Desolation: The Long Journey Home from the Moon. New York: Harmony Books. ISBN 9780307463456.
Aldrin, Buzz and Wendell Minor. 2009. Look to the Stars. Camberwell, Vic.: Puffin Books. ISBN 9780143503804.
Aldrin, Buzz and Leonard David. 2013. Mission to Mars: My Vision for Space Exploration. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Books. ISBN 9781426210174.
Aldrin, Buzz and Marianne Dyson. 2015. Welcome to Mars: Making a Home on the Red Planet. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Children's Books. ISBN 9781426322068.
Aldrin, Buzz and Ken Abraham. 2016. No Dream Is Too High: Life Lessons from a Man Who Walked on the Moon. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Books. ISBN 9781426216503.
== See also ==
Apollo 11 in popular culture
List of spaceflight records
History of aviation
== Notes ==
== Citations ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Interview with Buzz Aldrin for NOVA series: To the Moon WGBH Educational Foundation, raw footage, 1998
"Satellite of solitude" by Buzz Aldrin: an article in which Aldrin describes what it was like to walk on the Moon, Cosmos science magazine, July 2005
Buzz Aldrin at IMDb
Buzz Aldrin discography at Discogs
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tara_Chand_(Jammu-Kashmir_politician)#:~:text=He%20was%20appointed%20as%20Vice,'anti%2Dparty'activities. | Tara Chand (Jammu-Kashmir politician) | Tara Chand is a politician and a leader from Jammu and Kashmir. He was Deputy Chief Minister of erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir from 2009 to 2014. He had earlier served as the Speaker of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly. On 30 August 2022, he resigned from Indian National Congress in support of Ghulam Nabi Azad. He was appointed as Vice chairperson for Democratic Azad Party. On 22 December 2022, he was removed from Democratic Azad Party after the allegations of 'anti-party' activities.
In the 2014 elections, Chand lost to BJP candidate Dr Krishan Lal in Chhamb Assembly constituency of Jammu district. He finished 3rd in 2024 election. On 30 August 2022, he quit Congress in support of Ghulam Nabi Azad.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Alfons%C3%ADn | Raúl Alfonsín | Raúl Ricardo Alfonsín (Spanish pronunciation: [raˈul alfonˈsin] ; 12 March 1927 – 31 March 2009) was an Argentine lawyer and statesman who served as president of Argentina from 10 December 1983 to 8 July 1989. He was the first democratically elected president after the National Reorganization Process. Ideologically, he identified as a radical and a social democrat, serving as the leader of the Radical Civic Union from 1983 to 1991, 1993 to 1995, 1999 to 2001 . His political approach was known as "Alfonsinism".
Born in Chascomús, Buenos Aires Province, Alfonsín began his studies of law at the National University of La Plata and was a graduate of the University of Buenos Aires. He was affiliated with the Radical Civic Union (UCR), joining the faction of Ricardo Balbín after the party split. He was elected a deputy in the legislature of the Buenos Aires province in 1958, during the presidency of Arturo Frondizi, and a national deputy during the presidency of Arturo Umberto Illia. He opposed both sides of the Dirty War, and several times filed a writ of Habeas corpus, requesting the freedom of victims of forced disappearances, during the National Reorganization Process. He denounced the crimes of the military dictatorships of other countries and opposed the actions of both sides in the Falklands War as well. He became the leader of the UCR after Balbín's death and won the presidency in the 1983 elections as the Radical candidate.
After being elected president, Alfonsín revoked the self-amnesty law established by the military. He established the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons to investigate the crimes committed by the military, which led to the Trial of the Juntas and resulted in the sentencing of the heads of the former regime. Discontent within the military led to the mutinies of the Carapintadas, which Alfonsín appeased with the full stop law and the law of Due Obedience. He also had conflicts with the unions, which were controlled by the opposing Justicialist Party. He resolved the Beagle conflict, increased trade with Brazil, and proposed the creation of the Contadora support group to mediate between the United States and Nicaragua. He passed the first divorce law of Argentina. He initiated the Austral plan to improve the national economy, but that plan, as well as the Spring plan, failed. The resulting hyperinflation and riots led to his party's defeat in the 1989 presidential elections, which was won by Peronist Carlos Menem.
Alfonsín continued as the leader of the UCR and opposed the presidency of Carlos Menem. He initiated the Pact of Olivos with Menem to negotiate the terms for the 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution. Fernando de la Rúa led a faction of the UCR that opposed the pact, and eventually became president in 1999. Following de la Rúa's resignation during the December 2001 riots, Alfonsín's faction provided the support needed for the Peronist Eduardo Duhalde to be appointed president by the Congress. He died of lung cancer on 31 March 2009, at the age of 82, and was given a large state funeral.
== Early life and career ==
Raúl Alfonsín was born on 12 March 1927, in the city of Chascomús, 123 km (76 mi) south of Buenos Aires. His parents, who worked as shopkeepers, were Serafín Raúl Alfonsín Ochoa and Ana María Foulkes. His father was of Galician and German descent, and his mother was the daughter of Welsh immigrant Ricardo Foulkes and Falkland Islander María Elena Ford. Following his elementary schooling, Raúl Alfonsín enrolled at the General San Martín Military Lyceum. Although his father disliked the military, he thought that a military high school would have a similar quality to a private school without being as expensive. Alfonsín disliked the military as well, but this education helped him to understand the military mindset. He graduated after five years as a second lieutenant. He did not pursue a military career and began studying law instead. He began his studies at the National University of La Plata, and completed them at the University of Buenos Aires, graduating at the age of 23. He was not a successful lawyer: he was usually absent from his workplace and frequently in debt. He married María Lorenza Barreneche, whom he met in 1949 at a masquerade ball. They moved to Mendoza, La Plata, and returned to Chascomús. They had six sons, of whom only Ricardo Alfonsín would also follow a political career.
Alfonsín bought a local newspaper (El Imparcial). He joined the Radical Civic Union (UCR) in 1946, as a member of the Intransigent Renewal Movement, a faction of the party that opposed the incorporation of the UCR into the Democratic Union coalition. He was appointed president of the party committee in Chascomús in 1951 and was elected to the city council in 1954. He was detained for a brief time, during the reaction of the government of Juan Perón to the bombing of Plaza de Mayo. The Revolución Libertadora ousted Perón from the national government; Alfonsín was again briefly detained and forced to leave his office in the city council. The UCR broke up into two parties: the Intransigent Radical Civic Union (UCRI), led by Arturo Frondizi, and the People's Radical Civic Union (UCRP), led by Ricardo Balbín and Crisólogo Larralde. Alfonsín did not like the split but opted to follow the UCRP.
Alfonsín was elected deputy for the legislature of the Buenos Aires province in 1958, on the UCRP ticket, and was reelected in 1962. He moved to La Plata, the capital of the province, during his tenure. President Frondizi was ousted by a military coup on 29 March 1962, which also closed the provincial legislature. Alfonsín returned to Chascomús. The UCRP prevailed over the UCRI the following year, leading to the presidency of Arturo Umberto Illia. Alfonsín was elected a national deputy, and then vice president of the UCRP bloc in the congress. In 1963 he was appointed president of the party committee for the province of Buenos Aires. Still in his formative years, Alfonsín was still in low political offices and held no noteworthy role in the administrations of Frondizi and Illia.
Illia was deposed by a new military coup in June 1966, the Argentine Revolution. Alfonsín was detained while trying to hold a political rally in La Plata, and a second time when he tried to re-open the UCRP committee. He was forced to resign as a deputy in November 1966. He was detained a third time in 1968 after a political rally in La Plata. He also wrote opinion articles in newspapers, under the pseudonyms Alfonso Carrido Lura and Serafín Feijó. The Dirty War began during this time, as many guerrilla groups rejected both the right-wing military dictatorship and the civil governments, preferring instead a left-wing dictatorship aligned with the Soviet Union, as in the Cuban Revolution. Alfonsín clarified in his articles that he rejected both the military dictatorship and the guerrillas, asking instead for free elections. The UCRP became the UCR once more, and the UCRI was turned into the Intransigent Party. Alfonsín created the Movement for Renewal and Change within the UCR, to challenge Balbín's leadership of the party. The military dictatorship finally called for free elections, allowing Peronism (which had been banned since 1955) to take part in them. Balbín defeated Alfonsín in the primary elections but lost in the main ones. Alfonsín was elected deputy once more.
Illia was invited in 1975 to a diplomatic mission to the Soviet Union; he declined and proposed Alfonsín instead. Upon his return, Alfonsín became one of the founding members of the Permanent Assembly for Human Rights. He served as the defense lawyer for Mario Roberto Santucho, leader of the ERP guerrillas, but only to carry out due process of law, and not because of a genuine desire to support him. The 1976 Argentine coup d'état against President Isabel Perón started the National Reorganization Process. Alfonsín filed several Habeas corpus motions, requesting the freedom of victims of forced disappearances. The UCR stayed silent over the disappearances, but Alfonsín urged the party to protest the kidnapping of senators Hipólito Yrigoyen (nephew of the former president of the same name) and Mario Anaya. He also visited other countries, denouncing those disappearances and violations of human rights. He established the magazine Propuesta y control in 1976, one of the few magazines that criticized the military dictatorship during its early stages. The magazine was published up to 1978. His editorials were collected in 1980 in the book La cuestión argentina.
Alfonsín expressed opposition to the 1982 Falklands War, criticizing the deployment of troops by both sides during the conflict. He rejected the invasion of the islands, which he considered an inevitable logistic and diplomatic failure, being one of the few politicians who opposed the war from the start. He proposed an emergency government headed by Illia, with ministers from all political parties, who would call for a ceasefire with the British and call for elections. He reasoned that the British would be magnanimous in victory if negotiating the transition with a civilian government, that all Argentine parties would be involved with such negotiations, and provide greater guarantees. The proposal did not get enough support, as Peronist Deolindo Bittel proposed another post-war scenario: electing a prime minister selected by a committee of generals and politicians. In this scenario, the military would keep a veto power and would guide the new government for at least two years. This proposal implicitly intended to remove Bignone and appoint a figure akin to the late Juan Perón, but it did not get support either because the current context did not provide any such figure that would have both support from the military and from the population. Antonio Trocolli, former leader of the Radical Congress, rejected both proposals as impracticable.
The Falklands Wars were lost, and the military lifted the ban on political activities on the promise to hold elections. This was a calculated move to make the politicians focus on internal infighting, instead of blaming the military for the defeat. The plan did not work as intended, as the political parties united in a ad hoc coalition, the "Multipartidaria", that rejected the military attempt to control the new government and asked to speed up the elections, which were called for October 1983. The Movement for Renewal and Change organized the first political event in a stadium in the Buenos Aires suburbs. As Balbín had died in 1981, the UCR had no strong leadership at the time.
== Presidential campaign ==
Alfonsín disputed the leadership of the UCR with Carlos Contín, but was unable to pass though the complex internal regulations of the party. He made a new political rally at the Luna Park, with a success comparable to a United States presidential primary. This new rally convinced Contín, who also ambitioned to be president, that he had no chances fighting against Alfonsín in proper primary elections. Fernando de la Rúa, who would have run in the primary elections against him, declined his candidacy because of Alfonsín's huge popularity. Antonio Trocolli, another precandidate, declined to run as well. Alfonsín was then appointed candidate of the UCR for the 1983 general elections, with Víctor Martínez as the candidate for the vice-presidency. The UCR proposed Alfonsín to run with De la Rúa as the candidate for the vice-presidency, to secure the conservative votes, but Alfonsín was confident to win the elections without help.
The publicity was managed by David Ratto, who created the slogan "Ahora Alfonsín" (Spanish: "Now Alfonsín"), and the gesture of shaking hands. His campaign used a non-confrontational approach, in stark contrast with the Peronist candidate for the governorship of the Buenos Aires province, Herminio Iglesias. Iglesias burned a coffin with the seals of the UCR on live television, which generated a political scandal. Both Iglesias and Ítalo Luder, the Peronist candidate for the presidency, saw a decrease in their public image as a result. A group of UCR supporters drew graffiti that praised Alfonsín manliness and mocked Luder as effeminate; Alfonsín ordered to remove the graffitis as soon as he knew about them.
During the campaign, both parties made similar proposals to reduce authoritarianism and the political influence of the military, and to maintain the Argentine claim in the Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute. Alfonsín denounced a pact between the military and the Peronist unions that sought an amnesty for the military. He maintained that the armed forces should be subject to the civilian government and that unions should be regulated. He also proposed an investigation into the actions of the military during the Dirty War. He closed his campaign by reading the preamble of the constitution of Argentina. The last rally was at the Plaza de la República, and was attended by 400,000 people. Opinion polls placed the UCR behind the PJ, but also placed Alfonsín as the most popular politician at the time.
The elections were held on 30 October. The Alfonsín–Martínez ticket won with 51.7% of the vote, followed by Luder–Bittel with 40.1%. It was the first time since the rise of Juan Domingo Perón that the Peronist party was defeated in elections without electoral fraud or proscription. The UCR won 128 seats in the Assembly, forming a majority; and 18 seats in the Senate, constituting a minority. 18 provinces elected radical governors and 17 elected governors from either the Justicialist or local parties. Alfonsín took office on 10 December and gave a speech from the Buenos Aires Cabildo.
== Presidency ==
=== First days ===
The presidential inauguration of Alfonsín was attended by Isabel Perón. Despite internal recriminations for the defeat, the Peronist party agreed to support Alfonsín as president, to prevent a return of the military. There were still factions in the military ambitious to keep an authoritarian government, and groups such as the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo seeking reparations for the actions of the military during the Dirty War.
Three days after taking office, Alfonsín sent a bill to Congress to revoke the self-amnesty law established by the military. This made it possible for the judiciary to investigate the crimes committed during the Dirty War. During the campaign, Alfonsín had promised that he would do this while Luder had been non-committal. Alfonsín also ordered the initiation of judicial cases against guerrilla leaders Mario Firmenich, Fernando Vaca Narvaja, Ricardo Obregón Cano, Rodolfo Galimberti, Roberto Perdía, Héctor Pardo and Enrique Gorriarán Merlo; and military leaders Jorge Videla, Emilio Massera, Orlando Agosti, Roberto Viola, Armando Lambruschini, Omar Graffigna, Leopoldo Galtieri, Jorge Anaya and Basilio Lami Dozo. He also requested the extradition of guerrilla leaders who were living abroad.
Most of the first cabinet, organized in Chascomús, was composed of trusted colleagues of Alfonsín. Alfonsín appointed as minister of labor Antonio Mucci, who belonged to a faction of the UCR that sought to reduce the influence of Peronism among labor unions, and promptly sent a bill to Congress designed to promote independent unions. Facing an economic crisis, he appointed Bernardo Grinspun as minister of the economy. He appointed Aldo Neri minister of health, Dante Caputo minister of foreign relations, Antonio Tróccoli minister of interior affairs, Roque Carranza minister of public works, Carlos Alconada Aramburu minister of education, and Raúl Borrás minister of defense. Juan Carlos Pugliese led the Chamber of Deputies, and Edison Otero was the provisional President of the Senate. Many presidential negotiations took place at the Quinta de Olivos, the official residence of the president, rather than at the Casa Rosada.
=== Aftermath of the Dirty War ===
The priority of Raúl Alfonsín was to consolidate democracy, incorporate the armed forces into their standard role in a civilian government, and prevent further military coups. Alfonsín first tried to reduce the political power of the military with budget cuts, reductions of military personnel and changing their political tasks. As for the crimes committed during the Dirty War, Alfonsín was willing to respect the command responsibility and accept the "superior orders" defense for the military of lower ranks, as long as the Junta leaders were sentenced under military justice. This project was resisted by human rights organizations such as Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo and public opinion, as it was expected that the defendants would be acquitted or receive low sentences. The military considered that the Dirty War was legally sanctioned, and considered the prosecutions to be unjustified. Alfonsín also established the National Commission on the Disappearance of Persons (CONADEP), composed of several well-known personalities, to document cases of forced disappearances, human rights violations and abduction of children. Alfonsín sent a military code bill to Congress so that the military would use it. In its "Nunca más" report (Spanish: Never again), the CONADEP revealed the wide scope of the crimes committed during the Dirty War, and how the Supreme Council of the military had supported the military's actions against the guerrillas.
As a result, Alfonsín sponsored the Trial of the Juntas, in which, for the first time, the leaders of a military coup in Argentina were on trial. The first hearings began at the Supreme Court in April 1985 and lasted for the remainder of the year. In December, the tribunal handed down life sentences for Jorge Videla and former Navy Chief Emilio Massera, as well as 17-year sentences for Roberto Eduardo Viola. President Leopoldo Galtieri was acquitted of charges related to the repression, but he was court-martialed in May 1986 for malfeasance during the Falklands War. Ramón Camps received a 25-year sentence. The trials did not focus only on the military: Mario Firmenich was captured in Brazil in 1984 and extradited to Argentina. José López Rega was extradited from Miami in 1986, because of his links with the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance.
The military was supported by the families of the victims of subversion, a group created to counter the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo. This group placed the blame for the Dirty War on the guerrillas but had few followers. The trials were followed by bomb attacks and rumors of military protests and even a possible coup. Alfonsín sought to appease the military by raising their budget. As that was not enough, he proposed the full stop law, to set a deadline for Dirty War-related prosecutions. The Congress approved the law, despite strong opposition from the public. Prosecutors rushed to start cases before the deadline, filing 487 charges against 300 officers, with 100 of them still in active service. Major Ernesto Barreiro refused to appear in court and started a mutiny in Córdoba. Lieutenant Colonel Aldo Rico started another mutiny at Campo de Mayo, supporting Barreiro. The rebels were called "Carapintadas" (Spanish: "Painted faces") because of their use of military camouflage. The CGT called a general strike in support of Alfonsín, and large masses rallied in the Plaza de Mayo to support the government. Alfonsín negotiated directly with the rebels and secured their surrender. He announced the end of the crisis from the balcony of the Casa Rosada. The mutineers eventually surrendered, but the government proceeded with the Law of Due Obedience to regulate the trials. However, the timing of both events was exploited by the military, and the opposition parties described the outcome as a surrender by Alfonsín.
Aldo Rico escaped from prison in January 1988 and started a new mutiny in a distant regiment in the northeast. This time, both the military support for the mutiny and the public outcry against it were minimal. The army attacked him, and Rico surrendered after a brief combat. Colonel Mohamed Alí Seineldín launched a new mutiny in late 1988. As in 1987, the mutineers were defeated and jailed, but the military was reluctant to open fire against them. Alfonsín's goal of reconciling the military with the civil population failed, as the latter rejected the military's complaints, and the military was focused on internal issues. The Movimiento Todos por la Patria, a small guerrilla army led by Enrique Gorriarán Merlo, staged the attack on the Regiment of La Tablada in 1989. The army killed many of its members and quickly defeated the uprising.
=== Relation with trade unions ===
During his tenure, Alfonsin clashed with labor unions in Argentina over economic reforms and trade liberalization policies. Peronism still controlled the labor unions, the most powerful ones in all of Latin America. The biggest one was the General Confederation of Labour (CGT). Alfonsín sought to reduce the Peronist influence over the unions, fearing that they may become a destabilizing force for the fledgling democracy. He rejected their custom of holding single-candidate internal elections, and deemed them totalitarian and not genuine representatives of the workforce. He proposed to change the laws for those internal elections, remove the union leaders appointed during the dictatorship, and elect new ones under the new laws. The CGT rejected the proposal as interventionist, and prompted Peronist politicians to vote against it. The law was approved by the Chamber of Deputies but failed to pass in the Senate by one vote. A second bill proposed simply a call to elections, without supervision from the government, which was approved. As a result, the unions remained Peronist.
The CGT was splintered into internal factions at the time. Lorenzo Miguel had close ties to the Justicialist party, and led "the 62 organizations" faction. Saúl Ubaldini was more confrontational, distrusted the politicians of the PJ, and was eventually appointed secretary general of the CGT. His lack of political ties allowed him to work as a mediator between the union factions. Carlos Alderete led a faction closer to Alfonsín, named "the 15" unions. The government sought to deepen the internal divisions between the unions by appointing Alderete as minister of labor and promoting legislation to benefit his faction. He was removed after the defeat in the 1987 midterm elections, but the government stayed on good terms with his faction.
Alfonsín kept a regulation from the dictatorship that allowed him to regulate the level of wages. He authorized wage increases every three months, to keep them up to the inflation rate. The CGT rejected this, and proposed instead that wages be determined by free negotiations. Alfonsín allowed strike actions, which were forbidden during the dictatorship, which gave the unions another way to expand their influence. There were thirteen general strikes and thousands of minor labor conflicts. However, unlike similar situations in the past, the CGT sided with Alfonsín during the military rebellions, and did not support the removal of a non-Peronist president. The conflicts were caused by high inflation, and the unions requested higher wages in response to it. The unions got the support of the non-unionized retirees, the church and left-wing factions. Popular support for the government allowed it to endure despite opposition from the unions.
=== Social policies ===
With the end of the military dictatorship, Alfonsín pursued cultural and educational policies aimed at reducing the authoritarian customs of several institutions and groups. He also promoted freedom of the press. Several intellectuals and scientists who had left the country in the previous decade returned, which benefited the universities. The University of Buenos Aires returned to the quality levels that it had in the 1960s. Many intellectuals became involved in politics as well, providing a cultural perspective to the political discourse. Both Alfonsín and the Peronist Antonio Cafiero benefited.
Divorce was legalized by a law passed in 1987. The church opposed it, but it had huge popular support that included even Catholic factions, who reasoned that marital separation already existed, and divorce simply made it explicit. The church opposed Alfonsín after that point. The church successfully exerted pressure to prevent the abolition of religious education. In line with the teachings of Pope John Paul II, the Church criticized what it perceived as an increase in drugs, terrorism, abortion, and pornography. Alfonsín also intended to decriminalize abortion but dropped the idea to prevent further clashes with the Church.
=== Foreign policy ===
Argentina had a tense relationship with the United Kingdom due to the recently concluded Falklands War. The British government had temporarily prohibited all foreign ships from entering the exclusion zone of the islands in 1986. Argentina organized air and marine patrols, as well as military maneuvers in Patagonia. However, this was not enough to placate the military hard-liners in Argentina. Alfonsín proposed the postponement of the sovereignty discussions, instead negotiating for a de jure cease of hostilities, with a reduction in the number of military forces and normalization of Argentina–United Kingdom relations. The United Kingdom did not trust the proposal, suspecting that it was a cover-up for sovereignty discussions.
The Beagle conflict was still an unresolved problem with Chile, despite the 1978 Papal mediation. The military, troubled by the trial of the juntas, called for rejection of the proposed agreement and a continuation of the country's claim over the islands. Alfonsín called for a referendum to settle the dispute. Despite opposition from the military and the Justicialist party, who called for abstention, support for the resolution referendum reached 82%. The bill passed in the Senate by a single vote majority, as the PJ maintained its resistance. The Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984 between Chile and Argentina was signed the following year, ending the conflict. The human rights violations committed by the Chilean president Augusto Pinochet remained a contentious issue, as well as the revelation of Chilean assistance to British forces during the Falklands War. The Argentine church invited Pope John Paul II for a second visit to Argentina in 1987, to celebrate his successful mediation. He celebrated World Youth Day next to the Obelisk of Buenos Aires, and gave a mass at the Basilica of Our Lady of Luján.
Argentina allied with Brazil, Uruguay and Peru, three countries that had also recently ended their local military dictatorships, to mediate in the conflict between the United States and Nicaragua. They created the Contadora support group, to support the Contadora group from South America. Both groups negotiated together but ultimately failed because of the reluctance of both Nicaragua and the United States to change their positions. The group changed its scope later to discuss foreign debt and diplomacy with the United Kingdom concerning the Falklands conflict.
Initially, Alfonsín refused to foster diplomatic relations with the Brazilian military government, and only did so when the dictatorship ended and José Sarney became president. One of their initial concerns was to increase Argentine–Brazilian trade. Both presidents met in Foz do Iguaçu and issued a joint declaration about the peaceful use of nuclear power. A second meeting in Buenos Aires strengthened the trade agreements. Argentina and Brazil signed the Program of Integration and Economic Cooperation (PICE), and in 1988 both countries and Uruguay agreed to create a common market. This led to the 1991 Treaty of Asunción, that created the Mercosur.
Alfonsín was the first Argentine head of state to give an official visit to the USSR.
=== Economic policy ===
Alfonsín began his term with many economic problems. In the previous decade, the national economy had contracted by 15%. The foreign debt was nearly 43 billion dollars by the end of the year, and the country had narrowly prevented a sovereign default in 1982. During that year, the gross domestic product fell by 5.6%, and the manufacturing profits by 55%. Unemployment was at nearly 10%, and inflation was nearly 209%. It also appeared unlikely that the country would receive the needed foreign investment. The country had a deficit of $6.7 billion. Possible solutions such as a devaluation of the currency, privatization of industry, or restrictions on imports, would probably have proven to be unpopular.
Initially, the government did not take any strong action to tackle the economic problems. Bernardo Grinspun, the first minister of the economy, arranged an increase in wages, reaching the levels of 1975. This caused inflation to reach 32%. He also tried to negotiate more favorable terms on the country's foreign debt, but the negotiations failed. Risking a default, he negotiated with the IMF, which requested spending cuts. International credits prevented default at the end of 1984, but he resigned in March 1985 when the debt reached $1 billion and the IMF denied further credits. Grinspun was succeeded by Juan Vital Sourrouille, who designed the Austral plan in 1985. This plan froze prices and wages, stopped the printing of money, arranged spending cuts, and established a new currency, the Austral, worth 1 United States dollar. The plan was a success in the short term and choked inflation. However, most of the initial popularity of Alfonsín had declined by this point, and could not persuade many of the benefits of austerity for the long-term improvement of the economy. Inflation rose again by the end of the year, the CGT opposed the wage freeze, and the business community opposed the price freeze. Alfonsín thought that the privatization of some state assets and deregulation of the economy might work, but those proposals were opposed by both the PJ and his own party. The Austral plan was also undermined by populist economic policies held by the government.
With the support of the World Bank, the government tried new measures in 1987, including an increase in taxes, privatizations, and a decrease in government spending. Those measures could not be enforced; the government had lost the 1987 midterm elections, "the 15" unions that had earlier supported the government distanced themselves from it, and the business community was unable to suggest a clear course of action. The PJ, aiming for a victory in the 1989 presidential elections, opposed the measures that it believed would have a negative social impact. The "Spring plan" sought to keep the economy stable until the elections by freezing prices and wages and reducing the federal deficit. This plan had an even worse reception than the Austral plan, and none of the parties supported it. The World Bank and the IMF refused to extend credits to Argentina. Big exporters refused to sell dollars to the Central Bank, which depleted its reserves. The austral was devaluated in February 1989, and the high inflation turned into hyperinflation. The US Dollar was worth 14 Australes by the beginning of 1989, and 17000 by May. The 1989 presidential elections took place during this crisis, and the Justicialist Carlos Menem became the new president.
=== Midterm elections ===
The actions taken against the military contributed to a strong showing by the UCR in the November 1985 legislative elections. They gained one seat in the Chamber of Deputies, the lower house of Congress, which meant control of 130 of the 254 seats. The Justicialists lost eight seats (leaving 103) and smaller, provincial parties made up the difference. Alfonsín surprised observers in April 1986 by announcing the creation of a panel entrusted to plan a transfer of the nation's capital to Viedma, a small coastal city 800 km (500 mi) south of Buenos Aires. This proposal was never implemented, as it was too expensive because Viedma lacked the required urban infrastructure. His proposals boldly called for constitutional amendments creating a Parliamentary system, including a prime minister, and were well received by the Chamber of Deputies, though they encountered strong opposition in the Senate.
The government suffered a big setback in the 1987 legislative election. The UCR lost the majority in the chamber of deputies. All provinces elected Peronist governors, except for Córdoba and Río Negro. Along with the city of Buenos Aires (a federal district at the time), they were the only districts where the UCR prevailed. As a result, the government could not move forward with its legislative agenda, and the PJ only supported minor projects. The PJ was strengthened for the 1989 presidential elections, and the UCR sought to propose governor Eduardo Angeloz as a candidate. Angeloz was a rival of Alfonsín within the party.
== Later years ==
Amid rampant inflation, Angeloz was heavily defeated by PJ candidate Carlos Menem in the 1989 election. By the winter of 1989, the inflation had grown so severe that Alfonsín transferred power to Menem on 8 July, five months earlier than scheduled.
Alfonsín stayed on as president of the UCR, leaving after the party's defeat in the 1991 legislative elections. Suffering damage to its image because of the hyperinflation of 1989, the UCR lost in several districts. Alfonsín became president of the party again in 1993. He supported the creation of a special budget for the province of Buenos Aires, led by governor Eduardo Duhalde. The radical legislator Leopoldo Moreau supported the new budget even more vehemently than the Peronists. Both parties had an informal alliance in the province. Alfonsín also supported the amendment to the constitution of Buenos Aires that allowed Duhalde to run for re-election.
President Carlos Menem sought a constitutional amendment to allow his re-election, and Alfonsín opposed it. The victory in the 1993 midterm elections strengthened the PJ, which approved the bill in the Senate. Menem proposed a referendum on the amendment, to force the radical deputies to support it. He also proposed a bill for a law that would allow a constitutional amendment with a simple majority of the Congress. As a result, Alfonsín made the Pact of Olivos with him. With this agreement, the UCR would support Menem's proposal, but with further amendments that would reduce presidential power. The Council of Magistracy of the Nation reduced the influence of the executive power over the judiciary, the city of Buenos Aires would become an autonomous territory allowed to elect its mayor, and the presidential term of office would be reduced to four years. The presidential elections would include the two-round system, and the electoral college would be abolished. Alfonsín was elected to the constituent assembly that worked for the 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution. A faction of the UCR, led by Fernando de la Rúa, opposed the pact, but the party as a whole supported Alfonsín. The UCR got only 19% of the vote in the elections, attaining a third position in the 1995 presidential elections behind the Frepaso when Menem was re-elected. Alfonsín resigned the presidency of the party in that year.
The UCR and the Frepaso united as a political coalition, the Alliance for Work, Justice, and Education, led by Alfonsín, Fernando de la Rúa, and Rodolfo Terragno from the UCR, and Carlos Álvarez and Graciela Fernández Meijide from the Frepaso. The coalition won the 1997 legislative elections. Alfonsín did not agree with de la Rúa about the fixed exchange rate used by then. He thought that it had been a good measure in the past but had become detrimental to the Argentine economy, while de la Rúa supported it.
Alfonsín suffered a car crash in the Río Negro province in 1999, during the campaign for governor Pablo Verani. They were on Route 6, and he was ejected from the car because he was not wearing a seat belt. He was hospitalized for 39 days. De la Rúa became president in the 1999 elections, defeating the governor of Buenos Aires, Eduardo Duhalde. Alfonsín was elected Senator for Buenos Aires Province in October 2001. De la Rúa resigned during the December 2001 riots, and the Congress appointed Adolfo Rodríguez Saá, who resigned as well. Alfonsín instructed the Radical legislators to support Duhalde as the new president. He also gave him two ministers, Horacio Jaunarena for Defense and Jorge Vanossi for Justice. The radical support helped Duhalde overcome the ambitions of Carlos Ruckauf and José Manuel de la Sota, who also had ambitions to be appointed president. Alfonsín's health problems later in the year led him to step down, to be replaced by Diana Conti.
In 2006, Alfonsín supported a faction of the UCR that favored the idea of carrying an independent candidate for the 2007 presidential elections. The UCR, instead of fielding its own candidate, endorsed Roberto Lavagna, a center-left economist who presided over the recovery in the Argentine economy from 2002 until he parted ways with President Néstor Kirchner in December 2005. Unable to sway enough disaffected Kirchner supporters, Lavagna garnered third place. Alfonsín was honored by President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner with a bust of his likeness at the Casa Rosada on 1 October 2008. This was his last public appearance.
== Death ==
Alfonsín died at home on 31 March 2009, at the age of 82, after being diagnosed a year before with lung cancer. The streets around his house at the Santa Fe avenue were filled with hundreds of people, who started a candlelight vigil. The radical Julio Cobos, Fernández de Kirchner's vice president, was the acting president at the moment and ordered three days of national mourning. There was a ceremony in the Congress, where his body was displayed in the Blue Hall, that was attended by almost a thousand people. His widow María Lorenza Barreneche could not attend the funeral, because of her own poor health. It was attended by former presidents Carlos Menem, Fernando de la Rúa, Eduardo Duhalde and Néstor Kirchner, all the members of the Supreme Court of Argentina, mayor Mauricio Macri, governor Daniel Scioli, the president of Uruguay Tabaré Vázquez and several other politicians. The coffin was moved to La Recoleta Cemetery. He was placed next to the graves of other important historical figures of the UCR, such as Leandro N. Alem, Hipólito Yrigoyen and Arturo Illia.
At the international level, Perú set a day of national mourning, and Paraguay set three days. The governments of Brazil, Chile, Colombia, France, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Spain, Uruguay, and the United States sent messages of condolence. In addition to Tabaré Vázquez, Julio María Sanguinetti of Uruguay, and Fernando Henrique Cardoso of Brazil attended the ceremony.
== Legacy ==
Historians Félix Luna, Miguel Angel de Marco, and Fernando Rocchi all praise the role of Raúl Alfonsín in the aftermath of the Dirty War and the restoration of democracy. Luna also considers that Alfonsín was an effective president and that he set an example of not using the state for personal profit. De Marco points out that it was a delicate time, and any mistake could have endangered the newly founded democracy and led to another coup. The aforementioned historians do not agree, though, on their view of the Pact of Olivos. Luna considers that it was a necessary evil to prevent the chaos that would have been generated if Menem managed to proceed with the constitutional amendment without negotiating with the UCR. De Marco and Rocchi instead believe that it was the biggest mistake of Alfonsín's political career.
Alfonsín received the 1985 Princess of Asturias Award for international cooperation because of both his role in ending the Beagle dispute and his work to reestablish democracy in Argentina. He was named "Illustrious Citizen of Buenos Aires Province" in 2008, and "Illustrious Citizen of Buenos Aires" in 2009. The latter award was granted posthumously and received by his son Ricardo Alfonsín, ambassador to Spain.
== Publications ==
La cuestión argentina. Propuesta Argentina. 1981. ISBN 9505490488.
Qué es el radicalismo. Círculo de lectores. 1983. ISBN 9500701812.
Ahora: mi propuesta política. Sudamericana. 1983. ISBN 9503700086.
Inédito: una batalla contra la dictadura. Legasa. 1986. ISBN 9506000883.
El poder de la democracia. Fundación Plural. 1987. ISBN 9509910902.
Política social y democracia: la experiencia del cono sur. Intercontinental. 1993. ISBN 987917318X.
Democracia y consenso. Consejo Económico y Social. 1996. ISBN 9500509148.
Memoria política: transición a la democracia y derechos humanos. Fondo de Cultura Económica. 2004. ISBN 950557617X.
Fundamentos de la república democrática: curso de teoría del estado. Eudeba. 2006. ISBN 9502315626.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Burns, Jimmy (1987). The land that lost its heroes: the Falklands, the post-war, and Alfonsín. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-7475-0002-9.
Hedges, Jill (2011). Argentina: A modern history. United States: I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-654-7.
Lagleyze, Julio Luqui (2010). Grandes biografías de los 200 años: Raúl Ricardo Alfonsín. Argentina: Clarín. ISBN 978-987-07-0836-0.
Lewis, Daniel (2015). The History of Argentina. United States: ABC Clio. ISBN 978-1-61069-860-3.
McGuire, James (1997). Peronism without Perón. United States: Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804736558.
Méndez, Juan (1987). Truth and Partial Justice in Argentina. United States: Americas Watch Report. ISBN 9780938579342.
Romero, Luis Alberto (2013) [1994]. A History of Argentina in the Twentieth Century. United States: The Pennsylvania University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-06228-0.
Rock, David (1987). Argentina, 1516–1987: From Spanish Colonization to Alfonsín. United States: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06178-0. Retrieved 14 July 2015.
Tedesco, Laura (1999). Democracy in Argentina: Hope and Disillusion. United States: Frank Cass Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7146-4978-8.
== External links ==
Media related to Raúl Alfonsín at Wikimedia Commons
Spanish Wikisource has original text related to this article: Raúl Alfonsín
Spanish Wikiquote has quotations related to: Raúl Alfonsín
Official site Archived 13 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine (in Spanish)
Biography by CIDOB Foundation (in Spanish)
Discurso del presidente Raúl Alfonsín (in Spanish)
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_E._Moore_Medal_(SCI) | Gordon E. Moore Medal (SCI) | The Gordon E. Moore Medal is an award given yearly by the Society of Chemical Industry (SCI America) to someone who has displayed early career success involving innovation in chemical industries. Success is judged in terms of both market impact and effects on quality of life of their work.
== Recipients ==
2025, Linqian Feng, (Eastman Chemical Company)
2024, Caleb Funk (DuPont)
2023, Kaoru Aou (Dow)
2022, Kevin Maloney (Merck)
2021, Carla Pereira (ExxonMobil)
2020, Wei Wang (PPG)
2019, John Sworen (Chemours Company)
2018, Steven Swier (Dow Corning)
2017, Melinda H. Keefe (Dow)
2016, Abhishek Roy (Dow)
2015, John A. McCauley (Merck)
2014, Andrew E. Taggi (DuPont)
2013, Jerzy Klosin (Dow)
2012, Dean E. Rende (Honeywell)
2011, Doron Levin (ExxonMobil)
2010, Emmett Crawford (Eastman Chemical Company)
2009, Emma Parmee (Merck & Co.)
2008, Edmund M. Carnahan (Dow)
2007, Paul A. Sagel (Procter & Gamble)
2006, Jonathan M. McConnachie (ExxonMobil)
2005, Jeffery John Hale (Merck & Co.)
2004, George G. Barclay (Rohm and Haas)
== Gallery ==
== External links ==
Gordon E. Moore Medal, SCI
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon#Military_service | Richard Nixon | Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 until his resignation in 1974. A member of the Republican Party, he represented California in both houses of the United States Congress before serving as the 36th vice president under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1961. His presidency saw the reduction of U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, détente with the Soviet Union and China, the Apollo 11 Moon landing, and the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency and Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Nixon's second term ended early when he became the only U.S. president to resign from office, as a result of the Watergate scandal.
Nixon was born into a poor family of Quakers in Yorba Linda, Southern California. He graduated from Whittier College with a Bachelor of Arts in 1934 and from Duke University School of Law with a Juris Doctor in 1937, practiced law in California, and then moved with his wife Pat to Washington, D.C., in 1942 to work for the federal government. After serving in the Naval Reserve during World War II, he was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946. His work on the Alger Hiss case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist. In 1950, he was elected to the Senate. Nixon was the running mate of Eisenhower, the Republican Party's presidential nominee in the 1952 and 1956 elections. Nixon served for eight years as vice president, and his two terms saw an increase in the notability of the office. He narrowly lost the 1960 presidential election to John F. Kennedy. After his loss in the 1962 race for governor of California, Nixon announced his retirement from politics. However, he ran again for the presidency in 1968 and defeated the Democratic candidate, Vice President Hubert Humphrey.
Seeking to bring the North Vietnamese to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered military operations and carpet bombing campaigns in Cambodia. He covertly aided Pakistan during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971 and ended American combat involvement in Vietnam in 1973, and the military draft the same year. His visit to China in 1972 led to diplomatic relations between the two nations, and he finalized the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union. During the course of his first term, he enacted many progressive environmental policy shifts, such as creating the Environmental Protection Agency and passing laws, including the Endangered Species and Clean Air Acts. In addition to implementing the Twenty-sixth Amendment that lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, he ended the direct international convertibility of the U.S. dollar to gold in 1971, effectively taking the United States off the gold standard. He also imposed wage and price controls for 90 days, launched the Wars on Cancer and Drugs, passed the Controlled Substances Act, and presided over the end of the Space Race by overseeing the Apollo 11 Moon landing. He was re-elected in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern in one of the largest landslide victories in American history.
In his second term, Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli materiel losses in the Yom Kippur War, a conflict which led to the oil crisis at home. From 1973, ongoing revelations from the Nixon administration's involvement in Watergate eroded his support in Congress and the country. The scandal began with a break-in at the Democratic National Committee office, ordered by administration officials, and escalated despite cover-up efforts by the Nixon administration, of which he was aware. On August 9, 1974, facing almost certain impeachment and removal from office, Nixon resigned. Afterward, he was issued a controversial pardon by his successor, Gerald Ford. During nearly 20 years of retirement, Nixon wrote nine books and undertook many foreign trips, rehabilitating his image into that of an elder statesman and leading expert on foreign affairs. On April 18, 1994, he suffered a debilitating stroke, and died four days later. Nixon is generally ranked as a below-average president, mainly due to his role in the Watergate scandal. Evaluations of his time in office have proven complex, with the successes of his presidency contrasted against the circumstances surrounding his departure from office.
== Early life and education ==
Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9, 1913, in what was then the township precinct of Yorba Linda, California, in a house built by his father, on his family's lemon ranch. His parents were Francis A. Nixon and Hannah (Milhous) Nixon. His mother was a Quaker, and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith. Through his mother, Nixon was a descendant of the early English settler Thomas Cornell.
Nixon's upbringing was influenced by Quaker observances of the time, such as abstinence from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. He had four brothers: Harold, Donald, Arthur, and Edward. Four of the five Nixon boys were named after British kings; Richard was named after Richard the Lionheart.
Nixon's early life was marked by hardship, and he later quoted Dwight Eisenhower in describing his boyhood: "We were poor, but the glory of it was we didn't know it". The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the family moved to Whittier, California. In an area of East Whittier with many Quakers, Frank Nixon opened a grocery store and gas station at what is now the corner of Whittier Boulevard and Santa Gertrudes Avenue. During this period, the Nixon family attended East Whittier Friends Church. Richard's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 at the age of seven after a short illness. Richard was 12 years old when a spot was found on his lung; with a family history of tuberculosis, he was forbidden to play sports. The spot turned out to be scar tissue from pneumonia.
=== Primary and secondary education ===
Nixon attended East Whittier Elementary School, where he was president of his eighth-grade class. His older brother Harold had attended Whittier High School, which his parents thought resulted in a dissolute lifestyle. They decided to send Nixon to the larger Fullerton Union High School. Though he had to ride a school bus an hour each way during his freshman year, he attained excellent grades. Later, he lived with an aunt in Fullerton during the week. He played junior varsity football and seldom missed practice, though he rarely was used in games. He had greater success as a debater, winning several championships and taking his only formal tutelage in public speaking from Fullerton's Head of English, H. Lynn Sheller. Nixon later mused on Sheller's words, "Remember, speaking is conversation...don't shout at people. Talk to them. Converse with them." Nixon said he tried to use a conversational tone as much as possible.
At the start of his junior year in September 1928, Nixon's parents permitted him to transfer to Whittier High School. At Whittier, Nixon lost a bid for student body president—his first electoral defeat. He often rose at 4 a.m. to drive the family truck to Los Angeles to purchase vegetables and then drove to the store to wash and display them before going to school. Harold was diagnosed with tuberculosis the previous year; when their mother took him to Arizona, hoping to improve his health, the demands on Nixon increased, causing him to give up football. Nevertheless, Nixon graduated from Whittier High third in his class of 207.
=== College and law school ===
Nixon was offered a tuition grant to attend Harvard University, but with Harold's continued illness requiring his mother's care until he died in 1933, Richard was needed at the store. He remained in his hometown and enrolled at Whittier College in September 1930. His expenses were met by his maternal grandfather. Nixon played for the basketball team; he also tried out for football, and though he lacked the size to play, he remained on the team as a substitute and was noted for his enthusiasm. Instead of fraternities and sororities, Whittier had literary societies. Nixon was snubbed by the only one for men, the Franklins, many of whom were from prominent families, unlike Nixon. He responded by helping to found a new society, the Orthogonian Society. In addition to the society, his studies, and work at the store, Nixon engaged in several extracurricular activities; he was a champion debater and hard worker. In 1933, he was engaged to Ola Florence Welch, daughter of the Whittier police chief, but they broke up in 1935.
After graduating summa cum laude with a Bachelor of Arts in history from Whittier in 1934, Nixon was accepted at the new Duke University School of Law, which offered scholarships to top students, including Nixon. It paid high salaries to its professors, many of whom had national or international reputations. The number of scholarships was greatly reduced for second- and third-year students, creating intense competition. Nixon kept his scholarship, was elected president of the Duke Bar Association, inducted into the Order of the Coif, and graduated third in his class in June 1937.
== Early career and marriage ==
After graduating from Duke, Nixon initially hoped to join the FBI. He received no response to his application and learned years later that he had been hired, but his appointment had been canceled at the last minute due to budget cuts. He was admitted to the California bar in 1937, and began practicing in Whittier with the law firm Wingert and Bewley in the National Bank of Whittier Building. His work concentrated on commercial litigation for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters, as well as on wills. Nixon was reluctant to work on divorce cases, disliking frank sexual talk from women. In 1938, he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in La Habra, California, and became a full partner in the firm the following year. In later years, Nixon proudly said he was the only modern president to have previously worked as a practicing attorney. During this period, Nixon was also the president of the Citra-Frost Company, which attempted to produce and sell frozen orange juice, but the company went bankrupt after 18 months.
In January 1938, Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of The Dark Tower in which he played opposite his future wife, a high school teacher named Thelma "Pat" Ryan. In his memoirs, Nixon described it as "a case of love at first sight", but apparently for Nixon only, since Pat Ryan turned him down several times before agreeing to date him. Once they began their courtship, Ryan was reluctant to marry Nixon; they dated for two years before she assented to his proposal. They wed in a small ceremony on June 21, 1940. After a honeymoon in Mexico, the Nixons began their married life in Whittier. They had two daughters: Tricia, born in 1946, and Julie, born in 1948.
== Military service ==
In January 1942, the couple moved to the Northern Virginia suburbs, where Nixon took a job at the Office of Price Administration in Washington, D.C. In his political campaigns, Nixon suggested that this was his response to Pearl Harbor, but he had sought the position throughout the latter part of 1941. Both Nixon and his wife believed he was limiting his prospects by remaining in Whittier. He was assigned to the tire rationing division, where he was tasked with replying to correspondence. He did not enjoy the role, and four months later applied to join the United States Navy. Though he could have claimed an exemption from the draft as a birthright Quaker, or a deferral due to his government service, Nixon nevertheless sought a commission in the Navy. His application was approved, and he was appointed a lieutenant junior grade in the United States Naval Reserve on June 15, 1942.
In October 1942, he was given his first assignment as aide to the commander of the Naval Air Station Ottumwa in Wapello County, Iowa, until May 1943. Seeking more excitement, he requested sea duty; on July 2, 1943, he was assigned to Marine Aircraft Group 25 and the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command (SCAT), where he supported the logistics of operations in the South Pacific theater during World War II.
On October 1, 1943, Nixon was promoted to lieutenant. Nixon commanded the SCAT forward detachments at Vella Lavella, Bougainville, and finally at Nissan Island. His unit prepared manifests and flight plans for R4D/C-47 operations and supervised the loading and unloading of the transport aircraft. For this service, he received a Navy Letter of Commendation and a Navy Commendation Ribbon, which was later updated to the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal, from his commanding officer for "meritorious and efficient performance of duty as Officer in Charge of the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command". Upon his return to the U.S., Nixon was appointed the administrative officer of the Alameda Naval Air Station in Alameda, California. In January 1945, he was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics office in Philadelphia, where he helped negotiate the termination of World War II contracts, and received his second letter of commendation, from the Secretary of the Navy for "meritorious service, tireless effort, and devotion to duty". Later, Nixon was transferred to other offices to work on contracts, and he moved to Philadelphia, New York, and finally to Baltimore. On October 3, 1945, he was promoted to lieutenant commander. On March 10, 1946, he was relieved of active duty. On June 1, 1953, he was promoted to commander in the U.S. Naval Reserve, and he retired from the U.S. Naval Reserve on June 6, 1966.
While in the Navy, Nixon became a very good five-card stud poker player, helping finance his first congressional campaign with the winnings. In a 1983 interview, he described turning down an invitation to dine with Charles Lindbergh because he was hosting a game.
== U.S. House of Representatives (1947–1950) ==
Republicans in California's 12th congressional district were frustrated by their inability to defeat Democratic representative Jerry Voorhis, and they sought a consensus candidate who would run a strong campaign against him. In 1945, they formed a "Committee of 100" to decide on a candidate, hoping to avoid internal dissensions which had led to previous Voorhis victories. After the committee failed to attract higher-profile candidates, Herman Perry, manager of Whittier's Bank of America branch, suggested Nixon, a family friend with whom he had served on Whittier College's board of trustees before the war. Perry wrote to Nixon in Baltimore, and after a night of excited conversation with his wife, Nixon gave Perry an enthusiastic response, confirming that he was registered to vote in California at his parents' Whittier residence. Nixon flew to California and was selected by the committee. When he left the Navy at the start of 1946, Nixon and his wife returned to Whittier, where he began a year of intensive campaigning. He contended that Voorhis had been ineffective as a representative and suggested that Voorhis's endorsement by a group linked to Communists meant that Voorhis must have radical views. Nixon won the election, receiving 65,586 votes to Voorhis's 49,994.
In June 1947, Nixon supported the Taft–Hartley Act, a federal law that monitors the activities and power of labor unions, and he served on the Education and Labor Committee. In August 1947, he became one of 19 House members to serve on the Herter Committee, which went to Europe to report on the need for U.S. foreign aid. Nixon was the youngest member of the committee and the only Westerner. Advocacy by Herter Committee members, including Nixon, led to congressional passage of the Marshall Plan.
In his memoirs, Nixon wrote that he joined the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) "at the end of 1947". However, he was already a HUAC member in early February 1947, when he heard "Enemy Number One" Gerhard Eisler and his sister Ruth Fischer testify. On February 18, 1947, Nixon referred to Eisler's belligerence toward HUAC in his maiden speech to the House. Also by early February 1947, fellow U.S. Representative Charles J. Kersten had introduced him to Father John Francis Cronin in Baltimore. Cronin shared with Nixon his 1945 privately circulated paper "The Problem of American Communism in 1945", with much information from the FBI's William C. Sullivan who by 1961 headed domestic intelligence under J. Edgar Hoover.
By May 1948, Nixon had co-sponsored the Mundt–Nixon Bill to implement "a new approach to the complicated problem of internal communist subversion ... It provided for registration of all Communist Party members and required a statement of the source of all printed and broadcast material issued by organizations that were found to be Communist fronts." He served as floor manager for the Republican Party. On May 19, 1948, the bill passed the House by 319 to 58, but later it failed to pass the Senate. The Nixon Library cites this bill's passage as Nixon's first significant victory in Congress.
Nixon first gained national attention in August 1948, when his persistence as a House Un-American Activities Committee member helped break the Alger Hiss spy case. While many doubted Whittaker Chambers's allegations that Hiss, a former State Department official, had been a Soviet spy, Nixon believed them to be true and pressed for the committee to continue its investigation. After Hiss filed suit, alleging defamation, Chambers produced documents corroborating his allegations, including paper and microfilm copies that Chambers turned over to House investigators after hiding them overnight in a field; they became known as the "Pumpkin Papers". Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 for denying under oath he had passed documents to Chambers. In 1948, Nixon successfully cross-filed as a candidate in his district, winning both major party primaries, and was comfortably reelected.
== U.S. Senate (1950–1953) ==
In 1949, Nixon began to consider running for the United States Senate against the conservative Democratic incumbent, Sheridan Downey, and entered the race in November. Downey, faced with a bitter primary battle with Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas, announced his retirement in March 1950. Nixon and Douglas won the primary elections and engaged in a contentious campaign in which the ongoing Korean War was a major issue. Nixon tried to focus attention on Douglas's liberal voting record. As part of that effort, a "Pink Sheet" was distributed by the Nixon campaign suggesting that Douglas's voting record was similar to that of New York Congressman Vito Marcantonio, reputed to be a communist, and their political views must be nearly identical. Nixon won the election by almost twenty percentage points. During the campaign, Nixon was first called "Tricky Dick" by his opponents for his campaign tactics. After Nixon won, Downey resigned effective November 30, 1950; this enabled the governor to appoint Nixon on December 1, giving him a seniority advantage over other senators elected in 1950, whose terms started in January 1951.
In the Senate, Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global communism, traveling frequently and speaking out against it. He maintained friendly relations with Joseph McCarthy, a controversial U.S. Senate colleague from Wisconsin and fellow anti-communist, but was careful to keep some distance between himself and McCarthy's allegations. Nixon criticized President Harry S. Truman's handling of the Korean War. He supported statehood for Alaska and Hawaii, voted in favor of civil rights for minorities, and supported federal disaster relief for India and Yugoslavia. He voted against price controls and other monetary restrictions, benefits for illegal immigrants, and public power.
== Vice presidency (1953–1961) ==
Nixon's speech at a state Republican Party fundraiser in New York City on May 8, 1952, impressed Governor Thomas E. Dewey, who was an Eisenhower supporter and had organized a pro-Eisenhower delegation from New York to attend the national convention. In a private meeting following the speech, Dewey suggested to Nixon that he would make a suitable vice presidential candidate to run alongside Eisenhower. Eisenhower later indicated to Paul H. Davis of the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, an intermediary between candidates Eisenhower and Earl Warren, that if he won the nomination, Nixon would be his first choice for the vice presidency, because Eisenhower believed the party needed to promote leaders who were aggressive, capable, and young. Eisenhower later developed a list of seven potential candidates, with Nixon's name at the top.
After Eisenhower was nominated, his key supporters met to discuss vice presidential possibilities. Eisenhower informed the group's chairman, Herbert Brownell Jr. that he did not wish to appear to dictate to the convention by formally sponsoring a single candidate, so the group reviewed several, including Robert A. Taft, Everett Dirksen, and Alfred E. Driscoll, all of whom they quickly rejected. Dewey then raised Nixon's name; the group quickly concurred. Brownell checked with Eisenhower, who indicated his approval. Brownell then called Nixon to inform him that he was Eisenhower's choice. Nixon accepted, then departed for Eisenhower's hotel room to discuss the details of the campaign and Eisenhower's plans for his vice president if the ticket was successful in the general election.
The delegates soon assembled to formalize the selection. Nixon asked Senator William Knowland to nominate him, and Knowland agreed. After Senator John W. Bricker, who had supported Taft for president, declined Nixon's request to second the nomination, Driscoll agreed to do so. There were no other candidates, and Nixon was nominated by acclamation.
On the campaign trail, Eisenhower spoke of his plans for the country, and left the negative campaigning to his running mate. In mid-September, the Republican ticket faced a major crisis when the media reported that Nixon had a political fund, maintained by his backers, which reimbursed him for political expenses. Such a fund was not illegal, but it exposed Nixon to allegations of a potential conflict of interest. With pressure building for Eisenhower to demand Nixon's resignation from the ticket, Nixon went on television to address the nation on September 23, 1952. The address, later named the Checkers speech, was heard by about 60 million Americans, which represented the largest audience ever for a television broadcast at that point. In the speech, Nixon emotionally defended himself, stating that the fund was not secret and that his donors had not received special favors. He painted himself as a patriot and man of modest means, mentioning that his wife had no mink coat; instead, he said, she wore a "respectable Republican cloth coat". The speech was remembered for the gift which Nixon had received, but which he would not give back, which he described as "a little cocker spaniel dog ...sent all the way from Texas. And our little girl—Tricia, the 6-year-old—named it Checkers." The speech prompted a huge public outpouring of support for Nixon. Eisenhower decided to retain him on the ticket, and the ticket was victorious in the November election.
Eisenhower granted Nixon more responsibilities during his term than any previous vice president. Nixon attended Cabinet and National Security Council meetings and chaired them in Eisenhower's absence. A 1953 tour of the Far East succeeded in increasing local goodwill toward the United States and gave Nixon an appreciation of the region as a potential industrial center. He visited Saigon and Hanoi in French Indochina. On his return to the United States at the end of 1953, Nixon increased the time he devoted to foreign relations.
Biographer Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional years, said of his vice presidency:
Eisenhower radically altered the role of his running mate by presenting him with critical assignments in both foreign and domestic affairs once he assumed his office. The vice president welcomed the president's initiatives and worked energetically to accomplish White House objectives. Because of the collaboration between these two leaders, Nixon deserves the title, "the first modern vice president".
Despite intense campaigning by Nixon, who reprised his strong attacks on the Democrats, the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the 1954 elections. These losses caused Nixon to contemplate leaving politics once he had served out his term. On September 24, 1955, President Eisenhower suffered a heart attack, and his condition was initially believed to be life-threatening. Eisenhower was unable to perform his duties for six weeks. The Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution had not yet been proposed, and the vice president had no formal power to act. Nonetheless, Nixon acted in Eisenhower's stead during this period, presiding over Cabinet meetings and ensuring that aides and Cabinet officers did not seek power. According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose, Nixon had "earned the high praise he received for his conduct during the crisis ... he made no attempt to seize power".
His spirits buoyed, Nixon sought a second term, but some of Eisenhower's aides aimed to displace him. In a December 1955 meeting, Eisenhower proposed that Nixon not run for reelection and instead become a Cabinet officer in a second Eisenhower administration, to give him administrative experience before a 1960 presidential run. Nixon believed this would destroy his political career. When Eisenhower announced his reelection bid in February 1956, he hedged on the choice of his running mate, saying it was improper to address that question until he had been renominated. Although no Republican was opposing Eisenhower, Nixon received a substantial number of write-in votes against the president in the 1956 New Hampshire primary election. In late April, the President announced that Nixon would again be his running mate. Eisenhower and Nixon were reelected by a comfortable margin in the November 1956 election.
In early 1957, Nixon undertook another foreign trip, this time to Africa. On his return, he helped shepherd the Civil Rights Act of 1957 through Congress. The bill was weakened in the Senate, and civil rights leaders were divided over whether Eisenhower should sign it. Nixon advised the President to sign the bill, which he did. Eisenhower suffered a mild stroke in November 1957, and Nixon gave a press conference, assuring the nation that the Cabinet was functioning well as a team during Eisenhower's brief illness.
On April 27, 1958, Richard and Pat Nixon reluctantly embarked on a goodwill tour of South America. In Montevideo, Uruguay, Nixon made an impromptu visit to a college campus, where he fielded questions from students on U.S. foreign policy. The trip was uneventful until the Nixon party reached Lima, Peru, where he was met with student demonstrations. Nixon went to the historical campus of National University of San Marcos, the oldest university in the Americas, got out of his car to confront the students, and stayed until forced back into the car by a volley of thrown objects. At his hotel, Nixon faced another mob, and one demonstrator spat on him. In Caracas, Venezuela, Nixon and his wife were spat on by anti-American demonstrators and their limousine was attacked by a pipe-wielding mob. According to Ambrose, Nixon's courageous conduct "caused even some of his bitterest enemies to give him some grudging respect". Reporting to the cabinet after the trip, Nixon claimed there was "absolute proof that [the protestors] were directed and controlled by a central Communist conspiracy." Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and his brother, Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles, both concurred with Nixon.
In July 1959, Eisenhower sent Nixon to the Soviet Union for the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow. On July 24, Nixon was touring the exhibits with Nikita Khrushchev when the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange about the merits of capitalism versus communism that became known as the "Kitchen Debate".
== 1960 presidential campaign ==
In 1960, Nixon launched his first campaign for President of the United States, officially announcing on January 9, 1960. He faced little opposition in the Republican primaries and chose former Massachusetts senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. as his running mate. His Democratic opponent was John F. Kennedy and the race remained close for the duration. Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the Eisenhower–Nixon administration had allowed the Soviet Union to overtake the U.S. in quantity and quality of ballistic missiles. While Kennedy faced issues about his Catholicism, Nixon remained a divisive figure to some.
Televised presidential debates made their debut as a political medium during the campaign. In the first of four such debates, Nixon appeared pale, with a five o'clock shadow, in contrast to the photogenic Kennedy. Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television, though many people listening on the radio thought Nixon had won. Nixon narrowly lost the election, with Kennedy winning the popular vote by only 112,827 votes (0.2 percent).
There were charges of voter fraud in Texas and Illinois, both states won by Kennedy. Nixon refused to consider contesting the election, feeling a lengthy controversy would diminish the United States in the eyes of the world and that the uncertainty would hurt U.S. interests. At the end of his term of office as vice president in January 1961, Nixon and his family returned to California, where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book, Six Crises, which included coverage of the Hiss case, Eisenhower's heart attack, and the Fund Crisis, which had been resolved by the Checkers speech.
== 1962 California gubernatorial campaign ==
Local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent Pat Brown for governor of California in the 1962 gubernatorial election. Despite initial reluctance, Nixon entered the race. The campaign was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the office as a stepping stone for another presidential run, some opposition from the far-right of the party, and his own lack of interest in being California's governor. Nixon hoped a successful run would confirm his status as the nation's leading active Republican politician and ensure he remained a major player in national politics. Instead, he lost to Brown by more than five percentage points, and the defeat was widely believed to be the end of his political career.
In an impromptu concession speech, the morning after the election, Nixon blamed the media for favoring his opponent, saying, "You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference." The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11, 1962, episode of Howard K. Smith's ABC News show, Howard K. Smith: News and Comment, titled "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon". Alger Hiss appeared on the program, and many members of the public complained that it was unseemly to give a convicted felon air time to attack a former vice president. The furor drove Smith and his program from the air, and public sympathy for Nixon grew.
== Wilderness years ==
In 1963, the Nixon family traveled to Europe, where Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited. The family moved to New York City, where Nixon became a senior partner in the leading law firm Nixon, Mudge, Rose, Guthrie & Alexander. On the morning of November 22, 1963, Nixon was in Dallas, staying at the Baker Hotel. He left the city via Love Field an hour before the arrival of Air Force One. When announcing his California campaign, Nixon had pledged not to run for president in 1964; even if he had not, he believed it would be difficult to defeat Kennedy, or after his assassination, Kennedy's successor, Lyndon Johnson.
In 1964, Nixon won write-in votes in the primaries, and was considered a serious contender by both Gallup polls and members of the press. He was even placed on a primary ballot as an active candidate by Oregon's secretary of state. As late as two months before the 1964 Republican National Convention, however, Nixon fulfilled his promise to remain out of the presidential nomination process and instead endorsed Arizona senator Barry Goldwater, the eventual Republican nominee. When Goldwater won the nomination, Nixon was selected to introduce him at the convention. Nixon felt that Goldwater was unlikely to win, but campaigned for him loyally. In the 1964 general election, Goldwater lost in a landslide to Johnson and Republicans experienced heavy losses in Congress and among state governors.
Nixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results, and he sought to build on that in the 1966 congressional elections in which he campaigned for many Republicans and sought to regain seats lost in the Johnson landslide. Nixon was credited with helping Republicans win major electoral gains that year.
In 1967, Nixon was approached by an associate at his firm in Leonard Garment about a case involving the press and perceived invasion of privacy. Garment suggested Nixon argue on behalf of the Hill family in Time, Inc. v. Hill at the Supreme Court of the United States. Nixon studied strenuously in the months before the oral argument before the Court. While the final decision was in favor of Time Inc., Nixon was encouraged by the praise he received for his argument. It was the first and only case he argued in front of the Supreme Court.
== 1968 presidential campaign ==
At the end of 1967, Nixon told his family he planned to run for president a second time. Pat Nixon did not always enjoy public life, being embarrassed, for example, by the need to reveal how little the family owned in the Checkers speech. She still managed to be supportive of her husband's ambitions. Nixon believed that with the Democrats torn over the issue of the Vietnam War, a Republican had a good chance of winning, although he expected the election to be as close as in 1960.
An exceptionally tumultuous primary election season began as the Tet Offensive was launched in January 1968. President Johnson withdrew as a candidate in March, after an unexpectedly poor showing in the New Hampshire primary. In June, Senator Robert F. Kennedy, a Democratic candidate, was assassinated just moments after his victory in the California primary. On the Republican side, Nixon's main opposition was Michigan governor George Romney, though New York governor Nelson Rockefeller and California governor Ronald Reagan each hoped to be nominated in a brokered convention. Nixon secured the nomination on the first ballot. He was able to secure the nomination to the support of many Southern delegates, after he and his subordinates made concessions to Strom Thurmond and Harry Dent. He selected Maryland governor Spiro Agnew as his running mate, a choice which Nixon believed would unite the party, appealing both to Northern moderates and to Southerners disaffected with the Democrats.
Nixon's Democratic opponent in the general election was Vice President Hubert Humphrey, who was nominated at a convention marked by violent protests. Throughout the campaign, Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during this period of national unrest and upheaval. He appealed to what he later called the "silent majority" of socially conservative Americans who disliked the hippie counterculture and the anti-war demonstrators. Agnew became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups, solidifying Nixon's position with the right.
Nixon waged a prominent television advertising campaign, meeting with supporters in front of cameras. He stressed that the crime rate was too high, and attacked what he perceived as a surrender of the United States' nuclear superiority by the Democrats. Nixon promised "peace with honor" in the Vietnam War and proclaimed that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific". He did not give specifics of how he hoped to end the war, resulting in media intimations that he must have a "secret plan". His slogan of "Nixon's the One" proved to be effective.
Johnson's negotiators hoped to reach a truce in Vietnam, or at least a cessation of bombings. On October 22, 1968, candidate Nixon received information that Johnson was preparing a so-called "October surprise", abandoning three non-negotiable conditions for a bombing halt, to help elect Humphrey in the last days of the campaign. Whether the Nixon campaign interfered with negotiations between the Johnson administration and the South Vietnamese by engaging Anna Chennault, a fundraiser for the Republican party, remains a controversy. It is not clear whether the government of South Vietnam needed encouragement to opt out of a peace process they considered disadvantageous.
In a three-way race between Nixon, Humphrey, and American Independent Party candidate George Wallace, Nixon defeated Humphrey by only 500,000 votes, a margin almost as close as in 1960, with both elections seeing a gap of less than one percentage point of the popular vote. However, Nixon earned 301 electoral votes to 191 for Humphrey and 46 for Wallace, a majority. He became the first non-incumbent vice president to be elected president. In his victory speech, Nixon pledged that his administration would try to bring the divided nation together. Nixon said: "I have received a very gracious message from the Vice President, congratulating me for winning the election. I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds. I also told him that I know exactly how he felt. I know how it feels to lose a close one."
== Presidency (1969–1974) ==
Nixon was inaugurated as president on January 20, 1969, sworn in by his onetime political rival, Chief Justice Earl Warren. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open at Isaiah 2:4, which reads, "They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks." In his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that "the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker"—a phrase that found a place on his gravestone. He spoke about turning partisan politics into a new age of unity:
In these difficult years, America has suffered from a fever of words; from inflated rhetoric that promises more than it can deliver; from angry rhetoric that fans discontents into hatreds; from bombastic rhetoric that postures instead of persuading. We cannot learn from one another until we stop shouting at one another, until we speak quietly enough so that our words can be heard as well as our voices.
=== Foreign policy ===
==== China ====
Nixon laid the groundwork for his overture to China before he became president, writing in Foreign Affairs a year before his election: "There is no place on this small planet for a billion of its potentially most able people to live in angry isolation." Among the reasons that Nixon sought to improve relations with China was in the hope of weakening the Soviet Union and decreasing China's support to the North in the Vietnam War. Nixon ultimately used the idea of gaining leverage against the Soviet Union through relations with China to obtain the support of key conservative figures including Barry Goldwater and Ronald Reagan.
Assisting him in pursuing relations with China was Henry Kissinger, Nixon's national security advisor and future secretary of state. They collaborated closely, bypassing Cabinet officials. With relations between the Soviet Union and China at a nadir—border clashes between the two took place during Nixon's first year in office—Nixon sent private word to the Chinese that he desired closer relations. A breakthrough came in early 1971, when Chinese Communist Party (CCP) chairman Mao Zedong invited a team of American table tennis players to visit China and play against top Chinese players. Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials. On July 15, 1971, with announcements from Washington and Beijing, it was learned that the President would visit China the following February. The secrecy had allowed both sets of leaders time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the visit.
In February 1972, Nixon and his wife traveled to China after Kissinger briefed Nixon for over 40 hours in preparation. Upon touching down, the President and First Lady emerged from Air Force One and were greeted by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai. Nixon made a point of shaking Zhou's hand, something which then-secretary of state John Foster Dulles had refused to do in 1954 when the two met in Geneva. More than a hundred television journalists accompanied the president. On Nixon's orders, television was strongly favored over printed publications, as Nixon felt that the medium would capture the visit much better than print. It also allowed him to snub the print journalists he despised.
Nixon and Kissinger immediately met for an hour with CCP Chairman Mao Zedong and Premier Zhou at Mao's official private residence, where they discussed a range of issues. Mao later told his doctor that he had been impressed by Nixon's forthrightness, unlike the leftists and the Soviets. He said he was suspicious of Kissinger, though the National Security Advisor referred to their meeting as his "encounter with history". A formal banquet welcoming the presidential party was given that evening in the Great Hall of the People. The following day, Nixon met with Zhou; the joint communique following this meeting recognized Taiwan as a part of China and looked forward to a peaceful solution to the problem of reunification. When not in meetings, Nixon toured architectural wonders, including the Forbidden City, the Ming tombs, and the Great Wall. Americans took their first glance into everyday Chinese life through the cameras that accompanied Pat Nixon, who toured the city of Beijing and visited communes, schools, factories, and hospitals.
The visit ushered in a new era of US–China relations. Fearing the possibility of a US–China alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to pressure for détente with the United States. This was one component of triangular diplomacy.
==== Vietnam War ====
When Nixon took office, about 300 American soldiers were dying each week in Vietnam, and the war was widely unpopular in the United States, the subject of ongoing violent protests. The Johnson administration had offered to suspend bombing unconditionally in exchange for negotiations, but to no avail. According to Walter Isaacson, Nixon concluded soon after taking office that the Vietnam War could not be won, and he was determined to end it quickly. He sought an arrangement that would permit American forces to withdraw while leaving South Vietnam secure against attack.
Nixon approved a secret B-52 carpet bombing campaign of North Vietnamese and Khmer Rouge positions in Cambodia beginning in March 1969 and code-named Operation Menu, without the consent of Cambodian leader Norodom Sihanouk. In mid-1969, Nixon began efforts to negotiate peace with the North Vietnamese, sending a personal letter to their leaders, and peace talks began in Paris. Initial talks did not result in an agreement, and in May 1969, he publicly proposed to withdraw all American troops from South Vietnam, provided North Vietnam did so, and suggested South Vietnam hold internationally supervised elections with Viet Cong participation.
In July 1969, Nixon visited South Vietnam, where he met with his U.S. military commanders and President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu. Amid protests at home demanding an immediate pullout, he implemented a strategy of replacing American troops with Vietnamese troops, known as "Vietnamization". He soon instituted phased U.S. troop withdrawals, but also authorized incursions into Laos, in part to interrupt the Ho Chi Minh trail passing through Laos and Cambodia and used to supply North Vietnamese forces. In March 1970, at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge and negotiated by Pol Pot's then-second-in-command, Nuon Chea, North Vietnamese troops launched an offensive and overran much of Cambodia. Nixon announced the ground invasion of Cambodia on April 30, 1970, against North Vietnamese bases in the east of the country, and further protests erupted against perceived expansion of the conflict, which resulted in Ohio National Guardsmen killing four unarmed students at Kent State University. Nixon's responses to protesters included an impromptu, early morning meeting with them at the Lincoln Memorial on May 9, 1970. Nixon's campaign promise to curb the war, contrasted with the escalated bombing, led to claims that Nixon had a "credibility gap" on the issue. It is estimated that between 50,000 and 150,000 people were killed during the bombing of Cambodia between 1970 and 1973.
In 1971, excerpts from the "Pentagon Papers", which had been leaked by Daniel Ellsberg, were published by The New York Times and The Washington Post. When news of the leak first appeared, Nixon was inclined to do nothing; the Papers, a history of the United States' involvement in Vietnam, mostly concerned the lies of prior administrations and contained few real revelations. He was persuaded by Kissinger that the Papers were more harmful than they appeared, and the President tried to prevent publication, but the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the newspapers.
As U.S. troop withdrawals continued, conscription was phased out by 1973, and the armed forces became all-volunteer. After years of fighting, the Paris Peace Accords were signed at the beginning of 1973. The agreement implemented a ceasefire and allowed for the withdrawal of remaining American troops without requiring the withdrawal of the 160,000 North Vietnam Army regulars located in the South. Once American combat support ended, there was a brief truce, before fighting resumed, and North Vietnam conquered South Vietnam in 1975.
==== Latin American policy ====
Nixon had been a firm supporter of Kennedy during the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. On taking office in 1969, he stepped up covert operations against Cuba and its president, Fidel Castro. He maintained close relations with the Cuban-American exile community through his friend, Bebe Rebozo, who often suggested ways of irritating Castro. The Soviets and Cubans became concerned, fearing Nixon might attack Cuba and break the understanding between Kennedy and Khrushchev that ended the missile crisis. In August 1970, the Soviets asked Nixon to reaffirm the understanding, which he did, despite his hard line against Castro. The process was not completed before the Soviets began expanding their base at the Cuban port of Cienfuegos in October 1970. A minor confrontation ensued, the Soviets stipulated they would not use Cienfuegos for submarines bearing ballistic missiles, and the final round of diplomatic notes was exchanged in November.
The election of Marxist candidate Salvador Allende as President of Chile in September 1970 spurred a vigorous campaign of covert opposition to him by Nixon and Kissinger. This began by trying to convince the Chilean congress to confirm Jorge Alessandri as the winner of the election, and then messages to military officers in support of a coup. Other support included strikes organized against Allende and funding for Allende opponents. It was even alleged that "Nixon personally authorized" $700,000 in covert funds to print anti-Allende messages in a prominent Chilean newspaper. Following an extended period of social, political, and economic unrest, General Augusto Pinochet assumed power in a violent coup d'état on September 11, 1973; among the dead was Allende.
==== Soviet Union ====
Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. Following the announcement of his visit to China, the Nixon administration concluded negotiations for him to visit the Soviet Union. The President and First Lady arrived in Moscow on May 22, 1972, and met with Leonid Brezhnev, the general secretary of the Communist Party; Alexei Kosygin, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers; and Nikolai Podgorny, the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, among other leading Soviet officials.
Nixon engaged in intense negotiations with Brezhnev. Out of the summit came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties: SALT I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence". A banquet was held that evening at the Kremlin.
Nixon and Kissinger planned to link arms control to détente and to the resolution of other urgent problems through what Nixon called "linkage". David Tal argues:
The linkage between strategic arms limitations and outstanding issues such as the Middle East, Berlin, and, foremost, Vietnam thus became central to Nixon's and Kissinger's policy of détente. Through the employment of linkage, they hoped to change the nature and course of U.S. foreign policy, including U.S. nuclear disarmament and arms control policy, and to separate them from those practiced by Nixon's predecessors. They also intended, through linkage, to make U.S. arms control policy part of détente ... His policy of linkage had, in fact, failed. It failed mainly because it was based on flawed assumptions and false premises, the foremost of which was that the Soviet Union wanted the Strategic Arms Limitation Agreement much more than the United States did.
Seeking to foster better relations with the United States, China and the Soviet Union both cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms militarily. Nixon later described his strategy:
I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist, if possible, the help of the Soviets and the Chinese. Though rapprochement with China and détente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves, I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war. At worst, Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Beijing. At best, if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry, Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept.
In 1973, Nixon encouraged the Export-Import Bank to finance in part a trade deal with the Soviet Union in which Armand Hammer's Occidental Petroleum would export phosphate from Florida to the Soviet Union, and import Soviet ammonia. The deal, valued at $20 billion over 20 years, involved the construction of two major Soviet port facilities at Odessa and Ventspils, and a pipeline connecting four ammonia plants in the greater Volga region to the port at Odessa. In 1973, Nixon announced his administration was committed to seeking most favored nation trade status with the USSR, which was challenged by Congress in the Jackson-Vanik Amendment.
During the previous two years, Nixon had made considerable progress in U.S.–Soviet relations, and he embarked on a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1974. He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony, cheering crowds, and a state dinner at the Grand Kremlin Palace that evening. Nixon and Brezhnev met in Yalta, where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact, détente, and MIRVs. Nixon considered proposing a comprehensive test-ban treaty, but he felt he would not have time to complete it during his presidency. There were no significant breakthroughs in these negotiations.
==== Middle Eastern policy ====
As part of the Nixon Doctrine, the U.S. avoided giving direct combat assistance to its allies and instead assisted them to defend themselves. During the Nixon administration, the U.S. greatly increased arms sales to the Middle East, particularly Israel, Iran, and Saudi Arabia. The Nixon administration strongly supported Israel, an American ally in the Middle East, but the support was not unconditional. Nixon believed Israel should make peace with its Arab neighbors and that the U.S. should encourage it. The president believed that—except during the Suez Crisis—the U.S. had failed to intervene with Israel, and should use the leverage of the large U.S. military aid to Israel to urge the parties to the negotiating table. The Arab-Israeli conflict was not a major focus of Nixon's attention during his first term—for one thing, he felt that no matter what he did, American Jews would oppose his reelection.
On October 6, 1973, an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria, supported with arms and materiel by the Soviet Union, attacked Israel in the Yom Kippur War. Israel suffered heavy losses, and Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli losses, cutting through inter-departmental squabbles and bureaucracy and taking personal responsibility for any response by Arab nations. More than a week later, by the time the U.S. and Soviet Union began negotiating a truce, Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory. The truce negotiations rapidly escalated into a superpower crisis; when Israel gained the upper hand, Egyptian president Sadat requested a joint U.S.–USSR peacekeeping mission, which the U.S. refused. When Soviet Premier Brezhnev threatened to unilaterally enforce any peacekeeping mission militarily, Nixon ordered the U.S. military to DEFCON3, placing all U.S. military personnel and bases on alert for nuclear war. This was the closest the world had come to nuclear war since the Cuban Missile Crisis. Brezhnev backed down as a result of Nixon's actions.
Because Israel's victory was largely due to U.S. support, the Arab OPEC nations retaliated by refusing to sell crude oil to the U.S., resulting in the 1973 oil crisis. The embargo caused gasoline shortages and rationing in the United States in late 1973, but was eventually ended by the oil-producing nations as peace in the Middle East took hold.
After the war, and under Nixon's presidency, the U.S. reestablished relations with Egypt for the first time since 1967. Nixon used the Middle East crisis to restart the stalled Middle East Peace Negotiations; he wrote in a confidential memo to Kissinger on October 20:
I believe that, beyond a doubt, we are now facing the best opportunity we have had in 15 years to build a lasting peace in the Middle East. I am convinced history will hold us responsible if we let this opportunity slip by ... I now consider a permanent Middle East settlement to be the most important final goal to which we must devote ourselves.
Nixon made one of his final international visits as president to the Middle East in June 1974, and became the first president to visit Israel.
==== South Asia policy ====
Since the 1960s, the United States has perceived Pakistan as an integral bulwark against global communism in the Cold War. Nixon was fond of Pakistani president Yahya Khan and, according to American journalist Gary Bass, "Nixon liked very few people, but he did like General Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan."
During the Bangladesh Liberation War, the United States stood by Pakistan against Bengali nationalists in terms of diplomacy and military threats. Nixon urged President Khan multiple times to exercise restraint, fearing an Indian invasion of Pakistan that would lead to Indian domination of the subcontinent and strengthen the position of the Soviet Union. In the wake of the Third India–Pakistan War, Nixon issued a statement blaming Pakistan for starting the conflict and blaming India for escalating it while personally favoring a ceasefire. The United States used the threat of an aid cut-off to force Pakistan to back down, while its continued military aid to Islamabad prevented India from launching incursions deeper into the country. Nixon denied getting involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan, but when Pakistan's defeat seemed certain, he sent the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal.
=== Domestic policy ===
==== Economy ====
At the time Nixon took office in 1969, inflation was at 4.7 percent—its highest rate since the Korean War. The Great Society had been enacted under Johnson, which, together with the Vietnam War costs, was causing large budget deficits. Unemployment was low, but interest rates were at their highest in a century. Nixon's major economic goal was to reduce inflation; the most obvious means of doing so was to end the war. This was not done in Nixon's first term, and the U.S. economy continued to struggle through 1970, contributing to a lackluster Republican performance in the midterm congressional elections (Democrats controlled both Houses of Congress throughout Nixon's presidency). According to political economist Nigel Bowles in his 2011 study of Nixon's economic record, the new president did little to alter Johnson's policies through the first year of his presidency.
Nixon was far more interested in foreign affairs than domestic policies, but he believed that voters tend to focus on their own financial condition and that economic conditions were a threat to his reelection. As part of his "New Federalism" philosophy, he proposed greater local autonomy in the allocation of domestic spending through grants to the states. These proposals were, for the most part, lost in the congressional budget process. However, Nixon gained political credit for advocating them. In 1970, Congress had granted the president the power to impose wage and price freezes, though the Democratic majorities, knowing Nixon had opposed such controls throughout his career, did not expect Nixon to actually use the authority. With inflation unresolved by August 1971, and an election year looming, Nixon convened a summit of his economic advisers at Camp David. Nixon's options were to limit fiscal and monetary expansionist policies that reduced unemployment or end the dollar's fixed exchange rate; Nixon's dilemma has been cited as an example of the Impossible trinity in international economics. He then announced temporary wage and price controls, allowed the dollar to float against other currencies, and ended the convertibility of the dollar into gold. Bowles points out,
by identifying himself with a policy whose purpose was inflation's defeat, Nixon made it difficult for Democratic opponents ... to criticize him. His opponents could offer no alternative policy that was either plausible or believable, since the one they favored was one they had designed but which the president had appropriated for himself.
Nixon's policies dampened inflation through 1972, although their aftereffects contributed to inflation during his second term and into the Ford administration. Nixon's decision to end the gold standard in the United States led to the collapse of the Bretton Woods system. According to Thomas Oatley, "the Bretton Woods system collapsed so that Nixon might win the 1972 presidential election."
After Nixon won re-election, inflation was returning. He reimposed price controls in June 1973. The price controls became unpopular with the public and businesspeople, who saw powerful labor unions as preferable to the price board bureaucracy. The controls produced food shortages, as meat disappeared from grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at a loss. Despite the failure to control inflation, controls were slowly ended, and on April 30, 1974, their statutory authorization lapsed.
==== Governmental initiatives and organization ====
Nixon advocated a "New Federalism", which would devolve power to state and local elected officials, though Congress was hostile to these ideas and enacted few of them. He eliminated the Cabinet-level United States Post Office Department, which in 1971 became the government-run United States Postal Service.
Nixon was a late supporter of the conservation movement. Environmental policy had not been a significant issue in the 1968 election, and the candidates were rarely asked for their views on the subject. Nixon broke new ground by discussing environmental policy in his State of the Union speech in 1970. He saw that the first Earth Day in April 1970 presaged a wave of voter interest on the subject, and sought to use that to his benefit; in June he announced the formation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). He relied on his domestic advisor John Ehrlichman, who favored protection of natural resources, to keep him "out of trouble on environmental issues." Other initiatives supported by Nixon included the Clean Air Act of 1970 and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the National Environmental Policy Act required environmental impact statements for many Federal projects. Nixon vetoed the Clean Water Act of 1972—objecting not to the policy goals of the legislation but to the amount of money to be spent on them, which he deemed excessive. After Congress overrode his veto, Nixon impounded the funds he deemed unjustifiable.
In 1971, Nixon proposed health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate, federalization of Medicaid for poor families with dependent minor children, and support for health maintenance organizations (HMOs). A limited HMO bill was enacted in 1973. In 1974, Nixon proposed more comprehensive health insurance reform—a private health insurance employer mandate and replacement of Medicaid by state-run health insurance plans available to all, with income-based premiums and cost sharing.
Nixon was concerned about the prevalence of domestic drug use in addition to drug use among American soldiers in Vietnam. He called for a war on drugs and pledged to cut off sources of supply abroad. He also increased funds for education and for rehabilitation facilities.
As one policy initiative, Nixon called for more money for sickle-cell research, treatment, and education in February 1971 and signed the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act on May 16, 1972. While Nixon called for increased spending on such high-profile items as sickle-cell disease and for a war on cancer, at the same time he sought to reduce overall spending at the National Institutes of Health.
==== Civil rights ====
The Nixon presidency witnessed the first large-scale integration of public schools in the South. Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationist Wallace and liberal Democrats, whose support of integration was alienating some Southern whites. Hopeful of doing well in the South in 1972, he sought to dispose of desegregation as a political issue before then. Soon after his inauguration, he appointed Vice President Agnew to lead a task force, which worked with local leaders—both white and black—to determine how to integrate local schools. Agnew had little interest in the work, and most of it was done by Labor Secretary George Shultz. Federal aid was available, and a meeting with President Nixon was a possible reward for compliant committees. By September 1970, less than ten percent of black children were attending segregated schools. By 1971, however, tensions over desegregation surfaced in Northern cities, with angry protests over the busing of children to schools outside their neighborhood to achieve racial balance. Nixon opposed busing personally but enforced court orders requiring its use.
Some scholars, such as James Morton Turner and John Isenberg, believe that Nixon, who had advocated for civil rights in his 1960 campaign, slowed down desegregation as president, appealing to the racial conservatism of Southern whites, who were angered by the civil rights movement. This, he hoped, would boost his election chances in 1972.
In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan in 1970—the first significant federal affirmative action program. He also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification. He also pushed for African American civil rights and economic equity through a concept known as black capitalism. Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, though feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election. Nevertheless, he appointed more women to administration positions than Lyndon Johnson had.
=== Space policy ===
After a nearly decade-long national effort, the United States won the race to land astronauts on the Moon on July 20, 1969, with the flight of Apollo 11. Nixon spoke with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin during their moonwalk. He called the conversation "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House".
Nixon was unwilling to keep funding for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) at the high level seen during the 1960s as NASA prepared to send men to the Moon. NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine drew up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a crewed expedition to Mars as early as 1981. Nixon rejected both proposals due to the expense. Nixon also canceled the Air Force Manned Orbital Laboratory program in 1969, because uncrewed spy satellites were a more cost-effective way to achieve the same reconnaissance objective. NASA cancelled the last three planned Apollo lunar missions to place Skylab in orbit more efficiently and free money up for the design and construction of the Space Shuttle.
On May 24, 1972, Nixon approved a five-year cooperative program between NASA and the Soviet space program, culminating in the 1975 joint mission of an American Apollo and Soviet Soyuz spacecraft linking in space.
=== Reelection, Watergate scandal, and resignation ===
==== 1972 presidential campaign ====
Nixon believed his rise to power had peaked at a moment of political realignment. The Democratic "Solid South" had long been a source of frustration to Republican ambitions. Goldwater had won several Southern states by opposing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 but had alienated more moderate Southerners. Nixon's efforts to gain Southern support in 1968 were diluted by Wallace's candidacy. Through his first term, he pursued a Southern Strategy with policies, such as his desegregation plans, that would be broadly acceptable among Southern whites, encouraging them to realign with the Republicans in the aftermath of the civil rights movement. He nominated two Southern conservatives, Clement Haynsworth and G. Harrold Carswell, to the Supreme Court, but neither was confirmed by the Senate.
Nixon entered his name on the New Hampshire primary ballot on January 5, 1972, effectively announcing his candidacy for reelection. Virtually assured the Republican nomination, the President had initially expected his Democratic opponent to be Massachusetts senator Ted Kennedy (brother of the late president), who was largely removed from contention after the July 1969 Chappaquiddick incident. Instead, Maine senator Edmund Muskie became the front runner, with South Dakota senator George McGovern in a close second place.
On June 10, McGovern won the California primary and secured the Democratic nomination. The following month, Nixon was renominated at the 1972 Republican National Convention. He dismissed the Democratic platform as cowardly and divisive. McGovern intended to sharply reduce defense spending and supported amnesty for draft evaders as well as abortion rights. With some of his supporters believed to be in favor of drug legalization, McGovern was perceived as standing for "amnesty, abortion and acid". McGovern was also damaged by his vacillating support for his original running mate, Missouri senator Thomas Eagleton, dumped from the ticket following revelations that he had received electroshock treatment for depression. Nixon was ahead in most polls for the entire election cycle, and was reelected on November 7, 1972, in one of the largest landslide election victories in American history. He defeated McGovern with over 60 percent of the popular vote, losing only in Massachusetts and D.C.
==== Watergate ====
The term Watergate has come to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration. Those activities included "dirty tricks", such as bugging the offices of political opponents, and the harassment of activist groups and political figures. The activities were brought to light after five men were caught breaking into the Democratic Party headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C., on June 17, 1972. The Washington Post picked up on the story; reporters Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward relied on an informant known as "Deep Throat"—later revealed to be Mark Felt, associate director at the FBI—to link the men to the Nixon administration. Nixon downplayed the scandal as mere politics, calling news articles biased and misleading. A series of revelations made it clear that the Committee to Re-elect President Nixon, and later the White House, were involved in attempts to sabotage the Democrats. Senior aides such as White House Counsel John Dean faced prosecution; in total 48 officials were convicted of wrongdoing.
In July 1973, White House aide Alexander Butterfield testified under oath to Congress that Nixon had a secret taping system and recorded his conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office. These tapes were subpoenaed by Watergate Special Counsel Archibald Cox; Nixon provided transcripts of the conversations but not the actual tapes, citing executive privilege. With the White House and Cox at loggerheads, Nixon had Cox fired in October in the "Saturday Night Massacre"; he was replaced by Leon Jaworski. In November, Nixon's lawyers revealed that a tape of conversations held in the White House on June 20, 1972, had an 18+1⁄2 minute gap. Rose Mary Woods, the President's personal secretary, claimed responsibility for the gap, saying that she had accidentally wiped the section while transcribing the tape, but her story was widely mocked. The gap, while not conclusive proof of wrongdoing by the President, cast doubt on Nixon's statement that he had been unaware of the cover-up.
Though Nixon lost much popular support, even from his own party, he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to stay in office. He admitted he had made mistakes but insisted he had no prior knowledge of the burglary, did not break any laws, and did not learn of the cover-up until early 1973. On October 10, 1973, Vice President Agnew resigned for reasons unrelated to Watergate: he was convicted on charges of bribery, tax evasion, and money laundering during his tenure as governor of Maryland. Believing his first choice, John Connally, would not be confirmed by Congress, Nixon chose Gerald Ford, Minority Leader of the House of Representatives, to replace Agnew. One researcher suggests Nixon effectively disengaged from his own administration after Ford was sworn in as vice president on December 6, 1973.
On November 17, 1973, during a televised question-and-answer session with 400 Associated Press managing editors, Nixon said, "People have got to know whether or not their president is a crook. Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got."
The legal battle over the tapes continued through early 1974, and in April Nixon announced the release of 1,200 pages of transcripts of White House conversations between himself and his aides. The House Judiciary Committee opened impeachment hearings against the President on May 9, 1974, which were televised on the major TV networks. These hearings culminated in votes for impeachment. On July 24, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the full tapes, not just selected transcripts, must be released.
The scandal grew to involve a slew of additional allegations against the President, ranging from the improper use of government agencies to accepting gifts in office and his personal finances and taxes; Nixon repeatedly stated his willingness to pay any outstanding taxes due, and later paid $465,000 (equivalent to $3 million in 2024) in back taxes in 1974.
Even with support diminished by the continuing series of revelations, Nixon hoped to fight the charges. But one of the new tapes, recorded soon after the break-in, demonstrated that Nixon had been told of the White House connection to the Watergate burglaries soon after they took place, and had approved plans to thwart the investigation. In a statement accompanying the release of what became known as the "Smoking Gun Tape" on August 5, 1974, Nixon accepted blame for misleading the country about when he had been told of White House involvement, stating that he had had a lapse of memory. Senate Minority Leader Hugh Scott, Senator Barry Goldwater, and House Minority Leader John Jacob Rhodes met with Nixon soon after. Rhodes told Nixon he faced certain impeachment in the House. Scott and Goldwater told the president that he had, at most, only 15 votes in his favor in the Senate, far fewer than the 34 needed to avoid removal from office.
==== Resignation ====
On August 8, 1974, facing a loss of political support and it being increasingly certain that he would be impeached and removed from office, Nixon addressed the nation on television, announcing that he would resign the presidency the following day, on August 9. His resignation speech was delivered from the Oval Office and was carried live on radio and television. Nixon said he was resigning for the good of the country and asked the nation to support the new president, Gerald Ford. Nixon went on to review the accomplishments of his presidency, especially in foreign policy. In defending his presidency, Nixon quoted "Citizenship in a Republic", a 1910 speech by Theodore Roosevelt:
Sometimes I have succeeded and sometimes I have failed, but always I have taken heart from what Theodore Roosevelt once said about the man in the arena, "whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood, who strives valiantly, who errs and comes up short again and again because there is not effort without error and shortcoming, but who does actually strive to do the deed, who knows the great enthusiasms, the great devotions, who spends himself in a worthy cause, who at the best knows in the end the triumphs of high achievements and who at the worst, if he fails, at least fails while daring greatly".
Nixon's speech received generally favorable initial responses from network commentators, with only Roger Mudd of CBS News criticizing it for failing to admit wrongdoing. Conrad Black, a Nixon biographer, labeled the resignation speech "a masterpiece", saying, "What was intended to be an unprecedented humiliation for any American president, Nixon converted into a virtual parliamentary acknowledgement of almost blameless insufficiency of legislative support to continue. He left while devoting half his address to a recitation of his accomplishments in office."
== Post-presidency (1974–1994) ==
=== Pardon and illness ===
Following his resignation, the Nixons flew to their home La Casa Pacifica in San Clemente, California. According to his biographer, Jonathan Aitken, "Nixon was a soul in torment" after his resignation. Congress had funded Nixon's transition costs, including some salary expenses, though reducing the appropriation from $850,000 to $200,000. With some of his staff still with him, Nixon was at his desk by 7:00 a.m. with little to do. His former press secretary, Ron Ziegler, sat with him alone for hours each day.
Nixon's resignation had not put an end to the desire among many to see him punished. The Ford White House considered a pardon of Nixon, even though it would be unpopular in the country. Nixon, contacted by Ford emissaries, was initially reluctant to accept the pardon, but then agreed to do so. Ford insisted on a statement of contrition, but Nixon felt he had not committed any crimes and should not have to issue such a document. Ford eventually agreed and, on September 8, 1974, he granted Nixon a "full, free, and absolute pardon", which ended any possibility of an indictment. Nixon then released a statement:
I was wrong in not acting more decisively and more forthrightly in dealing with Watergate, particularly when it reached the stage of judicial proceedings and grew from a political scandal into a national tragedy. No words can describe the depth of my regret and pain at the anguish my mistakes over Watergate have caused the nation and the presidency, a nation I so deeply love, and an institution I so greatly respect.
In October 1974, Nixon fell ill with phlebitis. Told by his doctors that he could either be operated on or die, a reluctant Nixon chose surgery, and President Ford visited him in the hospital. Nixon was under subpoena for the trial of three of his former aides—Dean, Haldeman, and John Ehrlichman—and The Washington Post, disbelieving his illness, printed a cartoon showing Nixon with a cast on the "wrong foot". Judge John Sirica excused Nixon's presence despite the defendants' objections. Congress instructed Ford to retain Nixon's presidential papers—beginning a three-decade legal battle over the documents that was eventually won by the former president and his estate. Nixon was in the hospital when the 1974 midterm elections were held, and Watergate and the pardon were contributing factors to the Republican loss of 49 seats in the House and four in the Senate.
=== Return to public life ===
In December 1974, Nixon began planning his comeback despite the considerable ill will against him in the country. He wrote in his diary, referring to himself and Pat,
So be it. We will see it through. We've had tough times before, and we can take the tougher ones that we will have to go through now. That is perhaps what we were made for—to be able to take punishment beyond what anyone in this office has had before, particularly after leaving office. This is a test of character, and we must not fail the test.
By early 1975, Nixon's health was improving. He maintained an office in a Coast Guard station 300 yards (270 m) from his home, at first taking a golf cart and later walking the route each day; he mainly worked on his memoirs. He had hoped to wait before writing his memoirs; the fact that his assets were being eaten away by expenses and lawyer fees compelled him to begin work quickly. He was handicapped in this work by the end of his transition allowance in February, which compelled him to part with many of his staff, including Ziegler. In August of that year, he met with British talk-show host and producer David Frost, who paid him $600,000 (equivalent to $3.5 million in 2024) for a series of sit-down interviews, filmed and aired in 1977. They began on the topic of foreign policy, recounting the leaders he had known, but the most remembered section of the interviews was that on Watergate. Nixon admitted he had "let down the country" and that "I brought myself down. I gave them a sword, and they stuck it in. And they twisted it with relish. And, I guess, if I'd been in their position, I'd have done the same thing." The interviews garnered 45–50 million viewers, becoming the most-watched program of its kind in television history.
The interviews helped improve Nixon's financial position—at one point in early 1975, he had had only $500 in the bank—as did the sale of his Key Biscayne property to a trust set up by wealthy friends of Nixon, such as Bebe Rebozo. In February 1976, Nixon visited China at the personal invitation of Mao. Nixon had wanted to return to China but chose to wait until after Ford's own visit in 1975. Nixon remained neutral in the close 1976 primary battle between Ford and Reagan. Ford won, but was defeated by Georgia governor Jimmy Carter in the general election. The Carter administration had little use for Nixon and blocked his planned trip to Australia, causing the government of Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser to withhold its official invitation.
In 1976, Nixon was disbarred by a New York State court for obstruction of justice in the Watergate affair. He chose not to present any defense. In early 1978, he visited the United Kingdom; there, he was shunned by American diplomats, most ministers of the James Callaghan government, and two former prime ministers, Harold Macmillan and Edward Heath. He was welcomed, however, by the Leader of the Opposition, Margaret Thatcher, and former prime ministers Lord Home and Sir Harold Wilson. Nixon addressed the Oxford Union regarding Watergate:
[Some people] felt that, on this matter that I had not handled it properly, and they were right. I screwed it up, and I paid the price.
=== Author and elder statesman ===
In 1978, Nixon published his memoirs, RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon, the first of nine books he was to author in his retirement. John A. Farrell deemed it one of the better presidential memoirs, candid and capturing its author's voice; he deemed its rise up the bestseller lists justified. Nixon visited the White House in 1979, invited by Carter for the state dinner for Chinese Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping. Carter had not wanted to invite Nixon, but Deng had said he would visit Nixon in California if the former president was not invited. Nixon had a private meeting with Deng and visited Beijing again in mid-1979.
On August 10, 1979, the Nixons purchased a 12‐room condominium occupying the seventh floor of 817 Fifth Avenue New York City after being rejected by two Manhattan co-ops. When the deposed Shah of Iran died in Egypt in July 1980, Nixon defied the State Department, which intended to send no U.S. representative, by attending the funeral. Though Nixon had no official credentials, as a former president, he was seen as the American presence at its former ally's funeral. Nixon supported Ronald Reagan for president in 1980, making television appearances portraying himself as, in biographer Stephen Ambrose's words, "the senior statesman above the fray". He wrote guest articles for many publications both during the campaign and after Reagan's victory. After 18 months in the New York City townhouse, Nixon and his wife moved in 1981 to Saddle River, New Jersey.
Throughout the 1980s, Nixon maintained an ambitious schedule of speaking engagements and writing, traveled, and met with many foreign leaders, especially those of Third World countries. He joined former presidents Ford and Carter as representatives of the United States at the funeral of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat. On a trip to the Middle East, Nixon made his views known regarding Saudi Arabia and Libya, which attracted significant U.S. media attention; The Washington Post ran stories on Nixon's "rehabilitation". Nixon visited the Soviet Union in 1986 and on his return sent President Reagan a lengthy memorandum containing foreign policy suggestions and his personal impressions of Soviet general secretary Mikhail Gorbachev. Following this trip, Nixon was ranked in a Gallup poll as one of the ten most admired men in the world.
In 1986, Nixon addressed a convention of newspaper publishers, impressing his audience with his tour d'horizon of the world. At the time, political pundit Elizabeth Drew wrote, "Even when he was wrong, Nixon still showed that he knew a great deal and had a capacious memory, as well as the capacity to speak with apparent authority, enough to impress people who had little regard for him in earlier times." Newsweek ran a story on "Nixon's comeback" with the headline "He's back".
On July 19, 1990, the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace in Yorba Linda, California opened as a private institution with the Nixons in attendance. They were joined by a large crowd of people, including Presidents Ford, Reagan, and George H. W. Bush, as well as their wives, Betty, Nancy, and Barbara. In January 1994, the former president founded the Nixon Center (today the Center for the National Interest), a Washington policy think tank and conference center.
Pat Nixon died on June 22, 1993, of emphysema and lung cancer. Her funeral services were held on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace. Former president Nixon was distraught throughout the interment and delivered a tribute to her inside the library building.
== Death and funeral ==
Nixon suffered a severe stroke on April 18, 1994, while preparing to eat dinner in his home at Park Ridge, New Jersey. A blood clot resulting from the atrial fibrillation he had suffered for many years had formed in his upper heart, broken off, and traveled to his brain. He was taken to NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital in Manhattan, initially alert but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg. Damage to the brain caused swelling (cerebral edema) and Nixon slipped into a deep coma. He died at 9:08 p.m. on April 22, 1994, with his daughters at his bedside. He was 81 years old.
Nixon's funeral took place on April 27, 1994, in Yorba Linda, California. Eulogists at the Nixon Library ceremony included President Bill Clinton, former secretary of state Henry Kissinger, Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole, California governor Pete Wilson, and the Reverend Billy Graham. Also in attendance were former presidents Ford, Carter, Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and their wives.
Richard Nixon was buried beside his wife Pat on the grounds of the Nixon Library. In keeping with his wishes, his funeral was not a full state funeral, though his body did lie in repose in the Nixon Library lobby from April 26 to the morning of the funeral service. Mourners waited in line for up to eight hours in chilly, wet weather to pay their respects. At its peak, the line to pass by Nixon's casket was three miles long with an estimated 42,000 people waiting.
John F. Stacks of Time magazine said of Nixon shortly after his death,
An outsized energy and determination drove him on to recover and rebuild after every self-created disaster that he faced. To reclaim a respected place in American public life after his resignation, he kept traveling and thinking and talking to the world's leaders ... and by the time Bill Clinton came to the White House [in 1993], Nixon had virtually cemented his role as an elder statesman. Clinton, whose wife served on the staff of the committee that voted to impeach Nixon, met openly with him and regularly sought his advice.
Tom Wicker of The New York Times noted that Nixon had been equalled only by Franklin Roosevelt in being five times nominated on a major party ticket and, quoting Nixon's 1962 farewell speech, wrote,
Richard Nixon's jowly, beard-shadowed face, the ski-jump nose and the widow's peak, the arms upstretched in the V-sign, had been so often pictured and caricatured, his presence had become such a familiar one in the land, he had been so often in the heat of controversy, that it was hard to realize the nation really would not "have Nixon to kick around anymore".
Ambrose said of the reaction to Nixon's death, "To everyone's amazement, except his, he's our beloved elder statesman."
Upon Nixon's death, the news coverage mentioned Watergate and the resignation, but much of the coverage was favorable to the former president. The Dallas Morning News stated, "History ultimately should show that despite his flaws, he was one of our most farsighted chief executives." This offended some; columnist Russell Baker complained of "a group conspiracy to grant him absolution". Cartoonist Jeff Koterba of the Omaha World-Herald depicted History before a blank canvas, his subject Nixon, as America looks on eagerly. The artist urges his audience to sit down; the work will take some time to complete, as "this portrait is a little more complicated than most". Hunter S. Thompson wrote a scathing piece denouncing Nixon for Rolling Stone, entitled "He Was a Crook" (which also appeared a month later in The Atlantic). In his article, Thompson described Nixon as "a political monster straight out of Grendel and a very dangerous enemy".
== Legacy ==
Historian and political scientist James MacGregor Burns asked of Nixon, "How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic president, so brilliant and so morally lacking?" Evaluations of his presidency have proven complex, contrasting his presidency's domestic and foreign policy successes with the acrimonious circumstances of his departure. According to Ambrose, "Nixon wanted to be judged by what he accomplished. What he will be remembered for is the nightmare he put the country through in his second term and for his resignation." Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional career, suggests, "He was remarkable among his congressional peers, a success story in a troubled era, one who steered a sensible anti-Communist course against the excess of McCarthy." Aitken feels that "Nixon, both as a man and as a statesman, has been excessively maligned for his faults and inadequately recognised for his virtues. Yet even in a spirit of historical revisionism, no simple verdict is possible."
Nixon saw his policies on Vietnam, China, and the Soviet Union as central to his place in history. Nixon's onetime opponent George McGovern commented in 1983, "President Nixon probably had a more practical approach to the two superpowers, China and the Soviet Union, than any other president since World War II ... With the exception of his inexcusable continuation of the war in Vietnam, Nixon really will get high marks in history." Political scientist Jussi Hanhimäki disagrees, saying that Nixon's diplomacy was merely a continuation of the Cold War policy of containment by diplomatic, rather than military, means. Historian Christopher Andrew concludes that "Nixon was a great statesman on the world stage as well as a shabby practitioner of electoral politics in the domestic arena. While the criminal farce of Watergate was in the making, Nixon's inspirational statesmanship was establishing new working relationships both with Communist China and with the Soviet Union."
Nixon's stance on domestic affairs has been credited with the passage and enforcement of environmental and regulatory legislation. In a 2011 paper on Nixon and the environment, historian Paul Charles Milazzo points to Nixon's creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and to his enforcement of legislation such as the 1973 Endangered Species Act, stating that "though unsought and unacknowledged, Richard Nixon's environmental legacy is secure". Nixon himself did not consider the environmental advances he made in office an important part of his legacy; some historians contend that his choices were driven more by political expediency than any strong environmentalism. Some historians say Nixon's Southern Strategy turned the Southern United States into a Republican stronghold, while others deem economic factors more important in the change. Throughout his career, Nixon moved his party away from the control of isolationists, and as a Congressman, he was a persuasive advocate of containing Soviet communism.
Historian Keith W. Olson has written that Nixon left a legacy of fundamental mistrust of government, rooted in Vietnam and Watergate. During the impeachment of Bill Clinton in 1998, both sides tried to use Nixon and Watergate to their advantage: Republicans suggested that Clinton's misconduct was comparable to Nixon's, while Democrats contended that Nixon's actions had been far more serious than Clinton's. For a time, there was a decrease in the power of the presidency as Congress passed restrictive legislation in the wake of Watergate. Olson suggests that legislation in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks restored the president's power.
According to his biographer Herbert Parmet, "Nixon's role was to steer the Republican party along a middle course, somewhere between the competitive impulses of the Rockefellers, the Goldwaters, and the Reagans."
A self-described "progressive conservative," Nixon presided over a number of activist governmental initiatives during the course of his presidency. As one speechwriter said of Nixon, "His heart was on the right, and his head was, with FDR, 'slightly left of center.'"
Commenting on Nixon's progressive conservative approach to government, one historian has argued that
Nixon's progressive conservatism gave his administration's policies a distinctive cast that defied easy categorization. Nixon worked hard to find a middle ground between the hyperactivism of the growth liberals JFK and LBJ and the sort of minimalist government championed by Barry Goldwater and the Republican right. Driven by his own predilections and by the object lesson of growth liberalism's implosion, Nixon moved as president to scale back government undertakings abroad and at home while still honoring basic international and domestic commitments.
== Personality and public image ==
Nixon's career was frequently dogged by his persona and the public's perception of it. Editorial cartoonists and comedians often exaggerated his appearance and mannerisms to the point where the line between the human and the caricature became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed with unshaven jowls, slumped shoulders, and a furrowed, sweaty brow.
Nixon had a complex personality, both very secretive and awkward, yet strikingly reflective about himself. He was inclined to distance himself from people and was formal in all aspects, wearing a coat and tie even when home alone. Nixon biographer Conrad Black described him as being "driven" though also "uneasy with himself in some ways". According to Black, Nixon
thought that he was doomed to be traduced, double-crossed, unjustly harassed, misunderstood, underappreciated, and subjected to the trials of Job, but that by the application of his mighty will, tenacity, and diligence, he would ultimately prevail.
Nixon sometimes drank alcohol to excess, especially in 1970. He was also prescribed sleeping pills. According to Ray Price, Nixon sometimes took them in together. Nixon also took dilantin, recommended by Jack Dreyfus. That medicine is usually prescribed to treat and prevent seizures, but in Nixon's case, it was for depression. His periodic overindulgences, especially during stressful times such as during Apollo 13, concerned Price and others, including then-advisor Ehrlichman and long-time valet Manolo Sanchez. Author David Owen deemed Nixon an alcoholic.
Biographer Elizabeth Drew summarized Nixon as a "smart, talented man, but most peculiar and haunted of presidents". In his account of the Nixon presidency, author Richard Reeves described Nixon as "a strange man of uncomfortable shyness, who functioned best alone with his thoughts". Nixon's presidency was doomed by his personality, Reeves argues:
He assumed the worst in people, and he brought out the worst in them ... He clung to the idea of being "tough". He thought that was what had brought him to the edge of greatness. But that was what betrayed him. He could not open himself to other men, and he could not open himself to greatness.
In October 1999, a volume of 1971 White House audio tapes was released, which contained multiple statements by Nixon deemed derogatory toward Jews. In one conversation with H. R. Haldeman, Nixon said that Washington was "full of Jews" and that "most Jews are disloyal", making exceptions for some of his top aides. He then added, "But, Bob, generally speaking, you can't trust the bastards. They turn on you. Am I wrong or right?" Elsewhere on the 1971 recordings, Nixon denies being antisemitic, saying, "If anybody who's been in this chair ever had reason to be antisemitic, I did ... And I'm not, you know what I mean?"
Nixon believed that putting distance between himself and other people was necessary for him as he advanced in his political career and became president. Even Bebe Rebozo, by some accounts his closest friend, did not call him by his first name. Nixon said of this,
Even with close friends, I don't believe in letting your hair down, confiding this and that and the other thing—saying, "Gee, I couldn't sleep ..." I believe you should keep your troubles to yourself. That's just the way I am. Some people are different. Some people think it's good therapy to sit with a close friend and, you know, just spill your guts ... [and] reveal their inner psyche—whether they were breast-fed or bottle-fed. Not me. No way.
When Nixon was told that most Americans felt they did not know him even at the end of his career, he replied, "Yeah, it's true. And it's not necessary for them to know."
== Books ==
Nixon, Richard M. (1960). Six Crises. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-00125-0.
Nixon, Richard M. (1978). RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-70741-5.
Nixon, Richard M. (1980). The Real War. Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd. ISBN 978-0-283-98650-5.
Nixon, Richard M. (1982). Leaders. Random House ISBN 978-0-446-51249-7.
Nixon, Richard M. (1984). Real Peace. Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd. ISBN 978-0-283-99076-2.
Nixon, Richard M. (1987). No More Vietnams. Arbor House Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87795-668-6.
Nixon, Richard M. (1988). 1999: Victory Without War. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-62712-6.
Nixon, Richard M. (1990). In the Arena: A Memoir of Victory, Defeat, and Renewal. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-72318-7.
Nixon, Richard M. (1992). Seize the Moment: America's Challenge in a One-Superpower World. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-74343-7.
Nixon, Richard M. (1994). Beyond Peace. Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-43323-1.
== See also ==
Cultural depictions of Richard Nixon
Electoral history of Richard Nixon
List of presidents of the United States
List of presidents of the United States by previous experience
Nixon, film, 1995
Presidential transition of Richard Nixon
Timeline of the Watergate scandal
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Print sources ===
=== Nixon Library ===
=== Other sources ===
== Further reading ==
Li, Victor (2018). Nixon in New York: How Wall Street Helped Richard Nixon Win the White House. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-1-68393-000-6.
Thomas, Evan (2015). Being Nixon: A Man Divided. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-8129-9536-7. OCLC 904756092.
== External links ==
=== Official websites ===
White House biography
Nixon Presidential Library and Museum
Richard Nixon Foundation
=== Media coverage ===
Richard Nixon collected news and commentary at The New York Times
Appearances on C-SPAN
"Life Portrait of Richard M. Nixon", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, November 19, 1999
=== Other ===
United States Congress. "Richard Nixon (id: N000116)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
Essays on Richard Nixon, each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
Richard Nixon: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
"The Presidents: Nixon" Archived November 13, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, an American Experience documentary
Works by or about Richard Nixon at the Internet Archive
Works by Richard Nixon at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Richard Nixon Personal Manuscripts
Richard Nixon at IMDb
Works by Richard Nixon at Project Gutenberg |
'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrarium_of_Giovanni_Dondi_dall%27Orologio#:~:text=The%20Astrarium%20had%20seven%20faces,to%20be%20built%20in%20Europe.' | Astrarium of Giovanni Dondi dall'Orologio | The Astrarium of Giovanni Dondi dall'Orologio was a complex astronomical clock built between 1348 and 1364 in Padova, Italy, by the doctor and clock-maker Giovanni Dondi dall'Orologio. The Astrarium had seven faces and 107 moving parts; it showed the positions of the Sun, the Moon and the five planets then known, as well as religious feast days. It was one of the first mechanical clocks to be built in Europe.
== The Tractatus astrarii ==
Dondi documented the Astrarium in detail in the Tractatus astrarii, which is the earliest complete surviving description of its kind; the St Albans abbey clock designed by Richard of Wallingford predates it, but survives only as fragments (reconstructed by John North). In the introduction, Dondi writes that his machine was built in accordance with the 13th-century Theorica planetarum of Campano di Novara, and to demonstrate the validity of the descriptions of the motion of heavenly bodies of Aristotle and Avicenna. The Tractatus survives in twelve manuscript sources. The autograph in the Biblioteca Capitolare of Padova (MS. D39) and a copy of it, also in Padova, are certainly the work of Dondi. The other sources are rewritten versions of the autograph, to which Dondi's contribution is as yet unclear. The autograph manuscript was published in 1987 in a critical edition with colour facsimile and French translation by Poulle as the first volume of the Opera omnia of Jacopo and Giovanni Dondi.
== Description ==
The astrarium was considered to be a marvel of its day. Giovanni Manzini of Pavia writes (in 1388) that it is a work "full of artifice, worked on and perfected by your hands and carved with a skill never attained by the expert hand of any craftsman. I conclude that there was never invented an artifice so excellent and marvelous and of such genius".
Dondi writes that he obtained the idea of an astrarium from the Theorica Planetarum of Giovanni Campano da Novara, who describes the construction of the equatorium.
The astrarium was primarily a clockwork equatorium with astrolabe and calendar dials, and indicators for the Sun, Moon, and planets. It provided a continuous display of the major elements of the Solar System and of the legal, religious, and civil calendars of the day. Dondi's intention was that it would help people's understanding of astronomical and astrological concepts. (Astrology was then considered a subject worthy of study by the intellectual elite and was taken reasonably seriously.)
The astrarium stood about 1 metre high, and consisted of a seven-sided brass or iron framework resting on 7 decorative paw-shaped feet. The lower section provided a 24-hour dial and a large calendar drum, showing the fixed feasts of the church, the movable feasts, and the position in the zodiac of the Moon's ascending node. The upper section contained 7 dials, each about 30 cm in diameter, showing the positional data for the Primum Mobile, Venus, Mercury, the Moon, Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars.
Dondi constructed the clock, with its 107 gear wheels and pinions, entirely by hand. No screws were used, and every part was held together by over 300 tapering pins and wedges, with some parts being soldered. Most of the wheels have triangular shaped teeth, although some are blunt-nosed. In some cases, Dondi used near-elliptical wheels, in order to more accurately model the irregular motions of the planets (using the Ptolemaic epicycles rather than the ellipses as later worked out by Johannes Kepler). On some of these wheels, the teeth varied in size and spacing along the wheel's periphery. To indicate dimensions in his descriptions, Dondi used units such as the width of a goose quill, the thickness of a blade of a knife, or the breadth of a man's thumb.
For data on the motion of the planets, he consulted the Alfonsine tables, compiled in about 1272.
=== The clock movement ===
The clock movement had a balance wheel regulated to beat at the rate of 2 seconds. Its simple wheel train turned a dial marked on the margin with a scale of 24 equal hours and 10-minute intervals. The dial rotated anticlockwise against a fixed pointer, showing mean time, and could be adjusted if necessary by intervals of 10 minutes of time by sliding out a pinion of 12 teeth that meshed with the 144 teeth of the main dial. On each side of the clock dial was a fixed plate or 'tabula orientii', graduated with months and days of the Julian calendar for the purpose of determining the times of the rising and setting of the mean sun for the latitude of Padova (about 45°deg N). At the time the clock was made, the dates of the solstices were 13 June and 13 December (Old style or Julian Calendar).
=== The calendar wheel ===
The annual calendar wheel or drum in the lower section was about 40 cm across. This drove the calendar of movable feasts, and the dials above. Around the outside of the wheel was a broad band divided into 365 strips, each containing numbers that indicated the length of daylight, the dominical letter, the name of the saint for that day, and the day of the month. Alternate months were gilded and silvered, and the engraved letters filled alternately with red and blue enamel. Dondi didn't introduce any indications or allowances for leap year - he recommended stopping the clock for the entire day.
=== The Primum Mobile dial ===
Directly above the 24-hour dial is the dial of the Primum Mobile, so called because it reproduces the diurnal motion of the stars and the annual motion of the Sun against the background of stars. It is basically an astrolabe drawn using a south polar projection, with a fixed tablet and a rete of special design that rotated once in a sidereal day. The rete was provided with 365 teeth, but was driven by a wheel with 61 teeth which made 6 turns in 24 hours. Thus the rete rotated once in 365/366 of a mean solar day, which equated 366 successive meridian transits of the vernal equinox with 365 similar transits of the sun. Dondi realised that his approximations didn't correspond with the exact length of the solar year, and recommended stopping the clock occasionally so that it could be adjusted.
=== Planetary dials ===
Each of the 'planetary' dials used complex clockwork to produce reasonably accurate models of the planets' motion. These agreed reasonably well both with Ptolemaic theory and with observations. For example, Dondi's dial for Mercury uses a number of intermediate wheels, including: a wheel with 146 teeth, two oval wheels with 24 irregularly shaped teeth that meshed together, a wheel with 63 internal (facing inwards) teeth that meshed with a 20 tooth pinion. The 63-tooth wheel made one rotation a year, non-uniformly because of the oval driving wheels, and made the main indicator wheel rotate through 63/20 × 12 signs of the zodiac each year. This is equivalent to 37 signs and 24°, a good approximation to the value of 37 signs and 24° 43' 23" required by theory.
== Later history ==
In 1381 Dondi presented his clock to Gian Galeazzo Visconti, duke of Milan, who installed it in the library of his castle in Pavia. It remained there until at least 1485. It may have been seen and drawn by Leonardo da Vinci. The fate of the clock is unknown.
Because Dondi described most of the more complex components of his clock in his manuscripts in considerable detail, it has been possible for modern clockmakers to build convincing - if sometimes speculative - reconstructions. Seven such reconstructions were built by Peter Haward of Thwaites and Reed, London; examples of these can be found in the Smithsonian Institution and The Time Museum Illinois. There is also a reconstruction in the Musée international d'horologerie in La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland, with the signature of Luigi Pippa.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Henry C. King, John R. Millburn (1978). Geared to the Stars: the evolution of planetariums, orreries, and astronomical clocks. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Granville Hugh Baillie, Herbert Alan Lloyd, Francis Allan Burnett Ward (ed.) (1974). The planetarium of Giovanni de Dondi, citizen of Padua: A manuscript of 1397, translated by G. H. Baillie, with additional material from another Dondi manuscript translated by H. Alan LLoyd. London: The Antiquarian Horological Society.
Catherine Cardinal, Jean-Michel Piguet (1999). Catalogue d'oeuvres choisies. La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland: Institut l'homme et le temps. Translated as:
——— , Patrick and Carol Collins (trans.) (2002). Catalogue of selected pieces. La Chaux-de-Fonds: Institut l'homme et le temps. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miya_Masaoka | Miya Masaoka | Miya Masaoka (born 1958, Washington, D.C.) is an American composer, musician, and sound artist active in the field of contemporary classical music and experimental music. Her work encompasses contemporary classical composition, improvisation, electroacoustic music, inter-disciplinary sound art, sound installation, traditional Japanese instruments, and performance art. She is based in New York City.
Masaoka often performs on a 21-string Japanese koto (musical instrument), which she extends with software processing, string preparations, and bowing. She has created performance works and installations incorporating plants, live insects, and sensor technology. Her full-length ballet was performed at the Venice Biennale 2004. She has been awarded the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Fellowship (2021), the Doris Duke Award (2013) and the Herb Alpert Award (2004), and a Fulbright Fellowship for advanced research for Noh, gagaku and the ichi gen kin. She is an associate professor in the MFA Visual Arts Department at Columbia University, and the director of the MFA Sound Art Program.
== Early life and education ==
Masaoka began studying classical music at eight years old. In her early 20s, she moved to Paris, France, and upon returning to the US, she enrolled at San Francisco State University, and received her BA in Music, magna cum laude, where she studied with Wayne Peterson and Eric Moe. She holds an MA from Mills College where she received the Faculty Award in Music Composition. Her teachers included Alvin Curran, Maryanne Amacher and David Tudor.
== Biography ==
Masaoka's work spans many genres and media. She has created works for voice, orchestra, installations, electronics and film shorts. She has sewn and soldered handmade responsive garments (LED KIMONO) and mapped the movement of insects and response of plants and brain activity to sound (Pieces For Plants, The Sound of Naked Men, Thinking Sounds).
Her works have been commissioned and premiered by Bang on a Can, So Percussion, Either/Or, Kathleen Supove, Joan Jeanrenaud, SF Sound, Volti, Rova Saxophone Quartet, Alonzo King’s Ballet, The Del Sol String Quartet and others. Her orchestral work “Other Mountain” was selected for a reading by JCOI Earshot for the La Jolla Symphony 2013.
She founded and directed the San Francisco Gagaku Society (1989-1996) under the tutelage of Master Suenobu Togi, a former Japanese Imperial Court musician who traced his gagaku lineage more than 1000 years to the Tang Dynasty.
Her love of nature and resonant outdoor space led her to record the migrating birds in the deep and naturally resonant canyons near the San Diego Airport, resulting in the work “For Birds, Planes and Cello,” written for Joan Jeanrenaud, formerly of Kronos Quartet. “While I Was Walking, I Heard a Sound” is scored for 120 singers, spatialized in balconies of the concert hall. During one movement, three choirs and nine opera singers are making bird calls and environmental sounds.
As a kotoist, she remains active in improvisation and has performed and recorded with Pharoah Sanders, Pauline Oliveros, Gerry Hemingway, Jon Rose, Fred Frith, Larry Ochs and Maybe Monday, Steve Coleman, Anthony Braxton, Reggie Workman, Dr. L. Subramaniam, Andrew Cyrille, George E. Lewis, Jin Hi Kim, Susie Ibarra, Vijay Iyer, Myra Melford, Zeena Parkins, Toshiko Akiyoshi, William Parker, Robert Dick, Lukas Ligeti, Earl Howard, Henry Brant and many others.
Masaoka describes herself, saying, “I am deeply moved by the sounds and kinetic energy of the natural world. People, history, memory, this geography and soundscape of nature and culture --from our human heart beat to the rhythms of the moon and oceans-- how infinitely complex yet so fundamental.”
She initiated and founded the San Francisco Electronic Music Festival in 1999.
In 2004, Masaoka received an Alpert Award in the Arts, and she previously was given a National Endowment for the Arts and a Wallace Alexander Gerbode Award.
The New York Times describes her solo performances as “exploring the extremes of her instrument,” and The Wire describes her own compositions as “magnificent…virtuosic…essential music…”
She has been a faculty member at the Milton Avery Graduate Program at Bard College in Music/Sound since 2002, and has taught music composition at NYU. She received the Doris Duke Performing Artist Award in 2013, and a Fulbright Scholarship for Japan, 2016.
== Works ==
Symphony orchestra
Other Mountain (2013)
Creative Orchestra
What is the Difference Between Stripping and Playing the Violin? (2 vlns, elec. bass, acoustic bass, elec. gtr, Asian instruments, turntable, electronics, saxophones, 2 drummers) (1997)
Off a Craggy Cliff, 2 large telematic ensembles (non-specific instrumentation) (2009)
Jagged Pyramid, large ensemble (non-specific instrumentation) (2009)
Choral works
While I Was Walking, I Heard a Sound…” 3 a cappella choirs, 9 soloists (2003)
Large ensemble: 7 or more players
Twenty Four Thousand Years is Forever, chamber orchestra and tape; 2 shengs, 2 saxophones, clarinet, percussion, 2 violins, cello, bass, koto (1997)
Dark Passages, a multi media oratorio, readers, string quartet, Buddhist chanters, actors, projected slides, video (1998)
It Creeps Along, clarinet, cello, guitar, percussion, bass, piano, Laser Koto (gestural controller) (2000)
What is the Sound of Naked Asian Men?, 8 musicians and streaming brain wave data, video projection (2001)
Chironomy, 5 players in 2 groups. clarinet, vocalist, synthesizer in group 1, 2 computers in Group 2, streaming audio and projected video of children's hands gesturing (2006)
Pieces for Plants, plants, EEG sensors, computer, (plant with sensors on leaves; data response is interpreted through sound (2007)
The Long Road, string quartet, percussion, koto, analog modular synthesis (2013)
Works for 2-6 players
Spirit of Goze, taiko, piano, koto (1990)
Ancient Art, tabla, flute, cello, 13 str koto (1991)
For Sho, Bassoon and Koto (1994)
The Wanderer and the Firefly; five hichi ricki and snare drum (1994)
Butterfly Logic, 4 percussionists, amplified metal percussion (2008)
LED Kimono, electronics, reader, dancer, custom designed and built responsive wearable electronics (2009)
Swimming Through Madness, duo 13 str. kotos (2010)
Warsaw, violin, cello, 2 vocalists, video projections, koto (2011)
Stemming, 1-4 players. Tuning forks, multi channel speakers (2011)
The Dust and the Noise, piano, percussion, violin, cello (2013)
Survival, string quartet (2013)
The Clattering of Life, string quartet and improvising trio (2013)
Tilt, string quartet #2 (2015)
Solo
Topaz Refractions, 21 str koto (1990)
Unearthed/Unbound, 21 str koto (1992)
Tripped, clarinet (1994)
Ritual for Giant Hissing Madagascar Cockroaches, performer, laser beams, interactive software, cockroaches. (Roaches’ movement interrupts sensors triggering audio samples of their hissing sounds) (1995-98)
Three Sounds of Tea, koto and electronics (1998)
Bee Project #1, koto, violin, percussion and live, amplified bees projected video (1996)
Music For Mouths, 4 saxophones (1999)
For Birds, Planes and Cello, cello, field recording (tape) (2004)
Things in an Open Field, Laser Koto and electronics (2006)
Balls, piano, Disclavier, ping-pong balls (2007)
A Crack in Your Thoughts, koto and electronics (2012)
Untitled, Bass solo (2015)
For dance
Clytemnestra, solo koto with metal, paper preparations (1993)
Koto, a full-length ballet, koto and tape (2004)
Installations/Exhibitions
The Black Room, collaboration with poet Richard Oyama…(1988)
Koto in the Sky, Interactive installation, with lasers beamed across two buildings over an alley triggered with broomsticks from fire escapes (2000)
Pieces for Plants #5, an interactive sound installation for houseplant, electrodes, computer and audience interaction (2001)
Inner Koto, Multi Channel sound installation, The Kitchen, NYC, The Winter Olympics, Torino, Italy (group show) (2005-7)
Between Thought and Sound: Graphic Notation in Contemporary Art, Group Show (2007)
Minetta Creek, Judson Church, NYC, multi-channel sound (2008)
Partials of Sound, of Light, Multi channel sound installation (2013–14)
== Discography ==
Portrait recordings
Compositions Improvisations (1994, Asian Improv Records) (debut solo CD with James Newton, Frank Holder)
Monk's Japanese Folksong (1998, Dizim) (Miya Masaoka Trio with Andrew Cyrille, Reggie Workman)
What is the Difference Between Stripping and Playing the Violin? (1998, Victo) The Masaoka Orchestra, Masaoka conducts; Kei Yamashita, Jeff Lukas, Lee Yen, Carla Kihlstedt, Liberty Ellman, India Cooke, Francis Wong, Hafez Hadirzadeh, Toyoji Tomita, Robbie Kauker, Sciobhan Brooks, Glen Horiuchi, Vijay Iyer, George E. Lewis, Trevor Dunn, Mark Izu, Liu Qi Chao, Anthony Brown, Elliot Humberto Kavee, Thomas Day, Patty Liu, DJ Mariko + others
For Birds, Planes and Cello (2004, Solitary B) Composed by Masaoka for Joan Jeanrenaud
While I Was Walking, I Heard a Sound… (2004, Solitary B) (for three a cappella choirs and 9 soloists spatialized in balconies with 120 singers, Volti, San Francisco Choral Society, Piedmont Eastbay Children's Choir) Amy X Neuburg, Randall Wong + others
Collaborations
Crepuscular Music (1996, Rastascan) (as a trio with Gino Robair, Tom Nunn)
Séance (1996, VEX) (as a trio with Henry Kaiser, Danielle DeGruttola)
Sliding (1998, Noise Asia) (duets with Jon Rose)
The Usual Turmoil (1998, Music and Arts) (duets with George E. Lewis)
Guerrilla Mosaics (1999, 482 Music) (as a trio with John Butcher, Gino Robair)
Saturn's Finger (1999, Buzz Records) (as a trio with Fred Frith, Larry Ochs)
Digital Wildlife (2000, Winter + Winter) (as a trio with Fred Frith Larry Ochs)
Illuminations (2003, Rastascan Records) (as a trio with Peter Kowald, Gino Robair)
Klang. Farbe. Melodie (2004, 482 Music) (as a quartet with Biggi Vinkeloe, George Cremaschi, Gino Robair)
Fly, Fly, Fly (2004, Intakt Records) (as a trio with Larry Ochs, Joan Jeanrenaud)
Unsquare (Intakt 2008) Maybe Monday: Fred Frith, Larry Ochs, Carla Kihlstedt, Zeena Parkins, Ikue Mori and Gerry Hemingway
Duets with Accordion and Koto (2008, Deep Listening) (duets with Pauline Oliveros)
Spiller Alley (2008, RogueArt) (as a trio with Larry Ochs, Peggy Lee)
Masaoka, Audrey Chen, Kenta Nagai, Hans Grusel(2009, Resipiscent)
Humeurs (2013, RogueArt) (As the quartet East West Collective with Didier Petit, Sylvain Kasaap, Larry Ochs, Xu Fengxia)
== As a performer ==
With Steve Coleman
Myths, Modes and Means, Mystic Rhythm Society (BMG/RCA 1996)
With Lisle Ellis
What We Live (Black Saint 1996)
With Toshiko Akiyoshi
Suite for Koto and Jazz Orchestra (BMG, 1997. The work was composed for Miya Masaoka)
With Ben Goldberg
Twelve Minor (Avant 1998)
With Dr. L. Subramaniam
Global Fusion (Erato 1999)
With John Ingle, Dan Joseph
Trancepatterns (Dendroica Music 2000)
With Christian Wolff
Burdocks (Tzadik 2001)
With Glen Horiuchi
Legends and Legacies (Asian Improv Records 2005)
With Alex Cline
Cloud Plate (Cryptogramophone 2005)
With George Lewis
Sequel (for Lester Bowie) (Intakt), 2006)
With David Toop
Sound Body (samadhisound 2007)
With Earl Howard, Granular Modality (2012, New World Records)"
== In compilation ==
Tom Djll; Tribute to Sun Ra, Rastascan 1995
Radim Zenkl; Strings and Wings, Shanachie 1996
Sounds Like1996: Music By Asian American Artists, Innocent Eyes + Lenses. 1996
Halleluia Anyway: Tribute to Tom Cora. Tzadik 1999
Azadi! RAWA, Fire Museum + Electro Motive Records 2000
President’s Breakfast III C. Disc Lexia Records 2001
soundCd no. 1, San Pedro Schindler House. Curated by Cindy Bernard, SASSAS 2001
Music Overheard. Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston, Curated by Bhob Rainey and Kenneth Goldsmith. Excerpt of “Ritual,” 2006
With Fred Frith and Maybe Monday
Digital Wildlife (Winter & Winter, 2002)
Unsquare (Intakt, 2008)
== Films ==
1999 – L. Subramaniam: Violin From the Heart. Directed by Jean Henri Meunier. (Includes a scene with Masaoka performing with L. Subramaniam.)
2010 – The Reach of Resonance. Directed by Steve Elkins.
== See also ==
Koto
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Zorn, John, ed. (2000). Arcana: Musicians on Music. New York: Granary Books/Hips Road. ISBN 1-887123-27-X.
Garrett, Charles Hiroshi, ed. (2013). The Grove Dictionary of American Music (Miya Masaoka). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195314281.
Buzzarte, Monique, ed., Bickley, Tom, ed (2012). Anthology of Essays on Deep Listening. Deep Listening Institute. ISBN 1889471186, ISBN 978-1889471181. p 65
Sewell, Stacey, (2009). Making My Skin Crawl: Representations and Mediations of the Body in Miya Masaoka’s Ritual, Interspecies Collaboration with Giant Madagascar Hissing Cockroaches. Radical Musicology, Vol. 4. ISSN 1751-7788
Oteri, Frank J., (June 1, 2014). Miya Masaoka: Social and Sonic Relationships. NewMusicBox (a publication of New Music USA)
== External links ==
Official site
Miya Masaoka biography from the Other Minds festival
Miya Masaoka page on Asian Improv
Miya Masaoka page on The Bay Improviser (incl. sound samples)
Golden, Barbara. "Conversation with Miya Masaoka." eContact! 12.2 — Interviews (2) (April 2010). Montréal: CEC. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naughty_Dog#:~:text=Ballard%20that%20he%20was%20harassed,vice%20presidents%20in%20his%20place. | Naughty Dog | Naughty Dog, LLC (formerly JAM Software, Inc.) is an American first-party video game developer based in Santa Monica, California. Founded by Andy Gavin and Jason Rubin in 1984, the studio was acquired by Sony Computer Entertainment in 2001. Gavin and Rubin produced a sequence of progressively more successful games, including Rings of Power and Way of the Warrior in the early 1990s. The latter game prompted Universal Interactive Studios to sign the duo to a three-title contract and fund the expansion of the company.
After designer and producer Mark Cerny convinced Naughty Dog to create a character-based platform game that would use the 3D capabilities of the new systems, Naughty Dog created Crash Bandicoot for the PlayStation in 1996. Naughty Dog developed three Crash Bandicoot games over the next several years. After developing Crash Team Racing, the company began working on Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy for the PlayStation 2.
In 2004, Rubin, who had become the company's president, left the company to work on a new project, The Iron Saint. In addition to their inhouse game team, Naughty Dog is also home to the ICE Team, one of PlayStation Studios's central technology groups. The company's first PlayStation 3 game, Uncharted: Drake's Fortune, was released in 2007, followed by several sequels and spin-off titles. This lasted until Naughty Dog announced a new intellectual property for the PlayStation 3, The Last of Us, which was in development by a secondary team at the studio and released to critical acclaim in 2013 which spawned a franchise. The Last of Us Part II was released for the PlayStation 4 in 2020 to similar acclaim. The studio is developing Intergalactic: The Heretic Prophet for the PlayStation 5.
== History ==
=== As an independent studio (1984–2001) ===
Jason Rubin and Andy Gavin met as pre-teens in 1982 at a weekend Hebrew school in Virginia. After they discovered a mutual interest in computers and video games, they began regularly discussing programming, game development, and game piracy during class. Having experimented with Lisp and C++, Rubin and Gavin teamed up with a friend, Mike Goyet, and founded JAM Software in 1984. The acronym "JAM" stood for "Jason, Andy and Mike"; however, when Goyet became uninterested in the work and did not contribute to JAM's operations, Rubin and Gavin bought back his share of the company (about US$100) within months and the acronym was redefined as "Jason and Andy's Magic". Rubin and Gavin chose to create software for the Apple II and decided to create a skiing game for their second title. During production of the game, Gavin accidentally copied bootleg games over the only copy of the skiing game they had. Rubin then created a new skiing game called Ski Crazed (originally titled Ski Stud) within the weekend. The game played slowly, but Gavin reprogrammed the game to play quicker. Later, the game was gathered and published by Baudville, who bought the game from Jam Software for $250. Ski Crazed sold more than 1,000 copies. Rubin and Gavin created an Apple IIGS graphic adventure game titled Dream Zone, which was released in 1988 and ported to the Atari ST, Amiga and PCs.
In 1989, Rubin and Gavin released a game titled Keef the Thief, which was published by Electronic Arts for the Apple IIGS, Amiga and PCs. To make a fresh start and to dissolve their relationship with Baudville, Rubin and Gavin renamed Jam Software as Naughty Dog on September 9, 1989. Naughty Dog also created and developed Rings of Power, which was published by Electronic Arts for the Sega Genesis in 1991. Rubin and Gavin were joined on the title by programmer Vijay Pande, who would later become better known for orchestrating the distributed computing disease researching project known as Folding@home at Stanford University.
In 1994, Rubin and Gavin produced the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer title Way of the Warrior and presented it to Mark Cerny of Universal Interactive Studios. Cerny was pleased with Way of the Warrior and signed Naughty Dog on to Universal Interactive Studios for three additional games. Rubin and Gavin devised a plan to create a three-dimensional action-platform game. Because the player would be forced to constantly look at the character's rear, the game was jokingly codenamed "Sonic's Ass Game".
Production of the game began in 1994, during which Naughty Dog expanded its number of employees and invented a development tool called Game Oriented Object Lisp, to create the characters and gameplay. Cartoonists Charles Zembillas and Joe Pearson were recruited to create the characters of the game, which resulted in the titular character Crash Bandicoot. After 14 months of development, the game was shown to Sony Computer Entertainment, who then signed on to publish the game. Crash Bandicoot was shown to the public for the first time at E3 and went on to become one of the highest-selling titles for the PlayStation console, selling over 6.8 million copies.
Naughty Dog continued to develop two more Crash Bandicoot games, with a spin-off Crash Team Racing kart racing game.
=== Under Sony ownership (2001–present) ===
Sony bought Naughty Dog and made them a first-party studio in 2001. According to Gavin in 2025, the primary reason Naughty Dog sought a buyer was due to the skyrocketing costs of AAA video game development from their own pockets; their first games in the 1980s had had budgets of around $50,000, while Crash Bandicoot had risen to $1.5 million. Gavin said the acquisition by Sony gave them the stability they needed to continue development.
As Sony, Naughty Dog first developed the first game of the Jak and Daxter series. The Jak and Daxter games met similar success as the Crash Bandicoot games. During the development of Jak 3 and Jak X: Combat Racing games, Rubin and Gavin slowly transitioned Evan Wells and Stephen White to become co-presidents of Naughty Dog by the time the founders left the studio. White was replaced by Christophe Balestra after a year.
In 2007, Naughty Dog released the Uncharted series, and made their first approach to realistic worlds and characters, in contrast to their Crash Bandicoot and Jak and Daxter series, which featured fantastical worlds set in a fictional setting. The Uncharted franchise has been praised for its cinematic quality and technical proficiency, and has sold over 41 million copies worldwide as of December 2017.
During the 2011 Spike TV Video Game Awards, Naughty Dog unveiled a new intellectual property, The Last of Us, described as a "post-apocalyptic third-person action-adventure game", following the plight of a teenage girl, Ellie, and her adult protector, Joel, in a post-apocalyptic United States overrun with humans infected with a disease reminiscent of the infection caused by Cordyceps unilateralis. The Last of Us received universal acclaim upon release. In 2012 and 2013, Naughty Dog teamed with Mass Media Inc. to release the Jak and Daxter Collection. It contains high-definition ports of the original PlayStation 2 trilogy and was released for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita respectively. In May 2013, Naughty Dog confirmed it will keep its existing in-house engine used in Uncharted and The Last of Us for the PlayStation 4.
On November 23, 2013, Corrinne Yu, principal engine architect at Microsoft's Halo 4 developer 343 Industries, announced that she had joined Naughty Dog. On December 7, 2013, during the first edition of Spike's VGX award show, Naughty Dog won the Studio of the Year award for its work on The Last of Us. On March 4, 2014, Uncharted lead writer Amy Hennig left the studio, with Uncharted 3 director Justin Richmond and The Last of Us lead artist Nate Wells leaving soon after. Later, it was revealed that The Last of Us would be released on the PlayStation 4 as a remastered version.
In March 2017, Balestra announced that he would retire his role as co-president on April 3, 2017, after working at the company for fifteen years. Evan Wells remains in his role as president. In September 2017, game director Bruce Straley announced his departure from Naughty Dog, stating that he "found [his] energy focusing in other directions" following a sabbatical. Creative director Neil Druckmann was promoted to vice president in March 2018.
In October 2017, former environment artist David Ballard claimed that he suffered a mental breakdown after experiencing sexual harassment by a senior team member while working at Naughty Dog in late 2015, stating that he informed PlayStation's HR department and the following day was terminated from his position and offered $20,000 to remain silent regarding the allegations, which he declined. Naughty Dog responded to the allegations with a statement declaring that it had "not found any evidence of having received allegations from Mr. Ballard that he was harassed in any way".
Neil Druckmann was promoted to co-president alongside Evan Wells on December 4, 2020; Alison Mori, formerly the director of operations, and Christian Gyrling, the former co-director of programming, were promoted to co-vice presidents in his place. On October 4, 2021, director of communications Arne Meyer announced that he had been promoted to co-vice president. In July 2022, Josh Scherr announced his departure from Naughty Dog after 21 years with the company. In July 2023, Wells announced he would retire from the studio by the year's end. Simultaneously, Druckmann became head of creative, with Mori promoted to studio manager and head of operations, Meyer to head of culture and communications, and Gyrling to head of technology. The leadership team was expanded further, with Erick Pangilinan and Jeremy Yates becoming co-heads of the art departments, and Anthony Newman to head of production and design. Gyrling departed the company after 17 years in November 2023, replaced as head of technology by Travis McIntosh.
== Games developed ==
As a subsidiary of Sony Computer Entertainment, Naughty Dog is best known for developing games for the PlayStation consoles, including the Crash Bandicoot series for the original PlayStation, Jak and Daxter on PlayStation 2, and Uncharted and The Last of Us on PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, and PlayStation 5. Before this, they also developed games including Dream Zone, Keef the Thief, Rings of Power and Way of the Warrior.
== Development philosophy ==
Naughty Dog is known for its unique way of handling game development. The studio does not have a producer in either of their teams and relies on minimal middle-management.
=== ICE Team ===
Naughty Dog is home to the ICE Team, one of Sony's World Wide Studios central technology groups. The term ICE originally stood for Initiative for a Common Engine, which describes the original purpose of the studio. The ICE Team focuses on creating core graphics technologies for Sony's worldwide first party published titles, including low level game engine components, graphics processing pipelines, supporting tools, and graphics profiling and debugging tools. The ICE Team also supports third party developers with a suite of engine components, and a graphics analysis, profiling, and debugging tool for the RSX. Both enable developers to get better performance out of PlayStation hardware.
== Awards ==
Naughty Dog won the Studio of the Year award at the 2013 VGX, the 2013 Golden Joystick Awards, and the 2020 Golden Joystick Awards.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glipodes_bordoni | Glipodes bordoni | Cothurus bordoni is a species of beetle in the genus Cothurus. It was described in 1987.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petra_V%C4%83ideanu | Petra Văideanu | Petra Văideanu (née Mihalache; born August 24, 1965) is a retired Romanian heptathlete.
She finished 22nd at the 1991 World Championships, second at the 1992 European Indoor Championships, sixth at the 1993 World Indoor Championships, twelfth at the 1993 World Championships and eighth at the 1994 European Indoor Championships.
== References ==
== External links ==
sports-reference
Petra Văideanu at World Athletics |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Manuel_Barrientos_Valencia | Juan Manuel Barrientos Valencia | Juan Manuel Barrientos Valencia is a Colombian chef and businessman.
== Early life and education ==
Juan Manuel was born in Medellin, Colombia. He studied at Colegiatura Colombiana in Medellin and Mariano Moreno in Buenos Aires. He is also recognized as "Juanma.”
He founded the El Cielo restaurant chain in 2006. In 2015, Juan opened the original Elcielo Miami which received Michelin star in Florida's first-ever Michelin Guide in 2022.
== Awards and recognition ==
He has been named one of the 50 best chefs of Latin America, and was awarded the Revelation Chef Award by Madrid Fusion.
He is the recipient of Michelin Award.
== Advocate of Peace ==
One of his projects is translated as "In El Cielo, we are cooking up peace in Colombia" ("En El Cielo, estamos cocinando la paz de Colombia").
== References ==
== External links ==
Restaurant El Cielo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taddei_Tondo | Taddei Tondo | The Taddei Tondo or The Virgin and Child with the Infant St. John is an unfinished marble relief tondo (circular composition) of the Madonna and Child and the infant Saint John the Baptist, by the Italian Renaissance artist Michelangelo Buonarroti. It is in the permanent collection of the Royal Academy of Arts in London. The tondo is the only marble sculpture by Michelangelo in Great Britain. A "perfect demonstration" of his carving technique, the work delivers a "powerful emotional and narrative punch".
== Physical history ==
The tondo dates to Michelangelo's time in Florence before his move to Rome in 1505. According to the art historian, Vasari, while working on his David, Michelangelo "also at this time... blocked out but did not finish two marble tondi, one for Taddeo Taddei, today in his house, and for Bartolomeo Pitti he began another... which works were considered outstanding and marvellous".
To the lower right of the back of the relief is a ligature combining the letters L and A, probably the mark of another carver or dealer, considered most likely to be the initials of Lapo d'Antonio di Lapo, active at the Opera del Duomo and for a short period in 1506-1507, one of Michelangelo's assistants. A chisel blow on the reverse seemingly from this earlier phase resulted in a hairline crack in the face of the Virgin that may only have become apparent as carving progressed. In consideration of his motivation to continue working on the damaged marble after that was obvious, speculation exists about whether Michelangelo, known for his concern for his materials, was constrained by a shortage of ready alternatives, or, considering his success with the damaged block for David, was more accepting of flaws because he was confident in his ability to work around them. The missing segment to the bottom right may be a result of an excess of his celebrated "direct attack". At some point, however, work on the tondo ceased. Five holes in the outer rim of the tondo were intended for fixings and are variously dated.
Although unfinished, the tondo appeared in the Palazzo Taddei and is documented as still there in 1568, but by 1678, the family had moved to a new residence near San Remigio. At an unknown date the tondo was taken to Rome, where it was acquired from Jean-Baptiste Wicar by Sir George Beaumont in 1822. Initially hung at Beaumont's house in Grosvenor Square, it was bequeathed to the academy in 1830 and installed at Somerset House, before moving with the academy to the east wing of the new National Gallery building in 1836, where it remained until the academy relocated to Burlington House in 1868. Except for an exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1960, the tondo has been housed and displayed in various academy locations ever since.
The discovery of the hairline crack running through the upper half of the marble contributed to the decision in 1989 to provide a permanent home for the tondo. Subsequently the tondo was cleaned with dichloromethane swabs and clay poultices to remove residues of nineteenth-century plaster casts and their oil-based release agents, packing materials, traces of beeswax and pine resin adhesives, and other surface accretions. The tondo was left unwaxed and no other coating was applied, as the work is not "finished" and originally had not been polished (as was the David when finished). Since the opening of the Sackler Wing of Galleries in 1991, the tondo has been on free public display in an area designed for it on the top floor that was positioned for reasons of preventive conservation behind protective glass, to combat the effects of air pollution and the possibility of vandalism.
== Description ==
The tondo as a format for painting and relief sculpture was a quintessential product of the Florentine Renaissance. During the century after 1430, all the leading artists created tondi, including Filippo Lippi, Botticelli, Luca Signorelli, Piero di Cosimo, Fra Bartolomeo, Andrea del Sarto, Leonardo da Vinci (in a lost work), and Raphael. For a few years Michelangelo also experimented with the form. He executed the Doni tondo, his only panel painting documented in contemporary sources, and he also began two unfinished tondo sculptures, the Pitti and Taddei tondi, but after that he never returned to the tondo form in either medium.
This tondo depicts a seated Virgin Mary with the baby Jesus dynamically sprawled across her lap, turning and looking back over his right shoulder toward the infant Saint John the Baptist, who stands before him looking down and holding a fluttering bird. When viewing the composition, the eye of the viewer is drawn diagonally along Christ's body, back up that of his mother, follows her gaze across to John, and from his face back to Christ. John, patron saint of Florence, with his attribute of a baptismal bowl, crosses his arms, perhaps in allusion to the cross. Most likely the bird he holds is a goldfinch not a dove - Christian symbolism sees in this bird a representation of the Passion. The unfinished portion of the marble below the bird might have been intended to become a crown of thorns.
Michelangelo's execution with only a point and claw chisel, often driven hard and with great energy, is a combination of techniques that helps create a sense of "surface unity" unbroken by the use of the drill. The Christ child, almost completely in full relief is the only figure that is highly finished (except for the feet), St. John is much less finished, Mary is the least finished, and the background is only roughly executed. One critic declares a belief that these marked variations in texture help establish the relative status of the three figures while creating a sense of compositional depth all the greater for not being more conventionally "finished".
Many of Michelangelo's works are unfinished. Circumstances around each being unfinished vary. Critical opinions address some of his unfinished works as if completed, however. The nineteenth-century French sculptor and critic Eugène Guillaume declared that, what he labeled as Michelangelo's "non finito", was "one of the master's expressive devices in his quest for infinite suggestiveness".
== Influence and reception ==
The tondo was commissioned by Taddeo Taddei. He was a patron and friend of Raphael, a young contemporary to Michelangelo also working in Florence. Raphael studied and reworked the tondo in two drawings, the versi of The Storming of Perugia now at the Louvre as well as compositional studies for the Madonna del Prato now at Chatsworth House. Raphael also applied the concept of Michelangelo's twisting body of the Christ child stretching across his mother's lap in Bridgewater Madonna.
Shortly after its arrival in England, Michelangelo's tondo was sketched by Wilkie, who wrote to Beaumont "your important acquisition of the basso-relievo of Michael Angelo is still the chief talk of all our artists. It is indeed a great addition to our stock of art, and is the only work that has appeared in this northern latitude to justify the great reputation of its author". Cockerell noted in his diary how "the subject seems growing from the marble & emerging into life. It assumes by degrees its shape, features from an unformed mass, as it were you trace & watch its birth from the sculptor's mind".
Following its arrival at the Royal Academy, the tondo was sketched by Constable, who published a letter in the Athenaeum of 3 July 1830 praising the way it was lit, "showing the more finished parts to advantage, and causing those less perfect to become masses of shadow, having at a distance all the effect of a rich picture in chiaroscuro". With its differing degrees of finish the tondo is an outstanding technical study piece; plaster casts may be found at the Victoria and Albert Museum and Fitzwilliam Museum.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
List of works by Michelangelo
Pitti Tondo
Doni Tondo
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Taddei Tondo (Royal Academy of Arts Collections) Archived 3 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
Media related to Taddei Tondo at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Jean-Jacques_Deshayes | André-Jean-Jacques Deshayes | André-Jean-Jacques Deshayes (abbreviated as A.J.J. Deshayes) was a French ballet dancer, choreographer and ballet master born in Paris on 24 January 1777 and died in Batignolles on 10 December 1846.
The son of the ballet master of the Comédie-Italienne, Jacques-Francois Deshayes, André-Jean-Jacques studied dance with his father, and then at the school of the Paris Opera Ballet from 1788, and debuted there while very young in the roles of children.
Hired by the Opera as Principal Dancer in 1794, under the direction of Pierre Gardel, Deshayes toured abroad, most notably in Lisbon in 1799, then London the following year. After leaving the Opera in 1802, he spent two years at the La Scala in Milan and then danced in Naples and Vienna.
But most of his brilliant career was spent at The King's Theatre in London, where he was principal dancer and choreographer from 1804 to 1842, with some interruptions, including the Napoleonic Wars, which forced him to return to the continent. During these years, he contributed to the development of Romantic ballet in Great Britain.
When he retired in 1842, Deshayes moved back to Paris to what was then the new quarter Batignolles, where he died at the age of 69.
In 1822 he published his Idées générales sur l'Académie royale de musique, et plus spécialement sur la danse (Paris, La Mongie).
== Choreography ==
1806: La Dansomanie, after Pierre Gardel (London, King's Theatre)
1807: The Rape of Adonis (London, King's Theatre)
1810: Psyche, after Pierre Gardel (London, King's Theatre)
1811: Figaro, after Louis Duport (London, King's Theatre)
1821: The Price (London, King's Theatre)
1821: Alcide, with Albert, for the coronation of George IV (London, King's Theatre)
1824: Zemire et Azor (Paris Opera)
1829: La somnambule, ou L'arrivée d'un nouveau seigneur, after Jean-Pierre Aumer (London, King's Theatre)
1829: Masaniello, music by Auber (London, King's Theatre)
1831: Kenilworth (London, King's Theatre)
1831: La Bayadère (London, King's Theatre)
1835: Zephyr Shepherd (London, King's Theatre)
1837: Le Brigand de Terracina, music by Auber (London, Her Majesty's Theatre)
1842: Giselle with Jules Perrot (London, Her Majesty's Theatre)
1842: Alma with Jules Perrot and Fanny Cerrito (London, Her Majesty's Theatre)
== External links ==
André-Jean-Jacques Deshayes on Data.bnf.fr |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compsibidion_circunflexum | Compsibidion circunflexum | Compsibidion circunflexum is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Brazilian entomologist Ubirajara Martins in 1971.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pause_(P-Model_album) | Pause (P-Model album) | P-Model (also typeset as P-MODEL and P. Model) was a Japanese electronic rock band started in 1979 by members of the defunct progressive rock band Mandrake. The band has experienced many lineup revisions over the years but frontman Susumu Hirasawa was always at the helm of operations. P-Model officially disbanded in 2000, although many of its members continue to release solo albums and collaborate with each other on different projects.
Hirasawa has since released work under the name "Kaku P-Model" (核P-Model; lit. 'nucleus of P-Model'), effectively a solo revival of the band.
== Members ==
Susumu Hirasawa (平沢 進) – guitar, vocals, synthesizer, Miburi, Heavenizer, Graviton, Amiga, programming (1 January 1979 – 20 December 2000; 2004–2005, 2013–2014, 2018 as KAKU P-MODEL)
=== Former members ===
=== Timeline ===
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
=== Live and Remix-Remake albums ===
=== Compilations ===
P-Plant CD Vol. 1, 2000
Ashu-on [Sound Subspecies] in the solar system (太陽系亞種音, Taiyōkei Ashu-on), 2002
Golden☆Best, 2004
P-Model Warner Years Singles Box, 2012
=== Singles ===
"Art Mania", 1979
"Kameari Pop", 1979
"Missile", 1980
"junglebed II", 1981
"Index P-0", 1983
"Soldi Air Dance Version", 1983
"Ikari", 1984
"Re;", 1985
"P-Model Another Act 6", 1985
"Another Day", 1986
"Opening SE 1992", 1992
"demo", 1994
"SAKSIT North Passage MIX, 1996
">>>Unfix One>>> *Rocket Shoot*", 1996
">>>Unfix Eight>>> *Ashura Clock*", 1997
">>>Unfix Nine>>> *Layer-Green*", 1997
=== Other releases ===
Model House Works, 1985
"Leak"/"Birds", 1986
"Pre Drums", 1986
Zebra Cassette (Zebraカセット, Zebra Kasetto), 1986
Christmas Song, 1986
"SSS-Star Eyes", 1987
"entro Pack", 1987
"Legend of Sadatoshi Tainaka", 1987
Cassette's Bravo!, 1988
Shut Up'N'Hit Your Stage', 1988
Music Industrial Wastes〜P-Model or Die Samples, 1999
Virtual Live Samples, 1999
Dekikake, 1999
"Moon Plant-I (full)", 1999
"Astro-Ho (narration Version)", 1999
"Falling Rain (P-Model version)", 1999
"Illegal Dumping" (不法投棄, Fuhōtōki), 1999
Global Tribute Battle, 2000
"Phase-7", 2000
=== Videography ===
Moire Vision, 1988
Sankai no Jintai Chizu (三界の人体地図), 1988
Bitmap 1979–1992, 1992
Ending Error, 1996
Non-Locality Live Video (非局所性LIVEビデオ), 1997
Live Video "Music Industrial Wastes〜P-Model or Die", 2000
=== Music Videos ===
All videos from the Great Brain to Harm Harmonizer were directed by Yuichi "You1" Hirasawa (Susumu's brother). "Fu-Ru-He-He-He", "2D or Not 2D" and "Grid" were included in "Bitmap 1979–1992"; "Monotone Grid" was included in "Photon-3"; "http" was included in "Rocket Shoot"; "Logic Airforce" was included in "Live Video Music Industrial Wastes〜P-Model or Die".
"The Great Brain", 1979
"I Am Your Only Model", 1980
"different≠another", 1981
"potpourri", 1981
"natural", 1981
"disgusting telephone", 1981
"Heaven", 1982
"Perspective", 1982
"Be in a Fix", 1982
"Hoka No Keikaku", 1983
"Echoes", 1983
"Fu-Ru-He-He-He", 1983
"Atom-Siberia", 1984
"Harm Harmonize"r, 1984
"Karkador", 1986
"Another Day", 1986
"2D or Not 2D", 1992
"Grid", 1992
Monotone Grid", 1994
Power to Dream", 1995
"http", 1996
"Ashura Clock (Discommunicator)", 1997
"Logic Airforce", 1999
== Legacy ==
P-Model, as well Susumu Hirasawa through his solo career, have been influential both on musicians, as well as on artists that work on other mediums, with a reputation for having many fans in the manga and anime industries. Their creative collaborators (and even 6 of the band's members) often started out as big fans of and directly influenced by their work: Berserk mangaka Kentaro Miura has found that listening to Hirasawa's songs has helped him regain focus on the themes of his writing multiple times, mangaka/anime director Satoshi Kon wrote that Hirasawa's work was "a source of imagination and creativity for me" over the last 20 years of his life, film director Daihachi Yoshida considers Hirasawa as the creator of "about half of my way of thinking".
Beyond associates, P-Model and/or Hirasawa have been cited as influences by musicians such as Fukusuke of Metronome, Hiroyuki Hayashi of Polysics, Daoko (whose song "Welcome to the Parade", from 2012's HyperGirl: Mukōgawa no Onna no Ko, was directly influenced by Hirasawa's worldview), Toby Driver of Kayo Dot (who claims the album Plastic House on Base of Sky was an attempt to "make [his] version of [Hirasawa's] music") and Kenshi Yonezu (who has said that a Hirasawa song "changed [his] life").
Other artists that have expressed adoration for their work include Klaha of Malice Mizer, Shiroi Heya no Futari mangaka Ryoko Yamagishi, Arika Takarano of Ali Project, Roujin Z/JoJo's Bizarre Adventure director Hiroyuki Kitakubo, voice actress/singer Sumire Uesaka, musician/actor Gen Hoshino, Hellsing mangaka Kouta Hirano, Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba mangaka Koyoharu Gotouge, Fullmetal Alchemist/Concrete Revolutio director Seiji Mizushima, Fate/stay night [Réalta Nua]/Taiko no Tatsujin composer Satoshi "hil" Ishikawa and actress/singer Ko Shibasaki.
The five main characters of the K-On! franchise (Yui Hirasawa, Mio Akiyama, Ritsu Tainaka, Tsumugi Kotobuki and Azusa Nakano) are in a band, share the surnames of late '80s P-Model members and play their respective primary instrument (save for Nakano). All referenced members who are still active have acknowledged the connection. Besides that, P-Model references can also be found on the manga The Sorrow of a Perfectly Healthy Girl and Opus; as well the anime Sailor Moon, Perfect Blue, BECK: Mongolian Chop Squad and Space Dandy. In the world of theatre, musician/playwright Keralino Sandorovich named 2 of his stage plays (Frozen Beach and Blue Cross) after P-Model songs and 1 (Haldyn Hotel) after a Hirasawa solo song.
== References ==
Citations
== External links ==
P-MODEL's Site (English and Japanese)
P-MODEL Fansite
P-Model discography at MusicBrainz |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lara_Croft#Promotion_and_merchandising | Lara Croft | Lara Croft is a character and the main protagonist of the video game franchise Tomb Raider. She is presented as a highly intelligent and athletic British adventurer and archaeologist who ventures into ancient tombs and hazardous ruins around the world. Created by a team at British developer Core Design that included Toby Gard, the character first appeared in the video game Tomb Raider in 1996.
Core Design handled the initial development of the character and the series. Inspired by strong female icons, Gard designed Lara Croft to counter stereotypical female characters. The company modified the character for subsequent titles, which included graphical improvements and gameplay additions. American developer Crystal Dynamics took over the series after the 2003 sequel Tomb Raider: The Angel of Darkness was received poorly. The new developer rebooted the character along with the video game series by altering her physical proportions and giving her additional ways of interacting with game environments.
Lara Croft has further appeared in video game spin-offs, printed adaptations, a series of animated short films, feature films, and merchandise related to the series. The promotion of the character includes a brand of apparel and accessories, action figures, and model portrayals. She has been licensed for third-party promotion, including television and print advertisements, music-related appearances, and as a spokesmodel.
Critics consider Lara Croft a significant video game character in popular culture. She holds six Guinness World Records, has a strong fan following, and is among the first video game characters to be successfully adapted to film. Lara Croft is also considered a sex symbol, one of the earliest in the industry to achieve widespread attention. The character's influence in the industry has been a point of contention among critics; viewpoints range from a positive agent of change in video games to a negative role model for young girls.
== Characteristics ==
Lara Croft is depicted as an athletic woman with brown eyes and dark auburn hair, frequently kept in a plait or ponytail. The character's classic costume is a turquoise leotard, light brown shorts, calf-high boots, and tall white socks. Accessories include fingerless gloves, a backpack, a utility belt with holsters on either side, and two pistols. The video game sequels introduced new outfits designed for different environments, such as underwater and cold weather. In the later games, Croft wears a crop top, camouflage pants and black or light brown shorts. When exploring, she often carries two pistols, but has used other weaponry throughout the series. She is fluent in several languages.
Lara's backstory has changed dramatically over the course of the series. During the first era, beginning in Tomb Raider (1996), game manuals describe the character as the Wimbledon, London-born daughter of Lord Henshingly Croft (Lord Richard Croft in Legend and Survivor timelines). She was raised as a British aristocrat and betrothed to the fictitious Earl of Faringdon. Lara attended the Scottish boarding school Gordonstoun and a Swiss finishing school. At the age of twenty-one, she survived a plane crash, which left her stranded in the Himalayas for two weeks; the experience spurred her to shun her former life and seek other adventures around the world. Croft published books and other written works based on her exploits as a mercenary, big-game hunter, and master thief. These provided her with a replacement source of income after her father disowned her over her change in lifestyle.
During the second era, which began with Tomb Raider: Legend (2006), Lara's story was changed to be the daughter of archaeologist Lord Richard Croft, the Earl of Abingdon, and someone who was quickly identified as a highly talented individual while attending the Abingdon Girls School. The plane crash was changed to when Lara was nine years old, and with her mother, Amelia Croft. While searching for shelter, Lara and her mother took refuge in an ancient Nepalese temple, where Lara witnesses her mother vanish after tampering with an ancient sword. Her father later disappears in search of his wife. This spurs Lara on to seek the reason for her mother's disappearance.
The third era, established in Tomb Raider (2013), deviates from the original plot considerably. When Lara was young she travelled with her parents on many of their archaeological expeditions which helped to shape the woman she was becoming. It was on one of these expeditions that her mother, Amelia Croft, vanished and was presumed dead and when her father Richard presumably took his own life a few years later, she was then left in the care of Conrad Roth. Even though she inherited a vast fortune, giving her the means to attend Cambridge with ease, Lara chose to study at University College London. Though this was a much tougher choice, it helped her become more grounded and level-headed than she might otherwise have been. She also ended up meeting her best friend, Samantha Nishimura, during her time at UCL. It was because of Sam's free spirit and a wild streak that Lara was able to experience much more of London than just the universities and museums that she loved so much. After travelling the world, both Lara and Sam end up on an expedition to the Dragon's Triangle off the Japanese coast in search of the lost civilization of Yamatai. It is on this expedition that Lara is stranded on a remote island full of natural, human and supernatural dangers, which enables her to develop from an untested young woman to a survivor. After experiencing the supernatural powers of the ancient world, she comes to realise her father was right about his theories and her hunger for adventure awakens.
== Character development history ==
Core Design, a subsidiary of Eidos, created Lara Croft as the lead protagonist of its video game Tomb Raider, which began development in 1994. Lead graphic artist Toby Gard went through about five designs before arriving at the character's final appearance. He initially envisioned a male lead character with a whip and a hat. Core Design co-founder Jeremy Smith characterised Gard's initial design as derivative of Indiana Jones and asked for more originality. Gard decided that a female character would work better from a design standpoint. He also cited Virtua Fighter as an influence; Gard noticed that while watching people play the game, players selected one of the two available female characters in the game almost every match he saw. Gard expressed a desire to counter stereotypical female characters, which he has characterised as "bimbos" or "dominatrix" types. Smith was sceptical of a female lead at first because few contemporary games featured them. He came to regard a female lead as a great hook and put faith in Gard's idea. Inspired by pop artist Neneh Cherry and comic book character Tank Girl, Gard experimented with different designs, including "sociopathic blonds, muscle women, flat topped hip-hopsters and a Nazi-like militant in a baseball cap". He settled on a tough South American latina woman with a braid named Laura Cruz.
Tomb Raider co-creator Paul Douglas changed her given name after consulting a baby names book, "Lara had a more interesting derivation than Laura so we chose that. Lara is from the same derivation as Larisa. Which is derived from Larissa in Greece. Which means “citadel”. I thought that would be apt for her personality—enigmatic and guarded." Her surname was changed by scriptwriter Vicky Arnold later in development, "Cruz was changed to Croft quite a bit later in the project by Vicky. That came out of the Derby phonebook. Cruz was Spanish/Portuguese for Cross and it wasn’t too far from Cross to Croft. We must have stuck with the Cruz surname for a while as we got into the rut of referring to her as just Lara. In the first game design doc, dated December 1994, Laura is already changed to Lara but even in the final game design documents there are still places where Cruz hadn’t yet changed to Croft." Along with the name change, the character's backstory was altered to incorporate a British origin.
Gard was keen to animate the character realistically, an aspect he felt the industry at the time had disregarded. He sacrificed quick animations in favour of more fluid movement, believing that players would empathise with the character more easily. Lara's dual-wielding of pistols was inspired by the film Hard Boiled and an Æon Flux short. In the first Tomb Raider, Croft's three-dimensional (3D) character model is made of around 230 polygons. The character's braid was removed from the model, but added back for subsequent iterations. Gavin Rummery, programmer on the first two Tomb Raider games, explained: "It had been dropped from the original because it just didn't work properly with all the acrobatic moves—it was more like she had an electric eel attached to her head that had a life of its own. But on TRII I came up with a way to get it working and was really pleased how natural it looked". Although widely reported that, while adjusting the character model, Gard accidentally increased the breasts' dimensions by 150 percent and the rest of the creative team argued to keep the change, Gard has stated that the notion "came out of a silly remark made in an interview". Core Design hired Shelley Blond to voice Croft after the game entered the beta phase of development. Gard left Core Design after completing Tomb Raider, citing a lack of creative freedom and control over marketing decisions related to the ideas he developed (especially Lara Croft).
Core Design improved and modified the character with each installment. Developers for Tomb Raider II increased the number of polygons in the character's model and added more realistic curves to its design. Other changes included new outfits and manoeuvres. Core Design reportedly planned to implement crawling as a new gameplay option, but the option did not appear until Tomb Raider III. Actress Judith Gibbins took over voice acting responsibilities and stayed on through the third game. For Tomb Raider III, the developers increased the number of polygons in Croft's 3D model to about 300, and introduced more abilities to the gameplay. Core Design wanted to reintroduce the character to players in Tomb Raider: The Last Revelation and included a flashback scenario with a younger Lara. The developers expanded the character's set of moves threefold to allow more interaction with the environment, like swinging on ropes and kicking open doors. The character model was altered to feature more realistic proportions, and Jonell Elliott replaced Gibbins as the voice of Lara Croft. By the time development for The Last Revelation began, Core Design had worked on the series constantly for four years and the staff felt they had exhausted their creativeness. Feeling the series lacked innovation, Core Design decided to kill the character and depicted Croft trapped by a cave-in during the final scenes of the game.
The next title, Tomb Raider Chronicles, depicted the late Lara Croft via her friends' flashbacks. The game introduced stealth attacks, which would carry over to the next game, Tomb Raider: The Angel of Darkness. While the original development team worked on Chronicles, Core Design assigned a new team to develop The Angel of Darkness for the PlayStation 2. Anticipating innovative changes from next-generation consoles, Adrian Smith—co-founder of Core Design—wanted to reinvent the character to keep pace with the updated technology. Core Design conducted market research, including fan polls, to aid in The Angel of Darkness' development. The development team felt it could not alter the character and instead opted to place her in a situation different from previous games. The PlayStation 2 hardware allowed for more manoeuvres and a more detailed character model; the number of polygons in Croft's model increased to 4,400. The team sought to add more melee manoeuvres to better match Lara Croft's portrayal as an expert fighter in her backstory. Movement control was switched from the directional pad to the analogue control stick to provide more precision. After the original team finished Chronicles, it joined the development of The Angel of Darkness. Excess content, missed production deadlines, and Eidos' desire to time the game's launch to coincide with the release of the 2003 Tomb Raider film resulted in what was criticized as a poorly designed game; Croft was brought back to life without explanation and the character controls lacked precision.
=== Developer switch to Crystal Dynamics ===
The Angel of Darkness was received poorly, prompting Eidos—fearing financial troubles from another unsuccessful game—to give development duties for future titles to Crystal Dynamics, another Eidos subsidiary. The Legacy of Kain development team began work on a new title (Tomb Raider: Legend), which would essentially reboot the franchise, significantly changing her origin story, with Toby Gard returning to work as a consultant. The development team reassessed the brand value of the franchise and its protagonist. Chip Blundell, Eidos's vice-president of brand management, commented that the designers understood that fans saw the character and brand as their own, rather than Eidos's. With that in mind, the team retooled the franchise and character to emphasise aspects of the original game that made them unique. The storyline intended for a trilogy of games that started with The Angel of Darkness was abandoned and a new plot was created for Legend.
Crystal Dynamics focused on believability rather than realism to re-develop the character, posing decisions around the question, "What could Lara do?", and giving her action more freedom. The designers updated Lara Croft's move set to make her movements appear more fluid and continuous. The animations were also updated so the character could better interact with environmental objects. The developers introduced a feature that causes the character's skin and clothing to appear wet after swimming and dirty after rolling on the ground. Responding to criticism directed at the character controls in The Angel of Darkness, Crystal Dynamics redesigned the character's control scheme to provide what it felt was the best third-person action experience. The developers also introduced close-quarter melee manoeuvres. Crystal Dynamics updated the character model to add more realism, but retained past design elements. The polygon count increased to over 9,800. More attention was paid to the character's lip synching and facial expressions to allow for dynamic emotional responses to in-game events. In redesigning the character's appearance, Crystal Dynamics updated Croft's hairstyle, wardrobe, and accessories. Her shirt was changed to a V-neck crop top, her body was given more muscle tone, and her hair braid was switched to a ponytail. The voice actor for Lara Croft was initially rumoured to be Rachel Weisz, but the role was eventually given to Keeley Hawes. Crystal Dynamics retained the design changes for the next game, Tomb Raider: Anniversary, a remake of the first game. The designers aimed to portray Croft with more emotional depth, and focused on the character's desire to achieve the end goal of the game, culminating in killing one of the antagonists. The developers used the death to evoke guilt in Croft afterward and illustrate that shooting a person should be a difficult choice.
Tomb Raider: Underworld continued the plot line established in Legend. Crystal Dynamics used new technology to improve the character for seventh-generation consoles, focusing on improving realism. The dirt accumulation and water cleansing mechanic from Legend was altered to be a real-time mechanic that can involve the entire game environment. To achieve a more natural appearance, the developers added spherical harmonics to provide indirect lighting to in-game objects like Lara Croft. Crystal Dynamics made the character model more complex and detailed than previous instalments, featuring more texture layers that determine the appearance of shadows and reflective light on it, and using skeletal animation to portray believable movement. The number of polygons in the model increased to 32,000. The developers enhanced Croft's facial model by increasing the number of polygons, bones used in the animation skeleton, and graphical shaders in the face to add more detail and expressive capabilities. The hair was created as a real-time cloth simulation to further add realism to its shape and movement. The developers kept Croft's hair tied back because they felt a real person would not want it flying around while performing dangerous manoeuvres. The character's body size was increased and breast size reduced to portray more realistic proportions.
The developers tried to redefine Lara Croft's actions by questioning what they felt the character was capable of. While previous games used hand-animated movement for the character, Underworld introduced motion capture-based animation to display more fluid, realistic movement and facial expressions. Stuntwoman and Olympic Gold medalist Heidi Moneymaker was the motion capture actress, and advised the designers on practical movements. Animators adjusted and blended the recorded animation to create seamless transitions between the separate moves and their simultaneous combinations. The blends and additional animations give the character more flexible movement. Actions were overlapped to allow for multitasking, such as aiming at two separate targets and shooting with one hand while the other holds an object collected from the environment. Other additions include more melee attacks, as well as contextual offensive and climbing manoeuvres. Crystal Dynamics sought to make the visual appearance of the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions identical, although the systems used different techniques to achieve this. In response to Underworld's lackluster sales figures, Eidos reportedly considered altering the character's appearance to appeal more to female fans.
=== Publisher switch to Square Enix ===
Japanese game company Square Enix acquired Eidos in April 2009, restructuring Eidos into Square Enix Europe. Crystal Dynamics remained as developer of the Tomb Raider games. Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light introduced cooperative gameplay to the series, a move that brand director Karl Stewart said was meant to "show [Lara] as a more humanistic character" by placing her in a situation that differed from previous instalments. The game uses the same technology featured in the studio's past Tomb Raider games. Despite the changes implemented in the titles, Crystal Dynamics believed that the series required further reinvention to stay relevant.
In late 2010, Square Enix announced a franchise reboot titled Tomb Raider; the new Lara Croft would be a darker, grittier reimagining of the character. In examining the character, Crystal Dynamics concluded that Croft's largest failing was her "Teflon coating", and that it needed a more human version that players would care about. The studio sought a new voice actress, trialling dozens of relatively unknown performers.
The second reboot focuses on the origin of the character, and as a result, changes the previous back story. Staff opted to first work on the character's biography rather than cosmetic aspects. Crystal Dynamics sought to avoid the embellished physique of past renditions and pushed for realistic proportions. In redesigning the character's appearance, the designers began with simple concepts and added features that it felt made Lara Croft iconic: a ponytail, "M-shaped" lips, and the spatial relationship between her eyes, mouth, and nose. The company also changed the character's wardrobe, focusing on what it believed was more functional and practical. In designing the outfits, staff aimed to create a look that was "relevant" and "youthful", but not too "trendy" or "hip". To gauge the redesign, Crystal Dynamics conducted eye tracking studies on subjects who viewed the new version and previous ones. Camilla Luddington voiced Lara Croft in the reboot.
Similar to Underworld, the new Tomb Raider features motion capture-based animation. In an effort to present realism and emotion in the character, Crystal Dynamics captured face and voice performances to accompany the body performances. The company revamped Croft's in-game combat abilities. Crystal Dynamics aimed to make the "combat fresh to the franchise, competitive amongst [similar games], and relevant to the story". Among the changes is the implementation of a free aiming system. The studio reasoned that such a system would cause players to be more invested in the action by fostering a "raw, brutal, and desperate" style. Global brand director Karl Stewart stated that such desperation relates to the updated character's inexperience with violence. He further commented that Lara Croft is thrust into a situation where she is forced to kill, which will be a traumatic and defining moment for her.
== Appearances ==
=== In video games ===
Lara Croft primarily appears in the Tomb Raider video game series published by Square Enix Europe (previously Eidos Interactive). The action-adventure games feature the protagonist travelling the world in search of rare objects and mystical artefacts. Croft first appeared in the 1996 video game Tomb Raider, in which she competes against a rival archaeologist in search of an Atlantean artefact. Tomb Raider II (1997) centres on the search for the Dagger of Xian, which is sought by thieves. Tomb Raider III (1998) focuses on meteorite fragments that endow humans with supernatural powers. In Tomb Raider: The Last Revelation (1999), the first depiction of a young Croft, she is accompanied by her mentor, Werner Von Croy. Lara searches for artefacts associated with the Egyptian god Horus, and later encounters Von Croy as an antagonist. In Tomb Raider: Chronicles (2000), most of the game relates adventures told via flashbacks. The first portable game, Tomb Raider (2000), was released on the Game Boy Color, and follows the character's search for the Nightmare Stone. A second Game Boy Color title, Tomb Raider: Curse of the Sword (2001), sees Lara Croft facing off against a cult. The next portable game, Tomb Raider: The Prophecy (2002), was released on the Game Boy Advance, and focuses on three magical stones. Tomb Raider: The Angel of Darkness (2003) was released on home platforms, centring on the murder of Professor Von Croy.
Eidos rebooted the series with Tomb Raider: Legend (2006), which focuses on Lara Croft's search for Excalibur and her mother, altering the character's backstory as part of the redesign. Tomb Raider: Anniversary (2007), a remake of the first game in the series, carried over design elements from Legend. Tomb Raider: Underworld (2008) continues the plot introduced in Legend. The story centres on Croft's search for information about her mother's disappearance. In the process she learns of the existence of Thor's hammer, Mjölnir. Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light (2010) is a downloadable game that is set in a Central American jungle, and features an ancient warrior who works with Lara Croft. In 2013, the series was rebooted a second time with the game Tomb Raider, which retold the story of Lara's origins and began a new continuity. Its sequel Rise of the Tomb Raider was released in 2015, and the third game, Shadow of the Tomb Raider, in 2018.
Outside of Tomb Raider. Lara Croft also appears as a Diana DLC crossover skin in the fighting game Brawlhalla. Additionally, Croft makes a cameo appearance in the PlayStation 5 game Astro's Playroom. Lara Croft appears in Fortnite Battle Royale's sixth season of the second chapter and was featured in a "Team Up!" mode with Aloy from Horizon Zero Dawn. Lara Croft also made an appearance in Call of Duty: Modern Warfare II's Season 5 Reloaded update. Lara Croft appears as a playable character in Hero Wars: Alliance and Hero Wars: Dominion Era as part of a special time-limited event. Croft became a playable survivor in the asymmetrical horror game Dead by Daylight in the Tomb Raider DLC on 16 July 2024.
=== In films ===
Paramount Pictures acquired the film rights for Tomb Raider in 1998, and released Lara Croft: Tomb Raider in 2001. Producer Lloyd Levin stated that the filmmakers tried to capture the essence of the video game elements rather than duplicate them. Acknowledging the character's "huge fan base" and recognisable appearance, director Simon West sought an actress with acting ability as well as physical attributes similar to Croft. Paramount also received input from developer Core Design on casting. Rumoured actresses included Pamela Anderson, Demi Moore and Jeri Ryan. Academy Award-winning actress Angelina Jolie was eventually cast to play Lara Croft. She had not been a fan of the character, but considered the role as a "big responsibility", citing anxiety about fans' high expectations. Producer Lawrence Gordon felt she was a perfect fit for the role. Jolie braided her hair and used minimal padding to increase her bust a cup size to 36D for the role. She felt that Croft's video game proportions were unrealistic, and wanted to avoid showing such proportions to young girls. Jolie trained rigorously for the action scenes required for the role, occasionally sustaining injuries. Her training focused on practising the physical skills necessary to perform the film's stunts. The difficulty of the training and injuries discouraged her, but she continued working through production. Jolie also encountered difficulties when working the guns, bungee jumping, and maneuvering with the braid. West had not anticipated that Jolie would do her own stunts, and was impressed, as was stunt coordinator Simon Crane, by the effort she put into them.
Angelina Jolie reprised her role for a sequel, Lara Croft: Tomb Raider – The Cradle of Life. Directed by Jan de Bont, the 2003 film focused more on the character's development. De Bont praised Jolie's understanding of Lara Croft, as well as the character's strength, saying he "hates women in distress". Producer Levin commented that the film staff tried to handle the character properly, and consulted with the video game developers on what would be appropriate. Despite the second film's poor reception, Paramount remained open to releasing a third. Jolie was still optioned to play the character in a third film as late as 2007, though she had commented in 2004 that she had no intention of reprising the role again.
Development for a third film was announced in 2009, with Dan Lin as the producer. Lin intended to reboot the film series with a young Croft in an origin story. In 2011, Olivia Wilde denied rumours that she would play the role, but still expressed interest. The film, originally meant for a 2013 release, was to be produced by Graham King, written by Marti Noxon and produced by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in partnership with King's studio GK Films. Alicia Vikander was cast in 2016 to play Lara in the next film adaptation. Tomb Raider, directed by Roar Uthaug, was released in 2018 and takes inspiration mostly from the rebooted series that started in 2013. A sequel was in development, but was cancelled in July 2022 after MGM lost the film rights to the franchise due to its expiration.
=== In other adaptations ===
Beginning in 1997, the character regularly appeared in comics by Top Cow Productions. Lara Croft first appeared in a crossover in Sara Pezzini's Witchblade, and later starred in her own comic book series in 1999. The series began with Dan Jurgens as the writer, featuring artwork by Andy Park and Jon Sibal. The stories were unrelated to the video games until issue 32 of the Tomb Raider series, which adapted Angel of Darkness's plot. The series ran for 50 issues in addition to special issues. Other printed adaptations are Lara Croft Tomb Raider: The Amulet of Power, a 2003 novel written by Mike Resnick; Lara Croft Tomb Raider: The Lost Cult, a 2004 novel written by E. E. Knight; and Lara Croft Tomb Raider: The Man of Bronze, a 2005 novel written by James Alan Gardner.
GameTap released Revisioned: Tomb Raider in 2007 via the GameTap TV section of its website. The web series is a collection of ten short animated films that features re-imagined versions of Croft by well-known animators, comic book artists, and writers, including Jim Lee, Warren Ellis, and Peter Chung. Episodes ranged from five to seven and half minutes in length, featuring Minnie Driver as Croft. The creative staff was given considerable freedom to re-interpret the character; they did not consult the video game designers, but were given a guide listing acceptable and unacceptable practices. Hayley Atwell voices Lara in the Netflix animated series, Tomb Raider: The Legend of Lara Croft.
== Promotion and merchandising ==
Eidos's German branch and the KMF agency handled marketing for Lara Croft. According to Eidos, no focus groups or scientific studies were consulted when devising the marketing strategy for the character. Eidos marketing manager David Burton oversaw marketing efforts, which attempted to portray the character as attractive and pleasant. However, interaction with the press, especially those in Europe, resulted in less clothing depicted in promotional images. Concerned with diluting Croft's personality, Eidos avoided products it felt did not fit the character. Ian Livingstone, Eidos's product acquisition director, commented that the company declines most merchandising proposals. He stated that Eidos primarily focused on game development and viewed such promotion outside video games as exposure for the character. Following Square Enix's acquisition, Eidos's marketing duties were transferred to the Square Enix Europe subsidiary. As part of the second reboot, Crystal Dynamics planned to align all products, promotions, and media ventures with its new version of the character.
Lara Croft has appeared on the cover of multiple video game magazines. The character has also been featured on the cover of non-video game publications such as British style magazine The Face, American news magazines Time and Newsweek, German magazine Focus, and the front page of British newspaper the Financial Times. By April 2025, she had made over 2,300 cover appearances, earning a Guinness World Records for the "most magazine covers for a video game character". Eidos licensed the character for third party advertisements, including television ads for Visa, Lucozade drinks, G4 TV, Brigitte magazine, and SEAT cars (Seat Ibiza, Seat Cordoba, Seat Alhambra and Seat Arosa). Retro Gamer staff attributes Croft's "iconic" status in part to the Lucozade commercials, calling them one of the most memorable advertisements to use video game elements. Picture advertisements appeared on the sides of double-decker buses and walls of subway stations. Irish rock band U2 commissioned custom renders for video footage displayed on stage in its 1997 PopMart tour. German punk band Die Ärzte's 1998 music video for "Men are Pigs" (German: "Männer sind Schweine") also features Croft. Music groups have dedicated songs to the character, culminating in the release of the album A Tribute to Lara Croft. Bands and artists including Depeche Mode, Moby, Faith No More, Jimi Tenor, and Apollo 440 donated their songs for the album. In conjunction with the release of the 2001 film adaptation, Eidos licensed Lara Croft free-of-charge to the Gordonstoun boarding school for a commercial. The school approached Eidos about use of the character. Eidos allowed the one-time licence due to Core Design's inclusion of Gordonstoun in Croft's fictional biography without the school's permission. Near the end of 2006, Lara Croft became the spokesmodel for the Skin Cancer Awareness Foundation of Minden, Nevada as part of its Sun Smart Teen Program. The foundation felt that the character personified the benefits of a healthy body, and that young teenagers could relate to Croft.
Lara Croft's likeness has been a model for merchandise. The first action figures were produced by Toy Biz, based on the video game version of the character. Playmates Toys released a series of action figures that depict Croft in different outfits and accessories from the video games, later producing figures modelled after Jolie for Lara Croft: Tomb Raider. Graphic designer Marc Klinnert of Studio OXMOX released 1⁄6-scale model kits of the character, and later built a full-scale version. Arcade: The Videogame Magazine and PlayStation Magazine promoted life-size Croft statues as contest prizes. Spurred by a rumour that Eidos provided Lara Croft autographs, fans wrote to the company to obtain them. The quantity prompted Eidos to quickly produce autographed cards to meet demand. Tomb Raider: Underworld themes and wallpapers featuring the character were released for the PlayStation 3. Xbox Live Marketplace released Xbox 360 avatars in conjunction with Lara Croft and the Guardian of Light. Eidos released a brand of Lara Croft apparel and accessories, marketed under the label "LARA". The line included wallets, watches, bathrobes, and Zippo lighters. Other third-party apparel are hiking boots, backpacks, leather jackets, and thermoses. Croft's likeness has also appeared on French postage stamps, PlayStation memory cards, and trading cards as part of a collectible card game. In October 1997, Eidos held an art exhibition titled "Lara Goes Art" in Hamburg, Germany to promote Tomb Raider II. The exhibit featured selected artwork of the character submitted by artists and fans. Pieces included oil and airbrushed paintings, photo comics, and Klinnert's model; SZM Studios provided the computer-generated footage it had created for Die Ärzte's music video and the Brigitte magazine television commercial.
=== Promotional models ===
Eidos hired several models to portray Lara Croft at publicity events, promotions, trade shows, and photo shoots. Initially Eidos employed four models to dress as Lara for a photo call at a trade event, but after witnessing the unusually large crowd the models drew, they decided to expand the concept by casting a single official Lara who would role-play the character. Nathalie Cook was the first model to assume the role individually, portraying the character from 1996 to 1997. Cook was followed by British actress Rhona Mitra from 1997 to 1998. Eidos then updated the Croft costume to match its video game depiction. Core Design said they restricted Mitra's dialogue as the character, only allowing her to answer questions in-character if Core had reviewed the questions ahead of time and scripted answers. French model Vanessa Demouy succeeded Mitra for a brief time until fashion model Nell McAndrew took over the role at the 1998 Electronic Entertainment Expo. McAndrew was selected from around 150 women who auditioned for the role. Afterward, the model was surprised she was picked despite auditioning with a shaved head at the time. McAndrew portrayed Croft from 1998 until 1999, when Eidos fired her for posing in Playboy, which used the character and Tomb Raider franchise to promote the McAndrew's issue without Eidos's approval. Core Design was granted an injunction against the magazine to protect the character's image; Playboy was ordered to place stickers on the cover of the issue to conceal the reference to Tomb Raider. Eidos later donated McAndrew's Tomb Raider costume to a UNICEF charity auction.
Lara Weller followed McAndrew from 1999 to 2000. Subsequent models were Lucy Clarkson from 2000 to 2002 and Jill de Jong, who wore a costume based on Lara Croft's new appearance in Angel of Darkness from 2002 to 2004. Karima Adebibe became the model from 2006 to 2008, and wore a costume based on the updated version of Croft in Legend. She was the first model Eidos allowed to portray Lara Croft outside posing for photography. To prepare for the role, Adebibe trained in areas the character was expected to excel in like combat, motorcycling, elocution, and conduct. Gymnast Alison Carroll succeeded Adebibe in 2008 and featured apparel based on the character's appearance in Underworld. Similar to Adebibe, Carroll received special training—Special Air Service (SAS) survival, weapons, and archaeology—to fill the role. Crystal Dynamics discontinued the use of models as part of the franchise's second reboot. The number of models prompted Guinness World Records to award the character an official record for the "most official real life stand-ins" in 2008.
== Reception and legacy ==
Lara Croft's introduction was widely regarded as an innovation in the video game market, with Rob Smith of PlayStation: The Official Magazine describing her as a video game icon of that generation of games. IGN credited a rise in PlayStation sales in part to Croft's debut on the system, and PlayStation Magazine attributed the first title's success to the character. Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine stated alternatively that Tomb Raider's PlayStation success propelled the character to prominence, making her a mascot for the system. PlayStation Magazine credits coverage in the Financial Times in 1997 as the starting point of the character's mainstream attention. Jeremy Smith commented that the Financial Times is "a very serious, sober, broadsheet newspaper, and hardly the place you might expect Lara to be 'discovered'. But Eidos had announced its latest financial results, which were great results, and so the Financial Times had decided to put Eidos on the front page. They'd been given some Eidos information and artwork, and they decided to use Lara to illustrate their news piece". He further said that Eidos had not actively courted Lara's early magazine cover appearances or otherwise actively promoted the character at the time. As years progressed, Lara Croft's popularity declined due to a string of poorly received video game sequels. The Angel of Darkness is often cited as the character's low point. IGN editor Colin Moriarty stated that while she began as an intelligent and strong female character, her games grew bland and Lara Croft became more like a "virtual blow-up doll".
Crystal Dynamics' rendition of Croft in Legend garnered wide, though not universal, praise; many publications described the portrayal as a successful reboot. Game Informer named Lara Croft the number six top video game hero of 2006, citing the character's successful reprise in popularity. The magazine cited the character's alterations in Legend as the reason for her resurgent success. Chris Slate of PlayStation Magazine lauded the character changes in Legend, commenting that "Lara is finally back". He praised Eidos's decision to switch developers and Crystal Dynamics' contributions, especially the character's new gameplay manoeuvres and updated appearance. Others, such as Schedeen and GamePro's Patrick Shaw, felt that the makeover did not improve the character. Fans also disapproved of the changes, especially the switch from the braid.
Dr. Mark Griffiths of Nottingham Trent University described Lara Croft as a psychological tabula rasa. Richard Rouse of Midway Games attributed the character's appeal to a loosely defined personality, which permits players to imprint their own onto her. Jeremy Smith stated that the minimal personality allows players to form a relationship with the character, and that rather than taking on the role of the character they were sharing the game's experience with her. Burton added that Croft is perceived differently around the world. French demographics focus on her sex appeal, while German and British audiences are drawn to her aggressiveness and aloofness, respectively. Fansites dedicated to Lara Croft appeared on the internet in several languages after the release of Tomb Raider, and contained official and fan-created images of Croft, model photographs, and fan fiction starring the character. More than 100 such sites were present by the end of 1998. By 2000, search engine HotBot yielded around 4,700 pages for a search of the character's name. Admirers discussed rumours related to Lara Croft via usenet newsgroups and ICQ chats. Enthusiasts collected merchandise and paraphernalia, submitted fan art to video game magazines, participated in Croft cosplay, and obtained tattoos depicting the character. One admirer rode a bike over 500 miles (800 km) from Amsterdam to Derby wearing Lara Croft-brand clothing to meet the developers, who welcomed him after learning of the trip.
Lara Croft holds a Guinness World Record as the "most recognized female video game character", and received a star on the Walk of Game in San Francisco. Magazines, including Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition, have also described her as one of the iconic and best female video game character of all time. Game Informer commented that the character is well liked around the world, particularly in England. Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine described Croft as "one of today's premier videogame and movie heroes", and Play magazine described her as "3D gaming's first female superstar". Hartas called Croft one of the most famous game women, praising her independence. Karen Jones of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine described the character as "one of the biggest stars on the PlayStation". In 1998, PlayStation Magazine commented that Lara Croft was one of the most memorable characters on the PlayStation console, and echoed a similar statement in 2004. Time magazine writer Chris Taylor called her "the foundation of one of the most successful franchises in video-game history". Guinness World Records named the character the best-selling video game heroine, following the Tomb Raider franchise surpassing 100 million units sold, in November 2025.
=== Sex symbol ===
Lara Croft has become a sex symbol for video games, despite Toby Gard's intentions for her to be sexy "only because of her power". Time magazine's Kristina Dell considered her the first sex symbol of video games. Schedeen stated that Croft is among the first video game icons to be accepted as a mainstream sex symbol. Robert Ashley of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine described Lara Croft as the first video game character openly thought of as sexy, and attributed the appearance of similar 3D characters to her. Several publications listed big breasts as one of the character's most famous attributes. After interviewing players in 1998, Griffiths commented that players regularly mention Croft's breasts when discussing her. In 2008, the character was first and second on two UGO Networks lists of hottest video game characters. GameDaily placed Lara Croft number one on a similar list that same year, and PlayStation: The Official Magazine awarded her honourable mention for Game Babe of the Year. Croft has appeared in several issues of Play's Girls of Gaming special and PlayStation Magazine's Swimsuit special. Layouts portray the character partially nude, in bikinis, and in revealing cocktail dresses, though Tomb Raider: Underworld's creative director Eric Lindstrom criticised such poses as out of character. He further stated that they conflict with Croft's popular strengths, and felt that fans respond more strongly to images of the character dressed more conservatively than to ones with provocative poses. PlayStation Magazine's staff agreed, commenting that better use of the character's sex appeal would please fans more.
Male players have performed in-game actions to make Lara Croft repeatedly say phrases and view closer camera angles of her bust, while pornography featuring the character has been distributed via the internet. After the first game's release, rumours appeared on the internet about a cheat code to remove the character's clothes. Despite Core Design's denial of such a code, the rumour persisted, fuelled by manipulated nude images. The rumour lingered by the time Legend was released. PlayStation Magazine featured an April Fool's parody of Croft and the rumoured code referred to as "Nude Raider". Fans developed software patches to remove Lara Croft's clothing in the personal computer game releases.
Reactions from groups have been mixed. The journal Leonardo noted some feminists' negative reaction to her design; though males were identifying with their feminine side through Croft, she reinforced unrealistic ideals about the female body. Australian feminist scholar Germaine Greer criticised her as an embodiment of male fantasies. In 1996, Electronic Gaming Monthly argued that rather than altering the state of women in games, Croft simply continued the trend of female characters in video games being large-breasted and scantily clad in an effort to appeal to the predominately male gaming audience, which had the overall impact of teaching gamers to see women as sex objects. PlayStation Magazine staff commented that Croft could be seen as either a role model for young independent girls or the embodiment of a male adolescent fantasy, though they later stated that the character does little to attract female demographics and was obviously designed with a male audience in mind. The magazine's editors also criticised Core Design's hypocritical attempts to downplay the character's sex appeal in public statements while releasing advertisements that prominently featured Lara Croft's sexuality. Graphic artist Heather Gibson attributed the "sexism" to participation from Eidos's marketing department.
Author Mark Cohen attributed Lara Croft's eroticism among male fans to the character's appearance and a male protective instinct. German psychologist Oscar Holzberg described the protective behaviour as the result of the opportunity to act as a hero in virtual worlds and a fear of powerful, emancipated women. Jonathan Smith of Arcade: The Videogame Magazine similarly noted that male players often see themselves as "chivalrous protectors" while playing the game. Holzberg further stated that the lower psychological investment inherent to virtual characters is more comfortable for males. Cohen affirmed that despite blatant male appeal, Croft garnered a serious female audience. Eidos estimated that by 2000 female consumers comprised 20–25 percent of Tomb Raider game purchases. Jeremy Smith argued that the series attracted more female players to video gaming, especially in Japan. Smith believed that Croft does not alienate prospective female players, representing an emancipated heroine and not simply an attractive character. According to Adrian Smith, the character was also popular with younger demographics that did not view her sexually. Cohen reasoned that Croft differs from other erotic characters and attractive leads, as the Tomb Raider games also feature rich action, impressive graphics, and intelligent puzzles; other such characters were unsuccessful because the game content was lacking. Amy Hennig of developer Naughty Dog and Griffiths echoed similar statements. GamesRadar editor Justin Towell nonetheless commented that he couldn't imagine a Tomb Raider game without a sexualised female lead.
Griffith described Lara Croft as a flawed female influence. He stated that though the character is a step in the right direction, too many women view her as a "crudely realised male fantasy figure". Women in the video game industry describe the character as both a positive and negative influence. Ismini Roby of WomenGamers.com commented that Croft was not a sexist influence in 1996, attributed to the lack of prominent female characters in video games at the time. She stated that the over-sexualized appearance was overlooked because the character was a "breath of fresh air", but Roby felt that though Lara Croft's proportions have become more realistic, the character's personality was diluted by the developer's actions to appeal to a male audience. LesbianGamers.com's Tracy Whitelaw called the character a dichotomy, stating that though Croft is viewed as "idealized" with an "unattainable body", the character was a great stride for the propagation of female characters as video game protagonists.
=== Cultural impact ===
Lara Croft's 1996 debut is often cited as a catalyst for more female leads in video games. Kaiser Hwang of PlayStation Magazine commented that she "brought girl power" to video games. IGN argued that Croft helped redefine gender in video games by providing a different interpretation of what women could do. Several publications have used her as the standard to which later female video game characters have been compared. Multiple video game publications have labelled the character a video game and cultural icon. The title character in the 1998 German film Run Lola Run has often been compared to Croft. Comparisons were also made to Bond girl Christmas Jones from the 1999 James Bond series film The World Is Not Enough. Additionally, both Eidos Interactive senior executive John Davis and character spokeswoman Susie Hamilton noted the character's similarities to Lara Croft. Jeremy Smith credits Croft with exposing the Tomb Raider games and video games in general to a wider audience. Computer and Video Games commented that Croft's appearance on the cover of The Face signalled a change in the perception of video games from "geeky" to mainstream.
The character is honoured in the English city Derby, previous home to Core Design. In 2007, Radleigh Homes placed a blue plaque for Croft at the site of Core Design's former offices, now a block of flats. The Derby City Council opened a public vote in 2009 to name its new ring road. The winning choice, with 89% of over 27,000 votes, was "Lara Croft Way", which later opened in July 2010. In 2020, Croft appeared on four commemorative UK postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail to celebrate classic UK video games. A 2024 poll conducted by BAFTA with around 4,000 respondents named Lara Croft as the most iconic video-game character of all time.
Yahoo! Movies and IGN credit Jolie's role in the first Tomb Raider film with significantly raising her profile and propelling her to international super-stardom, respectively. Jolie commented that young children would ask her to sign objects as Lara Croft. After filming for the first movie at the Cambodian temple Ta Prohm, the local inhabitants called it the "Angelina Jolie Temple" and local restaurants served Jolie's favourite alcoholic beverage advertised as "Tomb Raider cocktails". IGN's Jesse Schedeen described Croft as one of few characters to receive a decent videogame-to-movie adaptation. By 2008, the first Tomb Raider film was the highest-grossing video game film and the largest opening ever for a movie headlined by a woman. It became the second highest-grossing video game movie in 2010, after the release of Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time, with Lara Croft Tomb Raider: The Cradle of Life as the fourth.
== See also ==
List of female action heroes and villains
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Coupland, Douglas; Ward, Kip (1998). Lara's Book: Lara Croft and the Tomb Raider Phenomenon. Roseville, California: Prima Games. ISBN 0-7615-1580-1.
Deuber-Mankowsky, Astrid (2005). Lara Croft: Cyber Heroine. Electronic Mediations. Vol. 14. Minneapolis, United States of America: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-4391-2.
Hopkins, Susan (2002). Girl Heroes: The New Force In Popular Culture. Annandale, Australia: Pluto Press. ISBN 1-86403-157-3.
Jones, Darran (2010). "Loving Lara Croft". Retro Gamer (78). Bournemouth, United Kingdom: Imagine Publishing: 24–31. ISSN 1742-3155.
Kennedy, Helen (December 2002). "Lara Croft: Feminist Icon or Cyberbimbo?". Game Studies. 2 (2). Denmark: IT University of Copenhagen. ISSN 1604-7982.
== External links ==
Media related to Lara Croft at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanduk_Ruit | Sanduk Ruit | Sanduk Ruit (Nepali: सन्दुक रूइत; pronounced [ˈsʌnduk rui̯t]) is an ophthalmologist from Nepal who was involved in restoring the sight of over 180,000 people across Africa and Asia using small-incision cataract surgery.
Ruit is the founder and the executive director of the Tilganga Institute of Ophthalmology, which manufactures intraocular lenses for surgical implantation at a fraction of the previous manufacturing cost. The low cost has made cataract surgeries slightly cheaper in Nepal.
Ruit has been referred to as the "God of Sight". He was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Peace and International Understanding, considered to be the Asian equivalent of the Nobel Prize, for "placing Nepal at the forefront of developing safe, effective, and economical procedures for cataract surgery, enabling the needlessly blind in even the poorest countries to see again." He was awarded with the ISA award, the highest civilian award in Bahrain by the king of Bahrain for developing highly affordable and sustainable ways to cure cataracts throughout the developing world with a cash prize of 1 million dollars.
== Early life and education ==
Ruit was born on September 4, 1954, to rural, illiterate parents, father Sonam Ruit and mother Kesang Ruit, in the remote mountainous village Olangchunggola near the border with Tibet in northeast Nepal. His village of 200 people was located 11,000 feet above sea level on the lap of the world's third-highest peak, Mt. Kanchenjunga. It is one of the most remote regions of Nepal with no electricity, school, health facilities or modern means of communication, and lies blanketed under snow for six to nine months a year. Ruit's family made a subsistence living from small agriculture, petty trading and livestock farming.
Ruit was the second of his parents’ six children. He lost three siblings – an elder brother to diarrhoea at age three and younger sister Chundak to fever at age eight. In many interviews, Ruit has mentioned that for him, the most painful was his younger sister Yangla's death. Yangla was his childhood companion, and he developed a special bond with her over the years. She died at 15 of tuberculosis as the family was too poor to afford treatment that could have saved her life. In many interviews, Ruit has said that this loss made a strong mark on him and instilled in him a resolve to become a doctor and work for the poor who would not otherwise have access to healthcare.
The nearest school from his village was fifteen days' walk away in Darjeeling. His father, a small-time businessman, sent Ruit to St Robert's School in Darjeeling at the age of seven, and provided financial support for his early medical career. Ruit's life in Darjeeling was hard as he was away from his parents and home for about four to five years. After a few years, he returned to Nepal and continued his study. In 1969, Ruit graduated from Siddhartha Vanasthali School in Kathmandu, Nepal, and later was further educated in India. He studied a Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery from King George's Medical College, Lucknow, with a scholarship from 1972 to 1976. Ruit then returned to Nepal and worked as a General Physician in Bir Hospital, Kathmandu for three years. Later he wanted to specialize in ophthalmology, so he continued his studies from 1981 at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Delhi with a scholarship and achieved his Master's Degree. After three years in 1984 he returned to Nepal and worked in an eye hospital in Tripureshwor for eight years. Meanwhile Australian ophthalmologist Fred Hollows was in Nepal as a mentor, selected by WHO. He noticed Ruit's work and determination and offered him further study about cataract surgery in Australia in 1986. Ruit further studied in Australia, the Netherlands and the United States.
== Early career and marriage ==
While in Australia, Ruit gained further deep specialization in eye surgery. Ruit and Hollows created the Small Incision Cataract Surgery (SICS), which used intraocular lenses, and Ruit became the first Nepali doctor to use intraocular lenses. To gain donations to make eye surgeries more affordable and accessible in Nepal, he established Nepal Eye Program Australia, later renamed The Fred Hollows Foundation. He was offered to stay and work in Australia, but he returned to Nepal and continued to work at Tripureshwor Eye Hospital.
Ruit married Nanda Shrestha, an ophthalmic nurse, in 1987. He has one son and two daughters.
== Accomplishments ==
Working in Australia in 1986, Ruit and Fred Hollows developed a strategy for using inexpensive intraocular lenses to bring small-incision cataract surgery to the developing world. However, the lenses remained too expensive for many cataract patients. In 1995, Ruit developed a new intraocular lens that could be produced far more cheaply and which, as of 2010, is used in over 60 countries. Ruit's method is now taught in U.S. medical schools. Despite being far cheaper, Ruit's method has the same success rate as Western techniques: 98% at six months.
In 1994, Dr. Ruit founded the Tilganga Eye Center, now called the Tilganga Institute of Ophthalmology, in Kathmandu. It aims to provide eye care at an affordable price. The institute works closely with the Himalayan Cataract Project, which Ruit Co-founded with his colleague Geoff Tabin, and other organizations to give cataract surgery to people in some of the world's most perilous and inaccessible locations, frequently for free. Tilganga has performed over 100,000 operations, trained over 500 medical personnel from around the world, and produces Ruit's intraocular lenses at a cost of less than US $5 each. It also produces prosthetic eyes for US $3, compared to imports that cost $150. For those unable to reach the centre or who live in otherwise isolated rural areas, Ruit and his team set up mobile eye camps, often using tents, classrooms, and even animal stables as makeshift operating rooms.
After treating a North Korean diplomat in Kathmandu, Ruit persuaded North Korean authorities to let him visit in 2006. There he conducted surgery on 1000 patients and trained many local surgeons.
In April 2021, Ruit launched the Tej Kohli & Ruit Foundation with a mission to screen 1,000,000 people and cure 300,000 of cataract blindness by 2026. In March 2021, the foundation conducted its first microsurgical outreach camp in the Lumbini region of Nepal, where it screened 1,387 patients and cured 312 of blindness. Another camp in the Solukhumbu region screened 1,214 patients and cured 178 of blindness in April 2021.
== Media coverage ==
"Surgeon Dr Sanduk Ruit revolutionizing cataract surgery gives sight to thousands", 2018 feature story by Miranda Wood on The Daily Telegraph
A 2006 National Geographic documentary Inside North Korea documented not only Ruit's surgery in the highly controlled country but also the resulting overt adulation by the patients given to the then-Supreme Leader of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea Kim Jong-il.
Ruit's work in Nepal featured in Episode 5 (Mountains – Life in Thin Air) of the 2010 BBC documentary series Human Planet.
Out of the Darkness, a 2011 film by Italian director Stefano Levi, documents Ruit's work in remote Northern Nepal.
In 2015, Ruit and his work were featured in a New York Times op-ed by Nicholas Kristof: "In 5 Minutes, He Lets the Blind See". The article was based on reporting in Nepal by Kristof and Austin Meyer, a graduate journalism student at Stanford University, during the trip with the winner of the 2015 New York Times Win a Trip with Nick Kristof contest.
ABC Radio interview for ABC Conversations, "The doctor known as the ‘God of Sight’", by Richard Fidler (2018)"
CBS News article by Bill Whitaker, "Restoring eyesight with a simple, inexpensive surgery" (2017)
CNN article "Sight for sore eyes: 'Maverick' doctor who restored the vision of 100,000 people" by Sophie Brown (2014)
CNN photos "Nepal Miracle Eye Doctor heals 100,000" (2014)
National Geographic documentary "Miracle Doctors: Curing Blindness"
Al Jazeera documentary "The Gift of Sight" (2014)
Reuters feature "Nepal's 'magic' surgeon brings light back to poor" (2012)
Mini documentary by Great Big Story "This Surgeon Has Restored Sight to 130,000 of Nepal's Blind" (2019)
Daily US Times feature "Nas Daily Discovers Dr. Sanduk Ruit: He Is The God Of Sight" (2020)
Ruit's biography, The Barefoot Surgeon by Australian writer Ali Gripper, was published in June 2018. A Nepali translation Sanduk Ruit was published by Fine Print Books in 2019.
== Awards and honors ==
In May 2007, Ruit was appointed an Honorary Officer of the Order of Australia "for service to humanity by establishing eye care services in Nepal and surrounding countries, and for his work in teaching and training surgeons and technical innovation".
In June 2006, he was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding.
On March 5, 2007, he was awarded the Asian of the Year 2007 by the Union Minister of Health and Family Welfare, Dr. Anbumani Ramadoss, in New Delhi.
He was also awarded with Prince Mahidol Award of Thailand.
Asteroid 83362 Sandukruit, discovered by Bill Yeung in 2001, was named in his honor. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 30 March 2010 (M.P.C. 69494).
On December 17, 2015, he was conferred with the National Order of Merit of Bhutan [in Gold].
On October 27, 2016, he received an Asia Game Changer Award from the Asia Society "for bringing the gifts of sight and productive life to those most in need."
In 2018, the Government of India awarded him the Padma Shri, its fourth highest civilian award, for “[his] innovation in the 1980s [that] led to a 90 per cent reduction in the cost of cataract eye surgery, provides low-cost cataract surgery lenses to over thirty countries.”
In 2019, the Government of Nepal honoured him with Prime Minister National Talent Award for his contribution to the field of ophthalmology.
In September 2020, the Nepal Government announced that Dr. Sanduk Ruit will be honoured with Suprasiddha Prabal Janasewashree (first).Govt announces list of 594 persons for state honours
On February 21, 2023, Dr Sanduk Ruit was awarded the prestigious ISA award for service to humanity amid a programme held at the ISA Cultural Centre in Manama, Bahrain. The King of Bahrain, His Majesty Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa handed Dr. Ruit $1 million during the royal ceremony."
A species of groundhopper (Orthoptera: Tetrigidae) discovered from Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park by a team led by Nepali researcher Madan Subedi has been named after Dr. Sanduk Ruit as Hebarditettix sanduki Subedi, Kasalo, & Skejo, 2024.
In 2023 Ruit was awarded an honorary Doctorate in Science by the United Kingdom's Anglia Ruskin University.
== Further reading ==
Ali Gripper (2019), "The Barefoot Surgeon: The Inspirational Story of Dr. Sanduk Ruit, the Eye Surgeon Giving Sight and Hope to the World's Poor", India: Penguin Random House India. ISBN 9780143447429.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_period#:~:text=In%20370%20BC%2C%20Marquess%20Wu,from%20the%20south%20invaded%20Wei. | Warring States period | The Warring States period in Chinese history (c. 475 – 221 BC) comprises the final centuries of the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 – 256 BC), which were characterized by warfare, bureaucratic and military reform, and political consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded with the wars of conquest that saw the state of Qin annex each of the other contender states by 221 BC and found the Qin dynasty, the first imperial dynastic state in East Asian history.
While scholars have identified several different dates as marking the beginning of the Warring States period, Sima Qian's choice of 475 BC is the most often cited. The era largely corresponds to the second half of the Eastern Zhou period, when the king of Zhou formally ruled as Chinese sovereign, but had lost political power and functioned in practice as a figurehead. This dynamic served as the backdrop for the machinations of the eponymous Warring States. The label "Warring States period" derives from the Record of the Warring States, a work of history compiled during the early Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD).
== Geography ==
The political geography of the era was dominated by the Seven Warring States, namely:
Qin located in the far west, with its core in the Wei River Valley and Guanzhong. This geographical position offered protection from the other states but limited its initial influence.
The Three Jins located in the center on the Shanxi plateau were the three successor states of Jin. These were:
Han south, along the Yellow River, controlling the approaches to Qin.
Wei located in the middle, roughly today's eastern Henan Province.
Zhao the northernmost of the three, roughly today's southern Hebei Province as well as northern Shanxi Province.
Qi east, centered on the Shandong Peninsula
Chu south, with its core territory around the valleys of the Han River and, later, the Yangtze River.
Yan northeast, centered on modern-day Beijing. Late in the period it pushed northeast and began to occupy the Liaodong Peninsula
Besides these seven major states other smaller states survived into the period. They include:
Royal territory of the Zhou king was near Luoyi in the Han area on the Yellow River.
Yue On the southeast coast near Shanghai was the State of Yue, which was highly active in the late Spring and Autumn era but was later annexed by Chu.
Zhongshan between the states of Zhao and Yan was the state of Zhongshan, which was eventually annexed by Zhao in 296 BC.
Sichuan states: In the far southwest were the non-Zhou states of Ba (east) and Shu (west). These ancient kingdoms were conquered by Qin later in the period.
Other minor states: There were many minor states which were satellites of the larger ones until they were absorbed. Many were in the Central Plains between the three Jins (west) and Qi (east) and Chu to the south. Some of the more important ones were Song, Lu, Zheng, Wey, Teng, Yue and Zou.
== Periodisation ==
The eastward flight of the Zhou court in 771 BC marks the start of the Spring and Autumn period. No one single incident or starting point inaugurated the Warring States era. The political situation of the period represented a culmination of historical trends of conquest and annexation which also characterised the Spring and Autumn period. As a result, there is some controversy as to the beginning of the era. Proposed starting points include:
481 BC – Proposed by Song-era historian Lü Zuqian, since this year marks the end of the Spring and Autumn Annals.
476–475 BC – Sima Qian, author of the Records of the Grand Historian (c. 91 – c. BC), chose this date as the inaugural year of King Yuan of Zhou.
453 BC – The Partition of Jin saw the formation of Han, Zhao, and Wei, three of the seven warring states.
441 BC – The inaugural year of Zhou Kings starting with King Ai of Zhou.
403 BC – The year when the Zhou court officially recognised Han, Zhao and Wei as states. Sima Guang, author of the Zizhi Tongjian (1084) advocates this date as symbolic of eroded Zhou authority.
== History ==
=== Background and formation ===
The Eastern Zhou dynasty began its fall around the 5th century BC. As their influence waned, they had to rely on armies in allied states rather than their own military force. Hundreds of smaller polities coalesced into seven major states which included: Chu, Han, Qin, Wei, Yan, Qi and Zhao. However, there eventually was a shift in alliances because each state's ruler wanted independence. This caused hundreds of wars between 535 and 286 BC. The victorious state would have overall rule and control in China.
The system of feudal states created by the Western Zhou dynasty underwent enormous changes after 771 BC with the flight of the Zhou court to modern-day Luoyang and the diminution of its relevance and power. The Spring and Autumn period led to a few states gaining power at the expense of many others, the latter no longer able to depend on central authority for legitimacy or protection. During the Warring States period, many rulers claimed the Mandate of Heaven to justify their conquest of other states and spread their influence.
The struggle for hegemony eventually created a state system dominated by several large states, such as Jin, Chu, Qin, Yan, and Qi, while the smaller states of the Central Plain tended to be their satellites and tributaries. Other major states also existed, such as Wu and Yue in the southeast. The last decades of the Spring and Autumn era were marked by increased stability, as the result of peace negotiations between Jin and Chu which established their respective spheres of influence. This situation ended with the partition of Jin, whereby the state was divided between the houses of Han, Zhao and Wei, leading to the seven major warring states.
==== Partition of Jin (453–403 BC) ====
The rulers of Jin had steadily lost political powers since the middle of the 6th century BC to their nominally subordinate nobles and military commanders, a situation arising from the traditions of the Jin which forbade the enfeoffment of relatives of the ducal house. This allowed other clans to gain fiefs and military authority, and decades of internecine struggle led to the establishment of four major families, the Han, Zhao, Wei and Zhi.
The Battle of Jinyang saw the allied Han, Zhao and Wei destroy the Zhi family (453 BC) and their lands were distributed among them. With this, they became the de facto rulers of most of Jin's territory, though this situation would not be officially recognised until half a century later. The Jin division created a political vacuum that enabled during the first 50 years expansion of Chu and Yue northward and Qi southward. Qin increased its control of the local tribes and began its expansion southwest to Sichuan.
=== Early Warring States ===
==== The three Jins recognized (403–364 BC) ====
In 403 BC, the court of King Weilie of Zhou officially recognized Zhao, Wei and Han as immediate vassals, thereby raising them to the same rank as the other warring states.
From before 405 until 383 BC the three Jins were united under the leadership of Wei and expanded in all directions. The most important figure was Marquess Wen of Wei (445–396 BC). In 408–406 BC he conquered the State of Zhongshan to the northeast on the other side of Zhao. At the same time he pushed west across the Yellow River to the Luo River taking the area of Xihe (literally 'west of the [Yellow] river').
The growing power of Wei caused Zhao to back away from the alliance. In 383 BC it moved its capital to Handan and attacked the small state of Wey. Wey appealed to Wei which attacked Zhao on the western side. Being in danger, Zhao called in Chu. As usual, Chu used this as a pretext to annex territory to its north, but the diversion allowed Zhao to occupy a part of Wei. This conflict marked the end of the power of the united Jins and the beginning a period of shifting alliances and wars on several fronts.
In 376 BC, the states of Han, Wei and Zhao deposed Duke Jing of Jin and divided the last remaining Jin territory between themselves, which marked the final end of the Jin state.
In 370 BC, Marquess Wu of Wei died without naming a successor, which led to a war of succession. After three years of civil war, Zhao from the north and Han from the south invaded Wei. On the verge of conquering Wei, the leaders of Zhao and Han fell into disagreement about what to do with Wei, and both armies abruptly retreated. As a result, King Hui of Wei (still a Marquess at the time) was able to ascend the throne of Wei.
Zhao extended from the Shanxi plateau across the plain to the borders of Qi. Wei reached east to Qi, Lu, and Song. To the south, the weaker state of Han held the east–west part of the Yellow River valley, surrounded the Zhou royal domain at Luoyang and held an area north of Luoyang called Shangdang.
==== Qi resurgence under Tian (379–340 BC) ====
Duke Kang of Qi died in 379 BC with no heir from the house of Jiang, which had ruled Qi since the state's founding. The throne instead passed to the future King Wei, from the house of Tian. The Tian had been very influential at court towards the end of Jiang rule, and now openly assumed power.
The new ruler set about reclaiming territories that had been lost to other states. He launched a successful campaign against Zhao, Wey and Wei, once again extending Qi territory to the Great Wall. Sima Qian writes that the other states were so awestruck that nobody dared attack Qi for more than 20 years. The demonstrated military prowess also had a calming effect on Qi's own population, which experienced great domestic tranquility during Wei's reign.
By the end of King Wei's reign, Qi had become the strongest of the states and proclaimed itself "king"; establishing independence from the Zhou dynasty (see below).
==== Wars of Wei ====
King Hui of Wei (370–319 BC) set about restoring the state. In 362–359 BC he exchanged territories with Han and Zhao in order to make the boundaries of the three states more rational.
In 364 BC, Wei was defeated by Qin at the Battle of Shimen and was only saved by the intervention of Zhao. Qin won another victory in 362 BC. In 361 BC the Wei capital was moved east to Daliang to be out of the reach of Qin.
In 354 BC, King Hui of Wei started a large-scale attack on Zhao. By 353 BC, Zhao was losing badly and its capital, Handan, was under siege. The state of Qi intervened. The famous Qi strategist, Sun Bin the great-great-great-grandson of Sun Tzu, the author of the Art of War, proposed to attack the Wei capital while the Wei army was tied up besieging Zhao. The strategy was a success; the Wei army hastily moved south to protect its capital, was caught on the road and decisively defeated at the Battle of Guiling. The battle is remembered in the second of the Thirty-Six Stratagems, "besiege Wei, save Zhao"—meaning to attack a vulnerable spot to relieve pressure at another point.
Domestically, King Hui patronized philosophy and the arts, and is perhaps best remembered for hosting the Confucian philosopher Mencius at his court; their conversations form the first two chapters of the book which bears Meng Zi's name.
=== Dukes become kings ===
==== Qi and Wei became kingdoms (344 BC) ====
The title of king (wang, 王) was held by figurehead rulers of the Zhou dynasty, while the rulers of most states held the title of duke (gong, 公) or marquess (hou, 侯). A major exception was Chu, whose rulers were called kings since King Wu of Chu started using the title c. 703 BC.
In 344 BC the rulers of Qi and Wei mutually recognized each other as kings: King Wei of Qi and King Hui of Wei, in effect declaring their independence from the Zhou court. This marked a major turning point: unlike those in the Spring and Autumn period, the new generation of rulers ascending the thrones in the Warring States period would not entertain even the pretence of being vassals of the Zhou dynasty, instead proclaiming themselves fully independent kingdoms.
==== Shang Yang reforms Qin (356–338 BC) ====
During the early Warring States period Qin generally avoided conflicts with the other states. This changed during the reign of Duke Xiao, when prime minister Shang Yang made centralizing and authoritarian reforms in accordance with his Legalist philosophy between the years 356 and 338 BC.
Shang introduced land reforms, privatized land, rewarded farmers who exceeded harvest quotas, enslaved farmers who failed to meet quotas, and used enslaved subjects as rewards for those who met government policies. As manpower was short in Qin relative to the other states at the time, Shang enacted policies to increase its manpower. As Qin peasants were recruited into the military, he encouraged active immigration of peasants from other states into Qin as a replacement workforce; this policy simultaneously increased the manpower of Qin and weakened the manpower of Qin's rivals.
Shang made laws forcing citizens to marry at a young age and passed tax laws to encourage raising multiple children. He also enacted policies to free convicts who worked in opening wastelands for agriculture. Shang abolished primogeniture and created a double tax on households that had more than one son living in the household, to break up large clans into nuclear families. Shang also moved the capital to reduce the influence of nobles on the administration.
The rise of Qin was recognized by the royal court, and in 343 BC the king conferred the title of Count (伯 Bó) on Duke Xiao. As was customary, a conference was hosted which the feudal lords attended, and during which the Son of Heaven bestowed the title.
After the reforms Qin became much more aggressive. In 340 Qin took land from Wèi after it had been defeated by Qi. In 316 Qin conquered Shu and Ba in Sichuan to the southwest. Development of this area took a long time but slowly added greatly to Qin's wealth and power.
==== Qin defeats Wei (341–340 BC) ====
In 341 BC, Wei attacked Han. Qi allowed Han to be nearly defeated and then intervened. The generals from the Battle of Guiling met again (Sun Bin and Tian Ji versus Pang Juan), using the same tactic, attacking Wei's capital. Sun Bin feigned a retreat and then turned on the overconfident Wei troops and decisively defeated them at the Battle of Maling. After the battle all three of the Jin successor states appeared before King Xuan of Qi, pledging their loyalty.
In the following year Qin attacked the weakened Wei. Wei was devastatingly defeated and ceded a large part of its territory in return for truce. With Wei severely weakened, Qi and Qin became the dominant states in China.
Wei came to rely on Qi for protection, with King Hui of Wei meeting King Xuan of Qi on two occasions. After Hui's death, his successor King Xiang also established a good relationship with his Qi counterpart, with both promising to recognize the other as "king".
==== Chu conquers Yue (334 BC) ====
Early in the Warring States period, Chu was one of the strongest states in China. The state rose to a new level of power around 389 BC when King Dao of Chu (楚悼王) named the famous reformer Wu Qi as his chancellor.
Chu rose to its peak in 334 BC, when it conquered Yue to its east on the Pacific coast. The series of events leading up to this began when Yue prepared to attack Qi to its north. The King of Qi sent an emissary who persuaded the King of Yue to attack Chu instead. Yue initiated a large-scale attack at Chu but was defeated by Chu's counter-attack. Chu then proceeded to conquer Yue.
==== Qin, Han and Yan became kingdoms (325–323 BC) ====
King Xian of Zhou had attempted to use what little royal prerogative he had left by appointing the dukes Xian (384–362 BC), Xiao (361–338 BC) and Hui (338–311 BC) of Qin as hegemons, thereby in theory making Qin the chief ally of the court.
However, in 325 BC, the confidence of Duke Hui grew so great that he proclaimed himself "king" of Qin; adopting the same title as the king of Zhou and thereby effectively proclaiming independence from the Zhou dynasty. King Hui of Qin was guided by his prime minister Zhang Yi, a prominent representative of the School of Diplomacy.
He was followed in 323 BC by King Xuanhui of Han and King Yi of Yan, as well as King Cuo of the minor state Zhongshan. In 318 BC even the ruler of Song, a relatively minor state, declared himself king. Uniquely, while King Wuling of Zhao had joined the other kings in declaring himself king, he retracted this order in 318 BC, after Zhao suffered a great defeat at the hands of Qin.
==== Partition of Zhou (314 BC) ====
King Kao of Zhou had enfeoffed his younger brother as Duke Huan of Henan. Three generations later, this cadet branch of the royal house began calling themselves "dukes of East Zhou".
Upon the ascension of King Nan in 314, East Zhou became an independent state. The king came to reside in what became known as West Zhou.
=== Horizontal and vertical alliances (334–249 BC) ===
Towards the end of the Warring States period, the state of Qin became disproportionately powerful compared with the other six states. As a result, the policies of the six states became overwhelmingly oriented towards dealing with the Qin threat, with two opposing schools of thought. One school advocated a 'vertical' or north–south alliance called hezong (合縱) in which the states would ally with each other to repel Qin. The other advocated a 'horizontal' or east–west alliance called lianheng (連橫), in which a state would ally with Qin to participate in its ascendancy.
There were some initial successes in hezong, though mutual suspicions between allied states led to the breakdown of such alliances. Qin repeatedly exploited the horizontal alliance strategy to defeat the states one by one. During this period, many philosophers and tacticians travelled around the states, recommending that the rulers put their respective ideas into use. These "lobbyists", such as Su Qin, who advocated vertical alliances, and Zhang Yi, who advocated horizontal alliances, were famous for their tact and intellect, and were collectively known as the School of Diplomacy, whose Chinese name (縱橫家 'the school of the vertical and horizontal') was derived from the two opposing ideas.
==== Su Qin and the first vertical alliance (334–300 BC) ====
Beginning in 334 BC the diplomat Su Qin spent years visiting the courts of Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Qi and Chu and persuaded them to form a united front against Qin. In 318 BC all states except Qi launched a joint attack on Qin, which was not successful.
King Hui of Qin died in 311 BC, followed by prime minister Zhang Yi one year later. The new monarch, King Wu, reigned only four years before dying without legitimate heirs. Some damaging turbulence ensued throughout 307 BC before a son of King Hui by a concubine (i.e. a younger half-brother of King Wu) could be established as King Zhao, who in stark contrast to his predecessor went on to rule for an unprecedented 53 years.
After the failure of the first vertical alliance, Su Qin eventually came to live in Qi, where he was favored by King Xuan and drew the envy of the ministers. An assassination attempt in 300 BC left Su mortally wounded but not dead. Sensing death approaching, he advised the newly crowned King Min have him publicly executed to draw out the assassins. King Min complied with Su's request and killed him, putting an end to the first generation of Vertical alliance thinkers.
==== The first horizontal alliance (300–287 BC) ====
King Min of Qi came to be highly influenced by Lord Mengchang, a grandson of the former King Wei of Qi. Lord Mengchang made a westward alliance with the states of Wei and Han. In the far west, Qin, which had been weakened by a succession struggle in 307, yielded to the new coalition and appointed Lord Mengchang its chief minister. The alliance between Qin and Qi was sealed by a Qin princess marrying King Min. This horizontal or east–west alliance might have secured peace except that it excluded the State of Zhao.
Around 299 BC, the ruler of Zhao became the last of the seven major states to proclaim himself "king".
In 298 BC, Zhao offered Qin an alliance and Lord Mengchang was driven out of Qin. The remaining three allies, Qi, Wei and Han, attacked Qin, driving up the Yellow River below Shanxi to the Hangu Pass. After 3 years of fighting they took the pass and forced Qin to return territory to Han and Wei. They next inflicted major defeats on Yan and Chu. During the 5-year administration of Lord Mengchang, Qi was the major power in China.
In 294, Lord Mengchang was implicated in a coup d'état and fled to Wei. His alliance system collapsed.
Qi and Qin made a truce and pursued their own interests. Qi moved south against the state of Song whilst the Qin General Bai Qi pushed back eastward against a Han/Wei alliance, gaining victory at the Battle of Yique.
In 288, King Zhao of Qin and King Min of Qi took the title di (帝 'emperor'), of the west and east respectively. They swore a covenant and started planning an attack on Zhao.
==== Su Dai and the second vertical alliance ====
In 287 BC the strategist Su Dai, younger brother of Su Qin and possibly an agent of Yan, persuaded King Min that the Zhao war would only benefit Qin. King Min agreed and formed a 'vertical' alliance with the other states against Qin. Qin backed off, abandoned the presumptuous title of "Di", and restored territory to Wei and Zhao. In 286 Qi annexed the state of Song.
==== The second horizontal alliance and fall of Qi ====
In 285 BC, the success of Qi had frightened the other states. Under the leadership of Lord Mengchang, who was exiled in Wei, Qin, Zhao, Wei and Yan formed an alliance. Yan had normally been a relatively weak ally of Qi and Qi feared little from this quarter. Yan's onslaught under general Yue Yi came as a devastating surprise. Simultaneously, the other allies attacked from the west. Chu declared itself an ally of Qi but contented itself with annexing some territory to its north. Qi's armies were destroyed while the territory of Qi was reduced to the two cities of Ju and Jimo. King Min himself was later captured and executed by his own followers.
King Min was succeeded by King Xiang in 283 BC. His general Tian Dan was eventually able to restore much of Qi's territory, but it never regained the influence it had under King Min.
==== Qin and Zhao expansion ====
In 278 BC, the Qin general Bai Qi attacked from Qin's new territory in Sichuan to the west of Chu. The capital of Ying was captured and Chu's western lands on the Han River were lost. The effect was to shift Chu significantly to the east.
After Chu was defeated in 278, the remaining great powers were Qin in the west and Zhao in the north-center. There was little room for diplomatic maneuver and matters were decided by wars. Zhao had been much strengthened by King Wuling of Zhao (325–299). In 307 he enlarged his cavalry by copying the northern nomads. In 306 he took more land in the northern Shanxi plateau. In 305 he defeated the north-eastern border state of Zhongshan. In 304 he pushed far to the north-west and occupied the east–west section of the Yellow River in the north of the Ordos Loop. King Huiwen of Zhao (298–266) chose able servants and expanded against the weakened Qi and Wei. In 296 his general Lian Po defeated two Qin armies.
In 269 BC Fan Sui became chief advisor to Qin. He advocated authoritarian reforms, irrevocable expansion and an alliance with distant states to attack nearby states (the twenty-third of the Thirty-Six Stratagems). His maxim "attack not only the territory, but also the people" enunciated a policy of mass slaughter that became increasingly frequent.
==== Qin-Zhao wars (282–257 BC) ====
In 265 King Zhaoxiang of Qin made the first move by attacking the weak state of Han which held the Yellow River gateway into Qin. He moved north-east across Wei territory to cut off the Han exclave of Shangdang north of Luoyang and south of Zhao. The Han king agreed to surrender Shangdang, but the local governor refused and presented it to King Xiaocheng of Zhao. Zhao sent out Lian Po who based his armies at Changping and Qin sent out general Wang He. Lian Po was too wise to risk a decisive battle with the Qin army and remained inside his fortifications. Qin could not break through and the armies were locked in stalemate for three years. The Zhao king decided that Lian Po was not aggressive enough and sent out Zhao Kuo who promised a decisive battle. At the same time Qin secretly replaced Wang He with the notoriously violent Bai Qi. When Zhao Kuo left his fortifications, Bai Qi used a Cannae maneuver, falling back in the center and surrounding the Zhao army from the sides. After being surrounded for 46 days, the starving Zhao troops surrendered in September 260 BC. It is said that Bai Qi had all the prisoners killed and that Zhao lost 400,000 men.
Qin was too exhausted to follow up its victory. Some time later it sent an army to besiege the Zhao capital but the army was destroyed when it was attacked from the rear. Zhao survived, but there was no longer a state that could resist Qin on its own. The other states could have survived if they remained united against Qin, but they did not.
In 257 BC, Qin army failed to besiege Handan and was defeated by the allied force of Zhao, Wei and Chu during the Battle of Handan.
==== End of Zhou dynasty (256–249 BC) ====
The forces of King Zhao of Qin defeated King Nan of Zhou and conquered West Zhou in 256 BC, claiming the Nine Cauldrons and thereby symbolically becoming The Son of Heaven.
King Zhao's exceptionally long reign ended in 251 BC. His son King Xiaowen, already an old man, died just three days after his coronation and was succeeded by his son King Zhuangxiang of Qin. The new Qin king proceeded to conquer East Zhou, seven years after the fall of West Zhou. Thus the 800-year Zhou dynasty, nominally China's longest-ruling regime, finally came to an end.
Sima Qian contradicts himself regarding the ultimate fate of the East Zhou court. Chapter 4 (The Annals of Zhou) concludes with the sentence "thus the sacrifices of Zhou ended", but in the following chapter 5 (The Annals of Qin) we learn that "Qin did not prohibit their sacrifices; the Lord of Zhou was allotted a patch of land in Yangren where he could continue his ancestral sacrifices".
=== Qin unites China (247–221 BC) ===
King Zhuangxiang of Qin ruled for only three years. He was succeeded by his son Zheng, who unlike the two elderly kings that preceded him was only 13 years old at his coronation. As an adult, Zheng became a brilliant commander who, in the span of just nine years, unified China.
==== Conquest of Han ====
In 230 BC, Qin conquered Han. Han, the weakest of the Seven Warring States, was adjacent to the much stronger Qin, and had suffered continuous assaults by Qin in earlier years of the Warring States period. This went on until King Zheng of Qin sent general Wang Jian to attack Zhao. King An of Han, frightened by the thought that Han would be the next target of the Qin state, immediately sent diplomats to surrender the entire kingdom without a fight, saving the Han populace from the terrible potential consequences of an unsuccessful resistance.
==== Conquest of Wei ====
In 225 BC, Qin conquered Wei. The Qin army led a direct invasion into Wei by besieging its capital Daliang but soon realized that the city walls were too tough to break into. They devised a new strategy in which they utilized the power of a local river that was linked to the Yellow River. The river was used to flood the city's walls, causing massive devastation to the city. Upon realizing the situation, King Jia of Wei hurriedly came out of the capital and surrendered it to the Qin army in order to avoid further bloodshed of his people.
==== Conquest of Chu ====
In 223 BC, Qin conquered Chu.
The first invasion was however an utter disaster when 200,000 Qin troops, led by the general, Li Xin, were defeated by 500,000 Chu troops in the unfamiliar territory of Huaiyang, modern-day northern Jiangsu and Anhui provinces. Xiang Yan, the Chu commander, had lured Qin by allowing a few initial victories, but then counterattacked and burnt two large Qin camps.
In 222 BC, Wang Jian was recalled to lead a second military invasion with 600,000 men against the Chu state. High in morale after their victory in the previous year, the Chu forces were content to sit back and defend against what they expected to be a siege of Chu. However, Wang Jian decided to weaken Chu's resolve and tricked the Chu army by appearing to be idle in his fortifications whilst secretly training his troops to fight in Chu territory. After a year, the Chu defenders decided to disband due to apparent lack of action from the Qin. Wang Jian invaded at that point, with full force, and overran Huaiyang and the remaining Chu forces. Chu lost the initiative and could only sustain local guerrilla-style resistance until it too was fully conquered with the destruction of Shouchun and the death of its last leader, Lord Changping, in 223 BC. At their peak, the combined armies of Chu and Qin are estimated to have ranged from hundreds of thousands to a million soldiers, more than those involved in the campaign of Changping between Qin and Zhao 35 years earlier.
==== Conquest of Zhao and Yan ====
In 222 BC, Qin conquered Zhao and Yan.
After the conquest of Zhao, the Qin army turned its attention towards Yan. Realizing the danger and gravity of this situation, Crown Prince Dan of Yan had sent Jing Ke to assassinate King Zheng of Qin, but this failure only helped to fuel the rage and determination of the Qin king, and he increased the number of troops to conquer the Yan state.
==== Conquest of Qi ====
In 221 BC, Qin conquered Qi, the final unconquered state. It had not previously contributed or helped other states when Qin was conquering them. As soon as Qin's intention to invade it became clear, Qi swiftly surrendered all its cities, completing the unification of China and ushering in the Qin dynasty. The last Qi king lived out his days in exile in Gong and was not given a posthumous name, therefore he is known to posterity by his personal name Jian.
The Qin king Ying Zheng declared himself as Qin Shi Huangdi, "The first Sovereign Emperor of Qin".
In the rule of the Qin state, the union was based solely on military power. The feudal holdings were abolished, and noble families were forced to live in the capital city Xianyang, in order to be supervised. A national road (as well as greater use of canals) allowed for faster and easier deployment and supply of the army. The peasants were given a wider range of land rights, although they were subject to taxation, creating a large amount of revenue to the state.
== Military theory and practice ==
=== Increasing scale of warfare ===
The chariot remained a major factor in Chinese warfare long after it went out of fashion in the Middle East. Near the beginning of the Warring States period there is a shift from chariots to massed infantry, possibly associated with the invention of the crossbow. This had two major effects. First it led the dukes to weaken their chariot-riding nobility so they could get direct access to the peasantry who could be drafted as infantry. This change was associated with the shift from aristocratic to bureaucratic government. Second, it led to a massive increase in the scale of warfare. When the Zhou overthrew the Shang at the Battle of Muye they used 45,000 troops and 300 chariots. For the Warring States period the following figures for the military strengths of various states are reported:
Qin 1,000,000 infantry, 1,000 chariots, 10,000 horses;
Chu same numbers;
Wei 200–360,000 infantry, 200,000 spearmen, 100,000 servants, 600 chariots, 5,000 cavalry;
Han 300,000 total;
Qi several hundred thousand;
For major battles, the following figures are reported:
Battle of Maling 100,000 killed;
Battle of Yique 240,000 killed;
General Bai Qi is said to have been responsible for 890,000 enemy deaths over his career.
Many scholars think these numbers are exaggerated (records are inadequate, they are much larger than those from similar societies, soldiers were paid by the number of enemies they killed and the Han dynasty had an interest in exaggerating the bloodiness of the age before China was unified). Regardless of exaggeration, it seems clear that warfare had become excessive during this period. The bloodshed and misery of the Warring States period goes a long way in explaining China's traditional and current preference for a united throne.
=== Military developments ===
The Warring States period saw the introduction of many innovations to the art of warfare in China, such as the use of iron and of cavalry.
Warfare in the Warring States period evolved considerably from the Spring and Autumn period, as most armies made use of infantry and cavalry in battles, and the use of chariots became less widespread. The use of massed infantry made warfare bloodier and reduced the importance of the aristocracy, which in turn made the kings more despotic. From this period onward, as the various states competed with each other by mobilizing their armies to war, nobles in China belonged to the literate class, rather than to the warrior class as had previously been the case.
The various states fielded massive armies of infantry, cavalry, and chariots. Complex logistical systems maintained by efficient government bureaucracies were needed to supply, train, and control such large forces. The size of the armies ranged from tens of thousands to several hundred thousand men.
Iron weapons became more widespread and began to replace bronze. Most armour and weapons of this period were made from iron.
The first official native Chinese cavalry unit was formed in 307 BC during the military reforms of King Wuling of Zhao, who advocated 'nomadic dress and horse archery'. But the war chariot still retained its prestige and importance, despite the tactical superiority of cavalry.
The crossbow was the preferred long-range weapon of this period, due to several reasons. The crossbow could be mass-produced easily, and mass training of crossbowmen was possible. These qualities made it a powerful weapon against the enemy.
Infantrymen deployed a variety of weapons, but the most popular was the dagger-axe. The dagger-axe came in various lengths, from 9 to 18 feet; the weapon consisted of a thrusting spear with a slashing blade appended to it. Dagger-axes were an extremely popular weapon in various kingdoms, especially for the Qin, who produced 18-foot-long pike-like weapons.
The Qiang battle spear was named as the king 'wang' of all ancient weapons. It had the biggest impact on the battlefield and was quite difficult to master. The second important weapon of that era was the double-edged battle sword Jian. The fighting methods of using the Qiang spear and Jian sword were very different from what we see in movies or re-enactment shows today. Professional warriors of that era used the military concepts of "Master" Sun Tzu and created several successful "Ge Dou" martial schools.
=== Military thought ===
The Warring States was a great period for military strategy; of the Seven Military Classics of China, four were written during this period:
The Art of War It is attributed to Sun Tzu, a highly influential study of strategy and tactics.
Wuzi It is attributed to Wu Qi, a statesman and commander who served the states of Wei and then Chu.
Wei Liaozi of uncertain authorship.
The Methods of the Sima It is attributed to Sima Rangju, a commander serving the state of Qi.
== Culture and society ==
The Warring States period was an era of warfare in ancient China, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation; the major states, ruling over large territories, quickly sought to consolidate their powers, leading to the final erosion of the Zhou court's prestige. As a sign of this shift, the rulers of all the major states (except for Chu, which had claimed kingly title much earlier) abandoned their former feudal titles for the title of 王, or King, claiming equality with the rulers of the Zhou.
At the same time, the constant conflict and need for innovative social and political models led to the development of many philosophical doctrines, later known as the Hundred Schools of Thought. The most notable schools of thought include Mohism (expounded by Mozi), Confucianism (represented by Mencius and Xunzi), Legalism (represented by Shang Yang, Shen Buhai, Shen Dao and Han Fei) and Taoism (represented by Zhuangzi and Lao Tzu).
The many states that were competing between each other attempted to display their power not only militarily but in their courts and in state philosophy. Many differing rulers adopted the differing philosophies to their own advantage or that of their kingdom.
Mencius attempted to instate Confucianism as a state philosophy, proposing that through the governing of moral principles like benevolence and righteousness, the state would win popular support from one state and those neighboring, eliminating the need of a war altogether. Mencius had attempted to convince King Hui of Liang, although was unsuccessful since the king saw no advantage in the period of wars.
Mohism was developed by Mozi (468–376 BC) and it provided a unified moral and political philosophy based on impartiality and benevolence. Mohists had the belief that people change depending on environments around. The same was applied to rulers, which is why one must be cautious of foreign influences. Mozi was very much against warfare, although he was a great tactician in defense. He defended the small state of Song from many attempts of the Chu state.
Taoism was advocated by Laozi, and believed that human nature was good and can achieve perfection by returning to its original state. It believed that like a baby, humans are simple and innocent although with development of civilizations it lost its innocence only to be replaced by fraud and greed. Contrarily to other schools, it did not want to gain influence in the offices of states and Laozi even refused to be the minister of the state of Chu.
Legalism created by Shang Yang in 338 BC, rejected all notions of religion and practices, and believed a nation should be governed by strict law. Not only were severe punishments applied, but they would be grouped with the families and made mutually responsible for criminal act. It proposed radical reforms, and established a society based on solid ranks. Peasants were encouraged to practice agriculture as occupation, and military performance was rewarded. Laws were also applied to all ranks with no exception; even the king was not above punishment. The philosophy was adapted by the Qin state and it created it into an organized, centralized state with a bureaucracy chosen on the basis of merit.
This period is most famous for the establishment of complex bureaucracies and centralized governments, as well as a clear legal system. The developments in political and military organization were the basis of the power of the Qin state, which conquered the other states and unified them under the Qin dynasty in 221 BC.
=== Nobles, bureaucrats and reformers ===
The phenomenon of intensive warfare, based on mass formations of infantry rather than the traditional chariots, was one major trend which led to the creation of strong central bureaucracies in each of the major states. At the same time, the process of secondary feudalism which permeated the Spring and Autumn period, and led to such events as the partition of Jin and the usurpation of Qi by the Tian clan, was eventually reversed by the same process of bureaucratisation.
Under the demands of warfare, the states adopted bureaucratic reforms in the Warring States period. Wei adopted these in 445 BC, Zhao in 403 BC, Chu in 390 BC, Han in 355 BC, Qi in 357 BC and Qin in 350 BC. Power was centralised by curbing the landed aristocrats and sinecures and creating a new hierarchy based on meritorious service to the state, which were drawn from the lower rungs of society. Systematic auditing and reporting systems, and fixed salaries for officials were created.
The reforms of Shang Yang in Qin, and of Wu Qi in Chu, both centred on increased centralisation, the suppression of the nobility, and a vastly increased scope of government based on Legalist ideals, which were necessary to mobilise the large armies of the period.
=== Sophisticated arithmetic ===
A bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the Tsinghua collection dated to 305 BC are the world's earliest example of a two digit decimal multiplication table, indicating that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period.
Rod numerals were used to represent both negative and positive integers, and rational numbers, a true positional number system, with a blank for zero dating back to the Warring States period.
The nine linked-rings puzzle, an advanced puzzle device which requires mathematical analysis to solve, was invented during the period.
== Literature ==
An important literary achievement of the Warring States period is the Zuo Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, which summarizes the preceding Spring and Autumn period. The less famous work Guoyu is thought to be by the same author.
Many sayings of Spring and Autumn philosophers, which had previously been circulated orally, were put into writing in the Warring States. These include the Analects and The Art of War.
== Economic developments ==
The Warring States period saw the proliferation of iron working in China, replacing bronze as the dominant type of metal used in warfare. Areas such as Shu (present-day Sichuan) and Yue (present-day Zhejiang) were also brought into the Chinese cultural sphere during this time. Trade also became important, and some merchants had considerable power in politics, the most prominent of which was Lü Buwei, who rose to become Chancellor of Qin and was a key supporter of the eventual Qin Shihuang.
At the same time, the increased resources of consolidated, bureaucratic states, coupled with the logistical needs of mass levies and large-scale warfare, led to the proliferation of economic projects such as large-scale waterworks. Major examples of such waterworks include the Dujiangyan Irrigation System, which controlled the Min River in Sichuan and turned the former backwater region into a major Qin logistical base, and the Zhengguo Canal which irrigated large areas of land in the Guanzhong Plain, again increasing Qin's agricultural output.
The Guanzi is considered one of the most foundational texts of the developing political economy in the Warring States period. It addresses principles of price regulation in the context of effectively dealing with commodities that are "light" (connoting a commodity which is unimportant, non-essential, or inexpensive) or "heavy" (a commodity which is important, essential, or expensive) and how whether a commodity is "light" or "heavy" is understood in relation to other commodities.
== See also ==
Feudalism
Sengoku period – A period in Japanese history named after this period
Three Kingdoms
Warlord Era
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Sources ===
== Further reading ==
Li Xueqin (1985). Eastern Zhou and Qin Civilizations. Translated by Chang, K.C. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03286-2.
Yap, Joseph P. (2009). Wars with the Xiongnu: A Translation from Zizhi Tongjian. Bloomington, Indiana, U.S.: AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4490-0604-4.
Sima Guang (2016). Zizhi Tongjian: Warring States and Qin. Vol. 1 to 8 - 403-207 BCE. Translated by Yap, Joseph P. CreateSpace. ISBN 978-1533086938. LCCN 2016908788.
== External links ==
Warring States period - World History Encyclopedia
Warring States Project, University of Massachusetts Amherst
Rulers of the warring states – Chinese Text Project
China's Warring States period, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Chris Cullen, Vivienne Lo & Carol Michaelson (In Our Time, Apr. 1, 2004)
Warring States wine made more than 2,300 years ago, as deep as the sea |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_The_Young_and_the_Restless_characters_(2000s)#Sabrina_Costelana_Newman | List of The Young and the Restless characters (2000s) | This is a list of notable characters from the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless that significantly impacted storylines and debuted between January 2000 and December 2009, in order of first appearance.
== Alex Perez ==
Alex Perez first appeared on November 29, 2000, later becoming the fiancée of Malcolm Winters and lover of his brother, Neil. The role, portrayed by Alexia Robinson, was created to fill the void left by Victoria Rowell. Prior to her debut, the character was only known as "Erin". In 2002, it was announced that Robinson was to exit The Young and the Restless after the expiration of her contract, and departed onscreen on May 9, 2002.
History
Alex arrived in Genoa City to work on an important case for Newman Enterprises and the firm's boss Victor Newman was immediately impressed by the way she was doing business. She was working together with Neil Winters and the attraction between them was high even though they were constantly fighting. Olivia Winters helped Alex win the case however, the two were never friends because Olivia was constantly afraid of losing Neil to Alex.
Meanwhile, Neil's brother Malcolm Winters fell for Alex and they started dating. Neil was extremely bothered by this because he was in love with Alex and he was about to reveal the truth when Alex finally decided to accept Malcolm's proposal of marriage. Alex desperately tried to hide any sign of involvement with Neil, while Neil was going through a rough time due to a death of his close friend. In a moment of depression, Neil admitted his feelings for Alex to Malcolm, but Alex reassured Malcolm that she did not care for Neil, and the couple went back to planning their life together.
Malcolm, Alex and Neil ended up a trip to Kenya where Malcolm overheard Alex talking about her feelings for Neil, but did not hear that Alex decided to fully commit to Malcolm. Malcolm ended up in an accident, as Alex and Neil returned to Genoa City. They realized that Malcolm must have overheard their conversation and that's why he left. Alex decided to move back to Minneapolis after she wasn't able to deal with the guilt.
== Sean Bridges ==
Sean Bridges first appeared on March 20, 2001, portrayed by Christopher Douglas. He would later become a prominent boyfriend of both Phyllis Summers and Jill Abbott. In July 2001, it was announced that Douglas had been let go from the role, and that it would be recast. The recast was "due more to the way that character had been written than the performer's work" and that the writers wanted to take the character in a different direction. He was last seen in the role on July 27, 2001. The role was recast with David Lee Russek, who debuted on August 6, 2001. In June 2002, it was announced that Russek was to exit in a "storyline dictated" departure, and was last seen on July 1, 2002.
I was caught in the middle of a power struggle between [executive producer Edward] Scott and [head writer Kay] Alden. Everyone at the show has been more than supportive of my situation, and I do realize that this decision has less to do with Chris Douglas, per say [sic] and more to do with a difference of opinion between an executive producer and head writer.
—Douglas on his firing from the soap opera (2001)
History
According to Sean, he dropped out of MIT as an 18-year-old junior, and began traveling the country for five years with a backpack as his only possession. He stopped long enough to get involved on the ground floor with a web company and made a killing on his stock options before the company made their down fall. He lived in a 35-room Long Island Victorian mansion, filled with great art, furniture from around the world, and all the "toys." When he realized that he was living to maintain his possessions instead of enjoying his life, he left it all behind and took a job in Genoa City. At some point along the way he had a relationship with Phyllis Summers.
Sean arrived in Genoa City coincidentally to replace Phyllis as Jabot Website Designer, complete with nose ring and laid back wardrobe. He lives in a high rise apartment with no furnishings but a card table, two chairs and a futon, in an attempt to return to a minimalist way of life from his younger years. But he does still keep a Picasso in the closet. Sean seems to have a lot of connections in his past, counting entertainers Lionel Richie and B.B. King among his friends.
The mysterious Sean seemed to have scoped out the options and chose "older woman" Jill Abbott as his companion. While Jill remained wary of this hot younger man and his motives, he managed to sweep her off her feet. Sean was a good influence on the embittered Jill, showing us a bit of the fun-loving innocent woman she once was. Sean moved into the Chancellor Estate and lived with Jill. But Sean pressured her to get married, and Jill balked one too many times. Sean quit Jabot and returned to New York City.
== Amanda Browning ==
Amanda Browning first appeared on August 31, 2001, as the mother of Mackenzie Browning, portrayed by Denice Duff. In June 2002, it was announced that Duff would exit The Young and the Restless after the expiration of her contract, departing onscreen on July 5, 2002.
History
Amanda Browning, and her former lover, Brock Reynolds, had a daughter together named Mackenzie. As part of her history, Amanda and Brock fell in love off screen while working together in India. The relationship ended when Amanda left the country with their baby. Amanda married Ralph, who abused Mackenzie. She did not believe her daughter, so Mac ran away.
In 2001, Amanda arrived in Genoa City looking for her daughter after Brittany Hodges set out looking to locate Mac's mother. After realizing the truth about the abuse, Amanda divorces Ralph and returns to town to become closer to her daughter again. She begins volunteering at the homeless shelter where Mac used to stay. Ralph tracks her down in Genoa City. Knowing she is close to Katherine Chancellor, Ralph takes advantage of this and blackmails Amanda into stealing things from the Chancellor house. Ralph's terrorizing of Amanda is stopped by Larry Warton, with whom Amanda has developed a relationship. Amanda chooses to leave town after Jill Abbott shows her the security camera footage of Amanda stealing jewels from the mansion and nearly getting people killed.
== Ralph Hunnicutt ==
Ralph Hunnicutt first appeared on December 7, 2001, as the ex-husband of Amanda Browning, portrayed by Angelo Tiffe, who was last seen in the role on January 6, 2002. In March 2002, it was announced that the role had been recast with Daniel Quinn, who assumed the role on April 18, 2002, as his first daytime role. By June, it was announced that Quinn, along with Denice Duff, would exit in a storyline dictated departure. He was last seen on July 5, 2002.
History
Ralph was married to Amanda Browning and played stepfather to her daughter, Mackenzie. Amanda left Ralph when she found out that he was abusing Mac. Amanda did not believe her daughter at first; thus, Mac ran away from home to Genoa City. Amanda came to Genoa City to find Mac, resulting in her leaving Ralph. Angered, Ralph tracked Amanda down, and he began to stalk Mac. He started blackmailing Amanda into stealing things from the Chancellor mansion, where Mackenzie lived with her paternal grandmother, Katherine Chancellor. Mac was shocked to realize that Ralph was in town, and Mac's one-time love, Billy Abbott, jumped to her rescue when Mac came face-to-face with Ralph. Billy hit Ralph in the head, and he thought that he had killed him, but Ralph recovered. He then kidnapped Katherine, but Amanda's new boyfriend, Larry Warton, rescued her. Ralph had plans to get his revenge on Mac, but Larry stopped him in time. Ralph left town, and he was never seen again.
== Hank Weber ==
Hank Weber was a detective who appeared in and around Genoa City, first seen in 2002 and last seen in 2005. The recurring role was portrayed by Sherman Augustus.
History
Detective Hank Weber arrived on the scene when Diane Jenkins was involved in a fire at the Abbott poolhouse. The fire was believed to be caused by Phyllis Abbott at the time but was revealed to be in fact caused by Diane. Detective Weber was seen in serious crimes on and off in Genoa City in the years following this incident.
== Anita and Frederick Hodges ==
Anita and Frederick Hodges first appeared on August 14, 2002, as the parents of Brittany Hodges. Anita was portrayed by Mitzi Kapture, and Frederick by John Martin. They were last seen on February 22, 2005.
Anita and Frederick Hodges are the parents of Brittany. Their marriage was not going well because Anita needed more attention, and Frederick was more focused on his job as a banker. Anita had an affair with the young J.T. Hellstrom, who once dated Brittany. The affair caused a conflict with J.T. and his girlfriend at-the-time, Colleen Carlton. Meanwhile, Frederick sought comfort in the arms of Jill Abbott, but their relationship did not evolve. Frederick was the first family member to see Brittany stripping in Bobby Marsino's strip club. Neither Frederick nor Anita had much of a story aside from being included in their daughter's story lines. Both parents mostly disapproved of Brittany's relationship with Raul Guittierez, but they were not happy when she was dating Bobby either. Anita and Frederick were last seen in early 2005, when Brittany told them that she was pregnant; neither parent offered her any support. They then moved to New York City.
== Wesley Carter ==
Wesley Carter first appeared on August 26, 2002. He later became the fiancé of Olivia Winters after being involved with her sister, Drucilla. He was portrayed by Ben Watkins.
History
When Drucilla Winters returned to Genoa City from Paris with her rebellious teenage daughter Lily, Dru's boyfriend Wesley, a psychiatrist, appeared when Lily called him to take her and Dru back to Paris. After Lily persuaded Wesley to fly out to Genoa City, Dru was surprised by Wesley's arrival. Wesley then met and introduced himself to Dru's ex-husband, Neil Winters, who was dealing with his alcoholism issue. Wesley tried to convince Neil to let Lily and Dru move back to Paris. During this time, Neil's companion, Serena, asked Wesley for help in keeping Neil and Dru apart. Wesley later told Neil about Serena's feelings for him. Wesley began questioning Dru about her feelings for Neil. When Neil insisted he and Dru should live together for Lily to have a sense of family, Wesley wasn't happy about the idea other than Lily having a real family; then, Wes proposed to Dru.
To keep Wesley out of his way of getting back with Dru, Neil asked Dru's sister, Olivia, to keep Wesley busy. Wesley started to realize the extent of Dru's feelings for Neil by the end of the year when she changed her mind about spending the holidays with Wesley in Paris. She later told him she and Lily were moving in with Neil. Even though he and Dru were growing apart, Wesley remained close with Lily and occasionally gave her advice for her problems. Wesley decided to stay in town despite his separation from Dru.
When Olivia and Wesley confided in each other about their relationship situations, they became close and began a romantic relationship. Afterwards, Wesley and Dru officially ended their relationship. Olivia was afraid of moving too fast with Wes, but he later surprised her with a candlelight dinner and explained he wanted a chance to be with her. Months later, Wesley proposed to a hesitant Olivia, who weeks later, finally accepted his proposal. While in town, Wesley helped Christine Blair by hypnotizing her after she presumably had killed Isabella Brana, who was actually alive. After a few months, Olivia and Wesley called off their engagement, and he moved back to Paris.
== Damon Porter ==
Damon Porter first appeared on May 23, 2003, portrayed by Keith Hamilton Cobb. His casting in the role was announced in April 2003. Viewers reportedly accused the soap of using Cobb to fill the void left by Shemar Moore. In May 2005, it was announced that Cobb was to exit, departing onscreen on May 23, 2005.
Character history
Intending to live a life of solitude, chemist Damon Porter found himself going back on his word when he received a phone call from Drucilla Winters in 2003. Dru found out that Damon used to work for Satine Cosmetics, and she managed to bring him to work at her company, Jabot, much to the displeasure of Neil Winters, who tried to get Damon to work at his company, Newman Enterprises. At Jabot, Damon replaced Ashley Abbott, who went on maternity leave. She reluctantly allowed Damon to take her place. Damon was a calm man who refused to get involved in the war between Newman and Jabot, especially after Brad Carlton asked Damon to seduce Phyllis Abbott, the wife of Jabot employee Jack Abbott. Phyllis and Damon were attracted to each other, and they shared a kiss even though Phyllis was married to Jack.
Drucilla was also attracted to Damon, but he did not seem to care for her. She then moved on to Neil Winters, where she found true love. One night, Damon shared a private conversation with Victoria Newman, who poured her heart out to him, only to realize later that Damon was the new chemist for her family's greatest rival. Victoria's family was against their relationship, but Victoria and Damon began to get closer. Damon was also getting close to Vanessa Lerner, his old girlfriend. He traveled to Japan with Vanessa to find a rare orchid that could help Jabot. He found himself sharing the trip with Dru and Neil, who were going to get married, and Jack and Sharon Newman, who went along with the couple. Phyllis broke up with Jack after a fight over the orchid, and she started a relationship with Damon. Vanessa was upset over Damon's relationship with Phyllis, and she decided to give her project to Newman. Damon was fired by Jack after learning about his relationship with Phyllis, but his sister, Ashley Abbott, rehired Damon.
Damon helped Phyllis cope with her problems, but even he wasn't perfect. Phyllis' son, Daniel Romalotti, had just arrived in town. He didn't tolerate Damon, and he preferred to spend his time with Jack. Damon's fights with Daniel helped him open up to Phyllis about his past. Years earlier, Damon's young son, Elias, was murdered by Dominic Hughes with a bullet that was intended for Damon. Since then, Damon had been meditating to find inner peace. The animosity between Damon and Daniel wore off after Damon had saved Daniel and his friend, Kevin Fisher, from a thug named Alex that was blackmailing them.
Phyllis visited Dominic Hughes in prison in hopes of keeping him away from Damon, who was keen on getting revenge one day. Dominic, however, showed up in Genoa City claiming to be a changed man, which even Damon believed, but Phyllis discovered that Dominic was setting up Damon, and she went to confront him. Dominic tried to rape Phyllis, but she was saved by Damon, who was then shot by Dominic. Damon injured Dominic with a sword, and they both ended up in the hospital. Damon's spirit left his body at the hospital, and he reunited with his son, but then he had to go back. Phyllis and Damon were under investigation for a possible murder, and they had to find a way to free themselves. Phyllis even contacted her sworn enemy, Christine Blair, to help them, but Christine accepted only after Daniel asked her to. Dominic managed to get the upper hand on Christine, so Phyllis hired Michael Baldwin to defend her, and both Phyllis and Damon were cleared of all charges. Damon reunited with his ex-wife, Adrienne Markham, and they moved to Atlanta together in 2005.
== Bobby Marsino ==
Bobby Marsino first appeared on June 9, 2003, portrayed by John Enos III. In June 2005, it was announced that Enos was to exit the soap due to budget cuts, departing onscreen on August 10, 2005.
Character history
Bobby Marsino entered the series as the owner of the strip club, Marsino's. He gave Brittany Hodges a job at the club, allowing her to sing and eventually strip. Brittany's new occupation caused problems in her relationship with her boyfriend, Raul Guittierez. He attempted to get the club shut down with the help of Brittany's father, Fredrick Hodges. Brittany was electrocuted and scarred by one of Bobby's business associates out of revenge for her father and boyfriend's actions against the strip club. Bobby, who developed feelings for Brittany, was there for her after the incident. He turned his associates in to the police, and he eventually married Brittany.
Bobby's past was brought into light after a body was discovered behind the Genoa City Rec Center. The body was that of Joshua Cassen, who was childhood friends with Nikki Newman. Joshua and Nikki were fighting over Nikki's father's gun, and it went off by accident, killing Joshua. Nikki's father buried the body until it was found many years later. When Nikki tried to find Joshua's family, she discovered that Bobby was actually Charlie Cassen, the younger brother of Joshua Cassen. Eventually, Bobby found out what happened to his brother, and Nikki and Bobby grew close after their revelation. Brittany, meanwhile, was pregnant, and she gave birth to a baby boy. They named their son Joshua Marsino, after Bobby's late older brother. Brittany had many complications during her pregnancy, and to pay for the medical bills, Bobby got involved with the mob. When the mob tried to recruit him, he found evidence to incriminate the members that he knew of, and he was forced to go into the Witness Protection Program. Brittany and Joshua were going to join Bobby in the Witness Protection Program once Joshua was in good health, but Bobby died in a hit and run accident in 2005, before they could reunite as a family.
== Cameron Kirsten ==
Cameron Kirsten first appeared on November 21, 2003, portrayed by Linden Ashby. Ashby departed from the role on August 12, 2004. After nearly twenty years, Ashby reprised the role on May 26, 2023. Ashby departed a month later when Cameron was killed off in the episode that aired on June 16 of that year. In 2024, Ashby was shortlisted for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Performer in a Drama Series for his role as Cameron. On July 30, 2024, it was announced that Ashby would reprise the role of Cameron, beginning August 1, 2024, and exited once more on January 27 of the following year.
In 2003, when Sharon Newman fled Genoa City after kissing Victor Newman, she went to Denver to find herself. While in a bar, she met Cameron Kirsten, and he instantly fell in love with her. He followed her up to her motel room, offering her wine all the while. They made love, and apparently, immediately afterwards he started abusing her by punching her in the face and trying to suffocate her with a pillow. However, before he could finish the beating, he fell asleep. Given this chance of escape, Sharon left Denver and came back to her family in Genoa City.
A year after these events, Cameron came to Genoa City to do a business deal with Newman Enterprises, Victor's company, now turned over to Nick Newman, Sharon's husband. While he was there, Cameron taunted and threatened Sharon, telling her that he would reveal to Nick what happened in Denver the year before unless she gave in to his wishes. Cameron then announced that he was planning a New Year's party and wanted Sharon to help him with it. Sharon said that she definitely would not do this, but, as Cameron had already told Nick about the party, there was nothing she could do. During the party, Cameron wrote down the address of a motel on the south side of Genoa City on the back of one of his business cards. He then gave it to Sharon, telling her that he wanted to meet her there after the party was over. Sharon felt that she had no choice but to do this, seeing as Cameron could tell Nick about Denver at any time.
After putting a long, black hooded coat on to disguise herself, Sharon went to the motel, apparently known as the Seedy Side. Once she got there, she met Cameron and told him that nothing would ever happen between them again, and that she wanted each of them to go their separate ways and forget all about Denver. Cameron, infuriated, started to beat her up again, pushing her onto the bed. Sharon then kicked him and sent him sprawling to the floor. As he tried to get up, Sharon looked for any sort of weapon she could find. Seeing an opened champagne bottle, she grabbed it and walked over to Cameron. He looked up, horrified, to see the bottle she was holding, and brought up a hand to try to shield himself from the blow that would undoubtedly come, but it was too late. The champagne bottle came crashing down on his head.
Sharon thought he was dead, but he was only knocked unconscious. So, Sharon dragged him out behind a dumpster in the alley. A few hours later, Cameron awakened, snow-covered and angrier than he had ever been in his life. After he got up, Cameron returned, his face bleeding, to his "stand-in Sharon" lover, Grace Turner, who had been there the whole time. Grace then attended to Cameron's wounds, and right there Cameron vowed to take his revenge on Sharon for almost killing him. And so, for the next few months, Cameron put on makeup and pretended that he was his own ghost, haunting Sharon by looking into her windows, chasing her in her house on the Newman ranch and even kissing her. All the while, Sharon believed that she was going insane, seeing gruesome hallucinations of the man she thought she killed.
Finally, she couldn't take it anymore, and went into the sewer, where Larry Warton had put "Cameron's" body after finding it in her car while she was trying to move it to see the body, and make sure that Cameron was really dead. She actually did find a body, but it, of course, wasn't Cameron's. For some strange reason, Cameron actually had killed Frank Barritt, the biological father of Sharon's daughter Cassie; apparently, for the sole purpose of driving Sharon out of her mind.
At the Mother's Day Brunch at the Genoa City Athletic Club, Cameron made the fact that he was alive known, surprising not only Sharon but also Nick and Nikki Newman, who, at this point, thought that Cameron was dead for sure, although the former had no idea that Sharon could have been involved in the disappearance, as Sharon had told Nikki of her ordeal. When asked about his whereabouts, Cameron made up a fake story about finding an old girlfriend of his in a bar and flying away with her to an island in the Caribbean. When Sharon confronted him later on, Cameron denied that the events of New Year's Eve even occurred.
Later on, Cameron arrived at the Newman ranch to give Nick a job offer; to be the COO of Kirsten Incorporated. Cameron even said that sooner or later, he might hand the entire company over to Nick, as at the time, didn't think he wouldn't have any heirs. Nick said he'd think about the offer. Upon hearing about this, Sharon decided that she would tell Nick about everything that had happened between her and Cameron. Immediately going to Cameron's hotel suite, Nick demanded that Grace tell him everything. She said that she didn't know what he was talking about, and wondered why he believed the lies that Sharon had told him. Before leaving, Nick punched Cameron in the face, and told him that that was for what he did to Sharon in Denver.
Nick then repeatedly came to the hotel suite and tried to interrogate Cameron, but to no avail.
Near the end of his stay in Genoa City, Sharon began to visit him and it was only then that he started to open up. During one of those visits, he told her about his mother and father and his history, which he had never told anyone before. When asked if there was anything he could do to help her escape murder charges for killing Frank, as the body had been found by now and Sharon was the prime suspect, he said that the only way it was possible was if she would be with him the rest of his life; and fly in his jet to one of the islands he owned. That way, she couldn't be brought back to the United States to face the criminal charges. Faced with no other choice, Sharon reluctantly accepted. She told Cameron that she would be ready to leave on the following night, but he said that that wasn't going to work. He told her that either they would leave then, or he would go it alone. Although Sharon wasn't expecting this, she went along with him to the airport and boarded the jet. Nicholas, however, was following them and somehow boarded his jet.
At one point during the flight, Sharon attempted to kill herself by jumping out of the door of the jet. Cameron restrained her and told her that she had so much to live for and that her life had just begun. He comforted her and held her in his arms. Sharon finally calmed down and returned to her seat. Just as Cameron tried to kiss Sharon, Nick rushed out of the curtain behind them and pushed Cameron to the floor. He delivered blow after blow to Cameron, who, at this point was too shocked by Nick's appearance to try to defend himself. Sharon jumped out of her seat and stood, watching in horror as the abuse continued.
Finally, Nick knocked Cameron unconscious and dragged him to the door, strapping a parachute onto him. He roughly pushed Cameron out of the jet, and he began his plummet to the ground. Meanwhile, in the jet, Nick strapped parachutes to him and Sharon too, and they followed Cameron. In the morning, Cameron awoke to find himself in a cornfield, where, incidentally, Nicholas and Sharon had also landed. When he woke up, Cameron had noticed a horrible pain in his right leg, but he didn't realize the severity of his wound until Nicholas tried to move the leg and Cameron screamed. Although they knew about this, Nicholas and Sharon forced Cameron to walk until they found civilization. If Cameron made any moves, Nicholas threatened to beat him with a large stick he found in the field.
As they walked down the dirt road, Nicholas and Sharon treated Cameron very cruelly, with Sharon even pushing him and telling him to move faster. Soon, they came upon a stand selling sweet corn, and there they called the police. Those police believed Nicholas and Sharon's story and put Cameron into a police car. Cameron Kirsten was last seen on the show being hauled away in that police car, with a look of cold fury and determination upon his face.
In May 2023, Sharon received a mysterious bottle of champagne, with a note which made her reminisce about the past. The champagne bottle had blood marks on it. Soon after, Sharon informed Nick of other gifts that she mysteriously received and that relate to Cameron, without any sender address or information. Concerned that the gifts are connected to Cameron, Sharon informs Detective Chance Chancellor of the mysterious gifts and their connection to her previous assailant, who then finds out that Cameron has indeed been released from prison. At that same moment, Cameron checks into the Athletic Club in Genoa City.
== Arthur Hendricks ==
Arthur Hendricks appeared from January 20 to November 29, 2004, as an ex-lover of Katherine Chancellor, portrayed by David Hedison.
History
In her early days, Katherine Chancellor had an affair with her husband's golfing partner, Arthur Hendricks, which resulted in a pregnancy. Kay had a baby, whom she gave away for adoption and later was thought to be Jill Abbott (Jess Walton). In early 2004, Arthur came to Genoa City to visit Kay, and Jill hoped that Arthur would find a way to give Katherine hope for life, being that she was in a downward spiral of alcoholism at that time. Arthur moved into the Chancellor Mansion and got to know his "daughter" better. Arthur, along with several other family members, did an intervention to prevent Kay from drinking anymore, which eventually helped her realize that she needed to go to rehab.
Arthur and Kay became closer again after all of the time that they spent apart. Arthur planned to propose to Kay, but his stepson, Harrison Bartlett, came into town during that time, claiming that Arthur had killed his mother, Eleanor Hendricks, to get his hands on her fortune. Arthur was investigated in the case, but he was never charged. Jill and Kay confronted Arthur about his stepson, but Arthur did not want to get into it. He just said that Harrison had a big hand in ruining his life. Kay decided to trust Arthur and marry him, but he wasn't able to handle the suspicious minds, so he decided to leave town, which prompted yet another feud between Kay and Jill.
While Arthur was still out of town, it was discovered that Jill was not Kay and Arthur's daughter. It later came out that Arthur and Katherine's baby was actually a boy; Tucker McCall (Stephen Nichols). Arthur also has a grandson Devon Hamilton (Bryton James).
== Tom Fisher ==
Tom Fisher first appeared on April 9, 2004, as the abusive father of Kevin Fisher, initially portrayed by Jonathan Fraser. The role was then assumed by Roscoe Born on April 7, 2005, but within nine months, it was announced that Born was to exit the soap, with his last appearance on January 13, 2006.
History
The infamous Terrible Tom, the abusive father of Kevin Fisher and stepfather of Michael Baldwin, who had been violent towards them and their mother, Gloria Fisher, when they were young, arrived in Genoa City. Having learned that Kevin had won in the lottery, Tom visited his estranged son, hoping to scare him into giving him money. Kevin, who had dreaded his father's return for years, bravely told him to go away, but Tom promised he would return. Tom went to see Michael, who was now a highly successful lawyer, and asked for $10,000, in exchange for his leaving town. Michael reluctantly agreed, threatening to kill him if he ever returned.
The money didn't last long, and Tom soon came back, trying to embezzle more from Michael. When that was unsuccessful, Tom paid a visit to Gloria, who was now happily married to the wealthy John Abbott Sr. Gloria believed that Tom was dead, and realized that she is still legally married to him, invalidating her marriage to John. Tom threatened to tell John about this if she didn't pay him indefinitely. Fearful that the revelation could cause John to leave her, Gloria gave in and began to give Tom money, despite Michael's warnings not to.
Tom and Gloria legally ended their marriage, and John and Gloria remarried. John and his daughter, Ashley Abbott, who Tom had been dating, found out that he was Gloria's abusive ex-husband and warned him to stay away from their family. When Gloria refused to pay him anymore, Tom threatened to kill John, so Gloria kept giving him money, being careful not to let John find out.
Tom met psychotic Sheila Carter, whom he knew only as the alias Brenda Harris. They teamed up to exact revenge on the Abbotts and on Michael and his fiancé, Lauren Fenmore, who Sheila had wanted dead for years. Sheila told Tom that her plan was to kidnap Lauren on her honeymoon with Michael and then ransom her. However, her real plan was much more sinister; Sheila planned to kill Lauren and Tom. Upon learning of his ally's deception, Tom saved Lauren's life and dragged her to safety when her honeymoon yacht exploded.
Lauren was presumed dead, but was actually stranded in a bomb shelter with Sheila and Tom. Tom had both women tied up in the shelter, and decided to go back to Genoa City to extort money from Gloria in return for Lauren's safe return. While Gloria agreed to meet Tom, Ashley instead headed to meet Tom in an alley, but John, who overheard Tom's phone call to Gloria, got there first and shot Tom. Tom was taken to the hospital and, with his last strength, tried to tell an angry Michael and Kevin that Lauren was not dead, but died before he could do so. The doctors tried to revive him, but to no avail and it was the classic blanket over the head. Days later, Paul Williams arrived at the bomb shelter and rescued Lauren, who had managed to work with Sheila to escape. However, Sheila fell behind and disappeared once again. John was sentenced to seven years in prison for killing Tom, where he resided until his death from a stroke in August of that year. After John's death, it was revealed that Tom and Gloria's divorce was never finalized, therefore again invalidating Gloria and John's second marriage.
Three years after his death, Kevin saw a ghost of Tom and said goodbye and good riddance to him. Kevin then had him cremated and the ashes down Michael's sink. A safe deposit box key was one of the few things Tom left to Kevin in his will, though neither he nor Michael could determine where the box was located.
Years after Tom's death, it was revealed that his affair with Sheila had resulted in the birth of twins; Daisy Carter and Ryder Callahan.
== Dominic Hughes ==
Dominic Hughes appeared from October 14, 2004, to January 25, 2005, as a nemesis of Damon Porter. He was portrayed by Kevin Alejandro.
History
Damon Porter and his son, Elias Porter, lived in Atlanta, Georgia. Elias loved horses and wanted to be an Olympic champion. Damon and Elias had been riding horses, stopped at a fast food joint and were eating their burgers when they were harassed by some street kids. Damon put them straight. As he was using the encounter as a lesson to Elias on the way home in the car, a car drove up and Dominic Hughes fired a shot. The shot meant for Damon hit Elias and the boy died in his father's arms.
Damon changed, bought a gun and was consumed with revenge hunting down his killer. Hughes was finally captured, tried, convicted and sent to prison but the rage was still there for Damon. He wasn't there for his grieving wife, Adrienne Markham, and she couldn't bear to be around him so they were divorced. Years later, reality finally set in that mourning wouldn't bring Elias back. Damon learned to build a facade of control through meditation to cover the rage that was always still there.
In 2004, Damon got word that Hughes was up for parole and began spending his time contemplating his Samurai sword so Damon's girlfriend, Phyllis Summers, visited Hughes in prison to warn him to stay away because Damon still wanted to kill him. Dominic told her he already knew that Damon lived in Genoa City and he fully intended to head there upon his release. He claimed he was born again and had to see Damon to plead for his forgiveness. Phyllis left and Dominic sneered behind her back.
Dominic got paroled and showed up in Genoa City immediately. Phyllis met him and brought him to Damon hoping to help Damon keep his cool. Damon didn't believe a word until Dominic showed him the tattoo on his inner arm in memory of Elias. Later Damon felt sorry for the guy spending his parole money on a trip to see him so he sent Phyllis to deliver some cash to Dominic. As Phyllis approached his motel room door, another thug was leaving discussing a heist they were going to pull and how they had suckered Damon.
Phyllis made a call on her cell phone then daringly burst into Dominic's room. Dominic pulled a gun and threw her on the bed intending to rape her. Damon broke down the door wielding his Samurai sword. Hughes was knocked down and his gun flew across the floor. Phyllis convinced Damon not to kill him but, when she stepped between them, Hughes went for the gun. Damon jumped between them as Hughes fired and Damon took the bullet. With a last surge of rage, Damon ran Dominic through with the sword.
Both were rushed to the hospital where Phyllis said to Dominic that she wishes he'll die as his gurney passed. Damon was near death in the ER and his spirit left his body and stood by Phyllis as she frantically watched them work over him. The spirit of Elias appeared, told Damon it wasn't his time and to return to Phyllis who needed him. Elias forgave Damon for not protecting him and told Damon that he would always be in Damon's heart. Damon lived. While still in the hospital recovering, Damon and Phyllis were questioned for suspicion of conspiracy to murder Dominic thanks to the lies Hughes told the Genoa City police.
Phyllis had to beg Christine Blair to represent her and, although Christine said no, Phyllis's son Daniel Romalotti talked her into taking the case. Phyllis decided it was time for drastic measures, dressed up as a man, got thrown in jail for drunk driving and attempted to get Dominic to confess. But Dominic recognized her. Phyllis was arrested then later Damon was arrested for conspiracy to commit attempted murder. Phyllis hired Michael Baldwin to be her lawyer instead. Things were looking bleak so Phyllis pulled another disguise as Atlanta reporter Sandra King.
Her interview questions of District Attorney Glenn Richards helped him doubt that the felon Dominic was telling the truth. Paul Williams called Hank Weber into his office to talk to him about Damon's case. Paul wondered if Hank was as gung-ho about going after Damon as Glenn was. Later, Hank met Glenn at the Genoa City Athletic Club's restaurant to tell him that Dominic wasn't changing his story. When Michael walked up to the two men, Glenn spotted "Saundra," Phyllis's alter ego, talking to Christine.
Michael pretended not to know what was going on and, as Glenn complained about the publicity she could cause, Hank said there was something about "Saundra" he wasn't buying. Michael took over the case and broke Dominic's story in questioning before the DA and the charges against Damon and Phyllis were dropped. By 2005, Dominic left Genoa City.
== Yolanda Hamilton ==
Yolanda Hamilton (also Harmony Hamilton) first appeared on June 30, 2005, as the biological mother of Devon Hamilton, and later Ana Hamilton. The role was originated by Chene Lawson until January 24, 2006. The character later returned on October 7, 2011, portrayed by Debbi Morgan, who remained until her firing the following year. She made her onscreen exit on October 30, 2012.
All My Children actress Debbi Morgan confirmed via her official website that she would be joining the cast of The Young and the Restless. The actress expressed her excitement about joining the new role, and it was good to play another character other than her All My Children iconic character, Angie Hubbard for a change. She also denied rumors that she would be resurrecting the role of Drucilla Winters (Victoria Rowell).
On what to expect with the character upon her return in an interview with TV Guide, Morgan stated "She has no idea what's been happening with Devon – that his father, Tucker [Stephen Nichols], is the son of Katherine Chancellor [Jeanne Cooper]." Morgan jokingly stated in addition, "Who knows? Maybe Harmony will turn out to be the black Erica Kane! People have already been connecting the dots and are assuming that Harmony will wind up with Neil (Kristoff St. John)." A commercial aired promoting Morgan's joining The Young and the Restless. In September 2012, Morgan confirmed on Twitter that she had been let go from the soap. She taped her final scenes on October 5, exiting onscreen on October 30.
In April 2023, it was announced Lawson would reprise the role, beginning May 5.
When Devon Hamilton finally gained enough courage to see his homeless mother, Yolanda, he found her living in a park, anorexic and dirty, addicted to drugs. It was revealed that any money she earned she spent on drugs. She explained to Devon that she would never accept any ones money (including his) due to her addiction. She told Devon to return to Genoa City, and he did. Devon occasionally would go back and check on his troubled mother. She refused time and time again to go to a rehab facility. Yolanda later went to live with Devon and his adoptive parents, Neil and Drucilla. She stole a watch from Neil and sold it to buy drugs. She later attended rehab and got a job at Jabot Cosmetics. She came on to Neil, and later left Genoa City due to her troubled ways.
Years later, (Yolanda had not been seen) however Devon found out he had a sister (Yolanda's daughter) Ana Hamilton, who Yolanda gave to her adoptive sister Tyra Hamilton to raise due to her drug addiction. Later, Yolanda had contacted Genoa City wanting custody of Ana back due to her cleaning her act, however never acted on this. Years later, it was revealed that Tucker McCall (a wealthy businessman) had a son, and around this time it was revealed that Yolanda had written a letter to her "lover" from years ago. Katherine Chancellor (Tucker's mother) hired Paul Williams to find her grandson. It was revealed that Devon in fact was Tucker's son, and Yolanda and Tucker had an affair twenty years prior, and Tucker had forgotten. He referred to Yolanda as "Candy Cane" during their affair.
Yolanda came back to Genoa City five years later under the alias Harmony Hamilton. When news broke that Tucker was Devon's biological father, she returned to Genoa City to support her son. She came face to face with Tucker for the first time since she was pregnant with Devon. After a confrontation with Devon, Harmony claimed she was leaving town because her son didn't want her in Genoa City any longer.
Still, Harmony surfaced again when she arrived to see Tucker renew his wedding vows to Ashley Abbott. Neil caught Harmony before she could enter the church, and he told her that it wasn't her place to be at the wedding and that she should leave. Soon after, Harmony was invited to have Thanksgiving dinner with Katherine Chancellor. Although Jill Abbott Fenmore strongly disliked Harmony's presence in her house, Katherine encouraged her to stay. Katherine's generosity ruined her chances of reconciling with her son. He stopped by with a peace offering of red hot candies because he knew that they were both his and her favorite. He told her that for Devon to accept him, he needed to accept her. While their reunion was taking place, Tucker saw Harmony in Katherine's house and became enraged that Katherine was using Harmony to get to Devon.
With Harmony's constant presence in Genoa City, she began to grow on Neil, Devon and Tucker. She organized the Children's Christmas Pageant, which pleasantly surprised Devon, where she got to reunite with her daughter. He started to appreciate her effort to get to know him better. In addition, Neil apologized for being so rude to Harmony when they ran into each other after Neil's wedding to Sofia Dupre. Tucker also apologized to Harmony for his rude behavior upon her return to Genoa City. Harmony persuaded both Devon and Tucker to talk to Katherine after she told them how pure and kind she was. Both Neil and Harmony began to have increasing romantic feelings for each other, despite his marriage to Sofia, who began to see the connection between the two. Harmony also began a friendship with Sarge, a physiotherapist. However, after Ashley left Tucker during an argument, he got drunk and fell into bed with Harmony in which Ashley walked in on them, leaving her guilt ridden, especially when Katherine then told her to leave her house; Katherine came to her senses and said she could stay. After Neil confessed his true feelings for Harmony to Sofia, they decided to divorce. After it was finalized, Neil asked Harmony out on a real date, and they pursued a relationship. However, it ended when Harmony announced she was leaving Genoa City to help daughter Ana in another town.
In 2023, Harmony returned to Genoa City for Neil Winters’ memorial service at the Jazz Lounge in the Genoa City Athletic Club. Upon Harmony's arrival, Ashley Abbott felt a bit uncomfortable seeing her considering all that had happened the last time she was in town, but ended up reconciling with her. Harmony then apologized to Neil's immediate family for not attending his funeral and gave her condolences.
== William Bardwell ==
William Bardwell first appeared on February 2, 2006, portrayed by former Knots Landing star Ted Shackelford. His run lasted until July 18, 2007, when the character died after complications from a stroke. Weeks later, Shackelford returned to portray William's identical twin brother, Jeffrey Bardwell.
History
In 2006, John Abbott Sr. finally remembered what happened the night Tom Fisher was shot. He went to D.A. Will Bardwell to tell him the truth to free his daughter, Ashley Abbott, who was taking the blame for his crime. John told Will that he was the one who shot and killed Tom Fisher. Will thought that John was lying, but a lie detector test proved him wrong. John was then sentenced to seven years in prison. Will then moved on to investigate the tainted Glo-Again face cream, which resulted in a consumer death. Since no new evidence and leads were found, the case became cold.
In 2006, Jill Abbott decided to join an online dating agency, and she was shocked to discover that Will was her anonymous date. Will's wife, Miranda, a well-known fashion editor, had died several years earlier. Jill was his first physical relationship after his wife's death. Will was involved in a love triangle between Jill and Gloria Bardwell, whom he met at a grieving spouse support group. Gloria's husband was John Abbott, who had recently died of a stroke. Gloria's interest in Will was certainly strengthened by her knowledge that he was the sole heir to a multibillion-dollar oil fortune.
In 2007, William and Gloria were married. Soon after, new evidence arose in the Glo-Again scandal, and most of Jabot Cosmetics employees were subject to DNA testing. Will suspected that Gloria was the culprit. She was very hesitant to give a DNA sample for the case. After much persuasion, Gloria finally gave her DNA sample. She got her son (Kevin Fisher) to get a fake sample. Upon handing her sample over, she performed a sleight of hand trick, switching her sample with the fake. Of course, her test came back negative. However, when dining out, William watched Gloria's friend, Evan Owen, do the same trick. He discovered his wife's secret, and he set out to prove the truth. Upon meeting Gloria at the Athletic Club, William staged a hug in which his watch got caught in her hair. Pulling the hairs he needed for her DNA sample, he ran the test anonymously; it was positive.
Will confronted Gloria with the test results, and she admitted her secret to him. During their argument, Will suffered a stroke. While he was in hospital, Gloria's other son, Michael Baldwin, and Kevin were able to get Gloria's test results. An unknown copy, however, remained at the lab, where Detective Maggie Sullivan found it. She then took over William's cases, and she was determined to find out who was the positive match. William died of complications from the stroke. Shortly after, Gloria found a letter saying that Will's uncle's company had recently left $50 million to him, which was then given to Gloria. She decided to use some of the money to throw him a wonderful celebration of his life. At his wake, his identical twin brother, Jeffrey Bardwell, arrived to express his condolences to Gloria. He regretted not spending more time with his brother.
== Carmen Mesta ==
Carmen Mesta first appeared on May 8, 2006, portrayed by former General Hospital actress Marisa Ramirez. The Young and the Restless has issued a casting call and by April 11, 2006, it was announced that Ramirez had secured the role as "Carmen, a businesswoman whose storyline would be tied to Jack Abbott." She filmed her first scenes on April 4. By September 2006, it was announced that Carmen was to depart only four months after a debut. The show cited a lack of chemistry between her and her co-star, Kristoff St. John (as Neil Winters). The character was found murdered on October 27, 2006, and a "Who Killed Carmen Mesta?" storyline followed. Carmen's killer was Jana Hawkes (Emily O'Brien), who was initially never considered a suspect.
History
Carmen is a freelance public relations consultant that Katherine Chancellor hires for Jabot Cosmetics in 2006 because of Jack Abbott's handling of a scandal that results from Jabot's test release of tainted face cream. Jack resents her involvement but soon becomes attracted to her and eventually he and Carmen have a one-night stand. Afterward, Carmen is hired by Victor Newman to work for Newman Enterprises' new cosmetics division, Beauty Of Nature.
While at Newman Enterprises, Carmen begins an emotional affair with Neil Winters, who is estranged from his wife Drucilla. The physical extent of Carmen's relationship with Neil is a kiss. Believing that the two are having an affair, Drucilla ransacks Carmen's room and cuts her clothing with scissors. Carmen has Drucilla arrested for aggravated burglary and gets a restraining order. Dru violates the restraining order on more than one occasion, even attacking Carmen in Newman Enterprises' break room. Unbeknownst to Dru, the attack is captured on a hidden video camera accidentally left on by Noah Newman. The footage is discovered by Dru's enemy Phyllis Newman, who alerts Carmen, who in turn takes the tape to the police, which lands Dru in more trouble.
During these events Neil helps Dru deal with her feelings towards Carmen and tries to act as peacemaker. Carmen can not understand how he can condone Dru's actions. She informs him she is going to ask the District Attorney William Bardwell to prosecute Dru. Neil believes that Carmen is overzealous in wanting revenge on Drucilla. Dru hires Michael Baldwin as her attorney, and Michael asks Paul Williams to investigate Carmen's background. Paul discovers that at Carmen's previous job, prior to her arrival in Genoa City, she had an affair with a married executive, and that she left the job after being paid a large settlement. Michael confronts Carmen with this information in an attempt to get her to drop her lawsuit against Dru, but she refuses. Carmen is found dead behind Neil's jazz club, Indigo, on the club's opening night. William Bardwell believes that she was murdered and, out of numerous possible suspects, arrests Devon for her murder. Michael becomes Devon's defense attorney and looks for other plausible suspects, particularly Brad Carlton and Jack, so that he can establish reasonable doubt as part of Devon's defense. Carmen's murderer turns out to be Jana Hawkes. Jana killed her because Carmen saw Jana looking through a folder containing pictures and facts about the Grugeon Reliquary, a fictional piece of medieval art with foreign letters engraved on it, revealed to be the keys to a massive fortune, which Jana stole from Victoria Newman's car.
== Rebecca Kaplan ==
Rebecca Kaplan first appeared on July 28, 2006, portrayed by Millie Perkins (known for her role in the film adaptation of The Diary of Anne Frank). By September 19, Lorna Raver at joined the role. The character wasn't seen past February 2007.
Rebecca was introduced prior to her first appearance as "a woman who holds a key to the mystery of Brad's past." She is the mother of the late Brad Carlton and the grandmother of the late Colleen Carlton.
History
In 1943, Rebecca's family members were killed by Nazis during World War II, and Rebecca was put to work in a concentration camp, cataloging stolen Jewish artworks. Rebecca escaped and testified at war crime trials against the commandant, who was sentenced to death. She also returned all of the stolen artworks to their rightful owners. After receiving death threats, Rebecca and her sister, Isabel, immigrated from Rome to the United States, where Rebecca met and married Arturo "Arthur" Kaplan. The couple had two children, George and Stephanie, and the family lived in Ohio. When George and Stephanie were teenagers, the Nazis managed to track the Kaplan family down, and Arthur, Stephanie and Isabel were thus killed. The Nazis mistakenly took Isabel to be her sister, Rebecca, who was spared.
Later, Rebecca and George were forced to go on the run from the Nazis, and when George's friend, Brad Carlton, was killed, George took his identity and moved to Genoa City, with Rebecca still in hiding. In July 2006, "Brad," now in his forties, finally told his then-wife, Victoria Newman, and his daughter Colleen, about his past and his true identity, and introduced them to Rebecca, whom they had believed to be dead. Rebecca continues to stay in hiding, even during Brad's untimely death, when she could not leave hiding to come to his funeral.
== Adrian Korbel ==
Adrian Korbel first appeared on September 18, 2006, portrayed by Eyal Podell. He departed nearly two years later on August 5, 2008. He is described by the official website as ––
"An opinionated professor at Genoa City University, Adrian may have met his match in outspoken student Colleen Carlton."
The character has been described as a "Hunk" teacher. On his working with the cast, Podell said during an interview with Soap Opera Digest "It's fun, it's challenging. It's just great to come in and work." In a later September 2007 interview he talked about his character's status and the storylines at The Young and the Restless " It's been great. There's been a bit of a lull, but they've been setting up storylines. Adrian's still writing the book about Brad and somewhere in the future that's going to blow up. Then this thing with Heather could blow up things between him and Colleen."
History
Colleen Carlton found herself being drawn to her college art history professor, Adrian Korbel, and she became his research assistant in 2006. They started off on the wrong foot, but the two shared a one-night stand at Genoa City University when they were stuck there during an ice storm. A guilty Colleen decided to stop things with Adrian to salvage her relationship with her then-boyfriend, J.T. Hellstrom. Adrian seemed to move on from Colleen, and he became bed buddies with Amber Moore. Still, he found himself sketching pictures of Colleen, and he often reminisced about their night together during the storm.
Meanwhile, Colleen's father, Brad Carlton, distrusted Adrian, and he hired J.T. to investigate Adrian. Brad's mother, Rebecca Kaplan, worked in a concentration camp cataloging stolen Jewish artwork during World War II. The Nazis who were involved began to track Rebecca and her family. They were looking for a piece of artwork, the Grudgeon Reliquary. After Brad acquired the artwork, Rebecca found an inscription in the artwork that was in code. Colleen gave the inscription to Adrian, and he solved the code that revealed a treasure worth millions hidden in the catacombs of the Czech Republic. Then, Jana Hawkes kidnapped Colleen and Kevin Fisher to get to the treasure before Brad. Luckily, JT and Adrian saved them from a fiery blaze before they were seriously hurt.
Adrian and Colleen resumed their secret relationship. Once Brad found out about his daughter's secret affair, he forbade her from seeing Adrian. Colleen was forced to move in with her uncle Jack Abbott, who also paid for her college tuition after her father cut her off. Adrian received a job offer at a museum in Paris, and he and Colleen were going to move to France together. Brad donated a piece of art to the museum, and he persuaded the museum to take back their job offer to Adrian. With nowhere to go, Colleen moved in with Adrian at his apartment while he wrote a tell-all about Brad's past. Jana and Colleen helped Adrian reveal the secrets of Brad's past. Colleen was unaware that by revealing her family's secrets, she was putting them in danger. Adrian gave Colleen an advanced copy of the book, entitled SAVED: From The Ashes. After reading the book, Colleen's fear for her family's safety escalated. She gave the book to her father, and he used his money to stop the book's publication. Adrian was furious with Colleen for betraying him, and their relationship soon crumbled. Colleen then left Genoa City for Beijing, China to take a work study position. Adrian was offered a position as a writer for Restless Style magazine, and he was in charge of writing an article about Victor Newman's most recent wife, Sabrina Costelana. Colleen's uncle, Jack Abbott, edited Adrian's work to increase magazine sales, which upset Adrian. Upon Colleen's return from China, Adrian was willing to forgive her, but she refused his advances. In 2008, Adrian relocated to Maine because he had no reason to stay in Genoa City any longer. In 2009, Collen tragically died after drowning in a lake. Adrian was unable to attend the funeral, but he sent flowers to the family to express his condolences.
== Ji Min Kim ==
Ji Min Kim first appeared on October 2, 2006, portrayed by Eric Steinberg. He last appeared on September 5, 2007, after being murdered. On working with the cast, Steinberg said "Jess is one of the pillars of the show and this is the first soap I have ever done. I have done a lot of other things but not a soap. It is an extraordinarily, technically speaking as an actor, difficult."
History
Ji Min entered the picture as the owner of House of Kim, a dummy corporation that Jack Abbott had set up so that he could secretly buy back Jabot Cosmetics from Katherine Chancellor. Ji Min quickly became embroiled in the corporate intrigue surrounding Katherine, Jack and Victor Newman.
Ji Min had recently become interested in Jill Abbott, and was consistent in asking her out for drinks and meals. Gloria Bardwell, with the help of her son Kevin Fisher, had been monitoring the security cameras in Ji Min's office, determined to prove that Jack was the one pulling the strings at Jabot. Gloria had also been slipping Jill sexual enhancement drugs to ensure that she and Ji Min had sex in the office, thus destroying Jill's relationship with William Bardwell.
Although Gloria's plan ended any possibility of a Jill and William pairing, it also united Jill and Ji Min, who found they had an attraction to each other outside of a libido enhancer. Jill and Ji Min stumbled upon Gloria's scheme, when Jill's routine physical showed an abnormal amount of hormones. Ji Min, a self-professed chemist, and Jill figured out what Gloria had done and were last seen plotting their payback while at the Extreme Catwalk shoot. Jill spiked Gloria's and Evan's coffee, trying to do to her what she had done to them. Evan and Gloria did have a tryst, but unfortunately, William came by too late to catch them in the act. Katherine, Jill's mother and CEO of Chancellor Industries, was not a fan of Ji Min. Due to his involvement with Jack's Jabot scheme Katharine distrusted Ji Min and did not like his involvement with her daughter. Katherine bought Jabot back from Jack and wanted Ji Min to leave Genoa City. Although Ji Min confessed that he had always found his calling as that of an evil math teacher, he nevertheless stayed in town. Trying to make her daughter end her relationship with Ji Min, Katherine gave Jill an ultimatum: either she remained Jabot's CEO and gave up her relationship with Ji Min or she stepped down as CEO, which would allow Ji Min to be CEO, and therefore keep her man. Jill decided to keep her man. He proposed to Jill and the two were engaged. Katherine fired him from Jabot and he began working with Jill to start their own company, which would compete with Jabot.
Ji Min was found dead in his room at the Genoa City Athletic Club. The cause of death was strangulation; it was not known who the killer was, but evidence suggested that it was either Jack Abbott or Victor. Later video footage suggested it was Victor and he was arrested. In 2008, Paul Williams concluded that Ji Min had been murdered after discovering that Walter and David had mob connections. He had been silenced when he attempted to break free of their influence.
== Maggie Sullivan ==
Maggie Sullivan first appeared on October 30, 2006, portrayed by actress Tammy Lauren. She was last seen on February 21, 2008, without a proper exit.
On her character, Lauren stated "Women who act as tough as Maggie are probably more scared of things than others". Lauren also said that when the character joined, she was only for the purpose of the Carmen Mesta murder case.
History
Maggie Sullivan first came onto the scene in Genoa City to investigate the murder of Carmen Mesta, whose body was found behind the club Indigo. Throughout the case, she remained a force to be reckoned with and continued to search for the truth as to who killed Carmen, where she was murdered and why. She also began a relationship with Paul Williams, but it had a rocky start when she tracked him to an abandoned warehouse and found what she believed to be Phyllis Newman imprisoned in a cage, but it was actually the psychotic Sheila Carter, who had undergone plastic surgery to look like Phyllis. Maggie let "Phyllis" out, only to be choked by her and left for dead. Sheila then imprisoned Paul in the cage with Maggie and shot Maggie.
After Sheila-as-Phyllis was killed, Paul visited Maggie in the hospital and told her that when questioned, she should leave Lauren and Michael out of the story, as they too, like Maggie, had "stumbled into this themselves." Then, a fellow detective came to ask Maggie about her shooting and Paul was asked to step outside. Maggie never told anyone of Michael, Paul, or Lauren's involvement and she and Paul resumed dating. Months later, Paul gave Maggie another shock when he revealed that the new Assistant D.A. in town was his daughter Heather Stevens that he'd had with his ex-wife, April. The only thing was Heather did not know Paul was her biological father. This led Maggie to encourage him to tell Heather the truth.. She and Paul did not break up on camera, and no mention was made of her when Paul began seeing Nikki.
== David Chow ==
David Chow first appeared on January 9, 2007, portrayed by Vincent Irizarry, investigating the murder of ex-fiancée Carmen Mesta. Later marrying Nikki Newman, David was a mobster hit man who later died in a car accident with Sabrina Costelana.
Casting
Irizarry's casting for the role was announced by multiple sources in November 2006. He taped his first scenes on November 21, 2006, and was to "tackle the role of David Chow, a character who is connected to the recently-murdered Carmen Mesta." In 2008, it was reported that Irizarry was to exit The Young and the Restless. After the announcement of his departure, news broke that Irizarry was to reprise his All My Children alter-ego, David Hayward.
History
David Chow was a savvy political operative who arrived in Genoa City to avenge the murder of his former fiancée, Carmen Mesta. He quickly zeroed in on Drucilla Winters as the chief suspect in her murder, and gave a tape of a heated argument between the two to the press, which elevated further suspicions on Dru, who was extremely angry with Carmen for her involvement with her husband, Neil Winters. David waged an ugly campaign to drive Dru crazy by hiring Carmen's look-alike cousin, Ines, to appear around town and haunt Dru. After Jana Hawkes confessed to killing Carmen, David and Ines came to Dru's competency hearing to prove her sanity.
Meanwhile, Victor Newman made David a lucrative offer to work on Jack Abbott's Wisconsin state senate campaign. David then released a video of Jack's competition, Victor's then-wife Nikki Newman, stripping to make her look bad, leading to his firing. Nikki saw this move as an opportunity to get David to work for her, and she then had two campaign managers in the forms of him and Karen Taylor. David and Nikki connected, even after her son Nicholas Newman was hurt by him. When Victor was out of town looking for his estranged son, Nikki and David shared a kiss, which unbeknownst to them was recorded by Sharon Abbott and Phyllis Newman. Victor discovered their kiss online, which caused more marital problems for the couple and ruined Nikki's senate campaign. She lost the election to Jack, but continued to see David afterward.
Soon after, Nikki hired David to work for her company, N.V.P. Following an accident, Nicholas was presumed dead and then found alive, and an accident left Nikki's daughter Victoria Newman in a coma. These events brought Nikki and Victor back together, and Nikki insisted that David get out of her life. Evidently, this didn't last long as her reunion with Victor was shattered, and she and David became engaged. However, Nikki lost N.V.P. in her divorce settlement. Later on, David and Nikki became co-CEOs of Jabot Cosmetics. Victor warned her about David's eventful past, which included three previous marriages. He believed David was after Nikki's money, but she didn't listen to Victor and they continued their engagement.
Walter Palin then arrived in town, a loan shark who David paid off his debt to. Walter was the only person who knew David's true identity, "Clark". After a heated fight between the two men, David agreed to tell Nikki about his gambling problem and debt, which she chose to pay off and tried to commit him to help with his addiction, which he refused. However, Brad Carlton set David up to relapse with the help of Skye Lockhart, as he did not believe David was worthy of his CEO position. Skye ended up taking money from David in a poker game.
Victor became engaged to Sabrina Costelana, which made Nikki jealous, and she and David thus eloped to Mexico to "one-up" him. Paul Williams then investigated David's previous marriages, which revealed that both of them were extremely wealthy and had been met with untimely, suspicious ends. David's third wife Bitsy Hartford told Paul that he got away with killing his first wife Janelle by saying she committed suicide after he cheated on her. Paul then met Mina King, the daughter of David's second wife, Angela Perkins, who, convinced that he murdered her, told Paul that David told Angela to cut her out of the will, leaving him the sole beneficiary, and that he cut the brakes in her car, causing the fatal car accident that killed her. When Paul confronted David with this information, he said Mina was cut from the will because of her drug addiction. Eventually, David had no choice but to tell Nikki of his eventful past.
David said Janelle died of a sleeping pill overdose while they were traveling the world on humanitarian missions, and that he was never charged for her murder. Angela supposedly crashed her car into a telephone pole and died after a heated argument with him, and Bitsy was supposedly extremely paranoid which led to an affair with Carmen, a divorce and allegations against David.
Brad continued to feed his gambling addiction, debts began to appear again and David became desperate for money. Eventually, he asked Nikki for a divorce as he feared he'd gamble all her money away. Nikki refused to give up on him; however Paul continued to search through his past and discovered his real name was Angelo Sarafini, and was in fact a mobster hit man for Walter, or Tony Amato. He was then involved in the death of Ji Min Kim acting on Walter's behalf, and then Mina died under suspicious circumstances. Learning of all these events, Nikki left David and planned to divorce him.
At a charity gala, David spiked Nikki's drinks with dangerous amounts of morphine; however, she was rescued and brought to hospital before it affected her. At the same time, Sabrina insisted that she and David ride home together as she didn't feel well. Their limousine crashed; Victor got a call about a Mrs. Newman in distress and arrived on the scene, expecting it to be Nikki, when in reality, it was Sabrina. Victor was confused as to why she was with David, but they both ended up dying from their severe injuries. Later revelations state that Walter was responsible for the accident. After his death, David was continually suspected in the murder of Ji Min Kim and then Skye, which proved to be a fake-out.
== Karen Taylor ==
Karen Taylor first appeared on April 18, 2007, portrayed by actress Nia Peeples. Initially a small guest role, she departed on May 13, 2008. However, Peeples returned to the role on June 13, 2008. In March 2009, it was announced that Peeples had been let go from the role, and her last airdate was May 14, 2009. A month before her final airdate, Peeples spoke out about her firing from the role, blasting her fellow cast members such as Kristoff St. John who played her onscreen husband, and Eva Marcille. The character was described as "a savvy political operative who, after managing Nikki Newman's senatorial campaign, landed a powerful executive position at Newman Enterprises."
History
Karen arrived in Genoa City as Nikki Newman's campaign manager for her Wisconsin state senate campaign; however Nikki lost the campaign and Karen was fired. She dated Neil Winters after his wife's death. His children, Lily Winters and Devon Hamilton, didn't approve of Karen after their mother's death, however later began to give her a chance. Karen and Neil moved in together; Lily then found herself pregnant by her boyfriend, Cane Ashby; Neil proposed to raise the child with Karen, but Karen was extremely against Neil's proposal, and subsequently moved out. Realizing he was still mourning over his late wife, Drucilla, Karen left town.
A month later, Neil traveled to New York to win Karen back; and proposed marriage. She rejected him however she returned to Genoa City and they got back together. She started to show a different side of herself when a woman named Tyra Hamilton came to town and began to spend time with Neil. Tyra was Devon's adoptive aunt and his birth mother Yolanda Hamilton's adoptive sister. Drucilla's sister, Dr. Olivia Winters, returned to Genoa City, and she recognized Karen as a past patient. After meeting, they agreed to keep the secret between them hidden. Shortly after, Karen confessed to Neil that she had a hysterectomy after learning that she could give her child cancer. She asked him to decide if he still wanted to be with her even though she could not bear children. Neil quickly reassured an uneasy Karen that he still wanted to be with her.
Upon hearing the news of Katherine Chancellor's "death", Neil started to think about his life, and he decided to again propose to Karen, who happily accepted after a little reluctance. They planned to get married, but when Devon's biological sister, Ana Hamilton, was taken away from her aunt Tyra's custody, they decided to get married sooner so that they could become foster parents for Ana. The couple married on New Year's Eve 2008. Karen quickly became jealous of Tyra and Neil's relationship. She decided that she wanted to adopt Ana to start a family with Neil. Neil was reluctant yet open to the idea. Meanwhile, Tyra kissed Neil on two separate occasions. The second time, Karen witnessed the kiss; she kept them apart by making it appear as though Neil was attempting to adopt Ana behind Tyra's back. Karen was deeply distraught upon learning that Neil had a one-night stand with Tyra, but she managed to collect herself and continue battling to become a foster parent for Ana. In a turn of events, Neil testified on Tyra's behalf, and Tyra was then granted custody of Ana once again. Appalled, Karen packed her bags and left town, telling Neil that she hated him before she left.
== Ben Hollander ==
Ben Hollander first appeared on May 7, 2007, portrayed by veteran actor, Billy Warlock. Casting was announced on March 29, 2007. Warlock is known for his previous roles on Days of Our Lives and General Hospital. The character appeared from May to August 2007, with brief appearances from November 29 to December 10; and two episodes in 2008.
History
When Jack Abbott decided to run for the Wisconsin State Senate seat, he fired David Chow as his campaign manager and hired Ben to take over the position. Jack's opponent, Nikki Newman, hired David Chow, and the two campaign managers began their battle for a better campaign. Ben stayed as Jack's manager after Jack had won the election, but he lost his job after Jack had to step down from his seat due to a scandal. Since then, Ben has been working on the John Abbott Memorial Foundation.
== Jeffrey Bardwell ==
Jeffrey Bardwell first appeared on August 8, 2007, as the identical twin brother of William Bardwell, portrayed by Ted Shackelford on a recurring status. In 2011, Shackelford briefly stepped out of the role and it was temporarily assumed by Kin Shriner. Shackelford has since returned to the role.
Casting
Ted Shackelford has portrayed the role since 2007, and previously portrayed the role of William Bardwell for over a year. In 2011, it was announced that Shackelford would briefly vacate the role and it would be temporarily assumed by Kin Shriner, who briefly appeared on The Young and the Restless as Harrison Bartlett in 2004. He began airing on April 20, 2011, and was last seen in the role on September 16. Shackelford returned to the role on December 6 for a brief appearance, and then returned for additional appearances beginning January 11, 2012.
History
Jeffrey is the identical twin brother of the late William Bardwell, first appearing in Genoa City at his wake. Gloria Bardwell, William's widow, was confused to as who Jeffrey was, and later revelations stated that Jeffrey came to town after receiving a package from William with a sample of a face cream called Glo'Again, with a note telling him to not let "her" (Gloria) get away with it. In reality, Gloria had tampered with the cream at Jabot Cosmetics causing several customers' faces to be burned. Jeffrey blackmailed Gloria into marrying him, threatening to tell the police about the incident. In reality, Jeffrey just wanted to inherit the money left to Gloria by his brother and even Gloria's other late husband John Abbott Sr. They eloped to Las Vegas, and lived in the Abbott mansion together. Jeffrey wanted to have sex with Gloria to make the marriage fun, but he was teaming up with Jack Abbott and Sharon Newman to get Gloria to leave the mansion by hiring a man named Alistair Wallingford, who was identical to John, in an effort to scare her away. However, Alistair was smitten by Gloria, and he confessed to the entire endeavor. Afterward, Jeffrey's Korean mistress, Kyon, arrived at the mansion, and after Gloria caught them together, she left him, and afterward Jeffrey became involved with Jill Abbott and asked Gloria for a divorce.
Their divorce left Gloria penniless, forcing her to work at Crimson Lights coffeehouse. She decided to get back at Jeffrey and Jill by pouring hot sauce into their coffees, not realizing Jeffrey was in fact highly allergic to such which sent him to the hospital. Jeffrey nearly died from the incident, and as an act of revenge Jill told Gloria he had died. Jeffrey was really recuperating at the Chancellor estate, where he wrote a note to Gloria which he tore up. When Gloria discovered Jeffrey was alive, she went to the estate to apologize, where Jill spoke about her scheming history, leading Gloria to believe Jeffrey told her about the face cream incident. Gloria felt betrayed by Jeffrey and decided to cut him out of her life, while at the same time Katherine Chancellor discovered the torn up note he wrote to her. Realizing he loved Gloria, she found him in the arms of Alistair. Eventually, Jeffrey confessed his love for her and they made love, but she discovered his passport with a stamp from the Cayman Islands, accusing him of stealing her missing diamonds. Jeffrey ended things with Gloria and returned to Jill. However, despite returning to Jill's arms, he confessed his affair with Gloria and thus their relationship ended. Jeffrey begged Gloria for a second chance, and they married for a second time in Vegas. He also confessed to taking the missing diamonds which was met with forgiveness from Gloria.
Jeffrey and Gloria then wanted to acquire all the shares in Jabot, enlisting the help of Gloria's son Michael Baldwin to set up a dummy corporation. He agreed to do so if Jeffrey gave him the face cream, which he believed Kyon took by mistake. Jeffrey went to Korea to find Kyon and the face cream, returned to reveal he was unsuccessful but in reality he had it in his briefcase. Soon after, Gloria's ex-husband and Michael's father River Baldwin came to town, making Jeffrey jealous. River was a longtime fugitive, so Jeffrey reported him to the police for Gloria's safety. She ended up helping River with his daughter Eden Baldwin, causing Jeffrey to leave her. However, he returned weeks later and they reunited, but Jeffrey told Gloria that he indeed has the face cream with a written letter he will send to the police to report her if she ever crosses him again. He then found a photo of Gloria and River which he tore up, and told her that their marriage was now nothing more but a business arrangement. Gloria told Jeffrey she loved him and only him, which Jeffrey chose not to believe, and they divorced again.
When Katherine was believed to be dead, it was revealed that she left 5% of her Jabot stock to Gloria, and she and Jeffrey decided to then take over Jabot with Jack, which was unsuccessful. Despite two divorces, Gloria and Jeffrey remained on good terms, and eventually they reunited. However, Jeffrey supposedly left Genoa City to go to Vegas, where it was revealed that he had gambled away all of Gloria's money, leaving her broke. In reality, Angelo Veneziano had Jeffrey kidnapped and stole her money so he could make a move on Gloria and help her run her nightclub, Gloworm. Jeffrey was later seen on a deserted island trying to make a fire, and eventually Gloria's other son Kevin Fisher and Angelo's daughter Angelina Veneziano found him living in Angelo's fishing cabin, and supposedly suffered memory loss. He stole their motor boat and eventually made it back to Genoa City, where Jill brought him to an extremely angry Gloria. Still having no memory of the last few months, Gloria made him a bus boy, where he met Anita Lawson, who was astounded that he had no memory of her. Gloria and Angelo became engaged, and he locked Jeffrey in a dumpster behind Gloworm when he realized he'd regained his memory and what Angelo did to him. After breaking free, Jeffrey told Gloria what Angelo had done causing him to leave, and the ceremony was given to him and Gloria. However, Anita's daughter Chelsea Lawson claimed that Jeffrey was his father, which was confirmed by a DNA test. Anita then revealed to Jeffrey that they were still legally married, and he sent her on a trip around the world. Since then, she has returned and revealed to Gloria and Chelsea that she and Jeffrey were married.
There was initially some hostility, but Jeff and Gloria were able to work through this. Later, Jeff was able to convince Chelsea to come spend time with him at Gloworm. Although she initially suspected him of trying to scheme money out of her, he surprised her with pleasant company and giving her money to buy a present for her expecting child in his name.
== Roxanne ==
Roxanne first appeared on September 17, 2007, portrayed by former The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air actress Tatyana Ali as the love interest for Devon Hamilton. The role was initially a guest meant to air only on September 17 and 18, but Ali's stint on the show was extended and eventually upgraded to a recurring status.
For her recurring work on The Young and the Restless, Ali won an NAACP Image Award in 2011, beating out the likes of Debbi Morgan for the award, surprising the public. The award was for Outstanding Actress in a drama series despite her on and off role and lack of airtime. She was nominated for the same award in 2012.
History
Roxanne was introduced during Lily Winters' divorce party, where she hooked up with Lily's brother, Devon Hamilton. The two began a relationship, with Roxanne making occasional, brief appearances on the show.
In August 2009, after a particularly vicious argument, Devon and Tyra Hamilton had sex, unaware that Roxanne had walked in and discovered them in the act. The day after, Roxanne confronted Devon and Tyra, and she eventually broke up with Devon for his infidelity. Later, Lily was diagnosed with ovarian cancer, and Roxanne came back to town to visit her.
She revealed to Lily that she and Devon had broken up because of his relationship with Tyra. Lily confronted Devon about what she had heard, and he revealed his secret tryst with Tyra to her. Lily encouraged Devon to make things right with Roxanne. Initially, Roxanne resisted Devon's sincere attempts to apologize, but eventually she accepted and they resumed their relationship. Roxanne then went on an extended stay to Paris, France, while Devon stayed back in Genoa City to work on his music producing career.
Devon did not see anyone while Roxanne was away. One of her last appearances was at the christening of Moses Winters, before Devon later ended their relationship. She hasn't been seen since.
== Reed Hellstrom ==
Reed Hellstrom is the son of J.T. Hellstrom and Victoria Newman. He was born on December 3, 2007; however, his birth year was later changed to 2005.
Character History
Reed was born prematurely on November 29, 2007, after an accident left his mother, Victoria, in a coma. Victoria was exiting a partially destroyed parking garage in Clear Springs when a piece of falling debris struck her in the head. Victoria did not know Reed's paternity during the pregnancy. His biological father could have been Victoria's estranged husband, Brad Carlton, or her lover and future husband, J.T. Hellstrom. With Victoria and the unborn child's life at stake, the Newman Family went to court to determine whose life should be saved. That decision, thankfully, did not have to be made as both Reed and Victoria survived. J.T. was revealed to be the father after Reed was born, and he and Victoria married in February 2008 after she woke up from her coma. Soon after the marriage, Reed contracted a staph infection, but he recovered. After his parents separated, J.T. and Victoria shared joint custody of their son.
Reed traveled back and forth between Genoa City, where he stays with Victoria, and Washington, D.C., where he stays with J.T. Reed is nine years old as of 2014. In 2016, he is now a teenager, portrayed by Tristan Lake Leabu. He moved back to Genoa City to live with Victoria. The duo suffered a strained relationship due to Reed's rebellious nature and Victoria's strict love and inattentiveness due to work. Reed grew close to Victoria's ex-husband Billy Abbott, who helped the two grow closer together and advised Victoria to encourage Reed's burgeoning musical talent. During this time, Reed also begins a relationship with Mattie Ashby that ends when Reed is arrested for a DUI.
J.T., separated from Mackenzie, returns to Geona City; to Reed's delight, he and Victoria reunite romantically. Unbeknownst to him, J.T. returned to town to investigate Victor, and later begins physically and emotionally abusing Victoria, culminating in J.T. attempting to murder Victor and later relocate the family internationally. Victoria takes a stand and kicks J.T. out, upsetting Reed, who was left in the dark about his father's corrupt side. J.T. returned to attack Victoria, leading to his murder, in self-defense, by Nikki, with Victoria, Sharon Newman, and Phyllis Summers. As the women cover up the murder, Reed feels abandoned by his father's sudden disappearance, and he and Victoria grow closer as she consoles him. Reed ultimately leaves town in 2018 to engross himself in a music program, focusing on his music instead of his missing father. Reed returned to Genoa City in December 2018.
== Sabrina Costelana Newman ==
Sabrina Costelana Newman appeared from February 28 to August 5, 2008, portrayed by Raya Meddine. She was introduced as a friend of Victoria Newman (Amelia Heinle), later pursuing a romance with her father Victor Newman (Eric Braeden). Despite the character dying onscreen, Meddine reprised the role numerous times after Sabrina's death.
History
Sabrina was introduced as a friend of Victoria Newman, whom she had met while she was living in Florence. She arrived in Genoa City in February 2008 to visit Victoria after Victoria had contacted her via e-mail and instantly found herself attracted to Victoria's recently divorced father, Victor Newman, with whom she shared an interest in art. It was soon revealed to viewers that Sabrina had worked as an art curator in Florence, and that she had recently broken up with a man named Phillipe.
Before she was about to leave Genoa City, she shared a kiss with Victor Newman. Their attraction soon turned into a relationship, leaving both Victor and Sabrina worried over Victoria's reaction. After learning about it, Victoria furiously confronted her friend, leaving their friendship shattered. Meanwhile, Sabrina accepted Victor's proposal to manage an art gallery that Victor was going to open up for her in Genoa City. Sabrina revealed she was pregnant, and afterward they married.
Zara Costelana, Sabrina's mother, arrived in Genoa City the day before the wedding, even though she was not invited. Victoria later explained to Nick and Phyllis that the reason mother and daughter have a strained relationship is because Zara was not a nurturing parent, preferring instead to treat Sabrina as more of a sister or friend following Mr. Costelana's assassination, rather than a daughter. Sabrina's father was a diplomat who was killed while performing his job, which shattered Sabrina and her mother's relationship.
Sabrina agreed to be in an article in the new magazine, Restless Style, which was started by Jack Abbott, Nicholas Newman, Sharon Newman Abbott and Phyllis Newman. The article was to be approved by Victor and Sabrina and show her in a good light. However, Jack was intent on selling more magazine copies, so he got in contact with sources, including Sabrina's recent ex-boyfriend, and made changes that portrayed her as a woman who would do anything to get ahead – including sexual favors. Sabrina was livid and embarrassed over the article, and especially angry at Victoria because of her accusations. However, she did not let it get to her and she kept her head held up high. In July 2008, she was helping to plan a charity gala that would soon be taking place in Genoa City.
On August 1, 2008, she was involved in a fatal car crash along with David Chow and a limo driver, and subsequently miscarried her child. The crash was an intentional attack on David, as a hit had been put out by the mob. Sabrina had asked David to take her home from the charity gala because she was not feeling well. David and the driver were killed instantly but Sabrina was soon found by police alive and was rushed to the hospital. The doctors at the hospital, including experts and specialists brought in at Victor's request by attorney Michael Baldwin, said she did not have much time to live. She needed a liver transplant, as hers was lacerated. However, according to the doctors, there were more needy and longtime transplant candidates ahead of her and she could not be moved up the list quickly enough. Towards the end of her life, Victoria made peace with her and they were friends again. On August 5, she died soon after going into cardiac arrest and could not be resuscitated. After her death, her possessions were given to charity. Her funeral was being planned by Jana Hawkes at Victor's request, but was unexpectedly canceled by Victor so that he could attend Sabrina's burial alone.
Several weeks after Sabrina's death, Nikki Newman had numerous dreams that Sabrina and a little girl, presumably Sabrina and Victor's miscarried child, were talking with her, causing her to feel extremely guilty about Sabrina's death. David Chow also appeared in some of the dreams, telling Nikki that she was at fault for Sabrina's death, despite her having nothing to do with it in reality. Victor also accused Nikki of having a hand in her death because he felt that she had brought David into their lives by marrying him. This caused Nikki to become extremely upset several times, but eventually the dreams and accusations from Victor stopped.
Sabrina appeared as a ghost on September 24, 2008, when an emotional Victor asked her to come and take him, but Sabrina refused to take Victor along. Sabrina reappeared as a ghost on June 1, 2009, when Ashley Abbott Newman dreamed that she was in front of a statue of Sabrina on the Newman Ranch, which Victor had paid someone to create before her death. Ashley asked Sabrina to give her and her baby peace. Sabrina told Ashley not to be afraid, that she was completely sane, and did not need to worry anymore because as long as Victor was happy that is all that matters to her. Sabrina also tells Ashley that she is giving Victor what she had hoped to give him (a baby) before she was "called away."
Sabrina made subsequent appearances to Ashley in her mind (hallucinations) over the course of the next several months in 2009 while Ashley was having mental problems and believed Sabrina to somehow be alive and trying to "take her baby." Ashley's mental distress eventually resulted in her having a miscarriage when she fell down the staircase at the Newman Ranch after thinking she saw Sabrina and trying to run away from her. However, she had actually seen Victor's son, Adam Newman, who was wearing a dress similar to the one Sabrina was wearing the night of the car accident that killed her and playing an audio recording of Sabrina's voice to scare Ashley and cause her further mental anguish. After the miscarriage, Ashley's visions of Sabrina eventually stopped and Ashley's mind tricked her body into thinking it was still pregnant, which a doctor later deemed was a "hysterical pregnancy." Sabrina did not make any further appearances to Ashley after August 2009.
On December 23, 2010, Sabrina appeared to Victor in a dream he had along with Hope Wilson and Colleen Carlton as the "ghost" who was showing Victor the present, while Hope showed him the past and Colleen (whose face was not shown) showed what the future would be like if Victor continued treating his family badly. This dream prompted Victor to go see his family and friends on Christmas, despite the fact he was planning on spending Christmas alone.
== Alistair Wallingford ==
Alistair Wallingford first appeared on March 18, 2008, portrayed by Jerry Douglas, who portrayed the late John Abbott Sr. The character departed on June 11, 2008. His character was announced to interact with Jack and Sharon Abbott, and Jeffrey Bardwell. When asked to describe his character in an interview, Douglas stated ––
He is a devoted stage artist in his own mind. He has no qualms about telling you how great he is. And he is very charming! Now that I have portrayed him for a few weeks, I think he is genuinely a good person with a good heart. He is a bit of a lost soul. He has no roots. A kind of wandering minstrel from theater to theater for most of his life but he loves the stage and he loves performing. I find him fascinating.
Douglas also said it was very fun to play a character other than the "ghost" John. Alistair was a down-on-his-luck actor who happened to be a lookalike of the late John Abbott Sr.
History
Alistair enjoyed his beer and wine and was usually drunk, causing problems with Jack and Sharon's plans. They finally fired him and tried to keep him hidden away in a room at the Genoa City Athletic Club, but he escaped from Sharon and returned to the Abbott mansion to pursue his attraction for Gloria. When he entered the house, Lauren was about to walk down the stairs when she saw him and, thinking he was John Abbott, fainted and fell down the stairs.
Alistair later ran into Katherine Chancellor at Crimson Lights Coffeehouse, and she was surprised at how similar Alistair looked to John. She then saw Alistair near her house and invited him inside, where she learned more about Alistair. Jill Foster Abbott, her daughter, was also shocked when she first saw Alistair. The two women later learned more about Jack's plot against Gloria, and the fact that Alistair had fallen in love with Gloria. Eventually, Jack and Sharon decided that it was time to be rid of Alistair.
The Abbotts made a $50,000 donation to a struggling, out-of-area theater group in exchange for Alistair being cast in both their summer and fall productions (the latter being the role of "Felix" in The Odd Couple). Before he could leave, however, Alistair insisted on saying goodbye to Gloria.
== Skye Lockhart ==
Skye Lockhart first appeared on April 29, 2008, as a friend from Adam Newman's past. She was portrayed by Laura Stone. She left on July 11, 2008, returning briefly on March 3, 2010, and again for a final stint beginning June 7, 2010.
By November 2010, it was speculated that Skye was to leave The Young and the Restless permanently. Skye fell into a volcano and died; the character's last air date was December 29, 2010.
History
Shortly after Adam Newman returned to Genoa City as an adult, his old Harvard friend, Skye, came to visit. Skye graduated first from Harvard Business School while Adam was second. Skye arrived to catch up for old times' sake. She spent a few days in town playing poker with David Chow, and she won a large amount of money. Then, she disappeared after she was last seen at the airport. A few months later, a body was found in one of the horse stalls at the Newman ranch, dismembered into little pieces. The body was identified as Skye Newman after her Harvard ring was discovered at the scene. In March 2010, Adam had a vision of Skye giving him life advice. Three months later, Adam faked his own death and fled town as a part of a con that he and Skye were involved with. Skye, revealed to be alive, appeared in Brazil lying in bed with Adam. Skye provided for the couple, winning large sums of money by gambling. Soon, the couple was tracked down. The body believed to be Adam Newman was actually discovered to be that of Richard Hightower, and Adam was a suspect in his murder. Skye stayed behind in Brazil, and the authorities took Adam back to Wisconsin. After Adam was brought back to Genoa City, Skye appeared at his arraignment, much to Adam's surprise. Adam was sentenced to prison with bail. Skye agreed to pay Adam's bail if he married her.
Once married to Adam, Skye decided to hire Vance Abrams, a skilled attorney, to take on his case. Because of this, Adam won his case and became a free man, much to the shock of everyone in town. Skye and Adam then started "The Newman Fund", a company designed to spite her father-in-law, Victor Newman, and also to make them millions. It was quickly obvious that Skye had the upper hand in their relationship, as she ordered Adam around and told him what he could and could not do. Later, Skye accepted Jack Abbott's proposal to invest in the Newman Fund. She continued to promote the Newman hedge fund, and she persuaded Billy Abbott to let her appear on the front cover of his magazine, Restless Style, which upset Victor. She also slept with Jack Abbott to make Adam jealous.
Adam was jealous of Skye and Jack's relationship, but he was also suspicious of Jack, fearing that he and Victor were working together on a plan to bring him down. Skye was aware that Adam was paranoid about Victor and Jack, but she soon became furious after Billy's article damaged The Newman Fund. She then found Jack attempting to access her computer. Each time, Jack was able to talk his way out of the sticky situation, and he and Skye slept together several times. Victor managed to destroy The Newman Fund, and Skye was left in a state of shock after she lost everything, including Adam. After another intense confrontation with Adam, Skye turned up missing, leading Genoa City residents to believe that Adam killed Skye. However, Skye was later seen flying on the Newman jet with Victor. Skye called Victor, who arranged to help her by trashing her room and flying her off to Hawaii to again fake her death for Adam to be arrested and locked up. Over the following weeks, Adam was arrested and jailed while his new love interest, Sharon Newman, tried to help prove that Adam did not kill Skye.
In December 2010, Sharon got a lead as to where Skye might be. She headed to Hawaii, and she came face-to-face with Skye on top of an active volcano during a hike which Skye was participating in. She took a photo of her to prove that she was alive. They had a heated argument, which ended when Skye fell back towards a cliff. Sharon attempted to hang on to Skye, but she was not strong enough to pull her up. Skye lost her grip and fell over into the volcano itself, presumably dying once she hit the lava. Victor had been watching the entire argument unfold from a distance, and he watched as Skye fell, without attempting to help her. After Sharon left the volcano, Victor approached the area, and he threw Skye's glove into the volcano, destroying any evidence of her being there. He then proceeded to burn the hut in which Skye had been living, and he burned all of her clothes. Sharon, having lost the camera with Skye's picture in it, was unable to prove to Hawaiian police that she had seen Skye. She returned to Genoa City empty-handed, and she informed Adam of the incident. Soon after, Adam was freed on all charges while Sharon was now accused of murdering Skye. After several months, Sharon was finally acquitted, and neither she nor Adam was found to be guilty of murdering Skye.
== Ana Hamilton ==
Ana Hamilton is the daughter of Harmony Hamilton and sister of Devon Hamilton, first seen on June 25, 2008, portrayed by Jamia Simone Nash. She departed in 2009, returning for guest appearances in both 2011 and 2012. In November 2018, it was announced that Loren Lott had been cast as Ana; she made her debut during the November 28, 2018, episode.
History
Ana Hamilton came to Genoa City in the summer of 2008 with her "mother", Tyra Hamilton. They surprised her "cousin", Devon Hamilton, with her singing ability. Tyra revealed to Devon's adopted father, Neil Winters, that Ana was actually her sister, Yolanda's daughter, which meant she was Devon's sister. Ana was afraid that Tyra would send her to school in New Hampshire to get rid of her, but Tyra convinced her otherwise when she decided to go to New Hampshire along with Ana. She and Tyra were on their way to Chicago after Ana dropped out of school. Ana ran away from Tyra to be with Devon, but Tyra followed her back. The two reunited and stayed in Genoa City. Soon after their arrival, Yolanda filed a missing persons report on Ana. Ana was put in temporary foster care while the Winters family and Tyra tried to find a way to bring her home. Rafe Torres was working on the case for Ana. Tyra ended up getting legal custody of Ana.
In September 2011, Devon brought up his sister's singing ability to his boss at the time, Tucker McCall. Devon worked for Tucker's record label with Noah Newman until Noah left, and Tucker gave Devon 24 hours to find a replacement act. Tucker later fired Devon because he was unable to find a replacement. It is unknown whether Ana will come back to Genoa City once the news breaks that Devon is the biological son of Tucker McCall and the biological grandson of Katherine Chancellor. She returned on December 21, 2011, after Katherine flew her in for Genoa City's Christmas pageant and surprised both Devon and her biological mother Yolanda, now going by Harmony, whom she hasn't seen since she was a little girl. She returned again on June 27, 2012, to reunite with Harmony and Devon at the birthday party of Charlie and Mattie Ashby and has been working with Devon to produce a single for her.
Ana returned to Genoa City in November 2018, accepting a job offer to become Devon's assistant at Hamilton-Winters.
== Tyra Hamilton ==
Tyra Hamilton first appeared on June 25, 2008, and was portrayed by American fashion model and actress Eva Marcille until August 17, 2009.
The characters Tyra and Ana have met with negative reactions from viewers, especially due to the fact that her character has disappeared several times for more than a week. However, the producers have given Marcille a commitment to develop her character and she has been nominated for NAACP Image award.
History
Tyra arrives in Genoa City with her daughter Ana during Lily Winters' birthday party to surprise her nephew Devon Hamilton. Devon's father Neil Winters is worried about the sudden arrival of Devon's aunt and decides to find out more about why Tyra has come to town. After learning that Tyra has lost her job, Neil offers her a job as the manager of Indigo.
Tyra surprises Neil when she confesses that Ana is in fact her sister's daughter and Devon's sister. She then applies for her to get in a private school in New Hampshire, funded by Katherine Chancellor but it backfires when Ana intercepts the call and finds out that Yolanda is her biological mother. Ana accepts to go to New Hampshire and Tyra decides to go with her, but their absence becomes a problem when Devon learns that Ana does not like the school. Kay informs Neil that Ana and Tyra left the school. Tyra comes back to Genoa City looking for Ana, who has run away, and they reunite the same day. Neil tries to convince Tyra to stay in town, much to Karen's displeasure. Tyra begins dating a cop named Gil and develops feelings for Neil. Neil's sister-in-law, Olivia, pushes Tyra to go after Neil even though he is in a relationship with Karen Taylor.
Ana is taken away from Tyra when Yolanda decides to claim her. It is revealed that Yolanda filed a missing child report on Ana. Though Tyra has raised Ana for years, Yolanda has retained custody of her daughter. Neil and Karen marry to become Ana's foster parents. Karen wants to formally adopt Ana, which infuriates Tyra, who can only see her daughter during supervised visits. In a moment of weakness, Tyra kisses Neil, and then runs away from him. They later kiss again, which Karen witnesses. Karen tries to keep them apart by making it appear as though Neil also wants to adopt Ana without Tyra's knowledge. Tyra and Ana run away. Ana texts Neil before it's too late and they make up an excuse to prevent Tyra being stripped from visitation rights. Later on Neil tries to fire Tyra to avoid marital trouble and Tyra accepts both this and Ana being adopted and proceeds to leave telling Neil he is her hero and has been good to her. Neil stops her and they begin to have sex.
They both regret it but are confronted by Devon, Lily and Karen on separate occasions. Neil then helps Tyra get custody of Ana, even though his marriage blows up as a result. They then begin a new relationship but decide to take things slow. Soon thereafter at Lily's wedding to Cane Ashby, Tyra's aunt Virginia reveals to Devon that Tyra is not his biological aunt, having been left with Devon's grandmother as a baby. This revelation leads to a widening rift between Tyra and Devon, who still blames her for the end of Neil and Karen's marriage. However, Devon finds that he is actually quite attracted to Tyra. After a particularly vicious argument, Devon and Tyra have sex with each other, unaware that his girlfriend Roxanne has walked in and discovered them in the act. Roxanne later confronts Devon and breaks up with him, while Tyra hopes that Neil won't find out. However, Devon tells Neil about the one-night stand. Tyra asks Neil for another chance, but he tells her that Lily has his attention at the moment, leading Tyra to announce that she is leaving town.
== River Baldwin ==
Lowell "River" Baldwin first appeared on August 15, 2008, notably portrayed by former Family Ties actor Michael Gross.
TV Guide announced his casting in August 2008, as Michael Baldwin's father, "the one whom he thinks is a low-life, reprobate. A guy who refused to go to Vietnam and left Gloria to raise their son alone."
History
As part of his back story, he and Gloria were anti-establishment hippies, and Lowell left Gloria in 1975, while Michael was still a child, because he was accused of terrorist activity. He stayed on the run for 40 years. Before the character's first appearance, Michael searched for him without success. He accidentally found Lowell, going by the name River, at an Ashram in Malibu.
After coming in contact with Michael and his family, River was arrested for the crimes he was accused of 40 years prior. This arrest led his 15-year-old daughter, Eden Gerick Baldwin, to come to Genoa City to support him. River was put on trial and found innocent after Gloria testified on his behalf. Michael discovered though that River was, in fact, guilty of the crimes of which he was accused, and tried to turn him in. River went on the run again, leaving Eden in Genoa City with Michael.
== Rafe Torres ==
Rafael "Rafe" Torres is a lawyer who first appeared on December 1, 2008. He is portrayed by Yani Gellman. Rafe is the first and only openly gay character to appear on The Young and the Restless since it began airing in 1973. During an interview with Michael Fairman on Advocate.com, Gellman talked about his character, and the fact that he didn't know about Rafe's sexuality going into The Young and the Restless. He also stated he had no reservations about portraying a gay character.
I did not know it going in. It was something that the producers ran by me a little later on in the filming process. It took me maybe all of two milliseconds to respond. I thought it was a great idea and we jumped right in. No hesitancy whatsoever. I had some questions about the story line and where they saw it going and really standard questions you would have for any character you play. They assured me that the role was going to be written in a way that would be quite sensitive and conscientiously written, so that really appealed to me. I gravitated toward it and having this great new character to play. I am just like the viewer, wanting to know what's it going to be and what they are going to throw my way. I am ready for any of the great twists that come my way in the story. –– Yani Gellman on his character
History
Rafael Torres was a lawyer introduced during Ana Hamilton's foster care battle. He was a longtime friend of Billy Abbott. Rafe also worked as Adam Wilson's lawyer when he was prosecuted for forging the incriminating diary of his father, Victor Newman, and helped out Billy in the custody battle for his daughter with Chloe, Delia. It was also revealed that the Newman's housekeeper, Estella Muñoz, was Rafe's aunt.
Rafe was revealed to be gay when Lily Winters, unaware of his sexual orientation, attempted to set him up on a date with Colleen Carlton. After a matter of fact revelation of his being gay, the two agreed to be friends. After his aunt, Estella, was accused of gaslighting Ashley Abbott, he became determined to prove his aunt's innocence. After talking with Nikki Newman about who might really be behind the gaslighting, he became suspicious of his friend and former client Adam. However, when Rafe went to the Newman Ranch to accuse a house-arrested Adam, Adam tried to distract Rafe by seducing him. He lied to Rafe telling him he had feelings for him. A conflicted Rafe decided to believe him, revealing that he had actually been feeling the same way about Adam. It wasn't what Adam expected to hear, but this did not stop his seduction. Later, the two men had a sexual encounter.
Though it was not shown onscreen, the seduction scene stopped just before a kiss between them and then, when their scene later resumed, Adam and Rafe were shown putting back on their clothes. Post-sexual encounter, Rafe told Adam that he understood that Adam was in love with Heather and knew how negatively Genoa City viewed him, so perhaps Adam was just sexually confused. Rafe explained that he needed to leave, but told Adam that he would stay with Adam (presumably to have more sex) if it was what he wanted. Adam, who was visually shaken by the entire homosexual encounter he'd initiated just to keep Rafe from discovering his lies, tried to remain calm and told Rafe to go citing that because Adam was on house-arrest at the Ranch, Victor would often walk into his bedroom without knocking. As soon as Rafe had left, Adam immediately called Heather and asked her to come over. Once she arrived, he almost immediately initiated sex with her—seemingly to get his mind off what had just happened between him and Rafe.
As the story of Ashley's gaslighting continued (and was seemingly resolved—with his Aunt Estella being proven innocent and insane Patty Williams being wrongly accused instead of the guilty Adam), Rafe was not seen as often. Rafe has recently been acting as Billy Abbott's attorney, and has been helping Billy write an article to expose Adam. In July 2012, Rafe reappeared as Abby Newman's legal counsel after her publicity stunt involving a staged kidnapping with Carmine Basco. Abby wanted Rafe to take Carmine's case as well, but he was unable to handle both cases as well. Rafe was able to get Abby to accept a deal including a fine and community service offered by District Attorney Michael Baldwin and Ronan Malloy. After Abby's deal, he was convinced to take on Carmine's case as well, explaining to Abby that the circumstances make it very unlikely Carmine will be able to get a deal like hers, if at all.
== Patrick Murphy ==
Patrick Murphy, better known as simply Murphy, first appeared on October 29, 2008, portrayed by Michael Fairman on a recurring status.
History
Patrick Murphy was a long-time friend of Marge Cotrooke, with whom he often talked at Joe Jr.'s diner. His son Francis Murphy died after an accident and his wife Betty died not too long afterward. When Marge ended up in a car accident with her look-alike Katherine Chancellor, Murphy found Kay at the edge of a lake and nursed her back to health, without realizing that 'Marge' was actually Kay. When her health got better, Kay realized who she really was and Murphy accepted her as a friend, but romance also started blooming between the two. They had been trying to prove Kay's identity for a few weeks with help from Amber Moore, Michael Baldwin, Kevin Fisher and others.
Murphy was shocked when he returned home one day to find a goodbye note from Katherine claiming that she wasn't really Marge and that she had to leave. Murphy, heartbroken when Katherine could not remember who he was after the explosion (Kay was kidnapped and caught in an explosion by criminals who thought that she was Marge), decided to leave Katherine alone. However, Katherine returned to Murphy after another DNA test showed she was not Katherine, and they reconciled. At the diner, Murphy expressed his happiness that Katherine had brought to him. He proposed to Katherine and she accepted. He had planned to propose on Christmas Eve but Kay had slipped and fallen on some ice, so had Murphy decided to wait. Kay and Murphy later married. A year later Murphy falls gravely ill after he came face to face with Meggie McClaine, a woman from his past. Though mainly it's because as he was about to call Victor to warn him about Meggie, Meggie corners him in his car, thus causing him to have a heart attack. When Murphy attempts to take his medication, Meggie cruelly takes his medication from him and sadistically watches him groan in pain and is later found unconscious from his heart attack.
As a result, he was a prisoner in his own body at the Genoa City hospital, unable to talk or move; however he could blink his eyes, and was attempting to communicate via morse code with his eyelids. He has since made a full recovery and turned Meggie in.
In 2011, Katherine had a stroke, and Murphy found himself in the same position, needing to decide life or death for his comatose wife. Luckily Katherine came-to.
While fishing in Genoa City Park, in August 2011, Murphy found Diane Jenkins' lifeless body. He called the authorities.
In November 2011, Murphy supported Katherine during the reveal of Devon being her grandson.
On May 1, 2012, Katherine and Murphy celebrated their third wedding anniversary back with the old gang at Joe's Diner.
The theme of the 2012 annual Chancellor July 4 pool party/barbeque turned out to be forgiveness. While Murphy tended the grill, Devon forgave Katherine and Tucker, with Roxanne and Ana beaming their approval.
Katherine came out of retirement and became co-CEO of Chancellor again with Jill. Murphy tried not to resent all the time that Chancellor took from their lives.
In April 2013, when Katherine realized she had forgotten to go to Victor and Nikki's remarriage, she was shocked, but fearing Alzheimer's, she did her best to keep it secret. Cane finally realized her problem and coaxed Katherine to see a doctor. She was diagnosed with a brain tumor. Although he tried to persuade her to tell her loved ones, Katherine swore Cane to secrecy. Katherine went in for her surgery to remove the tumor and have it biopsied. Jill and Murphy showed up out of the blue, and offered to call Brock, Devon, Nina and Esther. With good news that the tumor had been benign, Devon, Murphy, Cane, and Jill assembled around Katherine's hospital bed until she finally awakened, feisty as ever. She announced that she was stepping down as CEO, and named Cane as her successor.
Cane gets Katherine home and tells her to close her eyes. She opens them to Murphy, Esther, Chloe, and Kevin shouting, "Surprise!" Murphy wishes her a happy anniversary. Later, Murphy tells Kay he could marry her all over again – but without the drama. "If I lost ya'..." Kay says she plans to be there for quite a while.
During the summer of 2013, Murphy and Katherine leave Genoa City (offscreen), to do a trip around the world (Murphy helps Katherine secretly finalizing her bucket list). On August 19, at the Chancellor estate, the gathered group continues to try to understand what's going on with the postcards they received from Katherine. Murphy arrives and informs them that Katherine died. Murphy says they must now take Katherine on her final journey. Murphy tells them to think about love when they think about Katherine; to think about life, not death. Champagne is passed around. They each flash to a memory of Katherine. They toast. "To Katherine."
Katherine's Memorial is held on September 3. Murphy takes the podium with an urn. He says Katherine wants everyone to participate in remembering her. Murphy tells them there is one more surprise – today is the dedication of Chancellor Park, Katherine's place for now and for always. Then Murphy revealed a plaque saying Chancellor Park. In loving memory of Katherine Chancellor.
Days later, on September 11, when Katherine's will was read, Murphy was bequeathed her vintage automobile collection, one quarter of her money, the cabin on Lake Michigan, and a fishing pole that she never could master.
During periods of being unseen, Patrick's absences were usually explained as having "gone fishing."
== Owen Pomerantz ==
Detective and District Attorney Owen Pomerantz first appeared on January 13, 2009, portrayed by Albie Selznick. His last airdate was September 17, 2010.
History
He first appeared when Adam Wilson was being convicted for forging a diary framing his own father, Victor Newman for murder. He is later seen taking care of a case aiming to find Patty Williams and put her in jail.
Again, after Adam Newman teamed up with and drugged Patty and escaped from the hospital he was staying at, Adam was at the Policeman's Ball where someone killed Richard Hightower to frame Nicholas Newman for murder. Upon the club's explosion he fled town leaving Genoa City authorities with the belief that he had been murdered. Later it was discovered that the body discovered was that of Richard Hightower not Adam Newman. Owen accuses Nick of murder and since he has vendetta against the Newmans, will not drop charges although enough evidence suggests Nick was framed by Adam. This continues for several months until Adams returns to town with Skye Lockhart. Nick's charges are eventually dropped and Adam is put in jail for conspiracy but is soon released on bail by Skye
Owen then discovered that dirty cops were dealing drugs to the inmates of the Genoa City Jail. He puts Chance on the case and then makes it his duty to guard Heather Stevens, since someone involved with the investigation was trying to kill her. Later, Owen hired a new partner for Chance, detective Ronan Malloy. Later it was revealed that Owen was working with det. Sid Meeks and that he was in fact, one of the dirty cops. Ronan is also pretending to be a dirty cop, and when Meeks told him he had to kill Chance, Ronan requested a meeting with the head of the operation, and when he got there, the man in question was Owen. He handed Ronan a gun, and told him that to prove his fidelity, he had to shoot and kill Chance.
Chance then discovered that there were secret meetings being had in an old warehouse by the dirty cops. He decides to go see to try to close the case and to get reinstated as detective. When he got there and he discovered that the dirty cops were Meeds and Owen, Chance made them throw down their guns and assume the position. Ronan Malloy then entered the room with a gun pretending to be a dirty cop to help him. He held his gun to Chance and when Owen saw that Ronan had no intention of shooting Chance, he told Meeks to kill them both. Ronan took a desperate shot to try to kill Meeks, but instead shot and killed Chance accidentally. Owen is later arrested at Chance's funeral. He warns Ronan that he will end up dead like Chance, but Ronan is not betting on it.
== Roger and Annie Wilkes ==
Roger Wilkes was portrayed by David Leisure from January 14 to March 11, 2009. His wife, Annie Wilkes, was portrayed by Marcia Wallace from February 16 to March 11, 2009.
Roger is a con man that was hired by Cane Ashby as an accountant at Jabot, without Cane knowing Roger's real intentions. Roger is working with Clint Radison, a man that had criminal past connected to Katherine Chancellor and who came back to town looking for revenge. Cane's wife Chloe Mitchell asked Roger to go out on a date with her mother Esther Valentine and Roger gladly accepted, then changed his plan to get the Chancellor wealth. He decided to marry Esther to get her money, and decided to rush by asking Esther to marry him just a few days after they had met. Esther gladly accepted, while others started suspecting Roger might have an agenda.
Clint and Roger kidnapped Katherine and brought her to a seedy motel, where she is being watched by Annie Wilkes, Roger's first wife. Annie at first did not trust Kay when she claimed she is not Marge, but Kay slowly started putting doubt in Annie and trying to make her help out while Clint wasn't there to watch over her. Annie was revealed to be a big Katherine Chancellor fan, which also helped Kay convince Annie to help her out. They both tried to escape, only to be stopped by Roger and Clint various times. Clint tried to get rid of everyone by putting a bomb in the motel, while Annie reconsidered and decided to stick with Clint and Roger after all. While running away, Clint took Kevin hostage, but Roger and Annie decided to abandon Clint by escaping before he could find them.
With help from Canadian authorities, Paul Williams tracked down Annie and Roger and brought them back to Genoa City, where they confessed to everything that had happened to free Kevin Fisher from a mental institution, where he had ended up after being mentally tortured by Clint, who had died a few weeks prior to their capture.
== Delia Abbott ==
Delia Abbott was born onscreen on February 16, 2009. The role was first portrayed by various infant child actors, including triplets Riley, Olivia and Isabelle Jones and twins Alix and Madeline Dubois. In 2011, the character was rapidly aged to a 6-year-old, portrayed by Sophie Pollono, when the character was diagnosed with leukemia. Pollono portrayed the role for two years until October 2013, when the character was struck by a car and killed. However, Pollono continues to make appearances as a hallucination to other characters.
Delia was born in February 2009, at the Abbott cabin, with Billy and Lily Winters (Christel Khalil) helping deliver her. Since the character's rapid aging, Delia had been kidnapped, and was later diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia and was in need of a bone marrow transplant. All of her relatives get tested to become her donor, but none are a match. Billy, who had left town after marital problems, was unable to be located to be tested. Victor Newman (Eric Braeden) later found him in prison in Myanmar and brought him home, but enlisted the help of Chloe's boyfriend Kevin Fisher (Greg Rikaart), who would pose as the donor when in fact it would be Billy. The ruse was successful; Delia received the transplant and later recovered from the illness. In 2013, Delia is scheduled to portray the Wicked Witch of the West in her school play of The Wizard of Oz. Billy gets her a dog, whom she names Dash, for the play, angering Chloe. On the way home from the show with Delia in the car, Billy stops at a store to pick up ice cream. While in the store, Delia opens the car door and Dash runs away. She runs out into the road to follow him, and is struck by a black SUV. Billy finds her on the side of the road and she is brought to the hospital, where she is tragically pronounced dead. Chloe's friend Chelsea Lawson's (Melissa Claire Egan) son Connor is facing blindness and is in need of a cornea transplant. Billy and Chloe offer Delia's corneas to Connor; the transplant is successful and his eyesight is saved. The driver who struck Delia then remained unknown, however, Connor's father Adam Newman (Michael Muhney) was shown to be on that road that night, and later found Delia's scarf trapped on the bottom of his car. It was later revealed that Adam had killed Delia, which ignited Chloe's thirst for revenge.
== Charles Taylor ==
Dr. Charles Taylor first appeared on June 9, 2009, portrayed by John Rubinstein, who portrayed the role for 12 episodes. Dr. Taylor first came to Genoa City when his friend Adam Newman asked him to check on his pregnant stepmother Ashley Abbott.
History
Dr. Taylor found out that Ashley had miscarried the child (due to Adam haunting her, which caused her to fall down the staircase). Adam wouldn't let Dr. Taylor tell her, however he was insisting on letting Ashley know. Adam revealed his (then believed to be deceased) girlfriend, Skye Lockhart and told Dr. Taylor that Skye wrote about being molested by him, Dr. Taylor. Adam used this to blackmail Dr. Taylor into keeping Ashley's miscarriage a secret. Together with Adam, they convince Ashley she is pregnant, and she suffers from a hysterical pregnancy.
When Sharon Newman was in labor at the same psychiatric ward that Ashley was in, Sharon was actually pregnant and went into labor. At the same time, Ashley believed that she was in labor despite nothing happening. Dr. Taylor delivered Sharon's baby, and Adam, stressed as to find a solution about Ashley's fake labor, stole Sharon's baby Faith from Dr. Taylor's hands while Sharon suffered from bleeding and passed out in her room. When Sharon went to the hospital (despite her daughter being alive and well) Adam blackmailed Dr. Taylor into revealing to Sharon that Faith was stillborn and "deformed" and told Sharon that she couldn't see the child for these reasons. Sharon was forced to grieve the loss of her alive child, while Ashley raised Faith as her own.
Dr. Taylor returned a few months later intend on telling Ashley and Sharon the truth. Instead, Adam shoved him into traffic. He was rushed to the hospital but soon died. But Phyllis Newman found out that he wrote a note before he died. She got her hands on it and brought it to the Newmans and the Abbotts and told them that it said that Ashley suffered a hysterical pregnancy. They soon put the pieces together and Faith was returned to her real mom.
== Ryder Callahan ==
Ryder Callahan first appeared on June 23, 2009, portrayed by Wilson Bethel. The following year, on July 3, he confirmed his exit, last appearing exactly a month later. Of his exit, he stated, "I have had a great time on this show, I wish it could have lasted a little longer."
On February 21, 2011, his return was confirmed however, it was only for a single episode.
History
Ryder Callahan is the son of Tom Fisher and Sheila Carter, and the twin brother of Daisy Carter. He is the paternal half-brother of Kevin Fisher, and the maternal half-brother of Mary Carter Warwick, Diana Carter and John Finnegan.
Ryder first appeared as a sidekick of Deacon Sharpe. Ryder later came to Kevin and revealed their connection through Tom Fisher. After a DNA test, it was proven that Ryder was Kevin's half-brother. Ryder and Daisy came to Genoa City to get revenge on Lauren Fenmore, whom they held responsible for their mother's death. With the help of their aunt, Sarah Smythe, they committed a series of crimes and eventually kidnapped Lauren and Jana Hawkes. Kevin and Michael Baldwin discovered where they were being held and rescued them.
Daisy and Ryder escaped Genoa City, but he later returned and turned himself in. He began a friendship with Jana. She was sympathetic to him because he showed her kindness during the kidnapping. Jana left Kevin, her husband, for Ryder, and they left Genoa City together. She tried to get him to return to face the charges against him, but he refused. Ryder returned briefly to Genoa City in March 2011 to see Jana, asking for her help in searching for Daisy's baby that she abandoned after Daniel Romalotti, the baby's father, helped her give birth. Ryder is unaware that Jana was his niece's nanny, he left town again.
== Emily Peterson ==
Emily Peterson was portrayed by Stacy Haiduk from October 13, 2009, to August 6, 2010, November 29 to December 7, 2011, and January 30 to February 8, 2012. Haiduk had already been portraying Patty Williams for eight months. Haiduk was let go from the show on June 21, 2010, however, she briefly returned in 2011 and again in 2012.
History
Dr. Emily Peterson was the psychiatrist who was treating Patty Williams in Minneapolis prior to her return to Genoa City in early 2009. With her arrival, it was obvious that Patty had altered her appearance with plastic surgery to look exactly like her doctor, Emily, so she was able to come to Genoa City under the alias of "Mary Jane Benson." After Patty's reign of terror that resulted in Victor Newman wounded and near death from a bullet-damaged heart and Colleen's death from drowning while trying to escape from Patty, Emily read a story in a Minnesota newspaper about Patty's crimes. She came to Genoa City to find out what exactly had happened. After talking with Paul Williams about Patty's disturbed history while living in Minneapolis, she confronted Victor and Jack Abbott, and told them they were both responsible for what ultimately happened to Patty. Emily took a job with the Psychology Department of Genoa City University (funded, much to her initial anger, by Jack through the Abbott Family Foundation) and planned to stay in town to continue to treat Patty's psychosis as well as take on new patients.
Emily and Jack have become romantically involved. On Christmas Eve, Jack treated Emily to ice skating and the two later decorated the Christmas tree at the Abbott mansion while reminiscing about Christmas past. Emily revealed that her parents are deceased, and she has a brother. Emily was going to stop treating Patty due to the lack of progress she was making, but Patty suddenly had a breakthrough, and this encouraged her to continue as Patty's doctor. On New Year's Eve, Jack proposed to Emily, who said yes. They were planning to get married on Valentine's Day 2010.
While Patty is in her padded cell, her former doctor, Emily Peterson arrives checking up on her trying to reach out to her. Emily soon realizes that Patty knew about her planned wedding with Jack. Patty angry at this, she forces Emily into the wall knocking her to the ground. As Emily wakes up a little, Patty forces medicated water into her mouth trying to hurt her. Later, Patty colors Emily's hair so it matches hers and escapes her cell with her hair covered. Back in the cell, Paul, Patty's brother, found Emily (believing it to be Patty) unresponsive on her cell bed. Emily gets rushed to the hospital. Paul calls Patty (thinking it's Emily) to come to the hospital. Patty fakes her identity and is on the road to marry her longed husband Jack making Jack think she's Emily.
While Emily is in grave condition and near death and is revealed comatose, Jack instead unwittingly married Patty on Valentine's Day, thinking that she was Emily. Patty's other brother Todd, a priest, also unwittingly performed the ceremony. Emily wakes up from her coma and tries to convince Paul and her doctor she is Emily, not Patty, but they do not believe her.
Jack, Paul, and Heather discover that Patty has been impersonating Emily and they rush to the sanitarium to get her. Patty, knowing full well that her lies had been revealed, went to the cell and took Emily's place again. She gave the real Emily a shot that would make her seem to be dead and barely have a pulse, Patty then wheeled her down to the morgue and left a Jane Doe tag on her foot. On May 10, Jack is with Patty in the cell and he figures out what Patty did because he could smell the peroxide and see the cat scratch she had. He begged with her to tell him where Emily is and all Patty said was "she's gone" and Jack ran down to the morgue and found her body about to be cut open for an autopsy, Jack was crying and thought she was dead until he saw a tear run down her cheek. She then wakes up and they go to Patty's cell where Patty is about to commit suicide and Emily talks her out of it. Jack then takes Emily to the hospital. Emily and Jack share a tearful farewell as Emily states that she will be moving away from Genoa City, most likely back to Minneapolis, where she lived and worked before her arrival.
Months later it was revealed during one of Tucker McCall's therapy sessions, that his psychiatrist was in fact Emily, who returned a little more than a year after leaving. Emily has been revealed to have been living in Chicago, prior to her return to Genoa City. She then runs into Paul Williams, who believes, at first, that she is Patty. While still in town, Emily goes to visit Jack, who also thought at first she was Patty, and Emily had to prove to him that she was Emily. After their visit ended, she presumably returned to Chicago.
In January 2012, Patty began posing as Emily again to attempt to win Jack away from Genevieve Atkinson (Genie Francis), his fiancée. However, Jack turns "Emily" down, telling her he loves Genevieve. Patty plans to shoot Genevieve, whom she had been working for as a housekeeper for months before under the alias Myrna Murdock. However, Patty arrives at Genevieve's house only to find that she is writing him a Dear John letter all before leaving town. Meanwhile, Tucker, who had spoken to someone he thought was Emily earlier that day, discovers the real Emily at Crimson Lights, who arrived in town for a psychiatrist conference. Emily discovers that Patty has been impersonating her once again. She later confronts Patty at the police station, though Patty is soon imprisoned in a mental facility. Emily has not been seen since; she presumably returned home to Chicago.
== Others ==
== See also ==
The Young and the Restless characters (1970s)
The Young and the Restless characters (1980s)
The Young and the Restless characters (1990s)
The Young and the Restless characters (2010s)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheila_Levrant_de_Bretteville | Sheila Levrant de Bretteville | Sheila Levrant de Bretteville (born 1940) is an American graphic designer, artist and educator whose work reflects her belief in the importance of feminist principles and user participation in graphic design. In 1990, she became the director of the Yale University Graduate Program in Graphic Design and the first woman to receive tenure at the Yale University School of Art. In 2010, she was named the Caroline M. Street Professor of Graphic Design.
== Early life and education ==
Sheila Levrant de Bretteville was born in 1940 in Brooklyn, New York. Her parents were Polish immigrants who fled anti-semitism in the 1920s and worked in the textile and millinery industries. De Bretteville's mother brought her to painting lessons at the Brooklyn Museum as a child. She graduated from Abraham Lincoln High School in 1959. At Lincoln, she studied under Leon Friend who first exposed her to modern graphic design and the social responsibility of designers and encouraged her to participate in design and painting competitions.
De Bretteville received her BA in art history from Barnard College in 1962 and an MFA in graphic design from Yale University in 1964 and has been awarded Honorary Doctorates from the California Institute of the Arts (CalArts), the Moore College of Art and California College of the Arts.
== Career ==
De Bretteville moved to Los Angeles around 1969, working as an in-house graphic designer at the California Institute of the Arts before becoming the first woman faculty member in the design department in 1970. In 1971, she founded the first design program for women at CalArts, and two years later co-founded the Woman's Building, a public center in Los Angeles dedicated to women's education and culture. In 1973, de Bretteville founded the Women's Graphic Center and co-founded the Feminist Studio Workshop (along with Judy Chicago and Arlene Raven), both based at the Woman's Building.
She designed a necklace of an eye bolt on a chain, meant to represent "strength without a fist" as well as the biological symbol of women; she gave the first of these to Arlene Raven and Judy Chicago when they started the Feminist Studio Workshop in 1972. Since then, she has given them to other women with whom she shares a vision of the creation of women's culture. Members of the Feminist Studio Workshop of 1978–79 also made 500 of these necklaces to celebrate the fifth anniversary of the Woman's Building in Los Angeles. The feminist art group Sisters of Jam (Mikaela & Moa Krestesen) turned the necklace into a mobile monument; they see the eye bolt "as a symbol for the work already done but also as an encouragement for the work that is not yet completed." Sisters of Jam also did the installation "Hello Sheila", which features an eye bolt on a chain, at the Survival Kit Festival in Umeå in 2014.
In 1980, de Bretteville initiated the communication design program at the Otis College of Art and Design, a division of the New School.
De Bretteville has had a lifelong interest in communal forms of art, which she believed were an essential component of the Feminist art movement in the United States. In 1973, she created Pink, a broadside meant to explore the notions of gender as associated with the color pink, for an American Institute of Graphic Arts exhibition about color. This was the only entry about the color pink. Various women including many in the Feminist Studio Workshop submitted entries exploring their association with the color. De Bretteville arranged the squares of paper to form a "quilt" from which posters were printed and disseminated throughout Los Angeles. She was referred to by the nickname "Pinky" as a result.
De Bretteville has worked extensively in the field of public art creating works embedded within city neighborhoods. One of her best-known pieces is "Biddy Mason's Place: A Passage of Time,” an 82-foot concrete wall with embedded objects in downtown Los Angeles that tells the story of Biddy Mason, a former slave who became a midwife in Los Angeles and lived near the site. She collaborated with Betye Saar to create the piece. In "Path of Stars", completed in 1994 in a New Haven neighborhood, de Bretteville documented the lives of local citizens—past and present—with 21 granite stars set in the sidewalk. The 1996 project "Remembering Little Tokyo" is also located in Los Angeles; de Bretteville collaborated with artist Sonya Ishii to interview residents and create brass tiled etched with symbols representing local history and Japanese American identities. She also created the mural "At the Start... At Long Last" for the Inwood-207th Street station in New York City, which was influenced by the song "Take the A Train" by jazz musician Billy Strayhorn.
De Bretteville was interviewed for the film !Women Art Revolution.
She is a member of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.
== Awards ==
She has been honored with many awards, such as a 2009 “Grandmaster” award from the New York Art Directors Club and several awards from the American Institute of Graphic Arts, including a "Design Legend Gold Medal" for 2004, "Best Public Artwork" recognition for 2005 from Americans for the Arts, and several honorary doctorates. In 2016, de Bretteville received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Women's Caucus for Art.
== See also ==
First Things First 2000 manifesto, signed by de Bretteville (among others)
== References ==
Anon (2018). "Artist, Curator & Critic Interviews". !Women Art Revolution - Spotlight at Stanford. Archived from the original on March 26, 2018. Retrieved August 23, 2018.
== Bibliography ==
De Bretteville, Sheila Levrant. "More of the Young Men Are Feminists: An Interview with Shiela Levrant de Bretteville" In Women in Graphic Design 1890–2012, edited by Gerda Breuer and Julia Meer, p. 236-241. Berlin: Jovis, 2012.
Hale, Sondra, and Terry Wolverton (eds). From Site To Vision: The Woman's Building in Contemporary Culture. Los Angeles, CA: Ben Maltz Gallery, Otis College of Art and Design, 2011.
Redniss, L. "First Person: Three Styles". Print v. 58 no. 2 (March/April 2004) pp. 56–61
Close, J. A. "Reconcilable Differences". ID (v. 48 no. 1 (January/February 2001) pp. 58
Pou, A. "Exploding the Model: On Youth and Art". Public Art Review v. 9 no. 2 (Spring/Summer 1998), pp. 4–11
Betsky, A., et al., "The I.D. Forty: An Insider's Guide to America's Leading Design Innovators". ID (New York, N.Y.) v. 40 (January/February 1993), pp. 45–67
Brown, B. A. "Hope for the 90's" (What Feminist Art Movement Leaders Feel Today". Artweek v. 21 (February 8, 1990), pp. 22–3
Brumfield, J. "Sheila Levrant de Bretteville (interview with Yale's new director of the graduate program on graphic design)". Graphis v. 47 (March/April 1991), pp. 30–35
De Bretteville, Sheila Levrant. "Some aspects of design from the perspective of a woman designer". In Looking Closer 3: Classic Writings on Graphic Design, edited by Michael Bierut, et al., pp. 238–245. New York: Allworth Press, 1999. Originally published in Icographic 6 Archived 2021-04-05 at the Wayback Machine (1973).
De Bretteville, Sheila Levrant, and John Brumfield. "Sheila Levrant de Bretteville". Graphis 47, no. 272 (March–April 1991): 30–35.
De Bretteville, Sheila Levrant, and Ellen Lupton. "Sheila Levrant de Bretteville". Eye 2, no. 8 (1993): 10–16.
De Forest, A. "Sheila Levrant de Bretteville (the Biddy Mason Wall, Los Angeles". ID (New York, N.Y.) v. 37 (May/June 1990), p. 24.
Deneve, R. "A Feminist Option". Print 30, no. 3 (May–June 1976): 54–9, 88–90.
Wallis, B. "Public Art Marks Historic L.A. Site". Art in America v. 78 (June 1990), p. 207
== Further reading ==
Video Interview with Sheila de Bretteville 1990
Video Interview with Sheila de Bretteville 2008
AIGA Medalist, Sheila de Bretteville
Emigre 51: First Things First, 1999. [1]
“Good Design Is Feminist Design”: An Interview with Sheila de Bretteville
Artist's website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Schultz#cite_note-93 | Howard Schultz | Howard D. Schultz (born July 19, 1953) is an American businessman and author who was the chairman and chief executive officer of Starbucks from 1986 to 2000, from 2008 to 2017, and interim CEO from 2022 to 2023. Schultz owned the Seattle SuperSonics basketball team from 2001 to 2006.
Schultz began working at Starbucks in 1982. He later left and opened Il Giornale, a specialty coffeeshop that merged with Starbucks during the late 1980s. Under Schultz, the company established a large network of stores which has influenced coffee culture in Seattle, the U.S., and internationally. Following large-scale distribution deals, Starbucks became the largest coffee-house chain in the world. Schultz took the company public in 1992 and used a $271 million valuation to double their store count in a series of highly publicized coffee wars. He stepped down as CEO in 2000, succeeded by Orin Smith. Due to the rapid expansion of Starbucks under Schultz's leadership, he has been described as the “Ray Kroc of his generation”.
During the 2008 financial crisis, Schultz returned as chief executive. Succeeding Jim Donald, Schultz led a mass firing of executives and employees and shuttered hundreds of stores. He orchestrated multiple acquisitions of American and Chinese beverage companies, introduced a national loyalty program, and enforced fair trade standards. His aggressive expansion in Chinese markets has been credited with reconciling the country's tea-culture with coffee consumption in China. Schultz was succeeded by Kevin Johnson as CEO in April 2017 and Myron Ullman as chairman in June 2018.
Schultz has written four books on business. He is an outspoken neoliberal. Schultz publicly considered a candidacy in the 2012, 2016, and 2020 U.S. presidential elections as an independent candidate. He declined to join all three contests. His positions on domestic politics are socially liberal and fiscally moderate. In foreign policy, he is seen as a "liberal hawk", favoring American-led international affairs and neoliberalism. Schultz was named the 209th-richest person in the U.S. by Forbes with a net worth of $4.3 billion (October 2020). Schultz started the Schultz Family Foundation to help military veterans and fight youth unemployment.
On March 16, 2022, Starbucks announced that CEO Kevin Johnson was retiring and that Howard Schultz would take over as interim CEO until Laxman Narasimhan took over as CEO in April 2023. On March 20, 2023, Schultz announced that he would be stepping down early from the position.
== Early life and education ==
Howard D. Schultz was born on July 19, 1953, to Ashkenazi Jewish parents, Fred and Elaine Schultz, in Brooklyn, New York. His father was a truck driver, and his mother was a receptionist. Howard has two siblings. Schultz grew up in the Canarsie public housing projects. According to Schultz, his family was poor, although childhood contemporaries recount a middle-class upbringing, with one of his contemporaries referring to the development in which he was raised as "the country club of projects."
Schultz spent his time after school at the Boys Club of New York. He is active in the Boys’ Club of New York's Alumni.
Schultz graduated from Canarsie High School in 1971. He attended Northern Michigan University (NMU) from 1971 to 1975, where he was a member of Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, graduating with a B.A. in communications. He had played football, expecting an athletic scholarship but an injury caused him to quit.
== Career ==
=== Early career ===
In 1976, he became a salesman for Xerox in New York. In 1979, he was recruited by French private equity firm PAI Partners to be general manager of a Swedish kitchenware manufacturer's U.S. subsidiary, Hammarplast. At Hammarplast, Schultz was responsible for the coffee machine manufacturer's U.S. operations, and in 1981 he visited the Starbucks Coffee Company in Seattle to fill their plastic cone filter orders.
=== Starbucks ===
In 1982, at age 29, Schultz was hired at Starbucks as the director of retail operations and marketing. Schultz was exposed to coffee in Italy on a buying trip to Milan, Italy, in 1983. On his return, he worked to persuade company owners Jerry Baldwin and Gordon Bowker to offer traditional espresso beverages in addition to the whole bean coffee, leaf teas, and spices. After a successful pilot of the cafe concept, Baldwin and Bowker were intrigued but, noting the high cost of espresso machines, the relative paucity of expertise for maintenance and repair of the machines in America, and Americans' lack of familiarity with the drink, they decided not to deploy Schultz's idea further and he stepped down from Starbucks to start his own business. Schultz left Starbucks in 1985 to open a store of his own. He needed $400,000 to start his business. Schultz visited over 500 espresso bars in Milan and, with him assuming most of the risk associated with introducing espresso to the American market, Starbucks invested $150,000 in the new venture, with Baldwin receiving a place on its board and Bowker offering unofficial assistance. Another $100,000 investment came from local doctor Ron Margolis. Of the 242 investors Schultz approached, 217 rejected his idea. By 1986, he had raised the money he needed to open the first store, Il Giornale, named after the Milanese newspaper of the same name. The store offered ice cream in addition to coffee, had little seating, and played opera music in the background. Two years later, the original Starbucks management team decided to focus on Peet's Coffee & Tea and sold its Starbucks retail unit to Schultz and Il Giornale for US$3.8 million.
Schultz rebranded Il Giornale with the Starbucks name, and expanded its reach across the United States. This type of market strategy received mixed reception from both customers and competitors. The firm's relations with independent coffeehouse chains were strained, while some owners credited Starbucks with educating customers on coffee. Schultz did not believe in franchising, and made a point of having Starbucks retain ownership of every domestic outlet. Schultz's positioning of Starbucks as a social hub is widely seen as introducing the second wave of coffee culture in the U.S., particularly in Seattle. On June 26, 1992, Starbucks had its initial public offering (IPO) and trading of its common stock under the stock ticker SBUX. The IPO raised $271 million for the company and financed the doubling of their stores. On June 1, 2000, Schultz stepped down as CEO of Starbucks, moving to the new position of chief global strategist to help the company expand internationally. He was succeeded by Orin Smith, who worked with Schultz as his chief financial officer during the 1990s. After coordinating the first store opening in China in January 1999, Schultz took the following year to develop a customer base for coffee in the region. Throughout the late-2000s and early-2010s, Schultz directed the company to plan one to two store openings a day in mainland China. Back in the firm's U.S. market, various coffee wars with McDonalds and Dunkin' lowered Starbucks' marketshare and the stock price fell 75% from 2006 to 2008. While revenue was growing broadly, it was largely dependent on new store openings creating unsustainable (or inorganic) growth.
On January 7, 2008, after an eight-year hiatus, Schultz returned as CEO of Starbucks during the height of the 2008 financial crisis. He succeeded Jim Donald who took over from Smith in 2005. The coffeehouse was increasingly criticized for employee work conditions and their internal tipping policies during this time; in March 2009, he and the board approved a $100 million settlement in back tips in a barista-led class action lawsuit in California. He led a mass-firing of executives, closed down hundreds of stores, and temporarily closed all U.S. locations to retrain employees in making espresso. Schultz redoubled and enforced the firm's fair trade and ethical source policies for their coffee bean supply-chain in Africa and other coffee-producing countries. In the succeeding two years, he doubled their annual purchase of fair trade coffee, up to, by some estimates, 40 million pounds. Schultz arranged the appointment of the coffeehouse's first chief technology officer. At this time, Schultz was earning a total compensation of $9.7 million, which included a base salary of $1.2 million, and stock options granted of $7.8 million. In addition to his board membership with Starbucks, Schultz was an early and significant stakeholder in Jamba Juice in 2011, and on the board of payment processing company, Square, Inc., until 2014. During the summer of 2014, Schultz launched the Starbucks College Achievement Plan, a partnership with Arizona State University, which allows all employees at Starbucks working 20 or more hours a week to qualify for free tuition through ASU's online courses. It was reported in 2018 that Schultz had taken a one-dollar annual salary sometime in the past couple of years.
Schultz again stepped down as CEO in December 2016, assuming the position of executive chairman. From 2008 to 2017, Schultz oversaw nearly $100 billion added to the company's market capitalization. From the 1980s to his retirement, a series of coffee wars increased Starbucks from 11 coffeehouses in Seattle to 28,000 stores in 77 countries. On June 4, 2018, Schultz announced that he would retire from active management of Starbucks after 37 years, as he was considering amongst other options a campaign for U.S. president. Kevin Johnson, the firm's president and chief operating officer for the previous two years, succeeded Schultz as CEO while Myron Ullman took over as chairman in June 2018. Schultz would return to the role of CEO in an interim position following Johnson departing the position in March 2022.
On March 20, 2023, two weeks before he was projected to turn the leadership of the company over to incoming CEO Laxman Narasimhan, Schultz stepped down as interim CEO of Starbucks. Schultz appeared before the United States Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions on March 29, 2023.
=== Seattle SuperSonics and Seattle Storm ===
In January 2001, Schultz led a group of ten investors who bought the National Basketball Association's Seattle SuperSonics and the Women's National Basketball Association's Seattle Storm from the Ackerley Group for $200 million. During his tenure as the SuperSonics team owner, he was criticized for his naïveté and propensity to run the franchise as a business rather than a sports team. Schultz feuded with player Gary Payton, feeling that Payton disrespected him and the team by not showing up to the first day of training camp in 2002. In February 2006, he stated that the SuperSonics needed $200 million to renovate KeyArena or build a new arena for the team, and if the Washington State Legislature would not approve this, he would look to sell or move the team.
On July 18, 2006, Schultz sold the SuperSonics and Storm to Clay Bennett, chairman of the Professional Basketball Club LLC, an Oklahoma City ownership group, for $350 million, after having failed to convince the city of Seattle to provide public funding to build a new arena in the Greater Seattle area to replace KeyArena. Bennett agreed to a stipulation that he would make a "good-faith best effort" for one year to keep both teams in Seattle. The sincerity of the good-faith effort was widely disputed by the way Bennett acted and by direct quotes from his partner Aubrey McClendon. On January 8, 2008, Bennett sold the Storm to Force 10 Hoops, LLC, an ownership group of four Seattle women, which kept the team in Seattle.
Schultz filed a lawsuit against Bennett – in April 2008 – to rescind the July 2006 sale based on what Schultz claimed was fraud and intentional misrepresentation. However, Schultz dropped the lawsuit in August 2008. On July 2, 2008, the city of Seattle reached a settlement with the new ownership group and the SuperSonics moved to Oklahoma City and became the Thunder for the 2008–09 NBA season. The sale to the out-of-state owners considerably damaged Schultz's popularity in Seattle. In a local newspaper poll, Schultz was judged "most responsible" for the team leaving the city. Ten years later, in 2019, Schultz accepted full responsibility for the sale. "Selling the Sonics as I did is one of the biggest regrets of my professional life. I should have been willing to lose money until a local buyer emerged. I am forever sorry."
== Author ==
Schultz has written four books, three of which incorporate business memoir-style narratives. According to the Free Library of Philadelphia, his books are known to be a blend of "part memoir and part manifesto of corporate social responsibility". At the start of 2019, Schultz released an online class that covered the business leadership topics discussed in his books on the MasterClass platform. Organizational consultant Warren Bennis has influenced Schultz's writing.
His first book, Pour Your Heart Into It: How Starbucks Built a Company One Cup at a Time was written in 1997 with Dori Jones Yang. His second book, Onward: How Starbucks Fought for Its Life Without Losing Its Soul, co-written with Joanne Gordon, was published in 2011. Jeff Bailey, of the Los Angeles Times, called the book "self-flattering" and criticized its "mostly perfunctory account of Starbucks' actual problems". Publishers Weekly called the book "a personal, suspenseful, and surprisingly open account" of the rise of Starbucks. Kirkus Reviews praised the book's "immense detail" but critiqued Schultz's coverage of "outside criticisms of his performance". The Seattle Times was critical, saying the book could only "appeal to business types but probably not to the average latte drinker". Fast Company placed Onward within the top five books that "[predicted] the future of workplace leadership" in 2014. All sale proceeds from the book were donated to the Starbucks Foundation, the firm's main charity.
His third book, For Love of Country: What Our Veterans Can Teach Us About Citizenship, Heroism, and Sacrifice, co-written with Rajiv Chandrasekaran, was published in 2014. The New York Times Book Review calling it "well-written" and "formidable." It was later added to the Times' 2014 Winter Reading List. In writing a review for The Wall Street Journal U.S. Army major general Robert H. Scales stated "after reading this moving book I'll not likely pass a Starbucks again without stopping for a patriotic cup." The Washington Post published a similarly positive review.
In 2019, he published his fourth book, From the Ground Up: A Journey to Reimagine the Promise of America. The book was widely seen as a candidate memoir as it was published right before the 2020 United States presidential election. His book received 1.9/5 stars on Amazon, after some Democratic voters gave negative reviews, due his possible candidacy splitting the Democratic vote. Rolling Stone called the book "stunningly boring" and an "autobiography of a pretentious oligarch." A book promotion stop at Harvard University led to a small student protest. From the Ground Up was featured on The Wall Street Journal's bestseller list in February, and was listed as a New York Times bestseller for 2019. Reuters rated the book highly, yet called it "caffeine free" for its inability to "harness his business success" in a potential White House run.
== Political views ==
Schultz is an outspoken neoliberal, centrist, technocratic, and political independent. Schultz's political positions are similar to the Democratic Party platform. Schultz supports free trade, a balanced budget, comprehensive tax reform, gun control, and same-sex marriage.
Schultz hosted a fundraiser in his Seattle home for John Edwards during the 2008 presidential election cycle, eventually donating to the campaigns of Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama. Since 2012, Schultz's public statements have led to press speculation that he would run for President of the United States. In both the 2008 and 2012 United States presidential election he endorsed the presidential candidacy of Barack Obama. Schultz donated to Barack Obama's 2008 presidential campaign twice, once on June 30, 2007, for $2,300, and again on October 24, 2008, for $2,300. He endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in the 2016 United States presidential election.
=== Labor unions ===
Howard Schultz has been taking anti-union actions at Starbucks since the late 1980s. When unions were able to form at the company, they disbanded soon afterward, due to corporate reaction to their formation.
In 2009, a bill known as the Employee Free Choice Act was being proposed in Congress. It would allow unions to form by simply gathering a majority of signatures in the workplace, what is known as a "card check", obviating the need to have secret ballot union-elections. Schultz, along with the CEOs of Costco, and Whole Foods lobbied to have this provision removed from the bill, and a provision making it easier for unions to secure their first bargaining agreement. The Employee Free Choice Act never made it into law.
Schultz's overall vision on unions, and their place at Starbucks were published in a 2012 edition of his memoir entitled "Pour Your Heart Into It: How Starbucks Built a Company One Cup at a Time". Schultz wrote, "I was convinced that under my leadership, employees would come to realize that I would listen to their concerns. If they had faith in me and my motives, they wouldn't need a union."
In 2022, as union organizing campaigns started to form at Starbucks, and gain victories, Schultz held a town hall meeting as he returned to the company as interim CEO. In the town hall Schultz said that Starbucks was "under assault from unionization", "outside forces", and that Starbucks did not need an intermediary between management, and labor. During these union organizing campaigns by Starbucks employees, the corporation has been firing employees who have engaged in unionizing. One employee who had been working to organize Starbucks workers in Arizona was fired just one hour after Schultz had finished speaking at his town hall. These terminations took place despite a notice of formal complaint from the National Labor Relations Board against the retaliatory practices Starbucks had taken against employees who were working to unionize the corporation.
On March 29, 2023, Schultz testified before the United States Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions. In response to most of the questions Schultz gave the same answer: "I support the law, and I also take offense with you categorizing me or Starbucks as a union buster when that is not true."
During the hearing Sen. Bernie Sanders asked Schultz whether he would follow the ruling of NLRB administrative law judge Michael Rosas. Rosas had found that Starbucks had engaged in “egregious and widespread misconduct” in dealing with the unionizing efforts of its employees in Buffalo. As a result of these findings he ruled that the company must reinstate the employees they had fired, and Schultz must either read to his employees a letter informing them of their rights or be present for a meeting in which workers are informed of their rights. Schultz responded that he would not be following this ruling as he believed that Starbucks had not broken the law.
=== Climate change ===
As chief executive of Starbucks, Schultz has commented on the impact climate change has on coffee production. He has opposed the United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement. To finance a green economy, he has advocated for a combination of taxing oil and gas as well as harnessing wind energy. Schultz has criticized the 2018 Green New Deal for being economically unrealistic.
=== Bipartisanship ===
In December 2012 Schultz penned an open letter to various newspapers about an upcoming initiative at Starbucks involving partisan gridlock in Washington. On December 27, Starbucks employees in Washington were asked to write "come together" on all cups distributed, to encourage bipartisanship in the federal government. During his exploratory 2020 presidential campaign, Schultz explained to multiple media outlets that, if elected, he wished to exclusively legislate with bipartisan support. This stance includes the appointment and confirmations of U.S. Supreme Court justices.
=== Fiscal discipline ===
Schultz is averse to debt and, politically, is a deficit hawk. During his 2019 exploratory bid for the presidency, Schultz framed his candidacy as that of a socially liberal deficit hawk with fiscally moderate leanings. In June 2018, Schultz stated in an interview that he thought the national debt is "the greatest threat domestically to the country" and that "we have to go after entitlements." He has also stated that the nation's annual sovereign interest payments, totaling over $400 billion in 2020, is "unsustainable." President Barack Obama's chief economist, Jason Furman, was critical of Schultz's hard-lined "obsessive" position against sovereign debt: "America is not a company." Furman stated in February 2020, "many successful companies are much more leveraged than the United States."
=== Trade ===
Throughout the 2018 start and continuation of the U.S. trade war against China, Schultz has been critical of its motivations and handling, and has called for a reduction of trade tariffs and other import-export taxes.
In 2008, Schultz doubled the amount of fair trade coffee Starbucks bought. By the end of 2009, 65% of all coffee product was fair trade and by 2015, nearly all of it was. Starbucks signed an agreement with the government of Ethiopia in 2007 to ensure increased pay to farmers. Schultz committed to an agreement that all 747 stores in Britain would be certified fair trade by year-end. The agreement made Starbucks the largest buyer of fair trade coffee.
=== Business ===
Schultz claims to be a supporter of the free market. In 2020 he described the treatment of business and capitalism by American society as "vilification". During the COVID-19 pandemic (COVID-19), advocated for fiscal stimulus to small businesses harmed during the crisis. Schultz described the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act as insufficient, and criticized the Act's Paycheck Protection Program (PPP) for being a temporary solution. On April 21, he called for the federal government to institute a "Marshall Plan" for small business, in the form of federally-backed loans.
=== Tax reform ===
Schultz said he supported "comprehensive tax reform" in January 2019. He opposed Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez's proposal to raise the marginal tax rate on income over $10 million to 70%, saying it was "punitive" and contrary to the American Dream. He also opposed Donald Trump's passage of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, which lowered high-income and corporate taxes. During a CNN town hall, he stated that he wanted the marginal tax rate for the highest-earning citizens to be increased from 37% to 39%. Schultz is against lowering taxes for large corporations, favoring tax cuts for middle-market and small businesses.
=== Same-sex marriage ===
Starbucks took an institutional stance in favor of same-sex marriage in 2013 (two years prior to US Federal recognition). In response to a backlash from conservative and religious groups, Schultz told a shareholder meeting that opponents of the stance should "Sell your shares", and "buy shares in another company." His response was widely publicized, with The Washington Post stating: "Schultz [did] something CEOs rarely do: He told off a shareholder." Fortune wrote that Schultz "[took] on gay marriage before it was a topic most executives would even touch.
=== Healthcare ===
Under his leadership Starbucks became the first U.S. company to offer part-time workers, particularly baristas, healthcare. Schultz is against Medicare for All. He has vocally criticized Republican-led efforts to repeal the ACA as uncooperative.
=== Gun control ===
Schultz supports gun control and universal background checks. In July 2013, Starbucks customers brought in their weapons and guns into local stores to show appreciation for the coffeehouse's support of the Second Amendment. Later in September, as CEO, Schultz asked customers to no longer bring guns into its stores.
=== Immigration ===
Schultz has supported a pathway to citizenship for illegal immigrants who had entered the United States as children. He called for greater border security, but vocally opposed President Donald Trump's proposal of a border wall. In 2017, Schultz got into a highly publicized argument with President Trump after he instructed Starbucks to disregard an executive order barring Syrian refugees into the country. Within 24 hours of the executive order, Schultz wrote to his employees that recent immigrants and refugees, particularly those with strong ties to the U.S. military, would be fast-tracked to employment. President Trump then called on his supporters to boycott Starbucks.
=== Veterans' affairs ===
In 2015, Schultz founded Onward Veterans, a private foundation to help post-9/11 military veterans transition to civilian life. In 2014, Schultz authored his first non-business book, For Love of Country: What Our Veterans Can Teach Us About Citizenship, Heroism, and Sacrifice, co-written with Rajiv Chandrasekaran. The book discussed the U.S. military's role in the Iraq War and War in Afghanistan, and their transitions back into civilian life. To market the book he expanded tuition support for veterans families.
Over a radio interview in March 2019, when asked if he would be an effective commander-in-chief, Schultz responded: "I probably have spent more time in the last decade certainly than anyone running for president with the military." His comments were criticized by Pete Buttigieg and Tulsi Gabbard, both of whom served in the military, for being tone deaf. Schultz later apologized for his remarks. Schultz's tentative 2020 presidential candidacy was endorsed by former U.S. Army General Peter W. Chiarelli.
=== Washington state politics ===
In 2012, Schultz had Starbucks express support for Washington state's Referendum 74, which legalized same-sex marriage in that state. Schultz opposed Seattle's ordinance to raise the local minimum wage to $15, which at the time was the highest in the nation. The ordinance passed.
From 2005 to 2019, he reportedly voted in 11 of 38 municipal elections. His voting record in Seattle has been described by The Seattle Times as a "pattern of ignoring many local elections over the decades." The paper reported in 2020 that while Schultz is heavily involved in the state's political debates, he often "doesn't show up to vote" in various municipal elections including that of the city's mayor and city council. Washington governor Jay Inslee, who was running against Schultz in the 2020 election, criticized him for his absence in state politics.
Congressman George Nethercutt, a moderate Republican, opined that Eastern Washington "may like what they hear and vote for [Schultz]" more than the Western region.
=== Foreign policy ===
Schultz has been described as a foreign policy "liberal hawk", favoring socially liberal politics domestically and aggressive, interventionist policies abroad. Generally, he is a supporter of neoliberal institutionalism and international cooperation. In line with this, Schultz advocates for a U.S.-centered unipolar world where countries work with America to ensure stability and peace.
United Kingdom: During the 2009 economic crisis, Schultz stated in a highly publicized interview with CNBC that "the place that concerns us the most is western Europe, and specifically the UK. The UK is in a spiral". His comments were meant to express concern with the levels of unemployment and consumer confidence in the United Kingdom. The British Business Secretary at the time, Peter Mandelson, responded negatively to the statement saying that "the UK was not spiralling, although I've noticed Starbucks is in a great deal of trouble." Mandelson later suggested that Schultz was projecting his own company's trouble in the United Kingdom onto the wider national economy. Starbucks issued an office apology soon thereafter.
Syria: Schultz criticized the U.S. military withdrawal from Syria in 2019, saying the move had "damaged America's relationships with foreign allies." Furthermore, Schultz lamented the "power vacuum" left by the U.S. in the Middle East as a result of their withdrawal. He supported the idea of leaving a skeletal army force in the region to ensure a minimum level of stability and U.S. influence.
Russia: He is a vocal opponent of Russian influence in U.S. politics, calling the country an “enemy of the United States.”
China: The commensurate rise of China in the international sphere with the U.S. prompted Schultz to call the country "neither an enemy nor an ally, but a fierce competitor." According to Foreign Policy, his corporate interests in Starbucks could make him implement pro-Chinese policies and legislation. Hedge fund manager Bill Ackman similarly said that Schultz's election to the U.S. presidency would essentially be an insurance policy for Starbucks. "The last thing the Chinese would do is go after the next American president's company," Ackman told the New York Times in 2020. Schultz has repeatedly praised the country's One Belt Road initiative, an infrastructure plan aimed at better connecting territorial China and improving foreign direct investment.
Israel: Schultz was involved in a long-standing group chat from October 2023 through early May 2024 with some of the United States' most powerful business leaders with the stated goals of "chang[ing] the narrative" in favor of Israel and "help[ing] win the war" on U.S. public opinion following Hamas's October 7th attack on Israel. Group members included Dell founder and CEO Michael Dell, Kind snack company founder Daniel Lubetzky, hedge fund managers Daniel Loeb and Bill Ackman, billionaire Len Blavatnik, real estate investor Joseph Sitt, and Joshua Kushner, the founder of Thrive Capital and brother to Jared Kushner, president Donald Trump's son-in-law. The group also included non-American citizens, such as Cypriot-Israeli billionaire real estate investor Yakir Gabay. Members of the group chat, including Schultz, discussed how they received private briefings by, and worked closely with, members of the Israeli government, including former Israeli prime minister Naftali Bennett; Benny Gantz, a member of the Israeli war cabinet; and Israel's ambassador to the United States, Michael Herzog. Group members also held a video call in April 2024 with New York City Mayor Eric Adams in an effort to, according to reporting by The Washington Post, "pressure Columbia’s president and trustees to permit the mayor to send police to the campus" to shut down criticism of Israel's offensive military operations in Gaza, which many campus protesters, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, civil servants, and governments around the world have alleged to be genocide. During the video call, group members discussed making political donations to Adams. It is unknown whether Schultz was present on the video call. While Schultz confirmed his membership in the group and his presence at private briefings by Israeli officials, a spokesperson said he "did not participate in, or contribute financially to, any of the group's work."
== Political elections ==
=== 2012 presidential election ===
At the start of the 2012 United States presidential election Schultz's name was floated as a potential Democratic candidate. After he instructed Starbucks employees in Washington to write "come together" on all cups to encourage bipartisanship in the federal government on December 26, press speculation intensified. However, Schultz "batted down" these reports days later and confirmed that he was not running for political office. He continued to publicly bemoan the political climate at the time, saying he was "not optimistic about the leadership" of the U.S. on national television. Papers continued to question the finality of his decision with New York Magazine writing "We look forward to your 2016 campaign".
=== 2016 presidential election ===
In late September and early August 2015, press speculation began to surface about a potential run in the upcoming 2016 United States presidential election for Schultz. Maureen Dowd, of The New York Times, broke a story on August 1 that friends of "America's lord of latte, Howard Schultz, have been pressing him to join the Democratic primary." Over the next couple of days media outlets began to speculate if Schultz was going to make a formal announcement. According to Fortune, he was positioned to be a "worthy party back-up to [Hillary] Clinton." Schultz wrote a New York Times op-ed on August 6, 2015, denying this, stating, "Despite the encouragement of others, I have no intention of entering the presidential fray. I'm not done serving Starbucks." Newspapers such as The Atlantic, billed Schultz as the "liberal Donald Trump" due to his comparable career as a businessman and wealth.
=== 2020 presidential election ===
After Schultz stepped down from Starbucks in 2018, political commentators speculated whether he would run in the 2020 United States presidential election. There was additional encouragement from a draft movement called Ready for Schultz. He hired Steve Schmidt and Bill Burton, two political consultants, to assess his candidacy. On January 27, 2019, he stated in an interview with 60 Minutes that he was exploring a run for president as an independent candidate, and that he considered running as a centrist. He was reportedly willing to spend $300 to $500 million on the 2020 election. Schultz's proposed independent candidacy was widely condemned by Democrats who argued that Schultz's third-party candidacy would help to re-elect President Trump by splitting the vote of those opposed to the president. Political scientist Larry Sabato said that Schultz's candidacy was likely to benefit Trump. However, a CNN analysis believed that "running on a deficit-reduction platform might end up syphoning as many Republican moderates away from Trump as liberals or independents away from the Democratic nominee." In response to claims that his candidacy would benefit Trump, Schultz said, "Nobody wants to see Donald Trump removed from office more than me." His first town hall in Seattle received mixed reception with protestors holding up "venti mistake" and "grande ego" banners while his actual speech was well received. As a large shareholder of Starbucks stock, Schultz was repeatedly asked about potentially selling all of his holdings if elected to the White House. "There's multiple ways to do this, set up a blind trust, do lots of things to remove any conflict of interest" he replied. He had, however, promised to release all of his tax returns if elected.
Later in February, Schultz said he would stay out of the race if the Democrats nominated "a centrist Democrat." In May 2019, Schultz delayed his decision and by September 6, officially ruled out a presidential run, stating that it wasn't the best way to "serve our country at this time." The eventual progression of candidate Joe Biden as the presumptive nominee motivated Schultz to step aside due to their overlapping political ideologies. While he had not officially endorsed Biden for the presidency at the time, Schultz had stated in interviews that he "admires" the candidate. However, on September 14, 2020, Schultz endorsed Biden, and called on Americans to vote for Biden "for the future of our republic".
== Personal life ==
In 1982, Schultz married Sheri Kersch, with whom he has two children. His son, Jordan, is a sports analyst and NFL insider currently working for Bleacher Report. They live in Seattle's Madison Park neighborhood, having previously lived near Madrona. Schultz is a noted coffee aficionado, reportedly drinking four to five cups of coffee every day.
=== Wealth ===
Schultz was named the 209th-richest person in the U.S. in October 2020 by Forbes with a net worth of $4.3 billion. His exploration of running for political office has prompted calls for him to sell all of his stock holdings in Starbucks to appease any conflict of interest. Although not firmly committing to sell his shares upon election, Schultz has expressed interest in setting up a blind trust to hold his shares. However, Foreign Policy noted that even if in a blind trust, his interest in the shares could still prompt a conflict of interest because the shares' performance is linked with the company's performance. In 1998, Schultz established venture capital firm Maveron with investment banker Dan Levitan. He and Levitan primarily invest in start-up companies and seeding consumer-focused companies, such as eBay, Shutterfly, and Zulily. As of July 2014, the venture capital firm was worth $1.3 billion in assets under management (AUM). As of July 2022, Schultz's net worth is US$3.9 billion.
Schultz is the owner of 'PI', a 77-metre luxury superyacht built by Feadship for $120 million.
=== Philanthropy ===
In 1996, Howard and Sheri Schultz co-founded the Schultz Family Foundation, which supports Onward Youth, aimed at promoting employment for young people between the ages of 16 and 24 who are not in school and not working, and Onward Veterans, which is poised to help post-9/11 military veterans to successfully transition to civilian life.
After the October 7th 2023 attacks on Israel by Hamas, the Schultz foundation released a press release on the 13th of October stating that "we join millions around the world who will not remain silent bystanders to evil" and that "More will follow, including support to address the trauma and humanitarian needs that are unfolding". Later on 26 October 2023 Starbucks released another press release further clarifying Schultz and the company's position. The press release stated that Schultz and the company had never sent profits to the Israeli government or army. It did not discuss the Schultz foundation.
=== Awards and honors ===
In 1998, Schultz received the 'Israel 50th Anniversary Tribute Award' for "playing a key role in promoting a close alliance between the United States and Israel". In 1999 AIDs Action awarded Schultz the National Leadership Award for philanthropic and educational efforts to battle AIDS. Schultz was named Fortune magazine's 2011 "Businessperson of the Year" for his initiatives in the economy and job market. Fortune went on to list him as the most generous CEO of 2015, for Starbucks' healthcare coverage, educational opportunities, and employee stock options.
Schultz spoke at the 2017 Arizona State University commencement ceremony and was presented with an honorary Doctor of humane letters degree. In November 2017, the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund presented Schultz with the National Equal Justice Award.
== Books ==
Schultz, Howard; Yang, Dori Jones (1997), Pour Your Heart Into It: How Starbucks Built a Company One Cup at a Time, New York: Hyperion, ISBN 0786863153
Schultz, Howard; Gordon, Joanne (2011), Onward: How Starbucks Fought for Its Life without Losing Its Soul, New York: Rodale, ISBN 9781605292885
Schultz, Howard; Chandrasekaran, Rajiv (2014), For Love of Country: What Our Veterans Can Teach Us About Citizenship, Heroism, and Sacrifice, New York: Vintage, ISBN 9781101872826
Schultz, Howard; Gordon, Joanne (2019), From the Ground Up: A Journey to Reimagine the Promise of America, New York: Random House, ISBN 9780525509448
== See also ==
History of Starbucks
List of Northern Michigan University alumni
List of Forbes' World Billionaires
== References ==
== External links ==
Schultz Family Foundation
How starbucks became 100b success story
Appearances on C-SPAN
How I Built This – Live Episode! Starbucks: Howard Schultz (audio interview) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siri#See_also | Siri | Siri ( SEER-ee) is a virtual assistant and chatbot purchased, developed, and popularized by Apple Inc., which is included in the iOS, iPadOS, watchOS, macOS, Apple TV, audioOS, and visionOS operating systems. It uses voice queries, gesture based control, focus-tracking and a natural-language user interface to answer questions, make recommendations, and perform actions by delegating requests to a set of Internet services. With continued use, it adapts to users' individual language usages, searches, and preferences, returning individualized results.
Siri is a spin-off from a project developed by the SRI International Artificial Intelligence Center. Its speech recognition engine was provided by Nuance Communications, and it uses advanced machine learning technologies to function. Its original American, British, and Australian voice actors recorded their respective voices around 2005, unaware of the recordings' eventual usage. Siri was released as an app for iOS in February 2010. Two months later, Apple acquired it and integrated it into the iPhone 4s at its release on 4 October 2011, removing the separate app from the iOS App Store. Siri has since been an integral part of Apple's products, having been adapted into other hardware devices including newer iPhone models, iPad, iPod Touch, Mac, AirPods, Apple TV, HomePod, and Apple Vision Pro.
Siri supports a wide range of user commands, including performing phone actions, checking basic information, scheduling events and reminders, handling device settings, searching the Internet, navigating areas, finding information on entertainment, and being able to engage with iOS-integrated apps. With the release of iOS 10, in 2016, Apple opened up limited third-party access to Siri, including third-party messaging apps, as well as payments, ride-sharing, and Internet calling apps. With the release of iOS 11, Apple updated Siri's voice and added support for follow-up questions, language translation, and additional third-party actions.
iOS 17 and iPadOS 17 enabled users to activate Siri by simply saying "Siri", while the previous command, "Hey Siri", is still supported.
In 2024, Apple added initial LLM functionality to Siri in iOS 18, iPadOS 18, and macOS Sequoia, including ChatGPT integration. In 2025, Apple announced that a broader overhaul of Siri based on Apple Intelligence, intended to enable increased personalization, would be delayed due to technical challenges.
== Development ==
Siri is a spin-out from the Stanford Research Institute's Artificial Intelligence Center and is an offshoot of the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency's (DARPA)-funded CALO project. SRI International used the NABC Framework to define the value proposition for Siri. It was co-founded by Dag Kittlaus, Tom Gruber, and Adam Cheyer. Kittlaus named Siri after a co-worker in Norway; the name is a short form of the name Sigrid, from Old Norse Sigríðr, composed of the elements sigr "victory" and fríðr "beautiful".
Siri's speech recognition engine was provided by Nuance Communications, a speech technology company. Neither Apple nor Nuance acknowledged this for years, until Nuance CEO Paul Ricci confirmed it at a 2013 technology conference. The speech recognition system uses sophisticated machine learning techniques, including convolutional neural networks and long short-term memory.
The initial Siri prototype was implemented using the Active platform, a joint project between the Artificial Intelligence Center of SRI International and the Vrai Group at Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne. The Active platform was the focus of a Ph.D. thesis led by Didier Guzzoni, who joined Siri as its chief scientist.
Siri was acquired by Apple Inc. in April 2010 under the direction of Steve Jobs. Apple's first notion of a digital personal assistant appeared in a 1987 concept video, Knowledge Navigator.
Siri's original release on iPhone 4s in October 2011 received mixed reviews. It received praise for its voice recognition and contextual knowledge of user information, including calendar appointments, but was criticized for requiring stiff user commands and having a lack of flexibility. It was also criticized for lacking information on certain nearby places and for its inability to understand certain English accents. During the mid-2010s, a number of media reports said that Siri lacked innovation, particularly against new competing voice assistants. The reports concerned Siri's limited set of features, "bad" voice recognition, and undeveloped service integrations as causing trouble for Apple in the field of artificial intelligence and cloud-based services; the basis for the complaints reportedly due to stifled development, as caused by Apple's prioritization of user privacy and executive power struggles within the company. Its launch was also overshadowed by the death of Steve Jobs, which occurred one day after the launch.
== Apple Intelligence ==
Siri has been updated with enhanced capabilities made possible by Apple Intelligence. In macOS Sequoia, iOS 18, and iPadOS 18, Siri features an updated user interface, improved natural language processing, and the option to interact via text by double tapping the home bar without enabling the feature in the Accessibility menu on iOS and iPadOS. According to Apple: it adds the ability for Siri to use the context of device activities to make conversations more natural; Siri can give users device support and will have larger app support via the Siri App Intents API; Siri will be able to deliver intelligence that's tailored to the user and their on-device information using personal context. For example, a user can say, "When is Mom's flight landing?" and Siri will find the flight details and try to cross-reference them with real-time flight tracking to give an arrival time. For more day to day interactions with Apple devices, Siri will now summarize messages (on more apps than just Messages, such as Discord and Slack). According to users, this feature can be helpful but can also be inappropriate in certain situations.
== Voices ==
The original American voice of Siri was recorded in July 2005 by Susan Bennett, who was unaware it would eventually be used for the voice assistant. A report from The Verge in September 2013 about voice actors, their work, and machine learning developments, hinted that Allison Dufty was the voice behind Siri, but this was disproven when Dufty wrote on her website that she was "absolutely, positively not the voice of Siri." Citing growing pressure, Bennett revealed her role as Siri in October, and her claim was confirmed by Ed Primeau, an American audio forensics expert. Apple has never acknowledged it.
The original British male voice was provided by Jon Briggs, a former technology journalist and for 12 years narrated for the hit BBC quiz show The Weakest Link. After discovering he was Siri's voice by watching television, he first spoke about the role in November 2011. He acknowledged that the voice work was done "five or six years ago", and that he didn't know how the recordings would be used.
The original Australian voice was provided by Karen Jacobsen, a voice-over artist known in Australia as the GPS girl.
In an interview between all three voice actors and The Guardian, Briggs said that "the original system was recorded for a US company called Scansoft, who were then bought by Nuance. Apple simply licensed it."
For iOS 11, Apple auditioned hundreds of candidates to find new female voices, then recorded several hours of speech, including different personalities and expressions, to build a new text-to-speech voice based on deep learning technology. In February 2022, Apple added Quinn, its first gender-neutral voice as a fifth user option, to the iOS 15.4 developer release.
== Integration ==
Siri released as a stand-alone application for the iOS operating system in February 2010, and at the time, the developers were also intending to release Siri for Android and BlackBerry devices. Two months later, Apple acquired Siri. On October 4, 2011, Apple introduced the iPhone 4S with a beta version of Siri. After the announcement, Apple removed the existing standalone Siri app from App Store. TechCrunch wrote that, though the Siri app supports iPhone 4, its removal from App Store might also have had a financial aspect for the company, in providing an incentive for customers to upgrade devices. Third-party developer Steven Troughton-Smith, however, managed to port Siri to iPhone 4, though without being able to communicate with Apple's servers. A few days later, Troughton-Smith, working with an anonymous person nicknamed "Chpwn", managed to fully hack Siri, enabling its full functionalities on iPhone 4 and iPod Touch devices. Additionally, developers were also able to successfully create and distribute legal ports of Siri to any device capable of running iOS 5, though a proxy server was required for Apple server interaction.
Over the years, Apple has expanded the line of officially supported products, including newer iPhone models, as well as iPad support in June 2012, iPod Touch support in September 2012, Apple TV support, and the stand-alone Siri Remote, in September 2015, Mac and AirPods support in September 2016, and HomePod support in February 2018.
=== Third party devices ===
At the 2021 Worldwide Developers Conference, Apple announced that it would make Siri voice integration available in third party devices. Devices must be on the same wireless network as a HomePod or HomePod Mini to route requests. In October 2021, the Ecobee SmartThermostat with Voice Control became the first third-party device with built-in Siri control. In 2024, Denon added Siri control to select soundbars and smart speakers.
== Features and options ==
Apple offers a wide range of voice commands to interact with Siri, including, but not limited to:
Phone and text actions, such as "Call Sarah", "Read my new messages", "Set the timer for 10 minutes", and "Send email to mom"
Check basic information, including "What's the weather like today?" and "How many dollars are in a euro?"
Find basic facts, including "How many people live in France?" and "How tall is Mount Everest?". Siri usually uses Wikipedia to answer.
Schedule events and reminders, including "Schedule a meeting" and "Remind me to ..."
Handle device settings, such as "Take a picture", "Turn off Wi-Fi", and "Increase the brightness"
Search the Internet, including "Define ...", "Find pictures of ...", and "Search Twitter for ..."
Navigation, including "Take me home", "What's the traffic like on the way home?", and "Find driving directions to ..."
Translate words and phrases from English to a few languages, such as "How do I say where is the nearest hotel in French?"
Entertainment, such as "What basketball games are on today?", "What are some movies playing near me?", and "What's the synopsis of ...?"
Engage with iOS-integrated apps, including "Pause Apple Music" and "Like this song"
Handle payments through Apple Pay, such as "Apple Pay 25 dollars to Mike for concert tickets" or "Send 41 dollars to Ivana."
Share ETA with others.
Jokes, "Hey Siri, knock knock."
Siri also offers numerous pre-programmed responses to amusing questions. Such questions include "What is the meaning of life?" to which Siri may reply "All evidence to date suggests it's chocolate"; "Why am I here?", to which it may reply "I don't know. Frankly, I've wondered that myself"; and "Will you marry me?", to which it may respond with "My End User Licensing Agreement does not cover marriage. My apologies."
Initially limited to female voices for most countries where Siri was supported, Apple announced in June 2013 that Siri would feature a gender option, adding a male voice counterpart. Notable exceptions are the United Kingdom, France, and the Netherlands; those countries were first limited to male voices, then would later get female voice counterparts.
In September 2014, Apple added the ability for users to speak "Hey Siri" to summon the assistant without needing to hold the device.
In September 2015, the "Hey Siri" feature was updated to include individualized voice recognition, a presumed effort to prevent non-owner activation.
With the announcement of iOS 10 in June 2016, Apple opened up limited third-party developer access to Siri through a dedicated application programming interface (API). The API restricts the usage of Siri to engaging with third-party messaging apps, payment apps, ride-sharing apps, and Internet calling apps.
In iOS 11, Siri is able to handle follow-up questions, supports language translation, and opens up to more third-party actions, including task management. Additionally, users are able to type to Siri, and a new, privacy-minded "on-device learning" technique improves Siri's suggestions by privately analyzing personal usage of different iOS applications.
iOS 17 and iPadOS 17 allows users to simply say "Siri" to initiate Siri, and the virtual assistant now supports back to back requests, allowing users to issue multiple requests and conversations without reactivating it. In the public beta versions of iOS 17, iPadOS 17, and macOS Sonoma, Apple added support for bilingual queries to Siri.
iOS 18, iPadOS 18 and MacOS 15 Sequoia brought artificial intelligence, integrated with ChatGPT, to Siri. Apple calls this "Apple Intelligence".
== Reception ==
Siri received mixed reviews during its beta release as an integrated part of the iPhone 4S in October 2011.
MG Siegler of TechCrunch wrote that Siri was "great," understood much more, but had “no API that any developer can use“. Writing for The New York Times, David Pogue also praised Siri's ability to understand context Jacqui Cheng of Ars Technica wrote that Apple's claims of what Siri could do were bold, and the early demos "even bolder", this was still in beta.
While praising its ability to "decipher our casual language" and deliver "very specific and accurate result," sometimes even providing additional information, Cheng noted and criticized its restrictions, particularly when the language moved away from "stiffer commands" into more human interactions. One example included the phrase "Send a text to Jason, Clint, Sam, and Lee saying we're having dinner at Silver Cloud," which Siri interpreted as sending a message to Jason only, containing the text "Clint Sam and Lee saying we're having dinner at Silver Cloud." She also noted a lack of proper editability.
Google's executive chairman and former chief, Eric Schmidt, conceded that Siri could pose a competitive threat to the company's core search business.
Siri was criticized by pro-abortion rights organizations, including the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) and NARAL Pro-Choice America, after users found that Siri could not provide information about the location of birth control or abortion providers nearby, sometimes directing users to crisis pregnancy centers instead.
Natalie Kerris, a spokeswoman for Apple, told The New York Times that, “These are not intentional omissions…”. In January 2016, Fast Company reported that, in then-recent months, Siri had begun to confuse the word "abortion" with "adoption", citing "health experts" who stated that the situation had "gotten worse." However, at the time of Fast Company's report, the situation had changed slightly, with Siri offering "a more comprehensive list of Planned Parenthood facilities", although "Adoption clinics continue to pop up, but near the bottom of the list."
Siri has also not been well received by some English speakers with distinctive accents, including Scottish and Americans from Boston or the South.
In March 2012, Frank M. Fazio filed a class action lawsuit against Apple on behalf of the people who bought the iPhone 4S and felt misled about the capabilities of Siri, alleging its failure to function as depicted in Apple's Siri commercials. Fazio filed the lawsuit in California and claimed that the iPhone 4S was merely a "more expensive iPhone 4" if Siri fails to function as advertised. On July 22, 2013, U.S. District Judge Claudia Wilken in San Francisco dismissed the suit but said the plaintiffs could amend at a later time. The reason given for dismissal was that plaintiffs did not sufficiently document enough misrepresentations by Apple for the trial to proceed.
== Perceived lack of innovation ==
In June 2016, The Verge's Sean O'Kane wrote about the then-upcoming major iOS 10 updates, with a headline stating "Siri's big upgrades won't matter if it can't understand its users":
What Apple didn't talk about was solving Siri's biggest, most basic flaws: it's still not very good at voice recognition, and when it gets it right, the results are often clunky. And these problems look even worse when you consider that Apple now has full-fledged competitors in this space: Amazon's Alexa, Microsoft's Cortana, and Google's Assistant. Also writing for The Verge, Walt Mossberg had previously questioned Apple's efforts in cloud-based services, writing:
... perhaps the biggest disappointment among Apple's cloud-based services is the one it needs most today, right now: Siri. Before Apple bought it, Siri was on the road to being a robust digital assistant that could do many things, and integrate with many services—even though it was being built by a startup with limited funds and people. After Apple bought Siri, the giant company seemed to treat it as a backwater, restricting it to doing only a few, slowly increasing number of tasks, like telling you the weather, sports scores, movie and restaurant listings, and controlling the device's functions. Its unhappy founders have left Apple to build a new AI service called Viv. And, on too many occasions, Siri either gets things wrong, doesn't know the answer, or can't verbalize it. Instead, it shows you a web search result, even when you're not in a position to read it.
In October 2016, Bloomberg reported that Apple had plans to unify the teams behind its various cloud-based services, including a single campus and reorganized cloud computing resources aimed at improving the processing of Siri's queries, although another report from The Verge, in June 2017, once again called Siri's voice recognition "bad."
In June 2017, The Wall Street Journal published an extensive report on the lack of innovation with Siri following competitors' advancement in the field of voice assistants. Noting that Apple workers' anxiety levels "went up a notch" on the announcement of Amazon's Alexa, the Journal wrote: "Today, Apple is playing catch-up in a product category it invented, increasing worries about whether the technology giant has lost some of its innovation edge." The report gave the primary causes being Apple's prioritization of user privacy, including randomly-tagged six-month Siri searches, whereas Google and Amazon keep data until actively discarded by the user, and executive power struggles within Apple. Apple did not comment on the report, while Eddy Cue said: "Apple often uses generic data rather than user data to train its systems and has the ability to improve Siri's performance for individual users with information kept on their iPhones."
== Privacy controversy ==
In July 2019, a then-anonymous whistleblower and former Apple contractor Thomas le Bonniec said that Siri regularly records some of its users' conversations when activated, which often happened unintentionally. The recordings are sent to Apple contractors grading Siri's responses on a variety of factors. Among other things, the contractors regularly hear private conversations between doctors and patients, business and drug deals, and couples having sex. Apple did not disclose this in its privacy documentation and did not provide a way for its users to opt-in or out.
In August 2019, Apple apologized, halted the Siri grading program, and said that it plans to resume "later this fall when software updates are released to [its] users". The company also announced "it would no longer listen to Siri recordings without your permission". iOS 13.2, released in October 2019, introduced the ability to opt out of the grading program and to delete all the voice recordings that Apple has stored on its servers. Users were given the choice of whether their audio data was received by Apple or not, with the ability to change their decision as often as they like. It was then made an opt-in program.
In May 2020, Thomas le Bonniec revealed himself as the whistleblower and sent a letter to European data protection regulators, calling on them to investigate Apple's "past and present" use of Siri recordings. He argued that, even though Apple has apologized, it has never faced the consequences for its years-long grading program.
In December 2024, Apple agreed to a $95 million class-action settlement, compensating users of Siri-enabled from the past ten years. Additionally, Apple must confirm the deletion of Siri recordings before 2019 (when the feature became opt-in) and issue new guidance on how data is collected and how users can participate in efforts to improve Siri.
== Social impacts and awareness ==
=== Disability ===
Apple has introduced various accessibility features aimed at making its devices more inclusive for individuals with disabilities. The company provides users the opportunity to share feedback on accessibility features through email. Some of the new functionalities include live speech, personal voice, Siri's atypical speech pattern recognition, and much more.
Accessibility features:
VoiceOver: This feature provides visual feedback for Siri responses, allowing users to engage with Siri through both visual and auditory channels.
Voice-to-text and text-to-voice: Siri can transcribe spoken words into and text as well as read text typed by the user out loud.
Text commands: Users can type what they want Siri to do.
Personal voice: This allows users to create a synthesized voice that sounds like them.
=== Bias ===
Siri, like many AI systems, can perpetuate gender and racial biases through its design and functionality. As argued by The Conversation, Siri "reinforces the role of women as secondary and submissive to men" due to the fact that the default is a soft, female voice. According to an article from The Scientific American, Claudia Lloreda explains that non-native English speakers have to "adapt our way of speaking to interact with speech-recognition technologies." Furthermore, due to repetitive "learnings" from a larger user base, Siri may unintentionally produce a Western perspective, limiting representation and furthering biases in everyday interactions. Despite these perpetuated issues, Siri does provide several benefits as well, especially for those with disabilities that typically limit their abilities to use technology and access the internet. Apple has since introduced a larger variety of voices with different accents and languages.
== Swearing ==
The iOS version of Siri ships with a vulgar content filter; however, it is disabled by default and must be enabled by the user manually.
In 2018, Ars Technica reported a new glitch that could be exploited by a user requesting the definition of "mother" be read out loud. Siri would issue a response and ask the user if they would like to hear the next definition; when the user replies with "yes", Siri would mention "mother" as being short for "motherfucker". This resulted in multiple YouTube videos featuring the responses or how to trigger them, or both. Apple fixed the issue silently. The content is picked up from third-party sources such as the Oxford English Dictionary and not a supplied message from the corporation.
== In popular culture ==
Siri provided the voice of 'Puter in The Lego Batman Movie.
== See also ==
List of speech recognition software
Amazon Alexa
== References ==
== Further reading ==
For a detailed article on the history of the organizations and technologies preceding the development of Siri, and their influence upon that application, see Bianca Bosker, 2013, "Siri Rising: The Inside Story Of Siri's Origins (And Why She Could Overshadow The iPhone)", in The Huffington Post (online), January 22, 2013 (updated January 24, 2013), accessed November 2, 2014.
== External links ==
Official website
Siri's supported languages
SiriKit, Siri for developers
"The Story of Siri, by its founder Adam Cheyer". wit.ai. December 18, 2014. Retrieved October 30, 2015. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Dhanoa#:~:text=In%201986%2C%20he%20was%20first,Jaipur%20Gharana)%2C%20Nandita%20Puri. | Dan Dhanoa | Dan Dhanoa (born Inderpreet Singh Dhanoa; 28 February 1959) is an Indian former film actor and a sailor (master mariner) in the Merchant Navy.
He is known mostly for portraying cult villainous roles in Hindi cinema in the 1980s and 1990s, in about 100 films, such as Mard (1984), Karma (1986), Tridev (1989), Sanam Bewafa (1991) and Vishwatma (1992).
He was brought into the film industry by actor/director Feroz Khan, but made his debut in the Manmohan Desai film Mard as the main antagonist, opposite Amitabh Bachchan.
== Personal life ==
In 1986, he was first married to Nikii Waalia. Their son Gobind Singh Dhanoa (a.k.a. Tarzan) was born in 1987. Tarzan is a Cinematographer by profession.
Later in 2007, he married an actor and classical dancer (Kathak from Jaipur Gharana), Nandita Puri.
He is an alumnus of The Doon School in Dehradun (1974 batch). An avid traveller, he is now settled in Chandigarh where he indulges in his passion for gardening, collecting art & artifacts.
== Filmography ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Dan Dhanoa at IMDb
Dan Dhanoa at Bollywood Hungama (archived) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oommen_Chandy#:~:text=Oommen%20Chandy%20(31%20October%201943,2006%20and%202011%20to%202016. | Oommen Chandy | Oommen Chandy (31 October 1943 – 18 July 2023) was an Indian lawyer and statesman who served as the 10th chief minister of Kerala, serving from 2004 to 2006 and 2011 to 2016. He served also as the leader of the opposition in the Kerala Legislative Assembly from 2006 to 2011.
He represented Puthuppally constituency as a member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) in the State Assembly from 1970 until his death in 2023, making him the longest-serving member of the Kerala Legislature Assembly. He received an award for public service from the United Nations in 2013.
In 2018, he was appointed the general secretary of the All India Congress Committee, in charge of the state of Andhra Pradesh. He was also a Congress Working Committee member at the time of his death.
== Early life and education ==
Oommen Chandy was born on 31 October 1943 in Kumarakom, Kottayam district, as the son of Baby and K. O. Chandy, of Karottu Vallakkalil house.
He was named after his paternal grandfather, V. J. Oommen (Vallakkalil), a member of the Travancore Legislative Council. Oommen ventured into the political arena as an activist of Kerala's largest student organization Kerala Students Union, the student wing of the Indian National Congress. He was the unit president of the KSU at St. George High School, Puthupally, and went on to become the state president of the organization.
Oommen completed his pre-university course from CMS College, Kottayam and received a B.A. in economics from St. Berchmans College, Changanassery. Later, he earned a bachelor's degree in law (LL.B) from the Government Law College, Ernakulam.
== Political life ==
Oommen started his political career through the Kerala Students Union, in which he served as president from 1967 to 1969. He was elected as the president of the State Youth Congress in 1970.
=== Electoral Performance ===
Oommen represented the Puthuppally constituency for five decades, having been elected to the Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1970, 1977, 1980, 1982, 1987, 1991, 1996, 2001, 2006, 2011, 2016, and 2021. During his legislative career, he also served as chairman of the Public Accounts Committee from 1996 to 1998.
== Positions held ==
=== Minister ===
Oommen Chandy was a minister in the Government of Kerala on four occasions. He was the minister for Labour from 11 April 1977 to 25 April 1977 in the first K. Karunakaran ministry and continued holding the same portfolio in the succeeding first A. K. Antony ministry until 27 October 1978. He was in the charge of Home Portfolio in the second K. Karunakaran ministry from 28 December 1981 to 17 March 1982. He was sworn in again as a minister in the fourth K. Karunakaran ministry on 2 July 1991. He was in charge of the Finance Portfolio and resigned from the cabinet on 22 June 1994 as a protest against Karunakaran's denial of a Rajya Sabha ticket to a factional leader.
Oommen Chandy was a minister in the following ministries:
=== Chief Minister of Kerala ===
==== First term as chief minister (2004–2006) ====
The results of the parliamentary elections in May 2004 saw the Indian National Congress not winning a single seat in Kerala. The sitting chief minister, A.K. Antony, was forced to resign and accept responsibility for the poor results. On 30 August 2004, Oommen was elected as the Congress Legislature Party leader at the end of a meeting by AICC observers and clearance by the Congress president, Sonia Gandhi. The Congress-led alliance was defeated but managed to retain 42 out of 140 seats in the assembly and boost its vote-share by nearly 10% after the general election rout. He resigned as chief minister on 12 May 2006 following the defeat of his party in 2006 Assembly Elections.
==== Second term as chief minister (2011–2016) ====
UDF, led by Oommen Chandy, secured a slender margin of majority in the assembly election held on 13 April 2011 by winning 72 seats against the 68 seats of the LDF. He took the oath on 18 May 2011 with six other ministers of his cabinet. Later, thirteen other ministers were also inducted into his cabinet.
=== Leader of Opposition ===
Oommen was the leader of opposition in the twelfth Kerala Legislative Assembly. Under his leadership, UDF marked victories in Lok Sabha Election 2009, gaining 16 out of 20 parliament constituencies in Kerala. UDF also got an upper hand in local body elections.
=== Leader of Congress Parliamentary Party ===
After winning the closely contested 2011 assembly election, Congress's legislative party unanimously elected Oommen as its leader.
== Awards and honours ==
Oommen Chandy received the 2013 United Nations Public Service Award for the Asia-Pacific region, for "Preventing and Combating Corruption in the Public Service." The award was presented on 27 June 2013, in Manama, Bahrain, by the UN Under-Secretary-General for Economic and Social Affairs, Wu Hongbo. The award was based on the theme "Transformative e-Government and Innovation: Creating a Better Future for All".
== Achievements ==
Oommen Chandy first took charge as chief minister on 31 August 2004 and adopted the motto Athivegam Bahudooram (Fast and far). Sanctioning of unemployment allowance, and welfare measures for labourers were some of the measures introduced by his government. Oommen attended the 35th World Economic Forum held at Davos, Switzerland, in 2006. The Karunya benevolent scheme was implemented in 2011–2012, allowing free treatment of patients with cancer, haemophilia, and kidney and heart diseases. Forty-three Cochlear implant surgeries were performed under a Cochlear implant scheme for hearing impaired children. More organ implantation surgeries were done through Mruthasanjeevani project.
Oommen also received the United Nation's Public Service Award for his Mass Contact Programme (Jana Samparkka Paripadi), for hearing and solving the complaints of citizens. In 2005, Information Technology was made a compulsory subject for the school-level students, making Kerala the first Indian state to do so. Victers TV, which is India's first public edutainment channel broadband network on EDUSAT for schools, was inaugurated by A. P. J. Abdul Kalam on 28 July 2005 at Thiruvananthapuram.
The Hill highway project, a massive highway project that connects the eastern hilly areas of the districts of Kerala first proposed in 1960, was approved by the First Oommen ministry in 2005. The Government of Kerala approved the project and allocated funds on 17 January 2005, Oommen inaugurated the first phase of the project between Kasaragod and Palakkad at a function held in Payyavoor.
The Second Oommen ministry (2011–2016) adopted the motto Vikasanavum Karuthalum (Development and Care). Oommen Chandy's regime was instrumental in beginning the construction of several massive infrastructure projects as well as some human-welfare schemes in Kerala which included the Kannur International Airport in Kannur, the Kochi Metro at Kochi, the Vizhinjam International Seaport at Thiruvananthapuram, and the Smart City project. The projects for Thiruvananthapuram Light Metro and Kozhikode Light Metro were approved in 2012. A suburban rail project was initiated in 2013.
The Technopark at Thiruvananthapuram became the largest Information Technology park in India with the inauguration of its third phase in 2014. The Taurus Downtown at Technopark was commenced during the period 2011–2016. The second phase of InfoPark, Kochi was inaugurated in May 2015. Phase two of InfoPark Thrissur was completed during the same period. The Park Centre of Cybercity at Kozhikode was formally opened by IT Minister P.K. Kunhalikutty on 15 February 2014. UL Cyberpark at Kozhikode was inaugurated in January 2016.
It was also during his administration that 12 new Taluks, 28 new Municipalities, and the Kannur Municipal Corporation were formed for more effective decentralisation and proper utilisation of resources in the state, It was the largest Taluk delimitation in the state of Kerala since 1957. A number of state highways were constructed under Oommen government, and the final decision to widen the national highways of the state to 45 metres (148 ft) were taken in 2014. During his tenure, 227 road bridges costing nearly Rs 1,600 crore were built across Kerala, the most ever in the state. The Kozhikode bypass was completed and the works of Kollam Bypass and Alappuzha Bypass roads were restarted during 2011–2016. The Karamana-Kaliyikkavila and Kazhakootam-Karode bypasses for the city of Thiruvananthapuram were initiated and started. The Kochi-Mangalore GAIL pipeline was commissioned by the Second Oommen ministry in 2013.
Oommen Chandy's administration also made the decision to build at least one government medical college in each district without one, to ensure the presence of the public medical college in all 14 districts of Kerala, which was instrumental in the public health infrastructure of the state. As a part of the project, new medical colleges were established in the state starting in 2013, after a gap of 31 years. The National University of Advanced Legal Studies at Kochi was founded in 2005 and the Indian Institute of Technology at Palakkad was established in 2015. The universities founded during 2011–2016 period include the Thunchath Ezhuthachan Malayalam University at Tirur (2012) and APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University at Thiruvananthapuram (2014). The K. R. Narayanan National Institute of Visual Science and Arts at Kottayam was inaugurated in January 2016. In 2015, the Cochin International Airport became the world's first fully solar-powered airport with the inauguration of a dedicated solar plant. The airport won the Champion of the Earth award in 2018, the highest environmental honour instituted by the United Nations. The airport was awarded The Best Airport in Asia-Pacific in 2020 (with 5–15 million passengers per annum) by the Airports Council International. The Kerala Urban Road Transport Corporation (KURTC) was formed under KSRTC in 2015 to manage affairs related to urban transportation. It was inaugurated on 12 April 2015 at Thevara. Works on the last phase of Kollam Bypass was started on 27 May 2015.
Social welfare pensions were doubled during Oommen Chandy's second ministry, increasing to Rs.600. The government distributed pensions ranging from Rs 800 – Rs 1,500. Social welfare pensions which had been distributed to 12.9 lakh people until 2011 were extended to 34.43 lakh during 2011–2016. Pensions for the disabled and widows were increased to Rs 800. Old-age pensions were increased to Rs 1,500 for those above 75 years and Rs 1,100 to those above 80 years. Other social welfare measures included free rations for those who lost their employment, and 4,14,552 houses for those who hadn't homes before. Free rice was given to those who were below the poverty line. Food kits were distributed during Onam, Ramdan, and Christmas. A rubber Subsidy to ensure a minimum price of Rs 150/kg was implemented in 2015. The Kerala Public Service Commission filled vacant posts during 2011–2016, appointing as many as 1,67,096 job candidates, setting a record; 46,223 posts were created in the same period. The second Oommen ministry had also made the decision to prohibit liqueur in the state by discouraging bars. The number of political killings were relatively low (eleven) during 2011–2016. Kerala was declared as the first complete digital state of India on 27 February 2016.
Twenty-six sectors were identified for showcasing in the Emerging Kerala summit of 2012 held at Kochi. The event was organised by the Kerala State Industrial Development Corporation (KSIDC), to highlight investment opportunities available in Kerala and advertise to the world its state of readiness to receive investors. Prime Minister of India Dr. Manmohan Singh inaugurated the three-day event. Goals for the event included bringing in 45 specific project proposals with an investment of over Rs.40,000 crore, including Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd's Kochi Refinery expansion and another joint venture project of Rs.18,000 crore, Volkswagen’s engine assembly unit (Rs.2,000 crore), a hospital and pre-cast concrete structure manufacturing unit (Rs.570 crore), and a solar energy plant (Rs.500crore). A number of projects were conceptualized and developed in the tate following the summit, the most prominent of which included the Kochi-Mangalore GAIL Pipeline, Vizhinjam International Seaport, Kochi Metro, Thiruvananthapuram Light Metro and Kozhikode Light Metro, Petroleum Chemicals & Petrochemical Investment Region, Kochi-Palakkad National Investment and Manufacturing Zone, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Kottayam, Thiruvananthapuram–Kasargode Semi High Speed Rail Corridor, Kerala Seaplane, Electronic hub at Kochi, Titanium Sponge Plant Project at Kollam, Oceanarium project at Kochi, Bio 360 Life Sciences Park at Thiruvananthapuram, a gas-based powerplant at Cheemeni, Kasaragod, and Kochi LNG Terminal.
== Controversies ==
=== 2013 Kerala solar panel scam ===
The 2013 Kerala solar panel scam was one of the main scandals raised by the LDF-led opposition. It was also one of the main election issues used by LDF during 2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election.
However, the Crime Branch appointed by First Vijayan ministry in 2018 found that there was no evidence against Oommen in the scam. As part of the procedures, the state home secretary T. K. Jose had forwarded a report to the central government. According to the report, no evidence could be collected against Oommen Chandy and the Crime Branch failed to confirm that the incident mentioned in the complaint actually happened. The case was handed over to the central agency after several teams of the Kerala Police repeatedly failed to prove the allegations against Oommen.
=== Vizhinjam Port Corruption Accusation ===
The opposition led by CPI(M) had accused corruption in the Vizhinjam International Seaport project ahead of the 2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election.
The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India, in its report on Public Sector Undertakings for the financial year ending March 2016, presented to the Kerala state assembly, identified irregularities in the agreement executed by the then state government. The CAG report contended that by granting a ten-year concession period beyond the standard thirty-year term for Public-Private Partnership (PPP) projects, the state government's agreement with the Adani Group for the Vizhinjam seaport project could potentially result in an additional revenue of Rs 29,217 crore for the concessionaire. This figure was calculated based on revenue projections outlined in the Feasibility Report prepared by Ernst and Young. Based on this CAG report,the first Vijayan ministry appointed a three-member judicial commission under Justice C. N. Ramachandran to investigate in May 2017.
In 2018, the commission concluded that there was no corruption with the state's project and that there was no misuse of political power in the port project. The commission report stated that there was no evidence to prove there was corruption. C. N. Ramachandran said that "Nobody came forward with any specific corruption charges against any individual and nobody ventured to give any evidence. When there is no allegation of corruption against anyone, there is no need to investigate corruption against anyone. That is why the commission has not found corruption against anyone."
=== Pattoor land case ===
The Pattoor Land Case was used by the LDF-led opposition ahead of 2016 Kerala Legislative Assembly election. In February 2018, the Kerala High Court pointed out that the Vigilance and Anti-Corruption Bureau (VACB) registered the first information report based on the wrong report prepared by Jacob Thomas. The court said that the claim that the property vests with Kerala Water Authority was not based on any document. As the High Court rejected the case, the UDF government got a clean chit. The High Court found that neither Oommen nor the UDF government was involved in any corruption.
=== Palmolein oil import scam ===
The Palmolein Oil Import Scam (1991–1992) refers to the alleged irregularities in the import of palmolein by the K. Karunakaran-led United Democratic Front government of the state of Kerala, India through the Power and Energy Limited Company. It was accused by the LDF-led opposition in 1992. However, a 2011 VACB probe found that Oommen, finance minister during 1991–1996, had no role in the corruption. The report filed by VACB said that Oommen Chandy was not aware of the details of the decision to import palmolein through a Singapore-based firm.
== Death and funeral ==
=== Death ===
Oommen Chandy was diagnosed with throat cancer. He commenced immunotherapy treatment at HCG Cancer Centre in Bengaluru in December 2022. Additionally, he underwent laser biopsy in Germany, a procedure that reduces tumor size but does not eliminate cancer. Despite these treatments, Chandy succumbed to the disease and died on 18 July 2023 at the age of 79 due to complications from throat cancer. He died at the Chinmaya Mission Hospital in Bengaluru.
=== Funeral procession ===
Following his death, Chandy's body was transported to Thiruvananthapuram via chartered flight for public homage, first at the Durbar Hall, Thiruvananthapuram and subsequently at the Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee (KPCC) office. The Government of Kerala declared a public holiday on 18 July 2023 and a two-day state mourning in his honour.
A solemn funeral procession began on 19 July 2023, traversing the 150 km distance from the state capital to Chandy's hometown, Puthuppally in Kottayam district. A journey that typically takes five hours was extended to approximately 30 hours due to the immense public outpouring of grief. Thousands of people lined the route to bid their final farewells to him.
The final rites were conducted at St. George Orthodox Church, Puthuppally, on 20 July 2023, presided over by Mar Baselios Marthoma Mathews III. As a honor of his public service, Oommen Chandy was laid to rest in a specially constructed tomb within the exclusive burial ground reserved for the Orthodox Church's clergy. Respecting his wishes, the family declined state honors, with his son expressing his father's desire for a simple funeral.
== Legacy ==
After Oommen Chandy's death, his son, Chandy Oommen, contested and won in the by-election.
KPCC President K Sudhakaran has said that Vizhinjam port should be named after Oommen Chandy since the port became a reality only due to his efforts.
== References ==
== Sources ==
Chandran, VP (2018). Mathrubhumi Yearbook Plus – 2019 (Malayalam ed.). Kozhikode: P. V. Chandran, Managing Editor, Mathrubhumi Printing & Publishing Company, Kozhikode.
== Further reading ==
Chief Ministers, Ministers, and Leaders of Opposition of Kerala (PDF), Thiruvananthapuram: Secratriat of Kerala Legislature, 2018 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_P._Kuiper_Prize | Gerard P. Kuiper Prize | The Gerard P. Kuiper Prize is awarded annually by the Division for Planetary Sciences of the American Astronomical Society for outstanding lifetime achievement in the field of planetary science. The prize is named for Gerard P. Kuiper.
== Kuiper Prize winners ==
Source: Gerard P. Kuiper Prize, American Astronomical Society
== See also ==
List of astronomy awards
== References ==
== External links ==
Gerard P. Kuiper Prize |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Julien | Isaac Julien | Sir Isaac Julien (born 21 February 1960) is a British installation artist, filmmaker, and Distinguished Professor of the Arts at the University of California, Santa Cruz.
== Early life ==
Julien was born in the East End of London, one of the five children of his parents, who had migrated to Britain from St Lucia. He graduated in 1985 from Saint Martin's School of Art, where he studied painting and fine art film. He co-founded Sankofa Film and Video Collective in 1983, and was a founding member of Normal Films in 1991.
== Education ==
In 1980, Julien organized the Sankofa Film and Video Collective with, among others, Martina Attille, Maureen Blackwood, Nadine Marsh-Edwards, which was "dedicated to developing an independent black film culture in the areas of production, exhibition and audience". He received a BA Honours degree in Fine Art Film and Video from Saint Martins School of Art, London (1984), where he worked alongside artists, film-makers and lecturers Malcolm Le Grice, William Raban, Anna Thew, Tina Keane, Vera Neubauer, and co-students, directors and film-makers Adam Finch, Richard Heslop and Sandra Lahire, and completed his postdoctoral studies at Les entrepreneurs de l'audiovisuel européen, Brussels (1989).
== Career ==
Julien achieved prominence in the film world with his 1989 drama-documentary Looking for Langston, gaining a cult following with this poetic exploration of Langston Hughes and the Harlem Renaissance. His following grew when his film Young Soul Rebels won the Semaine de la Critique prize for best film at the Cannes Film Festival in 1991.
One of the objectives of Julien's work is to break down the barriers that exist between different artistic disciplines, drawing from and commenting on film, dance, photography, music, theatre, painting and sculpture, and uniting these to construct a powerfully visual narrative. Thematically, much of his work directly relates to experiences of black and gay identity (he is himself gay), including issues of class, sexuality, and artistic and cultural history.
Julien is a documentary filmmaker, and his work in this genre includes BaadAsssss Cinema, a film on the history and influence of blaxploitation cinema.
In 2014, Julien presented his exhibition Ten Thousand Waves at Fotografiska Stockholm.
In 2023, the Tate Gallery in London held a major retrospective of his work titled What Freedom Is to Me. The exhibition was set to open at the Bonnefantenmuseum in Maastrict in March 2024.
The Pérez Art Museum Miami acquired Julien's Ogun’s Return (Once Again... Statues Never Die) (2022) for the museum collection as part of its PAMM Fund for Black Art in 2024. In this same year, Sir Isaac Julien's films were on view at the Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery, Washington DC, and the Whitney Museum of American Art, New York. The first, a solo presentation and multichannel installation Isaac Julien: Lessons of the Hour—Frederick Douglass, and the latter, the cinematic installation Once Again . . . (Statues Never Die), a commentary on the life and work of Alain Locke, Harlem Renaissance philosopher, in dialogue with Albert C. Barnes about African art, at the 2024 Whitney Biennial.
From April 12 – July 13, 2025, the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco exhibited Isaac Julien: I Dream a World. The exhibition was the first retrospective of Julien’s work in the United States and included 10 video installations and several films.
=== Collaborations ===
Julien cites cultural theorist and sociologist Stuart Hall as an important influence on his filmmaking. Hall narrates a portion of Looking for Langston. Julien involves Hall in his work once more in the 1996 film Frantz Fanon: Black Skin, White Mask, which tells the story of Frantz Fanon, the theorist and psychiatrist from Martinique. As a member of the Sankofa Film and Video Collective, Julien made The Passion of Remembrance (1986), "which attempts to deal with the difficulties of constructing a documentary history of black political experience by foregrounding questions of chauvinism and homophobia." In 2007, Julien participated in Performa 07 creating his first evening-length production Cast No Shadow in collaboration with Rusell Maliphant.
== Other activities ==
Since 2018, Julien has been a member of the Curatorial Advisory Group at the Zeitz Museum of Contemporary Art Africa. In 2019, he was a member of the jury that selected Arthur Jafa as winner of the Prince Pierre Foundation's International Contemporary Art Prize.
== Recognition ==
Julien was nominated for the Turner Prize in 2001, and in 2003 he won the Grand Jury Prize at the Kunstfilm Biennale in Cologne for his single-screen version of Baltimore.
Julien was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2017 Birthday Honours for services to the arts and was knighted in the 2022 Birthday Honours for services to diversity and inclusion in art. He was elected a Royal Academician in 2017.
== Personal life ==
Julien lives and works in London, England, and Santa Cruz, California. He works with his partner Mark Nash.
Julien was a visiting lecturer at Harvard University's Departments of Afro-American and Visual Environmental Studies, and was a visiting seminar leader in the MFA Art Practice programme at the School of Visual Arts, and a visiting professor at the Whitney Independent Study Program in New York City. He was also a research fellow at Goldsmiths College, University of London, and in September 2009 he became a professor at the Karlsruhe University of Arts and Design.
In 2018, Julien joined UC Santa Cruz, where he is the distinguished professor of the arts.
Julien is a patron of the Live Art Development Agency.
== Selected works ==
=== Installation pieces ===
Vagabondia (2000)
Paradise Omeros (2002)
Baltimore (2003)
Lost Boundaries (2003)
Radioactive (2004)
True North (2004)
Fantôme Afrique (2005)
Fantôme Créole (2005)
WESTERN UNION: Small Boats (2007)
Dungeness (2008)* Te Tonga Tuturu/True South (Apparatus) (2009)
TEN THOUSAND WAVES (2010)
PLAYTIME (2013)
A Marvellous Entanglement (2019)
Once Again... (Statues Never Die) (2022)
All That Changes You... (Metamorphosis) (2025)
=== Filmography ===
Who Killed Colin Roach? (1983)
Territories (1984)
The Passion of Remembrance (co-written and co-directed with Maureen Blackwood) (1986)
This is Not an AIDS Advertisement (1987)
Looking for Langston (1989)
Young Soul Rebels (1991)
Black and White in Colour (1992)
The Attendant (1993)
Darker Side of Black (1993)
The Question of Equality (senior producer) (1994)
Frantz Fanon: Black Skin, White Mask (1996)
Three (1999)
The Long Road to Mazatlan (1999)
Paradise Omeros (2002)
BaadAsssss Cinema (2002)
Baltimore (2003)
Derek (2008)
Ten Thousand Waves (2010)
Kapital (2013)
Playtime (2014)
Stones Against Diamonds (2015)
Lessons of the Hour: Frederick Douglass (2019). Grayson, Saisha. A Meditation on the Legacy of Frederick Douglass by Artist and Filmmaker Isaac Julien Smithsonian Magazine, February 28, 2025.
Lina Bo Bardi - A Marvelous Entanglement (2020)
== Awards ==
Teddy Award for Looking for Langston (Best Short Film, 1989 Berlin International Film Festival)
Semaine de la Critique Prize, Cannes Film Festival for Young Soul Rebels (1991)
MIT Eugene McDermott Award in the Arts (2001)
Frameline Lifetime Achievement Award (2002)
David R. Kessler Award for LGBTQ Studies, CLAGS: The Center for LGBTQ Studies (2004)
James Robert Brudner Memorial Prize and Lectureship, Yale University (2016–2017)
Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE), for services to the arts (2017)
Goslarer Kaiserring (2022)
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Craine, Debra (24 September 2007). "Dance: A marriage of jigs and reels". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 17 May 2011. Retrieved 3 October 2007.
Cariello, Marta (2007). "Movement in between: the difference this time". Anglistica Aion. 11 (1–2): 55–61. PDF Archived 17 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine, ISSN 2035-8504 (www.anglistica.unior.it)
Also published in: The Other Cinema, The Cinema of the Other, UNOPress, Napoli.
Wallenberg, Louise. "New Black Queer Cinema". In: New Queer Cinema: A Critical Reader, Edinburgh University Press , 2004, pp. 128–143.
== External links ==
Official website
Isaac Julien's page at the Victoria Miro Gallery, London
Isaac Julien biography and credits at the BFI's Screenonline
Isaac Julien in the Video Data Bank
Isaac Julien at Women Make Movies
Conversation/podcast with Isaac Julien for Radio Web MACBA, 2020 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._V._Sanjay_Kumar | P. V. Sanjay Kumar | Puligoru Venkata Sanjay Kumar (born on 14 August 1963) is an Indian jurist who is serving as a judge of the Supreme Court of India. He is a former chief justice of the Manipur High Court. He has also served as a judge of the Punjab and Haryana High Court and Telangana High Court.
== Early life ==
P.V. Kumar was born on 14 August 1963, in Hyderabad to late P. Ramachandra Reddy and P. Padmavathamma. P.Ramachandra Reddy was the former Advocate General of Andhra Pradesh High Court (1969 to 1982). Kumar completed his graduation in Commerce from Nizam College, Hyderabad, and Law Degree from Delhi University in 1988 and enrolled in the Bar Council of Andhra Pradesh in August 1988.
== Career ==
He practiced at Andhra Pradesh High Court. He has served as the government pleader in the Andhra Pradesh High Court from 2000 to 2003. He was elevated as an additional judge of Telangana High Court on 8 August 2008 and made permanent judge on 20 January 2010. He was transferred as a judge of Punjab and Haryana High Court on 14 October 2019.
He was elevated as Chief Justice of Manipur High Court on 12 February 2021 and took the oath on 14 February 2021.
He was nominated to the Supreme Court by then Chief Justice of India D.Y. Chandrachud in February 2023.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbin_Bleu#:~:text=On%20March%2016%2C%202010%2C%20he,began%20dating%20actress%20Sasha%20Clements. | Corbin Bleu | Corbin Bleu Reivers ( BLOO; born February 21, 1989) is an American actor and singer. He began acting professionally in the late 1990s before rising to prominence in the late 2000s for his leading role as Chad Danforth in the High School Musical trilogy (2006–2008). Songs from the films also charted worldwide, with the song "I Don't Dance" peaking inside the Top 70 of the Billboard Hot 100. During this time, he also starred in the Disney Channel Original Movie Jump In! (2007) and the film To Write Love on Her Arms (2015). He competed in the 17th season of Dancing with the Stars.
Bleu has also pursued a music career and his debut album Another Side was released in 2007, which included the hit "Push It to the Limit". The album debuted and peaked at number 36 on the U.S. Billboard 200 album chart, selling 18,000 copies in its first week. His second album, Speed of Light, was released in 2009. He returned to television, starring in the short-lived Ashton Kutcher–produced CW series The Beautiful Life: TBL (2009) and the movie Free Style (2009). He has appeared in the films The Little Engine That Could (2011), Scary or Die (2012), Nurse 3D (2013), Sugar (2013), The Monkey's Paw (2013), Walk. Ride. Rodeo. (2019), Remember Me: The Mahalia Jackson Story (2022), and Camp Hideout (2023).
In 2010, Bleu played Usnavi in the Broadway company of In the Heights. In 2012, he returned to Broadway in the revival of Godspell. In 2013, he was cast as Jeffrey King in the short-lived online revival of the daytime soap One Life to Live. In 2016, Bleu played Ted Hanover in the Broadway company of Holiday Inn, the New Irving Berlin Musical. He subsequently signed a recording contract with Ghostlight Records, to distribute his Holiday Inn soundtrack music, released in 2017. In 2019, he returned to play Bill Calhoun/Lucentio in the Broadway company of Kiss Me, Kate. He subsequently signed a recording contract with Ghostlight Records, to distribute his Kiss Me, Kate soundtrack music, released on June 7, 2019. Bleu later made his West End debut in the European premiere of The Great Gatsby at the London Coliseum as Nick Carraway in April 2025.
== Early life and education ==
Corbin Bleu was born in the New York City borough of Brooklyn, the son of Martha (née Callari) and David Reivers (born 1958), an actor. His mother is Italian-American and his father is Jamaican-American. He has three younger sisters. As a child, Bleu studied dance for several years, focusing on ballet and jazz. His great-uncle is actor Joseph Callari.
Bleu appeared in television commercials starting at age two, for products such as Life cereal, Bounty, Hasbro and Nabisco. He began taking jazz and ballet classes, usually as the only boy in the class. By age four he was a model with the Ford Modeling Agency in New York. He appeared in print ads for stores such as Macy's, Gap, Target and Toys R Us and in fashion spreads in Child, Parents, and American Baby magazines, as well as having his image on toys and game packaging.
At age six, Bleu appeared in his first professional theater production, at The Town Hall. This three-concert series, created, written, and hosted by Scott Siegel, took place over one weekend and included a tribute to David Merrick. Bleu played an abandoned homeless mute in the play Tiny Tim is Dead.
Bleu graduated from Los Angeles County High School for the Arts. He trained in dancing at the Debbie Allen Dance Academy and attended the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts as a theater major, following in his mother's footsteps. Bleu graduated from high school in 2007 and was admitted to Stanford University, but declined to matriculate.
== Acting career ==
=== 1996–2005: Early career ===
Bleu moved with his family from New York to Los Angeles in 1996. He worked steadily in episodic television and feature film roles, including a recurring role on the short-lived ABC police drama High Incident and a guest star appearance on ER. He also appeared in some films, like Beach Movie (1998) and the sci-fi thriller Soldier (1998). His feature films from this period include the Tim Allen comedy Galaxy Quest (1999), the comedy Mystery Men (1999), and the drama Family Tree (1999), Bleu also had roles in Malcolm & Eddie, as Matthew, and Cover Me: Based on the True Life of an FBI Family (2000), as Nick Elderby, and smaller roles like in the comedy series Nickelodeon's show The Amanda Show.
Additionally, Bleu was developing his dance skills and in 2001 began intensive training at the Debbie Allen Dance Academy. There he undertook a full gamut of dance instruction, including ballet, jazz, tap, modern, hip-hop, African, break dance, salsa, flamenco and ballroom. Debbie Allen, the choreographer who starred in the TV series Fame, told Dance Spirit magazine: "I think [Bleu] really has a career. Success is one thing, but a career is a much longer, broader journey".
Bleu attended the Los Angeles County High School for the Arts, a magnet school like the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts, which was portrayed in the movie and television series Fame and which Bleu's mother attended. During his freshman year, he won his first sizable film role in the teen action caper Catch That Kid (2004), about a girl named Maddie Phillips and her friends Austin and Gus who decide to rob a bank after learning that money is needed to aid her ailing father Tom Phillips (Sam Robards), alongside Kristen Stewart and Max Thieriot. It was a box-office flop, grossing $10 million, but served as an important step for Bleu, who was still building his acting career. During high school, he performed in student productions of Footloose and Grease, winning the honor of Theatre Student of the Year.
In the summer of 2004 Bleu landed a starring role in the television series Flight 29 Down, alongside Allen Alvarado, Hallee Hirsh, Lauren Storm, Jeremy James Kissner, Johnny Pacar and Kristy Wu, which aired for three seasons on the Discovery Kids network. The program, a juvenile version of the ABC series Lost, concerned a group of teenagers stranded on a tropical island after their plane crashes. Bleu played Nathan McHugh, a Boy Scout whose leadership skills do not quite measure up to his self-confidence.
=== 2006–2008: High School Musical and breakthrough ===
Bleu's next television project was the Disney Channel original film High School Musical (2006), in which he portrayed the basketball player Chad Danforth, who tries to persuade his teammate Troy Bolton (Zac Efron) to give up his interest in theater and focus on winning a basketball championship. High School Musical premiered on January 20, 2006; with an audience of 7.7 million television viewers, it was the Disney Channel's most successful TV movie up to that point. The film, which also starred Ashley Tisdale, Lucas Grabeel, Vanessa Hudgens, and Monique Coleman, was a major success and helped Bleu gain recognition among teenage audiences. The film's soundtrack was certified quadruple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).
He joined co-stars on the 51-date High School Musical: The Concert (2006–2007) tour to promote the film, work on the second film in the series began, and Bleu was confirmed to be returning for the sequel. High School Musical 2 (2007) was released on August 17, 2007. The premiere was seen by over 17.2 million viewers in the U.S., almost 10 million more than its predecessor, making it the highest-rated Disney Channel movie of all time. Disney Channel aired a weekly program called Road to High School Musical 2, beginning on June 8, 2007, and leading up to the premiere of High School Musical 2 in August. The show offered viewers a behind-the-scenes look into the movie's production. The world premiere of the opening number "What Time Is It" was on Radio Disney on May 25, 2007, and "I Don't Dance" premiered on August 14, 2007. The film was generally well received by critics, gaining a score of 77/100 at Metacritic and 82% on Rotten Tomatoes. It broke opening-weekend records and grossed over $250 million worldwide. Its soundtrack, featuring many contributions from Bleu, sold over three million copies in the U.S. alone. "I Don't Dance", a duet with Lucas Grabeel, became his first top-40 hit on the Billboard Hot 100, and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It was named the official theme song of the 2007 Little League World Series. During this time, Bleu began singing on soundtracks for the Disney Channel, and released a cover of "Two Worlds" (2007) to promote Tarzan.
In 2007, Bleu starred in his next film, the Disney Channel original Jump In!, which aired on January 12, 2007. Directed by Paul Hoen, the movie revolves around a young boy, Izzy Daniels, who trains regularly to try to follow in his father's Kenneth Daniels (David Reivers)' footsteps and win the Golden Glove, an amateur boxing tournament. Bleu played Izzy and Keke Palmer portrayed Mary Thomas, his friend who has a crush on him. Again, Disney scored a crossover hit with the Jump In! soundtrack album, released in January 2007, on which Bleu sings the track "Push It to the Limit". Reaching the screens on the Disney Channel that January, Jump In! was a major hit among young viewers and quickly became the network's highest-rated premiere, breaking the record set by The Cheetah Girls 2 in 2006. Its soundtrack was also a commercial hit, achieving gold status from the RIAA three months after its release. Bleu appeared in the Atlanta group Small Change's music video "Don't Be Shy", featuring Chani and Lil' JJ.
He guest starred as Johnny Collins in the premiere two episodes of Disney's Hannah Montana (2006–2008). He also had a small role as Spencer on Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide, appearing in the episodes "Dismissal & School Plays" and "Revenge & School Records". He also appeared at the Mother Goose Parade as Grand Marshal in 2006 and 2007. While with Disney Channel, Bleu also participated in the first ever Disney Channel Games and co-captained the blue team along with Jake T. Austin, Maiara Walsh, Cole Sprouse and Kiely Williams. A year before, he returned to repeat his captaincy of the blue team with Brenda Song, Vanessa Hudgens, Monique Coleman and Jason Earles. In August 2007, Bleu starred in Flight 29 Down: The Hotel Tango, a teen drama film version of the television series of the same name. Also in 2007, he was the voice of the Magic Gourd in The Secret of the Magic Gourd (2007), He appeared on The Tyra Banks Show in 2008.
Bleu went on to reprise his role of Chad Danforth in High School Musical 3: Senior Year (2008), the first film in the High School Musical franchise to receive a theatrical release. It opened at number one at the North American box office in October 2008, earning $42 million in its first weekend, which broke the record previously held by Mamma Mia! for the biggest opening by a musical. The film finished with $252 million worldwide, which exceeded Disney's expectations. The song "The Boys Are Back" (2008), a duet with Zac Efron, became his second top forty hit on the Billboard Hot 100, and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). For his role as Chad Danforth, the team captain of the school's basketball team, he was nominated for an NAACP Image Award, a Young Artist Award and Teen Choice Awards in 2007 and 2009 respectively. Bleu lent his voice for the role of Chad Danforth in various High School Musical video games.
=== 2009–present: Continued work ===
The following year, Bleu played the lead role in the film called Free Style (2009). It concerns Cale Bryant, an eighteen-year-old man who tries to find himself by winning the Amateur National Motocross Championships. Free Style performed poorly in the box office, having only grossed $720,000 from a $10 million budget. Over the next few years, Bleu's television roles included the drama series The CW Television Network's show The Beautiful Life: TBL. The series was subsequently cancelled on September 25, 2009, after televising 2 episodes. In December 2009, the technology company HP became the show's sponsor and began airing the show's five episodes on YouTube. Also in 2009, he was a voice actor in Beyond All Boundaries, and appeared on Entertainment Tonight and The Morning Show with Mike and Juliet. Also in 2009, he was the voice of Coltrane in the premiere two episodes of Disney's Phineas and Ferb.
Corbin Bleu made his Broadway stage debut in 2010 as the lead character, bodega-owner Usnavi de la Vega, in the critically acclaimed musical In the Heights. and guest starred in one episode of The Good Wife as DJ Javier Berlin in October 2010. in 2010, Corbin starred in the short comedy film I Owe My Life to Corbin Bleu, alongside Andrew Caldwell, Drake Bell, Sarah Hyland, Ryan Pinkston, Sterling Knight, Matt Prokop, Matt Shively and Josh Sussman. In 2011, he performed the voice of Lou in The Little Engine That Could (2011). From August 5–7, Bleu performed in the musical Hairspray as Seaweed J. Stubbs at the Hollywood Bowl, alongside Nick Jonas, Harvey Fierstein, Marissa Jaret Winokur, Drew Carey and Darlene Love. and he performed the voice of Flip in Tonka Chuck and Friends: Big Air Dare.
In 2012, Bleu also had a role in and co-produced the indie horror anthology Scary or Die (2012), a collection of five short horror films. In 2012, he joined the cast of Godspell as Jesus Christ beginning April 17 at the Circle in the Square Theatre. He joined co-stars on the 66th Annual Tony Awards, to performing "Day by Day" and "Light of the World" at Beacon Theatre, with Neil Patrick Harris as the host. During this time, he recorded the duet "If I Never Knew You" (2012), with Anna Maria Perez de Tagle to promote Pocahontas. He guest starred in one episode of Blue Bloods as Officer Blake in 2012. In 2012, he performed the voice of Drew in Twinkle Toes, Bleu starred in the drama film To Write Love on Her Arms (originally titled Renee) in 2012, with Kat Dennings, Chad Michael Murray and Rupert Friend. The film began production in Orlando, Florida, in February 2011.
In March 2013, Bleu had a role in the horror film The Monkey's Paw (2013). and guest starred in one episode of Franklin & Bash as Jordan Allen French in 2013. In April 2013, Bleu was cast in the role of Jeffrey King on the ABC daytime soap opera One Life to Live. In 2013, Bleu starred in the film Sugar (2013), alongside Shenae Grimes and Marshall Allman. about a runaway girl named Sugar living on the streets of Venice, Los Angeles. The film began production in Venice, Los Angeles, on November 30, 2010. Also in 2013, Bleu appeared in the horror films Nurse 3D (2013), alongside Paz de la Huerta and Katrina Bowden. The film began production in Toronto, on September 6, 2011, and wrapped on October 21, 2011. In 2014 he also appeared as a guest star in Psych, the USA Network television series in Season 8.
In September 2013, Bleu took part in the seventeenth-season of ABC's dancing competition Dancing with the Stars. He finished as runner-up.
Bleu's only release in 2015 was the moderately successful Megachurch Murder (2015), in which he played a Marcus King, with Tamala Jones, Shanica Knowles and Romeo Miller. In addition, Bleu appeared in Family Shots with The Human Race Theatre Company. In 2016, he also made a guest appearance in an episode of the family drama, The Fosters, playing the role of Mercutio, a character who appears in a school musical production of Romeo and Juliet. Bleu and fellow guest-star Ashley Argota also co-starred in a production of Romeo and Juliet: Love Is a Battlefield at Rockwell Table and Stage, produced by The Fosters co-creator Bradley Bredeweg. He also had a small role as Hunter on Castle in 2016.
In January 2016, he joined the cast of The Dodgers as Simon, the rational voice amid the habitually stoned chatter, and beginning January 21 at the Hudson Mainstage Theatre. In October 2016, he took part in Broadway productions notably the leading role in Holiday Inn, The New Irving Berlin Musical (originally titled Holiday Inn), a musical based on the 1942 Academy Award-winning film of the same name. Returning to his tap dancing roots was "like riding a bike". His former Disney co-stars attended a performance in October 2016. Bleu began vlogging during his tenure in Holiday Inn, resulting in Bleu Skies: Backstage at Holiday Inn with Corbin Bleu. Bleu, who played Ted Hanover in the new Irving Berlin musical, gave a glimpse of backstage life at Studio 54, where he and his co-stars (including former vlogger Bryce Pinkham, Lora Lee Gayer, Megan Lawrence and Megan Sikora) celebrated an entire year's worth of special occasions eight times a week. Bleu Skies launched off on August 23 and ran every Tuesday for eight weeks. with Bleu being nominated for a Chita Rivera Awards for Dance and Choreography in 2017, for outstanding dancing in a Broadway show and eventually winning a Chita Rivera Award for his performance.
While with ABC television, Bleu also participated in the revival of Battle of the Network Stars, joining the red team along with Joey Lawrence, Nolan Gould, Lisa Whelchel and Kim Fields, with Ronda Rousey as the captain. The series premiered on June 29, 2017. From July 28–30, Bleu performed in the musical Mamma Mia! as Sky at the Hollywood Bowl, alongside Dove Cameron, Lea DeLaria and Jennifer Nettles. The theatre premiered on July 28, 2017. Corbin Bleu's career also included voice over work with Breathe Bible. In December 2017, Corbin Bleu hosted the 2017 Looking Ahead Awards, presented by The Actors Fund.
In November 2017, Bleu returned to 25th season of Dancing with the Stars and in Week 8, he performed in a trio salsa with Jordan Fisher and his professional partner Lindsay Arnold. After the trio delivered their salsa to audiences, they ended with a score of 30 from the judges,
In January 2018, he guest starred in one episode of The Middle as Luke, a handsome drummer that catches Brad Bottig (Brock Ciarlelli)'s attention. In 2018 he also appeared as a guest star in Chicago Med, the NBC television series in season 3, as Tommy Oliver. From June 27 – July 3, Bleu performed in the musical Singin' in the Rain as Don Lockwood at the St. Louis Municipal Opera Theatre, a musical based on the 1952 BAFTA Film Award-winning film of the same name. The theatre premiered on June 27, 2018. with Bleu being nominated for a St. Louis Theater Circle Awards in 2019, for Outstanding Actor in a Musical. Near the end of 2018, Bleu played Billy Crocker in Anything Goes, which was performed in-the-round at Arena Stage in D.C. Washington from November 2, 2018, to December 23, 2018. with Bleu being winnin a Helen Hayes Award in 2019, for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Musical.
In March 2019, he was cast in the Netflix drama film Walk. Ride. Rodeo. (2019), alongside Missi Pyle, Spencer Locke and Bailey Chase, directed by Conor Allyn. He appeared on Show Offs in 2019. In 2019, Bleu played Bill Calhoun/Lucentio in the Broadway revival of Kiss Me, Kate at the Roundabout Theatre's Studio 54. The musical originally opened on Broadway in 1948 and five years later was the basis for a liberally adapted 1953 film of the same name. The production, directed by Scott Ellis, began previewing on February 14, 2019. The limited engagement played until June 30 at Studio 54. For his performance, Bleu was nominated for the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical. Bleu was also nominated for a 2019 Chita Rivera Awards for Dance and Choreography, for Outstanding Male Dancer in a Broadway Show and for an Audience Choice Awards for Favorite Featured Actor in a Musical. He was cast in a co-starring role in the Jordan Barker film Witches in the Woods (2019), The project also stars Hannah Kasulka and Sasha Clements. Bleu filmed an independent movie titled Ovid and the Art of Love. Filmed partially at the old St. Agnus Church in Michigan, the project also stars John Savage, Tamara Feldman and Tara Summers.
In 2020, he appeared on The Disney Family Singalong, which aired on ABC on April 16, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. In May 2020, he also appeared as a guest star in Supergirl, the CW television series in season 5, as Trevor Crane. On June 30, 2020, Bleu joined in a live reading adaptation of Jason Reitman's Up in the Air to help raise funds for Acting for a Cause. The event's purpose was to help industry personnel impacted by COVID-19. Bleu was later announced as the host of the 2021 Jimmy Awards, in honor of legendary Broadway producer and theater owner James M. Nederlander.
In 2021, he guest starred as Blaine in the premiere two episodes on The CW Television Network soap opera Dynasty. In July 2021, he was cast in the Hallmark Channel original entitled Love, for Real (2021), alongside Chloe Bridges, Camille Kostek and Scott Michael Foster, directed by Maclain Nelson. In December 2021, he appeared as the male lead in the a Lifetime Christmas movie, titled A Christmas Dance Reunion (2021), alongside Monique Coleman, directed by Brian Herzlinger. During this time, Bleu performed songs for the soundtrack of Winnie the Pooh: The New Musical Adaptation, and released a cover of "Winnie the Pooh" (2021).
In July 2022, he was cast in the Hallmark Channel original entitled Campfire Christmas (2022), alongside Tori Anderson and Jeffrey Bowyer-Chapman, directed by David I. Strasser. He returned to the High School Musical franchise, guest starring as himself in the third and fourth seasons of High School Musical: The Musical: The Series, Bleu contributes to two numbers a duet with star Sofia Wylie on the original song "Different Way to Dance" and with the entire cast on "Everyday". From July 5–13, Bleu performed in the musical Mary Poppins as Bert at the St. Louis Municipal Opera Theatre, directed by John Tartaglia, choreographed by Patrick O'Neill, with music direction by Brad Haak. In September 2022, he starred as Cab Calloway, in the drama film Remember Me: The Mahalia Jackson Story, alongside Keith David, Vanessa Williams and Columbus Short, directed by Denise Dowse.
In 2023, he was cast in the comedy film Camp Hideout (2023), with Christopher Lloyd, and directed by Sean Olson. Starting in the summer of 2023, he starred in the world premiere of the musical Summer Stock at the Goodspeed Opera House. On September 26, 2023, Bleu performed in the horror comedy rock musical Little Shop of Horrors as Seymour Krelborn, replacing Jeremy Jordan at the Westside Theatre, directed by Tony Award winner Michael Mayer, choreographed by Ellenore Scott, with music direction by Will Van Dyke. In April 2024, he returned to the show as Seymour replacing Darren Criss with Jinkx Monsoon as Audrey Fulquard. In April 2025, he starred in The Great Gatsby as Nick Carraway at the London Coliseum for its London and West End premiere.
== Music career ==
Bleu's first professionally recorded song was titled "Circles" or "Circles in My Mind" for his then TV show, Flight 29 Down. Bleu signed a contract with Hollywood Records, a Disney-owned label. His debut album Another Side, was released in May 2007. The album debuted at No. 36 on the Billboard 200 album charts, selling 18,000 in its first week. Bleu, who admires Prince, Michael Jackson, and Justin Timberlake, cowrote five songs on the album. One of those tracks was titled "Shake It Off", an ode to the musician Prince. In 2007 he toured in support of Another Side with the teen sister duo Aly & AJ.
Bleu worked with Ne-Yo on "I Get Lonely", and with other performers such as Matthew Gerrard and Eric Hudson. A music video for his first single, "Push It to the Limit" premiered on the Disney Channel, and was used to promote the movie Jump In! "Push It to the Limit" reached the Top 20 on the Billboard Hot 100, and his second single, "Deal With It", was originally written and sung by Jay Sean. He later gave it to Bleu, whose version of the song features background vocals by Sean. The song went on to earn Sean a BMI Songwriter Award. Bleu sang the duet "Still There for Me" with Vanessa Hudgens for his debut album Another Side.
Bleu toured with fellow High School Musical cast members from late November 2006 to late January 2007 in High School Musical: The Concert, and with Drake Bell and Aly & AJ performing in about 40 different cities. To promote his debut album, Bleu performed at the Nextfest Summer Tour with Aly & AJ and Drake Bell and special guest Bianca Ryan.
His debut single "Run It Back Again" was featured in the movie Minutemen, on January 22, 2008. The song is also featured on Radio Disney Jams, Vol. 10. Bleu performed at the Crawford County Fair Grandstand with Vanessa Hudgens, on August 18, 2008. A week later, on August 25, Bleu performed at the Michigan State Fair with Raven-Symoné. His second album Speed of Light was released on March 10, 2009, via Hollywood Records. The album's first single, "Moments That Matter", was performed by Bleu at Kids' Inaugural: "We Are the Future".
In 2017, Bleu signed a one-album recording contract with Ghostlight Records to distribute his Holiday Inn, The New Irving Berlin Musical soundtrack music, was released digitally on June 2, 2017. The album featured twenty-one songs, and was produced by Kurt Deutsch with Todd Whitelock serving as coproducer and Universal Stage Productions as executive producer. Bleu later signed a two-album recording contract with Ghostlight Records to distribute his Kiss Me, Kate soundtrack music, the 24th cast album recording for Roundabout Theatre Company, since launching the musical theatre program with She Loves Me in 1993.
In an interview with Paul Wontorek, Bleu said he is naturally a lyric baritone. He added that he is a fan of Brian d'Arcy James and gets vocal influences from him.
== Personal life ==
Bleu has been a supporter of Do Something. On March 16, 2010, he was added to the "Broadway Wall of Fame". His portrait was unveiled at Tony's Di Napoli Restaurant in New York City. In 2011, Bleu began dating actress Sasha Clements. On October 15, 2014, they became engaged, and they married on July 23, 2016.
== Public image ==
In 2013, an MIT study discovered that Bleu was the third most-common biography article subject among all the different language versions of Wikipedia; pages on him were available in 194 languages, placing below only Jesus (214) and Barack Obama (200), and above Confucius (192) and Isaac Newton (191). The contradiction between Bleu's high notability on Wikipedia and low real-life notability comparative to the aforementioned historical figures made the creation of these pages unusual. In 2019, a Reddit user found that these translations were likely done by a single user whose IP addresses on Wikipedia locate to Saudi Arabia. By 2025, Bleu had dropped to number 19 on the list of biographies but saw an increase in Wikipedia notability, being available in 217 languages, surpassing Johann Sebastian Bach, who had pages in 216 languages.
== Philanthropy ==
Bleu has supported various charitable organizations and causes during his career. In 2011, Bleu worked for charities such as Starlight Children's Foundation, the Make-A-Wish Foundation, and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. In May 2011, he attended the Do Something Awards kickoff event.
== Filmography ==
=== Films ===
=== Television films ===
=== Television series ===
=== Theater ===
=== Video games ===
=== Music videos ===
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
Another Side (2007)
Speed of Light (2009)
=== Soundtrack albums ===
High School Musical (2006)
Jump In! (2007)
High School Musical 2 (2007)
High School Musical 3: Senior Year (2008)
Holiday Inn, The New Irving Berlin Musical (2017)
Kiss Me, Kate (2019)
== Concert tours ==
Headlining
High School Musical: The Concert (2006)
Opening act
Nextfest Summer Tour (Co-headlining with Aly & AJ, Drake Bell and Bianca Ryan) (2007)
Crawford County Fair Grandstand (Co-headlining with Vanessa Hudgens) (2008)
Michigan State Fair (Co-headlining with Raven-Symoné) (2008)
Kids' Inaugural: "We Are the Future" (Co-headlining with Miley Cyrus, Demi Lovato and Jonas Brothers) (2009)
Disney Channel Summer At Sea (Co-headlining with Jonnie and Brookie) (2009)
== Awards and nominations ==
== See also ==
List of characters from High School Musical
List of Italian-American actors
List of Italian-American entertainers
List of Jamaican Americans
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Scott, Dee (2006). Corbin Bleu: Up Close (Pocket books ed.). New York: Pocket Books. ISBN 978-1-4165-4114-1.
Betsy, West (2007). Corbin Bleu to the Limit. New York City: Penguin Young Readers Group. ISBN 978-0-8431-2685-3.
Boone, Mary. Corbin Bleu. Hockessin, Delaware: Mitchell Lane Publishers. ISBN 978-1-58415-674-1.
== External links ==
Corbin Bleu at the Internet Broadway Database
Corbin Bleu at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Combinatorics_and_its_Applications#List_of_Hall_Medal_winners | Institute of Combinatorics and its Applications | The Institute of Combinatorics and its Applications (ICA) is an international scientific organization formed in 1990 to increase the visibility and influence of the combinatorial community. In pursuit of this goal, the ICA sponsors conferences, publishes a bulletin and awards a number of medals, including the Euler, Hall, Kirkman, and Stanton Medals. It is based in Duluth, Minnesota and its operation office is housed at University of Minnesota Duluth.
The institute was minimally active between 2010 and 2016 and resumed its full activities in March 2016.
== Membership ==
The ICA has over 800 members in over forty countries. Membership is at three levels. Members are those who have not yet completed a Ph.D. Associate Fellows are younger members who have received the Ph.D. or have published extensively; normally an Associate Fellow should hold the rank of assistant professor. Fellows are expected to be established scholars and typically have the rank of associate professor or higher.
Some members are involved in highly theoretical research; there are members whose primary interest lies in education and instruction; and there are members who are heavily involved in the applications of combinatorics in statistical design, communications theory, cryptography, computer security, and other practical areas.
Although being a fellow of the ICA is not itself a highly selective honor, the ICA also maintains another class of members, "honorary fellows", people who have made "pre-eminent contributions to combinatorics or its applications". The number of living honorary fellows is limited to ten at any time. The deceased honorary fellows include
H. S. M. Coxeter, Paul Erdős, Haim Hanani, Bernhard Neumann, D. H. Lehmer,
Leonard Carlitz, Robert Frucht, E. M. Wright, and Horst Sachs.
Living honorary fellows include
S. S. Shrikhande, C. R. Rao, G. J. Simmons, Vera Sós, Henry Gould, Carsten Thomassen, Neil Robertson, Cheryl Praeger, and R. M. Wilson.
== Publication ==
The ICA publishes the Bulletin of the ICA (ISSN 1183-1278), a journal that combines publication of survey and research papers with news of members and accounts of future and past conferences. It appears three times a year, in January, May and September and usually consists of 128 pages.
Beginning in 2017, the research articles in the Bulletin have been made available on an open access basis.
== Medals ==
The ICA awards the Euler Medals annually for distinguished career contributions to combinatorics by a member of the institute who is still active in research. It is named after the 18th century mathematician Leonhard Euler.
The ICA awards the Hall Medals, named after Marshall Hall, Jr., to recognize outstanding achievements by members who are not over age 40.
The ICA awards the Kirkman Medals, named after Thomas Kirkman, to recognize outstanding achievements by members who are within four years past their Ph.D.
The winners of the medals for the years between 2010 and 2015 were decided by the ICA Medals Committee between November 2016 and February 2017 after the ICA resumed its activities in 2016.
In 2016, the ICA voted to institute an ICA medal to be known as the Stanton Medal, named after Ralph Stanton, in recognition of substantial and sustained contributions, other than research, to promoting the discipline of combinatorics. The Stanton Medal honours significant lifetime contributions to promoting the discipline of combinatorics through advocacy, outreach, service, teaching and/or mentoring. At most one medal per year is to be awarded, typically to a Fellow of the ICA.
=== List of Euler Medal winners ===
=== List of Hall Medal winners ===
=== List of Kirkman Medal winners ===
=== List of Stanton Medal winners ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Official Website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paya,_Boyac%C3%A1#:~:text=Before%20the%20Spanish%20conquest%20in,founded%20on%20September%2014%2C%201600. | Paya, Boyacá | Paya is a town and municipality in the La Libertad Province, part of the Colombian department of Boyacá. Paya limits Pisba, Labranzagrande of Boyacá and Támara, Nunchía and Yopal (Casanare).
== Etymology ==
Paya in Chibcha means "People of hope".
== History ==
Before the Spanish conquest in the 1530s, Paya was inhabited by the Muisca, organized in their loose Muisca Confederation.
Modern Paya was founded on September 14, 1600.
== Economy ==
The majority of the economy of Paya comes from horticulture (47%). Other areas of income are livestock farming (37%) and agriculture (16%).
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danh_V%C3%B5#Recognition | Danh Võ | Danh Võ (born Võ Trung Kỳ Danh, August 5, 1975) is a contemporary artist of Vietnamese descent. He lives and works in Berlin and Mexico City.
== Early life ==
Danh Võ was born in Vũng Tàu, Vietnam. After the Communists' victory and the fall of Saigon, the Võ family and 20,000 other South Vietnamese were brought in 1975 to the island of Phú Quốc. in 1979, when he was 4 years old, his family fled South Vietnam in a homemade boat and was rescued at sea by a freighter belonging to the Danish Maersk shipping company. The family members settled in Denmark. Their assimilation into European culture and the events that led up to their flight from Vietnam are reflected in Võ's art, which juxtaposes the historical and the personal. When Danh Võ and his family were registered by the Danish authorities, the family name Võ was placed last. His middle name, Trung Kỳ, was recorded as his first name.
Võ moved to Berlin in 2005, after finishing school at Städelschule in Frankfurt, where he went after quitting painting at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts in Copenhagen. He had residencies at the Villa Aurora in Los Angeles (2006), Kadist Art Foundation in Paris (2009) and Villa Medici in Rome (2013). He lives in both Berlin and Mexico City.
== Work ==
Võ's installations, which are composed of documents, photos and appropriations of works of other artists, often address the issues of identity and belonging.
The conceptual work Vo Rosasco Rasmussen (2002–) involves the artist's marriage to and immediate divorce from a growing list of important people in his life; after each marriage, Võ retains the last name of his former spouse. His official name is now Trung Kỳ Danh Võ Rosasco Rasmussen. Oma Totem (2009), a stacked sculpture of his grandmother's welcome gifts from a relief program on her arrival in Germany in the 1980s, displays her television set, washing machine, and refrigerator (adorned with her own crucifix), among other items.
For 2.02.1861 (2009–), the artist asked his father Phung Võ to transcribe the last communication from the French Catholic Saint Théophane Vénard to his own father before he was decapitated in 1861 in Võ's native Vietnam; although multiple copies of the transcribed letter exist (1200 as of 2017), the total number will remain undefined until Phung Võ's death.
In Autoerotic Asphyxiation (2010), Võ presents documentary pictures of young Asian men taken by Joseph Carrier, an American anthropologist and counterinsurgency specialist who worked in Vietnam for the RAND Corporation from 1962 to 1973. While in Vietnam, Carrier privately documented the casual interactions he observed, intimate without necessarily being homoerotic, between local men; he produced a substantial photographic archive, which he subsequently bequeathed to Danh Võ.
For his project We the People, created between 2010 and 2012, Võ enlisted a Shanghai fabricator to recast a life-size Statue of Liberty from 30 tons of copper sheets the width of just two pennies. Rather than assemble the approximately 300 sections, the artist shipped the giant elements to some 15 sites around the world after they rolled off the production line in China. From mid May to early December 2014 We the People was shown in New York City under the auspices of the Public Art Fund, with its assembly of parts shared between City Hall Park in Lower Manhattan and Brooklyn Bridge Park in the borough of Brooklyn. While the work was being installed in City Hall Park, a few of its pieces – replicas of the chain links found at the feet of the original Statue of Liberty – were stolen. Today, parts of We the People (2011–2013) can still be found in the permanent holdings of several museum collections in the United States and abroad, such as at the Pérez Art Museum Miami. It was named Frieze named the work No.5 of "The 25 Best Works of the 21st Century".
For a 2013 show at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, Võ conceived a homage to the artist Martin Wong. The installation consists of nearly 4,000 frequently small artworks, artifacts and tchotchkes that once belonged to Wong, crowded into a specially designed gallery lined with laminated plywood shelves. The show's title—I am you and you are too—appeared on Wong's business cards and stamps.
Another 2013 show at New York's Marian Goodman Gallery focused on the personal effects of the late U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, the architect of the Vietnam War. Looking to open up a dialogue about shared and private histories, Võ displayed or modified 14 items acquired at a Sotheby's auction—including the pen used to sign the Gulf of Tonkin memo and a 1944 photograph by Ansel Adams.
In 2016, rankled by rising rents in Berlin, Võ and a group of friends – including the artists Rirkrit Tiravanija, Nairy Baghramian, and Haegue Yang – went in search of studio and storage space outside the city and found the 5,000 m2 (54,000 sq ft) Güldenhof, a former pig farm in Stechlin, Brandenburg with a set of stone barns that had remained intact since the eighteenth century. Originally meant to be a collaborative compound, the property eventually fell to Võ, who eventually transformed it into his studio from 2017 to 2020.
== Recognition ==
Võ won the 2012 Hugo Boss Prize, the BlauOrange Kunstpreis of Berlin's Deutschen Volksbanken und Raiffeisenbanken in 2007, and was a nominee for the Preis der Nationalgalerie für junge Kunst in 2009.
== Exhibitions ==
Võ had his first solo exhibition in 2005, at the Galerie Klosterfelde in Berlin.
Võ participated in the Venice Biennale in 2013. His work has been exhibited at the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis; the Art Institute of Chicago; the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York; and the Musée d'art moderne de la Ville de Paris, Kunsthaus Bregenz, Austria, the Kunsthalle Mainz, Germany, among other institutions.
In 2014 Võ shared an exhibition with Carol Rama at the Nottingham Contemporary. On November 14, 2014, his exhibition "الحجارة وادي" (Wād al-ḥaŷara) opened at Museo Jumex in Mexico City. From February 9 through May 9, 2018, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum is presenting Danh Vo: Take My Breath Away, the first comprehensive survey of the artist's work in the United States.
M+ in partnership with the Isamu Noguchi Foundation and Garden Museum organized an exhibition of Isamu Noguchi and Danh Võ. (M+ Story) Noguchi for Danh Vo: Counterpoint (16 Nov 2018 - 22 Apr 2019). The exhibition take place in the M+ Pavilion, Hongkong.
Other recent exhibitions include: CAPC, Bordeaux (2018); National Museum of Art Osaka (2020); Secession, Vienna (2021); Mudam Luxembourg (2021); Bourse de Commerce, Paris (2023) and Xavier Hufkens (2023). He was awarded the Blau Orange Kunstpreis der Deutschen Volksbanken und Raiffeisenbanken (2007) and the Hugo Boss Prize (2012).
=== 2015 lawsuit ===
In 2014, Dutch collector and entrepreneur Bert Kreuk filed a suit against Võ, claiming that the artist agreed in January 2013 to produce one or more new works for Kreuk's exhibition, Transforming the Known, at the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag, and that the work would be acquired by the collector after the show. Before the exhibition opened in June 2013, Võ sent an existing work, Fiat Veritas (2013), a cardboard box marked with gold leaf. However, Kreuk said the agreement had been for Võ to create a new work for his collection, expressing a preference for the artist's large-scale Budweiser and American Flag series. In June 2015, a Rotterdam court upheld Kreuk's claim and ordered the artist to create new artwork for the collector within a year. In July 2015, Võ proposed to answer the court ruling by producing a site-specific wall work, as large as Kreuk wished, with the text "Shove it up your ass, you faggot"; subsequently, his legal team reached a settlement and the collector dropped the suit.
== Personal life ==
Vō lives in Berlin and Brandenburg. In 2014, he also renovated a century-old home in Mexico City’s Roma Norte neighborhood. He is in a relationship with the photographer Heinz Peter Knes.
== References ==
== External links ==
Danh Vo at Xavier Hufkens
Danh Vo at Guggenheim
Danh Vo at Galerie Buchholz
Danh Vo: The Refined Complexity of Things Archived 2013-06-15 at archive.today, Art Press, May 2013
Living History, by Michele Robecchi, Art in America, October 2012
Danh Vo Channels Martin Wong at the Guggenheim, by Brian Boucher, Art in America, March 2013
Vô Danh at Kunsthaus Bregenz 2012, Ausstellungskatalog 2012 Archived 2020-12-01 at the Wayback Machine (in German, transl. Sonja Finck)
Danh Vo at Ocula |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Crown_of_Thoroughbred_Racing | Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing | The Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing, often shortened to Triple Crown, is a series of horse races for Thoroughbreds, often restricted to three-year-olds. Winning all three of these Thoroughbred horse races is considered the greatest accomplishment in Thoroughbred racing. The term originated in mid-19th-century England and nations where Thoroughbred racing is popular, each having their own Triple Crown series.
== England ==
In England, where the term Triple Crown originated with West Australian's three wins in 1853, it is made up of:
The 2,000 Guineas Stakes, run over 1 mile (1,609 metres) at Newmarket Racecourse in Newmarket, Suffolk
The Derby, run over 1 mile 4 furlongs and 10 yards (2,423 metres) at Epsom Downs Racecourse in Epsom, Surrey
The St Leger Stakes, run over 1 mile 6 furlongs and 132 yards (2,937 metres) at Town Moor in Doncaster, Yorkshire
Since the 2,000 Guineas was first run in 1809, fifteen horses (including three winners of substitute races at Newmarket during the First World War) have won the English Triple Crown. The most recent – and only winner since World War II – was Nijinsky, in 1970. For many years, it was considered unlikely that any horse would ever win the English Triple Crown again. In the winter of 2006/2007, however, trainer Jim Bolger was training his unbeaten colt Teofilo for the Triple Crown and bookmaker William Hill plc was offering odds of only 12/1 on Teofilo winning the 2007 Triple Crown. The horse was withdrawn from the 2000 Guineas two days before the race after suffering a setback and never raced again.
Since Nijinsky, only Nashwan (1989), Sea the Stars (2009) and Camelot (2012) have won both the Guineas and the Derby. Between Reference Point in 1987 and Camelot in 2012, no Derby winner (not even the potential Triple Crown winners Nashwan and Sea the Stars) even entered the St. Leger. This reluctance to compete in the St. Leger is said to be because of the impact it would have on a horse's stud value in a market where speed is preferred to stamina.
=== Triple Crown winners ===
For a list of the annual individual race winners, see English Triple Crown race winners.
Triple Crown winners:
†Wartime winners Pommern, Gay Crusader and Gainsborough are not counted, according to many judges, as the three races were all held at Newmarket and racing itself was too disrupted. By this reckoning, there were only 12 triple crown winners, and only three in the 20th century.
=== Failed Triple Crown attempts ===
The following horses won the 2000 Guineas and Derby but were beaten in the St Leger:
Cotherstone (1843): second to Nutwith
Pretender (1869): fourth to Pero Gomez
Shotover (1882): third to Dutch Oven
Ayrshire (1888): sixth to Seabreeze
Ladas (1894): second to Throstle
St. Amant (1904): seventh and last to Pretty Polly
Minoru (1909): fourth to Bayardo
Manna (1925): tenth to Solario
Cameronian (1931): tenth and last to Sandwich
Camelot (2012): second to Encke
Additionally:
Blue Peter won 2000 Guineas and Derby in 1939 but St Leger was cancelled due to World War II.
=== Fillies Triple Crown ===
There is also a Fillies Triple Crown for a filly winning the 1,000 Guineas Stakes, Epsom Oaks and St. Leger Stakes. In the past, this was not considered a true Triple Crown as the best fillies would often run in the Derby and Two Thousand Guineas. As this is no longer the case, the Fillies' Triple Crown would now be considered as comparable as the original. Winners of the Fillies Triple Crown are:
Formosa – 1868 (also dead heated in the Two Thousand Guineas)
Hannah – 1871
Apology – 1874 (also won the Ascot Gold Cup)
La Fleche – 1892 (also won the Ascot Gold Cup)
Sceptre – 1902 (also won the Two Thousand Guineas)
Pretty Polly – 1904
Sun Chariot – 1942
Meld – 1955
Oh So Sharp – 1985
=== Stayers' Triple Crown ===
The so-called Stayers Triple Crown consists of the most prestigious long-distance races in the British flat racing season:
The Ascot Gold Cup, raced over 2m 4f during Royal Ascot,
The Goodwood Cup, raced over 2m during the Goodwood Festival,
The Doncaster Cup, raced over 2m 2f during the St Leger Festival.
== United States ==
=== Triple Crown winners ===
In the United States, the three races that make up the Triple Crown are:
Kentucky Derby, run over 1+1⁄4 miles (2.0 km) on a dirt track at Churchill Downs in Louisville, Kentucky
Preakness Stakes, run over 1+3⁄16 miles (1.9 km) on a dirt track at Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore, Maryland
Belmont Stakes, run over 1+1⁄2 miles (2.4 km) on a dirt track at Belmont Park in Elmont, New York, just east of New York City
=== Triple Tiara ===
There have been several different versions of the Triple Tiara (sometimes known as the Filly Triple Crown) in the United States. One of them was a national version that consisted of undercard events on the same weekends as the associated Triple Crown races:
Kentucky Oaks, run over 1+1⁄8 miles (1811 m) on a dirt track, at Churchill Downs;
Black-Eyed Susan Stakes, run over 1+1⁄8 miles (1811 m) (previously 1+1⁄16 mi or 1.7 km) on a dirt track, at Pimlico Race Course;
Acorn Stakes, run over 1 mile (1609 m) (previously 1+1⁄2 mi or 2.4 km) on a dirt track, at Belmont Park;
Only one filly won this version of the Triple Tiara, Davona Dale in 1979. Few have even tried as the short time between the Kentucky Oaks and Black-Eyed Susan is generally considered too short for fillies.
The most commonly accepted version of the Triple Tiara is the American Triple Tiara of Thoroughbred Racing which uses three races from New York. From 1957 to 2002, and 2007 to 2009, these three races were the Acorn Stakes, the Mother Goose Stakes, and the Coaching Club American Oaks. Eight fillies won this version of the New York Triple Tiara:
Dark Mirage – 1968
Shuvee – 1969
Chris Evert – 1974
Ruffian – 1975
Davona Dale – 1979
Mom's Command – 1985
Open Mind – 1989
Sky Beauty – 1993
In 2010, the NYRA changed the configuration of the Triple Tiara to include the Alabama Stakes instead of the Mother Goose. As of 2022, no filly has won the reconfigured Triple Tiara.
=== New York Handicap Triple ===
The New York Handicap Triple is a series of three handicap races run in New York. Although historically notable, the series is now essentially defunct, as two of the races are run on the same day, making a sweep impossible. In addition, only the Metropolitan Handicap maintains a top-level designation and continues to be run as a handicap. The series consists of:
Metropolitan Handicap, run over 1 mile (1609 m) on a dirt track, at Belmont Park;
Brooklyn Handicap (now run as the Brooklyn Invitational Stakes), run over 1+1⁄4 miles (2012 m) (now 1+1⁄2 miles (2414 m)) on a dirt track, at Belmont Park;
Suburban Handicap (now run as the Suburban Stakes), run over 1+1⁄4 miles (2012 m) on a dirt track, at Belmont Park;
The triple has been won by four horses:
Whisk Broom II – 1913
Tom Fool – 1953
Kelso – 1961
Fit to Fight – 1984
=== Turf Triple Series ===
In 2019, the New York Racing Association established two series of races for three-year-olds on the turf: the Turf Trinity and the Turf Tiara. As of 2022, neither has been swept by a singular horse.
The Turf Trinity consists of:
Belmont Derby, run over 1+1⁄4 miles (2012 m) on a turf track at Belmont Park
Saratoga Derby Invitational Stakes, run over 1+3⁄16 miles (1911 m) on a turf track at Saratoga
Jockey Club Derby, run over 1+1⁄2 miles (2414 m) on a turf track at Belmont Park
The Turf Tiara consists of:
Belmont Oaks, run over 1+1⁄4 miles (2012 m) on a turf track at Belmont Park
Saratoga Oaks Invitational Stakes, run over 1+3⁄16 miles (1911 m) on a turf track at Saratoga
Jockey Club Oaks, run over 1+3⁄8 miles (2213 m) on a turf track at Belmont Park
== Ireland ==
The Irish Triple Crown, modelled on the English equivalent, consists of:
Irish 2,000 Guineas, run over 1 mile (1609 m) on a turf track at the Curragh
Irish Derby, run over 1+1⁄2 miles (2414 m) on a turf track at the Curragh
Irish St. Leger, run over 1+3⁄4 miles (2816 m) on a turf track at the Curragh
For a list of the annual individual race winners, see Irish Triple Crown race winners.
Only two horses have won all three races since the Irish Two Thousand Guineas was first run in 1921:
Museum – 1935
Windsor Slipper – 1942
== Canada ==
The Canadian Triple Crown consists of:
King's Plate
Prince of Wales Stakes
Breeders' Stakes
=== Triple Crown winners ===
The Canadian Triple Crown was established in 1959 and since then seven horses have won it. In 2014, the Hall of Fame decided to honor the five horses who had won the three races before 1959, meaning 12 horses are now officially recognized as winning the Canadian Triple Crown.
==== Pre-1959 establishment ====
Queensway (filly) – 1932
Archworth – 1939
Uttermost – 1945
Ace Marine – 1955
Canadian Champ – 1956
==== Since 1959 establishment ====
New Providence – 1959
Canebora – 1963
With Approval – 1989
Izvestia – 1990
Dance Smartly (filly) – 1991
Peteski – 1993
Wando – 2003
=== Triple Tiara ===
The Canadian Triple Tiara consists of:
Woodbine Oaks (formerly the Canadian Oaks)
Bison City Stakes
Wonder Where Stakes
As of 2025, only one filly has won it:
Sealy Hill – 2007
=== Western Canadian Triple Crown ===
On May 9, 2023, it was announced that Western Canada would have their own Triple Crown, also dubbed the Western Canadian Triple Crown. The Western Canadian Triple Crown consists of:
Manitoba Derby
Canadian Derby
British Columbia Derby
== Australia ==
The Australian Triple Crown comprises the following races:
Randwick Guineas, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a turf track at Randwick Racecourse
Rosehill Guineas, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a turf track at Rosehill Gardens Racecourse
AJC Australian Derby, run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a turf track at Randwick Racecourse
The Australian Triple Crown initially included the Canterbury Guineas, which was replaced with the Randwick Guineas.
=== Triple Crown winners ===
Moorland – 1943
Martello Towers – 1959
Imagele – 1973
Octagonal – 1996
Dundeel – 2013
=== The Spring Grand Slam ===
The Spring Grand Slam for older horses consists of:
Caulfield Cup, run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a turf track at Caulfield Racecourse
Cox Plate, run over 2040 metres (1.27 mi) on a turf track at Moonee Valley Racecourse
Melbourne Cup, run over 3200 metres (2.0 mi) on a turf track at Flemington Racecourse
The only horse to win the Spring Grand Slam was the New Zealand bred Rising Fast in 1954.
=== The Two Year Old Triple Crown ===
The Two-Year-Old Triple Crown, also known as the Two-Year-Old Grand Slam, consists of:
Golden Slipper Stakes, run over 1200 metres (0.75 mi) on a turf track at Rosehill Gardens Racecourse
AJC Sires Produce Stakes, run over 1400 metres (0.87 mi) on a turf track at Randwick Racecourse
Champagne Stakes, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a turf track at Randwick Racecourse
Winners of the Two-Year-Old Triple Crown:
Baguette – 1970
Luskin Star – 1977
Tierce – 1991
Burst (filly) – 1992
Dance Hero – 2004
Pierro – 2012
== New Zealand ==
The New Zealand Triple Crown consists of:
Tarzino Trophy, run over 1400 metres (0.87 mi) on a turf track at Hawke's Bay Racecourse
Horlicks Plate, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a turf track at Hawke's Bay Racecourse
Livamol Spring Classic, run over 2040 metres (1.27 mi) on a turf track at Hawke's Bay Racecourse
The New Zealand Triple Crown is also known as the Hawke's Bay Triple Crown or Hastings Triple Crown as all three races are run there.
The only horse to win the New Zealand Triple Crown is Melody Belle in 2019.
=== New Triple Crown Series ===
Three new Triple Crown series were announced for the 2019/2020 season. Each series consists of three prestigious Group races with a $100,000 bonus for the winner of all three races.
The Weight-For-Age Triple Crown
Zabeel Classic at Ellerslie Racecourse
Herbie Dyke Stakes at Te Rapa
New Zealand Stakes at Ellerslie Racecourse
The Sprint Triple Crown
Railway Stakes at Ellerslie Racecourse
Telegraph Stakes at Trentham
Waikato Sprint Stakes at Te Rapa
The Fillies And Mares Triple Crown
Cuddle Stakes at Trentham
Breeders Stakes at Te Aroha
Travis Stakes at Te Rapa
== Germany ==
In Germany, the Triple Crown (Dreifache Krone) consists of:
Mehl-Mülhens-Rennen (German 2000 Guineas, formerly Henckel-Rennen), run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a turf track at Cologne-Weidenpesch Racecourse
Deutsches Derby (German Derby), run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a turf track at Horner Rennbahn
Deutsches St. Leger, run over 2800 metres (1.7 mi) on a turf track at Dortmund Racecourse
Only one horse has won the German Triple Crown:
Königsstuhl – 1979
In East Germany, the Dreifache Krone consisted of:
Frühjahrszuchtpreis der Dreijährigen
Derby der DDR (Derby of GDR)
Großer Herbstpreis der Dreijährigen
Three horses won the East German Triple Crown:
Faktotum – 1955
Gidron – 1979
Lomber – 1987
== France ==
The French Triple Crown consists of:
Poule d'Essai des Poulains (French 2000 Guineas), run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a turf track at Longchamp Racecourse
Prix du Jockey Club, run over 2100 metres (1.3 mi) on a turf track at Chantilly Racecourse
Grand Prix de Paris, run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a turf track at Longchamp Racecourse
Previously the French Triple Crown consisted of:
Poule d'Essai des Poulains
Prix du Jockey Club
Prix Royal-Oak, run over 3100 metres (1.9 mi) on a turf track at Longchamp Racecourse
Two horses have swept the French Triple Crown:
Zut – 1879
Perth – 1899
The French Fillies Triple Crown consists of:
Poule d'Essai des Pouliches (French 1000 Guineas), run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a turf track at Longchamp Racecourse
Prix de Diane, run over 2100 metres (1.3 mi) on a turf track at Chantilly Racecourse
Prix Vermeille, run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a turf track at Longchamp Racecourse
Four fillies have won all three races:
Nikellora – 1945
Corteira – 1948
Allez France – 1973
Zarkava – 2008
Previously the French Triple Crown for fillies consisted of:
Poule d'Essai des Pouliche
Prix de Diane
Prix Royal-Oak
No filly ever won the series.
== Japan ==
Japan's JRA has two sets of races referred to as Triple Crowns. In addition, the NAR has announced that it would create its own Dirt Triple Crown starting from 2024, comprising the Haneda Hai, Tokyo Derby, and the Japan Dirt Derby.
=== Japanese Triple Crown ===
The Japanese Triple Crown for colts consists of:
Satsuki Shō (Japanese 2000 Guineas), run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a turf track at Nakayama Racecourse in Funabashi, Chiba
Tōkyō Yūshun (Japanese Derby), run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a turf track at Tokyo Racecourse in Fuchu, Tokyo
Kikuka-shō (Japanese St. Leger), run over 3000 metres (1.9 mi) on a turf track at Kyoto Racecourse in Kyoto, Kyoto
To date, eight horses have won the Japanese Triple Crown:
=== Japanese Triple Tiara ===
The Japanese Triple Tiara, a triple crown for fillies, consists of:
the Oka Sho (Japanese 1000 Guineas), run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a turf track at Hanshin Racecourse in Takarazuka, Hyogo
the Yushun Himba (Japanese Oaks), run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a turf track at Tokyo Racecourse in Fuchu, Tokyo
the Shuka Sho, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a turf track at Kyoto Racecourse in Kyoto, Kyoto
From 1976 to 1995, the Queen Elizabeth II Commemorative Cup was the third leg.
To date, seven horses have won the Japanese Triple Tiara:
=== Japanese Dirt Triple Crown ===
The Japanese Dirt Triple Crown is run by the NAR instead of the JRA. Most dirt racing in Japan is run under the NAR. In 2022 the NAR announced an official Dirt Triple Crown that includes 3 pre-existing domestic Grade 1 races.
the Haneda Hai, run over 1800 metres (1.1 mi) on a dirt track
the Tokyo Derby, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a dirt track
the Japan Dirt Classic, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a dirt track
All 3 races are held at Oi Racecourse in Shinagawa, Tokyo, Japan. Although the Triple Crown is not set to debut until 2024, the three races have all been run since 1999 and have been won by three horses.
== Argentina ==
The three races that compose the Triple Crown in Argentina are:
Gran Premio Polla de Potrillos, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a dirt track at Hipodromo Argentino de Palermo
Gran Premio Jockey Club, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a turf track at Hipodromo de San Isidro
Gran Premio Nacional (Argentine Derby), run over 2500 metres (1.6 mi) on a dirt track at Hipodromo Argentino de Palermo
Winners of the Argentinian Triple Crown are:
Pippermint – 1902
Old Man – 1904
Melgarejo – 1906
Chopp – 1908
Botafogo – 1917
Mineral – 1931
Silfo – 1934
Sorteado – 1938
Embrujo – 1939
Yatasto – 1951
Tatán – 1954
Manantial – 1958
Gobernado – 1964
Forli – 1966
Telescópico – 1978
El Serrano – 1986
Refinado Tom – 1996
A Quadruple Crown adding the Gran Premio Carlos Pellegrini, run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) miles on the turf and open to older horses, is also recognised. Winners are:
Pippermint – 1902
Old Man – 1904
Botafogo – 1917
Mineral – 1931
Yatasto – 1951
Manantial – 1958
Forli – 1966
Telescópico – 1978
The Argentinian Filly Triple Crown consists of:
Gran Premio Polla de Potrancas, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a dirt track at Hipodromo Argentino de Palermo (1 mile on dirt)
Gran Premio Jockey Club
Gran Premio Nacional (Argentine Derby)
Winners of the Argentinian Filly Triple Crown are:
Sierra Balcarce – 1930
La Mission – 1940 (also won Gran Premio Carlos Pellegrini)
Additionally, a San Isidro Colt Triple Crown and San Isidro Filly Triple Crown are recognised. The San Isidro Colt Triple Crown consists of:
Gran Premio Dos Mil Guineas, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a turf track at Hipódromo de San Isidro
Gran Premio Jockey Club, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a turf track at Hipódromo de San Isidro
Gran Premio Carlos Pellegrini, run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a turf track at Hipódromo de San Isidro
Winners of the San Isidro Colt Triple Crown are:
Chullo – 1997
Asidero – 1999
Hi Happy – 2015
The San Isidro Filly Triple Crown consists of:
Gran Premio Diamante, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a turf track at Hipódromo de San Isidro
Gran Premio Jockey Club
Gran Premio Carlos Pellegrini
As of 2023, no horse has won all three races.
== Brazil ==
Brazil has triple crowns run at multiple tracks, including at Hipódromo da Gávea (Rio de Janeiro) and at Hipódromo de Cidade Jardim (São Paulo).
The Rio de Janeiro Triple Crown consists of:
Grande Prêmio Estado do Rio de Janeiro, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a turf track
Grande Prêmio Francisco Eduardo de Paula Machado, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a turf track
Grande Prêmio Cruzeiro do Sul (Brazilian Derby), run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a turf track
Winners are:
Talvez! – 1941
Criolan – 1942
Quiproquó – 1953
Timão – 1956
Escorial – 1959
African Boy – 1979
Old Master – 1984
Itajara – 1987
Groove – 1996
Super Power – 2000
Plenty of Kicks – 2012
Bal a Bali – 2014
Prior to 1963, the Rio de Janeiro Triple Crown consisted of the Grande Prêmio Outono (1600 metres (0.99 mi) on turf), Grande Prêmio Cruzeiro do Sul, and Grande Prêmio Distrito Federal (3000 metres (1.9 mi) on turf). From 1963 to 1993, it consisted of the Grande Prêmio Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Grande Prêmio Cruzeiro do Sul, and Grande Prêmio Jockey Club Brasileiro (3200 metres (2.0 mi) on turf). From 1994 to 2003, the order of the Grande Prêmio Jockey Club Brasileiro and Grande Prêmio Cruzeiro do Sul were reversed in order. The current configuration started in 2004.
The Rio de Janeiro Filly Triple Crown consists of:
Grande Prêmio Henrique Possolo, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a turf track
Grande Prêmio Diana, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a turf track
Grande Prêmio Zélia Gonzaga Peixoto de Castro, run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a turf track
Winners are:
Indian Chris – 1991
Virginie – 1997
Be Fair – 2000
Old Tune – 2012
No Regrets – 2017
Janelle Monae – 2021
The São Paulo Triple Crown consists of:
Grande Prêmio Ipiranga, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a turf track
Grande Prêmio Jockey Club de São Paulo, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a turf track
Grande Prêmio Derby Paulista, run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a turf track
Winners are:
Jacutinga – 1933
Funny Boy – 1936
El Faro – 1943
Estouvado – 1944
Farwell – 1959
Giant – 1967
Cacique Negro – 1989
Quari Bravo – 1997
Roxinho – 2001
Fixador – 2013
Halston – 2018
Historically, the São Paulo Triple Crown ran without the Grande Prêmio Jockey Club de São Paulo, with the Grande Prêmio Consagração (3000 metres (1.9 mi) on a turf track) being run as the third and final leg.
The São Paulo Filly Triple Crown consists of:
Grande Prêmio Barão de Piracicaba, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a turf track
Grande Prêmio Henrique de Toledo Lara, run over 1800 metres (1.1 mi) on a turf track
Grande Prêmio Diana, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a turf track
Winners are:
Dulce – 1957
Olhada – 1961
Jembélia – 1963
Emerald Hill – 1977
Colina Verde – 2006
The Rio Grande do Sul Triple Crown, as of 1985, consists of:
Grande Prêmio Linneu de Paula Machado, run over 1609 metres (1.0 mi) on a dirt track
Grande Prêmio Cel. Caminha, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a turf track
Grande Prêmio Derby Rio-grandense, run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a dirt track
Winners are:
Interstar – 1985
== Chile ==
The three races that compose the Triple Crown in Chile are:
Clásico El Ensayo, run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a turf track at Club Hipico de Santiago
Clásico St. Leger, run over 2200 metres (1.4 mi) on a dirt track at Hipodromo Chile
El Derby, run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a turf track at Valparaiso Sporting Club.
Winners of the Chilean Triple Crown are:
Cachaporal – 1885/86
Wanderer – 1887/88
Dorama – 1915/16
Tutti Frutti – 1927/28
Freire – 1930/31
Grimsby – 1938/39
Tábano – 1945/46
Empire – 1950/51
Eugenia – 1955/56
Prólogo – 1965/66
Wolf – 1990/91
Fortino – 2022/23
Kay Army – 2023/24
Additionally, the Hipódromo Chile has multiple recognized Triple Crowns. The Filly Triple Crown consists of:
Clásico Tanteo de Potrancas, run over 1500 metres (0.93 mi) on a dirt track
Clásico Mil Guineas, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a dirt track
Clásico Alberto Solari Magnasco, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) run on a dirt track
There have been four winners:
Cremcaramel – 1999
Printemps – 2000
Amani – 2011
Wow Cat – 2017
The Triple Crown consists of:
Clásico Dos Mil Guineas (for colts) or Clásico Mil Guineas (for fillies), both run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a dirt track
Clásico Gran Criterium Mauricio Serrano Palma, run over 1900 metres (1.2 mi) on a dirt track
Clásico St. Leger
There have been eight winners:
Geologo – 1984
Lido Palace – 2000
Trotamondo – 2004
Hakassan – 2012
Incentive Boy – 2015
Big Daddy – 2016
Wow Cat † – 2017
Cariblanco – 2018
† Designates a filly winner
Chile also has a Two-Year-Old Triple Crown, with all three races run on turf at Valparaiso Sporting Club. It consists of:
Clásico El Estreno [Nicanor Señoret], run over 1300 metres (0.81 mi)
Clásico Gran Premio Gonzalo Bofill De Caso, run over 1400 metres (0.87 mi)
Clásico Copa de Plata Italo Traverso, run over 1500 metres (0.93 mi)
There have been five winners:
Campo Marzio – 1991
Barrio Chino – 1992
Early Gray – 1993
Castelnuovo – 1994
Sandy Bay – 2016
== Mexico ==
The Mexican Triple Crown consists of:
Stakes Jockey Club Mexicano (GI), run over 1 mile (1600 m) on a dirt track
Gran Premio Nacional (Mexico) (GII), run over 1+1⁄16 miles (1700 m) on a dirt track
Derby Mexicano (GI), run over 1+1⁄8 miles (1800 m) on a dirt track
There have been a total of 9 winners as of 2025:
Plucky Flag (USA) - 1946
Re-Torta (USA) - 1948
Cachava (MEX) - 1966
Gran Zar (MEX) - 1978
Pikotazo (MEX) - 1980
Dominicano (MEX) - 2002
Huitlacoche (MEX) - 2015
Kukulkán (MEX) - 2018
Iniesta (MEX) - 2022
The Mexican Fillies' Triple Crown series consists of :
Clasico Rubi (7 furlongs)
Clasico Esmeralda (8 furlongs)
Clasico Diamante (8+1⁄2 furlongs)
All the races that compose the Mexican Triple Crown and the Mexican Fillies' Triple Crown are hosted at the Hipódromo de las Américas in Mexico City.
== Panama ==
=== Crown Races ===
The races that make up the Triple Crown in Panama are held at the Hipódromo Presidente Remón and are as follows:
1. Primera Gema: Clásico Arturo, Eric, Max, Eric Arturo, and Eric Antonio Delvalle (Grade 2) (1800 m)
2. Segunda Gema: Clásico Augusto Samuel Boyd Paredes and Daniela Boyd (Grade 2) (1800 m)
3. Tercera Gema: Clásico Carlos Eleta Almarán, Fernando Eleta Almarán, and Raquel Eleta (Grade 2) (1800 m)
In Panamanian racing history, 16 horses have achieved the Triple Crown. Pindín was the first Triple Crown winner in 1964, while El Rojo was the most recent, securing the title in 2023.
=== Winners ===
== Peru ==
The Peruvian Triple Crown consists of:
Polla de Potrillos, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a dirt track
Gran Premio Ricardo Ortíz de Zevallos, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a dirt track
Derby Nacional, run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi) on a dirt track
Winners are:
Don Manuel – 1936/1937
Pulgarín – 1941/1942
Imperio – 1948/49
Llanero – 1950/51
Río Pallanga – 1955/56
Perigold – 1957/58
Daré – 1962/63
Trastévere – 1968/69
Santorín – 1973
Vaduz – 1979
Stash – 1992
Grozny – 1998
Muller – 2006
Super Nao – 2021
Paradigma – 2022
The Peruvian Filly Triple Crown consists of:
Polla de Potrancas, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a dirt track
Gran Premo Enrique Ayulo Pardo, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a dirt track
Derby Nacional
Winners are:
Monona – 1944/45
Pamplona – 1959/60
Batuka – 1999
A Quadruple Crown adding the Gran Premio Nacional Augusto B. Leguia, run over 2800 metres (1.7 mi) on a turf track, is also recognised. Winners are:
Pamplona – 1959/60
Santorín – 1973
Stash – 1992
Super Nao – 2021
Horses that have won any combination of three of the above races are also sometimes considered Triple Crown winners. Horses that have done this are:
Premier – 1947/1948
Won Gran Premio Ricardo Ortíz de Zevallos, Derby Nacional, Gran Premio Nacional Augusto B. Leguia
Insuperable – 1949/1950
Won Polla de Potrillos, Gran Premio Ricardo Ortíz de Zevallos, Gran Premio Nacional Augusto B. Leguia
Tenaz – 1972
Won Polla de Potrillos, Gran Premio Ricardo Ortíz de Zevallos, Gran Premio Nacional Augusto B. Leguia
Acropolitana – 1974
Won Polla de Potrances, Gran Premo Enrique Ayulo Pardo, Gran Premio Nacional Augusto B. Leguia
Tattoo – 1982
Won Polla de Potrillos, Gran Premio Ricardo Ortíz de Zevallos, Gran Premio Nacional Augusto B. Leguia
Mari July – 1990
Won Polla de Potrances, Gran Premo Enrique Ayulo Pardo, Gran Premio Nacional Augusto B. Leguia
== Hong Kong ==
The Triple Crown series at Hong Kong's Sha Tin Racecourse consists of three races at increasingly longer distances. Unlike most other Triple Crown events, these races are not confined to three-year-olds. They are:
Hong Kong Stewards' Cup, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi)
Hong Kong Gold Cup, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi)
Hong Kong Champions & Chater Cup, run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi)
There have been two horses to win the Hong Kong Triple Crown:
River Verdon – 1994
Voyage Bubble – 2025
There are two other Triple Crown series: the Hong Kong Speed Series and the Four-Year-Old Classic Series.
Hong Kong Speed Series (International Group 1):
Centenary Sprint Cup, run over 1200 metres (0.75 mi)
Queen's Silver Jubilee Cup, run over 1400 metres (0.87 mi)
Chairman's Sprint Prize, run over 1200 metres (0.75 mi)
Winners of the Hong Kong Speed Series are:
Mr. Vitality – 1995/96
Grand Delight – 2002/03
Silent Witness – 2003/04, 2004/05
Lucky Sweynesse – 2022/23
Ka Ying Rising – 2024/2025
Four-Year-Old Classic Series (Domestic Group 1):
Restricted to four-year-old horses.
Hong Kong Classic Mile, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi)
Hong Kong Classic Cup, run over 1800 metres (1.1 mi)
Hong Kong Derby, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi)
Winners of the Four-Year-Old Classic Series are:
Rapper Dragon – 2017
Golden Sixty – 2020
== South Korea ==
The current Triple Crown series that started in 2008 consists of:
Korea Mile Cup run over 1600 meters at Busan-Gyeongnam Racecourse
Korean Derby, Run over 1800 meters at LetsRun Park Seoul
The Minister of Agriculture Cup over 2000 meters at LetsRun Park Seoul
Currently only one horse has swept this modern version of the Triple Crown
Power Blade
Originally the Triple Crown was started a year prior in 2007 and consisted of:
Ttukseom Cup, run over 1400 meters at LetsRun Park Seoul
Korean Derby, Run over 1800 meters at LetsRun Park Seoul
The Minister of Agriculture Cup over 2000 meters at LetsRun Park Seoul
In the only year it was run it produced a Triple Crown winner
J.S Hold
== Italy ==
The Triple Crown series consists of:
Premio Parioli, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) at Capannelle Racecourse
Derby Italiano, run over 2200 metres (1.4 mi) at Capannelle Racecourse in Rome
St. Leger Italiano, run over 2800 metres (1.7 mi) at San Siro Racecourse in Milano
Three horses have swept the Italian Triple Crown:
Niccolo dell'Arca – 1941
Gladiolo – 1946
Botticelli – in 1954
The Italian Fillies' Triple Crown consists of:
Premio Regina Elena (1000 Guineas)
Oaks d'Italiano (Italian Oaks)
St. Leger Italiano
No filly has swept all three races, but Jacopa de Sellaio won the Premio Parioli, Derby Italiano, Premio Regina Elena, and Oaks d'Italia in 1932.
== Uruguay ==
The three races that compose the Triple Crown in Uruguay are:
Gran Premio Polla de Potrillos, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a dirt track
Gran Premio Jockey Club, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi) on a dirt track
Gran Premio Nacional, run over 2500 metres (1.6 mi) on a dirt track
This combination of races received some publicity outside of Uruguay in 2006. The 2005 Triple Crown winner Invasor, after being sold to Sheik Hamdan bin Rashid Al Maktoum's Shadwell Racing and sent to be raced in the United States, went on to win three Grade I races in 2006 before winning that year's Breeders' Cup Classic. He finished the year as the top-ranked horse in the 2006 World Thoroughbred Racehorse Rankings, and won the 2007 Dubai World Cup before being retired to stud following a training injury.
Uruguayan Triple Crown winners are:
Ricaurte – 1913
Benz – 1917
Liniers – 1919
Sisley – 1923
Lancier – 1926
Marquito – 1927
Zorzalero – 1932
Romántico – 1936
Lord Coty – 1943
Luzeiro – 1949
Bizancio – 1951
Scooter – 1954
Zumbador – 1960
Locoloco – 1962
Chocon – 1971
Hampstead – 1977
Monacilio – 1980
Amodeo – 1988
Parsiphal – 1994
Invasor – 2005
Sir Fever – 2014
Suablenanav TH – 2024
The Uruguayan Filly Triple Crown consists of:
Gran Premio Polla de Potrancas, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a dirt track
Gran Premio Jockey Club
Gran Premio Nacional
Uruguayan Filly Triple Crown winners are:
Verona – 1915
== South Africa ==
The South African Triple Crown consists of:
Gauteng Guineas, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi)
South African Classic, run over 1800 metres (1.1 mi)
South African Derby, run over 2450 metres (1.52 mi)
All of these races are run on a turf track at Turffontein Racecourse.
The Cape Guineas, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi) on a turf track at Kenilworth Racecourse is considered an alternate first leg.
South African Triple Crown winners are:
Horse Chestnut – 1999
Louis the King – 2014
Abashiri – 2016
Malmoos – 2021
The South African Filly Triple Crown consists of:
Gauteng Fillies Guineas, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi)
South African Fillies Classic, run over 1800 metres (1.1 mi)
South African Oaks, run over 2450 metres (1.52 mi)
South African Filly Triple Crown winners are:
Igugu – 2011
Cherry On The Top – 2013
Summer Pudding – 2020
War Of Athena – 2021
Rain In Holland – 2022
== Zimbabwe ==
The Zimbabwean Triple Crown consists of:
Zimbabwe Guineas, run over 1600 metres (0.99 mi)
Zimbabwe 2000, run over 2000 metres (1.2 mi)
Zimbabwe Derby, run over 2400 metres (1.5 mi)
All of these races are run on a turf track at Borrowdale Park
Zimbabwean Triple Crown winners are:
Island Farewell – 1983
Match Winner – 1986
Stay Alert – 1995
Summer Silence – 1997
Glen Monarch – 2006
Earl Of Surrey – 2007
Rebecca's Fleet – 2009
Madigan – 2012
== Other Triple Crowns in European countries ==
=== Belgium ===
The Belgian Triple Crown consists of:
Poule d'Essai des Poulains (Belgian 2000 Guineas)
Derby Belge
St. Leger Belge
Known Triple Crown winners in Belgium are:
Kitty – 1926
Bayeux – 1947
Soudard – 1971
Epsiba – 1980
Camiros – 1982
Abbey's Grey – 1989
Super Native – 1990
The Fillies' Triple Crown in Belgium consists of:
Poule d'Essai des Pouliches (Belgian 1000 Guineas)
Prix de Gustave Roy de Blicquy (Belgian Oaks)
St. Leger Belge
One filly is known to have won all three races:
Domitillia – 1959
=== Hungary ===
The Hungarian Triple Crown consists of:
Nemzeti dij (Hungarian 2000 Guineas)
Magyar Derby (Hungarian Derby)
Magyar St. Leger (Hungarian St. Leger)
Hungarian Triple Crown winners are:
Try Well – 1936
Bilbao – 1977
April Sun – 1999
Saldenzar – 2007
Quelindo – 2015
The Hungarian Fillies' Triple Crown (not officially listed by the Hungarian racing authorities) consists of:
Hazafi dij (Hungarian 1000 Guineas)
Magyar Kancadíj (Hungarian Oaks)
Magyar St. Leger (Hungarian St. Leger)
No filly has swept the Hungarian Fillies' Triple Crown.
=== Switzerland ===
In Switzerland, the Triple Crown series consists of:
Swiss Derby (2400 metres, turf, Frauenfeld)
Swiss 2000 Guineas (1600 metres, turf, at Zurich)
Swiss St. Leger
The Swiss Fillies Triple Crown consists of:
Swiss Oaks
Swiss 1000 Guineas (1600 metres, turf)
Swiss St. Leger
One horse has won the Swiss Triple Crown.
Majofils – 2006
=== Denmark ===
In Denmark, the Triple Crown series consists of:
Dansk Derby
Dansk Forarslob (Danish 2000 Guineas)
Dansk St. Leger
Three horses have won the Danish Triple Crown:
Sunbeam – 1939
Asa Thor – 1945
Hallo – 1946
The Danish Filly Triple Crown consists of:
Dansk Oaks
Marowinalob (Danish1000 Guineas)
Dansk St. Leger
One filly has swept all three races:
Rossard – 1983
Rossard was one of the most successful runners in Denmark's history, being a Grade One winner in the US. She later became a good broodmare, with her son Unusual Heat being a leading sire in California.
=== Russia ===
The Russian Triple Crown differs from other Triple Crowns in a major way by instead having its three jewels be spread out over three years. The Triple Crown consists of:
Grand Prize (1600m for 2-year-olds)
Grand All Russian Derby (2400m for 3-year-olds)
Prize of the Minister of Agriculture (3200m for 4-year-olds)
Currently only three horses have won this version of the Triple Crown
Budynok – 1930
Grog II – 1950
Anilin – 1965
There is a more traditional 3-year-old triple crown in Russia modeled after the English Triple Crown but no horse has ever won all three races. But if they did they would have to win;
Grand Summer Prize (1600m Russian 2,000 Guineas)
Grand All Russian Derby (2400m)
S.M. Budyonny Prize (2800m Russian St.Leger)
=== Sweden ===
The Swedish Triple Crown consists of:
Svenskt Derby
Jockeyklubbens Jubileumslöpning (Swedish Two Thousand Guineas)
Svenskt St. Leger
Three horses have swept the Swedish Triple Crown:
Birgit – 1940
Coast Guard – 1952
Homosassa – 1985
The Swedish Filly Triple Crown consists of:
Dianalöpning (Swedish One Thousand Guineas)
Svensk Oaks
Svenskt St. Leger
One filly has swept all three races:
Wonderbird – 1953
=== Norway ===
The Norwegian Triple Crown series consists of:
Norsk 2000 Guineas
Norsk Derby
Norsk St. Leger
Eight horses have swept the Norwegian Triple Crown:
Cato – 1943
Sally – 1944
Primadonna – 1945
Askepot – 1948
Trainer's Seat – 1976
Dalby Jaguar – 1981
Sunorius – 1987
Without Fear – 2011
Privilegiado – 2019
The Norwegian Filly Triple Crown consists of:
Norsk 1000 Guineas
Norsk Oaks
Norsk St. Leger
No filly has won all three races.
=== The Netherlands ===
The Dutch Triple Crown consists of:
Hengsten Productenren (Dutch 2000 Guineas)
Dutch Derby
Dutch St. Leger
The following horses have won the Dutch Triple Crown:
Tosto – in 1951
Sans Valeur – 1954
Jolly Peter – 1959
Jolly Jinks – 1966
Frances Hope – 1976
Ishamo – 1981
Boxberger Speed – 1982
Boxberger Civano – 1984
Sydney Raaphorst – 1985
Double Fun – 2002
The Dutch Fillies' Triple Crown consists of:
Merries Productenren (Dutch 1000 Guineas)
Diana-prijs (Dutch Oaks)
Dutch St. Leger
The following horses have swept the series:
Ramana – 1947
Qualissa – 1949 (also won the Dutch Derby)
Que Sara – 1967
Queen of Roses S – 1973 (also won the Dutch Derby)
Libelle – 1980
Carmona – 1983
The Dutch Triple Crown races, except the Dutch Derby and possibly the Dutch Oaks, have not been run since around 2008.
=== Turkey ===
The Turkish Triple Crown consists of:
Erkek Tay Deneme (Turkish 2000 Guineas – 1,600 m)
Gazi Derby (Turkish Derby – 2,400 m)
Ankara Stakes (Turkish St. Leger – 2,800 m)
Champions of the Turkish Triple Crown are:
Sadettin – 1970
Karayel – 1973
Seren.1 – 1983
Ugurtay – 1985
Hafız – 1986
Bold Pilot – 1996
Grand Ekinoks – 2001
The Turkish Fillies' Triple Crown (not officially recognized by Turkish racing authorities) consists of:
Disi Tay Deneme (Turkish 1000 Guineas)
Kisrak (Turkish Oaks)
Ankara Stakes (Turkish St. Leger)
Fillies that have swept this series are:
Suphan – 1965
Minimo – 1971 (also won the Turkish Derby)
=== Spain ===
The Spanish Triple Crown series consists of:
Premio Cimera (Spanish 2000 Guineas)
Premio Villapadierna (Spanish Derby)
Premio Villamejor (Spanish St. Leger)
Two horses have swept the Spanish Triple Crown:
Dual Sea – 1975
Arkaitz – in 2014
The Triple Crown for fillies consists of:
Premio Valderas (Spanish 1000 Guineas)
Premio Beamonte (Spanish Oaks)
Premio Villamejor (Spanish St. Leger)
One filly has swept all three races:
Tokara – 1962
=== Poland ===
In Poland, the Triple Crown (Potrójna korona) consists of:
Nagroda Rulera, Polish 2000 Guineas, Warsaw, 1600 m
Służewiec Derby, Polish Derby, Warsaw, 2400 m
Nagroda St. Leger, Warsaw, 2800 m
Known Polish Triple Crown winners are:
Liège – 1917
Mat – 1934
Jeremi – 1938
Ruch – 1948
Solali – 1961
Dipol – 1972
Czerkies – 1974
Krezus – 1989
Mokosz – 1992
Dżamajka (filly) – 2000
Dancer Life – 2002
Dżesmin – 2005
San Moritz – 2007
Intens – 2011
Va Bank – 2015
Bush Brave – 2017
Fabulous Las Vegas – 2018
The classic races for fillies are:
Nagroda Wiosennej (1000 Guineas)
Nagroda Liry (Oaks)
No filly is known to have won the Polish Fillies' Triple Crown, which would conclude with the St. Leger. The Polish St. Leger is now open to 3-year-olds and up.
=== Czechia ===
In Czechia, the Triple Crown (Klasická trojkoruna) consists of
Velká Jarní Cena (The Great Spring Prize, 1600 m)
České Derby, (Czech Derby, 2400 m)
Czech St. Leger, 2800 m
All three jewels are held at Prague-Velká Chuchle Racecourse currently seven horses have won this Triple Crown
Panoš – 1947
Symbol – 1954
Blyskač – 1956
Arva – 1988 (filly)
Glowing (FR) – 1996
Tribal Instinct (IRE) – 2001
Age Of Jape (POL) – 2009
== Triple Crowns in other countries ==
=== India ===
The Indian Triple Crown consists of:
Indian 2000 Guineas
Indian Derby
Indian St. Leger
All three races are run at Mahalaxmi Racecourse in Mumbai. The St. Leger was run at Pune between 1970 and 1990, before being shifted to Mumbai. It is now again being run in Pune.
Ten horses have won the Indian Triple Crown:
Commoner – 1953/54
Loyal Manzar – 1961/62
Prince Pradeep – 1963/64
Red Rufus – 1966/67
Our Select – 1967/68
Squanderer – 1976/77
Almanac – 1981/82
Astonish – 1991/92
Indictment – 1997/98
Smart Chieftain – 1999/00
The Indian Fillies Triple Crown consists of:
Indian 1000 Guineas
Indian Oaks
Indian St. Leger
One filly has swept the series for fillies:
Her Majesty – 1947/48
=== Kenya ===
The Kenya Triple Crown series is run at Ngong Racecourse, in Nairobi, and consists of:
Kenya Derby (1+1⁄2 miles)
Kenya Guineas (1 mile)
Kenya St. Leger (1+3⁄4 miles)
The three races have been won by:
Heron – 1972
Manuscript – 1978
Pretty Witch (filly) – 1981
Morningstar – 1990
Kings Pattern – 1994
Hawker Fury – 2017
Silverstone Air – 2019
Sheriff John Stone – 2025
The Kenya Fillies' Triple Crown consists of:
Kenya Fillies Guineas (1 mile)
Kenya Oaks (1+1⁄2 miles)
Kenya St. Leger (1+3⁄4 miles)
The three races have been won by:
Windsong – 1999
Happy Times – 2015
Western Ballad – 2016
=== Macau ===
In Macau, the Macau Jockey Club introduced the Triple Crown Series in 2008, with three races all held in Taipa Racecourse, Macau:
Director's Cup, Macau Group 2 Race, 1,500 metres (0.93 mi)
Macau Cup, Macau Group 2 Race, 1,500 metres (0.93 mi)
Macau Gold Cup, Macau Group 1 Race, 1,800 metres (1.1 mi)
In 2009 Macau Jockey Club changed the series for 4-year-old horses:
Macau Guineas, Macau Group 1 Race, 1,500 metres (0.93 mi), only for 4-year-old horses
Macau Derby, Macau Group 1 Race, 1,800 metres (1.1 mi), only for 4-year-old horses
Macau Gold Cup, Macau Group 1 Race, 1,800 metres (1.1 mi)
In 2010, Luen Yat Forever became the first and, before the Macau Jockey Club stopped holding races from 31 March 2024, the only horse to win the Macau Triple Crown.
=== Barbados ===
The Barbados Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing is a series of thoroughbred horse races run annually at Garrison Savannah Racetrack near Bridgetown, Barbados, consisting of races of increasing distance:
Barbados Guineas
Midsummer Creole Classic
Barbados Derby
The winners of the Barbados Triple Crown have been:
Watermeet (filly) – 1973
Ginger Lilly (filly) – 1980
Coo-Bird – 1989
Incitatus – 1996
Zouk (filly) – 2006
Areutalkintome – 2009
=== Dominican Republic ===
The three races that compose the Triple Crown in the Dominican Republic are:
Clásico Matías Ramón Mella
Clásico Francisco del Rosario Sanchez
Clásico Juan Pablo Duarte
The winners of the Dominican Republic Triple Crown have been:
Cibao – 1979
Amor Mio – 1980
Senorita Cuquina – 1982
Dr. Calderon – 1985
Candice Akemi – 1990
J. Robert – 1991
Sweet Honey – 1997
Excelencia – 2005
Matty Alou – 2007
Sicótico – 2008
Fratello Martino – 2015
Tango Dancer – 2016
Inmenso – 2017
Cadeau de Alcalá – 2019
Huracán P. – 2020
=== Jamaica ===
The Jamaican Triple Crown series at Caymanas Park consists of:
Jamaican 2000 Guineas
Jamaican Derby
Jamaican St. Leger
The winners of the Jamaican Triple Crown are:
Royal Dad – 1981
Monday Morning – 1987
Lui Chie Pooh – 1988
The Viceroy – 1989
Milligram – 1992
War Zone – 1996
I'm Satisfied – 2000
Simply Magic – 2002
Mark My Words – 2010
She's a Maneater – 2017
Supreme Soul – 2019
The Jamaican Fillies' Triple Crown at Caymanas Park consists of:
Jamaican 1000 Guineas
Jamaican Oaks
Jamaican St. Leger
The winners of the Jamaican Fillies' Triple Crown are:
Vestia – 1993
Alsafra – 2008
=== Panama ===
The Panamanian Triple Crown consists of:
Arturo, Eric Arturo & Eric Arturo Delvalle, 1+1⁄8 miles on dirt
Augosto Samuel Boyd Paredes, 1+1⁄8 miles on dirt
Carlos y Fernando Eleta Almaran, 1+1⁄8 miles on dirt
All of the races are conducted at the Hipódromo Presidente Remon
The winners of the Panamanian Triple Crown have been:
Pindín – 1964
Tojo – 1966
Iván – 1967
Eugenio – 1972
Montecarlo – 1973
El Manut – 1976
El Gran Capo – 1978
Leonardo – 1992
El Chacal – 1994
Rey Arturo – 1995
Evaristo – 1998
Spago – 2004
Oxsai – 2008
Voy Porque Voy – 2010
Señor Concerto – 2019
The Panamanian Filly Triple Crown consists of:
Temistocles Diaz Q., 1+1⁄16 miles on dirt
Tomás G. Duque y Tomás A. Duque, 1+1⁄16 miles on dirt
Raúl (Lul) Arango, Raúl (Baby) Arango, y Roberto (Bob) Arango Chiari, 1+1⁄16 miles on dirt
Winners of the Panamanian Filly Triple Crown include:
Monkey Business – 2015
Chantik – 2016
Lady Valery – 2017
=== Puerto Rico ===
The Triple Crown series at Puerto Rico's Camarero Racetrack consists of three races at increasingly longer distances. They are:
Derby Puertorriqueño at 1,700 metres (8½ furlongs) held in the first Sunday of May
Copa Gobernador at 1,800 metres (9 furlongs) held in the end of May
Copa San Juan at 1,900 metres (9½ furlongs) held in the last Sunday of June
The Puerto Rico Triple Crown winners are:
Camarero – 1954
Cardiologo – 1961
El Rebelde – 1966
Hurley Road – 1981
Vuelve Candy B – 1991
Cherokee Pepper – 1999
Estrellero – 2001
Mediavilla R – 2002
Don Paco – 2011
Arquitecto – 2012
Lluvia de Nieve – 2014
Justiciero – 2017
Ledoux – 2019
Consolador – 2021
=== Ecuador ===
1980 – present
Ecuador has two sets of races referred to as Triple Crowns:
Ecuador Triple Crown
Clásico Estreno Dr. Raúl Lebed Sigall, at Hipódromo BUIJO in Samborondón
Clásico Polla Nacional Sr. Agustin Febres Cordero, at Hipódromo BUIJO in Samborondón
Clásico Derby Nacional Sr.Benjamin Rosales A., at Hipódromo BUIJO in Samborondón
Ecuador Fillies' Triple Crown
Clásico Ing. Carlos San Andres, at Hipódromo BUIJO in Samborondo
Clásico Sr. Eduardo Jairala F, at Hipódromo BUIJO in Samborondó
Clásico Abogado Carlos Julio Arosemena Peet, at Hipódromo BUIJO in Samborondón
Pre-1980
In Ecuador, the Triple Crown consists of:
Clásico Nelson Uraga Suarez, at Hipódromo Santa Cecilia in Guayaquil
Clásico Enrique Guzman Aspiazu, at Hipódromo Santa Cecilia in Guayaquil
Clásico Inginiero Ignacio De Icaza Aspiazu, at Hipódromo Santa Cecilia in Guayaquil
Winners of the Ecuadoran Triple Crown are:
Banantia – 1962
Miss Flora – 1963
Capo Di Monte II – 1965
Alcatraz – 1967
Pechiche – 1970
Farsante – 1971
Baby – 1973
Doña Maruja – 1976
White Derby – 1977
Satisfacción – 1978
Soberano – 1979
Dictador – 1982
Cayuga – 1984
British Pride – 1985
Profecía – 1986
John's Secret – 1987
Kremlin – 1993
Serious Secret – 1995
Gacelita – 1996
Terminator – 1997
Señorita – 1998
Nicotina – 2001
Macanudo – 2003
Gran Cacao – 2004
Vanessa Wins – 2010
Manzur Manzur – 2011
Vengo Del Aire – 2014
Gitana Fiel – 2020
Saturday – 2023
=== Venezuela ===
Venezuela has two sets of races referred to as Triple Crowns.
The Venezuelan Official Triple Crown consists of:
Clásico José Antonio Páez, at Hipódromo La Rinconada in Caracas 1600m
Clásico Cría Nacional (former Clásico Ministerio de Agricultura y Cría), at Hipódromo La Rinconada in Caracas 2000m
Clásico República de Venezuela (Venezuelan Derby), at Hipódromo La Rinconada in Caracas 2400m
Winners of the Venezuelan Triple Crown, since 1956, are:
Gradisco – 1960
El Corsario – 1972
Iraquí – 1985
Catire Bello – 1992
Polo Grounds – 2005
Taconeo – 2007
El Gran Cesar – 2008
Water Jet – 2010
Raffsttar – 2020
The Venezuelan Fillies' Triple Crown consists of:
Clásico Hipódromo La Rinconada, at Hipódromo La Rinconada in Caracas 1600m
Clásico Prensa Hípica Nacional, at Hipódromo La Rinconada in Caracas 2000m
Clásico General Joaquín Crespo, at Hipódromo La Rinconada in Caracas 2400m
Filly Triple Crown winners are:
Lavandera – 1971
Segula C. – 1974
Blondy – 1978
Gelinotte – 1980
Lady and Me – 1991
Cantaura – 1992
Miss Marena – 1994
Starship Miss – 1999
Front Stage – 2000
Bambera – 2009
Ninfa del Cielo – 2014
Afrodita de Padua – 2019
Sandovalera – 2021
=== Indonesia ===
The Indonesian Triple Crown consists of
Tiga Mahkota Series 1, Dirt 1200m
Tiga Mahkota Series 2, Dirt 1600m
Indonesia Derby, Dirt 2000m
Indonesian Triple Crown winners are:
Mystere (colt) – 1978
Manik Trisula (filly) – 2002
Djohar Manik (filly) – 2014
King Argentin (colt) – 2025
Note that thoroughbred horses are not eligible to run at the Indonesian Triple Crown, since the event is limited to only local breeds like Sandalwood Pony, crossbreeds (known locally as G Horses), or Kuda Pacu Indonesia/KPI (crosses between crossbreeds). No Triple Crown for thoroughbred racing is organized by PORDASI, as races exclusively for thoroughbreds are only held in two non-derby classes.
=== Philippines ===
The Triple Crown Stakes backed by the Philippine Racing Commission (Philracom). It was first organized in 1978, but a horse did not sweep all three races until 1981, when Fair and Square achieved that feat, becoming the series' first Triple Crown champion.
The races are held at various venues throughout its history. The first two legs of the series have traditionally been referred to as the Cojuangco Cup and the J.V. Ongpin Cup, respectively, while the final leg has been known as the Horseman's Cup. However, recent editions commonly refer to the races simply by their order as legs of the Triple Crown series.
Its winners include:
In 2025, the Metro Manila Turf Club introduced two new Triple Crown‑style stakes races: the Prince Cup and the King's Gold Cup. Each tournament consists of three legs and is restricted to horses foaled outside the Philippines. The first editions are still ongoing and hence no horse has made a sweep in either tournaments.
=== Trinidad and Tobago ===
The three races that compose the triple crown of Trinidad and Tobago were established in 1983 and they are:
Easter Guineas
Midsummer Classic Stakes
Trinidad Derby
The Trinidad and Tobago triple crown winners are
Pre 1983:
Bright Light – 1952
Darjeeling – 1954
Shalimar – 1958
Happy Landing – 1960
Aurelian – 1963
Chip Chip – 1967
Royal Colours – 1982
After 1983:
Sky Rocket – 1986
Carnival Messiah – 2001
Momentum – 2014
Wise Guy – 2020
In The Headlines – 2023
Headliner – 2025
== Undefeated Triple Crown winners ==
The following horses won their Triple Crown when still undefeated. Those marked with an asterisk retired undefeated.
Ormonde* (1886), United Kingdom
Isinglass (1893), United Kingdom
Old Man (1904), Argentina
Botafogo (1917), Argentina
Bahram* (1935), United Kingdom
Embrujo (1939), Argentina
Windsor Slipper* (1942), Ireland
Yatasto (1951), Argentina
Camarero (1954), Puerto Rico
Manantial* (1958), Argentina
Gradisco (1960), Venezuela
Forli (1966), Argentina
Nijinsky (1970), United Kingdom
Karayel* (1973), Turkey
Emerald Hill (1977), Brazil
Seattle Slew (1977), United States
El Gran Capo (1978), Panama
Pikotazo (1980), Mexico
Royal Dad (1981), Jamaica
Symboli Rudolf (1984), Japan
Itajara* (1987), Brazil
Wolf (1990/91), Chile
Terminator (1997), Ecuador
Virginie (1997), Brazil
Grozny (1998), Peru
Toshin Blizzard (2001), Japan
Excelencia (2005), Dominican Republic
Deep Impact (2005), Japan
Invasor (2005), Uruguay
Water Jet (2010), Venezuela
Fixador (2013), Brazil
Va Bank (2015), Poland
Justify*† (2018), United States
Kukulkan (2018), Mexico
Contrail (2020), Japan
Daring Tact (2020), Japan
Mick Fire (2023), Japan
Kay Army (2023/24), Chile
In The Headlines (2023), Trinidad
Headliner (2025), Trinidad
†Although Justify finished first in all of his races, litigation filed by the owners of Bolt d'Oro in 2020 called for Justify's disqualification from the 2018 Santa Anita Derby over a positive drug test for scopolamine, a known environmental contaminant. A Los Angeles County Superior Court judge ordered Justify's disqualification, for which Justify's connections have filed an appeal. The appeal is pending.
== Individual Triple Crown winners ==
Only three jockeys have won the Triple Crown with different horses (i.e., rode horses to Triple Crowns in different years):
Steve Donoghue (United Kingdom : 1915, Pommem; 1917 Gay Crusader)
Eddie Arcaro (United States: 1941, Whirlaway; 1948, Citation)
Emisael Jaramillo (Venezuela: 2005, Polo Grounds; 2007, Taconeo; 2010, Water Jet)
At least two jockeys is known to have won all three of a country's Triple Crown races in the same year on different horses:
Luis Contreras (Canada, 2011: Queen's Plate, Inglorious; Prince of Wales Stakes and Breeders' Stakes, Pender Harbour)
Alfredo García Paduani (Venezuela, 2016: Clásico José Antonio Páez and Clásico Cría Nacional, Ocean Bay; Clásico República Bolivariana de Venezuela, Gran Will)
One trainer is known to have accomplished the same feat as Contreras and García Paduani:
D. Wayne Lukas (USA, 1995: Kentucky Derby, Thunder Gulch; Preakness Stakes, Timber Country; Belmont Stakes, Thunder Gulch)
== Back to back Triple Crown winners (jockeys) ==
Don Seymour (Canada)
1989 – With Approval
1990 – Izvestia
Javier Santiago (Puerto Rico)
2001 – Estrellero
2002 – Mediavilla R
== Most Triple Crown winners (jockeys) ==
Winston Grifiths – Jamaica (5)
1981 – Royal Dad
1988 – Liu Chie Poo
1992 – Milligram
2001 – I'msatisfied
2002 – Simply Magic (filly)
Alexis Feliciano – Puerto Rico (3)
1991 – Vuelve Candy B
1999 – Cherokee Pepper
2011 – Don Paco
Emisael Jaramillo – Venezuela (3)
2005 – Polo Grounds
2007 – Taconeo
2010 – Water Jet
== See also ==
List of leading Thoroughbred racehorses
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isa_Genzken | Isa Genzken | Isa Genzken (born 27 November 1948) is a German artist who lives and works in Berlin. Her primary media are sculpture and installation, using a wide variety of materials, including concrete, plaster, wood and textile. She also works with photography, video, film and collage.
== Early life and education ==
Hanne-Rose "Isa" Genzken (pronounced EE-sa GENZ-ken) was raised mostly in the small northern German city of Bad Oldesloe and in Hamburg.
She studied fine arts and art history with Almir Mavignier and Kai Sudeck at the Hamburg University of Fine Arts (1968–1971) and the Berlin University of the Arts (1971–1973). To pay her tuition, Genzken worked part-time as a model. In 1973 she transferred to Arts Academy Düsseldorf while also studying art history and philosophy at the University of Cologne. At the academy, fellow students included artists Katharina Fritsch and Thomas Struth.
Upon graduating in 1977, Genzken taught sculpture at the academy. She married German visual artist Gerhard Richter in 1982 and moved to Cologne in 1983. The couple separated in 1993 and Genzken moved back to Berlin.
Genzken has bipolar disorder, goes through manic and depressive phases and has spent time in psychiatric hospitals. She has frequently undergone treatment for substance abuse. In a 2016 interview, she said that her alcohol problems began after her divorce and that she had been sober since 2013.
Genzken has worked in studios in Düsseldorf, Cologne (designed in 1993 by architect Frank Tebroke); for short stretches in the United States, in Lower Manhattan and Hoboken, New Jersey; and currently in Berlin.
== Work ==
Although Isa Genzken's primary focus is sculpture, she has produced various media including photography, film, video, works on paper, works on canvas with oil, collages, collage books, film scripts, and even a record. Her diverse practice draws on the legacies of Constructivism and Minimalism and often involves a critical, open dialogue with Modernist architecture and contemporary visual and material culture. Genzken's diverse work also keeps her from being predictable in her work. Despite Genzken's diverse work, much of her practice still maintains conventions of traditional sculpture. Using plaster, cement, building samples, photographs, and bric-a-brac, Genzken creates architectonic structures that have been described as contemporary ruins. She further incorporates mirrors and other reflective surfaces to literally draw the viewer into her work. Genzken also uses location placement methods to inflict emotions into her sculptor viewers by making her viewers physically move out of the way of Genzken's sculptor due to the placement of the sculptor. The column is a recurring motif for Genzken, a "pure" architectural trope on which to explore relationships between "high art" and the mass-produced products of popular culture.
In the 1970s, Genzken began working with wood that she carved into unusual geometric shapes such as hyperboloids and ellipsoids. In the photographs of her Hi-Fi-Serie (1979), she reproduced advertisements for stereo phonographs.
In 1980, Genzken and Gerhard Richter were commissioned to design the König-Heinrich-Platz underground station in Duisburg; it was completed in 1992. Between 1986 and 1992, Genzken conceived her series of plaster and concrete sculptures to investigate architecture. These sculptures consist of sequentially poured and stacked slabs of concrete featuring rough openings, windows and interiors. A later series consists of other architectural or interior design quotations made from epoxy resin casts, such as column or lamp sculptures. In 1986, Genzken's architectural references switched from the 1910s, 20s and 30s to the 1950s, 60s and 70s. In 1990 she installed a steel frame, Camera (1990) on a Brussels gallery's rooftop, offering a view of the city below. In 2000, a series of architectural models roughly patched together, was inscribed with Fuck the Bauhaus. Later, in the series New Buildings for Berlin, which was shown at Documenta 11, Genzken designed architectural visions of glass high-rises.
The project entitled Der Spiegel 1989-1991 is a series of images comprising 121 reproductions of black and white photographs selected and cut from German newsweekly Der Spiegel. Presented in a non-sequential but methodical manner, each image is glued against a piece of white card and individually mounted in a simple frame. Whilst the images themselves remain caption-less, the dates in the series' titles offer clues about the artist's intentions.
Her paintings of suspended hoops, collectively entitled MLR (More Light Research) (1992), recall gymnastics apparatus caught mid-swing and frozen in time.
Starting in 1995, while in New York for several months, Genzken created a three-volume collage book entitled I Love New York, Crazy City (1995–1996), a compendium of souvenirs from her various stays in the city, including photographs of Midtown's architecture, snapshots, maps, hotel bills, nightclub flyers, and concert tickets, among others.
One of Genzken's best known works, Rose (1993/7), is a public sculpture of a single long-stemmed rose made from enamelled stainless steel that towers eight metres above the Leipzig fairgrounds. The artist's first public artwork in the United States, her replica Rose II (2007) was installed outside the New Museum as part of a year-long rotating installation in November 2010.
Genzken has also produced numerous films, including Zwei Frauen im Gefecht, 1974, Chicago Drive, 1992, Meine Großeltern im Bayerischen Wald, 1992, and the video Empire/Vampire, Who Kills Death, 2003.
As an artist she published five portfolio styled books. Each including her expressive work, they can be purchased under David Zwirners Books website. Her books include Sculpture as a World Receiver, October Files, Isa Genzken: Retrospective, Isa Genzken: Oil, and Isa Genzken.
Since the end of the second half of the 1990s, Genzken has been conceptualizing sculptures and panel paintings in the shape of a bricolage of materials taken from DIY stores and from photographs and newspaper clippings. She often uses materials that underline the temporary character of her works. As part of her deep-set interest in urban space, she also arranges complex, and often disquieting, installations with mannequins, dolls, photographs, and an array of found objects. New Buildings for New York are assembled from found scraps of plastic, metal and pizza-box cardboard. The assemblages from the Empire/Vampire, Who Kills Death series, originally comprising more than twenty sculptures that were created following the attacks of September 11, are combinations of found objects – action figures, plastic vessels, and various elements of consumer detritus – arranged on pedestals in architecturally inspired, post-destruction scenes. Elefant (2006) is a column of cascading vertical blinds festooned with plastic tubes, foil, artificial flowers, fabric and some tiny toy soldiers and Indians. For her installation Oil, the artist transformed the German Pavilion at the 2007 Venice Biennale into a futuristic and morbid Gesamtkunstwerk.
Genzken worked frequently with Zwiner, who held her Paris New York Exhibition from August 29-October 10 in 2020. She had five solo exhibitions with him and this last one was her fifth. She has worked with him since 2010. The exhibition included Genzken's early work at the Kunstmuseum Basel. The installation of Genzken's recent "tower" sculptures. It was inspired by the artists decades-long fascination with architecture and urban skylines. She used multiple forms that include, vertical structures, of medium-density fiberboard with inclusion of a mirror foil, spray paint as well as other media.
=== Genzken's impact ===
Genzken's work has undoubtedly impacted art culture through her unique ability to create sculptures out of many materials such as wood, plaster, concrete, steel, epoxy resin, and even household kitchen materials, as seen in her "Babies" semblance from 1997. Genzken redefined the art of creating sculptures and even combated discrimination against sculpture art in the 60s and 70s as she pursued her unique talent. Simply put, her work has been seen as an attempt to encourage and broaden the art of sculpture without eliminating it. Genzken's art and media have always stayed true to the logic of her work, which continues to be contradictory, unpredictable, and in opposition throughout the sculpture. Her sculptures have even been recognized as art that creates illusions with the mind and opens the imagination of the viewer.
== Exhibitions ==
Genzken's first solo exhibition was held in 1976 at the Konrad Fischer Gallery in Düsseldorf, and her first exhibition with Galerie Buchholz was in 1986 in Cologne. From November 23, 2013 to March 10, 2014, "Isa Genzken: Retrospective" was on view at the Museum of Modern Art. The exhibition then traveled to the Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago, and Dallas Museum of Art.
== Collections ==
Genzken's work is included in the collections of many institutions internationally, including the Nationalgalerie, West Berlin; Staatsgalerie Stuttgart; Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven; Rijksmuseum Kroller-Muller, Otterlo, the Museum of Modern Art, New York; Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh; the Generali Foundation, Vienna; the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, D.C.; the Kemper Art Museum, St. Louis; the Museum Ludwig, Cologne; the Museum Frieder Burda, Baden-Baden; the Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven and the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam; Ruby City, Linda Pace Foundation, San Antonio, TX
Rose III sculpture in Zuccotti Park, NYC.
== Recognition ==
She won the International Art Prize (Cultural Donation of SSK Munich) in 2004 and the Wolfgang-Hahn-Prize (Museum Ludwig, Cologne) in 2002.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
List of German women artists
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khusro_Bakhtiar#:~:text=He%20was%20re%2Delected%20to,in%202013%20Pakistani%20general%20election. | Khusro Bakhtiar | Makhdum Khusro Bakhtyar (Urdu: مخدوم خسرو بختیار; born 7 July 1967) is a Pakistani politician who recently served as Pakistan's Federal Minister for Industries & Production. Previously, he has served as Federal Minister of Economic Affairs, Federal Minister of National Food Security and Research and Federal Minister for Planning, Development and Reforms in the PTI Government under the leadership of Prime Minister Imran Khan. He had been a member of the National Assembly of Pakistan from 2002 to 2008, 2013 to 2018 and 2018 till 2023.
Previously, he was a member of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab from 1997 to 1999 and served as provincial advisor to the then Chief Minister, Shehbaz Sharif. During his first tenure as Member of the National Assembly, he served as Minister of State for Foreign Affairs from September 2004 to November 2007 in the Federal Cabinet of Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz.
== Early life and education ==
Bakhtyar was born on 7 July 1967. He hails from Mian Wali Qureshian, a village in the Rahim Yar Khan District of Punjab and belongs to a prominent political family.
He graduated from the University of Punjab in 1990, and received an LLB (Hons.) degree in 1994 from the London School of Economics and Political Science and a Bar-at-Law degree from Lincoln's Inn, United Kingdom in 1995.
== Political career ==
He was elected to the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab as a candidate of Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML-N) from Constituency PP-236 (Rahim Yar Khan-V) in the 1997 Pakistani general election. He received 19,736 votes and defeated Makhdoom Ashfaq Ahmad, a candidate of Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP).
He was elected to the National Assembly of Pakistan as a candidate of Pakistan Muslim League (Q) (PML-Q) from Constituency NA-194 (Rahim Yar Khan-III) in the 2002 Pakistani general election. He received 70,116 votes and defeated Makhdoom Shahabuddin. In the same election, he also ran for the seat of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab as a candidate of PML-Q from Constituency PP-291 (Rahim Yar Khan-VII) but he was unsuccessful.
On 4 September 2004, he was inducted into the Federal Cabinet of Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz and was appointed as Minister of State for Foreign Affairs. He continued to serve as Minister of State for Foreign Affairs until 15 November 2007.
He ran for the seat of the National Assembly as a candidate of PML-Q from Constituency NA-194 (Rahim Yar Khan-III) in the 2008 Pakistani general election, but was unsuccessful. He received 42,442 votes and lost the seat to Makhdoom Shahabuddin.
He was re-elected to the National Assembly as an independent candidate from Constituency NA-194 (Rahim Yar Khan-III) in the 2013 Pakistani general election. He received 64,272 votes and defeated Makhdoom Shahabuddin. In the same election, he also ran for the seat of the National Assembly as an independent candidate from Constituency NA-195 (Rahim Yar Khan-IV) but was unsuccessful. He received 46,897 votes and lost the seat to Mustafa Mehmood. In the same election, he was re-elected to the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab as an independent candidate from Constituency PP-289 (Rahimyar Khan-V). He received 25,898 votes and defeated Mian Muhammad Aslam Advocate. Following the election, he abandoned his Punjab Assembly seat in favor of the National Assembly seat.
On 23 May 2013, he joined PML-N. In 2017 he was made Chairman House Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs
In March 2018, he became business partner of Jahangir Khan Tareen after they together purchased a sugar mill for Rs 27 billion. This triggered speculation that he might join PTI soon.
On 9 April 2018, Bakhtyar, together with seven other PML-N parliamentarians, quit the PML-N and formed a new group under the name of "Junoobi Punjab Suba Mahaaz". The group accused PML-N for ignoring the southern part of Punjab and demanded the creation of separate province for southern Punjab. On 30 April, he resigned from his National Assembly seat in protest.
On 9 May 2018, Junoobi Punjab Sooba Mahaaz (JPSM) merged with Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) after the latter promised to create a South Punjab province on administrative grounds. Subsequently, Bakhtyar joined PTI after signing an agreement with PTI chairman Imran Khan on the promise of the creation of a South Punjab province and an equitable distribution of resources to the region.
He was re-elected to the National Assembly as a candidate of PTI from Constituency NA-177 (Rahim Yar Khan-III) in the 2018 Pakistani general election after securing 100,768 votes.
On 18 August, Imran Khan formally announced his federal cabinet structure and Bakhtyar was named as Minister for Water Resources. However, on 20 August 2018, he was sworn in as Federal Minister for Planning, Development and Reforms in the federal cabinet of Prime Minister Imran Khan.
On 19 November 2019, he was appointed as Federal Minister for National Food Security and Research and served in that position until a perceived conflict of interest arose due to his sugar business, after which he resigned on 6 April 2020. He was appointed Minister of Economic Affairs after a cabinet reshuffle. After a year of holding the Economic Affairs portfolio, Bakhtiar was made Federal Minister of Industries & Production, a position which he held until the end of the Imran Khan government on 10th April, 2022. He was also appointed president for the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf South Punjab chapter in December, 2021. In May, 2023, Bakhtiar announced his decision to leave party positions, saying the “May 9 incidents” led him to reevaluate his alignment with PTI’s ideology. Bakhtiar revealed his plan to resign from key positions, including his membership in the core committee and presidency of the South Punjab chapter.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Diebenkorn | Richard Diebenkorn | Richard Diebenkorn (April 22, 1922 – March 30, 1993) was an American painter and printmaker. His early work is associated with abstract expressionism and the Bay Area Figurative Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. In the late 1960s, he began his extensive series of geometric, lyrical abstract paintings. Known as the Ocean Park paintings, these paintings were instrumental to his achievement of worldwide acclaim. Art critic, Michael Kimmelman, described Diebenkorn as "one of the premier American painters of the postwar era, whose deeply lyrical abstractions evoked the shimmering light and wide-open spaces of California, where he spent virtually his entire life."
== Biography ==
Richard Clifford Diebenkorn Jr. was born on April 22, 1922, in Portland, Oregon. His family moved to San Francisco, California, when he was two years old. From the age of four or five he was continually drawing. In 1940, Diebenkorn entered Stanford University, where he met his first two artistic mentors, professor and muralist Victor Arnautoff, who guided Diebenkorn in classical formal discipline with oil paint, and Daniel Mendelowitz, with whom he shared a passion for the work of Edward Hopper.
Hopper's influence can be seen in Diebenkorn's representational work of this time. While attending Stanford, Diebenkorn visited the home of Sarah Stein, the sister-in-law of Gertrude Stein, and first saw the works of European modernist masters Cézanne, Picasso, and Matisse.
Also at Stanford, Diebenkorn met his fellow student and future wife, Phyllis Antoinette Gilman. They married in 1943 and went on to have two children together, a daughter, Gretchen (1945), and a son, Christopher (1947). The beginning of the United States's involvement in World War II interrupted Deibenkorn's education at Stanford, and he was not able complete his degree at that time. Diebenkorn entered the United States Marine Corps in 1943, where he served until 1945.
While enlisted, Diebenkorn continued to study art and expanded his knowledge of European modernism, first while enrolled briefly at the University of California, Berkeley, and later on the East Coast, while stationed at the Marine base in Quantico, Virginia. While enrolled at Berkeley he had three influential teachers: Worth Ryder, Erle Loran, and Eugene Neuhaus. Both Ryder and Erle Loran had studied art in Europe in the 1920s and brought their first-hand knowledge of European modernism to their teaching. Neuhaus emigrated from Germany in 1904 and was a seminal figure in establishing the Bay Area as a center of art appreciation and education on the West Coast. On the East Coast, when he transferred to the base in Quantico, Diebenkorn took advantage of his location to visit art museums in Washington, DC, Philadelphia, and New York City. This allowed him to study in person the paintings of modern masters such as Pierre Bonnard, Georges Braque, Henri Matisse, Joan Miró, and Pablo Picasso. Also at this time, he had his first exposure to the new New York–based artists who were beginning their abstract Surrealism-based paintings. The work of Robert Motherwell, in particular, left an impression. Diebenkorn began his own experiments in abstract painting.
In 1945, Diebenkorn was scheduled to deploy to Japan; however, with the war's end in August 1945, he was discharged and returned to life in the Bay Area.
During the late 1940s and early 1950s, Diebenkorn lived and worked in various places: San Francisco and Sausalito (1946–47 and 1947–1950), Woodstock, New York (1947), Albuquerque, New Mexico (1950–1952), Urbana, Illinois (1952–53), and Berkeley, California (1953–1966). He developed his own style of abstract expressionist painting. After World War II, the art world's focus shifted from the School of Paris to the United States and, in particular, to the New York School. In 1946, Diebenkorn enrolled as a student in the California School of Fine Arts (CSFA) in San Francisco (now known as the San Francisco Art Institute), which was developing its own vigorous style of abstract expressionism. In 1947, after ten months in Woodstock on an Alfred Bender travel grant, Diebenkorn returned to the CSFA, where he adopted abstract expressionism as his vehicle for self-expression. He was offered a place on the CSFA faculty in 1947 and taught there until 1950. He was influenced at first by Clyfford Still, who also taught at the CSFA from 1946 to 1950, Arshile Gorky, Hassel Smith, and Willem de Kooning. Diebenkorn became a leading abstract expressionist on the West Coast. From 1950 to 1952, Diebenkorn was enrolled under the G.I. Bill in the University of New Mexico’s graduate fine arts department, where he continued to adapt his abstract expressionist style.
For the academic year 1952–53, Richard Diebenkorn took a faculty position at the University of Illinois in Urbana, where he taught painting and drawing. In November and December 1952, he had his first solo exhibit at a commercial art gallery, the Paul Kantor Gallery in Los Angeles.
In September 1953, Diebenkorn moved to back to the San Francisco Bay Area from New York City, where he had spent the summer. He took a position at California College of Arts and Crafts in 1955, teaching until 1958. He established his home in Berkeley and lived there until 1966. During the first few years of this period, Diebenkorn abandoned his strict adherence to abstract expressionism and began to work in a more representational style. By the mid-1950s, Diebenkorn had become an important figurative painter, in a style that bridged Henri Matisse and abstract expressionism. Diebenkorn, Elmer Bischoff, Henry Villierme, David Park, James Weeks, and others participated in a renaissance of figurative painting, dubbed the Bay Area Figurative Movement. His subject matter during this period included interiors, landscapes, still lifes, and the human figure.
Diebenkorn began to have a measure of success with his artwork during this period. He was included in several group shows and had several solo exhibits. In 1960, a mid-career retrospective was presented by the Pasadena Art Museum (now the Norton Simon Museum). That autumn, a variation of the show moved to the California Palace of the Legion of Honor in San Francisco.
In the summer of 1961, while a visiting instructor at UCLA, Diebenkorn first became acquainted with printmaking when his graduate assistant introduced him to the printmaking technique of drypoint. Also while in Southern California, Diebenkorn was a guest at the Tamarind Lithography Workshop (now the Tamarind Institute), where he worked on a suite of prints completed in 1962.
Upon his return to Berkeley in the fall of 1961, Diebenkorn began seriously exploring drypoint and printmaking with Kathan Brown at her newly established fine arts printing press, Crown Point Press. In 1965, Crown Point Press printed and published an edition of thirteen bound volumes and twelve unbound folios of Diebenkorn's first suite of prints, 41 Etchings Drypoints. This project was the first publication of Crown Point's catalog). Diebenkorn would not do any more etching again until 1977 when Brown renewed their artistic relationship. From then until 1992, Diebenkorn returned almost yearly to Crown Point Press to produce work.
Also in the fall of 1961, Diebenkorn became a faculty member at the San Francisco Art Institute, where he taught periodically until 1966. He also taught intermittently during these years at a number of other colleges, including the California College of Arts and Crafts and Mills College in Oakland, the University of Southern California (USC), the University of Colorado, Boulder, and the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA).
In September 1963, Diebenkorn was named the first artist-in-residence at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California, an appointment that lasted until June 1964. His only responsibility in this position was to produce art in a studio provided by the university. Students were allowed to visit him in the studio during scheduled times. Though he created a few paintings during his time at Stanford, he produced many drawings. Stanford presented an extensive show of these drawings at the end of his residency.
From fall 1964 to spring 1965, Diebenkorn traveled through Europe, and he was granted a cultural visa to visit important Soviet museums and view their holdings of Matisse's paintings. When he returned to painting in the Bay Area in mid-1965, his works summed up all he had learned from more than a decade as a leading figurative painter.
The Henri Matisse paintings French Window at Collioure, and View of Notre-Dame, both from 1914, exerted tremendous influence on Richard Diebenkorn's Ocean Park paintings.
According to art historian Jane Livingston, Diebenkorn saw both Matisse paintings in an exhibition in Los Angeles in 1966, which enormously affected him and his work. Livingston said about the January 1966 Matisse exhibition that Diebenkorn saw in Los Angeles,
It is difficult not to ascribe enormous weight to this experience for the direction his work took from that time on. Two pictures he saw there reverberate in almost every Ocean Park canvas. View of Notre Dame and the French Window at Collioure, painted in 1914, were on view for the first time in the US.
Livingston said, "Diebenkorn must have experienced French Window at Collioure as an epiphany."
In September 1966, Diebenkorn moved to Santa Monica, California, and took up a professorship at UCLA. He moved into a small studio space in the same building as his old friend from the Bay Area, Sam Francis. During this time, he lived in a house on Amalfi Drive in Santa Monica Canyon, where he would host an artist collective. In the winter of 1966–67, he returned to abstraction, this time in a distinctly personal, geometric style that departed from his early abstract expressionist period. The Ocean Park series, begun in 1967 and developed for the next 18 years, became his most famous work and resulted in approximately 135 paintings. Based on the aerial landscape and perhaps the view from his studio window, these large-scale abstract compositions were named after a community in Santa Monica, where he had his studio. Diebenkorn retired from UCLA in 1973. The Ocean Park series bridged his earlier abstract expressionist works with color field painting and lyrical abstraction.
In 1986, Diebenkorn decided to leave Santa Monica and Southern California. After traveling and looking around several different areas in the western United States, in 1988, Diebenkorn and his wife settled in Healdsburg, California, where he built a new studio. As part of his Ocean Park series, Diebenkorn produced a set of color monotypes in collaboration with publisher and master printer Garner Tullis in 1988. In 1989 he began suffering serious health issues related to heart disease. Though still producing prints, drawings, and smaller paintings, his poor health prevented him from completing larger paintings. In 1990, Diebenkorn produced a series of six etchings for the Arion Press edition of Poems of W. B. Yeats, with poems selected and introduced by Helen Vendler.
Diebenkorn died due to complications from emphysema in Berkeley on March 30, 1993.
== Exhibitions ==
Diebenkorn had his first show at the California Palace of the Legion of Honor in San Francisco 1948. The first important retrospective of his work took place at the Albright–Knox Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York, in 1976–77; the show, then traveled to Washington, DC, Cincinnati, Los Angeles, and Oakland. In 1989, John Elderfield, then a curator at the Museum of Modern Art in New York, organized a show of Diebenkorn's works on paper, which constituted an important part of his production.
In 2008 The Phillips Collection exhibited Diebenkorn in New Mexico, an exhibition organized by The Harwood Museum of Art, Taos, of the University of New Mexico. The exhibit examined the works Diebenkorn created during his 30 months in New Mexico. During the exhibition’s run, The Phillips Collection also displayed its Diebenkorn works, including paintings from his renowned Berkeley and Ocean Park series.
In 2012, an exhibition, Richard Diebenkorn: The Ocean Park Series, curated by Sarah C. Bancroft, traveled to the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, the Orange County Museum of Art, and the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington, DC.
Major recent shows in the San Francisco Bay Area have included Diebenkorn: The Berkeley Years, July–September 2013, at the De Young Museum, San Francisco; an exhibition of small works, June 6–August 23, 2015, at the Sonoma Valley Museum of Art, Sonoma; and Matisse/Diebenkorn, a major show highlighting Matisses's influence on Richard Diebenkorn, March 11–May 29, 2017, at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art.
== Collections ==
Diebenkorn's work can be found in a number of public collections including the New Mexico Museum of Art, Santa Fe, New Mexico; Honolulu Museum of Art, Honolulu, Hawaii; Albertina, Vienna, Austria; Albright–Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York; Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago; Baltimore Museum of Art; Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh; Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.; the de Young Museum, San Francisco; Kalamazoo Institute of Arts, Michigan, Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, D.C.; Los Angeles County Museum of Art; Minneapolis Institute of Art; Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Texas; Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C.; San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco; Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York; and the Whitney Museum of American Art, New York. The Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts at Stanford University is home to 29 of Diebenkorn's sketchbooks as well as a collection of paintings and other works on paper.
== Recognition ==
In 1978, Diebenkorn was awarded The Edward MacDowell Medal by The MacDowell Colony for outstanding contributions to American culture.
In 1991, Diebenkorn was awarded the National Medal of Arts. In 1979, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full Academician in 1982.
== Art market ==
In 2018, Diebenkorn's Ocean Park #126 painted in 1984 became the most expensive picture by the artist auctioned when it went for $23.9 million at Christie's New York. The previous record from 2012, also at Christie's, was Ocean Park #48 painted in 1971 for $13.5 million. At a 2014 Sotheby's sale of Rachel Lambert Mellon's private collection, Italian fashion designer Valentino Garavani bought Ocean Park #89 (1975), an abstract image of a sunset, for $9.68 million.
Author William Benton made a painting in the style of Diebenkorn's Ocean Park for a friend who was a big admirer of the artist's work. At the back of the painting, Benton wrote a message signed with Diebenkorn's name. When the friend died in 1995, his estate was evaluated and an appraiser, not knowing the paintings provenance, marked the work as worth $50–60,000.
== References ==
== Sources ==
Jane Livingston, The Art of Richard Diebenkorn, with essays by John Elderfield, Ruth E. Fine, and Jane Livingston. The Whitney Museum of American Art, 1997, ISBN 0-520-21257-6
Marika Herskovic, American Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s An Illustrated Survey, Archived September 29, 2007, at the Wayback Machine (New York School Press, 2003.) ISBN 0-9677994-1-4. p. 102–105
Marika Herskovic, American Abstract and Figurative Expressionism: Style Is Timely Art Is Timeless. (New York School Press, 2009.) ISBN 978-0-9677994-2-1. p. 80–83
Bancroft, Sarah, Richard Diebenkorn: The Ocean Park Series. Newport Beach: Orange County Museum of Art, 2012, ISBN 978-3-7913-5138-4
== Further reading ==
Nancy Marmer, "Richard Diebenkorn: Pacific Extensions," Art in America, January/February 1978, pp. 95–99.
Gerald Nordland (1987). Richard Diebenkorn. New York: Rizzoli. ISBN 978-0847823482.
== External links ==
Richard Diebenkorn Foundation
Richard Diebenkorn Artwork Examples on AskART. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_sol | Mars sol | Sol (borrowed from the Latin word for sun) is a solar day on Mars; that is, a Mars-day. A sol is the apparent interval between two successive returns of the Sun to the same meridian (sundial time) as seen by an observer on Mars. It is one of several units for timekeeping on Mars.
A sol is slightly longer than an Earth day. It is approximately 24 hours, 39 minutes, 35 seconds long. A Martian year is approximately 668.6 sols, equivalent to approximately 687 Earth days or 1.88 Earth years.
The sol was adopted in 1976 during the Viking Lander missions and is a measure of time mainly used by NASA when, for example, scheduling the use of a Mars rover.
== Length ==
The average duration of the day-night cycle on Mars—i.e., a Martian day—is 24 hours, 39 minutes and 35.244 seconds, equivalent to 1.02749125 Earth days. The sidereal rotational period of Mars—its rotation compared to the fixed stars—is 24 hours, 37 minutes and 22.66 seconds. The solar day lasts longer because Mars's rotation is the same direction as its orbital motion.
== Usage in Mars lander timekeeping ==
When a NASA spacecraft lander begins operations on Mars, the passing Martian days (sols) have been tracked using a simple numerical count. The two Viking landers, Mars Phoenix, Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity, InSight, and Perseverance rover projects all counted the sol of touchdown as "Sol 0". Mars Pathfinder and the two Mars Exploration Rovers instead defined touchdown as "Sol 1". Generally speaking, the choice between counting from Sol 0 or Sol 1 has been made so that Sol 1 would be the first sol with "meaningful" or "useful" lander operations. Thus, landers that touched down late in the Martian day have begun their sol count at 0, while those that touch down early in the day began their count at 1.
Although NASA lander missions to Mars have twice occurred in pairs, no effort was made to synchronize the sol counts of the two landers within each pair. Thus, for example, although Spirit and Opportunity were sent to operate simultaneously on Mars, each counted its landing date as "Sol 1", putting their calendars approximately 21 sols out of sync.
== Terminology ==
The word yestersol was coined by the NASA Mars operations team early during the MER mission to refer to the previous sol (the Mars version of yesterday), and came into fairly wide use within that organization during the Mars Exploration Rover Mission of 2003. It was eventually picked up and used by the press. Other neologisms include tosol (for today on Mars), as well as one of three Mars versions of tomorrow: nextersol, morrowsol, or solmorrow. NASA planners coined the term soliday at least as far back as 2012 to refer to days off due to time phasing or the syncing of planetary schedules.
== Conversion ==
Considering a possible colonization of Mars, one question that arose was "how does one convert a Sol to standard Earth time?". In the science fiction series Mars trilogy by Kim Stanley Robinson, the Mars settlers use traditional Earth watches that stop ticking at midnight for 39 minutes and 40 seconds before resuming their timekeeping. This creates something like a "witching hour" which compensates for the time difference between a Sol and an Earth day. This follows the method previously given by Philip K. Dick in his 1964 novel Martian Time-Slip.
For the Spirit mission, a small watchmaker's store created mechanical watches for the mission crew that kept Mars time with no more than 10 seconds difference per Earth-day. In 2022, it was reported that the watchmaker Omega had begun to sell digital-analog hybrid watches to the public.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliviero_Diliberto#:~:text=Political%20career,-A%20former%20member&text=First%20elected%20as%20MP%20in,which%20Romano%20Prodi%20was%20defeated. | Oliviero Diliberto | Oliviero Diliberto (born 13 October 1956 in Cagliari) is an Italian politician. He has been leader of the Party of Italian Communists.
== Early life ==
Oliviero Diliberto was born in a family of public servants (his father Marco was employed as attorney in the Administration of the Region of Sardinia, his mother Lella was a teacher). His youth is scarred by the untimely death of his father in 1971, after which he had to be a fatherly role for his younger siblings: his sister Ludovica, then eight years old, and his brother Alessio, who was born just two months before.
Diliberto becomes involved with politics in 1969 at age 13, when he was in high school. It is a time of turmoil in Italian schools, and young Oliviero quickly rises through the ranks of the student movement during his University studies. He eventually becomes Secretary of the FGCI (Federation of Young Italian Communists, the youth organisation of the PCI) for the province of Cagliari in 1978, the same year of his graduation.
Fascinated by the philosophic thought of Michel Foucault, after graduating from high school he traveled for Paris where, to support himself, he briefly worked at the city morgue, preparing corpses that had to undergo autopsy.
From 1978 to 1986 he earns scholarships to further his law studies in Frankfurt and in Rome, then he works as researcher in the university of Cagliari, where later he will reach the post of Professor of Roman Law.
== Political career ==
A former member of the Italian Communist Party, Diliberto joined the Communist Refoundation Party after the breakup of his former party.
First elected as MP in 1994 for the Communist Refoundation Party, Diliberto left his party in 1998 in contrast with the leadership's line about a motion of no confidence in which Romano Prodi was defeated. So Diliberto, together with Armando Cossutta and others, founded the Party of Italian Communists, of which he became the secretary. Diliberto then served as Minister of Justice in the first government of Massimo D'Alema, becoming one of the only two party members which were part of that government. He maintained the position until 2000, leaving voluntarily in the reshuffle, in order to concentrate on the party.
On taking office as Minister of Justice, he declared to the press his pride in being "The second Communist appointed as Minister of Justice after Palmiro Togliatti", and made a point of having the same desk previously used by the postwar Communist leader restored and placed in his office at the Ministry.
In November 2004 he was widely criticized for meeting with the leader of Hizbollah, Sheik Hassan Nasrallah, during a visit to Lebanon. This prompted a protest note to the Italian Government from the Israeli Ambassador in Rome.
Before the April 2006 general election held in Italy (and won by the centre-left coalition), he declared he would not serve as minister in case of a centre-left win, and instead he would maintain his place as party leader, and so he has.
In May 2006 he was elected to the City Council of Rome. He is currently professor of Roman Law at the Faculty of Law of the "La Sapienza" University of Rome.
Before the April 2008 snap general election (caused by the fall of the Prodi II Cabinet), Diliberto refused candidacy to the Camera dei Deputati in the Turin constituency for the left-wing alliance The Left – The Rainbow, which his party was participating to, on grounds of giving a chance to be elected to a junior party fellow - a steel worker in the local Thyssen-Krupp steelworks, where a fire on 6 December 2007 had killed seven colleagues.
After the disastrous results of both the 2008 general elections and of the 2009 European election, where the Italian left-wing parties failed to reach the minimum threshold, Diliberto has been confirmed as party secretary, with a mandate to pursue unity of the left wing parties.
== Family ==
Oliviero Diliberto has been married twice: in 1985 he married Ms. Delia Cardia, from which he separated after some years. He is currently married (since 1997) to Ms. Gabriella Serrenti with whom he met in 1978 at the university where he was assistant lecturer.
== Electoral history ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugged_Lark | Rugged Lark | Rugged Lark (May 1, 1981 – October 26, 2004) was Quarter Horse stallion who was a two-time American Quarter Horse Association (or AQHA) World Show Superhorse as well as being a three-time AQHA World Champion. He is also the winner of the Silver Spur Award
== Life ==
Rugged Lark was the son of a Thoroughbred stallion Really Rugged and out of a Quarter Horse mare named Alisa Lark. Alisa Lark was a great-granddaughter of Leo and a great-great-granddaughter of both King P-234 and Joe Hancock P-455.
== Show career ==
Rugged Lark won the AQHA World Show Superhorse title in 1985 and in 1987. He also was an AQHA Superior Western Pleasure Horse, Superior Hunter Under Saddle Horse, and Superior Trail Horse. In 1987 he was the World Champion Senior Hunter Under Saddle Horse. In 1985 he was the World Champion Pleasure Driving Horse. He earned AQHA points in Hunter Under Saddle, Western Pleasure, Trail, Hunter Hack, Reining, Working Hunter, Western Riding, Pleasure Driving, and Barrel Racing.
== Breeding record ==
Among Rugged Lark's offspring are The Lark Ascending, Rugged Painted Lark, Look Whos Larkin – 1999 AQHA World Show Superhorse, Jolena Lark, Rugged Lark II and Forever a Lark. He is one of only two stallions to sire other offspring to win superhorse titles.
== Death and honors ==
Rugged Lark was euthanized in October 2004 due to colic.
Rugged Lark was inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame
== Pedigree ==
== See also ==
List of historical horses
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Rugged Lark at Quarter Horse Directory
Rugged Lark at Quarter Horse Legends |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Mart%C3%ADn_Palace | San Martín Palace | San Martín Palace (Palacio San Martín) is located facing Plaza San Martín in the Retiro neighbourhood of Buenos Aires, Argentina and serves as the Ceremonial Headquarters for the Ministry of Foreign Relations.
== History ==
The Beaux Arts style palace was designed for Mercedes Castellanos de Anchorena by the architect Alejandro Christophersen in 1905. Finished in 1909, the building was acquired by the Argentine government in 1936 and became the headquarters for the Ministry of Foreign Relations. A new headquarters was completed in 1993; the palace became the ministry's ceremonial headquarters.
The palace contains many works of art by Argentine and American artists from the 20th century, including Antonio Berni, Pablo Curatella Manes, Lino Enea Spilimbergo, and Roberto Matta.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
Kavanagh Building
== References ==
Argentine Ministry of Foreign Relations (in Spanish) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaw_Prize | Shaw Prize | The Shaw Prize is a set of three annual awards presented by the Shaw Prize Foundation in the fields of astronomy, medicine and life sciences, and mathematical sciences. Established in 2002 in Hong Kong, by Hong Kong entertainment mogul and philanthropist Run Run Shaw (邵逸夫), the awards honour "individuals who are currently active in their respective fields and who have recently achieved distinguished and significant advances, who have made outstanding contributions in academic and scientific research or applications, or who in other domains have achieved excellence." The prize has been described as the "Nobel of the East".
== Award ==
The prize consists of three awards in the fields of astronomy, life science and medicine, and mathematical sciences; it is not awarded posthumously. Nominations are submitted by invited individuals beginning each year in September. Winners are announced in the summer and receive the award at a ceremony in early autumn. Each award consists of a gold medal, a certificate and USD$1.2 million (US$1 million before 2015). The front of the medal bears a portrait of Shaw and the name of the prize in English and Traditional Chinese characters; the back bears the year, category, laureate's name and a quotation from the Chinese philosopher Xunzi "制天命而用之" (translated to English as "Grasp the law of nature and make use of it").
As of 2022, there have been 99 Shaw Laureates. 16 Nobel laureates - Jules A. Hoffmann, Bruce Beutler, Saul Perlmutter, Adam Riess, Shinya Yamanaka, Robert Lefkowitz, Brian Schmidt, Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael Rosbash, Michael W. Young, Kip Thorne, Rainer Weiss, Jim Peebles, Michel Mayor, Reinhard Genzel, and David Julius - are Shaw Laureates. The inaugural laureate of the Shaw Prize in Astronomy was Jim Peebles, honored for his contributions to cosmology. Two inaugural prizes were awarded for the Shaw Prize in Life Science and Medicine: Stanley Norman Cohen, Herbert Boyer and Yuet Wai Kan jointly won one of them for their research in DNA while physiologist Richard Doll won the other for his contribution to cancer epidemiology. Shiing-Shen Chern was awarded the inaugural Shaw Prize in Mathematical Sciences for his work on differential geometry.
== Shaw Laureates ==
=== Astronomy ===
=== Life science and medicine ===
=== Mathematical sciences ===
== See also ==
List of general science and technology awards
List of astronomy awards
List of mathematics awards
List of medicine awards
List of physics awards
== Notes ==
a The form and spelling of the names according to the Shaw Prize Foundation.
b Sites of the work places of the Laureates at the time of the award.
c The rationale from the Shaw Prize Foundation.
d Two prizes were awarded for the life science and medicine category in 2004: Stanley N. Cohen, Herbert W. Boyer and Yuet-Wai Kan jointly received one of the prizes (half went to Cohen and Boyer; the other half went to Kan). Richard Doll received the other prize.
e Half of the 2008 life science and medicine prize went to Keith H. S. Campbell and Ian Wilmut; the other half went to Shinya Yamanaka.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_surgery | History of surgery | Surgery is the branch of medicine that deals with the physical manipulation of a bodily structure to diagnose, prevent, or cure an ailment. Ambroise Paré, a 16th-century French surgeon, stated that to perform surgery is, "To eliminate that which is superfluous, restore that which has been dislocated, separate that which has been united, join that which has been divided and repair the defects of nature."
Since humans first learned how to make and handle tools, they have employed these skills to develop increasingly sophisticated surgical techniques. However, until the Industrial Revolution, surgeons were incapable of overcoming the three principal obstacles which had plagued the medical profession from its infancy—bleeding, pain, and infection. Advances in these fields have transformed surgery from a risky art into a scientific discipline capable of treating many diseases and conditions.
== Origins ==
The first surgical techniques were developed to treat injuries and traumas. A combination of archaeological and anthropological studies offer insight into much earlier techniques for suturing lacerations, amputating unsalvageable limbs, and draining and cauterizing open wounds. Many examples exist: some Asian tribes used a mix of saltpeter and sulfur that was placed onto wounds and lit on fire to cauterize wounds; the Dakota people used the quill of a feather attached to an animal bladder to suck out purulent material; the discovery of needles from the Stone Age seems to suggest they were used in the suturing of cuts (the Maasai used needles of acacia for the same purpose); and tribes in India and South America developed an ingenious method of sealing minor injuries by applying termites or scarabs who bit the edges of the wound and then twisted the insects' neck, leaving their heads rigidly attached like staples.
=== Trepanation ===
The oldest operation for which evidence exists is trepanation (also known as trepanning, trephination, trephining or burr hole from Greek τρύπανον and τρυπανισμός), in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull for exposing the dura mater to treat health problems related to intracranial pressure and other diseases. In the case of head wounds, surgical intervention was implemented for investigating and diagnosing the nature of the wound and the extent of the impact while bone splinters were removed preferably by scraping followed by post operation procedures and treatments for avoiding infection and aiding in the healing process. Evidence has been found in prehistoric human remains from Proto-Neolithic and Neolithic times, in cave paintings, and the procedure continued in use well into recorded history (being described by ancient Greek writers such as Hippocrates). Out of 120 prehistoric skulls found at one burial site in France dated to 6500 BCE, 40 had trepanation holes. Folke Henschen, a Swedish doctor and historian, asserts that Soviet excavations of the banks of the Dnieper River in the 1970s show the existence of trepanation in Mesolithic times dated to approximately 12000 BCE. The remains suggest a belief that trepanning could cure epileptic seizures, migraines, and certain mental disorders.
There is significant evidence of healing of the bones of the skull in prehistoric skeletons, suggesting that many of those that proceeded with the surgery survived their operation. In some studies, the rate of survival surpassed 50%.
=== Amputation ===
The oldest known surgical amputation was carried out in Borneo about 31,000 years ago. The operation involved the removal of the distal third of the left lower leg. The person survived the operation and lived for another 6 to 9 years. This is the only known surgical amputation carried out before the Neolithic Revolution and its farming transition. The next oldest known amputation was carried out about 7000 years ago on a farmer in France whose left forearm had been surgically removed.
=== Setting bones ===
Examples of healed fractures in prehistoric human bones, suggesting setting and splinting have been found in the archeological record.
Among some treatments used by the Aztecs, according to Spanish texts during the conquest of Mexico, was the reduction of fractured bones: "...the broken bone had to be splinted, extended and adjusted, and if this was not sufficient an incision was made at the end of the bone, and a branch of fir was inserted into the cavity of the medulla..." Modern medicine developed a technique similar to this in the 20th century known as medullary fixation.
=== Anesthesia ===
=== Bloodletting ===
Bloodletting is one of the oldest medical practices, having been practiced among diverse ancient peoples, including the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Mayans, Indians and the Aztecs. In Greece, bloodletting was in use around the time of Hippocrates, who mentions bloodletting but in general relied on dietary techniques. Erasistratus, however, theorized that many diseases were caused by plethoras, or overabundances, in the blood, and advised that these plethoras be treated, initially, by exercise, sweating, reduced food intake, and vomiting. Herophilus advocated bloodletting. Archagathus, one of the first Greek physicians to practice in Rome, practiced bloodletting extensively. The art of bloodletting became very popular in the West, and during the Renaissance one could find bloodletting calendars that recommended appropriate times to bloodlet during the year and books that claimed bloodletting would cure inflammation, infections, strokes, manic psychosis and more.
== Antiquity ==
=== Mesopotamia ===
The Sumerians saw sickness as a divine punishment imposed by different demons when an individual broke a rule. For this reason, to be a physician, one had to learn to identify approximately 6,000 possible demons that might cause health problems. To do this, the Sumerians employed divining techniques based on the flight of birds, position of the stars and the livers of certain animals. In this way, medicine was intimately linked to priests, relegating surgery to a second-class medical specialty.
Nevertheless, the Sumerians developed several important medical techniques: in Ninevah archaeologists have discovered bronze instruments with sharpened obsidian resembling modern day scalpels, knives, trephines, etc. The Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest Babylonian code of laws, itself contains specific legislation regulating surgeons and medical compensation as well as malpractice and victim's compensation:
215. If a physician make a large incision with an operating knife and cure it, or if he open a tumor (over the eye) with an operating knife, and saves the eye, he shall receive ten shekels in money.
217. If he be the slave of some one, his owner shall give the physician two shekels.
218. If a physician make a large incision with the operating knife, and kill him, or open a tumor with the operating knife, and cut out the eye, his hands shall be cut off.
220. If he had opened a tumor with the operating knife, and put out his eye, he shall pay half his value.
=== Egypt ===
Around 3100 BCE Egyptian civilization began to flourish when Narmer, the first Pharaoh of Egypt, established the capital of Memphis. Just as cuneiform tablets preserved the knowledge of the ancient Sumerians, hieroglyphics preserved the Egyptians'.
In the first monarchic age (2700 BCE) the first treatise on surgery was written by Imhotep, the vizier of Pharaoh Djoser, priest, astronomer, physician and first notable architect. So much was he famed for his medical skill that he became the Egyptian god of medicine. Other famous physicians from the Ancient Empire (from 2500 to 2100 BCE) were Sachmet, the physician of Pharaoh Sahure and Nesmenau, whose office resembled that of a medical director.
On one of the doorjambs of the entrance to the Temple of Memphis there is the oldest recorded engraving of a medical procedure: circumcision and engravings in Kom Ombo, Egypt depict surgical tools. Still of all the discoveries made in ancient Egypt, the most important discovery relating to ancient Egyptian knowledge of medicine is the Ebers Papyrus, named after its discoverer Georg Ebers.
The Ebers Papyrus, conserved at the University of Leipzig, is considered one of the oldest treaties on medicine and the most important medical papyri. The text is dated to about 1550 BCE and measures 20 meters in length. The text includes recipes, a pharmacopoeia and descriptions of numerous diseases as well as cosmetic treatments. It mentions how to surgically treat crocodile bites and serious burns, recommending the drainage of pus-filled inflammation but warns against certain diseased skin.
==== Edwin Smith Papyrus ====
The Edwin Smith Papyrus is a lesser known papyrus dating from the 1600 BCE and only 5 meters in length. It is a manual for performing traumatic surgery and gives 48 case histories. The Smith Papyrus describes a treatment for repairing a broken nose, and the use of sutures to close wounds. Infections were treated with honey. For example, it gives instructions for dealing with a dislocated vertebra:Thou shouldst bind it with fresh meat the first day. Thou shouldst loose his bandages and apply grease to his head as far as his neck, (and) thou shouldst bind it with ymrw. Thou shouldst treat it afterwards with honey every day, (and) his relief is sitting until he recovers.
== South Asia ==
=== Mehrgarh ===
Teeth discovered from a Neolithic graveyard in Mehrgarh had shown signs of drilling.
Analysis of the teeth shows prehistoric people might have attempted curing toothache with drills made from flintheads.
=== Ayurveda ===
Sushruta (c. 600 BCE) is considered as the "founding father of surgery". His period is usually placed between the period of 1200 BC – 600 BC. One of the earliest known mention of the name is from the Bower Manuscript where Sushruta is listed as one of the ten sages residing in the Himalayas. Texts also suggest that he learned surgery at Kasi from Lord Dhanvantari, the god of medicine in Hindu mythology. He was an early innovator of plastic surgery who taught and practiced surgery on the banks of the Ganges in the area that corresponds to the present day city of Varanasi in Northern India. Much of what is known about Sushruta is in Sanskrit contained in a series of volumes he authored, which are collectively known as the Sushruta Samhita. It is one of the oldest known surgical texts and it describes in detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments, as well as procedures on performing various forms of cosmetic surgery, plastic surgery and rhinoplasty.
=== Greece and the Hellenized world ===
Surgeons are now considered to be specialized physicians, whereas in the early ancient Greek world a trained general physician had to use his hands (χείρ in Greek) to carry out all medical and medicinal processes including, for example, the treating of wounds sustained on the battlefield, or the treatment of broken bones (a process called in Greek: χειρουργείν).
In The Iliad Homer names two doctors, “the two sons of Asklepios, the admirable physicians Podaleirius and Machaon and one acting doctor, Patroclus. Because Machaon is wounded and Podaleirius is in combat Eurypylus asks Patroclus “to cut out this arrow from my thigh, wash off the blood with warm water and spread soothing ointment on the wound."
==== Hippocrates ====
The Hippocratic Oath, written in the 5th century BC provides the earliest protocol for professional conduct and ethical behavior a young physician needed to abide by in life and in treating and managing the health and privacy of his patients. The multiple volumes of the Hippocratic corpus and the Hippocratic Oath elevated and separated the standards of proper Hippocratic medical conduct and its fundamental medical and surgical principles from other practitioners of folk medicine often laden with superstitious constructs, and/or of specialists of sorts some of whom would endeavor to carry out invasive body procedures with dubious consequences, such as lithotomy. Works from the Hippocratic corpus include; On the Articulations or On Joints, On Fractures, On the Instruments of Reduction, The Physician's Establishment or Surgery, On Injuries of the Head, On Ulcers, On Fistulae, and On Hemorrhoids.
==== Celsus and Alexandria ====
Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos were two great Alexandrians who laid the foundations for the scientific study of anatomy and physiology. Alexandrian surgeons were responsible for developments in ligature (hemostasis), lithotomy, hernia operations, ophthalmic surgery, plastic surgery, methods of reduction of dislocations and fractures, tracheotomy, and mandrake as anesthesia. Most of what we know of them comes from Celsus and Galen of Pergamum (Greek: Γαληνός)
==== Galen ====
Galen's On the Natural Faculties, Books I, II, and III, is an excellent paradigm of a very accomplished Greek surgeon and physician of the 2nd century Roman era, who carried out very complex surgical operations and added significantly to the corpus of animal and human physiology and the art of surgery. He was one of the first to use ligatures in his experiments on animals. Galen is also known as "The king of the catgut suture"
=== China ===
In China, instruments resembling surgical tools have also been found in the archaeological sites of Bronze Age dating from the Shang dynasty, along with seeds likely used for herbalism.
==== Hua Tuo ====
Hua Tuo (140–208) was a famous Chinese physician during the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms era. He was the first person to perform surgery with the aid of anesthesia, some 1600 years before the practice was adopted by Europeans. Bian Que (Pien Ch'iao) was a "miracle doctor" described by the Chinese historian Sima Qian in his Shiji who was credited with many skills. Another book, Liezi (Lieh Tzu) describes that Bian Que conducted a two way exchange of hearts between people. This account also credited Bian Que with using general anaesthesia which would place it far before Hua Tuo, but the source in Liezi is questioned and the author may have been compiling stories from other works. Nonetheless, it establishes the concept of heart transplantation back to around 300 BCE.
== Middle Ages ==
Paul of Aegina's (c. 625 – c. 690 AD) Pragmateia or Compendiem was highly influential. Abulcasis Al-Zahrawi of the Islamic Golden Age later repeated the material, largely verbatim.
Hunayn ibn Ishaq (809–873) was an Arab Nestorian Christian physician who translated many Greek medical and scientific texts, including those of Galen, writing the second systematic treatment of ophthalmology. Egypt-born Jewish physician Isaac Israeli ben Solomon (832–892) also left many medical works written in Arabic that were translated and adopted by European universities in the early 13th century.
The Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c. 865–925) advanced experimental medicine, pioneering ophthalmology and founding pediatrics. The Persian physician Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (d. 994) worked at the Al-Adudi Hospital in Baghdad, leaving The Complete Book of the Medical Art, which stressed the need for medical ethics and discussed the anatomy and physiology of the human brain. Persian physician Avicenna (980–1037) wrote The Canon of Medicine, a synthesis of Greek and Arab medicine that dominated European medicine until the mid-17th century.
In the 9th century the Medical School of Salerno in southwest Italy was founded, making use of Arabic texts and flourishing through the 13th century.
Abulcasis (936–1013) (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi) was an Andalusian-Arab physician and scientist who practised in the Zahra suburb of Cordoba. He is considered to be the greatest medieval surgeon, though he added little to Greek surgical practices. His works on surgery were highly influential.
African-born Italian Benedictine monk (Muslim convert) Constantine the African (died 1099) of Monte Cassino translated many Arabic medical works into Latin.
Spanish Muslim physician Avenzoar (1094–1162) performed the first tracheotomy on a goat, writing Book of Simplification on Therapeutics and Diet, which became popular in Europe. Spanish Muslim physician Averroes (1126–1198) was the first to explain the function of the retina and to recognize acquired immunity with smallpox.
Universities such as Montpellier, Padua and Bologna were particularly renowned.
In the late 12th century Rogerius Salernitanus composed his Chirurgia, laying the foundation for modern Western surgical manuals. Roland of Parma and Surgery of the Four Masters were responsible for spreading Roger's work to Italy, France, and England. Roger seems to have been influenced more by the 6th-century Aëtius and Alexander of Tralles, and the 7th-century Paul of Aegina, than by the Arabs. Hugh of Lucca (1150−1257) founded the Bologna School and rejected the theory of "laudable pus".
In the 13th century in Europe skilled town craftsmen called barber-surgeons performed amputations and set broken bones while suffering lower status than university educated doctors. By 1308 the Worshipful Company of Barbers in London was flourishing. With little or no formal training, they generally had a bad reputation that was not to improve until the development of academic surgery as a specialty of medicine rather than an accessory field in the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment.
Guy de Chauliac (1298–1368) was one of the most eminent surgeons of the Middle Ages. His Chirurgia Magna or Great Surgery (1363) was a standard text for surgeons until well into the seventeenth century."
== Early modern Europe ==
There were some important advances to the art of surgery during this period. Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), professor of anatomy at the University of Padua was a pivotal figure in the Renaissance transition from classical medicine and anatomy based on the works of Galen, to an empirical approach of 'hands-on' dissection. His anatomic treatise De humani corporis fabrica exposed many anatomical errors in Galen and advocated that all surgeons should train by engaging in practical dissections themselves.
The second figure of importance in this era was Ambroise Paré (sometimes spelled "Ambrose" (c. 1510 – 1590)), a French army surgeon from the 1530s until his death in 1590. The practice for cauterizing gunshot wounds on the battlefield had been to use boiling oil, an extremely dangerous and painful procedure. Paré began to employ a less irritating emollient, made of egg yolk, rose oil and turpentine. He also described more efficient techniques for the effective ligation of the blood vessels during an amputation. In the same century, Eleno de Céspedes became perhaps the first female, transgender, or intersex surgeon in Spain, and perhaps in Europe.
Another important early figure was German surgeon Wilhelm Fabry (1540–1634), "the Father of German Surgery", who was the first to recommend amputation above the gangrenous area, and to describe a windlass (twisting stick) tourniquet. His Swiss wife and assistant Marie Colinet (1560–1640) improved the techniques for Caesarean Section, introducing the use of heat for dilating and stimulating the uterus during labor. In 1624 she became the first to use a magnet to remove metal from a patient's eye, although he received the credit.
== Modern surgery ==
=== Scientific surgery ===
The discipline of surgery was put on a sound, scientific footing during the Age of Enlightenment in Europe (1715–90). An important figure in this regard was the Scottish surgical scientist (in London) John Hunter (1728–1793), generally regarded as the father of modern scientific surgery. He brought an empirical and experimental approach to the science and was renowned around Europe for the quality of his research and his written works. Hunter reconstructed surgical knowledge from scratch; refusing to rely on the testimonies of others he conducted his own surgical experiments to determine the truth of the matter. To aid comparative analysis, he built up a collection of over 13,000 specimens of separate organ systems, from the simplest plants and animals to humans.
Hunter greatly advanced knowledge of venereal disease and introduced many new techniques of surgery, including new methods for repairing damage to the Achilles tendon and a more effective method for applying ligature of the arteries in case of an aneurysm. He was also one of the first to understand the importance of pathology, the danger of the spread of infection and how the problem of inflammation of the wound, bone lesions and even tuberculosis often undid any benefit that was gained from the intervention. He consequently adopted the position that all surgical procedures should be used only as a last resort.
Hunter's student Benjamin Bell (1749–1806) became the first scientific surgeon in Scotland, advocating the routine use of opium in post-operative recovery, and counseling surgeons to "save skin" to speed healing; his great-grandson Joseph Bell (1837–1911) became the inspiration for Arthur Conan Doyle's literary hero Sherlock Holmes.
Other important 18th- and early 19th-century surgeons included Percival Pott (1714–1788), who first described tuberculosis of the spine and first demonstrated that a cancer may be caused by an environmental carcinogen after he noticed a connection between chimney sweep's exposure to soot and their high incidence of scrotal cancer. Astley Paston Cooper (1768–1841) first performed a successful ligation of the abdominal aorta. James Syme (1799–1870) pioneered the Symes Amputation for the ankle joint and successfully carried out the first hip disarticulation. Dutch surgeon Antonius Mathijsen invented the Plaster of Paris cast in 1851.
=== Anesthesia ===
Beginning in the 1840s, European surgery began to change dramatically in character with the discovery of effective and practical anesthetic chemicals such as ether, first used by the American surgeon Crawford Long (1815–1878), and chloroform, discovered by James Young Simpson (1811–1870) and later pioneered in England by John Snow (1813–1858), physician to Queen Victoria, who in 1853 administered chloroform to her during childbirth, and in 1854 disproved the miasma theory of contagion by tracing a cholera outbreak in London to an infected water pump. In addition to relieving patient suffering, anaesthesia allowed more intricate operations in the internal regions of the human body. In addition, the discovery of muscle relaxants such as curare allowed for safer applications. American surgeon J. Marion Sims (1813–83) received credit for helping found gynecology, but later was criticized for failing to use anesthesia on enslaved Black test subjects.
=== Antiseptic surgery ===
The introduction of anesthetics encouraged more surgery, which inadvertently caused more dangerous patient post-operative infections. The first progress in combating infection in Europe was made in 1847 by the Hungarian doctor Ignaz Semmelweis who noticed that medical students fresh from the dissecting room were causing excess maternal death compared to midwives. Semmelweis, despite ridicule and opposition, introduced compulsory handwashing for everyone entering the maternal wards and was rewarded with a plunge in maternal and fetal deaths, however the Royal Society dismissed his advice.
Until the pioneering work of British surgeon Joseph Lister in the 1860s, most medical men in Europe believed that chemical damage from exposures to bad air (see "miasma") was responsible for infections in wounds, and facilities for washing hands or a patient's wounds were not available. Lister became aware of the work of French chemist and microbiology pioneer, Louis Pasteur, who showed that rotting and fermentation could occur under anaerobic conditions if micro-organisms were present. Pasteur suggested three methods to eliminate the micro-organisms responsible for gangrene: filtration, exposure to heat, or exposure to chemical solutions. Lister confirmed Pasteur's conclusions with his own experiments and decided to use his findings to develop antiseptic techniques for wounds. As the first two methods suggested by Pasteur were inappropriate for the treatment of human tissue, Lister experimented with the third, spraying carbolic acid on his instruments. He found that this remarkably reduced the incidence of gangrene and he published his results in The Lancet. Later, on 9 August 1867, he read a paper before the British Medical Association in Dublin, on the Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery, which was reprinted in the British Medical Journal. His work was groundbreaking and laid the foundations for a rapid advance in infection control that saw modern antiseptic operating theatres widely used within 50 years.
Lister continued to develop improved methods of antisepsis and asepsis when he realised that infection could be better avoided by preventing bacteria from getting into wounds in the first place. This led to the rise of sterile surgery. Lister instructed surgeons under his responsibility to wear clean gloves and wash their hands in 5% carbolic solution before and after operations, and had surgical instruments washed in the same solution. He also introduced the steam steriliser to sterilize equipment. His discoveries paved the way for a dramatic expansion to the capabilities of the surgeon; for his contributions he is often regarded as the father of modern surgery. These three crucial advances - the adoption of a scientific methodology toward surgical operations, the use of anaesthetic and the introduction of sterilised equipment - laid the groundwork for the modern invasive surgical techniques of today.
In the late 19th century William Stewart Halstead (1852–1922) laid out basic surgical principles for asepsis known as Halsteads principles. Halsted also introduced the latex medical glove. After one of his nurses suffered skin damage due to having to sterilize her hands with carbolic acid, Halsted had designed a rubber glove that could be dipped in carbolic acid.
=== X-rays ===
The use of X-rays as an important medical diagnostic tool began with their discovery in 1895 by German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen. He noticed that these rays could penetrate the skin, allowing the skeletal structure to be captured on a specially treated photographic plate.
=== Modern technologies ===
In the past century, a number of technologies have had a significant impact on surgical practice. These include electrosurgery in the early 20th century, practical endoscopy beginning in the 1960s, and laser surgery, computer-assisted surgery and robotic surgery, developed in the 1980s.
== Timeline of surgery and surgical procedures ==
c. 31,000 years ago first known amputation. Lived on for another 6–9 yrs.
c. 5000 BCE. Second known practice of Trepanation in Ensisheim in France.
c. 3300 BCE. Trepanation, broken bones, wounds in Indus Valley civilization.
c. 2613–2494 BCE. A jaw found in an Egyptian Fourth Dynasty tomb shows the marks of an operation to drain a pus-filled abscess under the first molar.
1754 BCE. The Code of Hammurabi.
1600 BCE. The Edwin Smith Papyrus from Egypt described 48 cases of injuries, fractures, wounds, dislocations, and tumors, with treatment and prognosis including closing wounds with sutures, using honey as an antiseptic, stopping bleeding with raw meat, and immobilization for head and spinal cord injuries, reserving magic as a last resort; it contained detailed anatomical observations but showed no understanding of organ functions, along with the earliest known reference to breast cancer.
1550 BCE. The Ebers Papyrus from Egypt listed over 800 drugs and prescriptions.
1250 BCE. Asklepios and his sons Podaleirius and Machaon were reported by Homer as battlefield surgeons. He also reported arrowheads cut out; styptics; administration of sedatives and bandaging of wounds with wool.
600 BCE. Sushruta of India.
5th century BCE. Medical schools at Cnidos and Cos.
400 BCE. About this year Hippocrates of Cos (460 BCE to 370 BCE) became "the Founder of Western Medicine", insisting on the use of scientific methods in medicine, proposing that diseases have natural causes along with the Four temperaments theory of disease, and leaving the Hippocratic Oath. He "taught that wounds should be washed in water that had been boiled or filtered, and that a doctor's hands should be kept clean, his nails clipped short." He became the first to distinguish benign from malignant breast tumors, advocating withholding treatment for "hidden" cancers, claiming that surgical intervention causes "a speedy death, but to omit treatment is to prolong life."
50 CE. About this time Roman physician-surgeon Aulus Cornelius Celsus died, leaving De Medicina, which described the "dilated tortuous veins" surrounding a breast cancer, causing Galen to later give cancer (Latin for crab) its name. He advised against radical mastectomy involving the pectoral muscles, and warned that surgery should only be attempted in the benign stage (first of four).
1st/2nd century CE. Soranus of Ephesus wrote a 4-volume treatise on gynaecology.
200 CE. About this year Galen died after pioneering the use of catgut for suturing while clinging to Hippocrates Four Temperaments theory, viewing pus as beneficial, and viewing cancer as a result of melancholia caused by an excess of black bile, proven by its frequent occurrence in postmenopausal females, recommending surgical excision of a cancerous breast through healthy tissue to make sure that not "a single root" is left behind, while discouraging ligatures and cautery to allow drainage of black bile.
200 CE. About this year Leonidas of Alexandria began advocating the excision of breast cancer via a wide cut through normal tissues like Galen, but recommended alternate incision and cautery, which became the standard for the next 15 centuries. He provided the first detailed description of a mastectomy, which included the first description of nipple retraction as a clinical sign of breast cancer.
208 CE. Hua Tuo began using wine and cannabis as an anesthetic during surgery.
476 CE. The Fall of Rome ended the advance of scientific medical-surgical knowledge in Europe.
1162. The Council of Tours banned the "barbarous practice" of surgery for breast cancers.
1180. Rogerius published The Practice of Surgery.
1214. Hugh of Lucca discovered that wine disinfects wounds.
1250. Theodoric Borgognoni, student of Hugh of Lucca broke with Galen and fought pus with dry wound technique (wound cleansing and sutures).
1275. William of Salicet broke with Galen's love of pus and promoted a surgical knife over cauterization.
1308. The Worshipful Company of Barbers in London was first mentioned.
1453. The Fall of Constantinople caused many scholars to flee to Europe, bringing medical-surgical manuscripts with them.
1536. Ambroise Pare discovered that cold poultices are better than hot oil.
1543. Andreas Vesalius published The Fabric of the Human Body.
1721. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu brought the Ottoman practice of inoculation to England using live smallpox virus.
1735. Claudius Amyand performed the first successful appendectomy.
1773. Bernard Peyrilhe treated breast cancer by radical mastectomy which included both the pectoral muscle and axillary lymph nodes.
1775. Percivall Pott discovered that soot caused scrotal cancer in chimneysweeps.
1790. John Hunter pioneered artificial insemination.
1796. Edward Jenner pioneered smallpox inoculation with cowpox virus.
1800. The Royal College of Surgeons of England was founded.
1805. Astley Cooper pioneered ligation of arteries.
1842. Crawford Williamson Long pioneered ether for anesthesia.
1844. Horace Wells pioneered nitrous oxide for anesthesia.
1848. James Young Simpson pioneered chloroform for anesthesia.
1851. Antonius Mathijsen invented the Plaster of paris cast.
1852. J. Marion Sims successfully repaired a vesicovaginal fistula.
1854. John Snow disproved the miasma theory of contagion.
1865. Joseph Lister used carbolic acid to disinfect a wound.
1879. After becoming the first to diagnose the location based on neurological findings alone, Scottish surgeon William Macewen (1848–1924) performed the first successful non-primary (trephined) brain tumor removal, pioneering brain surgery.
1880. German surgeon Ludwig Rehn performed the first thyroidectomy.
1882. William Stewart Halsted of Johns Hopkins Hospital performed the first complete radical mastectomy in the U.S., which became the standard treatment.
1883. Lawson Tait performed the first successful salpingectomy.
1884. After English physician Alexander Hughes Bennett (1848–1901) diagnosed the location based on neurological findings alone, English surgeon Rickman Godlee (1849–1925) completed the first primary (exposed) brain tumor removal.
1884. Austrian ophthalmologist Karl Koller first used cocaine as a local anesthetic for eye surgery.
1890. German surgeon Themistocles Glück pioneered arthroplasty with a knee replacement and hip replacement using ivory.
1891. St. Louis, Missouri surgeon Henry C. Dalton performed the first successful pericardial sac repair operation.
1893. African-American surgeon Daniel Hale Williams of Chicago performed the second successful pericardial sac repair operation.
1895. Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays.
1895. The first successful cardiac surgery was performed by Norwegian surgeon Axel Cappelen. The patient later died of complications, though the autopsy found it was for other reasons, as the wound had been satisfactorily closed.
1896. The first successful cardiac surgery without any complications was performed by German surgeon Ludwig Rehn.
1900. About this time the Cargile membrane was introduced into surgery.
1900. About this time Harvey Cushing began pioneering brain surgery.
1901. German surgeon Georg Kelling performed the first Laparoscopic surgery on dogs.
1901. Austrian physician Karl Landsteiner discovered the basic A-B-AB-O blood types.
1903. Dutch physician Willem Einthoven invented the Electrocardiograph.
1905. Novocaine was first used as a local anesthetic.
1907. Austrian surgeon Hermann Schloffer became the first to successfully remove a pituitary tumor.
1910. Swedish physician Hans Christian Jacobaeus performed the first Laparoscopic surgery on humans.
1914. Blood transfusion was pioneered.
1916. Austrian surgeon Hermann Schloffer performed the first splenectomy operation.
1917. New Zealand surgeon Harold Gillies pioneered modern plastic surgery for wounded British World War I soldiers.
1925. The first open heart surgery by English surgeon Henry Souttar.
1929. Werner Forssmann performed the first cardiac catheterization, on himself.
1931. The first sex reassignment surgery.
1940. The first successful metallic hip replacement surgery.
1948. The first successful open heart surgery operations since 1925.
1952. The first successful open heart surgery using hypothermia.
1953. The first carotid endarterectomy.
1954. The first kidney transplant.
1955. The first artificial cardiac pacemaker.
1955. The first separation operation for conjoined twins.
1961. The cochlear implant was invented by William F. House.
1961. American surgeon Thomas J. Fogarty invented the Fogarty embolectomy catheter.
1962. The first hip replacement surgery via Low Frictional Torque Arthroplasty (LFA) by Sir John Charnley.
1963. The first liver transplant was performed by Thomas Starzl et al.
1964. The laser scalpel was invented.
1967: The first successful heart transplant by Christiaan Barnard.
1967. The first successful coronary artery bypass surgery.
1972. The CT scan was perfected.
1974. The first Tommy John surgery.
1974. The first blunt tunneling (cannula-assisted) Liposuction.
1982. The Jarvik-7 artificial heart was successfully installed.
1983. Robot-assisted surgery began with Arthrobot in Vancouver.
1985. The first laparoscopic cholecystectomy by German surgeon Erich Mühe.
1985. Positron emission tomography was invented.
1987. The first successful heart-lung transplant.
1995. Use of adult stem cells in neoregeneration of abdominal wall apponeurosis, used in surgical treatment of incisional hernia. Indian surgeon B.G. Matapurkar.
1998. The first Stem Cell Therapy.
2000. The da Vinci Surgical System was approved by the FDA.
2001. The first self-contained artificial heart, AbioCor.
2001. The first remote surgery, using the ZEUS robotic surgical system.
2005. The first partial face transplant by French surgeon Jean-Michel Dubernard et al.
2008. The first full face transplant by French surgeon Laurent Lantieri et al.
2008. The first HIV-to-HIV liver transplant at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa.
2011. The first successful double leg transplant by Spanish surgeon Pedro Cavadas et al.
2012. The first successful mother-daughter womb transplant.
2012. The first human hand transplant by surgeons in Leeds, England.
2012. The first double arm transplant by surgeons at Johns Hopkins University.
2013. The first virtual surgery using Google Glass by surgeons at the University of Alabama, which they call Virtual Interactive Presence in Augmented Reality (VIPAAR).
2013. The first growing of a replacement nose on a patient's forehead by surgeons at Imperial College in Fuzhou, China.
2014. The first penis transplant by surgeons at Tygerberg Hospital in South Africa.
2015. The first skull and scalp transplant by surgeons at MD Anderson Cancer Center and Houston Methodist Hospital in Texas.
2016. The first penis transplant (in the United States) by surgeons at Massachusetts General Hospital.
2016. The first uterus transplant in the U.S. at Cleveland Clinic.
== Notable individuals in the development of surgery ==
Sushruta (1200–600 BCE)
Theodoric Borgognoni (1205–1296)
William of Saliceto (c. 1210−1277)
Henri de Mondeville (c.1260–1316)
Mondino de Luzzi (1275−1326)
Guy de Chauliac (c.1300–1368))
John of Arderne (1306−1390)
Antonio Benivieni (1443–1502)
Paracelsus (1493–1541)
Ambroise Pare (1510–1590)
Hieronymus Fabricius (1537–1619)
William Clowes (1540–1604)
Peter Lowe (1550–1612)
Richard Wiseman (1621–1676)
William Cheselden (1688–1752)
Lorenz Heister (1683–1758)
Percivall Pott (1714–1789)
John Hunter (1728–1793)
Pierre-Joseph Desault (1744–1795)
Dominique Jean Larrey (1766–1842)
Antonio Scarpa (1752–1832)
Astley Cooper (1768–1843)
Benjamin Bell (1749–1806)
Charles Bell (1774–1842)
John Bell (1763–1820)
Baron Guillaume Dupuytren (1777–1835)
James Marion Sims (1813–1883)
Joseph Lister (1827–1912)
Erich Mühe (1938–2005)
== See also ==
History of anatomy
History of medicine
Timeline of medicine and medical technology
History of trauma and orthopaedics
History of intersex surgery
Genital reconstructive surgery (disambiguation)
American Board of Surgery
== References ==
== Further reading ==
F. Gonzalez-Crussi, The Rise of Surgery, in: A Short History of Medicine, New York: The Modern Library 2008
Thorburn, William (1910). The Evolution of Surgery . Manchester: Sherratt & Hughes.
Gawande, A. (2012). "Two Hundred Years of Surgery". New England Journal of Medicine. 366 (18): 1716–1723. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1202392. PMID 22551130. S2CID 39144465.
William Thorburn (1910), The Evolution of Surgery, Wikidata Q19086319
== External links ==
The portrayal of surgery by various artists throughout history
A Manual of Military Surgery, by Samuel D. Gross, MD (1861)
The Historyscoper |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanele_Muholi#Visual_Sexuality:_Only_Half_the_Picture_(2004) | Zanele Muholi | Zanele Muholi (born 1972) is a South African artist and visual activist working in photography, video, and installation. Muholi's work focuses on race, gender and sexuality with a body of work that dates back to the early 2000s, documenting and celebrating the lives of South Africa's Black lesbian, gay, transgender, and intersex communities. Muholi is non-binary and uses they/them pronouns, explaining that "I'm just human".
Muholi has described themselves as a visual activist as opposed to an artist. They are dedicated to increasing the visibility of black lesbian, gay, transgender, and intersex people. They researched and documented the stories of hate crimes against the LGBTQI community in order to bring forth the realities of "corrective rape," assault, and HIV/AIDS, to public attention.
Muholi was shortlisted for the Deutsche Börse Photography Prize in 2015. They received an Infinity Award from the International Center of Photography in 2016, a Chevalier de Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 2016, and an Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society in 2018.
Muholi had a retrospective exhibition on at Maison européenne de la photographie in Paris from 1 February to 25 May 2023. Their work was also shown that year at Mudec-Museo delle Culture in Milan, from 31 March through 30 July 2023, showcasing 60 self-portraits in black and white chosen especially for Mudec.
== Early life and education ==
Zanele Muholi was born and raised in Umlazi, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal. Their father was Ashwell Tanji Banda Muholi and their mother was Bester Muholi. They are the youngest of eight children. Muholi's father died shortly after their birth, and their mother was a domestic worker who had to leave her children to work for a white family during apartheid in South Africa. Muholi was raised by an extended family.
Muholi completed an Advanced Photography course at the Market Photo Workshop in Newtown, Johannesburg in 2003, and held their first solo exhibition at the Johannesburg Art Gallery in 2004. In 2009 they were awarded their Master of Fine Arts degree in Documentary Media from Ryerson University in Toronto. Their thesis mapped the visual history of black lesbian identity and politics in post-Apartheid South Africa.
On 28 October 2013, they were appointed Honorary Professor – video and photography at the University of the Arts Bremen in Germany.They were appointed Honorary Professor – video and photography at the University of the Arts Bremen in Germany.
== Photography ==
Muholi's photography has been compared to the way W.E.B. DuBois subverted the typical representations of African Americans. Both Muholi and Du Bois have created an archive of photos, working to dismantle dominant, pre-existing perceptions of the subjects they chose to photograph. Muholi views their work as collaborative, referring to the individuals they photograph as "participants" rather than as subjects. With the term "participants" Muholi allows their participants to collaborate on poses instead of Muholi placing them in positions. Seeking to empower their subjects, Muholi often invites participants to speak at events and exhibitions, adding the participant's voice to the conversation. Through their artistic approach they hope to document the journey of the African queer community as a record for future generations. They try to capture the moment without negativity or focusing on the prevalent violence, portraying the LGBTQI community as individuals and as a whole to encourage unity. Thus, their work can be considered documentative, recording the overall community LGBTI of South Africa and their challenges, and at times, more specifically the struggle of black lesbians. Before 1994, black lesbian voices were excluded from the making of a formal queer movement. Muholi's efforts of creating a more positive visualization of LGBTI Africans combats the homophobic-motivated violence that is prevalent in South Africa today, especially in the case of black lesbians. While black women's bodies appear frequently throughout sexualized pop-culture, black lesbians are viewed (through the lens of the patriarchy and heteronormativity) as undesirable. This negative view of homosexuals in Africa lead to violence, such as murder and rape, and rejection from their families. Muholi's Zukiswa (2010), shows an African lesbian woman making eye contact with the viewer, displaying an unwavering gaze of confidence, self-awareness, and determination. This example encourages awareness, acceptance, and positivity with the queer community as well as South Africa.
Although Muholi became known as a photographer who engaged with the then-invisible lives of black lesbians in South Africa, they began to recognize this idea of "gender within gender." In 2003, and their sense of community definitively began to include trans people. Muholi was employed as a photographer and reporter for Behind the Mask, an online magazine on LGBTI issues in Africa.
Muholi first received global attention from the art world in 2012 at Documenta, a world-famous exhibition of modern and contemporary art in (Germany), for a series of portraits of lesbians and transgender participants titled: Faces and Phases. The photos were also exhibited at Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam.
=== Visual Sexuality: Only Half the Picture (2004) ===
Muholi launched their visual activism through their first solo exhibition entitled Visual Sexuality: Only Half the Picture, at the Johannesburg Art Gallery in 2004. This exhibition featured photographs of survivors of rape and hate crimes as well as an image of a rape and an assault case number. The artist explicitly captures the images as to not reveal the person's gender. The viewer may only have access to an above the knee, and hip shot with hands over the genital region. In contrast to their later exhibitions, the people in these images remain anonymous. Although homosexuality is technically protected legally under the South African government, many individuals do not exercise their legal rights publicly in fear of violent backlash. There is also a reluctance to report cases of hate crimes since officials will often ridicule the victim and nothing will be accomplished. This is a systematic use of violence and oppression. In Only Half the Picture series, the artist was able to give LGBT people a voice without ousting their anonymity. Their work is mostly about bringing visibility of queer people in the black community.
=== Faces and Phases (2006–ongoing) ===
In 2006, Muholi began their Faces and Phases project, a series of around three hundred portraits of lesbians, shot in front of plain or patterned backgrounds. The project began in 2006 when Muholi photographed activist and friend Busi Sigasa. Sigasa is a survivor of corrective rape and contracted HIV from the attack. Muholi's concern for their participant's safety dictated that all pictured individuals be of age and fully out. Faces and Phases mocks the "art-in-service-to-science" narrative engrained in colonial images. 18th century botany imagery shows various plants plucked from their natural environment therefore erasing any social or cultural context. This practice emphasizes Western discovery of an object without acknowledging its longstanding existence. According to Susan Kart at Grove Art Online, this project "documents victims of sexual assault and hate crimes, the wedding images share moments of victory, acceptance, and joy for LGBTI families." In Faces and Phases, Muholi utilizes this history and compares it to the representation of LGBTI in South Africa. Black queer individuals have increased dramatically in national representation but this is still an erasure of important context. These individuals are represented in the same way as the botanical prints. There is increased visibility for Western consumption but no attention is paid to the suffering and systematic oppression these individuals face in post-apartheid South Africa. Muholi challenges this in their series by providing names, dates, locations, and representing the participants within a public sphere.
In June 2014, Muholi was back at their alma mater, showing Faces and Phases at the Ryerson Image Centre as part of WorldPride. In the same month they showed at the Singapore International Arts Festival's O.P.E.N. where they also spoke on legacies of violence.
=== Innovative Women (2009) ===
In 2009, the Innovative Women exhibition was shown in South Africa in the cities of Durban and Cape Town. It was curated by painter Bongi Bhengu and features their work as well as 9 other artists including Muholi and photographer Nandipha Mntambo. In August 2009, the Minister of Arts and Culture Lulu Xingwana walked out of the exhibition due to Muholi's photography, calling it immoral, offensive and going against nation-building. In their response Muholi said "It's paralysing. I expected people to think before they act, and to ask questions. I wanted to create dialogue."
=== Trans(figures) (2010–2011) ===
Their Trans(figures) (2010–2011) project embraces lesbian and trans life. The portraits are taken in urban and rural settings in South Africa and internationally.
=== Of Love & Loss (2014) ===
Muholi's 2014 exhibition, Of Love & Loss, focused on the violence and hate crimes experienced by members of the LGBTQIA communities in South Africa. Juxtaposing images of weddings and funerals, the show included photographs, video works and installation elements. An element of autobiography featured images of Muholi and their partner. This exhibition furthermore exemplifies why Muholi calls themself a visual activist rather than an artist and it shows their battle scars. They bring these harsh issues into light with such powerful contrast, as a way to show resistance. Muholi calls this as just one of their many responsibilities, and these harsh and cruel realities cannot be ignored.
=== Brave Beauties (2014) ===
A series focusing on capturing the portraits of trans women, Brave Beauties was shot outside the studio and on location throughout South Africa. This "mobile studio" was a further expression of Muholi's celebration of LGBTQIA visibility as equal citizens of their country, an embrace of artistic freedom and a gesture of rejecting the limitations that studios can present. While on show at the Stevenson Gallery in Cape Town, an "activist wall" encouraged the participants to write directly on the gallery walls about their experiences, stories and vision. A gesture of destabilization, the activist wall was another expression of Muholi's desire to empower the participants in their work.
=== Isibonelo/Evidence (2015) ===
In 2015, Muholi presented 87 works in their solo Isibonelo/Evidence at the Brooklyn Museum. The meaning of the show's title, in which "Isibonelo" roughly translates from Zulu to "evidence," referred to its contents, which were split into three main sections separated on three walls. The first featured a decade-long chronology of hate crimes in South Africa, and faced the second, which was covered in handwritten messages from members of the LGBTQIA communities. The third and final wall consisted of portraits, including one of Muholi themself.
=== Somnyama Ngonyama ("Hail the Dark Lioness") (2012–present) ===
In 2014 Muholi began working on 365 self portraits for the series Somnyama Ngonyama. The portraits are alter egos, often with a Zulu name.That Muholi turned the camera towards themselves in this series is a departure from their previous work. Muholi explains, “I needed it to be my own portraiture. I didn't want to expose another person to this pain. I was also thinking about how acts of violence are intimately connected to our faces. Remember that when a person is violated, it frequently starts with the face: it’s the face that disturbs the perpetrator, which then leads to something else. Hence the face is the focal point in the series: facing myself and facing the viewer, the camera, directly.”
For most of the pieces in the collection Muholi exaggerated the darkness of their skin tone to reclaim their blackness from its performance by "privileged others." This, academic and critic Nomusa Makhubu explains, is in reference to the appropriation of blackness in minstrel performance. Of this series, the writer and cultural historian Maurice Berger has this to say: "The self-portraits function on various levels and pay homage to the history of black women in Africa and beyond, the dark lionesses of the book’s title. They reimagine black identity in ways that are largely personal but inevitably political. And they challenge the stereotypes and oppressive standards of beauty that often ignore people of color."
This series had a debut exhibition at Yancey Richardson Gallery in New York in 2015. It was shown in London in 2017 and in Times Square in New York City as digital billboards during the city's autumn 2017 Performa Biennial festival. Previews in Muholi's New York gallery were sold out. The photos were published in a 2018 book published by Aperture. In 2019 Muholi won the Photography Book award from the Kraszna-Krausz Foundation for Somnyama Ngonyama. Hail, the Dark Lioness.
== Activism ==
In 2002, Muholi co-founded the Forum for the Empowerment of Women (FEW), a black lesbian organization dedicated to providing a safe space for women to meet and organize.
=== Inkanyiso (2009) ===
In 2006 Zanele Muholi conceptualized a platform that promoted Queer Activism = Queer media. With the intention of a flexible and unique source of information for art advocacy. In 2009, Muholi founded Inkanyiso ("illuminate" in Zulu), a non-profit organisation concerned with queer visual activism. In 2009, Muholi registered the non-profit organization with Department of Social Services (NPO 073–402). It is involved with visual arts and media advocacy for and on behalf of the LGBTI community. The organization's vision statement is "Produce. Educate. Disseminate."
=== Women's Mobile Museum (2018) ===
In 2018, Muholi collaborated with photographer Lindeka Qampi, and the Philadelphia Photo Arts Center (PPAC), to create and mentor a cohort of women artists in Philadelphia. Called the Women's Mobile Museum, the collaborative project culminated in a special exhibition at the PPAC featuring works by the participating artists. According to art critic Megan Voeller: "For nearly nine months, they underwent a professional boot camp at PPAC, starting with technical workshops in digital camerawork, lighting and Photoshop and progressing to assembling and promoting an exhibition."
=== Somnyama Ngonyama (2021) ===
In 2021, Muholi produced a colouring book of their exhibition Somnyama Ngonyama to engage South-African children who are categorised as youth until the age of 35, as a result of the apartheid. Workshops teaching photography and painting were organised in parallel to provide the opportunity of an art education to underprivileged regions. The matter is of personal concern to the artist as someone who grew up under similar circumstances faced with conditions that they are still trying to 'break through' today. 'My activism now focuses on education and building arts infrastructure in places that are rural or still considered peripheral,' Muholi tells Ocula Magazine.
== Documentaries ==
In 2010, Muholi co-directed their documentary Difficult Love, which was commissioned by SABC. Difficult Love provides a look into Muholi's life and the lives, loves and struggles of other black lesbians in South Africa. In the documentary Muholi presents the stories and people that inspired them to create their images. It has shown in South Africa, USA, Spain, Sweden, UK, Amsterdam, Paris (Festival Cinefable) and Italy. In 2013, Muholi co-directed a documentary called We Live in Fear, released by Human Rights Watch.
== Attacks and robberies ==
On 20 April 2012, Muholi's flat in Vredehoek was robbed, with over twenty primary and back-up external hard drives containing five years' worth of photos and video being stolen with their laptop. Photos contained therein include records of the funerals of Black South African lesbians murdered in hate crimes. Nothing else was stolen, raising suspicions that Muholi's recordings of Black lesbian life was targeted. Muholi was overseas at the time of the robbery. This effectively erased the previous five years of Muholi's work. A few weeks later they said, "I'm still traumatized by the burglary" and, "It's hard to fall asleep in this place, which is now a crime scene, as I dealt with many crime scenes before."
In July 2017, a collaborator of Muholi's, Sibahle Nkumbi, was pushed down a staircase in Amsterdam by their Airbnb host while visiting the Netherlands to cover the opening of Muholi's exhibition at the Stedelijk Museum. Nkumbi was hospitalised, sustaining a concussion and substantial bruising. Video footage of the confrontation subsequently went viral, and the host was charged with attempted manslaughter.
== Publication ==
Zanele Muholi: Only Half The Picture. Cape Town: Michael Stevenson, 2006. ISBN 0-620361468.
Faces and Phases. Munich; Berlin; London; New York: Prestel, 2010. ISBN 978-3-7913-4495-9.
Zanele Muholi. African Women Photographers #1. Granada, Spain: Casa África/La Fábrica, 2011. ISBN 978-8-4150-3466-7.
Faces + Phases 2006–14. Göttingen, Germany: Steidl, 2014. ISBN 978-3-86930-807-4.
Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness. Renée Mussai (author), Zanele Muholi (photographer), et al., New York: Aperture, 2018, ISBN 978-1597114240.
== Exhibitions ==
=== Solo exhibitions ===
2004: Visual Sexuality, as part of Urban Life (Market Photo Workshop exhibition), Johannesburg Art Gallery, Johannesburg, South Africa
2006: Vienna Kunsthalle project space, Vienna: Slide Show
2014: Faces and Phases, Massimadi Festival, Montreal, Canada
2015: Zanele Muholi: Vukani/Rise, Open Eye Gallery, Liverpool, England
2015: Somnyama Ngonyama, Yancey Richardson, New York, NY, USA
2017: Zanele Muholi, Stedelijk, Amsterdam
2017: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness, Autograph ABP, London
2017: Zanele Muholi Homecoming: Durban Art Gallery, Durban, South Africa
2018: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness Spelman College Museum of Art, Atlanta, GA, USA
2019: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness Colby College Museum of Art, Maine, USA
2019: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness, Seattle Art Museum, WA, USA
2020/21: Zanele Muholi, Tate Modern, London (delayed opening) – their biggest solo exhibition to date
2022: Being Muholi: Portraits as Resistance, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston, MA
2022: Zanele Muholi, National Gallery of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
2023: Maison européenne de la photographie, Paris
2023: Muholi: A Visual Activist, Museo delle culture (Milano), Milan, Italy
2023: Zanele Muholi, Kunstmuseum Luzern, Luzern, Switzerland
2024: Zanele Muholi: Eye Me, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, CA
2024: Zanele Muholi, Tate Modern, London
=== Group exhibitions ===
2011: Figures & Fictions: Contemporary South African Photography, Victoria and Albert Museum, London, England
2016: Systematically Personae at the FotoFocus Biennal, National Underground Railroad Freedom Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
2017: Art/Afrique, Louis Vuitton Foundation, Paris, France
2018: Half the Picture: A Feminist Look at the Collection, Brooklyn Museum, New York, NY, USA
2018: Legacy of the Cool: A Tribute to Barkley L. Hendricks, MassArt Art Museum (MAAM), Boston, MA, USA
2019: Yithi Laba. A group exhibition by Lindeka Qampi, Neo Ntsoma, Zanele Muholi, Ruth Seopedi Motau and Berni Searle at Market Photo Workshop, Johannesburg, South Africa
2019: 58th Venice Biennale curated by Ralph Rugoff
2020: Radical Revisionists: Contemporary African Artists Confronting Past and Present, Moody Center for the Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2020: Through an African Lens: Sub-Saharan Photography from the Museum's Collection, The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Houston, TX, USA
2020: Crossing Views, Fondation Louis Vuitton, Paris, France
2020: African Cosmologies: Fotofest Biennial 2020, Houston, Texas, USA
2020: Sydney Biennale 2020, Sydney Australia
2021: Afro-Atlantic Histories, The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2021: Interior Infinite, The Polygon Gallery, Vancouver, Canada
2021: THIS IS NOT AFRICA – UNLEARN WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED, ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, Denmark; Red Clay, Ghana
2022: Afro-Atlantic Histories, LACMA, Los Angeles, California, USA
2022: Afro-Atlantic Histories, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., USA
2022: Fire Figure Fantasy: Selections from ICA Miami’s Collection, ICA Miami, Miami, FL, USA
2022: A Gateway to Possible Worlds, Centre Pompidou-Metz, Metz, France
2022: The Work of Love, the Queer of Labor, Pratt Manhattan Gallery, New York, NY, USA
2022: Facing Claude Cahun & Marcel Moore Peel Art Gallery Museum and Archives, Brampton, ON, Canada
2023: Facing Claude Cahun & Marcel Moore Peel Art Gallery Museum and Archives, Brampton, ON, Canada
2023: Black Venus, Fotografiska, New York, NY
2023: Museu de l’art Prohibit, Barcelona, Spain
2023: La Cinquième Saison (The Fifth Season), Jardin des Tuileries, Paris, France
2023: Love & Anarchy, Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University, Durham, NC
2023: Imagining Black Diasporas: 21st Century Art and Poetics, LACMA, Los Angeles, CA
2023: Africa Fashion, Brooklyn Museum, New York, USA
2023: Black Venus: Reclaiming Black Women in Visual Culture, Somerset House, London, UK
2023: Youth vs. Crisis: A Generation in Search of a Future, Kunsthalle Bremen, Bremen, Germany
2023: A Gateway to Possible Worlds, Centre Pompidou-Metz, Metz, France
2023: Coyote Park: I Love You Like Mirrors Do, Leslie-Lohman Museum of Art, New York, NY
2023: Trace – Formations of Likeness: Photography and Video from The Walther Collection, Haus der Kunst, Munich, Germany
2023: Lente Africana; fotografia subsahariana de la colleción del Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2023: Museo de Arte Miguel Urrutia, Bogotá, Colombia
2023: Nudes – Art from the Tate, LWL Museum for Art and Culture, Münster, Germany
2023: Photography Real and Imagined, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia
2023: Afro-Atlantic Histories, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, TX, USA
2023: This is Me, This is You. The Eva Felten Photography Collection, Museum Brandhorst, Munich, Germany
2023: Dawn of Humanity: Art in Periods of Upheaval, Kunstmuseum Bonn, Bonn, Germany
2023: Corps à corps: Histoire(s) de la photographie, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France
2023: Veneradas y Temidas: El poder femenino en el arte y las creencias, CaixaForum Madrid, Madrid, Spain
2024: Photography Real and Imagined, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia Afro-Atlantic Histories, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, TX, USA
2024: Dawn of Humanity: Art in Periods of Upheaval, Kunstmuseum Bonn, Bonn, Germany Corps à corps: Histoire(s) de la photographie, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France
2024: This is Me, This is You. The Eva Felten Photography Collection, Museum Brandhorst, Munich, Germany
2024: Turning the Page, Pier 24 Photography, San Francisco, CA
2024: Veneradas y Temidas: El poder femenino en el arte y las creencias, CaixaForum Madrid, Madrid, Spain; CaixaForum Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; CaixaForum Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain; CaixaForum Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
=== Curated exhibitions ===
2016: Co-curated a show at Rencontres d'Arles photography festival, Arles, France
== Awards ==
2005: Tollman Award for the Visual Arts
2006: BHP Billiton/Wits University Visual Arts Fellowship
2009: Thami Mnyele Residency in Amsterdam
2009: Ida Ely Rubin Artist-in-Residence at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
2009: Fondation Blachère award at African Photography Encounters (Rencontres Africaines de la Photographie, Biennale Africaine de la photographie) in Bamako, Mali
2009: Fanny Ann Eddy accolade from IRN-Africa for their outstanding contributions to the study of sexuality in Africa
2012: Civitella Ranieri Fellowship by the Civitella Ranieri Foundation, Italy
2013: Freedom of Expression award by Index on Censorship
2013: Glamour Magazine named them Campaigner of the Year
2013: Winner of the Fine Prize for the 2013 Carnegie International
2013: Prince Claus Award
2013: Feather Award (South Africa's LGBTI Awards)
2015: Shortlisted for the Deutsche Börse Photography Prize for Faces and Phases 2006–2014
2015: Light Work Artist-in-Residence Program, Syracuse, NY, USA
2016: Infinity Award for Documentary and Photojournalism from the International Center of Photography, New York, NY, USA
2016: Africa's Out! Courage + Creativity Award
2016: Outstanding International Alumni Award from Ryerson University
2017: Mbokodo Award (Visual Art) for South African Women in the Arts
2017: Chevalier de Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Knighthood of the Order Arts and Letters)
2018: Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society, Bath, England
2019: Rees Visionary Award, Amref Health Africa, New York, USA
2019: Lucie Humanitarian Award
2019 Kraszna-Krausz Foundation Best Photography Book Award
== Collections ==
Muholi's work is held in the following public collections:
Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL (7 prints)
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York (3 prints as of October 2018)
Museum of Modern Art, New York (6 prints as of March 2019)
Williams College Museum of Art, Williamstown, MA (1 featured print as of March 2019)
North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, NC
Nasher Museum of Art, Durham, NC (2 prints as of March 2019)
Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, OH
Tate Modern, London (15 pieces)
Minneapolis Institute of Art, Minneapolis, MN (3 prints as of August 2020)
National Museum of Women in the Arts
== References ==
== External links ==
"My year as a dark lioness – in pictures " – a gallery of photographs in The Guardian
"Zanele Muholi: Mobile Studio" from Art21
Zanele Muholi at Stevenson Gallery, Cape Town, South Africa
Zanele Muholi at Yancey Richardson Gallery, New York, New York, USA
Zanele Muholi at La MEP, Paris, France |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tara_Chand_(Jammu-Kashmir_politician) | Tara Chand (Jammu-Kashmir politician) | Tara Chand is a politician and a leader from Jammu and Kashmir. He was Deputy Chief Minister of erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir from 2009 to 2014. He had earlier served as the Speaker of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly. On 30 August 2022, he resigned from Indian National Congress in support of Ghulam Nabi Azad. He was appointed as Vice chairperson for Democratic Azad Party. On 22 December 2022, he was removed from Democratic Azad Party after the allegations of 'anti-party' activities.
In the 2014 elections, Chand lost to BJP candidate Dr Krishan Lal in Chhamb Assembly constituency of Jammu district. He finished 3rd in 2024 election. On 30 August 2022, he quit Congress in support of Ghulam Nabi Azad.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosal%C3%ADa_discography | Rosalía discography | The discography of Spanish singer Rosalía consists of four studio albums, two extended plays, thirty-six singles (including seven as a featured artist) and four promotional singles.
The singer released her debut album Los Ángeles in 2017. Its follow-up El Mal Querer (2018) gave Rosalía international recognition and spawned four singles. It debuted at number one in Spain and is certified triple platinum in the country. During the following years, Rosalía released the commercially successful hits "Con Altura" with J Balvin and el Guincho, "Yo x Ti, Tú x Mí" with Ozuna and "TKN" with Travis Scott. All of them preceded her third studio album Motomami (2022), which experienced critical and commercial success upon its release and spawned three singles. Her fourth studio album Lux (2025) was released on 7 November 2025.
== Studio albums ==
== EPs ==
== Singles ==
=== As lead artist ===
==== 2010s ====
==== 2020s ====
=== As featured artist ===
=== Promotional singles ===
== Other charted songs ==
== Guest appearances ==
== Voice sampled in ==
== Music videos ==
=== Cameos and guest appearances ===
== Songwriting credits ==
== Footnotes ==
Notes for peak chart positions
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deputy_Speaker_of_the_National_Assembly_of_Pakistan#List | Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan | The deputy speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan presides over the assembly whenever the speaker is absent or unable to perform his or her duties. The office has its roots in 1947 when the Deputy Speaker was addressed as the Deputy President of the legislative assembly. After the ratification of the 1973 Constitution of Pakistan, the office was re-established. Currently, the position of Deputy Speaker is held by Ghulam Mustafa Shah who was elected by the National Assembly of Pakistan on 1 March 2024 along with the Speaker Ayaz Sadiq.
== Role and Responsibilities ==
The office of the Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly is created by Article 53 of the Chapter 2 in Part III of the Constitution of Pakistan. The Deputy Speaker acts as Speaker on occasions when the Speaker is unable to do so. If both the Speaker and Deputy Speaker are unable to fulfil the role, another person is appointed to temporarily act as Speaker.
== List ==
== See also ==
Speaker of National Assembly
Senate of Pakistan
Politics of Pakistan
Prime Minister of Pakistan
Constitution of Pakistan
== References ==
== External links ==
Deputy speakers of the National Assembly |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Genealogy | Basic Genealogy | "Basic Genealogy" is the eighteenth episode of the first season of the American comedy television series Community. It aired in the United States on NBC on March 11, 2010.
== Plot ==
During Family Day at Greendale, Pierce (Chevy Chase) tries to re-connect with his step-daughter Amber (guest star Katharine McPhee) who becomes attracted to Jeff (Joel McHale). Britta (Gillian Jacobs) gets spanked with a switch (beating stick) by Troy's Nana (Fran Bennett) and Shirley's sons cause havoc for Abed's father (Iqbal Theba). In the end tag, Troy (Donald Glover) and Abed (Danny Pudi) are trapped in the student lounge vending machine.
== Production ==
As made clear by their respective production codes, this episode was filmed before the episode Physical Education but aired after it. Jeff makes a comment to Leonard in that episode about attending family day, which occurs in this episode. As with all of their Community releases, Sony DVD and Mill Creek Blu-ray feature the episodes in their airdate order rather than production order.
== Reception ==
Around 4.7 million Americans watched "Basic Genealogy".
Emily VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club was disappointed in the episode and rated it a B. She said that this was the "first week where the sentimental moments and the hugging and the 'You can be a good person, Jeff Winger!' pep talks felt like they sort of overwhelmed some of the other elements of the show that I typically enjoy" and singled out guest star Katharine McPhee for an inconsistent performance.
== References ==
== External links ==
"Basic Genealogy" at NBC.com
"Basic Genealogy" at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Regional_Transport_Office_districts_in_India#SK%E2%80%94Sikkim | List of Regional Transport Office districts in India | This is a list of the Indian Regional Transport Offices and the assigned codes for vehicle registration. These are broken down to states or union territories and their districts. These RTO offices, governed by the respective state and union territory Transport Departments, are led by Regional Transport Officers (RTOs) and are tasked with enforcing the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, and its associated rules.
== AP—Andhra Pradesh ==
The Andhra Pradesh state government has decided to issue uniform registration numbers for vehicles across Andhra Pradesh. Since February 2019, all new vehicles in Andhra Pradesh are registered with AP-39 code by default. Andhra Pradesh is the first state to implement the "one state-one code" policy.
In 2023, the state government has launched new series, AP-40.
== AR—Arunachal Pradesh ==
== AS—Assam ==
== BR—Bihar ==
== CG—Chhattisgarh ==
== CH—Chandigarh ==
== DD—Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu ==
== DL—Delhi ==
== GA—Goa ==
== GJ—Gujarat ==
== HP—Himachal Pradesh ==
== HR—Haryana ==
== JH—Jharkhand ==
== JK—Jammu and Kashmir ==
== KA—Karnataka ==
== KL—Kerala ==
== LA—Ladakh ==
== LD—Lakshadweep ==
== MH—Maharashtra ==
== ML—Meghalaya ==
== MN—Manipur ==
== MP—Madhya Pradesh ==
== MZ—Mizoram ==
== NL—Nagaland ==
== OD—Odisha ==
Due to the official respelling of the state name in English (from "Orissa" to "Odisha"), the Transport Department modified the state letter on the plates with OD substituting OR on 1 September 2012.
== PB—Punjab ==
== PY—Puducherry ==
== RJ—Rajasthan ==
== SK—Sikkim ==
== TG—Telangana ==
Note * Part of GHMC Hyderabad but not part of Hyderabad Dist.
The two-letter state code for Telangana Region in Andhra Pradesh was AP until the State Bifurcation and after the formation of Telangana State, the state was chosen as TS. It continued up to May 2024 before it was changed to TG.
The AP and TS codes, however, remain valid.
== TN—Tamil Nadu ==
In Tamil Nadu, specific series are exclusively used for certain type of vehicles
All State Transport Corporation vehicles start the series with 'N' or 'AN'
All Government owned vehicles start the series with 'G', 'AG', 'BG', 'CG' or 'DG', Etc., (all Combination of G)
No RTO is assigned with number that would add up to '8'. There is no 08,17,26,35,44,53,62,71.80.
== TR—Tripura ==
== UK—Uttarakhand ==
== UP—Uttar Pradesh ==
== WB—West Bengal ==
== References ==
"Our Divisions/Field Offices | Transport | Government of Assam, India".
== Sources ==
for India as whole: Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (click on "List of RTO's in a State")
for Andhra Pradesh: Government of Andhra Pradesh – Transport Department
for Delhi: Department of Transport
for Gujarat: Transport Department Gujarat
for Himachal Pradesh: Transport Department
for Karnataka: Government of Karnataka – Transport Department
for Kerala: Motor Vehicles Department, Newspaper article in the Hindu: "New Registering Authority Codes from July 1"
for Madhya Pradesh: RTO Offices in MP
for Maharashtra: Motor Vehicle Department
for Orissa: Orissa Commerce & Transport Department
for Punjab: Government of Punjab – Department of Transport
for Tamil Nadu: Department of Transport, State Transport Authority, GIS representation
for Telangana: Telangana Transport Information Portal
for Uttarakhand: Uttarakhand Transport Department.
for India: Vehicle Owner Details. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Rodney | Walter Rodney | Walter Anthony Rodney (23 March 1942 – 13 June 1980) was a Guyanese historian, political activist and academic. His notable works include How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, first published in 1972. He was assassinated in Georgetown, Guyana, in 1980.
== Early life and career ==
Walter Anthony Rodney was born in 1942 into a working-class family in Georgetown, Guyana. He attended the University College of the West Indies in 1960 and was awarded a first-class honours degree in history in 1963. He earned a PhD in African History in 1966 at the School of Oriental and African Studies in London, England, at the age of 24. His dissertation, which focused on the slave trade on the Upper Guinea Coast, was published by the Oxford University Press in 1970 under the title A History of the Upper Guinea Coast 1545–1800 and was widely acclaimed for its originality in challenging the conventional wisdom on the topic.
Rodney travelled widely and became known internationally as an activist, scholar and formidable orator. He taught at the University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania during the periods 1966–67 and 1969–1974 and in 1968 at his alma mater University of the West Indies at Mona, Jamaica. He was sharply critical of the middle class for its role in the post-independence Caribbean. He was also a strong critic of capitalism and argued that only under "the banner of Socialism and through the leadership of the working classes" could Africa break from imperialism.
On 15 October 1968, the government of Jamaica, led by Prime Minister Hugh Shearer, declared Rodney persona non grata. The decision to ban him from ever returning to Jamaica and his subsequent dismissal by the University of the West Indies, Mona, caused protests by students and the poor of West Kingston that escalated into a riot, known as the Rodney riots, resulting in six deaths and causing millions of dollars in damages. The riots, which began on 16 October 1968, triggered an increase in political awareness across the Caribbean, especially among the Afrocentric Rastafarian sector of Jamaica, documented in Rodney's book The Groundings with my Brothers, published by Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications in 1969.
In 1969, Rodney returned to the University of Dar es Salaam. He was promoted to senior lecturer there in 1971 and promoted to associate professor in 1973. He worked at the university until 1974 when he returned to Guyana. He was promised a professorship at the University of Guyana in Georgetown but the Forbes Burnham government rescinded the offer when Rodney arrived in Guyana.
Rodney was close to C.L.R. James, among others, and supported the socialist government of Julius Nyerere. While his academic work contributed "to the emergence of decolonised African social sciences," Rodney worked to disseminate knowledge in Tanzanian villages, where he spoke in Kiswahili, the language of the people. He continued his pan-African activism and, analysing the causes of the continent's underdevelopment, published How Europe Underdeveloped Africa in 1972. With a view to the Pan-African Congress of 1974, he prepared a text on the "international class struggle in Africa, the Caribbean and America." In the landmark work, Rodney denounced leaders who, like Félix Houphouët-Boigny, Jean-Claude Duvalier, Idi Amin Dada and Joseph Mobutu, were turning to tribalism under the guise of "negritude."
Rodney became a prominent Pan-Africanist and Marxist and was important in the Black Power movement in the Caribbean and North America. While living in Dar es Salaam, he was influential in developing a new centre of African learning and discussion.
=== Later life ===
In 1974, Rodney returned to Guyana from Tanzania. He was due to take up a position as a professor at the University of Guyana, but the Guyanese government prevented his appointment. Increasingly active in politics, he joined the Working People's Alliance (WPA), a party that provided the most effective and credible opposition to the People's National Congress government and aimed to "create political consciousness, replacing ethnic politics with revolutionary organisations based on class solidarity." In 1979, he was arrested and charged with arson after two government offices were burned. The trial was deferred three times and later dropped for lack of evidence.
== Death ==
On 13 June 1980, Rodney was killed in Georgetown, at the age of 38, by an explosive communication device in his car, a month after he had returned from celebrations of independence in Zimbabwe during a time of intense political activism. He was survived by his wife, Patricia, and three children. His brother, Donald Rodney, who was injured in the explosion, said that a sergeant in the Guyana Defence Force and a member of the House of Israel, named Gregory Smith, had given Walter the explosive that killed him. After the killing, Smith fled to French Guiana, where he died in 2002. The British politician Samuel Silkin stated in 1979 that he found Rodney "to be a deeply intelligent and compassionate man, with a hatred of bloodshed but a deep and growing fear that violence and civil war might be the inevitable consequence of Burnham's determination to hold on to power by all available means".
It is widely believed but not proven that the assassination was set up by the Guyanese President. The Guyanese Government, led by Linden Forbes Burnham, was found liable for Rodney’s death in the 2017 Commission of Inquiry. Rodney believed that the various ethnic groups that were historically disenfranchised by the ruling colonial class should work together, a position that challenged Forbes Burnham's hold on power.
In 2014, a Commission of Inquiry (COI) was held during which a new witness, Holland Gregory Yearwood, came forward claiming to be a long-standing friend of Rodney and a former member of the WPA. Yearwood testified that Rodney had presented detonators to him weeks prior to the explosion asking for assistance in assembling a bomb. However, the same Commission of Inquiry concluded in its report that Rodney's death had been a state-ordered killing and that then Prime Minister Forbes Burnham must have had knowledge of the plot.
Donald Rodney, Walter's brother, was in the car with him during the time of the assassination and was convicted in 1982 of possessing explosives in connection with the incident that had killed his brother. On 14 April 2021, the Guyana Court of Appeals overturned the judgment and Donald's sentence and exonerated him after forty years in which he contested his conviction.
On 9 August 2021, the National Assembly of Guyana voted to adopt "Resolution No. 23" to implement the 2016 findings of "The Commission of Inquiry Appointed to Enquire and Report on the Circumstances Surrounding the Death in An Explosion of the Late Dr. Walter Rodney on Thirteenth Day of June, One Thousand, Nine Hundred and Eighty at Georgetown."
== Academic influence ==
Rodney's most influential book is How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, published in 1972 by Bogle-L'Ouverture Publications, London, England and the Tanzanian Publishing House (TPH) Dar es Salaam Tanzania. In it Rodney described how Africa had been exploited by European imperialists, which he argued led directly to the modern underdevelopment of most of the continent. The book became influential and controversial. It was groundbreaking in that it was among the first to bring a new perspective to the question of underdevelopment in Africa. Rodney's analysis went far beyond the previously accepted approach in the study of Third World underdevelopment.
Rodney's community-grounded approach to mass education during the 1960s and his detailed descriptions of his pedagogical approach in Groundings (1969) document his role as an important critical pedagogue and contemporary of Paulo Freire.
== Honors and awards ==
Rodney's death was commemorated in a poem by Martin Carter entitled "For Walter Rodney," by the dub poet Linton Kwesi Johnson in "Reggae fi Radni," and by Kamau Brathwaite in his poem "Poem for Walter Rodney" (Elegguas, 2010). David Dabydeen also wrote a poem on Rodney in his 1988 collection Coolie Odyssey.
In 1977, the African Studies Centre at Boston University inaugurated the Walter Rodney Lecture Series.
In 1982, the American Historical Association posthumously awarded Walter Rodney the Albert J. Beveridge Award for A History of the Guyanese Working People, 1881-1905.
In 1984, the Centre for Caribbean Studies at the University of Warwick established the Walter Rodney Memorial Lecture in recognition of the life and work of one of the most outstanding scholar-activists of the Black Diaspora in the post-World War II era.
In 1993, the Guyanese government posthumously awarded Walter Rodney Guyana's highest honour, the Order of Excellence of Guyana. The Guyanese government also established the Walter Rodney Chair in History at the University of Guyana.
In 1998, the Institute of Caribbean Studies at the University of the West Indies inaugurated the Walter Rodney Lecture Series.
In 2004, Rodney's widow Patricia and his children donated his papers to the Robert L. Woodruff Library of the Atlanta University Center. Since 2004, an annual Walter Rodney Symposium has been held each 23 March (Rodney's birthday) at the Center under the sponsorship of the Library and the Political Science Department of Clark Atlanta University, and under the patronage of the Rodney family.
In 2005, the London Borough of Southwark erected a plaque in the Peckham Library Square in commemoration of Dr. Walter Rodney, the political activist, historian and global freedom fighter.
In 2006, an International Conference on Walter Rodney was held at the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Dar es Salaam.
In 2006, the Walter Rodney Essay Competition was established in the Department of Afro-American and African Studies at the University of Michigan.
In 2006, the Walter Rodney Foundation was established by the Rodney family. It is headquartered in Atlanta and aims to share the works and legacy of Rodney with the world.
In 2010, the Walter Rodney Commemorative Symposium was held at York College.
The Department of African American Studies at Syracuse University has established the Angela Davis/Walter Rodney Award of Academic Achievement.
The Department of Afro-American and African Studies (DAAS) at the University of Michigan established the DuBois-Mandela-Rodney Postdoctoral Fellowship Program.
In 2012, the Walter Rodney Conference celebrating the 40th anniversary of the publication of How Europe Underdeveloped Africa was held at Binghamton University.
In 2022, at the 36th Elsa Goveia Memorial Lecture, 50th Anniversary of Dr. Walter Rodney's Book: "How Europe Underdeveloped Africa", was presented by Horace G. Campbell at University of the West Indies.
Rodney is the subject of the 2010 documentary film by Clairmont Chung, W.A.R. Stories: Walter Anthony Rodney.
The Walter Rodney Close in the London Borough of Newham has been named in honour of Rodney.
Walter Rodney is listed on the Black Achievers Wall in the International Slavery Museum, Liverpool, UK.
In 2022 and 2023, SAVVY Contemporary, an independent art space in Berlin (Germany), dedicated a research, performance and exhibition project, titled to Walter Rodney, fifty years after the publication of How Europe Underdeveloped Africa.
Father-and-son filmmaking duo Arlen Harris and Daniyal Harris-Vadja directed a 2023 documentary exploring Rodney's life, Walter Rodney: What They Don’t Want You to Know.
== Works ==
The Groundings with my Brothers (London: Bogle L'Ouverture Publications, 1969)
West Africa and the Atlantic Slave-Trade (1970)
A History of the Upper Guinea Coast 1545–1800 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970)
How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (1972)
World War II and the Tanzanian Economy (1976)
Guyanese Sugar Plantations in the Late Nineteenth Century: a Contemporary Description from the "Argosy" (Georgetown, Guyana: Release Publications, 1979)
Marx in the Liberation of Africa (1981)
A History of the Guyanese Working People, 1881–1905 (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981)
Walter Rodney Speaks: the Making of an African Intellectual (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1990)
Kofi Baadu Out of Africa (Georgetown, Guyana), children's book
Lakshmi Out of India (Georgetown, Guyana: The Guyana Book Foundation, 2000), children's book
The Russian Revolution: A View from the Third World (New York: Verso Books, 2018)
Decolonial Marxism: Essays from the Pan-African Revolution (New York: Verso Books, 2022)
"African History in the Service of the Black Liberation", lecture presented at the Congress of Black Writers, Montreal, Canada, 12 October 1968
"George Jackson: Black Revolutionary" in Maji Maji, (5): 4–6 (1971)
Street speech given in Guyana
"African slavery and other forms of social oppression on the Upper Guinea Coast, 1580–1650, Journal of African History, 7(3):431–43.
Portuguese attempts at monopoly on the Upper Guinea Coast," Journal of African History. 6(3):307-22.
"The impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade in West Africa," in Roland Oliver (editor), The Middle Age of African History, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967.
"Education and Tanzanian socialism," in Resnick (editor), Tanzania: Revolution by Education, Longmans of Tanzania, Arusha, 1968.
"European activity and African reaction in Angola," in Terence Ranger (editor), Aspects of Central African History, Northwestern University Press, Evanston, 1968.
"The role of the university in developing Africa," Public Lecture, Makerere Students Guild, Makerere University, Kampala, October 1970.
"African labour under capitalism and imperialism," Cheche, University of Dar es Salaam, November 1969, 1:4–12.
"Ideology of the African revolution: Paper presented at the 2nd seminar of East and Central African Youth," The Nationalist (Dar es Salaam), 11 October 1969.
"The Colonial Economy," in A. Boahen (editor), African under colonial domination 1880–1935, Heinemann and UNESCO, California, 1985.
"The political economy of colonial Tanganyika 1890–1930," in M. H. Kaniki, Tanzania Under Colonial Rule, Longman, London,1980.
"Africa in Europe and the Americas," in Richard Gray (editor), The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 4:c.1600–c.1790, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1975.
"The Guinea Coast," in Richard Gray (editor), The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 4:c.1600–c.1790, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1975.
"Some implications of the question of disengagement from imperialism," Maji Maji, University of Dar es Salaam, January 1971, 1:3–8
"State formation and class formation in Tanzania," Maji Maji, 1973, 11:25–32.
"Slavery and underdevelopment," in M. Craton (editor), Roots and Branches: Current directions in Slave Studies, New York: Pergamon Press, 1979.
"Class contradictions in Tanzania," in H. Othman (editor), The State in Tanzania: Who controls it and whose interests does it serve, Dar es Salam: Dar es Salaam University Press, 1980.
"A Reconsideration of the Mane Invasions of Sierra Leone," In: Journal of African History, 1967a, 8/2, 219–246.
"Resistance and accommodation in Ovimbundu/Portuguese relations," History departmental seminar, University of Dar es Salaam (1972b)
"The year 1895 in southern Mozambique: African resistance to the imposition of European colonial rule," Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 1971, 5 (4): 509–35.
== Further reading ==
"And finally they killed him": speeches and poems at a memorial rally for Walter Rodney, 1942–80, Oduduwa Hall, University of Ife, Nigeria, Friday, 27 June 1980.
Walter Rodney: Revolutionary and Scholar: A Tribute (Los Angeles: Center for African-American Studies and African Studies Center, University of California, 1982)
C. L. R. James, Walter Rodney and the Question of Power (London: Race Today Publications, 1983)
University of Hamburg (1984) A tribute to Walter Rodney: "One Hundred years of development in Africa"; Lectures given at Universitat of Hamburg in September 1978.
Clive Y. Thomas, “Walter Rodney and the Caribbean Revolution”(speech at a symposium, University of California, Los Angeles, 1981.
David Dabydeen and Andrew Salkey (eds), Walter Rodney, Poetic Tributes (London: Bogle-L'Ouverture, 1985)
Horace Campbell. Rasta and Resistance: From Marcus Garvey to Walter Rodney (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1985)
Gabriehu. Dangerous Times: The Assassination of Dr. Walter Rodney (Brooklyn, NY: Gibbi Books, 2003)
Rupert Lewis. Walter Rodney`s Intellectual and Political Thought (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1998)
Rupert Lewis. Walter Rodney: 1968 Revisited
Issa G. Shivji, "Remembering Walter Rodney", Monthly Review, Volume 64, Issue 07 (December 2012).
Nigel Westmaas, “40 Years of How Europe Underdeveloped Africa,” Pambazuka News, June 14, 2012.
Clairmont Chung, "A Promise of Revolution," in Monthly Review Press (2013)
Karim F. Hirji, The Enduring Relevance of Walter Rodney's How Europe Underdeveloped Africa (2017)
Kimani Nehusi, "Forty-Seven Years After: Understanding and Updating Walter Rodney," Africa Update, 26.3 (Summer 2019)
Matthew Quest, "The Historical Retrieval and Controversy of Walter Rodney's Russian Revolution," New Politics, Winter 2020
Kristin Plys, "Theorizing Capitalist Imperialism for an Anti-Imperialist Praxis: Towards a Rodneyan World-Systems Analysis," Journal of World Systems Research, Volume 27, Issue 01, 2021.
Leo Zeilig, "A Revolutionary for our Time" (The Walter Rodney Story) Haymarket Books, May 2022
Chinedu Chukwudinma, "A Rebel's Guide to Walter Rodney," April 2022.
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Walter Rodney at Wikimedia Commons
Walter Rodney Foundation
Walter Rodney Archive at marxists.org
Walter Rodney 25 Anniversary Commemoration Committee
Rodney biography
The "Walter Rodney Factor in West Indian Literature" archived from the original The "Walter Rodney Effect"
Walter Rodney and Pan Africanism Today by Horace Campbell |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996_African_Cup_of_Nations | 1996 African Cup of Nations | The 1996 African Cup of Nations, also known as the Coca-Cola 1996 Africa Cup of Nations for sponsorship reasons, was the 20th edition of the Africa Cup of Nations, the football championship of Africa (CAF). It was hosted by South Africa, who replaced original hosts Kenya. The field expanded for the first time to 16 teams, split into four groups of four; the top two teams in each group advancing to the quarterfinals. However, Nigeria withdrew from the tournament at the final moment under pressure from then-dictator Sani Abacha, reducing the field to 15. South Africa won its first championship, beating Tunisia in the final 2–0.
== Qualified teams ==
For full qualification see: 1996 African Cup of Nations qualification
Notes
== Squads ==
== Venues ==
== First round ==
Teams highlighted in green progress to the Quarter Finals.
=== Group A ===
=== Group B ===
=== Group C ===
Nigeria withdrew, so their three matches were canceled.
vs. Zaire, 16 January 1996
vs. Liberia, 19 January 1996
vs. Gabon, 25 January 1996
=== Group D ===
== Knockout stage ==
=== Quarterfinals ===
=== Semifinals ===
=== Third place match ===
=== Final ===
== Goalscorers ==
There were 78 goals scored in 29 matches, for an average of 2.69 goals per match.
5 goals
4 goals
3 goals
2 goals
1 goal
1 own goal
== CAF Team of the Tournament ==
Goalkeeper
Chokri El Ouaer
Defenders
Yasser Radwan
Mark Fish
Elijah Litana
Isaac Asare
Midfielders
Zoubeir Baya
Hazem Emam
Abedi Pele
Mark Williams
Forwards
Kalusha Bwalya
Tony Yeboah
== References ==
== External links ==
Details at RSSSF
Details at www.angelfire.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/After_the_Deluge_(painting)#:~:text=After%20the%20Deluge%2C%20also%20known,1886%2C%20and%20completed%20in%201891. | After the Deluge (painting) | After the Deluge, also known as The Forty-First Day, is a Symbolist oil painting by English artist George Frederic Watts, first exhibited as The Sun in an incomplete form in 1886, and completed in 1891. It shows a scene from the story of Noah's Flood, in which after 40 days of rain Noah opens the window of his Ark to see that the rain has stopped. Watts felt that modern society was in decline owing to a lack of moral values, and he often painted works on the topic of the Flood and its cleansing of the unworthy from the world. The painting takes the form of a stylized seascape, dominated by a bright sunburst breaking through clouds. Although this was a theme Watts had depicted previously in The Genius of Greek Poetry in 1878, After the Deluge took a radically different approach. With this painting he intended to evoke God in the act of creation, but avoid depicting the Creator directly.
The unfinished painting was exhibited at a church in Whitechapel in 1886, under the intentionally simplified title of The Sun. Watts worked on the painting for a further five years, and the completed version was exhibited for the first time at the New Gallery in 1891. Between 1902 and 1906 the painting was exhibited around the United Kingdom, and it is now in the collection of the Watts Gallery in Compton, Surrey. As Watts did not include After the Deluge in his gift to the nation of what he considered his most significant works, it is not among his better-known paintings. However, it was greatly admired by many of Watts's fellow artists, and has been cited as an influence on numerous other painters who worked in the two decades following its initial exhibition.
== Background ==
George Frederic Watts was born in 1817, the son of a London musical instrument manufacturer. His two brothers died in 1823, and his mother in 1826, giving Watts an obsession with death that lasted throughout his life. Watts was apprenticed as a sculptor at the age of 10, and by his mid-teens was proficient enough as an artist to be earning a living as a portrait painter. At the age of 18 he gained admission to the Royal Academy of Arts, although he disliked their methods and his attendance was intermittent. From 1837, Watts was successful enough to devote himself full-time to painting.
In 1843 Watts travelled to Italy where he remained for four years. On his return to London he suffered from melancholia, and painted many notably gloomy works. His skills were widely celebrated, and in 1856 he decided to devote himself to portrait painting. His portraits were highly regarded, and in 1867 he was elected to the Royal Academy, at the time the highest honour available to an artist, although he rapidly became disillusioned with its culture. From 1870 onwards he became widely renowned as a painter of allegorical and mythical subjects; by this time, he was one of the most highly regarded artists in the world. In 1881 he added a glass-roofed gallery to his home at Little Holland House, which was open to the public at weekends, further increasing his fame.
== Subject ==
After the Deluge depicts a scene from the story of Noah's Flood, in which Noah opens the window of the Ark to see that after forty days the rain has ended but the floodwaters have not yet subsided. Although his father's strict evangelical Christianity had instilled in Watts a strong dislike of organised religion, he had a deep knowledge of the Bible, and Noah and the Flood were both themes he regularly depicted throughout his career.
Watts had a strong belief in the idea that modern society was prioritising wealth over social values, and that this attitude, which he described as "the hypocritical veiling of the daily sacrifice made to this deity", was leading to the decline of society. Hilary Underwood of the University of Surrey writes that Watts likely painted so many works on the theme of Noah as he saw modern parallels with the notion of the cleaning of a degenerate society while preserving those who still adhered to moral standards. Watts chose to depict the moment at which the sunlight became visible for the first time, after 40 days obscured by clouds.
And the waters decreased continually until the tenth month: in the tenth month, on the first day of the month, were the tops of the mountains seen. And it came to pass at the end of forty days, that Noah opened the window of the ark which he had made.
== Composition ==
Watts illustrated the scene with a highly stylised seascape. Above the sea is a bright sunburst, with the light of the sun illuminating the surrounding clouds and bright rays projecting beyond the edges of the canvas. Watts's composition echoes J. M. W. Turner's 1843 treatment of the same topic, Light and Colour (Goethe's Theory) – The Morning after the Deluge – Moses Writing the Book of Genesis, in primarily depicting a circle of bright light. However, Turner's painting depicts recognisable human figures, and no work by Turner ever came as close to pure abstract art as Watts's composition.
In this stage of his career Watts regularly painted images linking awe-inspiring natural events and the will of God. His focus on the Sun reflects his longstanding interest in it as a divine symbol; The Sacrifice of Noah, painted c. 1865, showed Noah sacrificing to the sun in thanks for his family's salvation. This interest in the Sun possibly came from Watts's acquaintance Max Müller, who had written extensively on solar theories of mythology (the belief that the religions of Europe, the Middle East and southern Asia were all ultimately derived from Proto-Indo-European worship of the Sun). Writing after Watts's death, his widow Mary Seton Watts wrote that:
A visitor looking at After the Deluge remarked that into such a scheme of colour he felt it would not have been impossible to introduce the figure of the Creator. 'Ah no,' Mr Watts replied. 'But that is exactly what I could wish to make those who look at the picture conceive for themselves. The hand of the Creator moving by light and by heat to re-create. I have not tried to paint a portrait of the sun—such a thing is unpaintable—but I wanted to impress you with the idea of its enormous power.'
Watts had previously depicted an orange sun above a flat sea in his 1878 work The Genius of Greek Poetry, but the theme and composition of After the Deluge was radically different. The Genius of Greek Poetry was intended to evoke pantheism, with figures representing the forces of nature in human form working and playing, while being watched by the large central figure of the Genius. After the Deluge was explicitly intended as a monotheistic image, evoking both the magnificence and the redemptive mercy of a single all-powerful God engaging in the act of creation.
After the Deluge was exhibited in unfinished form in 1886 as The Sun at St Jude's Church, Whitechapel; Samuel Barnett, vicar of St Jude's, organised annual art exhibitions in east London in an effort to bring beauty into the lives of the poor; he had a close relationship with Watts, and regularly borrowed his works to display them to local residents. Following this exhibition Watts continued to work on the painting for a further five years.
== After completion ==
The completed version of After the Deluge was exhibited at the New Gallery in 1891. On the occasion of its 1891 exhibition and at a later exhibition in 1897, also at the New Gallery, it was accompanied by an explanatory note (thought to have been written by Watts) explaining the image:
A transcendent power of light and heat bursts forth to re-create; darkness is chased away; the waters, obedient to the higher law, already disperse into vapoury mists and pass from the face of the earth.
Between 1902 and 1906 it was exhibited around the country, being shown in Cork, Edinburgh, Manchester and Dublin, as well as at Watts's own gallery at Little Holland House. In 1904 it was transferred to the newly-opened Watts Gallery in Compton, Surrey, shortly before Watts's death later that year. Two years prior to this, Watts had returned to the theme of creation with The Sower of the Systems, which for the first time in one of his works directly depicted God, and which he described as representing "a great gesture into which everything that exists is woven".
Although Watts painted landscapes throughout his life, he did not consider such paintings to be major works, and when between 1886 and 1902 he donated what he felt to be his 23 most significant non-portrait works to the nation for public display, no landscape paintings were included. As a consequence of its omission from these gifts to the nation, After the Deluge is not among his better-known works, although it was greatly admired by many of Watts's fellow artists. Walter Bayes wrote in 1907 that After the Deluge was "the sort of landscape that we connect with the name of Mr Watts, a landscape from which all that is coarse and material has been eliminated, and which offers a residuum that is a kind of sublimation of all the most poetic elements in nature". It has been cited as an influence on many works painted in the two decades following its completion, including paintings of the sun by Maurice Chabas, Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo and Edvard Munch. After the Deluge remains in the collection of the Watts Gallery.
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
Bayes, Walter (1907). The Landscapes of George Frederic Watts. London: George Newnes Ltd. OCLC 1862135.
Bills, Mark (2011). Painting for the Nation: G. F. Watts at the Tate. Compton, Surrey: Watts Gallery. ISBN 978-0-9561022-5-6.
Bills, Mark; Bryant, Barbara (2008). G. F. Watts: Victorian Visionary. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15294-4.
Robinson, Leonard (2007). William Etty: The Life and Art. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-2531-0. OCLC 751047871.
Staley, Allen; Underwood, Hilary (2006). Painting the Cosmos: Landscapes by G. F. Watts. Compton, Surrey: Watts Gallery. ISBN 0-9548230-5-2.
Tromans, Nicholas (2011). Hope: The Life and Times of a Victorian Icon. Compton, Surrey: Watts Gallery. ISBN 978-0-9561022-7-0.
Warner, Malcolm (1996). The Victorians: British Painting 1837–1901. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art. ISBN 978-0-8109-6342-9. OCLC 59600277. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Meier | Richard Meier | Richard Meier (born October 12, 1934) is an American abstract artist and architect, whose geometric designs make prominent use of the color white. A winner of the Pritzker Architecture Prize in 1984, Meier has designed several iconic buildings including the Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art, the Getty Center in Los Angeles, the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, and San Jose City Hall. In 2018, some of Meier's employees accused him of sexual assault, which led to him resigning from his firm in 2021.
== Early life and education ==
Meier was born to a Jewish family, the oldest of three sons of Carolyn (Kaltenbacher) and Jerome Meier, a wholesale wine and liquor salesman, in Newark, New Jersey. He grew up in nearby Maplewood, where he attended Columbia High School. He earned a Bachelor of Architecture degree from Cornell University in 1957.
After graduating from Cornell, Meier traveled to Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Israel, and Italy, among other places, to network with architects.
Meier is a second cousin of Peter Eisenman, an architect, theorist, and fellow member of The New York Five.
== Career ==
In New York City, Meier worked briefly in 1959 for Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, and then for three years for Marcel Breuer before starting his own firm in 1963.
In 1972, he was identified as one of The New York Five, a group of modernist architects: Meier, Peter Eisenman, Michael Graves, Charles Gwathmey, and John Hejduk. Early in his career, Meier worked with artists such as painter Frank Stella and favored structures that were white and geometric.
Meier first gained recognition for his designs for various houses, for The Atheneum, a visitors center in New Harmony, Indiana (completed 1979), and for the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia (completed 1983).
Although Meier was an acclaimed architect for years, his design for the Getty Center, a large museum complex in Los Angeles (completed 1997), brought him an elevated level of recognition. Other notable commissions from this period include museums such as the Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art in Spain (completed 1995) and the Paley Center for Media in Beverly Hills, California (completed 1996); The Hague, The Netherlands City Hall (completed 1995) and San Jose City Hall (completed 2005); commercial buildings such as the reconstruction of City Tower in Prague, Czech Republic (completed 2008); and residential buildings such as 173 and 176 Perry Street in the West Village of Manhattan (completed 2002) and Meier on Rothschild in Tel Aviv, Israel (completed 2015).
Today, MeierPartners has offices in New York and Los Angeles, with projects ranging from China and Tel Aviv to Paris and Hamburg.
Much of Meier's work builds on the work of architects of the early to mid-20th century, especially that of Le Corbusier, particularly his early work. Meier is considered to have built more using Corbusier's ideas than anyone, including Le Corbusier himself. Meier expanded many ideas evident in Le Corbusier's work, particularly the Villa Savoye and the Swiss Pavilion.
His work also reflects the influences of other designers such as Mies Van der Rohe and, in some instances, Frank Lloyd Wright and Luis Barragán (without the colour). White has been used in many architectural landmark buildings throughout history, including cathedrals and the white-washed villages of the Mediterranean region, in Spain, southern Italy and Greece.
The Mayor of Rome, Gianni Alemanno, included in his campaign platform a promise to tear down the large travertine wall of Meier's Museum of the Ara Pacis. Alemmano had agreed with Meier to modifications including drastically reducing the height of the wall between an open-air space outside the museum and a busy road along the Tiber river. The city plans are to build a wide pedestrian area along the river and run the road underneath it. "It's an improvement," says Meier, adding that "the reason that wall was there has to do with traffic and noise. Once that is eliminated, the idea of opening the piazza to the river is a good one." The mayor's office said Alemanno hoped to complete the project before the end of his term in 2013.
The new project of the underpass along the river Tevere has not progressed since then and in 2024 the area is unchanged.
== Recognition ==
In 1984, Meier was awarded the Pritzker Prize. The jury citation declared that Meier has "created structures which are personal, vigorous, original." In 2008, he won the gold medal in architecture from the Academy of Arts and Letters and his work Jesolo Lido Village was awarded the Dedalo Minosse International Prize for commissioning a building. Meier is a Senior Fellow of the Design Futures Council. He was awarded the AIA Gold Medal in 1997. In 2013, he was awarded the A+ Lifetime Achievement Award. In 1996, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 2010, Cornell established a new professorship named for Meier.
Paying tribute Meier on the occasion of his firm's 50th anniversary, the Fondazione Bisazza presented the exhibition "Richard Meier: Architecture and Design" in Vicenza, Italy.
In 2014, Meier opened a 15,000-square-foot exhibition space museum at Mana Contemporary in Jersey City. The space gathers much of his life's work under one roof, and replaces a much smaller version that opened in 2007 in Long Island City, Queens, and that until 2013 was open only by appointment to students and tour groups. The new venue provides room to show his own sculptures, architectural drawings and collages for the first time, and is planned to include a research library.
== Sexual harassment accusation and resignation ==
On March 13, 2018, The New York Times detailed allegations from women that Meier had sexually harassed or assaulted them. Meier responded by saying that he would take a leave of six months from his firm. In response to the allegations and Meier's apology, his alma mater Cornell University declined his intended endowment of a named chair and instituted a review of his previous donations. On April 6, 2018, an additional four women who formerly worked at Meier's architecture firm came forward with allegations against him. The most recent allegations dated to 2009. On October 9, 2018, the firm announced that his resignation was permanent.
== Works ==
Major works by Meier include the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, the Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art, the Getty Center, Meier on Rothschild, and On Prospect Park.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Tom Grotta (ed.): The Grotta Home by Richard Meier. A Marriage of Architecture and Craft. arnoldsche Art Publishers 2019, ISBN 978-3-89790-568-9.
Frampton, Kenneth, Rykwert, Joseph: Richard Meier, Architect, Rizzoli, 1998
Frampton, Kenneth: Richard Meier, Phaidon, 2012
== External links ==
Media related to Richard Meier at Wikimedia Commons
Meier Partners
Richard Meier in the National Gallery of Australia's Kenneth Tyler collection Archived April 1, 2019, at the Wayback Machine
Official "Meier Tower" website Archived December 24, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
Ara Pacis Museum, Rome
Burda Museum website
Rachofsky House website
An appreciation of the Hague City Hall
Collages by Richard Meier
Over 100 photographs of the Richard Meier designed Rachofsky House which received AIA honor award in 2002
Official "Bodrum Houses" website Archived August 6, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
"The Surf Club" website
Richard Meier video at Web of Stories
"Big Red/Meier white," Cornell 50th reunion video on YouTube
"The Surf Club Miami Beach" video on YouTube |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor_of_Kathmandu#History | Mayor of Kathmandu | The mayor of Kathmandu is the head of the municipal executive of Kathmandu Metropolitan City. The officeholder is elected for a five-year term and limited to serving no more than two terms. The role was first created in 1932 during the Rana regime.
The current mayor is Balendra Shah, who was elected in the 2022 election and took office on 30 May 2022. The position has been held by fifteen people in a permanent capacity since its creation.
The city of Kathmandu is scrutinized by the Kathmandu Metropolitan City Municipal Assembly and the mayor is supported by the Municipal Executive which consists of ward chairs of all 32 wards of Kathmandu.
== History ==
Kathmandu was first declared as a municipality in 1932 after the formulation of the Kathmandu Municipality Sabal act. It was founded as a waste management department and Singh Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana was appointed as the first 'Mayor Man' of Kathmandu municipality in the same year by the government of Chandra Shumsher.
In 1947, the first municipal elections were held in Kathmandu. Gehendra Shumsher Thapa was appointed as the chairman of Kathmandu by the Rana regime and Shankar Dev Pant was elected as his deputy from the common people.
In the first democratic elections since the fall of the Rana regime in 1953, Janak Man Shrestha was elected as mayor of Kathmandu by the council in an indirect election and became the city's first elected mayor. After King Mahendra's coup d'teat in 1960, the position of mayor was abolished and the Pradhan Panch (Council Head) would be the elected head of Kathmandu municipality.
Kathmandu municipality was declared as a metropolitan city by mayor Prem Lal Singh in 1995 and Keshav Sthapit was elected as the first mayor of the metropolitan city in 1997.
== Power and functions ==
Local government in Nepal has authority over the local units pursuant to Schedule 8 of the Constitution of Nepal. The mayor derives its power from the Local Government Operation Act, 2017.
The main functions of the mayor are:
Summon and chair meetings of the municipal assembly and the municipal executive.
Table agendas and proposals to the municipal assembly and the municipal executive.
Prepare and present the annual programme and budget.
Enforce the decisions of the assembly and the executive.
Oversee the work of committees and sub-committees of the municipality and ward committees.
The mayor of Kathmandu is also a member of the Kathmandu District Assembly, and an ex-officio member of the Pashupati Area Development Trust, the Boudhanath Area Development Committee, the senate of the National Academy of Medical Sciences and the chairman of the Valley Municipal Forum.
== List of mayors ==
=== Rana regime (1932–51) ===
=== Transition period (1953–60) ===
=== Panchayat era (1966–90) ===
=== Constitutional monarchy era (1990–2008) ===
=== Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal (2017–present) ===
== See also ==
History of Kathmandu
Mayor of Pokhara
Mayor of Dharan
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Richter#Exhibitions | Gerhard Richter | Gerhard Richter (German: [ˈɡeːɐ̯haʁt ˈʁɪçtɐ]; born 9 February 1932) is a German visual artist. Richter has produced abstract as well as photorealistic paintings, photographs and glass pieces. He is widely regarded as one of the most important contemporary German artists and several of his works have set record prices at auction, with him being the most expensive living painter at one time.
Richter has been called the "greatest living painter", "the world's most important artist" and the "Picasso of the 21st century".
== Personal life ==
=== Childhood and education ===
Richter was born in Hospital Dresden-Neustadt in Dresden, Saxony, and grew up in Reichenau (now Bogatynia, Poland), and in Waltersdorf (Zittauer Gebirge), in the Upper Lusatian countryside, where his father worked as a village teacher. Gerhard's mother, Hildegard Schönfelder, gave birth to him at the age of 25. Hildegard's father, Ernst Alfred Schönfelder, at one time was considered a gifted pianist. Ernst moved the family to Dresden after taking up the family enterprise of brewing and eventually went bankrupt. Once in Dresden, Hildegard trained as a bookseller, and in doing so realized a passion for literature and music. Gerhard's father, Horst Richter, was a mathematics and physics student at the Technische Hochschule in Dresden. The two were married in 1931.
After struggling to maintain a position in the new National Socialist education system, Horst found a position in Reichenau. Gerhard's younger sister, Gisela, was born there in 1936. Horst and Hildegard were able to remain primarily apolitical due to Reichenau's location in the countryside. Horst, being a teacher, was eventually forced to join the National Socialist Party. He never became an avid supporter of Nazism, and was not required to attend party rallies. When he was 10 years old, Gerhard was conscripted into the Deutsches Jungvolk; the Hitler Youth, for teenage boys, was dissolved at the end of the war, before Richter reached the age of enlistment. In 1943, Hildegard moved the family to Waltersdorf, and was later forced to sell her piano. Two brothers of Hildegard died as soldiers in the war and a sister, Gerhard's aunt Marianne, who had schizophrenia, was starved to death in a psychiatric clinic, a victim of the Nazi euthanasia program.
Richter left school after 10th grade and apprenticed as an advertising and stage-set painter, before studying at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts. In 1948, he finished vocational high school in Zittau and, between 1949 and 1951, successively worked as an apprentice with a sign painter and as a painter. In 1950, his application for study at the Dresden Academy of Fine Arts was rejected as "too bourgeois". He finally began his studies at the Academy in 1951. His teachers there were Karl von Appen, Heinz Lohmar, and Will Grohmann.
=== Relationships ===
Richter married Marianne Eufinger in 1957; she gave birth to his first daughter. He married his second wife, the sculptor Isa Genzken, in 1982. Richter had two sons and a daughter with his third wife, Sabine Moritz, after they were married in 1995.
=== Early career ===
In the early days of his career, he prepared a wall painting (Communion with Picasso, 1955) for the refectory of his Academy of Arts as part of his B.A. Another mural entitled Lebensfreude (Joy of life) followed at the German Hygiene Museum for his diploma. It was intended to produce an effect "similar to that of wallpaper or tapestry".
From 1957 to 1961 Richter worked as a master trainee in the academy and took commissions for the then state of East Germany. During this time, he worked intensively on murals like Arbeiterkampf (Workers' struggle), on oil paintings (e.g. portraits of the East German actress Angelica Domröse and of Richter's first wife Ema), on various self-portraits, and on a panorama of Dresden with the neutral name Stadtbild (Townscape, 1956).
Together with his wife Marianne, Richter escaped from East to West Germany two months before the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961. Both his wall paintings in the Academy of Arts and the Hygiene Museum were then painted over for ideological reasons. Much later, after German reunification, two "windows" of the wall painting Joy of life (1956) would be uncovered in the stairway of the German Hygiene Museum, but these were later covered over when it was decided to restore the Museum to its original 1930 state. A large portion of the mural was finally uncovered and restored in 2024.
In West Germany, Richter began to study at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf under Karl Otto Götz, together with Sigmar Polke, Werner Hilsing, HA Schult, Kuno Gonschior, Franz Erhard Walther, Konrad Lueg, and Gotthard Graubner. With Polke and Konrad Fischer (pseudonym Lueg), he introduced the term Kapitalistischer Realismus (Capitalistic Realism) as an anti-style of art, appropriating the pictorial shorthand of advertising. This title also referred to the realist style of art known as Socialist Realism, then the official art doctrine of the Soviet Union, but it also commented upon the consumer-driven art doctrine of Western capitalism.
Richter taught at the Hochschule für bildende Künste Hamburg and the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design as a visiting professor; he returned to the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf in 1971, where he worked as a professor for over 15 years.
In 1983, Richter resettled from Düsseldorf to Cologne, where he still lives and works today. In 1996, he moved into a studio designed by architect Thiess Marwede.
== Art ==
=== Photo-paintings and the "blur" ===
Richter created various painting pictures from black-and-white photographs during the 1960s and early 1970s, basing them on a variety of sources: newspapers and books, sometimes incorporating their captions, (as in Helga Matura (1966)); private snapshots; aerial views of towns and mountains, (Cityscape Madrid (1968) and Alps (1968)); seascapes (1969–70); and a large multipart work made for the German Pavilion in the 1972 Venice Biennale. For Forty-eight Portraits (1971–72), he chose mainly the faces of composers such as Gustav Mahler and Jean Sibelius, and of writers such as H. G. Wells and Franz Kafka.
From around 1964, Richter made a number of portraits of dealers, collectors, artists, and others connected with his immediate professional circle. Richter's two portraits of Betty, his daughter, were made in 1977 and 1988 respectively; the three portraits titled IG were made in 1993 and depict the artist's second wife, Isa Genzken. Lesende (1994) portrays Sabine Moritz, whom Richter married in 1995, shown absorbed in the pages of a magazine. Many of his realist paintings reflect on the history of Nazism, creating paintings of family members who had been members, as well as victims, of the Nazi party. From 1966, as well as those given to him by others, Richter began using photographs he had taken as the basis for portraits. In 1975, on the occasion of a show in Düsseldorf, Gilbert & George commissioned Richter to make a portrait of them.
Richter began making prints in 1965. He was most active before 1974, only completing sporadic projects since that time. In the period 1965–1974, Richter made most of his prints (more than 100), of the same or similar subjects in his paintings. He has explored a variety of photographic printmaking processes – screenprint, photolithography, and collotype – in search of inexpensive mediums that would lend a "non-art" appearance to his work. He stopped working in print media in 1974, and began painting from photographs he took himself.
While elements of landscape painting appeared initially in Richter's work early on in his career in 1963, the artist began his independent series of landscapes in 1968 after his first vacation, an excursion that landed him besotted with the terrain of Corsica. Landscapes have since emerged as an independent work group in his oeuvre. According to Dietmar Elger, Richter's landscapes are understood within the context of traditional German Romantic Painting. They are compared to the work of Caspar David Friedrich (1774–1840). Friedrich is foundational to German landscape painting. Each artist spent formative years of their lives in Dresden. Große Teyde-Landschaft (1971) takes its imagery from similar holiday snapshots of the volcanic regions of Tenerife.
Atlas was first exhibited in 1972 at the Museum voor Hedendaagse Kunst in Utrecht under the title Atlas der Fotos und Skizzen. It included 315 parts. The work has continued to expand, and was exhibited later in full form at the Lenbachhaus in Munich in 1989, the Museum Ludwig in Cologne in 1990, and at Dia Art Foundation in New York in 1995. Atlas continues as an ongoing, encyclopedic work composed of approximately 4,000 photographs, reproductions or cut-out details of photographs and illustrations, grouped together on approximately 600 separate panels.
In 1972, Richter embarked on a ten-day trip to Greenland. His friend Hanne Darboven was meant to accompany him, but instead, he traveled alone. His intention was to experience and record the desolate arctic landscape. In 1976, four large paintings, each titled Seascape, emerged from the Greenland photographs.
In 1982 and 1983, Richter made a series of paintings of Candles and Skulls that relate to a longstanding tradition of still life memento mori painting. Each composition is most commonly based on a photograph taken by Richter in his own studio. Influenced by old master vanitas painters such as Georges de La Tour and Francisco de Zurbarán, the artist began to experiment with arrangements of candles and skulls placed in varying degrees of natural light, sitting atop otherwise barren tables. The Candle paintings coincided with his first large-scale abstract paintings, and represent the complete antithesis to those vast, colorful and playfully meaningless works. Richter has made only 27 of these still lifes. In 1995, the artist marked the 50th anniversary of the allied bombings of his hometown Dresden during the Second World War. His solitary candle was reproduced on a monumental scale and placed overlooking the River Elbe as a symbol of rejuvenation. Richter has said that while painting this series, “I did experience feelings to do with contemplation, remembering, silence, and death.”
In a 1988 series of 15 ambiguous photo paintings entitled 18 October 1977, he depicted four members of the Red Army Faction (RAF), a German left-wing militant organization. These paintings were created from black-and-white newspaper and police photos. Three RAF members were found dead in their prison cells on 18 October 1977 and the cause of their deaths was the focus of widespread controversy. In the late 1980s, Richter had begun to collect images of the group which he used as the basis for the 15 paintings exhibited for the first time in Krefeld in 1989. The paintings were based on an official portrait of Ulrike Meinhof during her years as a radical journalist; on photographs of the arrest of Holger Meins; on police shots of Gudrun Ensslin in prison; on Andreas Baader's bookshelves and the record player to conceal his gun; on the dead figures of Meinhof, Ensslin, and Baader; and on the funeral of Ensslin, Baader, and Jan-Carl Raspe.
Since 1989, Richter has worked on creating new images by dragging wet paint over photographs. The photographs, not all taken by Richter himself, are mostly snapshots of daily life: family vacations, pictures of friends, mountains, buildings, and streetscapes.
Richter was flying to New York on 11 September 2001, but due to the 9/11 attacks, including on the World Trade Center, his plane was diverted to Halifax, Nova Scotia. A few years later, he made one small painting specifically about the planes crashing into the World Trade Center. In September: A History Painting by Gerhard Richter, Robert Storr situates Richter's 2005 painting September within a brand of anti-ideological thought that he finds throughout Richter's work. He considers how the ubiquitous photographic documentation of 11 September attacks affects the uniqueness of one's distinct remembrance of the events, and he offers a valuable comparison to Richter's 18 October 1977 cycle.
In the 2000s, Richter made a number of works that dealt with scientific phenomena. In 2003, he produced several paintings with the same title: Silicate. Large oil-on-canvas pieces, these show latticed rows of light- and dark-grey blobs whose shapes quasi-repeat as they race across the frame, their angle modulating from painting to painting. They depict a photo, published in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, of a computer-generated simulacrum of reflections from the silicon dioxide found in insects' shells.
In 2014, Richter created a cycle of four paintings using the Sonderkommando photographs, which were taken in the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp during the Holocaust, titled Birkenau. In October 2021, Gerhard Richter decided to make his Birkenau images permanently available to the International Auschwitz Committee. Currently, the cycle is on permanent display in an exhibition pavilion on the grounds of the International Youth Meeting Center in Oświęcim/Auschwitz, around 2 kilometers from the Auschwitz II-Birkenau site. The pavilion was built according to a design by the artist. In 2024, an edition of the works as prints on metal plate, made and donated by Richter, went on display at the Centre.
=== Abstract work ===
Richter's early work Table (1962) consisted of a painting of a table, taken from a photograph in a magazine, with tachiste gestural marks overlapping. Those marks can be read as cancelling the photorealist representation, using haptic swirls of grey paint, as well as a form of generativity.
In 1969, Richter produced the first of a group of grey monochromes that consist exclusively of the textures resulting from different methods of paint application.
In 1976, Richter first gave the title Abstract Painting to one of his works. By presenting a painting without even a few words to name and explain it, he felt he was "letting a thing come, rather than creating it." In his abstract pictures, Richter builds up cumulative layers of non-representational painting, beginning with brushing big swaths of primary color onto canvas. The paintings evolve in stages, based on his responses to the picture's progress: the incidental details and patterns that emerge. Throughout his process, Richter uses the same techniques he uses in his representational paintings, blurring and scraping to veil and expose prior layers.
From the mid-1980s, Richter began to use a homemade squeegee to rub and scrape the paint that he had applied in large bands across his canvases. In an interview with Benjamin H.D. Buchloch in 1986, Richter was asked about his "Monochrome Grey Pictures and Abstract Pictures" and their connection with the artists Yves Klein and Ellsworth Kelly. The following are Richter's answers:
The Grey Pictures were done at a time when there were monochrome paintings everywhere. I painted them nonetheless. ... Not Kelly, but Bob Ryman, Brice Marden, Alan Charlton, Yves Klein and many others.
In the 1990s the artist began to run his squeegee up and down the canvas in an ordered fashion to produce vertical columns that take on the look of a wall of planks.
Richter's abstract work and its illusion of space developed out of his incidental process: an accumulation of spontaneous, reactive gestures of adding, moving, and subtracting paint. Despite unnatural palettes, spaceless sheets of color, and obvious trails of the artist's tools, the abstract pictures often act like windows through which we see the landscape outside. As in his representational paintings, there is an equalization of illusion and paint. In those paintings, he reduces worldly images to mere incidents of Art. Similarly, in his abstract pictures, Richter exalts spontaneous, intuitive mark-making to a level of spatial logic and believability.
Firenze continues a cycle of 99 works conceived in the autumn of 1999 and executed in the same year and thereafter. This series belongs to the body of work of the overpainted photographs, or übermalte Fotographien, counting more than 2,000 pieces. Firenze consists of small paintings bearing images of the city of Florence, created by the artist as a tribute to the music of Steve Reich and the work of Contempoartensemble, a Florence-based group of musicians.
After 2000, Richter made a number of works that dealt with scientific phenomena, in particular, with aspects of reality that cannot be seen by the naked eye. In 2006, Richter conceived six paintings as a coherent group under the title Cage, named after the American avant-garde composer John Cage. The Cage paintings are large works constructed from intersecting fields, lines, and swaths of uneven smears that reflect the broad squeegee tool which Richter drags across the canvases, before removing areas of paint to generate a subtractive method of concealing and revealing variegated layers and patches. In May 2002, Richter photographed 216 details of his abstract painting no. 648-2, from 1987. Working on a long table over a period of several weeks, Richter combined these 10 x 15 cm details with 165 texts on the Iraq war, published in the German Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung newspaper on 20 and 21 March. This work was published in 2004 as a book entitled War Cut.
In November 2008, Richter began a series in which he applied ink droplets to wet paper, using alcohol and lacquer to extend and retard the ink's natural tendency to bloom and creep. The resulting November sheets are regarded as a significant departure from his previous watercolours in that the pervasive soaking of ink into wet paper produced double-sided works. Sometimes, the uppermost sheets bled into others, generating a sequentially developing series of images. In a few cases, Richter applied lacquer to one side of the sheet, or drew pencil lines across the patches of colour.
=== Color chart paintings ===
As early as 1966, Richter had made paintings based on colour charts. For these works, he drew inspirations from using the charts as found objects, which arranged rectangles of colors in an apparently limitless variety of hues. Richter's experiments culminated in 1973-74 in a series of large-format pictures, such as 256 Colours. Between 1966 and 1974, Richter painted three series of Color Chart works, each growing more ambitious in its attempt to create meaning through the purely arbitrary arrangement of colors. The artist began his investigations into the complex permutations of color charts in 1966, with a small painting entitled 10 Colors. The charts provided anonymous and impersonal source material, a way for Richter to disassociate color from any traditional, descriptive, symbolic or expressive end. When he began to make these paintings, Richter had his friend Blinky Palermo randomly call out colors, which Richter then adopted for his work. Chance thus plays its role in the creation of his first series.
Returning to color charts in the 1970s, Richter changed his focus from the readymade to the conceptual system, developing mathematical procedures for mixing colors and employing chance operations for their placement. The range of the colors he employed was determined by a mathematical system for mixing the primary colors in graduated amounts. Each color was then randomly ordered to create the resultant composition and form of the painting. Richter's second series of Color Charts was begun in 1971 and consisted of only five paintings. In the final series of Color Charts which preoccupied Richter throughout 1973 and 1974, additional elements to this permutational system of color production were added in the form of mixes of a light grey, a dark gray and later, a green.
Richter's 4900 Colours from 2007 consisted of bright monochrome squares that have been randomly arranged in a grid pattern to create stunning fields of kaleidoscopic color. It was produced at the same time he developed his design for the south transept window of Cologne Cathedral. 4900 Colours consists of 196 panels in 25 colors that can be reassembled in 11 variations – from a single expansive surface to multiple small-format fields. Richter developed Version II – 49 paintings, each of which measures 97 by 97 centimeters – especially for the Serpentine Gallery.
=== Sculpture ===
Richter began to use glass in his work in 1967, when he made Four Panes of Glass. These plain sheets of glass could tilt away from the poles on which they were mounted at an angle that changed from one installation to the next. In 1970, he and Blinky Palermo jointly submitted designs for the sports facilities for the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich. For the front of the arena, they proposed an array of glass windows in twenty-seven different colors; each color would appear fifty times, with the distribution determined randomly. In 1981, for a two-person show with Georg Baselitz in Düsseldorf, Richter produced the first of the monumental transparent mirrors that appear intermittently thereafter in his oeuvre; the mirrors are significantly larger than Richter's paintings and feature adjustable steel mounts. For pieces such as Mirror Painting (Grey, 735-2) (1991), the mirrors were coloured grey by coating the back of the glass with pigment. Arranged in two rooms, Richter presented an ensemble of paintings and colored mirrors in a special pavilion designed in collaboration with architect Paul Robbrecht at Documenta 9 in Kassel in 1992.
In 2002, for the Dia Art Foundation, Richter created a glass sculpture in which seven parallel panes of glass refract light and the world beyond, offering altered visions of the exhibition space; Spiegel I (Mirror I) and Spiegel II (Mirror II), a two-part mirror piece from 1989 that measures 7' tall and 18' feet long, which alters the boundaries of the environment and again changes one's visual experience of the gallery; and Kugel (Sphere), 1992, a stainless steel sphere that acts as a mirror, reflecting the space. Since 2002, the artist has created a series of three dimensional glass constructions, such as 6 Standing Glass Panels (2002/2011).
=== Drawings ===
In 2010, the Drawing Center showed Lines which do not exist, a survey of Richter's drawings from 1966 to 2005, including works made using mechanical intervention such as attaching a pencil to an electric hand drill. It was the first career overview of Richter in the United States since 40 Years of Painting at the Museum of Modern Art in 2002. In a review of Lines which do not exist, R. H. Lossin wrote in The Brooklyn Rail: "Viewed as a personal (and possibly professional) deficiency, Richter's drawing practice consisted of diligently documenting something that didn't work—namely a hand that couldn't draw properly. ...Richter displaces the concept of the artist's hand with hard evidence of his own, wobbly, failed, and very material appendage."
=== Commissions ===
Throughout his career, Richter has mostly declined lucrative licensing deals and private commissions. Measuring 9 by 9 ½ feet and depicting both the Milan Duomo and the square's 19th-century Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, Domplatz, Mailand (1968) was a commission from Siemens, and it hung in that company's offices in Milan from 1968 to 1998. (In 1998, Sotheby's sold it in London, where it fetched what was then a record price for Richter, $3.6 million). In 1980, Richter and Isa Genzken were commissioned to design the König-Heinrich-Platz underground station in Duisburg; it was only completed in 1992. In 1986, Richter received a commission for two large-scale paintings – Victoria I and Victoria II – from the Victoria insurance company in Düsseldorf. In 1990, along with Sol LeWitt and Oswald Mathias Ungers, he created works for the Bayerische Hypotheken- und Wechselbank in Düsseldorf. In 1998, he installed a wall piece based on the colours of Germany's flag in the rebuilt Reichstag in Berlin. In 2012 he was asked to design the first page of the German newspaper Die Welt. In 2017 Richter designed the label of the 2015 Chateau Mouton Rothschild's first wine of that year.
=== Church windows ===
In 2002, the same year as his MoMA retrospective, Richter was asked to design a stained glass window in the Cologne Cathedral. In August 2007, his window was unveiled. It is an 113 square metres (1,220 sq ft) abstract collage of 11,500 pixel-like squares in 72 colors, randomly arranged by computer (with some symmetry), reminiscent of his 1974 painting 4096 colours. The artist waived any fee, and the costs of materials and mounting the window came to around €370,000 ($506,000), covered by donations from more than 1,000 people. Cardinal Joachim Meisner did not attend the window's unveiling as he would have preferred it to have been a figurative representation of 20th century Christian martyrs and said that Richter's window would fit better in a mosque or other prayer house. A professed atheist with "a strong leaning towards Catholicism", Richter had his three children with his third wife baptized in the Cologne Cathedral.
In September 2020, Richter unveiled his three 30-foot-tall stained-glass windows for the Tholey Abbey, one of the oldest monasteries in Germany. He called them his last major work, adding that he would focus on drawings and sketches from then on. The large choir windows were made by Gustva van Treeck, an esteemed glass workshop in nearby Munich. They are abstract painted works inspired by his "Pattern" series from the 1990s. An additional 34 figurative stained glass windows designed for the abbey by Afghan-German Muslim artist Mahbuba Maqsoodi are expected to be completed by Easter 2021. The monks of the abbey hoped the windows would promote tourism to the abbey and its town and bring people into the faith.
== Exhibitions ==
Richter first began exhibiting in Düsseldorf in 1963. Richter had his first gallery solo show in 1964 at Galerie Schmela in Düsseldorf. Soon after, he had exhibitions in Munich and Berlin and by the early 1970s exhibited frequently throughout Europe and the United States. In 1966, Bruno Bischofberger was the first to show Richter's works outside Germany. Richter's first retrospective took place at the Kunsthalle Bremen in 1976 and covered works from 1962 to 1974. A traveling retrospective at Düsseldorf's Kunsthalle in 1986 was followed in 1991 by a retrospective at the Tate Gallery, London. In 1993, he received a major touring retrospective "Gerhard Richter: Malerei 1962–1993" curated by Kasper König, with a three volume catalogue edited by Benjamin Buchloh. This exhibition containing 130 works carried out over the course of thirty years, was to entirely reinvent Richter's career.
Richter became known to a U.S. audience in 1990, when the Saint Louis Art Museum circulated Baader-Meinhof (18 October 1977), a show that that was later seen at the Lannan Foundation in Marina del Rey, California. Richter's first North American retrospective was in 1998 at the Art Gallery of Ontario and at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago. In 2002, a 40-year retrospective of Richter's work was held at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, and traveled to the Art Institute of Chicago, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, and the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, D.C.In 2016 he took part in international exhibition Doppelgänger, Torrance Art Museum, California. His work is included in the permanent collections of several museum institutions in the US, such as the Pérez Art Museum Miami.
He has participated in several international art shows, including the Venice Biennale (1972, 1980, 1984, 1997 and 2007), as well as Documenta V (1972), VII (1982), VIII (1987), IX (1992), and X (1997). In 2006, an exhibition at the Getty Center connected the landscapes of Richter to the Romantic pictures of Caspar David Friedrich, showing that both artists "used abstraction, expansiveness, and emptiness to express transcendent emotion through painting."
The Gerhard Richter Archive was established in cooperation with the artist in 2005 as an institute of the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden. In 2020, Gerhard Richter established the Gerhard Richter Art Foundation, a non-profit foundation dedicated to preserving his work and making it available for exhibitions.
The first major exhibition of his work in Australia, Gerhard Richter: The Life of Images, was mounted by the Queensland Gallery of Modern Art in Brisbane from 14 October 2017 to 4 February 2018. It included more than 90 works, including the newly created Atlas Overview, a 400-panel extract selected by Richter from the larger Atlas project now deemed too fragile for loan or travel.
In 2022, the Raphael Durazzo Gallery exhibited 2014: 20. November 2014, oil on colored photograph, 15 x 10 cm.
=== Solo exhibitions (selection) ===
Gerhard Richter 4900 Colours: Version II at the Serpentine Gallery, London, United Kingdom. 2008
Gerhard Richter Portraits at the National Portrait Gallery, London, United Kingdom. 2009
Gerhard Richter: Panorama at the Tate Modern, London, United Kingdom. 2011
Gerhard Richter at the Centre Pompidou, Paris, France. 2012
Gerhard Richter: Panorama at the Neue Nationalgalerie, Berlin, Germany. 2012
Gerhard Richter – Editions 1965–2011 at me Collectors Room Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Gerhard Richter: 'Mood', at Beyeler Foundation, Riehen, Switzerland. 2017.
Gerhard Richter: The Birkenau Paintings at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Met Fifth Avenue. 2020
Gerhard Richter: Painting After All at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, The MET Breuer, New York. 2020.
Gerhard Richter: Drawings, 1999-2021, at the Hayward Gallery, London, United Kingdom. 2021.
Gerhard Richter. Landschaft, Kunsthaus Zürich, Zurich. 2021
Gerhard Richter: Engadin, joint exhibition at Nietzsche-House, Sils-Maria; the Segantini Museum, St. Moritz; and Hauser & Wirth, St. Moritz, Switzerland. 2024.
Gerhard Richter at the Fondation Louis Vuitton, Paris, France. 2025 - 2026.
Gerhard Richter at the David Zwirner Gallery, Paris France. 2025.
== Gallery ==
== Recognition ==
Although Richter gained popularity and critical praise throughout his whole career, his fame burgeoned during his 2005 retrospective exhibition, which declared his place among the most important artists of the 20th century. Today, many call Gerhard Richter the best living painter. In part, this comes from his ability to explore the medium at a time when many were heralding its death. Richter has been the recipient of numerous prominent awards, including the State Prize of the state North Rhine-Westphalia, 2000; the Wexner Prize, 1998; the Praemium Imperiale, Japan, 1997; the Golden Lion of the 47th Biennale, Venice, 1997; the Wolf Prize, Israel, 1994/5; the Goslarer Kaiserring Prize der Stadt Goslar, Mönchehaus-Museum für Moderne Kunst, Goslar, Germany, 1988; the Oskar Kokoschka Prize, Vienna, 1985; the Arnold Bode Prize, Kassel, 1981; and the Junger Western Art Prize, Germany, 1961. He was made an honorary citizen of Cologne in April 2007. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2012.
=== Influence ===
Among the students who studied with Richter at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf between 1971 and 1994 were Ludger Gerdes, Hans-Jörg Holubitschka, Bernard Lokai, Thomas Schütte, Thomas Struth, Katrin Kneffel, Michael van Ofen, and Richter's second wife, Isa Genzken. He is known to have influenced Ellsworth Kelly, Christopher Wool and Johan Andersson.
He has also served as source of inspiration for writers and musicians. Sonic Youth used a painting of his for the cover art for their album Daydream Nation in 1988. He was a fan of the band and did not charge for the use of his image. The original, over 7 metres (23 ft) square, is now showcased in Sonic Youth's studio in NYC. Don DeLillo's short story "Baader-Meinhof" describes an encounter between two strangers at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. The meeting takes place in the room displaying 18 October 1977 (1988).
Photographer Cotton Coulson described Richter as "one of [his] favourite artists".
For the last 18 years, Gerhard Richter has been the number one on a Kunstkompass scale of most important world artists, made by a German magazine Capital.
=== Position in the art market ===
Following an exhibition with Blinky Palermo at Galerie Heiner Friedrich in 1971, Richter's formal arrangement with the dealer came to an end in 1972. Thereafter, Friedrich was only entitled to sell the paintings that he had already obtained contractually from Richter. In the following years, Richter showed with Galerie Konrad Fischer, Düsseldorf, and Sperone Westwater, New York. Richter's primary dealer and representative gallery between 1985 and 2022 was Marian Goodman. Since December 2022, Richter is represented by David Zwirner Gallery. Today, museums own roughly 38% of Richter's works, including half of his large abstract paintings. By 2004, Richter's annual turnover was $120 million. At the same time, his works often appear at auction. According to artnet, an online firm that tracks the art market, $76.9 million worth of Richter's work was sold at auction in 2010. Richter's high turnover volume reflects his prolificacy as well as his popularity. As of 2012, no fewer than 545 distinct Richter's works had sold at auctions for more than $100,000. 15 of them had sold for more than $10,000,000 between 2007 and 2012. Richter's paintings have been flowing steadily out of Germany since the mid-1990s even as certain important German collectors – Frieder Burda, Josef Fröhlich, Georg Böckmann, and Ulrich Ströher – have held on to theirs.
Richter's candle paintings were the first to command high auction prices. Three months after his MoMA exhibition opened in 2001, Sotheby's sold his Three Candles (1982) for $5.3 million. In February 2008, the artist's eldest daughter, Betty, sold her Kerze (1983) for £7,972,500 ($15 million), triple the high estimate, at Sotheby's in London. His 1982 Kerze (Candle) sold for £10.5 million ($16.5 million) at Christie's London in October 2011.
In February 2008, Christie's London set a first record for Richter's "capitalist realism" pictures from the 1960s by selling the painting Zwei Liebespaare (1966) for £7,300,500 ($14.3 million) to Stephan Schmidheiny. In 2010, the Weserburg modern art museum in Bremen, Germany, decided to sell Richter's 1966 painting Matrosen (Sailors) in a November auction held by Sotheby's, where John D. Arnold bought it for $13 million. Vierwaldstätter See, the largest of a distinct series of four views of Lake Lucerne painted by Richter in 1969, sold for £15.8 million ($24 million) at Christie's London in 2015.
Another coveted group of works is the Abstrakte Bilder series, particularly those made after 1988, which are finished with a large squeegee rather than a brush or roller. At Pierre Bergé & Associés in July 2009, Richter's 1979 oil painting Abstraktes Bild exceeded its estimate, selling for €95,000 ($136,000). Richter's Abstraktes Bild, of 1990 was made the top price of 7.2 million pounds, or about $11.6 million, at a Sotheby's sale in February 2011 to a bidder who was said by dealers to be an agent for the New York dealer Larry Gagosian. In November 2011, Sotheby's sold a group of colorful abstract canvases by Richter, including Abstraktes Bild 849-3, which made a record price for the artist at auction when Lily Safra paid $20.8 million only to donate it to the Israel Museum afterwards. Months later, a record $21.8 million was paid at Christie's for the 1993 painting Abstraktes Bild 798-3. Abstraktes Bild (809–4), one of the artist's abstract canvases from 1994, was sold by Eric Clapton at Sotheby's to a telephone bidder for $34.2 million in late 2012. (It had been estimated to bring $14.1 million to $18.8 million.)
This was exceeded in May 2013 when his 1968 piece Cathedral Square, Milan was sold for $37.1 million (£24.4 million) in New York. This was further exceeded in February 2015 when his 1986 painting Abstraktes Bild (599) sold for $44.52 million (£30.4 million) in London at Sotheby's Contemporary Evening Sale. This was the highest price at auction of a piece of contemporary art at the time; Richter's record was broken on 12 November 2013 when Jeff Koons' Balloon Dog (Orange), sold at Christie's Post-War and Contemporary Art Evening Sale in New York City for US$58.4 million.
When asked about art prices like these, Richter said "It's just as absurd as the banking crisis. It's impossible to understand and it's daft!"
=== Film ===
In 2003, Gerald Fox made a documentary on the life of Gerhard Richter in which he starred. In 2007, Corinna Belz made a short film called Gerhard Richter's Window. In 2011, Belz's feature-length documentary entitled Gerhard Richter Painting was released. The film focused almost entirely on the world's highest paid living artist producing his large-scale abstract squeegee works in his studio. The 2018 drama film Never Look Away is inspired by Richter's life story.
In 2016 and 2019 Richter worked again with Corinna Belz on two films based on his 2012 book Patterns. The previous piece named Richters Patterns when shown is partnered with music by the German composer Marcus Schmickler, the later one by the American composer Steve Reich, both performed by a live ensemble. The later work in turn is part of a larger two-section collaboration, Reich Richter Pärt which was commissioned for the inaugural season at The Shed in the Hudson Yards development in Manhattan in New York City.
== See also ==
Wand (Wall)
Birkenau series
== References ==
=== Sources ===
Elger, Dietmar (2009). Gerhard Richter – A Life in Painting. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-20323-2.
Richter, Gerhard; Harten, Jürgen (1986). Gerhard Richter: Bilder 1962–1985. Köln: DuMont.
Richter, Gerhard; Obrist, Hans Ulrich (1995). The Daily Practice of Painting: Writings and Interviews, 1962–1993. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
== Further reading ==
Götz Adriani: "Gerhard Richter: Paintings From Private Collections", Hatje Cantz, 2008. ISBN 978-3-7757-2137-0
Ulrich Bischoff/Elisabeth Hipp/Jeanne Anne Nugent: "From Caspar David Friedrich to Gerhard Richter": German Paintings from Dresden. Getty Trust Publications, Jean Paul Getty Museum, Cologne 2006.
Hubertus Butin/Stefan Gronert: "Gerhard Richter. Editions 1965–2004". Catalogue raisonné, Ostfildern-Ruit (Hatje Cantz) 2003/2004. ISBN 3-7757-1430-8
Bruno Eble, Gerhard Richter : la surface du regard, L'Harmattan, 2006 ISBN 978-2-296-01527-2 (in French)
Dietmar Elger: "Gerhard Richter, Landscapes", Ostfildern-Ruit (Hatje Cantz) 2002. ISBN 3-7757-9101-9
Eckhart Gillen: "Gerhard Richter: Mr. Heyde or the murders are among us". The battle with the trauma of the displaced history of Western Germany. In: Eckhart Gillen: Problems in searching for the truth (...), Berlin 2002, p. 186–191. (in German)
Jürgen Harten (ed.): "Gerhard Richter. Paintings 1962–1985". With a catalogue raisonné from Dietmar Elger 1962–1985, Cologne 1986. (in German)
Ernst Hohenthal: "A family secret in the public domain". New revelations about Gerhard Richter's Herr Heyde, in: Christies's Magazine, November 2006, New York and London 2006, ISSN 0266-1217 Vol. XXIII. No. 5, pp. 62ff.
Andrew McNamara: "Optative Death: Gerhard Richter in the Wake of the Vanguard" in Elizabeth Klaver (ed.), Images of the Corpse: From the Renaissance to Cyberspace (The University of Wisconsin Press) 2004. ISBN 0-299-19790-5
Jeanne Anne Nugent: "Family Album and Shadow Archive": Gerhard Richter's East, West, and all German Painting, 1949–1966. Dissertation in the History of Art presented to the Faculties of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 2005.
Gerhard Richter: "The Condition of History" in: Charles Harrison & Paul Wood (eds.), "Art in Theory 1900–1990". An Anthology of Changing Ideas, Malden/Mass. (Blackwell Publishers Ltd.), 1999.
Obrist, Hans Ulrich: "Gerhard Richter: 100 Pictures", Hatje Cantz Publishers, 2002. ISBN 978-3-7757-9100-7
Obrist, Hans Ulrich: "Gerhard Richter. 100 paintings", Ostfildern-Ruit (Hatje Cantz) 2005. ISBN 3-89322-851-9 (in German)
Obrist, Hans Ulrich: "Gerhard Richter: 4900 Colours", Hatje Cantz, 2009. ISBN 978-3-7757-2344-2
Obrist, Hans Ulrich; Elger Dietmar: "Gerhard Richter: Writings", Distributed Art Publishers, 2009. ISBN 978-1-933045-94-8
Jürgen Schilling: "Gerhard Richter. A private collection", Duesseldorf 2004. ISBN 3-937572-00-7 (in German)
Schreiber, Jürgen (2005). Ein Maler aus Deutschland [A painter from Germany] (in German). Munich and Zürich: Pendo. ISBN 3-86612-058-3.
Robert Storr: "Gerhard Richter, Painting", Ostfildern-Ruit (Hatje Cantz) 2002. ISBN 3-7757-1169-4 (in German)
Storr, Robert: "Gerhard Richter: Forty Years of Painting", Museum of Modern Art, New York, 2002. ISBN 978-1-891024-37-5
Angelika Thill: "Catalogue raisonné since 1962" in: Kunst- und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutschland GmbH (ed.): "Gerhard Richter", Ostfildern-Ruit 1993. Thill offers the now accepted catalogue raisonné between 1963 and 1993. (in German)
Franz J. Giessibl: "First View Inside an Atom. Encounters with Gerhard Richter between Art and Science" Walther and Franz König Verlag, Cologne, 2022. ISBN 978-3-7533-0188-4
Hans Ulrich Obrist: "The Richter Interviews", London (HENI Publishing) 2023 (second edition). ISBN 978-1-912122-59-2
Uwe M. Schneede: "Gerhard Richter: Der unbedingte Maler", Munich (C.H. Beck) 2024. ISBN 978-3-406-82149-3
Wagstaff, Sheena. "Gerhard Richter: Painting After", Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2020. ISBN 978-1-588-39685-3
== External links ==
Official website
Gerhard Richter Archive | State Art Collections Dresden, Germany
Gerhard Richter at the David Zwirner Gallery
Gerhard Richter at the Museum of Modern Art |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avedis_Zildjian_Company | Avedis Zildjian Company | The Avedis Zildjian Company, simply known as Zildjian (), is a musical instrument manufacturer specializing in cymbals and other percussion instruments. Founded by the ethnic Armenian Zildjian family in the 17th-century Ottoman Empire, the company relocated to the United States in the 20th century. Today, it is the largest cymbal and drumstick maker in the world.
The company was founded in Constantinople (modern day Istanbul) in 1623 by Avedis Zildjian, an Armenian. Zildjian is now based in Norwell, Massachusetts. Zildjian is the oldest manufacturer of musical instruments in the world as well as one of the oldest continuously operating companies in the world. Zildjian sells cymbals, drumsticks, percussion mallets and other drum accessories under the Zildjian, Vic Firth and Balter Mallet brands.
== History ==
=== Beginnings ===
The first Zildjian cymbals were created in 1618 by Avedis Zildjian, an Armenian metalsmith and alchemist. Like his father, who was also a metalsmith, he worked for the court of the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire in Constantinople. He made an alloy of tin, copper, and silver into a sheet of metal, which could make musical sounds without shattering. Sultan Mustafa I gave Avedis eighty gold pieces as a bequest, in addition to officially recognizing the surname Zilciyan or Zildjian, meaning "Son of a Cymbal Maker" or "Family of Cymbalsmiths" in Armenian (with zil being Turkish for "cymbal", ci meaning "maker", and ian being the Armenian suffix meaning "son of"). In 1623 the Sultan granted him permission to leave the palace to start his own business in the Armenian sector of Constantinople, called Psamatia.
Zildjian's shop manufactured cymbals for the mehter, Ottoman military bands consisting of wind and percussion instruments, which belonged to the Janissaries. Mehter ensembles, which were known in the West primarily for playing in battle, also performed courtly music for Ottoman rulers. The Zildjians also produced instruments for Greek and Armenian churches, Sufi dervishes, and belly dancers of the Ottoman harem, who wore finger cymbals.
After the death of Avedis, the business, and the secret for producing the metal, was handed down to several generations of male heirs. In the early 19th century, Haroutune Zildjian passed it on to his son Avedis II. In 1850, Avedis II built a 25-foot schooner, in order to sail cymbals produced in Constantinople to trade exhibitions such as the Great Exhibition in London, and to supply musicians in Europe. He died in 1865, and since his sons were too young, his brother Kerope II took over the company. He introduced a line of instruments called K Zildjian, which are used by classical musicians to this day. Kerope II died in 1909 in Constantinople.
=== 20th century ===
Following Kerope’s death, the business returned to Avedis’s side of the family. The eldest, Haroutune II, had become a lawyer and held a high position in the Ottoman government, thus he was not interested, and being a bachelor, he passed it to Aram. He was involved in the Armenian nationalist movement and resistance to the atrocities of the ruling Sultan, Abdul Hamid II. This was a time of political upheaval when the Ottoman Empire was in decline.
During Aram's exile, Kerope II's daughter Victoria oversaw the Constantinople factory. There are conflicting accounts, but it is thought that Aram returned there in 1926.
Haroutune II's son Avedis III had left Armenia for the United States in 1909, and settled in Boston, where he established a family and a confectionary business. In 1927, he received a letter from his uncle Aram, informing him that he was to become heir to the family business, and Aram came to the US. In 1928, Avedis III, his brother Puzant, and his uncle Aram Zildjian began manufacturing cymbals in Quincy, Massachusetts, and the Avedis Zildjian Co. was formed the following year in 1929.
Avedis III sought out jazz drummers like Gene Krupa to understand their needs. The new cymbals he developed were widely adopted by swing and later bebop musicians, laying the foundations of the modern drum kit and playing technique.
Sales of Zildjian cymbals dramatically increased after Ringo Starr used the product in The Beatles' appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show in 1964. This created an enormous backorder situation. In 1968, in order to address this backlog, a second plant, the Azco factory, was opened in Meductic, New Brunswick, Canada.
In 1975, Zildjian began making K. Zildjian cymbals at the Azco plant. These were made until 1979. Within four years (1980), all K Cymbals were being made in the Norwell US plant, because the Ks demanded far more oversight. Armand worked with friends, the drummers Elvin Jones and Tony Williams to relaunch the K Series.
In early 1977, Armand Zildjian was appointed President of the Avedis Zildjian Company by his father. Soon after, Robert Zildjian split from the company amidst conflict with his brother, Armand. In 1981, Robert started making Sabian cymbals in the Canadian Azco factory.
=== 21st century ===
In 2002, Armand died at age 81. The Zildjian alloy recipe passed to his daughters, Craigie and Debbie (14th generation), both of whom continue to run the family business from the current headquarters in Norwell, Massachusetts.
In 2010, Zildjian acquired the Vic Firth Company and in 2018 acquired the Mike Balter Mallet company.
== See also ==
List of oldest companies
Sabian – Cymbal maker founded by Robert Zildjian after a family/legal dispute
List of drum makers
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Sullivan, James (September 19, 2023). "Celebrating its 400th anniversary, the leading name in crashing, banging, and clanging has made a home here". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 2023-09-22.
== External links ==
Official website
Armand Zildjian Interview at NAMM Oral History Collection
Deborah Zildjian Interview at NAMM Oral History Collection
Craigie Zildjian Interview at NAMM Oral History Collection |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado_outbreak_of_June_5%E2%80%936,_2010#June_5_event | Tornado outbreak of June 5–6, 2010 | The tornado outbreak of June 5–6, 2010, was a tornado outbreak that affected the Midwestern United States and parts of the Great Lakes region, starting the weekend of June 5, 2010, and extending into the morning of June 6, 2010. At least 53 tornadoes were confirmed from Iowa to southern Ontario and Ohio as well as in northern New England. Seven people were confirmed dead in Ohio just outside Toledo in Wood County, and one in Dwight, Illinois. Damage from the tornadoes in the United States totaled over $266 million.
== Meteorological synopsis ==
A low pressure system moved across the central United States on June 5 where a moderate risk for severe thunderstorms was issued for areas along Interstate 80 from the Quad Cities area to near Cleveland, Ohio and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Strong storms developed early in the afternoon across most of the area covered under the moderate risk and into central Iowa. Tornadoes were reported near Interstate 35 as well as in parts of central Ohio.
Severe weather shifted into Illinois during the early evening hours as the daytime heating and instability peaked. Tornadoes were reported in the Peoria, Illinois area as well as in areas just west of Chicago during the early evening hours. Heavy damage was reported in LaSalle County, Illinois as well as in Livingston County, Illinois. A tornado emergency was issued in the Peoria area after multiple sightings just outside the city. Heavy damage was reported in the Elmwood and Yates City area. In Streator, an EF2 tornado damaged 180 homes, destroyed 20 homes and injured 17 people. Two other tornadoes (rated EF0 and EF3) touched down just outside Streator as well, causing additional damage to homes and power lines. In Dwight a second EF2 tornado struck a mobile home park, destroying 12 homes and leaving several others uninhabitable. Other buildings were damaged in town and several well-built homes lost their roofs. Two separate EF0 tornadoes touched down in Dwight as well, causing damage to roofs, trees, and derailing a train. Six people were injured from the tornado, one of whom died from his injuries at the end of the month.
After midnight, storms moved into northern Indiana, northern Ohio, southern Michigan and southwestern Ontario where heavy damage was reported just outside Toledo in Wood County where seven people were killed. In Allen Township, eight homes were destroyed, three received major damage and 10 received minor damage. Heavy damage was also reported in Leamington, Ontario where a state of emergency was declared. In Michigan, shortly after midnight, Calhoun, Kalamazoo, Hillsdale, Jackson, Ingham, Branch, Berrien, Van Buren, Saint Joseph, Washtenaw, Wayne, and Monroe counties were all under simultaneous tornado warnings, including two separate simultaneous warnings covering all of Calhoun County. Damage in Calhoun County included downed trees and a metal flagpole bent at a right angle in Homer, Michigan due to extreme winds. The decision to sound tornado sirens was made in many communities. An EF1 tornado was confirmed just south of Battle Creek by the NWS; damage included a roof being torn off of a church. An EF2 tornado damaged a total of 311 houses, apartments and commercial and public buildings in Monroe County.
A moderate risk was issued for June 6 across the northeast coast of the United States primarily due to damaging wind, with tornadoes also a significant threat. However, it busted for the most part, with only scattered wind damage and no tornadoes.
== Confirmed tornadoes ==
Note: 5 tornadoes in Ontario are using the older Fujita scale
=== June 5 event ===
=== June 6 event ===
== Aftermath ==
Illinois Governor Pat Quinn declared LaSalle, Livingston, Peoria and Putnam counties disaster areas. Allegations of racial discrimination in the mainly African American communities of Pembroke Township and Hopkins Park occurred after they were not included in the state disaster area. Quinn said that Kankakee County had not made a request on the behalf of Pembroke. Many residents of Pembroke received no warning before the tornadoes moved through the area. The community had received a state grant to purchase a tornado siren, but the money had never been allocated, leaving the town of 2,784 residents without any warning system. After it was revealed the area had no working siren, state lawmakers Lisa Dugan and Toi Hutchinson promised every home in the area would be supplied with a weather radio, and funding would be raised for a tornado siren. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) rejected federal disaster aid for victims in Elmwood, Illinois.
== See also ==
List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
== References ==
== External links ==
Shattered Lives: The Blade's continuing coverage of June 5 tornadoes Published June 19, 2010 by The Blade
Continuing coverage of the tornadoes and clean-up effort from WTOL
Photos of tornado damage from WMAQ-TV
June 5, 2010: Tornado Touchdown: Wood & Ottawa Counties (National Weather Service Cleveland forecast office) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kris_Cuppens | Kris Cuppens | Kris Cuppens (born 22 May 1962) is a Belgian actor and writer.
Cuppens was born in Neeroeteren and discovered theatre in secondary school. He studied architecture at university, but rediscovered his love for the theatre during an audition for Jan Fabre in Brussels. After studying acting at the royal conservatory, he left Belgium for New York, to study at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute.
In 1995 he appeared on television in the series Heterdaad ("Caught Red Handed") in the role of police inspector Willy Martens. He met Dirk Tuypens, with whom he became involved in the peace movement and bombspotting. This collaboration led to the theatrical production Vaderland ("Fatherland"). On the set of Heterdaad he met Joachim Lafosse, with whom he made several films, among them Tribu, Ça rend heureux, and Nue Propriété.
His work is notable for drawing on his Flemish and Limburgish roots. He wrote a theatrical play, Lied ("Song") which is largely autobiographical, telling about three generations of Flemings (his grandfather, his father and himself), the war, and the coal mining strikes in Limburg. On 18 November 2006, he won the Taalunie Toneelschrijfprijs award for Lied.
Cuppens teaches about drama and theatre in Maastricht, Leuven, Antwerp and Brussels.
== References ==
== External links ==
Kris Cuppens at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginnifer_Goodwin | Ginnifer Goodwin | Ginnifer Goodwin (born Jennifer Michelle Goodwin; May 22, 1978) is an American actress. She starred as Margene Heffman in the HBO drama series Big Love (2006–2011), Snow White / Mary Margaret Blanchard in the ABC fantasy series Once Upon a Time (2011–2018), Judy Hopps in Zootopia (2016) and its 2025 sequel, and Beth Ann Stanton in Why Women Kill (2019).
Goodwin appeared in films, including the drama Mona Lisa Smile (2003), the musical biopic Walk the Line (2005), the romantic comedy He's Just Not That Into You (2009), the family comedy Ramona and Beezus (2010), the romantic comedy Something Borrowed (2011), and the biopic Killing Kennedy (2013). She also voiced the lead role of Fawn in the Disney animated fantasy film Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast (2014).
== Early life and education ==
Goodwin was born in Memphis, Tennessee. Her mother, Linda (née Kantor) Goodwin, is a former teacher who also worked for FedEx. Her father, Tim Goodwin, formerly owned and operated a recording studio. Goodwin changed the spelling of her name from "Jennifer" to "Ginnifer" to make it distinct and to reflect how it is pronounced in her Southern regional dialect. Her younger sister, Melissa Goodwin, is a stop-motion animator on shows such as Robot Chicken.
Goodwin's mother is Jewish. Goodwin was raised attending both the First Unitarian Church and Temple Israel. As a child, she attended the Henry S. Jacobs Camp, a summer camp for Reform Jewish children in Utica, Mississippi. She was baptized as a child and also studied to have a bat mitzvah service, in the Jewish custom of recognizing her coming of age.
In her youth, Goodwin was affiliated with the North American Federation of Temple Youth. She was active in BBYO at the Jewish Community Center in Memphis. She attended the private St. Mary's Episcopal School in Memphis, Tennessee. She graduated from Lausanne Collegiate School in 1996.
She attended Hanover College (majoring in theater) for one year before transferring and completing her Bachelor of Fine Arts from Boston University. While a student at BU, she performed in numerous student short films, as well as several college and local stage productions. Goodwin was given the "Excellence in Acting: Professional Promise Award" by the Bette Davis Foundation, and graduated with honors. After her time at Boston University, she lived for a time in England and studied at Stratford on Avon's Shakespeare Institute, in conjunction with the Royal Shakespeare Company. The following year, she earned an Acting Shakespeare Certificate from London's Royal Academy of Dramatic Art.
== Career ==
=== 1996–2010: Early work ===
Goodwin first had roles in the NBC television programs Law & Order and Ed before appearing in the Comedy Central television movie Porn 'n Chicken. She later had substantial roles in the films Mona Lisa Smile, Win a Date with Tad Hamilton!, Walk the Line—in which she portrayed Vivian Liberto, Johnny Cash's first wife—and Birds of America. She also played Dori Dumchovic in the dark comedy Love Comes to the Executioner. Goodwin played a leading role as Margene Heffman, the third wife in a polygamous family, on the HBO original series Big Love, which concluded on March 20, 2011. Goodwin has done voice work in the Adult Swim series Robot Chicken, where her younger sister Melissa works as an animator.
In 2008, Max Mara honored Goodwin with a "Face of the Future" award, an award recognizing up-and-coming women in film.
Goodwin played Gigi in He's Just Not That Into You (2009). For this role, she received a nomination for the People's Choice Award for Breakout Movie Actress. In April 2009, she began filming Ramona and Beezus, playing "Aunt Bea". The film was released on July 23, 2010.
=== 2011–2021: Independent roles ===
From 2011 to 2017, Goodwin played a leading role in the ABC fantasy drama series Once Upon a Time. She played both the fairy tale heroine Snow White and her real-world counterpart, schoolteacher Mary Margaret Blanchard. Goodwin and husband Josh Dallas left the show at the end of its sixth season to move back to Los Angeles with their family. They both returned to the series for its finale at the end of the seventh season.
Goodwin voiced Judy Hopps, the protagonist rabbit police officer in Disney's Zootopia, as well as Fawn in Disney's animated film Tinker Bell and the Legend of the Neverbeast. She also voiced Gwen, a kitchen maid who wants to be an inventor, in the animated series Sofia The First.
In January 2017, Goodwin was cast as Marianne in the Los Angeles production of Constellations. The play ran from June 14 to July 23, 2017, at the Geffen Playhouse.
In 2019, Goodwin appeared in episodes of the anthology series The Twilight Zone and Heartstrings. Also in 2019, she starred as Beth Ann in the first season of the CBS All Access dark comedy-drama series Why Women Kill.
=== 2022–present: Breakthrough and Post-Zootopia ===
Goodwin played Jodie in the Fox comedy series Pivoting, which premiered on January 9, 2022. The show was cancelled after one season.
Archive audio of Goodwin as the character Judy Hopps was used in the animated anthology series Zootopia+, streamed on Disney+ in 2022. She reprised her voice role in Disney's Zootopia 2, released in November 2025.
== Personal life ==
Goodwin dated actor Joey Kern beginning in April 2009 and they became engaged in December 2010. They ended the engagement in May 2011. Goodwin subsequently began dating her Once Upon a Time co-star Josh Dallas in late 2011. They got engaged in October 2013 and married on April 12, 2014, in California. They have two sons, born in May 2014 and June 2016.
In 2013, Goodwin said that after leaving Memphis, she "up and left Judaism for a very long time," and that "for 10 years, there was nothing. No ritual. No tradition. No community." She later reconnected with her faith, and has said, "I was a Jew by birth, and now I'm a Jew by choice."
== Politics ==
Following the 2023 Hamas attacks on Israel, Goodwin has been vocal about her support for Israel on social media, calling for the return of hostages on her Instagram account. Goodwin also filmed a video for the American Jewish Committee in which she said that the phrase "Globalize the Intifada" called for Jews worldwide to be attacked. In February 2024, Goodwin signed an open letter by Creative Community for Peace rejecting calls for Israel to be banned from Eurovision 2024. In September 2024, Goodwin attended Zionist activist Hen Mazzig's seminar Jews Talk Justice Laboratories in Los Angeles.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Video games ===
Disney Infinity 3.0 (2015), as Judy Hopps (voice role)
== Theater ==
Constellations (2017) at Geffen Playhouse, as Marianne
== Awards and nominations ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Ginnifer Goodwin at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Brooklyn_Nine-Nine_characters | List of Brooklyn Nine-Nine characters | Brooklyn Nine-Nine is an American sitcom which premiered in September 2013 on Fox, and later moved to NBC. The show revolves around the detective squad of the fictional 99th Precinct of the New York Police Department, located in Brooklyn.
== Cast ==
=== Main ===
=== Supporting ===
== Main characters ==
=== Jake Peralta ===
Andy Samberg portrays Jacob "Jake" Jeffrey Peralta, the series's protagonist. At the beginning of the series, Peralta is portrayed as an exceptional detective despite his immaturity, engaging in pranks and making childish jokes at the expense of his colleagues. He is fun-loving, sarcastic, and is often motivated by his emotions. Despite his goofiness, Peralta is smart, perceptive, and quick thinking, and as such has the best arrest rate in the precinct. In the pilot, Terry Jeffords explains to Captain Holt that Peralta is his best detective.
Jake's father, Roger Peralta, an airline pilot, abandoned the family during Jake's childhood. Jake initially refuses to celebrate Thanksgiving, since he associates the holiday with his father's absence. After Jake calls his father out for his irresponsible parenting in "Captain Peralta", the two slowly began to mend their relationship. In the season 5 episode "Two Turkeys", Jake finds out he has three half-sisters, along with an unknown number of half-brothers. He meets one of his half-sisters, Kate, in the episode "DFW". He mentions being half Jewish and half Italian in the show.
Jake began his career as a patrol officer with the 74th Precinct and was partnered with Stevie Schillens; the two nicknamed themselves the "Beatsie Boys". He was promoted to detective with the 99th Precinct in 2005. He has a strong emotional tie to his muscle car, a 1967 Ford Mustang, which he buys outright on his first day as a cop. He often quotes and makes references to Die Hard and the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. In "The Bet", it is revealed that Jake is Jewish.
Jake's best friend is co-worker Charles Boyle, who encourages his eventual romance with Amy Santiago. Jake and Gina are childhood friends, while he and Rosa Diaz were classmates at the police academy.
While Jake initially struggles with Captain Holt's strict management style, he matures under Holt's supervision and comes to see the captain as a father figure. In "The Oolong Slayer", Jake achieves his lifelong dream to catch a serial killer, but gives credit for the arrest to the Chief of Brooklyn Detectives in exchange for Holt's transfer back to the 99th Precinct. In season five, Holt puts his career at risk by negotiating with mobster Seamus Murphy in order to free Jake and Rosa from prison. The two also work closely together to bring down Jimmy Figgis after being forced to go into witness protection in Florida.
Peralta continuously pranks and teases his partner Amy Santiago, masking his secret romantic feelings for her. Peralta confessed his feelings to her in "Charges and Specs" before going undercover for a mafia operation. His romantic feelings for her developed further throughout season two and they shared their first kiss in the season finale, "Johnny and Dora". Jake and Amy start dating in "New Captain" and decided to move in together in "Greg and Larry", but don't make it official until season four's "The Fugitive". Jake proposed to Amy at the end of their annual Halloween heist in HalloVeen and the two are later married by Captain Holt in the season five finale. In season 7, Amy became pregnant with their child. Their son McClane "Mac" Peralta-Santiago (who was named after John McClane from Die Hard) is born in the season 7 finale.
In the series finale, with Amy's new position taking up more of her time and making their parenting schedule difficult, Jake decides to quit his job to become a stay-at-home dad, not wanting his son to grow up without a father as he did. Jake is the only character, along with Captain Holt, to appear in every episode of the series.
==== Awards and decorations ====
The following are the medals and service awards fictionally worn by Peralta.
While his commendations are not specifically covered in the series, in the episode "Stakeout", he received a commendation for his work on Rosa's drug task force.
=== Rosa Diaz ===
Stephanie Beatriz portrays Rosalita "Rosa" Diaz, a smart, tough, and enigmatic detective. Implied to have had a relatively stable and loving childhood, she attended parochial school before transferring to a prestigious ballet school; the pressure on her to succeed there drove her to commit several underage crimes (including home invasion and "beating up ballerinas"), which resulted in her expulsion from ballet school and landing in juvenile detention. In response, her parents effectively cut her dead, leaving Rosa to rebuild her life alone; this convinced her that she should not expect support from her loved ones, leading her to become obsessed with self-sufficiency and privacy and to avoid emotional investment in the lives of others.
Though Rosa is a loyal and effective member of the squad, her anger management issues and lack of compassion for others terrify most of her coworkers. If Rosa is angry enough, they will not even walk past her to go to the bathroom, something Terry and Holt briefly attempt to use to increase precinct efficiency. She is highly secretive about her personal life and information about her is contradictory; it is established that she does not stay in any accommodation for long periods of time and her neighbors know her by not only a different name but a different personality. In the episode "Greg and Larry", Rosa even suggests that her real identity is hidden from the squad itself. As revealed in "Cop-Con", she and Amy are younger than most of the other precinct members as they are hurt by a device that emits a loud noise to those under 35, whereas Jake and Boyle only pretended to be affected by it.
Alongside her proficiency at ballet, at some point Rosa became an accomplished gymnast (which she considers her "deepest shame") and is also highly skilled at yoga and archery. In "White Whale", she tells Amy that she attended both medical school and business school and has a pilot's license. In her spare time, she restores old cars to sell to famous people and has an online business selling homemade jewellery (for which she uses bolt cutters). She is also a dedicated motorcyclist, showing a marked expertise in the riding, care and knowledge of motorbikes.
In Season 2, Rosa dates Captain Holt's nephew Marcus, but breaks up with him due to not being ready for marriage. She later finds love with former undercover detective Adrian Pimento; things move very swiftly, with the two getting engaged in "Paranoia" while chasing a drug dealer through an alley, but their wedding is delayed when Pimento goes off-grid to escape the wrath of mob boss Jimmy Figgis. Once he returns, they agree to marry within twenty-four hours, but decide to slow down after realizing they are rushing their renewed relationship.
At the end of Season 4, Rosa and Jake are framed by their idol Lt. Melanie Hawkins and declared guilty of armed robbery and grand larceny. After several months in prison prior to the start of Season 5, the two are freed thanks to the precinct exposing Hawkins's crimes. Her experience prompts her to reconnect with her family, becoming close with them again, and to end things with Pimento. While on the road trip home from their former captain's funeral, Charles overhears a woman calling her "babe" over the phone, leading Rosa to admit she is bisexual; she subsequently comes out officially to the precinct and her parents, the latter of whom reacts poorly, fracturing their bond once again. However, her father subsequently affirms that he accepts her, but reveals that her mother is not at this stage yet. After several months of waiting for her to initiate a meeting, Rosa eventually reaches out herself; her mother is clearly grateful and they go on to repair their relationship. After coming out, Rosa has several relationships with other women over the course of the series, including an unseen woman that the squad nicknamed "Becky"; a friend of Gina's; a cab driver named Alicia; a woman Charles nicknames "Couscous"; and a cosmetologist named Jocelyn Pryce. In the episode "Valloweaster," she becomes the first three-time Halloween Heist Champion.
In season eight, Rosa leaves the NYPD after losing faith in the system following the George Floyd protests, becoming a private investigator. By the series finale, she is not in a serious relationship nor does she have children, but she makes it clear she is happy where she is in life.
Rosa appeared in every episode of the series but two: "Coral Palms: Part One" and "The Box".
==== Awards and decorations ====
The following are the medals and service awards fictionally worn by Diaz.
While her commendations are not specifically covered in the series, in the episode "Stakeout", she received a commendation for her work as the leader of a drug Task Force.
=== Terry Jeffords ===
Terry Crews portrays Terrence "Terry" Vincent Jeffords, the supervisor of the 99th Precinct's detective squad. An avid bodybuilder, Terry's intimidating size and appearance are contrasted by his gentle-giant persona, being very caring and parental in nature. Jeffords is devoted to his wife and three young daughters, twins Cagney and Lacey, and Ava. He fears the danger of police work because of the possibility that he could leave his children fatherless. Following a panic attack prior to the show's beginning, Terry was removed from fieldwork, but returned after saving Holt's life. He is high-strung, prone to nervous excitement, loves yogurt, and has a tendency to refer to himself in the third person like "Terry loves yogurt". He is an effective and caring leader to the detective squad, often having to play the mature adult in order to keep them in line. Terry Jeffords is also known for being able to run through walls like the Kool-Aid Man but doesn't do it often as it makes him feel as so he is only respected for his muscles.
A running gag throughout the series is for Terry to break things because of his incredible strength. He has been a detective since 1995 and used to be assigned to the 65th Precinct, where he was constantly mocked for a botched case which he and Jake later proved he was correct in. He was a linebacker at Syracuse University, where he graduated magna cum laude, as revealed in "The Swedes". He also studied abroad in Japan while in college and dated a Japanese student named Chiaki who broke his heart.
In season two, Terry almost got a vasectomy at his wife's request, but Jake convinced him not to when he found out Terry secretly wanted to have more kids. His wife became pregnant later in the season and gave birth to their third daughter, Ava, in season three; Terry names Jake as Ava's godfather.
While Terry was satisfied with his role as a sergeant, he aimed to become a lieutenant during the first six seasons. As revealed in "The Honeypot", he brought a new pair of suspenders that he planned to put on after he passed the lieutenant's exam but kept them in the box when he ended up failing and held onto them as a reminder of his higher goals. In "Moo Moo", he attempted to apply to be a city council liaison to take on more responsibilities but was rejected after reporting that another cop racially profiled him. In season six, Terry revealed to the group that he secretly passed the lieutenant's exam weeks before an impromptu 'Cinco de Mayo' heist that the precinct decided to hold to take his mind off the exam. He was nearly transferred to Staten Island, but Acting Commissioner Wuntch used her new position to allow him to stay at the Nine-Nine, primarily by forcing Holt to fulfil a one-year street patrol requirement. In the series finale, after Holt was appointed as the deputy commissioner of the police reform program, Terry succeeded him as the new captain of the 99th Precinct.
Terry appeared in every episode of the series but two: "Coral Palms: Part One" and "The Box".
==== Awards and decorations ====
The following are the medals and service awards fictionally worn by Jeffords.
=== Amy Santiago ===
Melissa Fumero portrays Amy Santiago, Jake's uptight, by-the-book, rule-following Cuban-American partner, and later wife. A self-acknowledged type A personality and neurotic overachiever, she continually tried to ingratiate herself with Holt, and any authority figure in arm's reach of her. In the pilot, Terry cites Amy's competitiveness to Holt as a result of her having seven brothers. Amy is a stickler for department protocol and is frequently exasperated by Jake's childishness, as well as the ease with which he succeeds as a detective. She was initially seen as Holt's teacher's pet, but over time is shown to command respect from others.
Amy was originally a patrol officer at the 64th precinct but requested a transfer to the 99th when her captain sexually assaulted her shortly after her promotion to detective. She didn't tell anyone for years out of fear of what it would do to her career, until she revealed it to Jake when they were investigating a sexual assault case in "He Said, She Said".
In the season one finale, Jake confessed that he wished something romantic could happen between them. She admitted to having feelings for Jake in "The Road Trip", which instigated issues in her relationship with Teddy Wells. The two shared their first kiss in "Johnny and Dora" and begin dating in "New Captain," although their working relationship did not change at all. They decided to move in together in the season three finale "Greg and Larry", but do not do so until season four's "The Fugitive". Jake proposed to Amy at the end of their annual Halloween heist in "HalloVeen" and the two eventually married in "Jake & Amy". In season seven, Amy became pregnant with Jake's child and gave birth to their son, McClane 'Mac' Peralta in the season finale.
Near the end of season three, Amy went undercover as a pregnant inmate in a women's prison in Texas. This was done to cover Melissa Fumero's actual pregnancy at the time without making her character pregnant. Amy's actual pregnancy in season seven occurred when Fumero was pregnant with her second child.
After some uncertainty in taking the sergeant's exam as depicted in "Chasing Amy", she passed the exam and began wearing her sergeant's uniform as well as commanding her own uniformed officers in "NutriBoom". In season eight, thanks to her efforts for the police reform program, Amy was promoted to become chief of the program. The additional responsibilities that came with her job ultimately led Jake to quit so they would not have to worry about Mac's parenting schedule.
In season six's "Casecation", she was revealed to be 36 years old. In "The Golden Child", it is revealed that Amy has a relatively strained relationship with her brother and fellow NYPD lieutenant David Santiago, and Jake later chided her mother for glorifying David's accomplishments over Amy's. Amy enjoys solving crosswords and attending trivia sessions, generally at Jake's expense, who often embarrasses himself when attempting to participate or becomes awkwardly excluded in conversation. She also has a severe allergy to dogs.
Amy appeared in every episode of the series but two: "Coral Palms: Part One" and "The Box".
==== Awards and decorations ====
The following are the medals and service awards fictionally worn by Santiago.
=== Charles Boyle ===
Joe Lo Truglio portrays Charles Boyle, a nervous and clumsy but honest and hard-working detective. He is Jake's best friend, and almost completely idolizes him. He is divorced from his wife Eleanor, who had numerous affairs during their marriage, to the point where she has to pay alimony to him. He is also a huge, unapologetic foodie, maintaining a weekly Brooklyn pizza-ranking email and often relishing bizarre foreign cuisine that disgusts his coworkers.
For saving Diaz's life during "Christmas", during which he was shot in the buttocks, he was awarded the NYPD Medal for Valor in "The Bet", though he was overshadowed by a revered and heroic NYPD horse named Sergeant Peanut Butter. He continued to have a one-sided rivalry with Sergeant (later Lieutenant) Peanut Butter until he needed his help in getting Jake to the precinct in the season seven finale. In "The Swedes", it is revealed that Boyle is a graduate of Sarah Lawrence College. In season eight, Charles discovered that he is actually not a Boyle by blood as his mother had an affair with a florist who rivaled his father, but Lynn still raised him as a Boyle regardless. Despite this, he was declared as the "One True Boyle" after he was the only one to successfully open the grandmother sourdough starter jar at the family farm.
In the show's first season, Charles was smitten with Rosa, but he eventually got over her when he started dating Vivian Ludley, whom he met at Holt's birthday party. They get engaged but break up after Charles refused to move to Canada with her. He and Gina start engaging in casual sex in season two, and their brief relationship results in the marriage of his father and Gina's mother. In season three, he started dating Genevieve Mirren-Carter after he and Jake clear her name from an art theft. They eventually move in together and adopt a son from Latvia named Nikolaj.
In season five, Charles started his own food truck business called "The One Thing", which specialized in meatball subs. The truck was burned down by one of Charles' former employees, but he was thankful it happened as running the food truck meant he was spending less time with his family and also building up a large debt. Outside of Hitchcock and Scully, Charles is the only detective not to quit or change ranks by the end of the series. With Jake quitting his job in the series finale, Charles became the new senior detective of the precinct, and his new partner Detective Larkin idolizes him similar to how he idolized Jake.
Charles has a habit of saying things that are overtly sexualized or otherwise inappropriate and rarely realizes it, despite the rest of the squad's disgust. He has appeared in every episode of the series except the season four opener "Coral Palms: Part One".
==== Awards and decorations ====
The following are the medals and service awards fictionally worn by Boyle.
=== Gina Linetti ===
Chelsea Peretti portrays Regina "Gina" Linetti, the 99th Precinct's sardonic and egomaniacal civilian administrator and Holt's assistant. Despite maintaining a clueless and dimwitted disposition most of the time, she can be surprisingly observant and often demonstrates signs of being more intelligent than she likes to show. Gina is obsessed with social media and is constantly on her phone. It is a running gag to try to pry her from her phone to the point where Holt becomes involved. She is extremely narcissistic and constantly praises and exalts herself, such as claiming to be a better dancer than Britney Spears in the episode "Karen Peralta". As the only civilian in the precinct, Gina often uses her outsider's perspective to assist the other detectives. In "The Party", to prevent the mostly working class detectives from embarrassing themselves in front of a crowd of academics, Rosa tricks Gina into talking to a group of psychology professors at Holt's birthday party, who then took copious notes about her narcissistic personality. They concluded that she has a complete overlap of ego and id, a condition previously thought to be purely theoretical. The episode also reveals Gina to be a kleptomaniac.
She casually admits on myriad occasions that she doesn't value her colleagues – except for Jake – as people. She was also childhood friends with Jake, who got her the job at the precinct. Gina also ruined Jake's senior year of high school by framing him as "the Tattler", though she did it to protect Jake from getting involved with the wrong crowd. She transferred to the Public relations Division with Holt in "Johnny and Dora", and returned to the 99th Precinct with him in "The Oolong Slayer". In the episode "The Apartment", it is revealed that she has been engaged eight times, but never married. In "The Fugitive Pt. 2", she declared that Charles' texts are so strange that she would rather get hit by a bus than receive another one from him. At the end of the episode, she received Charles' first unchecked, quality text for her, but while congratulating him, she ironically does indeed get hit by a bus and spends the next few episodes recovering from the incident. The penultimate episode of season four revealed she became pregnant following a relationship with Charles' cousin, Milton (which coincided with Chelsea Peretti's actual pregnancy). She was absent for the first half of season five on maternity leave after giving birth to a girl she nicknames "Iggy" (short for The Enigma).
In the episode "Halloween IV", Gina revealed that in the fourth grade at a classmate's birthday party, a bowling ball fell onto her face. This incident knocked out her two front teeth; she has been wearing false teeth since.
In season six, Jake helps Gina realize that her talents would be better spent elsewhere and she quits her job. She becomes an internet celebrity and hosts a web show called "The G-Hive," in which she gives her viewers life advice. Her work has made her too busy to spend time with her former coworkers, but she is aiming to improve after Jake confronted her for not talking to them for months. In the series finale, Gina appears to have become wealthy from her new job to the point where she can afford an armored truck with "The G-Hive" logo on it.
=== Raymond Holt ===
Andre Braugher portrays Raymond "Ray" Jacob Holt, the 99th Precinct's strict commanding officer. Holt is known for his cold, calm, robotic manner of speaking, overly formal demeanor, and lack of outwardly visible emotion, though he believes himself quite expressive, although his non-work friends frequently refer to him having a much more fun persona that is rarely seen by his colleagues. He has sophisticated and cultured interests, enjoying classical music, opera, and attending dinner parties with his husband's academic friends. The 99th Precinct is Holt's first command despite many years of outstanding service, and he attributes the delay to prejudice against both his race and homosexuality. He came out in 1987 and led a group that supported LGBTQ African-American NYPD members, which he himself created. He was a homicide detective in the 1980s, and spent twelve years in the Community Affairs Bureau immediately prior to promoting to Captain of the Nine-Nine.
Holt is married to Kevin Cozner, the Chair of Columbia University's Classics department. He and Kevin own a corgi named Cheddar, a well-trained dog to whom they are both significantly attached. Holt had a longstanding professional rivalry with Madeline Wuntch, with whom he came up through the ranks. The two were once friends, but their friendship soured; while his career stalled, she kept advancing. After he and Peralta successfully solve a major case in "The Chopper", Bureau Chief Wuntch nominated him for a promotion to head of the NYPD Public Affairs Division, a promotion he was forced to accept to avoid Wuntch transferring his staff to undesirable precincts. During the number of weeks Holt was in charge of Public Affairs, he was unable to accomplish anything significant thanks to Chief Wuntch's constant micromanaging. After helping Peralta solve a serial killer case, Holt found himself transferred back to command of the Nine-Nine by the Chief of Brooklyn Detectives thanks to Jake giving him credit for the case. He owned a burgundy Chevrolet Corvair named Gertie which was his prized possession until it was stolen in "The Fugitive". Doug Judy purchased him a new identical one and names it Sexarella. He also had a mysterious tattoo that was left unknown until the series finale, where it is revealed to be Kevin's head on the body of Cheddar.
At the end of season three, Jake and Holt were forced to go into witness protection in Florida when they were threatened by crime boss Jimmy "The Butcher" Figgis. He worked at a family entertainment center called the Fun Zone under the alias 'Greg Stickney' until he and Jake baited Figgis into coming to Florida and taking the criminal down with the Nine-Nine, an act the squad was punished for by being put on the night shift. In season five, his life and career were put at risk when he made a deal with mobster Seamus Murphy in exchange for information to clear Jake and Rosa's names from Lt. Hawkins, but the Nine-Nine and Kevin helped him capture Murphy.
Later in season five, Holt learned that the New York City Police Commissioner was retiring at the end of the year and that he was on the shortlist of candidates to replace him. He spent the rest of the season campaigning to win the Commissioner title, but ended up losing to John Kelly. In season six, Holt was encouraged by Jake and Amy to stand up to Kelly's regressive policies, leading the Commissioner to retaliate against the Nine-Nine. However, Peralta and Wuntch team up, without Holt's knowledge, to take Kelly down, resulting in Wuntch being named interim Commissioner. This détente becomes short-lived as Holt was demoted to a uniformed officer by Commissioner Wuntch after she found out he was promoted to detective too soon earlier in his career. Shortly after Wuntch's death, however, he is quickly promoted back to captain in the middle of the seventh season. At the beginning of season eight, Holt and Kevin were separated as a result of the hardships they endured in 2020, but they got back together and started attending couples counseling, which eventually resulted in the two renewing their vows. For his work in the police reform program proposal, he was also promoted to deputy commissioner of the program.
Over the course of the series, Jake matures under his direction and Holt becomes more lighthearted in return; the two acknowledge they have a father-son dynamic with each other. In the series finale, Holt tells Jake if he had a son like him, he would be proud of the man Jake became. Captain Holt is one of two characters, the other being Jake, to appear in every episode.
==== Awards and decorations ====
The following are the medals and service awards fictionally worn by Holt.
While his commendations are not specifically covered in the series, in the episode "Stakeout", he received a commendation for his supervision of Det. Diaz's drug task force.
=== Michael Hitchcock ===
Dirk Blocker portrays Michael Hitchcock (season 2–present; recurring season 1), an enthusiastic but clueless detective who has been best friends and partners with Scully for over 30 years. Despite their inept nature, Hitchcock and Scully have both shown on occasion to be competent and even good detectives, though their laziness tends to keep them from demonstrating this most of the time. As revealed in "Hitchcock and Scully", the two were excellent detectives in their youths and had well-built bodies, but their careers and their physiques went downhill after they tried the buffalo wings at their eventual favorite restaurant, Wing Slutz, which they frequently went to for the food and to check in on the manager (who was secretly an informant who helped them bring down a notorious mafia boss). Unlike most police detectives, Hitchcock and Scully are more than happy to do paperwork rather than expend any energy in the field.
The majority of the precinct tends to be disgusted by Hitchcock's more perverted nature and attitude towards women. It is revealed in "The Last Ride" that Hitchcock held the all-time record for closed cases at the 99th Precinct, one more than Jeffords as of that episode. This was mainly due to him being at the precinct twenty years longer than Terry. To celebrate, Hitchcock got a tattoo of himself holding a gun and putting it in his mouth, oblivious to what it actually implies. In season eight, Hitchcock seemingly retired after receiving a package as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and moved to Brazil while keeping in touch with Scully and the precinct via FaceTime. However, the series finale revealed that he didn't retire and was actually living in his van, allowing him to win the final heist in the series.
Hitchcock appeared in every episode of the series but six: Coral Palms: Part 1, The Box, Balancing, PB & J, Game of Boyles and Renewal.
==== Awards and decorations ====
The following are the medals and service awards fictionally worn by Hitchcock.
=== Norm Scully ===
Joel McKinnon Miller portrays Norman "Norm" Scully (season 2–present; recurring season 1), a middle-aged, lazy detective who has been best friends and partners with Hitchcock for over 30 years. Scully shows talent as an operatic tenor and French speaker, has an understanding of Morse code and can "make great coffee", according to Jeffords. He also displays an uncanny ability to reassemble shredded documents in one episode. Scully routinely discloses disgusting medical issues like the entire bottom of his foot being a wart or having various strains of fungi. He claims to constantly have medical emergencies, and despite having a pacemaker fitted, he frequently suffers from heart attacks. He often embarrasses himself either unintentionally or willingly and admits to being indifferent to the judgment of others (most frequently, the fellow members of his squad.) In the early seasons, Scully is married and has a dog. The team is unsure which one of them is called Kelly, though it is later revealed in season seven that both of them had this name. After his wife left him, he began dating a woman named Cindy Shatz, who is very similar to him in her attire and personality. He has a twin brother named Earl, also portrayed by Miller. Like Hitchcock, Scully began his NYPD career as a strapping powerhouse detective before devolving into chicken wing-fueled sloth and gluttony, but both men are actually competent even in their decrepitude: at one point when they've cracked one of Boyle's cases, he's shocked when they tell him they would rather be ignored and sidelined than spotlighted, and Rosa and Amy go from being angered when they appear to screw up a case to being genuinely impressed when Scully tells them they deleted a witness' information because she was an illegal immigrant and would have been arrested and deported by ICE (Scully accepts a "punishment" of a one-week paid suspension, as does his partner).
Scully appeared in every episode of the series but three: Coral Palms: Part 1, The Box, PB & J
==== Awards and decorations ====
The following are the medals and service awards fictionally worn by Scully.
== Recurring characters ==
=== NYPD and other law enforcement ===
Patton Oswalt as FDNY Fire Marshal Boone, the fire marshal of the local fire station. He leads the fire department in a rivalry against the detectives of the 99 but reaches a brief understanding with Jake when they discover that they both were abandoned at a young age by their fathers.
Dean Winters as Captain Keith Pembroke, nicknamed "The Vulture", an obnoxious detective in the Major Crimes Unit notorious for taking over cases that are nearly solved and receiving all of the credit for closing them. He frequently makes lewd comments toward the squad and has a greatly inflated sense of self. After the death of Seth Dozerman, Pembroke became the Commanding Officer of the 99th Precinct until Captain Holt returned, where he treated the squad with disrespect. In "The Venue", the Vulture stole Jake and Amy's venue at the last second to host his wedding to a kind charity worker named Jean Munhroe. When the two discovered that he is unfaithful to Jean and was lying to her about his character, they decided to tell Jean at the cost of the Vulture taking their venue on their wedding night. He is recruited onto Jake's "suicide squad" to help take down Commissioner John Kelly. However, he made a deal with Madeline Wuntch to betray the 99 in exchange for becoming captain of the 69th Precinct, though the betrayal was part of Jake and Wuntch's plan to trick John Kelly. He is a recipient of the American Flag Breast Bar, World Trade Center Breast Bar, NYPD Medal of Honor, and Marine Corps Service Award.
Kyle Bornheimer as Sergeant Teddy Ramos (né Wells), a detective at the 82nd Precinct. Teddy used to date Amy Santiago, and they resumed their relationship after meeting up at a training exercise. Later Amy broke up with him again because she dislikes his dull personality and is unable to show interest in his home pilsner-brewing hobby. In season four, Teddy evaluated the Nine-Nine when the crime rate dropped and one precinct had to close. He claimed to have changed but Jake and Amy agree that he is still "the most boring man in America". He also admitted to Amy that he still loves her and proposed to her several times over the next few seasons. In season five, Teddy joined the bomb squad to impress Amy and tried unsuccessfully to steal her away from Jake on the day of their wedding. In season seven, Teddy reveals he married someone named Elizabeth Ramos, took her last name, and was expecting a child around the same time Jake and Amy were expecting theirs. Despite having a wife and child, he still wants Amy to marry him.
Gabe Liedman as Oliver Cox, a lab technician who works as a DNA analyst and coroner at the 99th Precinct.
Jason Mantzoukas as Adrian Pimento, an emotionally unstable and volatile former detective who returned to the 99th Precinct after spending 12 years undercover in the organization of Jimmy "The Butcher" Figgis. He began dating Rosa in "Cheddar", and the two got engaged in "Paranoia", promptly before Pimento and the 99 were forced to fake his death when Figgis started targeting him. Pimento returned from hiding after Figgis was caught, but was refused his old job at the NYPD and became a Private Investigator. His relationship continued with Rosa, but she later broke up with him in season five. He spent the next couple of months in Alaska before returning to Brooklyn as an insurance agent in "Gray Star Mutual", but was fired and started working at a hand lotion store. In "Pimemento", he became a private investigator once more and started working with celebrities after Jake and Boyle helped him catch a doctor who was drugging Pimento to induce memory loss. In the series finale, after Rosa uses him as a distraction to try and win the final heist, he flew to Canada upon being hired to protect a diamond mine from a pack of wolves.
James M. Connor as Deputy Commissioner Podolski, the NYPD's arrogant deputy police commissioner who uses his position for his own personal means such as keeping his rebellious son, Trevor, out of jail in "The Tagger".
Michael G. Hagerty as Captain McGintley, the 99th Precinct's commanding officer before Raymond Holt, who was fired for his ineptitude and his permissive attitude toward the disruptive antics of Jake and his colleagues. McGintley later died in the episode "99" and the squad attended his funeral in Los Angeles.
Kyra Sedgwick as Chief Madeline Wuntch, a callous and unethical NYPD deputy police chief who shared a deep mutual hostility with Captain Holt. Wuntch and Holt were once partners and friends, but they had a falling out. Holt believed it was because he rejected her sexual advances; however, she later states that his sexuality is the one thing that she respects about him and the hostility is the result of other incidents. Wuntch gained promotions for which Holt was passed over, resulting in Wuntch eventually becoming Holt's direct superior. Wuntch constantly went out of her way to undermine the 99th Precinct, and appeared to take great pleasure in its and Holt's failures; Holt, in turn, gleefully insulted and belittled Wuntch every time their paths crossed. In "The Chopper" and "Johnny and Dora", she culminated her victory over Holt when she made him head of the NYPD Public Affairs Division, where she humiliated him by making him do menial jobs, although he was eventually transferred back to the 99 thanks to Jake. In "Suicide Squad", she helped Jake and the Nine-Nine expose Commissioner Kelly's illegal wiretapping activity and became the acting commissioner until a new one was decided on. She swiftly used this authority to demote Holt to a patrol officer as he had previously revealed he was promoted out of uniform ahead of the usual expected hours, "justifying" her decision as making Holt stick to the rules. Wuntch died in the episode "Ding Dong" from unknown causes and Holt was returned to his usual captain's rank, but left a final move where she forced Holt to organise a respectful memorial for her. At her memorial, Holt admitted that he will genuinely miss her and their rivalry.
Perry L. Brown as Marcus Marinovich, a judge at the New York Court of Appeals who sometimes oversees cases for the 99. He served as the judge when Peralta and Diaz were on trial in "Crime and Punishment".
Will Hines as Carl Kurm, the Kings County District Attorney who sometimes works with the 99 during court cases.
Ken Marino as Captain Jason "C.J." Stentley, the Nine-Nine's temporary, under-qualified captain when Jake and Holt were in witness protection. Not wanting his ineptitude to be evident, he gave everyone everything they asked for until Amy eventually requested he starts being more firm. This backfired after he rejected their request to go to Florida to assist Jake and Holt and he assigned them to the night shift. He was eventually removed from the Captain position after he was rewarded for taking down a major drug dealer (that Jake and Holt primarily took care of) and demonstrated his lack of professionalism in front of a group of reporters. It's revealed that Holt called the reporters in to help the crew return to the day shift. He is recruited onto Jake's "suicide squad" to help take down Commissioner John Kelly, with his role acting as a kidnapping victim, but his incompetence nearly derails their plans.
Allison Tolman as Captain Olivia Crawford, a candidate for the Commissioner position Holt was also seeking. She holds the belief that precincts should be eliminated, creating a rivalry with Holt. However, she and Holt realized that their competition will split the votes and cause John Kelly to win. She eventually withdrew her candidacy to thank Holt for publicly calling out the selection committee when they admitted they only nominated her for PR purposes and had no intention of actually considering her for the role.
Matt Walsh as Detective Lohank, a night-shift worker for the 99th precinct who shares Diaz's desk. Lohank is shown to have an unfortunate personal life; his wife is addicted to painkillers, while he suffers from prostate cancer. He owns a summer cabin, dubbed "Stink Puddle Manor", which he lends to Jeffords, Peralta, and Boyle in "Into the Woods".
Vanessa Bayer as Debbie Fogle, Holt's partner when he got demoted down to patrolman. She doesn't appear to have any friends and is very naive. She mentioned that she became a police officer to solve her twin sister's murder, much to Holt's surprise. It is later revealed that she was working for a notorious crime boss named Silvio Nucci and stole machine guns and cocaine from the evidence locker room, the unintended consequence of Boyle telling her to be more assertive. Jake and Rosa initially pretended to be dirty cops so they can get her to lead them to Nucci, but she overpowered both of them after ingesting some of the cocaine. After discovering most of Debbie's bad choices stemmed from her parents treating her poorly, Rosa empathized with her and convinced her to free them so they could take down Nucci together. Rosa later convinced the District Attorney to go easy on Debbie to give her a reduced sentence.
=== Family and friends of main characters ===
Kevin Dorff as Hank, the bartender at Shaw's Bar, the squad's favorite bar. He is generally annoyed by the squad's antics but tolerates them because they spend a lot of money.
Marc Evan Jackson as Professor Kevin M. Cozner, PhD, Holt's husband and the Chair of Columbia University's Classics Department. Kevin dislikes the NYPD due to their racism and homophobia towards Holt, but is more open towards the Ninety-Ninth Precinct when Jake shows him how much they respect and care for Holt. Like his husband, Kevin is cold, sardonic, formal, and unemotional but believes himself expressive (the couple's romantic nicknames for one another are "Captain Raymond Holt" and "Professor Kevin Cozner"); he considers Holt the "funny" one in their relationship. Kevin has a rapport with Gina Linetti, referring to her by her first name (by contrast, he initially takes pains to always call Jake "Peralta"). Kevin and Holt own a Pembroke Welsh Corgi named Cheddar, who is often integral to the Halloween Heist. Kevin and Holt separate in the eighth season after Holt neglects their relationship, but ultimately reconcile and renew their vows.
Craig Robinson as Doug Judy, aka "The Pontiac Bandit", an intelligent, happy-go-lucky thief and forger who exclusively steals Pontiac vehicles. Judy is first introduced in Season 1 when he is arrested by Rosa; he claims to have information about the Pontiac Bandit; in the end, he reveals himself as the Pontiac Bandit, and escapes. Judy, who subsequently appears in one episode each season, always stays one step ahead of Jake, but by season three considers Jake his best friend; by season four, the feeling is mutual. Judy helps Jake and Holt capture his (Judy's) foster brother, an escaped convicted murderer, and is given immunity for his past crimes. In season five, he gets blackmailed into taking hostages when a shady figure from his past threatens his mother; he enlists Jake's help in taking him down, and escapes again. In season six, Doug fakes his own death when a former associate threatens him; when he, Jake, and Terry investigate, they discover Judy's sister, Trudy, is operating as the new Pontiac Bandit. In season seven, he is engaged to a federal judge named Katherine Joyner and, after a bachelor party in Miami that ends with Jake arresting three members of his wedding party, asks Jake to be his best man. In season eight, he is arrested for his crimes in New Jersey and makes one last attempt to evade Jake, but ends up saving him from one of Trudy's men. However, he escapes after Jake gives him a pen to get out of his handcuffs, and moves to Amsterdam with his wife.
Eva Longoria as Sophia Perez, a defense attorney whom Jake dates in season two. Jake and Sophia first meet at a bar and engage in a one-night stand before he discovers that she represents a criminal against whom he is testifying. Despite the initial hostility, they soon begin a relationship. Sophia eventually ends the relationship after Jake arrests her boss for drug possession, leaving Jake devastated.
Jillian Davis as Jenny Gildenhorn, Jake's childhood sweetheart. Throughout the first two seasons, Jake is shown to have a minor obsession with her, stemming from losing her to Eddie Fung at his (Jake's) bar mitzvah. Jenny makes her only appearance in "The Boyle-Linetti Wedding", where Jake sees an opportunity to finally make a move on her. However, she ends up kissing another wedding guest. Tiffany Martin portrays Jenny as a teenager in a flashback.
Stephen Root as Charles's father Lynn Boyle, a retired florist who is known to get overly eager and take big risks like his son. He marries Gina's mother Darlene, but the two eventually divorce after Darlene cheats on him. In "Game of Boyles", it is revealed that Charles is not his biological son as his wife had an affair with a rival florist, but still chose to raise him like a true Boyle.
Sandra Bernhard as Gina's mother, Darlene Linetti, a travel agent who shares her daughter's confidence and superstitions. She marries Charles' father Lynn in "The Boyle-Linetti Wedding". Gina convinces her mother to divorce Lynn after discovering she had been cheating on him.
Marilu Henner as Vivian Ludley, a food author who becomes romantically involved with Boyle. She and Boyle become engaged within weeks of dating, but she breaks it off when Boyle refuses to move to Canada with her.
Bradley Whitford as Captain Roger Peralta, Jake's absentee father and commercial airline pilot. He left his family when Jake was at a young age and has cheated on his wife with multiple women. He eventually attempts to reconcile with Jake and Karen even when the latter knew about an affair with her best friend. In "Two Turkeys" it's revealed that besides Jake he has three daughters with other women and an unknown number of other sons.
Katey Sagal as Karen Peralta, Jake's mother. She is a public school art teacher who worked hard to raise Jake as a single mother after Roger left the family. Despite their past, Karen eventually begins dating Roger again much to Jake's discomfort.
Martin Mull as Admiral Walter Peralta, Jake's paternal grandfather. A retired United States Navy Admiral who has a strained relationship with his son.
Nasim Pedrad as Katie Peralta, Jake's half-sister on his father's side as a result of Roger's affairs. She lives in Dallas, Texas, and has a chaotic personality that Jake and Amy have a hard time handling.
Merrin Dungey as Sharon Jeffords, Terry's wife. She is kind and supportive towards her husband and his profession, but can occasionally be stubborn and does not like being lied to. She is often seen taking care of their twin daughters Cagney and Lacey and eventually gives birth to their third daughter Ava in season three.
Kelsey and Skyler Yates (seasons 3–4) and Dani and Dannah Lockett (season 7) as Cagney and Lacey Jeffords, Terry and Sharon's twin daughters.
Jamal Duff as Zeke, Terry's unemployed brother-in-law. Zeke has an even more intimidating physique than Terry and is also significantly taller. He often taunts Terry, calling him "Tiny Terry", and mocking his police work, leaving Terry to turn to Captain Holt for help.
Jimmy Smits as Victor Santiago, Amy's father. He is a retired cop and is shown to be overly organized and competitive like his daughter. He initially does not approve of Amy's relationship with Jake, but changes his mind and respects his daughter's decision after he and Jake solve one of Victor's older cases.
Bertila Damas as Camila Santiago, Amy's mother. Like her daughter, she can occasionally be over-controlling and competitive.
Lin-Manuel Miranda as David Santiago, Amy's older brother. He is an NYPD Lieutenant who often makes Amy jealous of his accomplishments and for being their parents' favorite child.
Nick Cannon as Marcus, Holt's nephew, who begins a romantic relationship with Detective Rosa Diaz in season two. Rosa breaks up with him in season three due to him being too emotional for her and also because he wanted to get married which she was not ready for.
Niecy Nash as Debbie, Holt's sister. Unlike her brother, she tends to be loud and overdramatic about her life, making it difficult for Holt to be around her.
L. Scott Caldwell as Laverne Holt, Holt's mother and a federal judge. Holt refers to her as "Your Honor".
Mary Lynn Rajskub as Genevieve Mirren-Carter, an art curator who was initially framed for stealing her own paintings for the insurance money. She was eventually vindicated by Charles and begins dating him over similar interests. Genevieve and Charles adopted a son, Nikolaj, on whom he dotes.
Antonio Raul Corbo as Nikolaj Boyle, Charles and Genevieve's adopted Latvian son.
Danny Trejo as Oscar Diaz, Rosa's father. He is a school teacher who is intimidating and tough like his daughter. When Rosa comes out as bisexual, he doesn't take it well at first but manages to accept his daughter for who she is.
Olga Merediz as Julia Diaz, Rosa's mother. Unlike her husband, it took longer for her to fully accept her daughter's bisexuality.
Sarah Baker as Kylie, Amy's only friend outside of the precinct, who works for the Department of Records.
Cameron Esposito as Jocelyn Pryce, Rosa's former girlfriend who works as a cosmetologist.
Joel McKinnon Miller as Earl Scully, Norm's twin brother who looks and behaves identically to him. The two had a brief falling out when Norm's wife cheated on him with Earl.
Winston Story as Bill Hummertrout, a male prostitute whom Charles and Jake hire on the fourth and fifth Halloween heists due to his resemblance to Charles. He later gets the two involved in a pyramid scheme called "Nutriboom," and appears in all the heists starting from the fourth. During the events of the seventh heist, he appears to have become homeless during the six months the heist took place.
Tim Meadows as Caleb John Gosche, Jake's cellmate, a woodworker who is also a convicted cannibal child murderer. He and Jake become friends in prison and Caleb saves Jake's life when Jeff Romero, a gang leader, identifies Jake as a snitch. He is transferred to a different prison, and Jake occasionally comes to see him for help on cases.
== Antagonists ==
Chris Parnell as Geoffrey Hoytsman, Sophia's boss at the Public Defender's office who has issues with drugs. Jake arrests him for using cocaine in "The Defense Rests", which ultimately leads to Sophia breaking up with Jake. He returned in "Sabotage", where he attempted to get revenge on Jake for ruining his life, but was foiled by Amy and Rosa.
Aida Turturro as Maura Figgis, the sister of notorious gangster Jimmy "The Butcher" Figgis. She leads a prison gang in a maximum-security women's penitentiary in Texas. Amy goes undercover as "Isabel Cortez" within the prison to learn the identity of Figgis' FBI contact from Maura.
Eric Roberts as Jimmy "The Butcher" Figgis, a mobster whom Pimento went undercover to investigate. He made a threat against Jake and Holt's lives, forcing them to go into hiding. After months of witness protection, Jake and Holt lured Figgis into Florida to take him down with help from the Nine-Nine.
Dennis Haysbert as Bob Annderson, a former partner of Holt's who eventually worked for the FBI. He is brought in to help find info on the mole working for Jimmy "The Butcher" Figgis, but when going to interrogate a witness, Annderson pulls a gun on Holt and revealed that he was the mole the entire time. The Nine-Nine was able to capture Annderson and con him into revealing the files he has on Figgis, leading to Annderson's arrest and the destruction of Figgis' empire.
Gina Gershon as Lieutenant Melanie Hawkins, the head of the NYPD's most elite task force. Jake and Rosa both admired her and competed against each other for a spot on her team. However, they soon learned that her team was a bank robbery crew. When they tried to work undercover to bring her down, she framed Jake and Rosa and got them convicted for armed robbery. However, Holt received inside information from mobster Seamus Murphy, leading to Hawkins' arrest and Jake and Rosa's exoneration.
Paul Adelstein as Seamus Murphy, a notorious mobster. He assisted the Nine-Nine in exposing Hawkins' crimes, as the two sides saw Hawkins as a common threat. Murphy offered Amy incriminating information about Hawkins in exchange for a favor, which Holt told her to refuse. Holt later accepted the information himself to keep Amy safe and free Jake and Rosa from prison. When Murphy claimed his favor, Jake and Charles found a way to allow Holt to keep up his end of the bargain while secretly stopping Seamus' illegal activities. When Seamus discovered this, he threatened Kevin's life, leading to Jake and Kevin going into isolation for two months. Holt and Jake are captured by Seamus, but Kevin rescued both of them, and Murphy and his men were apprehended by the FBI.
Phil Reeves as Commissioner John Kelly. Kelly was named Commissioner at the beginning of Season 6, having won against Holt. His demeanor is extremely condescending and dismissive. Kelly planned to implement a "vigilant policing initiative", which Holt opposed as he believed it would simply be "stop-and-frisk" under a new name. Kelly retaliated by worsening the Nine-Nine's working conditions. In the episode "Sicko", he introduced an app that allows the public to send in anonymous tips; but it is revealed that Kelly has developed the app to cover up the illegal use of a Stingray Phone Tracker to spy on civilians. When Jake and the Nine-Nine—together with the "Suicide Squad", Vulture, CJ, and Madeleine Wuntch—exposed him, he was fired, though Wuntch, as acting Commissioner, told Holt that Kelly had secured a "higher-paying job in the private sector".
John C. McGinley as Frank O'Sullivan. O'Sullivan is the hard-headed, stubborn, ignorant and bombastic President of the (fictional) NYPD 'Patrolman's Union', and a recurring antagonist in Season 8, constantly getting in the way of the Nine-Nine's attempts to help actually reform the NYPD. He still lives with his mother despite being in his fifties, is a big fan of Billy Joel and views cops as completely infallible and undeserving of any kind of consequences or punishment, regardless of their actions and will defend dirty or overzealous cops with every underhanded trick and loophole he knows. He has a preternaturally high alcohol tolerance, enjoying beers regularly even at breakfast. His LGBTQ views are archaic at best; he attempts to blackmail both Holt and Rosa by threatening to reveal their sexualities to the public and is visibly mystified and annoyed when they tell him that they came out ages ago. Despite his attempts to sabotage the reform program, it passed but O'Sullivan still gets reelected to his position for life, a feat Holt believed was impossible.
== Guest stars (in order of appearance) ==
Fred Armisen as Mlepnos (also spelled Melipnos or Mlep(clay)nos), a confused foreign man living in a building where a murder took place. The detectives run into Mlepnos in the pilot episode while searching for witnesses. He shows up again in "Operation: Broken Feather". In "Jake & Amy", Hitchcock and Scully recruit him to perform the violin at Jake and Amy's wedding. In his recurring appearances, he denies meeting Jake or Amy before and changes his name.
Pete Davidson as Steve, an at-risk kid who interrupts and makes fun of Diaz and Santiago. When Gina lists her reasons for joining the program, he still doesn't sign up for the Junior Police program.
Helen Slayton-Hughes as Ethel Musterberg, a senile woman mistaken for a missing person.
Mary Elizabeth Ellis as Rossi, a medical examiner whom Jake hooks up with.
Andy Richter as Hawley, a sarcastic and childish doorman who refuses to assist Jake during routine questioning.
Kid Cudi as Dustin Whitman, a perpetrator Jake arrests on suspicion of burglary. Whitman mocks Jake by calling him "Joke Peralta" when he learns that Jake does not have sufficient evidence to convict him of a crime, but learns to his regret that he has underestimated Det. Peralta's ability.
Stacy Keach as Jimmy Brogan, a crime writer from the 1970s whom Peralta greatly admires. Brogan is revealed to be bigoted, racist, homophobic, vengeful, and manipulative, disillusioning Peralta and leading to a physical altercation between the two when Peralta punches Brogan for slurs against Holt.
Jerry Minor as Jerry Grundhaven, a defense attorney who antagonizes Diaz in court.
Joey Diaz as Sal, the owner of a pizzeria that got burned down; Jake and Charles have to deal with Fire Marshall Boone on the case.
Allen Evangelista as "Savant" (Corey Park), the 99th precinct's IT director. He is hired after he hacks the precinct's server out of boredom (he was caught because his mom tipped off the police).
Adam Sandler as himself, appearing at an auction Jake went undercover at. He proceeds to humiliate Jake onstage.
Joe Theismann as himself, appearing at an auction Jake went undercover at.
Nate Torrence as Super Dan, a local vigilante whom Rosa and Amy don't take seriously.
Sean Whalen as Bill Voss, a criminal with several warrants who accepts a fake trip to the Bahamas before being arrested by Diaz and Jeffords.
Beth Dover as Janice, a stationery store employee who helps out Charles and Jake when they went to pick up wedding invitations.
Ian Roberts as Lucas Wint, a civic leader who Jake suspects is laundering money for drug dealers.
Jenny Slate as Bianca, the girlfriend of a powerful Italian-American mobster.
Apollo Robbins as Dan "Fingers" McCreary, a thief Jake hires to help steal Holt's watch during the Halloween heist.
Dan Bakkedahl as Andrew Miller, a lieutenant and investigator from Internal Affairs. He investigates the 99th Precinct for a possible undercover mole until the detectives discover that he himself is spying on the precinct at the behest of Wuntch. Miller suffers from paranoid germophobia.
Ed Helms as Jack Danger (pronounced donger), an egomaniacal, incompetent, obnoxious agent for the United States Postal Inspection Service whom Jake had to deal with while tracking the Giggle Pig drug gang.
Nick Kroll as Kendrick, a condescending agent from the Department of Homeland Security who has no respect for the NYPD and makes detectives from the Nine-Nine serve as taped-up "hostages" during a counterterrorism training exercise for Federal law enforcement agencies. Despite Jake leading a 99th rebellion that sees the cops take out nearly all of the Feds, Kendrick manages to "shoot" Jake and informs him the NYPD will not be invited to any future events.
Garret Dillahunt as Dave Majors, New York City's best detective whom Jake and Amy greatly admire. He takes an interest in Amy much to Jake's dismay, but she turns him down, citing her previous relationship with Teddy.
Bill Hader as Seth Dozerman, the new Captain of the 99th Precinct after the transfer of Captain Holt to the Public Affairs Division. Within moments of meeting the squad, he rants about their lack of efficiency and his obsession with it, before suffering a heart attack. On his second day, he discloses that he has a genetic heart condition that drastically reduces his life expectancy. He then suffers another heart attack after witnessing Jake and Amy kiss and dies.
Archie Panjabi as Singh, an NYPD lieutenant who Boyle hooks up with at Dozerman's funeral. He laments being unable to pursue a relationship with her after learning that she is a vegan.
Jon Daly as Bram Applebaum, a half-Scottish bagpipe player for the NYPD Pipes and Drums, who performs at Dozerman's funeral.
James Urbaniak as Nick Lingeman, Genevieve's ex-boyfriend and an art gallery owner who Jake and Charles suspect framed Genevieve.
Stormi Henley as Dvora, Nick's assistant who is romantically interested in him.
Nick Offerman as Frederick, Holt's ex-boyfriend who broke up with him after Holt threw Frederick's duck ornament off of the Brooklyn Bridge. As a gynecologist, Jake and Holt ask him to help Sharon Jeffords after she goes in labor, with Holt having to confess to throwing away the duck ornament as a condition.
Anders Holm as Søren Knausgaard, a Swedish Interpol officer who works a case involving stolen jewels from Sweden with Jake and Rosa.
Riki Lindhome as Agneta Carlsson, a Swedish Interpol officer who works a case involving stolen jewels from Sweden with Jake and Rosa.
Neil deGrasse Tyson as himself, appearing in the precinct to aid Gina in her study of astrophysics. He is Terry's gym buddy.
Kathryn Hahn as Eleanor Horstweil, Charles's ex-wife who appears after Charles attempts to withdraw his sperm from cold storage, which was legally under her possession. She holds Charles in very little regard.
Oscar Nunez as Dr. Porp, a doctor who diagnosed Jake and Holt with the mumps.
Paul F. Tompkins as Orleans, the captain of the cruise ship that Doug Judy performed piano on when Jake and Amy won a free cruise.
Damon Wayans Jr. as Stevie Schillens, Jake's former beat partner who comes to the precinct after renovations commence at his own. Charles disregards his presence out of jealousy, and he ends up finding out Schillens is a dirty cop after catching him plant evidence.
Brad Hall as John William Weichselbraun, a classical oboist who claims his instrument was stolen; also one of Holt's heroes.
Kate Flannery as "Mean" Marge Bronigan, the precinct's ill-tempered custodian.
Matt Besser as Holderton, a detective from the 65th precinct who makes fun of Terry for accusing a cat of being a thief.
Maya Rudolph as Karen Haas, a United States Deputy Marshal who serves as Jake's and Holt's contact while they are in Witness Protection in Florida.
Rhea Perlman as Estelle, a member of Holt's alias Greg's walking group.
Jorma Taccone as Taylor, the manager of a children's funhouse Holt works at while hiding as Greg.
Betsy Sodaro as Jordan Carfton, a lady who took a video that could expose Jake and Holt while they were in Witness Protection.
Esther Povitsky as Emily, Gina's new assistant granted by Captain Stentley. She's under strict orders from Gina to mock Amy whenever there's an opening.
Jim O'Heir as Reynolds, a homophobic police sheriff in Florida who detains Jake and Holt after stopping them with a copious number of guns and amount of ammo.
Zooey Deschanel as Jess Day, a Los Angeles resident who is visiting New York and unwillingly assists Jake in chasing a suspect. Deschanel's appearance is part of a crossover between Brooklyn Nine-Nine and New Girl.
Fred Melamed as DC Parlov, the author of the Skyfire books, which Terry (and later Jake) are huge fans of. He begins to receive death threats, resulting in Jake and Terry having to protect him. Later the manuscript for his upcoming book is stolen, but it turns out to be an inside job resulting in his arrest.
Eric Edelstein as Kurt Ovarp, a Skyfire fan who Jake and Terry suspect sent the threat to DC Parlov.
Marshawn Lynch as himself, who witnesses a prison escape after the transport van crashes (unknowingly caused by himself).
Charles Baker as George Judy, an escaped convicted murderer, and Doug Judy's former foster brother.
Jama Williamson as Rachel, Teddy's girlfriend who witnesses him propose to Amy after Jazz brunch.
Kimberly Hébert Gregory as Veronica Hopkins, Terry's ex-girlfriend and fellow NYPD officer. She holds a massive grudge against Terry for their break-up (as she finds out Terry planned to break up with her a year earlier without telling her) and holds it against the precinct when she's assigned to audit it.
Nathan Fillion as Mark Deveraux, an actor who plays a detective on a series called Serve & Protect. Deveraux attempts to assist Jake and Rosa when a crime occurs on the show's set, though he's later revealed to be the culprit and is kicked off the show.
Greg Germann as Gary Lurmax, the executive producer of Serve & Protect. He nearly gives Jake a consulting position on the show, but after Jake lashes out at him and accuses him of a crime he didn't commit, he gets back at Jake by creating an unlikable character on the show named Jake Peralta and has him brutally murdered.
Kelly Sullivan as Cassie Sinclair, an actress who plays a detective on a series called Serve & Protect. She reports her laptop as stolen, prompting Peralta and Diaz to investigate the set. She is described as rapidly gaining popularity on the show, with a spin-off for her character being developed and causing tensions on the set.
Kenny Stevenson as Officer Mark, a uniformed officer at the 99 who is brought at the expense of the squad to include someone outside the "inner circle."
Desmond Harrington as Maldack, an NYPD uniformed officer who used racial profiling to stop and question Sergeant Jeffords in "Moo Moo". After an unsuccessful meeting with Maldack, and much deliberation with Captain Holt, Jeffords filed an official complaint about the incident.
Andy Daly as Jeffrey Bouche, another rival of Holt's whom he loathes for his chipper attitude and for seemingly undermining his efforts to rise in the NYPD. Holt's suspicions are confirmed after he sabotages his presentation at Cop-Con, filling it with photos from the 99's party the night before.
Audrey Wasilewski as Cindy Shatz, a Cop-Con attendee who is extremely similar to Scully and later begins dating him.
Ryan Phillippe as Milton Boyle, Boyle's cousin who begins a relationship with Gina when she becomes pregnant with his child.
Brent Briscoe as Matthew Langdon, an ex-NYPD officer who went into hiding once learning of Hawkins crookedness. It's later revealed he's an associate of Hawkins, tricking Jake and Rosa into bringing him in as a witness.
Eugene Cordero as Pandemic, a hacker and friend of Boyle who tries to help clear Peralta and Diaz from crimes.
Kulap Vilaysack as Jennifer "Nightmare" Huggins, a hacker and colleague of Pandemic who tries to help clear Peralta and Diaz of bank robbery.
Scott Aukerman as Glandis, a hacker and colleague of Pandemic who tries to help clear Peralta and Diaz of bank robbery.
Lou Diamond Phillips as Jeff Romero, another inmate whose gang Jake joins.
Toby Huss as Granville, a prison warden who cuts a deal with Jake to work as a snitch.
Danielle Aubuchon as Jenny, Hitchcock's prison hook-up, possibly girlfriend, who is incarcerated in the same penitentiary as Diaz.
Amy Okuda as Chiaki, Terry's temporary girlfriend while living in Japan.
Maria Thayer as Jean Munhroe, The Vulture's ex-fiancé who works at a charity that provides rice to starving children in Africa.
Rob Huebel as Landon Lawson, a rival fantasy author to Parlov.
Reggie Lee as Ronald Yee, a forensics expert whom Holt and Amy try to impress. He is later disgraced for his fraudulent entomology project.
Paul Scheer as Devin Cathertaur, the Cyber Crimes division leader who takes the precinct's bandwidth.
Mike Mitchell as Kyle Murphy, Seamus's dimwitted nephew who's been excluded from the Mafia family for his ineptitude.
Chris Bauer as Dennis Kole, a Negotiator for the NYPD Emergency Service Unit, with the terrible record of having 49 of his first 50 jumpers die. He was called onto what was his first hostage situation in a jewelry store on Atlantic Avenue in "The Negotiation". The hostage-taker, who turned out to be Doug Judy, called for Det. Peralta to negotiate instead, and then later Detectives Diaz and Scully, something that Kole was resentful about.
Sterling K. Brown as Philip Davidson, a dentist who is a suspect in a murder case that Holt and Peralta interrogate throughout a night.
Romy Rosemont as Claire Damont, Davidson's lawyer.
David Fumero as Melvin "Vin" Stermly, Amy's favorite crossword puzzle author who is also a swimsuit model.
Will Shortz as Sam Jepson, a friend of Vin's who Jake suspects is behind a series of fires.
Jay Chandrasekhar as himself, who gets conned into being the celebrity spokesperson for the pyramid scheme Nutriboom.
Kirk Fox as Kurt, Kate Peralta's ex-boyfriend.
Reginald VelJohnson as himself, whom Charles hires for Jake's Bachelor Party to give a clue for their scavenger hunt but ends up being their designated driver.
Blake Anderson as Constantine Kane, a member of a rock band whom Amy once dated. He is still in love with Amy and takes a gig to perform at Jake's and Amy's wedding to try to win her back, but Amy burns the contract before it can happen.
Akiva Schaffer as Brett Booth, a 63rd Precinct detective who is running a task force which Peralta and Boyle both want to join, but Booth refuses them as he still holds Jake accountable for his visual impairment.
Gina Rodriguez as Alicia, a taxi driver and potential love interest for Rosa whom Terry tries to push towards.
Kyle Gass as Dario Moretti, a money launderer turned bomber whom Amy arrested. He attempted to ruin Jake's and Amy's nuptials by planting a bomb in the air vents of the recreation center on the day of their wedding.
Daniel Di Tomasso and Robert Maffia as Gio Costa, a well-mannered drug-running mafia boss whom Hitchcock and Scully apprehended in the 1980s.
Decker Sadowski and Donna D'Errico as Marisa Costa, ex-wife of criminal Gio Costa, who lives under a pseudonym as Donna, the manager of a Wing Slutz in Marine Park. She worked as a CI for Detectives Hitchcock and Scully in the mid-1980s and aided in the capture of her then-husband for his drug crimes. Hitchcock and Scully stole one of Gio Costa's bags of drug money to help protect her in her new identity, and frequently stopped by Wing Slutz thereafter to check in on Marisa's safety.
Paul Rust as Mikey Joseph, one of Jake's and Gina's former classmates who is still pursuing his high-school ambitions of making it as a Ska bassist.
Eugene Lee Yang as a staff member of The Manhattan Club, a bar which Jake and Gina visit.
Mario Lopez as himself, who gets tricked into attending Gina's going away party only to be rejected.
Nicole Byer as Trudy Judy, Doug Judy's younger sister who succeeds him as the new "Pontiac Bandit" after discovering his notes. Despite going to prison in her first appearance, she is released early for good behavior and remains close with Doug.
Rob Riggle as Rob Dulubnik, an FDNY firefighter whom the Nine-Nine compete against to have control over Shaw's.
Michael Mosley as Franco McCoy, a detective of the NYPD CSU. McCoy is self-enthusiastic to the point of arrogance and clashes with Peralta and Diaz at an 'unsolvable' crime scene.
Karan Soni as Gordon Lundt, a spy whom Commissioner Kelly sent to spy on Holt. He was trying to get the opening as the Civilian Administrator.
Briga Heelan as Keri Brennan, an expert in statistical arbitrage, who was sexually assaulted by her boss and decided to press charges in a "he said, she said" scenario.
Jonathan Chase as Seth Haggerty, a banker who sustained penile injuries at the hands of Brennan.
Richard Finkelstein and E.J. Callahan as Ernest Zumowski aka "The Disco Strangler", Holt's most infamous collar from his career as a detective, who was initially thought to be dead in a prison van accident.
Ike Barinholtz as Gintars Irbe, a Latvian clothing counterfeiter who is Nikolaj's biological father.
David Paymer as William Tate, a therapist with a murdered client. He was investigated by Jake and Charles, and later revealed as the murderer.
Julia Sweeney as Pam, a patient in the hospital room next to where Jake and Amy are having their "Casecation" and constantly is entering their room.
Oliver Muirhead as Wesley Allister, the dean of the classics department at the university Kevin works at, who thinks Captain Holt is not intelligent.
Bob Stephenson as Randy, a janitor at the university who stole the expensive coins and tried to frame another professor.
Sarah Claspell as Heather, one of the uniformed officers under Santiago's command.
Sean Astin as Knox, a murder suspect who disguises himself as an NYPD sergeant to erase the evidence of his crime.
Travis Coles as "Broadway" Brian Floomryde, a would-be performer who works as a civilian administrator in the records department of the 99th Precinct. Jeffords managed to convince Floomryde to quit his job to pursue his Broadway dreams so as to remain at the Precinct; however, after learning that he was vocally untalented and had a young family, Jeffords told Floomryde not to quit.
Merrick McCartha as Frank Murwin.
Nicole Bilderback as Julie Kim, the new Captain of the 99th Precinct for a day while Holt spends his time as a patrolman. She makes efforts to connect with everyone in the squad, further shown when she invited them to a party at her house. She views Holt as an inspiration for her police career, requesting to Wuntch to authorize her transfer to the 99 despite the latter's disdain for Holt. She quits after she finds out that Peralta is trying to dig up some dirt on her.
Jim Rash as Dr. Jones, Pimento's doctor who claims he is suffering from anterograde amnesia when in reality, he is trying to kill Pimento since his wife hired Pimento to investigate if he was having an affair.
Michael McDonald as Adam Jarver, Wuntch's nephew. He initially pretends to be another nemesis to Wuntch at her memorial at his late aunt's request to expose Holt's insults toward her as a final attempt to ruin her rival's career, but Holt outsmarted both of them by throwing a fake memorial.
J. K. Simmons as Frank Dillman, a detective respected by Holt for his highly analytical approach. Despite his keen observational skills, he was fired by the NYPD and SFPD and worked part time at a Yarn Barn.
Eva La Dare as Captain Brenda Shawnks, the lead on the selection panel for the NYPD Police Band.
Will Hines as Carl Kurm, an Assistant district attorney who tries to get Hitchcock & Scully punished for not taking down the name of a witness needed in court.
Jon Gabrus as Curt, a firefighter with the FDNY who responded to the 99's call when a blackout trapped Holt & Jeffords in an elevator, and later delivered Santiago's child.
Jill Basey as Dotty, an elderly civilian who asks Peralta & Boyle for help during a blackout, only to constantly criticise them and later be arrested.
Ellie Reed as Kayla, a bachelorette whose pedal pub is commandeered by Peralta & Boyle.
Brendan McNamara as Russ, a suspected drunk-driver who stages a crash to cause a blackout.
Paul Witten as Todd, a man Amy and Rosa set Holt up on a date with in an attempt to bring him closer to Kevin.
Joanna Newsom as Caroline Saint-Jacques Renard, the associate principal cellist for the Berlin Philharmonic whom Holt hired to perform during the final heist.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_Industry_Medal#:~:text=15%5D%5B16%5D-,1946%20Willard%20H.%20Dow,-%2C%20Dow%5B17%5D | Chemical Industry Medal | The Chemical Industry Medal is an annual American award given to an industrial chemist by the Society of Chemical Industry America (SCI America). The medal has been awarded since 1933, when it replaced the Grasselli Medal. It was initially given to "a person making a valuable application of chemical research to industry. Primary consideration shall be given to applications in the public interest." As of 1945, the criterion became "a person who ... has rendered conspicuous service to applied chemistry." More recently it has been awarded "for contributions toward the growth of the chemical industry."
== Recipients ==
Source: SCI Chemical Industry Medal Past Winners
1933 James G. Vail, Philadelphia Quartz Company
1934 Floyd G. Metzger, Air Reduction
1935 Edward R. Weidlein, Mellon Institute
1936 Walter S. Landis, American Cyanamid
1937 Evan J. Crane, Chemical Abstracts
1938 John V. N. Dorr, Dorr
1939 Robert E. Wilson, Standard Oil of Indiana, PanAmerican Petroleum
1941 Elmer K. Bolton, Dupont
1942 Harrison Howe, ACS
1943 John Grebe, Dow
1944 Bradley Dewey, Dewey & Almy
1945 Sidney Dale Kirkpatrick, Chemical & Metallurgical
1946 Willard H. Dow, Dow Chemical
1947 George W. Merck, Merck
1948 James A. Rafferty, Union Carbide
1949 William B. Bell, American Cyanamid
1950 William M. Rand, Monsanto
1951 Ernest W. Reid, Corn Products
1952 J. R. Donald, Crawford H. Greenewalt, Dupont
1953 Charles S. Munson, Air Reduction
1954 Ernest H. Volwiler, Abbot
1955 Joseph George Davidson, Union Carbide
1956 Robert Lindley Murray, Hooker Electrochemical
1957 Clifford Rassweiler, Johns Manville
1958 Fred J. Emmerich, Allied
1959 Harry B. Mcclure, Union Carbide
1960 Hans Stauffer, Stauffer
1961 William Edward Hanford, Olin Mathieson
1962 Kenneth H. Klipstein, American Cyanamid
1963 Max Tishler, Merck
1964 Leland I. Doan, Dow
1965 Ralph Connor, Rohm and Haas
1966 Monroe E. Spaght, Shell
1967 Chester M. Brown, Allied
1968 Harold W. Fisher, Standard Oil of New Jersey
1969 Charles B. McCoy, Dupont
1970 William H. Lycan, Johnson & Johnson
1971 Carroll A. Hochwalt, Thomas & Hochwalt, Monsanto
1972 Jesse Werner, Gaf
1973 Ralph Landau, Scientific Design
1974 Carl Gerstacker, Dow
1975 Leonard P. Pool, Air Products & Chemicals
1976 Harold E. Thayer, Mallinckrodt
1977 F. Perry Wilson, Union Carbide
1978 Jack B. St. Clair, Shell
1979 Irving S. Shapiro, Dupont
1980 Edward Donley, Air Products
1981 Thomas W. Mastin, Lubrizol
1982 H. Barclay Morley, Stauffer
1983 Paul Oreffice, Dow
1984 James Affleck, American Cyanamid
1985 Louis Fernandez, Monsanto
1986 Edward G. Jefferson, Dupont
1987 Edwin C. Holmer, Exxon
1988 Vincent L. Gregory Jr., Rohm and Haas
1989 Richard E. Heckert, Dupont
1990 George J. Sella Jr., American Cyanamid
1991 Dexter F. Baker, Air Products
1992 H. Eugene McBrayer, Exxon
1993 W. H. Clark, Nalco
1994 Keith R. McKennon, Dow Corning
1995 Robert D. Kennedy, Union Carbide
1996 John W. Johnstone Jr., Olin
1997 J. Roger Hirl, Occidental Chemical
1998 Edgar S. Woolard, Jr., Dupont
1999 J. Lawrence Wilson, Rohm and Haas
2000 Vincent A. Calarco, Crompton
2001 William S. Stavropoulos, Dow Chemical
2002 Earnest W. Deavenport Jr., Eastman Chemical
2003 Whitson Sadler, Solvay
2004 Thomas E. Reilly, Reilly Industries
2005 Daniel S. Sanders, ExxonMobil & Company
2006 Jon Huntsman, Sr., Huntsman Corporation
2007 Raj Gupta, Rohm and Haas
2008 Dennis H. Reilley, Praxair
2009 Jeffrey M. Lipton, Nova Chemicals
2010 Michael E. Campbell, Arch Chemicals, Inc
2011 J. Brian Ferguson, Eastman Chemical
2012 David N. Weidman, Celanese
2013 Andrew Liveris, Dow Chemical
2014 Sunil Kumar, International Speciality Products
2015 Stephen D. Pryor, President of ExxonMobil Chemical
2016 James L. Gallogly, LyondellBasell
2017 Andreas C. Kramvis, Honeywell
2018, Cal Dooley, American Chemistry Council
2019, Neil A. Chapman, Exxon Mobil Corporation
2020, Christopher D. Pappas, Trinseo
2021, Craig Rogerson, Hexion
2022, Mark Vergnano, Chemours
2023, Bhavesh (Bob) Patel, W.R. Grace & Co.
2024, John J. Paro, Hallstar
2025, Albert Chao and James Chao, Westlake Corporation
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== External links ==
SCI Chemical Industry Medal Past Winners
Society of Chemical Industry
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindupur_Lok_Sabha_constituency | Hindupur Lok Sabha constituency | Hindupur Lok Sabha constituency is one of the twenty-five lok sabha constituencies of Andhra Pradesh in India. It comprises seven assembly segments and belongs to Sri Sathya Sai district and Anantapur district.
== Assembly segments ==
Hindupur constituency presently comprises the following Legislative Assembly segments:
== Members of Parliament ==
== Election results ==
=== General Election 1989 ===
=== General Election 1991 ===
=== General Election 1996 ===
=== General Election 1998 ===
=== General Election 1999 ===
=== General Election 2004 ===
=== General Election 2009 ===
=== General Election 2014 ===
=== 2019 ===
=== 2024 ===
== See also ==
List of constituencies of the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly
== References ==
== External links ==
Hindupur lok sabha constituency election 2019 date and schedule |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Dubourg | Matthew Dubourg | Matthew Dubourg (1703 – 3 July 1767) was an English violinist, conductor, and composer who spent most of his life in Ireland. Among other achievements, Dubourg led the orchestra at the premiere of Georg Friedrich Handel's great oratorio Messiah.
== Biography ==
Dubourg was born in London, the illegitimate son of a court dancing master, his mother's identity is unknown. In 1712, at age 9, he performed a Corelli sonata standing on a stool at the home of Thomas Britton. At age 11, in 1714, he furthered his studies under the celebrated Italian violinist, composer and music theorist Francesco Geminiani. He performed a sonata at the Queen's Theatre in March 1714, a benefit concert in May at Hickford's Room, as well as many other performances during the London season.
On 17 June 1727 he married Frances, the daughter of musician Bernard Gates at Stanmore, Middlesex. They had one child, a daughter named Elizabeth, who married oboist Redmond Simpson on 22 September 1753, who had one child.
Dubourg served as concert-master from 1728 to 1764 in Dublin. His official title was "Chief Composer and Master of the Music attending His Majesty's State in Ireland" at Dublin Castle. He was a major force the musical life of Dublin, together with Geminiani, who was his friend and teacher for many years.
In April 1730, Dubourg (styled as "Mathew Dubourgh, Gentleman") was involved in a property dealing with 'Francis Barry, Senior, wife of Richard Barry late of the City of Dublin, Gentleman', whereby in consideration of the sum of £110, Barry assigned unto Dubourg the dwelling house of a tailor named George Quay situated on Capel Street in Dublin. The deed was witnessed by a woman named Elen: Du Bourg (sic) of the City of Dublin, Spinster, possibly a relative of Dubourg's. Four years later, a Deed of Mortgage or Conveyance was registered between the same Frances Barry (noted as the Widow & Relict of Richard Barry of the City of Dublin, Gent) and Dubourg. The deed recorded that £460 had been paid by Dubourg to Barry concerning separate plots of ground in Capel Street and Arbour Hill, Dublin. The deed was witnessed by "Peter Gunan of the said City (of Dublin), Instrument Maker", who is known to have tuned and maintained the organ at Trinity College Chapel during the 1700s.
Dubourg was close friends with Handel, and followed the rise of his career in London, as well as the general music scene there from across the Irish Sea. Around 15 May 1736, Benjamin Victor, theatre manager in London, wrote to Dubourg in Dublin concerning the upcoming marriage of Frederick, Prince of Wales to Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha an event at which Handel saw a chance to gain Royal Patronage: "...As to the Operas, they must tumble, for the King's presence could hardly hold them up, and even that prop is denied them, for his Majesty will not admit his royal ears to be tickled this season. As to music, it flourishes in this place more than ever, in subscription concerts and private parties, which must prejudice all operas and public entertainments".
== Handel's Messiah ==
Dubourg led the orchestra in the first performances of Handel's Messiah. Dubourg had worked with Handel as early as 1719 in London. The premiere of Messiah took place at "Mr Neale's Music Hall" in Dublin on 13 April 1742.
Permission to use members of the choirs from Dublin's cathedrals had been granted by the dean of Saint Patrick's Cathedral, Jonathan Swift (1667–1745) (who is better known today as the author of Gulliver's Travels). However, Swift then withdrew his permission, only to grant it once again as the dates for the performances drew near. Swift also had no kind words for Dubourg's orchestra. He called them "a club of fiddlers in Fishamble Street".
Handel led the performance of Messiah from the harpsichord, and Dubourg conducted the orchestra. Despite Swift's sally against Dubourg's orchestra, Handel thought they played quite well, writing to Charles Jennens, "as for the Instruments they are really excellent, Mr. Dubourgh being at the Head of them, and the Musick sounds delightfully in this charming Room".
According to Dubourg's son-in-law, the oboist Redmond Simpson, Handel was "attacked by another Paraletic stroke" while dining with Dubourg one evening in Dublin. "It was violent and universal" but luckily "Doctors Barry and Quin, & Mr Nichols, Surgeon General, were present... By violent bleeding & other evacuations he was soon perfectly recovered, & never had any return of it".
Of a concert in 1742 conducted by Handel, the following anecdote was told: Dubourg played a cadenza in which he wandered far from the theme creating complex modulations of it. When he finally returned to the original theme, Handel said: "Welcome home, Monsieur Dubourg".
Following the premiere of Messiah Dubourg travelled to London with Handel and performed several other works with him at Covent Garden, including Samson, L'Allegro ed il Penseroso, and the London premiere of the Messiah in 1743. He returned to Dublin in October.
== Works ==
Dubourg wrote several works, which are still frequently played, particularly in Britain. One of his passions was to take famous Irish tunes and morph them in the late Baroque style as, for example, with his Variations of Druid Tunes. His variations of the sonatas (op. 5) of Arcangelo Corelli are also often heard.
== Later life and death ==
In 1752, Dubourg became Master of the Royal Chapel in London, a post he occupied until his death in 1767. Upon Handel's death in 1759, money was left to Dubourg in his will. On 3 July 1767 Dubourg made a brief will leaving most of his estate to his wife Frances, and he died shortly thereafter. There is some question on the date of death, but his registered date of death is 5 July 1767. The inscription on his tombstone reads:
"Here lyeth the body of Matthew Dubourg, chief composer and master of music in the kingdom of Ireland, servant to four generations of the illustrious House of Hanover, George I. and II., his Royal Highness the late Prince of Wales, and His present Majesty; as also instructor in Music to their Royal Highnesses the Duke of Cumberland and the late Prince Frederick. He died July 5, 1767, aged 64."
Tho' sweet Orpheus thou couds't
Bring
Soft pleadings from the trembling string
Unmov'd the King of Terror stands,
Nor owns the magic of thy hands
== References ==
== Sources ==
Entry on Dubourg in the French Wikipedia
Notes on Handel's Messiah by Jeffrey Thomas, Music Director of the American Bach Soloists |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Cullen,_Lord_Pentland#The_Bench | Paul Cullen, Lord Pentland | Paul Benedict Cullen, Lord Pentland, (born 11 March 1957) is the current Lord President of the Court of Session and Lord Justice General, the most senior judge in Scotland. He is a former Solicitor General for Scotland, Senator of the College of Justice and Chairman of the Scottish Law Commission.
== Early life ==
Born in Gosforth, Northumberland, he was educated at St Augustine's High School, Edinburgh and at the School of Law of the University of Edinburgh.
== Legal career ==
=== Department of Environment ===
Cullen was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates in 1982, devilling for Alan Rodger QC. He tutored part-time at the Faculty of Law at the University of Edinburgh from 1982 to 1986, when he was elected Clerk of the Faculty of Advocates, serving until 1991. He was Standing Junior Counsel to the Department of the Environment in Scotland from 1988 to 1991 and appointed an Advocate Depute in 1992, becoming a Queen's Counsel in 1995. A member of the Conservative Party, he became Solicitor General for Scotland, the junior Law Officer in Scotland, in 1995, when Donald Mackay succeeded Lord Rodger of Earlsferry as Lord Advocate, the senior Law Officer. He held this post until the Labour election victory in 1997, when he was succeeded by Colin Boyd, who later became Lord Advocate.
=== Gilmerton enquiry ===
He was the chairman of the public inquiry into the Gilmerton Limestone Emergency in 2001–2002, and has been Chairman of the Appeal Committee of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland and of the Police Appeals Tribunal. In 2003, The Scotsman named him the seventieth highest earner in Scotland, and third highest earner at the Bar, after Richard Keen QC (who was sixty-first with earnings of £600,000 and a former dean of the Faculty) and Michael Jones, Lord Jones (who was fifty-fifth with earnings of £750,000). He was involved in a number of high-profile cases, including the Countryside Alliance challenge to the Scottish fox-hunting ban, judicial review connected to the Stockline Plastics factory explosion, and the first two appeals to the Inner House of the Court of Session under the Freedom of Information (Scotland) Act 2002 and the first such appeal to the House of Lords.
=== Senator of College of Justice ===
In November 2008, Cullen was appointed as a Senator of the College of Justice, a judge of the High Court of Justiciary and Court of Session, the Supreme Courts of Scotland, and took the judicial title, Lord Pentland. In 2010 he was appointed as a member of the Upper Tribunal (Tax and Chancery Chamber). He has also served as an Intellectual Property judge.
Lord Pentland was appointed as Chairman of the Scottish Law Commission on 1 January 2014 for a period of five years until 31 December 2018. He was appointed to the First Division of the Inner House of the Court of Session in July 2020, and to the Privy Council in September 2020.
=== Lord President of Court of Session ===
On 9 January 2025, it was announced that Lord Pentland had been appointed as the next Lord President of the Court of Session and Lord Justice General. He succeeded Lord Carloway on 3 February 2025.
On 17 October 2025, Lord Pentland celebrated the tenth anniversary of the creation of the Sheriff Appeal Court alongside Lord Carloway, Lord Gill and Sheriff Principal Anwar.
== Political career ==
Cullen contested the Eastwood constituency at the 1997 general election for the Conservative Party, but finished in second place to Jim Murphy of the Labour Party. All Conservative Party representation was wiped out from Scottish constituencies at that election. Cullen served as Vice-President of the Edinburgh South Conservative Association from 1997 until he took the bench in 2008. He represented the Scottish Conservative Party on the Consultative Steering Group in 1998-99 which helped prepare procedures for the new Scottish Parliament. He was appointed Chairman of the Disciplinary Panel of the Scottish Conservatives in 2000.
== Personal life ==
Cullen is married to Joyce Nicol, former Chair of Brodies LLP (1983), with whom he has two sons and a daughter. He plays tennis and bridge, and is a member of the New Club.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Letby | Lucy Letby | Lucy Letby (born 4 January 1990) is a British former neonatal nurse who was convicted of the murders of seven infants and the attempted murders of seven others between June 2015 and June 2016. Letby came under investigation following a high number of unexpected infant deaths that occurred at the neonatal unit of the Countess of Chester Hospital three years after she began working there.
Letby was charged in November 2020 with seven counts of murder and fifteen counts of attempted murder in relation to seventeen babies. Prosecution evidence included Letby's presence at a high number of deaths, two abnormal blood test results and skin discolouration interpreted as diagnostic of insulin poisoning and air embolism, inconsistencies in medical records, her removal of nursing handover sheets from the hospital, and her behaviour and communications, including handwritten notes interpreted as a confession. In August 2023, she was found guilty on seven counts each of murder and attempted murder. She was found not guilty on two counts of attempted murder and the jury could not reach a verdict on the remaining six counts. Letby was sentenced to life imprisonment with a whole life order. An attempted murder charge on which the jury failed to find a verdict was retried in July 2024, and she was found guilty.
Management at the Countess of Chester Hospital were criticised for ignoring warnings about Letby. The British government commissioned an independent statutory inquiry into the circumstances surrounding the deaths, which began its hearings in September 2024. Letby has remained under investigation for further cases.
Since the conclusion of her trials and the lifting of reporting restrictions, various experts have expressed doubts about the safety of her convictions due to contention over the medical and statistical evidence. Medical professionals have contested the prosecution's interpretation of the infants' records and argued that they instead show each had died or deteriorated due to natural causes. Two applications for permission to appeal have been rejected by the Court of Appeal. The Criminal Cases Review Commission is considering an application to refer her case back to the Court of Appeal.
== Early life and education ==
Lucy Letby was born on 4 January 1990 in Hereford, the only child of a furniture salesman and an accounts clerk. Letby was educated at St. James Church of England primary school, Aylestone School and Hereford Sixth Form College. A friend who knew her since secondary school told the BBC, that Letby wanted to become a neonatal nurse because "she'd had a difficult birth herself, and she was very grateful for being alive to the nurses who helped save her life".
Letby received her education in nursing at the University of Chester, where she also worked as a student nurse during her three years of training, carrying out placements at Liverpool Women's Hospital and the Countess of Chester Hospital. Letby initially failed her final year student placement, but passed a retrieval placement after requesting a new assessor. In 2011, Nicola Lightfoot, her first assessor, reported she was lacking in clinical and medication knowledge and needed more experience in "picking up on non-verbal signs of anxiety/distress from parents"; in a 2024 inquiry, Lightfoot said she had found Letby to be "cold". Letby was the first member of her family to study at university and graduated with a Bachelor of Science in Nursing with a speciality in child nursing in September 2011. She completed a placement course at the Liverpool Women's Hospital by December 2012.
== Career ==
Letby got an appointment as a registered nurse at the Countess of Chester Hospital and started working in the neonatal unit from 2 January 2012. She lived a normal life living in several rented apartments until she bought a house near the hospital, a 20-minute walking distance from her ward, in 2016. In a 2013 staff profile, she said that she was responsible for "caring for a wide range of babies requiring various levels of support" and that she enjoyed "seeing them progress and supporting their families." Letby also took part in a campaign to raise funds for a new neonatal unit at the hospital. She told others that she found non-intensive care work "boring".
Letby completed a specialisation course in neonatal caring in March 2014. She went for another training placements at Liverpool Women's Hospital in early 2015, and qualified to work with infants in intensive care. Her time there came under investigation after her conviction.
In July 2013, Letby and a more senior nurse set the infusion rate for a newborn's morphine at 10 times the correct amount, leading to a suspension from administering controlled drugs by the unit's deputy ward manager. Letby, who was upset by the decision, was required to undergo extra training. Her suspension was lifted a week later, after she complained to the unit manager, who had been on leave during the incident. Letby told colleagues the suspension was an over-escalation, which the deputy ward manager disputed. In 2015, she qualified to work with infants in intensive care, and in April 2016, she administered antibiotics to an infant that was not prescribed them, which she misclassified as a "minor error". She was reassigned by the ward manager from night shifts to day shifts.
In June 2016, Stephen Brearey, lead neonatologist, asked management to remove Letby from clinical duties pending an investigation into her conduct. Letby was transferred to the patient experience team in July 2016 and later to the risk and patient safety office, working there until her arrest in 2018.
== Initial investigations ==
In June 2015, four collapses occurred in the same neonatology unit of Countess of Chester Hospital, three leading to infant deaths. The unit typically saw only two or three deaths a year. Eirian Powell, the unit manager, and Stephen Brearey conducted an informal review, and reported the incidents to the committee of the NHS Foundation Trust responsible for addressing serious incidents. Upon review, the committee classed the deaths as medication errors. Brearey observed that Letby had been on shift for all of the incidents, but considered it an unsurprising coincidence; there was only one other qualified junior nurse in the unit, and Letby often worked extra shifts to cover for staffing shortages. He stated, "Nobody had any concerns about her practice." In 2023, reports from The Guardian and The Times stated he was suspicious of Letby beginning in 2015 and accused the hospital of negligence for ignoring his concerns.
During a hospital visit in February 2016, the Care Quality Commission (CQC) was informed of difficulties in raising concerns with managers, but heard no mention of an elevated mortality rate. The CQC's report identified issues of "short-staffing" and "skill-mix" issues within the unit, yet it praised the overall positive culture of the trust, where "[s]taff felt well supported, able to raise concerns and develop professionally." In May 2016, the executive team deemed the spike in deaths to be coincidental and no substantial action was taken. Reports by the nationwide MBRRACE-UK project found a neonatal death rate at least 10% higher than expected between June 2015 and June 2016. Additionally, the neonatal death total in 2015 doubled that of the previous year.
Brearey phoned the duty executive on 24 June 2016, following two more deaths shortly after Letby returned from a holiday in Ibiza, demanding that she be removed from the unit. The duty executive insisted that Letby was safe to work. The Trust's executive directors convened at the end of June and discussed involving the police, but decided against it. The medical director and chief executive instead organised a review through the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health (RCPCH). Letby was removed from the unit, working her last shift there on June 30. The unit's services were scaled back by hospital managers on 7 July 2016, cutting cot space numbers and increasing the gestational age limit for admission from a minimum of 27 to 32 weeks.
The RCPCH was tasked with a general review of the unit's service, which was initiated in September 2016. In October 2016, they reported they could not find a definitive explanation for the increase in mortality rate at the unit, but found insufficient staffing and senior cover. They praised Letby's nursing skills and argued that the concerns about her came from a "subjective view with no other evidence". The medical director asked neonatologist Jane Hawdon from Great Ormond Street Hospital to carry out detailed case reviews recommended by the RCPCH, but Hawdon said she did not have the time and instead did a brief review of the medical notes relating to 17 deaths and other incidents and produced a five-page report. She concluded that 13 of the incidents could be explained and "may have been prevented with different care", while the remaining four could "potentially benefit from local forensic review as to circumstances, personnel etc". Records of the hospital board meeting show the medical director telling board members that the RCPCH and Hawdon reviews concluded that the deaths in the neonatal unit were due to issues with leadership and timely intervention. The chair later said he had been misled about the depth of the Hawdon review and its findings.
In September 2016, Letby raised a formal grievance about her late June 2016 transfer from clinical duties to the hospital's risk and patient safety office. This grievance was upheld by the board in January 2017, which determined her removal had been "orchestrated by the consultants with no hard evidence". The medical director commented in the report that the trust's intention was to "protect Lucy Letby from these allegations". The chief executive had met with Letby and her parents on 22 December 2016 to apologise on behalf of the trust and assure them that the doctors who made the allegations would be "dealt with". He later ordered the consultants to send a letter of apology to Letby, which they did in February 2017.
In March 2017, four consultants, including Stephen Brearey and Ravi Jayaram, asked management to involve the police after receiving advice for further investigation from the regional neonatal lead. They then met with Cheshire Constabulary on 27 April 2017, to raise their concerns, with Letby due to return to work on 3 May 2017. Brearey and Jayaram told the Cheshire Constabulary that infant collapses are "nearly always explainable". In May 2024, staff writer Rachel Aviv for The New Yorker reported that a study of infant deaths in southeast London, published in the Journal of Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine, found that about half of unexpected infant collapses remain unexplained after an autopsy.
The trust publicly announced the involvement of the police in May 2017, stating this move was to "seek assurances that enable us to rule out unnatural causes of death." The investigation, designated Operation Hummingbird, lasted a year. Senior Investigating Officer Paul Hughes later said: "the initial focus was around the hypotheses of what could have occurred: so generic hypotheses of 'it could be natural-occurring deaths', 'it could be natural-occurring collapses', 'it could be an organic reason', 'it could be a virus', and then one of the hypotheses was that, obviously, it could be inflicted harm."
Reading about the investigation in the news, Dewi Evans, a retired paediatrician and professional expert witness, contacted the National Crime Agency in May 2017 offering to help on the investigation. During the police investigation which followed, Evans was instructed to review clinical records of the babies in the unit who had died or collapsed suddenly, in total 61 cases. Evans produced a large number of reports for Cheshire Police including a general statement dated 17 April 2019, a review of published literature regarding air embolus in newborn infants dated 3 July 2019 and a series of reports "considering" the events surrounding the deaths or collapses of babies. Letby's trial opened on 10 October 2022 and Evans also remained lead expert witness during the trial. Evans' conclusions were peer-reviewed by Dr Sandie Bohin, a practising consultant neonatologist from Guernsey. Evans advised the police on the instruction of experts from specific specialisations, including:
Dr Andreas Marnerides, forensic pathologist and histopathologist
Professor Owen Arthurs, consultant paediatric radiologist
Professor Sally Kinsey, consultant paediatric haematologist
Professor Peter Hindmarsh, consultant paediatric endocrinologist
Professor Stavros Stivaros, consultant paediatric neuroradiologist
Dr Simon Kenney, consultant paediatric surgeon.
Initially 61 cases of sudden infant collapse or death at the Letby's ward were investigated by Evans, but this was narrowed down to a total of 22 counts during the trial.
== 2023 trial ==
On 3 July 2018, police arrested Letby on suspicion of eight counts of murder and six counts of attempted murder. After Letby's arrest, police began investigating her entire career, including her time at Liverpool Women's Hospital. Letby was bailed on 6 July 2018, rearrested on 10 June 2019, and bailed again on 13 June. On 10 November 2020, she was arrested once again and denied bail. Letby denied all charges against her, and pointed to issues of hospital hygiene and staffing levels.
Letby's trial began at Manchester Crown Court on 10 October 2022 before Mr Justice Goss. She pleaded not guilty to seven counts of murder and 15 counts of attempted murder. Letby's parents and the families of the victims attended the trial.
The neonatal victims were referred to as Baby A to Baby Q. The press secrecy around the identities of the 17 babies and nine colleagues who gave evidence was unusual. Two years before the criminal trial, Mrs Justice Steyn banned the identification of the living victims until their 18th birthdays. Several adult witnesses requested anonymity, which is rarely granted, unless testifying would endanger their lives. The judge approved these requests, ruling that getting testimony from the colleagues was more important than them being publicly identifiable.
=== Evidence ===
The mother of Baby E described hearing her infant scream, and walking in to find him with blood around his mouth and Letby in the room. She testified that Letby had attributed the blood to a nasogastric tube, saying "trust me, I'm a nurse." The baby's condition soon worsened and he died a few hours later.
Letby later sent a sympathy card to the parents on the day of the baby's funeral. Upon Letby's arrest it was found on her phone that she had photographed the card before she sent it and had still kept pictures of it. It was also revealed during the trial that Letby had to be told more than once not to enter a room where the parents of one of the victims were grieving. Letby told a colleague that taking Child A to the mortuary was "the hardest thing she ever had to do".
The Crown Prosecution Service cited texts sent by Letby to friends, describing them as a "live blogging" of events and as displaying "intrusive curiosity." Three days after the death of Baby A, Letby had messaged the manager of the unit offering to do more shifts, saying "from a confidence point of view I need to take an ITU baby soon X". Two days later she had a heated text exchange with a colleague over her manager not assigning her to the intensive care room. Shortly after the exchange, Baby C's condition worsened and he died the following day. After the third baby death in a fortnight 2015, Letby replied to a text from a sympathetic colleague saying that she would "keep ploughing on" and added "I think there is an element of fate involved. There is a reason for everything". About two hours after the collapse of Baby M, Letby sent texts reading: "Work has been shit but... I have just won £135 on Grand National!! [horse emoji]." and "Unpacking party sounds good to me with my flavoured vodka ha ha." Letby had also searched for the families of several infant victims on Facebook, including on the anniversaries of their babies' deaths and on Christmas Day. The prosecution said that she would search for a number of them within minutes of each other, as if "hunting for grief". In total Letby had searched for 11 of the families affected. Letby testified that this was out of "general curiosity" and said, "I was always on my phone". She searched for the families of infants 31 times; during the year the deaths took place, she searched for other people 2,287 times.
The prosecution in Letby's case argued that suspicious incidents began in 2015, when Letby qualified to work with infants in intensive care, and that in April 2016, when the ward manager reassigned Letby from night shifts to day shifts, their distribution shifted accordingly.
A consultant testified that, in February 2016, he had walked in on Letby standing over a desaturating infant and failing to intervene. He said that Letby had responded to his questions by telling him that the infant had only just started declining. The infant in question survived the collapse.
Between March and June 2016 another three babies almost died while under Letby's care. Towards the end of June, she was helping care for triplets. Consultants said that they had been in good health and the deaths of two boys on consecutive days were causing staff considerable distress and shock.
In August 2015, one infant (referred to as Baby E) died and within hours his twin (Baby F) became seriously unwell but fully recovered later the same day. During the police investigation, a doctor helping police look over clinical records noticed unusual blood test results for Baby F and one other infant (Baby L). A third blood test result with similar characteristics was later discovered in the clinical records by the prosecution's lead expert witness. The first two of these test results resulted in attempted murder charges and became central to the trial, but Letby was never charged in relation to the third. The prosecution argued that the test results demonstrated deliberate poisoning by insulin. Their lead expert witness described this evidence as the "smoking gun". Since the trial, this interpretation of the blood test results has been disputed by experts (see: § Concerns about the medical evidence).
At the same time as Baby L's blood sugar collapse, his twin brother, Baby M, unexpectedly collapsed while under Letby's care but managed to survive after thirty minutes of resuscitation. The prosecution argued that Letby had injected air into his bloodstream. The prosecution also noted that, although by this point she was not supposed to work night shifts, Letby was caring for Baby L as she specifically volunteered to do an extra shift to care for her.
A paediatrician testified that he and other clinicians had previously raised concerns about Letby, but were told by hospital administration that they "should not really be saying such things" and "not to make a fuss." Another doctor testified that Letby commented an hour before one victim died, "He's not leaving here alive, is he?" The doctor replied 'don't say that' and left the ward overruling Letby's objection. Although the consultants made their desire to have Letby removed from duties known to hospital staff after the triplet incident, this was refused and the next day another baby almost died under Letby's care.
The prosecution presented the jury with a shift chart showing Letby as the only nurse on duty for 25 incidents, which included swipe data to show Letby's movements around the unit (see: § Mislabelled door swipe data). Referring to the chart in his opening remarks, prosecuting barrister Nick Johnson said, "by a process of simple elimination" Letby must be responsible for the incidents. Since the trial, statisticians and others have questioned the use of this chart (see: § Quality of the statistical evidence) and the criteria by which incidents were included on it or not. After her removal from duty, and the downgrade of the unit to no longer admit infants requiring intensive care or those born before 32 weeks, the unexpected deaths stopped. Letby was accused of falsifying times on patient records so as not to be placed at the scene of the collapse. She denied doing so and suggested the changes were errors made by her or another nurse. Criminal psychologist David Holmes has argued that the varied methods she was said to have used to attack the infants, such as insulin and air injections and overfeeding milk, would all have been specifically chosen as things that would dissipate and not be easily detected afterwards.
==== Handwritten notes ====
Searches of Letby's and her parents' homes, and Letby's handbag, revealed post-it notes handwritten by Letby. These included fragmentary phrases such as "help", "I'm sorry that you couldn't have a chance at life", "I don't want to do this anymore", "not good enough", "why me?", "I haven't done anything wrong", "we tried our best and it wasn't enough", "I am evil, I did this", and "I killed them on purpose because I'm not good enough to care for them". Another document that was presented said "I don't know if I killed them. Maybe I did. Maybe this is all down to me".
The defence argued that the notes were "the anguished outpouring of a young woman in fear and despair", written while Letby was dealing with employment issues including a grievance procedure with the NHS Trust. The prosecution said that the notes expressed Letby's frustration at being removed from the neonatal unit. Since the trial, criminology experts have contested the prosecution's interpretation of the notes (see: § Interpretation of handwritten notes). Letby denied that the notes were a confession, describing them as a reflection of her mental turmoil, written while she was being investigated. The Guardian, in its reporting after the verdict, described the notes as "[t]he closest the prosecution had to a confession"; they later reported that the notes had been written on the advice of Letby's GP to help her process the extreme stress of being investigated.
Letby's diary was also found to be marked with the initials of the dead babies. Initials of those who had died were found to have been marked on the dates they were born, the days the prosecution alleged she attacked them, and on the days that they died.
==== Medical records ====
Searches of Letby's home found sensitive medical documents under her bed, including nursing handover sheets, resuscitation records, and blood gas readings. Of the 257 sheets, 21 related to infants Letby had allegedly harmed. Letby testified that she "collect[ed] paper" and had forgotten to remove the sheets from her pockets at the hospital; she also claimed that she could not destroy them, but a paper shredder was found in her home.
=== Letby's testimony ===
Letby herself gave evidence to the court in May 2023. When questioned by her defence barrister, she became tearful claiming she was made to feel as though she were incompetent but "meant no harm." Letby said that the allegations had negatively impacted her mental health, saying, "I don't think you can be accused of anything worse than that. I just changed as a person, my mental health deteriorated, I felt isolated from my friends on the unit." It was also noted that she repeatedly contradicted herself, muddled up her story and became more and more frustrated with the prosecution's questions, which was unlike her usual calm demeanour.
=== Defence arguments ===
Letby's defence lawyer said that Letby was "a dedicated nurse in a system which has failed", that the prosecution's case was "driven by the assumption that someone was doing deliberate harm combined with the coincidence on certain occasions of Miss Letby's presence", and that there had been a "massive failure of care in a busy hospital neonatal unit – far too great to blame on one person". The defence argued that "extraordinary bleeding" in one infant could have been caused by a rigid wire or tube.
The defence argued that the evidence presented by the prosecution was insufficient to justify their theories of how the infants were harmed. They argued that the evidence suggesting air embolism was so weak that there was "no case to answer". Defence barrister Benjamin Myers pointed out that "air embolism" made no appearance in Letby's internet search history. However, they did not call any medical experts of their own to the witness box.
The only defence witness other than Letby herself was a plumber who testified that plumbing issues at the hospital led to sewage washing up into the sinks on the unit. He told the jury that issues like this at the hospital led to him being called out "maybe weekly". The defence argued that these hygiene issues could contribute to explaining the unit's high mortality rate. In a November 2024 interview, Dewi Evans acknowledged the known presence of pseudomonas in the neonatal unit's water supplies, leading to several cases of pneumonia.
Letby's defence attempted to argue no case to answer on the grounds that:
None of the experts who had given evidence on the topic of air embolus had a sufficient clinical experience and expertise to do so.
The research basis for air embolus as cited in the evidence was too vague and inconsistent and failed to match the requirements of scientific evidence capable of supporting the diagnosis.
The prosecution experts were inconsistent in their descriptions of the characteristics required to support the diagnosis of air embolism.
Justice James Goss ruled that there was "a sufficient body of accepted expert medical opinion that administration of air into the venous system could cause air embolism which might be fatal".
=== Verdicts and sentencing ===
Final verdicts were returned by the jury on 18 August 2023. Letby was found guilty of seven counts of murder of seven infants and seven counts of attempted murder of six further infants. Eleven of the convictions were by a 10–1 majority, while the verdicts relating to Child F, Child L and Child O were unanimous. She was found not guilty on two counts of attempted murder and the jury were unable to reach verdicts on six further attempted murder charges. The prosecuting barrister asked the court for 28 days to consider whether a retrial would be sought for these six counts.
The jury acquitted Letby of the attempted murder counts 9 (Baby G) and 10 (Baby H) and could not reach a verdict on counts 11 (Baby H), 13 (Baby J), 14, (Baby K), 18 and 19 (Baby N) and 22 (Baby Q).
On 21 August 2023, Letby was sentenced to life imprisonment with a whole life order, the most severe sentence possible under English law; she is the fourth woman in UK legal history to receive such a sentence. Goss said that Letby committed "a cruel, calculated and cynical campaign of child murder involving the smallest and most vulnerable of children." In closing, he stated, "there was a deep malevolence bordering on sadism [...] you [Letby] have no remorse [...] there are no mitigating factors [...] the offences are of sufficient severity to require a whole life order."
Letby opted not to attend the sentencing hearing and as such heard neither the various victim impact statements which were read out, nor her sentence being passed. In response, Alex Chalk, Secretary of State for Justice, wrote that the government will "look at options to change the law at the earliest opportunity" to compel defendants to attend their sentencing. On 30 August 2023, Prime Minister Rishi Sunak announced that the UK government would introduce legislation to Parliament that would compel convicted criminals to attend their sentencing hearings, by force if necessary, or face the prospect of more time in prison. This was proposed as a new clause to the criminal justice bill in a 2024 parliamentary debate.
After the trial, Letby was transferred to HMP Low Newton, a closed prison for women in County Durham. As of January 2024, Letby is being held in HM Prison Bronzefield.
== Motives ==
No motive was upheld by the court, though it is not required for a finding of guilty. The prosecution in Letby's case suggested several theories including boredom, thrill-seeking, and "playing God" as possible motives. They also alleged that Letby had a secret relationship with a married doctor involved with some of the cases. As evidence, they cited Letby's frequent texts to him on certain night shifts, as well as a piece of paper from Letby's office where she had written phrases including, "I trusted you with everything and loved you", "you were my best friend" and "please help me". Letby denied all these suggestions, including the idea that she had a relationship with, or crush on, the doctor in question.
The former detective who acted as lead investigator on the 1990s Beverley Allitt case drew parallels between Allitt's and Letby's cases, suggesting that Letby might have copied Allitt's methods. Criminal psychologists Dominic Wilmott and David Holmes suggested that Letby may have been motivated by factitious disorder imposed on another, a theory also proposed about Allitt.31:15
David Wilson, an emeritus professor of criminology, published an August 2023 opinion piece in The Guardian that argued that Letby was driven by a "hero complex". Later that month, in a TV appearance, Wilson argued that healthcare killers join the profession in order to target vulnerable victims, such as the very old or very young.
== Post-conviction ==
=== Disciplinary action ===
On 13 March 2020, while out on bail, Letby was placed on an interim suspension by the Nursing and Midwifery Council. On 18 August 2023, Andrea Sutcliffe, Chief Executive and Registrar of the Nursing and Midwifery Council, stated that Letby "remains suspended from our register, and we will now move forward with our regulatory action, seeking to strike her off the register". Letby was removed from the nursing register on 12 December 2023, having informed the Nursing and Midwifery Council that she did not accept guilt but did not contest the removal.
=== Appeal ===
In January 2024, Letby applied to the Court of Appeal for permission to appeal her convictions, which a judge refused. Letby renewed her application and at a three-day hearing in April 2024 her lawyers put forward four grounds of appeal concerning the trial judge's refusal of applications, but in May 2024 the three judges of the Court of Appeal—Dame Victoria Sharp, Lord Justice Holroyde and Mrs Justice Lambert—refused permission to appeal.
As part of the appeal Letby's counsel Ben Myers again tried to question the inclusion of evidence by Dewi Evans, saying it should have been disallowed as evidence as he had been "dogmatic and biased". The appeal judges rejected these criticisms, ruling that Evans did not lack impartiality, was well-qualified to give an opinion, and it was up to the jury to assess the quality of his evidence.
A second ground for appeal was that the medical evidence that Letby had fatally injected air into babies' bloodstreams was "very weak", while the third ground was that the judge had been wrong to direct the jury that they could convict even if they were unsure of the precise method used by Letby for every case. The final ground was that the judge had failed to investigate the impartiality of one of the jurors. All four grounds were refused by the Court, with the judges' subsequent written statement concluding that the trial had been "thoughtful, fair, comprehensive and correct" and that none of the four legal challenges advanced by Letby were "arguable", saying that the criteria for the admission of fresh evidence had not been met.
=== Retrial ===
At a hearing on 25 September 2023, the CPS confirmed that there would be a retrial on one of the six counts of attempted murder against Letby on which the jury at the original trial could not reach a verdict. This was not to start until after judges had decided whether or not to grant Letby permission to appeal against her existing convictions.
The retrial started on 10 June 2024. On 2 July, Letby was found guilty of attempted murder, and on 5 July 2024 was sentenced to another whole-life order.
On 24 October 2024, Letby applied for permission to appeal against this conviction on the grounds that prejudicial media coverage should have prevented the trial from proceeding. The Court of Appeal rejected Letby's application.
=== Further investigations, arrests and charges ===
Following the verdict, it was reported that police were investigating whether Letby harmed other babies. There was a continuing investigation of incidents which detectives had identified as "suspicious" at the Countess of Chester Hospital involving around 30 other infants. Neonatologists looked into about 4,000 admissions at the hospital and Liverpool Women's Hospital, where Letby had worked from 2012 to 2015, and were to pass on any cases of "unexpected and unexplained" deteriorations to police. At least one family was told by police that the birth of their child at the latter hospital was part of the enquiry. Cheshire Police have said that further charges could "possibly" be brought against Letby as a result of these further investigations. They have interviewed Letby under caution about deaths at two hospitals. On 2 July 2025, the Crown Prosecution Service confirmed that it was considering further charges based on new evidence from Cheshire police.
On 4 October 2023, Cheshire Constabulary announced an investigation into corporate manslaughter at the Countess of Chester Hospital. On 1 July 2025, three people who were part of the senior leadership team were arrested on suspicion of gross negligence manslaughter.
=== Thirlwall inquiry ===
After Letby's conviction, the British government ordered an independent inquiry into the circumstances surrounding the deaths and other incidents. The Department of Health and Social Care said the inquiry would examine "the circumstances surrounding the deaths and incidents, including how concerns raised by clinicians were dealt with." It was affirmed that the inquiry would be non-statutory, so witnesses could not be compelled to give evidence and inquests would still be necessary. The trust's medical director, chief executive and the nursing director at the time of the incidents all commented they would fully cooperate with the inquiry. The medical director retired in August 2018 and the chief executive resigned in September 2018 after signing a non-disclosure agreement.
Slater and Gordon, a law firm representing two of the victims' families, issued a statement calling for the inquiry to have the power to compel witnesses to participate, since a non-statutory hearing "must rely on the goodwill of those involved to share their testimony." The need for a statutory inquiry was a view echoed by, among others, Sir Robert Buckland, former Secretary of State for Justice, Samantha Dixon, MP for the City of Chester, Steve Brine, chair of the House of Commons Health and Social Care Select Committee, Sir Keir Starmer, then Leader of the Opposition, and the Parliamentary and Health Service Ombudsman.
In August 2024, a group of 24 neonatal and statistical experts wrote a letter to ministers requesting that the inquiry be postponed and its terms changed, in response to concerns about the safety of Letby's convictions (see: § Safety of the convictions). The inquiry rejected these suggestions.
The education minister Gillian Keegan said that the type of inquiry would be reviewed after the chair was appointed. On 30 August 2023, Health Secretary Steve Barclay announced that the inquiry had been upgraded to a statutory inquiry, describing it as the best way forward and meaning that witnesses would be compelled to give evidence.
Lady Justice Thirlwall was appointed to chair the inquiry. The terms of reference of the inquiry were published on 19 October 2023 and updated on 22 November 2023, when she formally opened the inquiry.
The public inquiry began on 10 September 2024. Following submissions, the chair had ruled on 29 May 2024 that remote live viewing would be available to the Core Participants, their legal representatives and the media but that livestreaming "to the world at large" would not. Colleagues testified that Letby was "excited and gossipy" while discussing the death of an infant, always wanted to handle babies who were "unwell", shouted when she was removed from the intensive care unit stating Letby felt that caring after healthier babies "was boring looking after the special care babies", and that she couldn't wait for the first death of an infant to "get it out of the way".
Former Health Secretary, Jeremy Hunt, apologised to families of the victims during the 2025 hearing for taking "too long" to act.
Lawyers for Letby and other supporters of her called for the inquiry to be paused while her appeal to the Criminal Cases Review Commission is considered. Thirlwall rejected this request in March 2025 and says she plans to deliver her report in November 2025.
=== New defence team ===
In September 2024, Letby appointed a new defence lawyer, Mark McDonald. At a press conference in December 2024, McDonald announced that he was preparing new applications to both the Court of Appeal and the Criminal Cases Review Commission. He argued that the prosecution's lead expert witness, Dewi Evans, was unreliable, as Evans had changed his mind about how some infants had died. McDonald also said that several experts were working unpaid on reports into the infants' deaths and episodes, with two reports, on Child C and Child O, already completed and finding no deliberate harm.
Following the press conference, Evans denied changing his mind and described McDonald's criticisms as "unsubstantiated, unfounded, inaccurate". He said that the date of Child C's death was the only change in his evidence and that this was the result of a simple error by the prosecution. His post-trial comments about the mode of death of some infants contradict positions he took as a witness at the trial.
On 4 February 2025, Letby's legal team applied for her case to be reviewed as a potential miscarriage of justice. Coinciding with this application, findings from a panel of 14 international medical experts were released. The panel was chaired by Shoo Lee, a retired neonatologist from the University of Toronto. The panel concluded that there was no medical evidence to support claims that Letby deliberately harmed or murdered babies at the Countess of Chester Hospital. Instead, they attributed many of the babies' deaths to natural causes or substandard medical care, highlighting issues such as inadequate staffing and delays in essential treatments. These findings challenged Letby's convictions, concluding that the deaths were due to factors unrelated to any deliberate actions on her part.
== Reactions ==
=== Calls for regulation and reform ===
The British Medical Association, which represents doctors, called for a process for NHS managers and healthcare administrators to be held accountable for mismanagement, in a similar way to how the General Medical Council may strike off doctors who harm patients. A neonatal consultant who alerted administrators about his suspicions about Letby also called for regulation of healthcare management.
The Parliamentary and Health Service Ombudsman Rob Behrens, called for radical change to NHS management in order to prevent future similar occurrences.
Dewi Evans has called for an investigation into the possibility of charges of corporate manslaughter in relation to the Letby case. NHS England's Chief Nursing Officer Dame Ruth May issued a statement saying, "The NHS is fully committed to doing everything we can to prevent anything like this ever happening again, and we welcome the independent inquiry announced by the Department of Health and Social Care to help ensure we learn every possible lesson from this awful case."
On 21 August 2023, it was announced that the nursing director at the Countess of Chester Hospital at the time Letby was based there had been suspended from her job as a senior nursing officer at Northern Care Alliance NHS Foundation Trust with immediate effect, because of information that came to light during the trial. The Nursing and Midwifery Council subsequently announced she would face an investigation into her fitness to practice. She and other executives at the hospital have been accused of ignoring warnings about Letby.
It was reported that the British government were examining how Letby's pension can be stopped. The NHS pension scheme regulations provide for a forfeit of pensions after a conviction of certain crimes.
== Safety of the convictions ==
Letby has always maintained her innocence and had the support of friends and some former colleagues. Some medical, statistical and scientific experts have also expressed doubts about her convictions. That Letby's defence only called two witnesses at her trial—Letby herself and a plumber—has been taken by some to suggest that the jury did not get a fair opportunity to hear a balanced view of the evidence. Since the conclusion of her second trial in July 2024 and the lifting of associated reporting restrictions, some of these concerns have been published in the press. The Court of Appeal has rejected several arguments around the safety of the convictions.
=== Concerns about the medical evidence ===
Much of the medical evidence used in the trial has come under criticism from experts across a range of specialties, including neonatology, pathology, nursing, biochemistry, forensic toxicology, and others. Under scrutiny have been the prosecution's claims that the infants were stable before the incidents, that other explanations could be ruled out, and that the alleged methods of attack were plausible. The overturning of the original pathologists' reports into the infants' deaths has drawn controversy; the majority of the infants Letby was convicted of murdering had undergone autopsies, and none of the original pathologists' reports had suspected an unnatural death.
In February 2025, a panel of 14 international experts, convened by neonatologist Shoo Lee, presented findings from their own investigation into the deaths and collapses (see: § Expert panel investigation). They concluded that all the incidents could be explained by natural causes or substandard care or both, finding no evidence of deliberate harm.
The following sub-sections highlight some of the concerns raised prior to this expert panel's investigation as well as some from the information currently publicly available about the findings from the panel (hereafter 'the Lee panel').
==== Insulin ====
Experts have questioned the interpretation of blood test results used as evidence that Letby poisoned two infants with insulin.
Several have argued that the type of test used is too prone to error to be used in a criminal trial. A guidance note from the laboratory that carried out the tests recommends confirmatory analysis with a more accurate test if insulin administration is suspected, but no further testing was done in these cases. A quality control test conducted by the laboratory around the same period as the infants’ collapses had given a falsely high insulin reading. The jury were not told about this test.
Other experts have suggested that, if accurate, the results have alternative possible explanations. Professor Geoff Chase, a specialist in insulin in pre-term infants, has studied the cases with chemical engineer Helen Shannon. They concluded that, in addition to the issues with test reliability, the prosecution's experts greatly underestimated the amount of insulin Letby would have had to use (no evidence was presented at trial that any had gone missing from the unit), and the pattern of results could not be taken to indicate insulin administration in pre-term infants, whose physiology is different from that of older children or adults.
==== Air via nasogastric tube ====
Several neonatologists have described the claim that Letby murdered three infants by injecting air into their stomachs via a nasogastric tube variously as "nonsensical or 'rubbish', 'ridiculous', 'implausible' [...] 'fantastical'" and "not practically feasible".
An X-ray heavily discussed by the prosecution was used to argue that Letby had killed Child C by this method, but she had not been on shift since the child's birth when it was taken. Shortly after the broadcast of a BBC File on 4 programme that discussed this case, Dewi Evans, who served as the prosecution's lead expert witness, said that he no longer agrees with the prosecution's account of how the infant died, but instead said that Letby had killed him via another method. He has said he no longer believes that any of the infants were killed "as a direct result" of air injected into their stomachs.
The Lee panel concluded there was no evidence that air had been forced down any of the infants' nasogastric tubes.
==== Air embolism ====
The prosecution used a 1989 study by Shoo Lee and A. K. Tanswell to argue that discolourations observed on the skin of some of the infants were diagnostic of air embolism. After the trial, upon reviewing the descriptions of the infants' skin discolourations, Lee, a prominent neonatologist, disagreed that they are suggestive of air embolism. Lee also described any attempt to diagnose air embolism just by ruling out other possibilities as "a fundamental mistake of medicine". The defence applied to use Lee as a witness for an appeal in 2024, but the Court of Appeal ruled that his testimony was not admissible since he could have been called at the trial and the prosecution's case did not solely rely on skin discolouration to indicate the condition.
Since this appeal attempt, Lee has published an updated version of his 1989 paper, which he argues further undermines the prosecution's case by showing that venous air embolism has never been documented to result in patchy skin discolouration.
Abid Qazi, a former NHS paediatric surgeon whose case report about an infant's death from air embolism was used in a report by the lead prosecution expert witness, has reviewed the case of one of the infants Letby was convicted of murdering by this method and said, "I'm very sceptical about the diagnosis". He continued, "I have been closely following the case of Lucy Letby and I believe she has been a victim of the poor NHS system."
The Lee panel posited alternative causes for the incidents the prosecution alleged were caused by air embolism. They argued there was no evidence of air embolism.
==== Liver injury ====
The prosecution argued that liver damage seen at the post-mortem for Child O could only be explained by deliberate harm. This was contrary to the original pathologist's opinion that natural causes explained the damage. A leading senior perinatal pathologist has since reviewed the case and said that she has previously seen liver damage of this kind result from natural causes. She called the prosecution expert's position "naive" and agreed with the original pathologist. Published research reports hundreds of similar cases occurring naturally in neonates. A joint report by two neonatologists working with Letby's legal team argues that Child O's liver was accidentally punctured by a doctor inserting a needle in the wrong place. The prosecution pathologist and an independent expert interviewed by the BBC have both argued there was no evidence of needle injuries on Child O's liver, though the BBC's expert also argued it is "unlikely" that the damage was caused by deliberate harm.
The Lee panel argued that the doctor's needle may have penetrated the liver, though it is "highly likely" the liver injury was initially caused by a traumatic delivery. They called the prosecution's blunt trauma hypothesis "implausible".
Neonatologist Mike Hall, who was hired by Letby's first defence team but was not called to testify, has disputed the panel's traumatic delivery hypothesis, but maintains that there was no evidence of deliberately inflicted harm.
==== Dislodged breathing tube ====
Letby was convicted of attempting to kill Child K by dislodging her breathing tube. Experts have questioned how this could be concluded when no witnesses saw the event and accidental dislodgement is "extremely common". The Lee panel argued that there was no evidence the tube had been dislodged, and that the deterioration was instead caused by the tube being too small for the infant.
A consultant from the hospital testified at trial that Letby had failed to raise the alarm when Child K's condition deteriorated. After the trials, an email from this consultant from May 2017 was uncovered in which he wrote that Letby had called him to the infant's aid during the incident.
=== Quality of the statistical evidence ===
Several statisticians have criticised the prosecution's use of data. The prosecution have been accused of falling victim to the Texas sharpshooter fallacy and the prosecutor's fallacy. A shift chart shown to the jury, ostensibly placing Letby uniquely at the scene of every suspicious event, has been criticised on the grounds that the criteria for inclusion of incidents were unclear and likely biased, rendering it misleading. Critics highlight, for instance, that some deaths and other incidents were left out. It also excluded non-nursing staff members and did not provide context such as how often each nurse had worked over the period. Others have used data from across the NHS to argue that the cluster of deaths at the unit was not statistically anomalous. Alternative explanations for the spike in mortality have been posited.
During their investigation, Cheshire Police contacted Jane Hutton, an expert in medical statistics, and signed a consultancy agreement with her. However, the Crown Prosecution Service instructed the police to drop this line of inquiry and Hutton's planned analysis never took place. Since the conclusion of the trials, she has been among the experts vocal in criticising the prosecution's case, arguing that the evidence concerning data "does not hold water".
To discuss its members' concerns, in September 2024 the Royal Statistical Society held a meeting at which parts of the prosecution's evidence were harshly criticised and comparisons were made with evidence used in miscarriages of justice involving other nurses who had been convicted of killing their patients (see: Lucia de Berk case and Daniela Poggiali).
=== Staff and infrastructure issues ===
In May 2024, The New Yorker published a feature article by staff writer Rachel Aviv that questioned Letby's conviction. Aviv pointed to pervasive staffing shortages, with staff "overtaxed" and only one specialist neonatologist for the ward, and hygiene issues. An inquest had found that an infant had died in 2014 due to doctors inserting a breathing tube incorrectly. As the defence had presented at trial, issues with the unit's drainage system meant that pipes were often blocked, leading to occasional sewage backup in the sinks.
Aviv also highlighted a previous investigation into the increased mortality on the unit that was carried out by the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health (RCPCH), and the hospital's response. In September 2016, the RCPCH interviewed staff at the Countess of Chester Hospital. Their subsequent report concluded that medical and nursing staff levels were inadequate. They observed that the 2015 increase in mortality was not limited to the neonatal unit. They described Letby as "enthusiastic, capable and committed" and the staff on the unit as "very upset" about her removal from clinical duties. Of the doctors who suspected her, the report argued that they had a "subjective view with no other evidence". In a public response to the report, the hospital admitted issues with "staffing, competencies, leadership, team working and culture".
Due to reporting restrictions imposed as a result of Letby's impending retrial, the online version of the article was disabled for British readers, a decision which was questioned in Parliament by the Conservative MP David Davis. The issue of The New Yorker's print edition that contained the article was, however, available for sale in British newsagents as usual.
In August 2024, a leaked report showed that the unit had suffered an outbreak of a dangerous bacteria during the period in which the infants Letby was convicted of murdering died. The outbreak was not mentioned in the trials. Commenting on the report, professor of medical microbiology David Livermore argued that the outbreak is a simpler explanation for the observed spike in deaths on the unit than murder.
=== Mislabelled door swipe data ===
Throughout the first trial, door swipe data was used to establish Letby's presence at the incidents. In August 2024, the Crown Prosecution Service confirmed that during this trial, swipe data for one of the doors to the neonatal unit had been mislabelled such that entries and exits were reversed. They did not confirm whether the data for other doors had been correctly labelled. Cheshire Police reviewed the use of the false data and concluded that it was used in evidence relating to nine infants, but only played a central role in the case of Child K, who Letby was not convicted of harming at the first trial.
There was another door to the unit which did not record entries or exits, meaning door swipe data could not account for all movements in and out.
=== Interpretation of handwritten notes ===
During the trial, handwritten notes found at Letby's home were presented by the prosecution as amounting to a confession. Faye Skelton, a lecturer and specialist in forensic psychology, has highlighted that the notes also contain phrases that deny her guilt. She told Channel 5 that "they are perfectly plausible as the output of someone who is suffering extreme mental distress. ... I do not see the notes as a confession or as an admission of guilt".
In September 2024, The Guardian reported that the notes were written on the advice of counsellors as part of a therapeutic process. Richard Curen, the chair of the Forensic Psychotherapy Society, was quoted saying, "Doodling, journalling is a way of taking control of your thoughts. I don't think it relates to a confession of any kind."
=== Criticism of witness ===
A number of medical experts questioned the veracity of the prosecution's witness Dewi Evans, a professional expert witness. Svilena Dimitrova, an NHS consultant neonatologist, and Roger Norwich, a medico-legal expert, have made official complaints to the General Medical Council about Evans' evidence. Dimitrova told The Guardian that she believes "the theories proposed in court were not plausible and the prosecution was full of medical inaccuracies. I wasn't there, so I can't say Letby was innocent, but I can see no proof of guilt". Evans rejected the suggestion that he was biased and said that the defence at the trial could have called expert witnesses to challenge his opinions but did not do so. At the trial, other prosecution expert witnesses largely endorsed his opinions.
The New Yorker article highlights that a report written by Evans as an expert witness in a previous case had been described by a Court of Appeal judge as "worthless" and including opinions that were "tendentious and partisan" and "outside Dr. Evans' professional competence".
=== Reaction to doubt ===
Dewi Evans has said that he has received abuse by Letby's supporters online who doubt the safety of her conviction. Speaking to the BBC about this, he described it as being similar to intimidation received by doctors from supporters of outed abusers in the 1980s and 1990s. He has argued that people find it difficult to accept that a killer could be a "young, white, English nurse from a respectable background" who "hid in plain sight", adding: "It happened with Harold Shipman, it happened with Jimmy Savile, it is crucial to their getting away with it that they appear normal".
A barrister for the infants' families has described the doubts about the convictions as "conspiracies, some of which are grossly offensive and distressing for the families of her victims". The families' barristers called for the Thirlwall Inquiry to be publicly livestreamed, arguing that the doubts are "often ill-informed, and they ultimately grow in the shadows. The more light that we put on this Inquiry, the less space there is for speculation and conspiracy". However, the inquiry was unconvinced of the need to livestream and rejected the application.
BBC special correspondent Judith Moritz, one of only four reporters allowed in the courtroom, told The Sunday Times that the debate over the conviction is missing key aspects the jury saw during the trial. Moritz said she was troubled by Letby's behaviour and lack of emotion about the deaths of the infants, but was "tearful" when discussing herself, the loss of her job, and the correspondence with the married doctor. Letby did become tearful in court when discussing the deaths of infants, and the court heard how she had also done so when recounting deaths to the police. Moritz also said that Letby contradicted herself and tried to "out-lawyer" the prosecutor. Some observers in the courtroom during her first trial said that Letby was "aloof and indifferent" and claimed she had no recollection of incidents, contributing to the appearance of her guilt.
=== Expert panel investigation ===
During Letby's 2022–2023 trial, the prosecution's expert witness Dewi Evans referred to a 1989 article written by Shoo Lee, a Canadian neonatologist, to diagnose air embolism as the mechanism of murder of the babies. Lee, the president of the Canadian Neonatal Foundation, was not called as an expert witness during Letby's trial and, living in Canada, did not hear about the use of his research until after the verdict. Upon learning about the case, he became concerned that his research had been misused. After Letby's unsuccessful application for leave to appeal in 2024, Lee convened a panel of 14 medical experts from six countries to review all of the cases from Letby's trials. They were provided with the medical records and relevant witness testimony by Letby's barrister, but accepted no payment and committed to releasing the findings even if they did not favour Letby.
On 3 February 2025, Lee appeared in a press conference with Letby's barrister Mark McDonald, the MP David Davis, and neonatologist and former president of the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health, Neena Modi. Lee reported that the panel "did not find any murders" and that "in all cases, death or injury were due to natural causes or just bad medical care". Days later, he called for Letby to be immediately released from prison and placed under house arrest until the case can be retried. In parallel, Letby's legal team applied to the Criminal Cases Review Commission, which deals with potential miscarriages of justice, to review the case.
== See also ==
List of prisoners with whole life orders
List of serial killers in the United Kingdom
== Footnotes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtis_Publishing_Co._v._Butts | Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts | Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts, 388 U.S. 130 (1967), was a landmark decision of the US Supreme Court establishing the standard of First Amendment protection against defamation claims brought by private individuals.
== Background ==
The case involved a libel lawsuit filed by the former Georgia Bulldogs football coach Wally Butts against The Saturday Evening Post. The lawsuit arose from an article in the magazine, which alleged that Butts, still Georgia's athletic director following his resignation as coach after the 1960 season, and the Alabama head coach Bear Bryant had conspired to fix games, specifically the 1962 season opener between the Bulldogs and Crimson Tide, which Alabama won 35-0. The Butts suit was consolidated with another case, Associated Press v. Walker, and both cases were decided in one opinion.
In finding for Butts but against Walker, the Supreme Court gave some indications of when a "public figure" could sue for libel.
== Decision ==
In a plurality opinion, written by Justice John Marshall Harlan II, the Supreme Court held that news organizations were protected from liability when they print allegations about public officials. However, New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964), the Supreme Court decided that news organizations are still liable to public figures if the published information is created with actual malice.
The Court ultimately ruled in favor of Butts, and The Saturday Evening Post was ordered to pay $3.06 million to Butts in damages, which was later reduced on appeal to $460,000.
The settlement was seen as a contributing factor in the demise of The Saturday Evening Post and its parent corporation, the Curtis Publishing Company, two years later. Butts and Bryant had sued for $10 million each. Bryant settled for $360,000.
== See also ==
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 388
== References ==
== External links ==
Works related to Curtis Publishing Company v. Butts at Wikisource
Text of Curtis Publishing Co. v. Butts, 388 U.S. 130 (1967) is available from: Cornell CourtListener Findlaw Google Scholar Justia Library of Congress OpenJurist Oyez (oral argument audio) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleri_Bevan#:~:text=In%201981%2C%20Bevan%20became%20the,Tom%20Jones%20and%20Indira%20Gandhi. | Teleri Bevan | Welsh broadcaster and author Teleri Bevan (1931–2020; aged 89) was the founding editor of BBC Radio Wales. She was also the author of three nonfiction books including Esmé: Guardian of Snowdonia (2014), a biography of Welsh conservationist Esmé Kirby.
== Early life and education ==
Bevan was born near Aberystwyth in Wales in 1931. She later studied at Bangor University in Bangor, Wales.
== Career ==
=== Journalism ===
Bevan began working for the BBC in 1955, where she acted as a presenter, producer, and editor. In 1978, Bevan was named the first editor of BBC Radio Wales. Her appointment to the role was a source of controversy, with some criticizing her decision to cancel the popular programme Good Morning Wales and replace it with a new morning programme titled AM. However, Bevan eventually increased in popularity.
In 1981, Bevan became the deputy head of programmes, and in 1985, she became the head of programmes for BBC Wales.
Throughout her career, Bevan interviewed a wide variety of influential people, including Tom Jones and Indira Gandhi.
=== Literature ===
After retiring from broadcasting, Bevan began a second career in nonfiction writing. In 2004, Bevan published a memoir of her broadcasting career titled Years on Air: Living with the BBC. Bevan's second book, The Ladies of Blaenwern (2010), told the history of the Welsh musical group The Dorian Trio, and was nominated for the January Book of the Month by the Welsh Books Council. In 2014, she published Esmé: Guardian of Snowdonia, a biography of Welsh conservationist Esmé Kirby.
== Death ==
Bevan died in November 2020.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehta_Basti_Ram#:~:text=Basti%20Ram's%20great%2Dgranddaughter%20was,parliament%20from%20Jammu%20and%20Kashmir. | Mehta Basti Ram | Mehta Basti Ram was a Dogra officer and commander of the Fateh Shibji battalion under Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu (later Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir). Basti Ram later served as the governor (thanadar) of Leh in Ladakh between 1847 and 1861. Basti Ram joined the service of Raja Gulab Singh in 1821 and became an officer under General Zorawar Singh during his conquest of Ladakh between 1834 and 1841. After holding positions such as the governor of Taklakot (briefly) and thanadar of Zanskar, he became the second governor of Leh under Maharaja Gulab Singh.
== Life ==
In 1821, when Gulab Singh, the Raja of Jammu under the Sikh Empire, conquered Kishtwar, Basti Ram joined his service and was soon under General Zorawar Singh. At a rank of Colonel, he led Zorawar Singh's Jangi Fauj, later reorganised and renamed as the Fateh Shibji force from 1834 to 1841. Fateh Shibji went on to become the 4th Battalion of the Jammu and Kashmir Rifles Regiment (it retains the historic name Fateh Shibji). Major General G. D. Bakshi wrote in 2002 that Basti Ram was a "tactician par excellence" and that he "should be a role model for Indian battalion commanders".
=== Dogra conquest of Ladakh ===
Basti Ram was one of the main officers of Zorawar's force and played a crucial role at multiple locations in the conquest of Ladakh which started in 1834. He led an attack that resulted in the capture of the Fort of Sod/Soth (in Kargil) and subsequently the Gyalpo. The assault included crossing the Indus River on inflated goatskins. During the conquest of Baltistan, which started during the end of 1840, he found a way to cross a river that had caused Zorawar's army to halt for over a month in the cold and snow. For this innovation, Zorawar Singh gifted Basti Ram Rs. 500 and a pair of gold bangles. Basti Ram was also present during the capture of Skardu.
After Zorawar Singh's forces captured Western Tibet, Basti Ram was appointed the governor of Taklakot (Burang). Soon afterwards, the Tibetans launched a counterattack during winter. Zorawar Singh was killed on 12 December 1941 and his army was defeated. The men stationed at Taklakot fled to the British province of Kumaon. Basti Ram escaped to Almora where the British commissioner gave him shelter. By the autumn of 1846, Basti Ram was appointed the thanadar of Zanskar and "one of the confidential servants of Maharaja Gulab Sing.
Basti Ram provided one of the earliest written accounts of the Dogra conquest of Ladakh and beyond, twelve years after the events. While the original version was lost, Alexander Cunningham had re-written Basti Ram's account based on a dictation by Basti Ram himself. August Hermann Francke notes that Basti Ram may have exaggerated the enemy numbers at certain locations.
=== Governor of Leh ===
Basti Ram was appointed the thanadar of Leh between 1847 and 1861. At the time there were four thanadars for Ladakh, in Zanskar, Kargil, Dras and Nubra. All the thanadars had military and civil authority in their districts and were accountable directly to the Maharaja. Alexander Cunningham estimated that Basti Ram's income would have been a "respectable" Rs.18,000 annually, (roughly £1,800 a year). Lieutenant Colonel Henry Torrens, who passed through Ladakh in 1862, noted that Basti Ram had retired to his home in Kishtawar on account of old age, and a successor had not yet been appointed by the Maharaja". Instead, Torrens met the Kahlon of Leh, the "nominal governor", who got little respect from the Sikhs [Dogras].
== Family ==
Basti Ram was born in the Mehta family from Kishtwar. His grandfather had been in charge of military affairs under the last Kishtwar ruler Mohammad Teg Singh. Basti Ram's son Mehta Mangal succeeded him as Governor of Ladakh.
Basti Ram's great-granddaughter was Krishna Mehta, who went on to become the first woman member of parliament from Jammu and Kashmir. Krishna Mehta had been married to Duni Chand Mehta who was appointed as the wazir-e-wazarat of Muzaffarabad. In October 1947, Duni Chand was killed by Pashtun tribal militias, and Krishna Mehta was taken prisoner and eventually repatriated by Pakistan. Krishna Mehta's brother Om Mehta served as a Minister of State for Home Affairs in Indira Gandhi's government in 1976. Another younger brother Ved Mehta was at one time the president of Chamber of Commerce and Industry Jammu.
== References ==
Notes
CitationsBibliography
Francke, August Hermann (1926). "Basti Ram's account of Dogra War and Cunningham's 'other information'". In Thomas, Frederick William (ed.). Antiquities of Indian Tibet. Vol. 2: The Chronicles of Ladakh and Minor Chronicles. New Delhi: S. Chand & Co. (published 1972). ISBN 9788120607699 – via archive.org. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Bakshi, G. D. (2002). "9—Colonel Basti Ram: Tactician Par Excellence". Footprints in the Snow: On the Trail of Zorawar Singh. New Delhi: Lancer Publishers. ISBN 9788170622925.
Torrens, Lieut–Colonel Henry D. (1862). Travels in Ladakh, Tartary, and Kashmir. London: Saunders, Otley's, and Co.
Neve, Arthur (1913). Thirty Years in Kashmir. London: Edward Arnold.
Cunningham, Alexander (1854). Ladak, Physical, Statistical, and Historical; with notices of the surrounding countries. London: W. H. Allen & Co.
== Further reading ==
Charak, Sukhdev Singh (1978). Indian Conquest of the Himalayan Territories: Military Exploits of General Zorawar Singh Dogra. Jammu: Ajaya Prakashan.
Charak, Sukhdev Singh (2016). General Zorawar Singh Dogra. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India. ISBN 9788123026480.
Prasad, Shankar (2005). The Gallant Dogras: An Illustrated History of the Dogra Regiment. Dogra Regimental Centre. New Delhi: Lancer Publishers. ISBN 9788170622680.
Kaul, Shridhar; Kaul, H. N. (1992). Ladakh Through the Ages, Towards a New Identity (3 ed.). New Delhi: Indus Publishing. ISBN 9788185182759.
Kaul, H. N. (1998). Rediscovery of Ladakh. New Delhi: Indus Publishing. ISBN 9788173870866. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exodus_of_Kashmiri_Hindus | Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus | The Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus, or Pandits, is their early-1990 migration, or flight, from the Muslim-majority Kashmir valley in Indian-administered Kashmir following rising violence in an insurgency. Of a total Pandit population of 120,000–140,000 some 90,000–100,000 left the valley or felt compelled to leave by the middle of 1990,
by which time about 30–80 of them are said to have been killed by militants.
During the period of substantial migration, the insurgency was being led by a group calling for a secular and independent Kashmir, but there were also growing Islamist factions demanding an Islamic state. Although their numbers of dead and injured were low, the Pandits, who believed that Kashmir's culture was tied to India's, experienced fear and panic set off by targeted killings of some members of their community—including high-profile officials among their ranks—and public calls for independence among the insurgents. The accompanying rumours and uncertainty together with the absence of guarantees for their safety by the state government might have been the latent causes of the exodus. Though some Hindu nationalist publications describe the violence as "genocide" or "ethnic cleansing", scholars such as Mohita Bhatia and Alexander Evans say these labels are incorrect or aggressive, that claims of destruction of Hindu temples are exaggerated, or that such labels are opportunistically appropriated by the BJP for political means.
The reasons for this migration are vigorously contested. In 1989–1990, as calls by Kashmiri Muslims for independence from India gathered pace, many Kashmiri Pandits, who viewed self-determination to be anti-national, felt under pressure. The killings in the 1990s of a number of Pandit officials, may have shaken the community's sense of security, although it is thought some Pandits—by virtue of their evidence given later in Indian courts—may have acted as agents of the Indian state. The Pandits killed in targeted assassinations by the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) included some high-profile ones. Occasional anti-Hindu calls were made from mosques on loudspeakers, asking Pandits to leave the valley. News of threatening letters created fear, though in later interviews the letters were seen to have been sparingly received. There were disparities between the accounts of the two communities, the Muslims and the Pandits. Many Kashmiri Pandits believed they were forced out of the Valley either by Pakistan and the militants it supported or the Kashmiri Muslims as a group. Many Kashmiri Muslims did not support violence against religious minorities; the departure of the Kashmiri Pandits offered an excuse for casting Kashmiri Muslims as Islamic radicals, thereby contaminating their more genuine political grievances, and offering a rationale for their surveillance and violent treatment by the Indian state. Many Muslims in the Valley believed that the then Governor, Jagmohan had encouraged the Pandits to leave so as to have a free hand in more thoroughly pursuing reprisals against Muslims. Several scholarly views chalk up the migration to genuine panic among the Pandits that stemmed as much from the religious vehemence among some of the insurgents as by the absence of guarantees for the Pandits' safety issued by the Governor.
Kashmiri Pandits initially moved to the Jammu Division, the southern half of Jammu and Kashmir, where they lived in refugee camps, sometimes in unkempt and unclean surroundings. At the time of their exodus, very few Pandits expected their exile to last beyond a few months. As the exile lasted longer, many displaced Pandits who were in the urban elite were able to find jobs in other parts of India, but those in the lower-middle-class, especially those from rural areas languished longer in refugee camps, with some living in poverty; this generated tensions with the host communities—whose social and religious practices, although Hindu, differed from those of the brahmin Pandits—and rendered assimilation more difficult.
Many displaced Pandits in the camps succumbed to emotional depression and a sense of helplessness. The cause of the Kashmiri Pandits was quickly championed by right-wing Hindu groups in India, which also preyed on their insecurities and further alienated them from Kashmiri Muslims. Some displaced Kashmiri Pandits have formed an organization called Panun Kashmir ("Our own Kashmir"), which has asked for a separate homeland for Kashmiri Hindus in the Valley but has opposed autonomy for Kashmir on the grounds that it would promote the formation of an Islamic state. The return to the homeland in Kashmir also constitutes one of the main points of the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party's election platform. Although discussions between the Pandits and the Muslims have been hampered by the insistence on the part of each of their deprivation, and a rejection of the other's suffering, the Pandits who have left Kashmir have felt separated and obliterated. Kashmiri Pandits in exile have written autobiographical memoirs, novels, and poetry to record their experiences and to understand them.
== Background ==
The Kashmir Valley, which is a part of the larger Kashmir region that has been the subject of a dispute between India and Pakistan from 1947, has been administered by India from approximately the same time. Before 1947, during the period of British Raj in India when Jammu and Kashmir was a princely state, Kashmiri Pandits, or Kashmiri Hindus, had stably constituted between 4% and 6% of the population of the Kashmir valley in censuses from 1889 to 1941; the remaining 94% to 96% were Kashmir valley's Muslims, overwhelmingly followers of Sunni Islam. These Muslims had the self-assured awareness of a predominant community; their support was considered consequential in a determination of Kashmir's future. By 1950, in the face of Kashmir's unresolved accession to India, the land reforms planned by the incoming administration of Sheikh Abdullah, and the threat of socio-economic decline, a large number of Pandits—whose elite owned over 30% of the arable land in the Valley—moved to other parts of India.
In 1989 a persisting insurgency began in Kashmir. It was fed by Kashmiri dissatisfaction with India's federal government over rigging an assembly election in 1987 and disavowing a promise of greater autonomy. The dissatisfaction overflowed into an ill-defined uprising against the Indian state. The Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF), an organization that had generally secular antecedents and the predominant goal of political independence, led the uprising but did not abjure violence. In early 1990, the vast majority of Kashmiri Hindus fled the valley in a mass-migration. More of them left in the following years so that, by 2011, only around 3,000 families remained. 30 or 32 Kashmiri Pandits had been killed by insurgents by mid-March 1990 when the exodus was largely complete, according to some scholars. Indian Home Ministry data records 217 Hindu civilian fatalities during the four-year period, 1988 to 1991.
Under the 1975 Indira–Sheikh Accord, Sheikh Abdullah agreed to measures previously undertaken by the central government in Jammu and Kashmir to integrate the state into India. Farrukh Faheem, a sociologist at the University of Kashmir, states that it was met with hostility among the people of Kashmir and laid the groundwork for the future insurgency. Those opposed to the accords included Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir, People's League in Indian Jammu and Kashmir, and the Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) based in Pakistani-administered Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Since the mid-1970s, communalist rhetoric was being exploited in the state for votebank politics. Around this time, Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) tried to spread Wahhabism in place of Sufism to foster religious unity within their nation, and the communalization aided their cause. Islamization of Kashmir began in the 1980s when Sheikh Abdullah's government changed the names of about 300 places to Islamic names.
Sheikh also started delivering communal speeches in mosques that were similar to his confrontational pro-independence speeches in the 1930s. Additionally, he referred to Kashmiri Hindus as mukhbir (Hindustani: मुख़बिर, مخبر), or informants of the Indian military.
The ISI's initial attempts to sow widespread unrest in Kashmir against the Indian administration were largely unsuccessful until the late-1980s. The American- and Pakistani-backed Afghan mujahideen's armed struggle against the Soviet Union in the Soviet–Afghan War, the Islamic Revolution in Iran and the Sikh insurgency in Indian Punjab against the Indian government became sources of inspiration for large numbers of Kashmiri Muslim youth. Both the pro-independence JKLF and pro-Pakistan Islamist groups including Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir mobilized the rapidly-growing anti-Indian sentiments amongst the Kashmiri population; the year of 1984 saw a pronounced rise in terrorist violence in Kashmir. Following the execution of JKLF militant Maqbool Bhat in February 1984, strikes and protests by Kashmiri nationalists broke out in the region, where large numbers of Kashmiri youth participated in widespread anti-India demonstrations and consequently faced heavy-handed reprisals by state security forces.
Critics of the then chief minister, Farooq Abdullah, charged him with losing control of the situation. His visit to Pakistani-administered Kashmir during this time became an embarrassment, where according to JKLF's Hashim Qureshi, he shared a platform with the JKLF. Abdullah asserted that he went on behalf of Indira Gandhi and his father, so that sentiments there could "be known first hand", although few people believed him. There were also allegations that he had allowed Khalistani militants to train in Jammu, although these were never proved to be true. On 2 July 1984, Ghulam Mohammad Shah, who had support from Indira Gandhi, replaced his brother-in-law Farooq Abdullah and assumed the role of chief minister after Abdullah was dismissed, in what was termed a "political coup".
G. M. Shah's administration, which did not have people's mandate, turned to Islamists and opponents of India, notably the Molvi Iftikhar Hussain Ansari, Mohammad Shafi Qureshi and Mohinuddin Salati, to gain some legitimacy through religious sentiments. This gave political space to Islamists who previously lost overwhelmingly in the 1983 state elections. In 1986, Shah decided to construct a mosque within the premises of an ancient Hindu temple inside the New Civil Secretariat area in Jammu to be made available to the Muslim employees for 'Namaz'. People of Jammu took to streets to protest against this decision, which led to a Hindu-Muslim clash. In February 1986, Shah on his return to Kashmir valley retaliated and incited the Kashmiri Muslims by saying Islām khatre mẽ hai (transl. Islam is in danger). As a result, this led to the 1986 Kashmir riots where Kashmiri Hindus were targeted by the Kashmiri Muslims. Many incidents were reported in various areas where Kashmiri Hindus were killed and their properties and temples damaged or destroyed. The worst hit areas were mainly in South Kashmir and Sopore. During the Anantnag riot in February 1986, many houses and other properties belonging to Hindus were looted, burnt or damaged. An investigation of Anantnag riots revealed that members of the 'secular parties' in the state, rather than the Islamists, had played a key role in organising the violence to gain political mileage through religious sentiments. Shah called in the army to curb the violence, but it had little effect. His government was dismissed on 12 March 1986, by Governor Jagmohan following communal riots in south Kashmir, and led to Governor's rule in the state. The political fight was hence being portrayed as a conflict between "Hindu" New Delhi (Central Government), and its efforts to impose its will in the state, and "Muslim" Kashmir, represented by political Islamists and clerics.
For the 1987 state elections, various Islamist groups, including Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir, organised themselves under the banner of Muslim United Front, with a manifesto to work for Islamic unity and against political interference from the centre. The two mainstrain parties (NC and INC) were allied together and won the election, However, the elections are widely believed to have been rigged in favour of the mainstream alliance and thus the government formed by Farooq Abdullah lacked legitimacy. The corruption and alleged electoral malpractices were the catalysts for an insurgency. The Kashmiri militants killed anyone who openly expressed pro-India policies. Kashmiri Hindus were targeted specifically because they were seen as presenting Indian presence in Kashmir because of their faith. Though the insurgency had been launched by JKLF, groups rose over the next few months advocating for establishment of Nizam-e-Mustafa (administration based on Sharia) on Islamist groups proclaimed the Islamicisation of socio-political and economic set-up, merger with Pakistan, unification of ummah and establishment of an Islamic Caliphate. Liquidation of central government officials, Hindus, liberal and nationalist intellectuals, social and cultural activists was described as necessary to rid the valley of un-Islamic elements. The relations among the mainstream parties and Islamist groups were generally poor and often hostile. The JKLF had also utilized Islamic formulations in its mobilization strategies and public discourse, using Islam and independence interchangeably. It demanded equal rights for everyone, however this had a distinct Islamic flavour as it sought to establish an Islamic democracy, protection of minority rights per Quran and Sunnah and an economy of Islamic socialism. The pro-separatist political practices at times deviated from their stated secular position.
== Insurgency activity ==
In July 1988, the Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) began a separatist insurgency for secession of Kashmir from India. The group targeted a Kashmiri Hindu for the first time on 14 September 1989, when they killed Tika Lal Taploo, an advocate and a prominent leader of Bharatiya Janata Party in Jammu and Kashmir, in front of several eyewitnesses. This instilled fear in the Kashmiri Hindus especially as Taploo's killers were never caught which also emboldened the terrorists. The Hindus felt that they were not safe in the valley and could be targeted any time. The killings of Kashmiri Hindus, including many prominent ones, instilled more fear.
In order to undermine his political rival Farooq Abdullah who at that time was the Chief minister of Jammu and Kashmir, the Indian home minister Mufti Mohammad Sayeed convinced prime minister V.P. Singh to appoint Jagmohan as the governor of the state. Abdullah resented Jagmohan who had been appointed as the governor earlier in April 1984 as well and had recommended Abdullah's dismissal to Rajiv Gandhi in July 1984. Abdullah had earlier declared that he would resign if Jagmohan was made the Governor. However, the Central government went ahead and appointed him as Governor. In response, Abdullah resigned on 18 January 1990, and Jagmohan suggested the dissolution of the State Assembly.
Most of the Kashmiri Hindus left Kashmir valley and moved to other parts of India, particularly to the refugee camps in Jammu region of the state.
=== Attack and threats ===
On 14 September 1989, Tika Lal Taploo, who was a lawyer and a BJP member, was murdered by the JKLF in his home in Srinagar.
On 4 November, a judge Neelkanth Ganjoo, was shot dead near the Srinagar High court. He had sentenced Kashmiri separatist Maqbool Bhat to death in 1968.
In December, members of JKLF kidnapped Dr. Rubaiya Sayeed, daughter of the-then Union Minister Mufti Mohammad Sayeed, demanding release of five militants, which was subsequently fulfilled.
On 4 January 1990, Srinagar-based newspaper Aftab released a message, threatening all Hindus to leave Kashmir immediately, sourcing it to the militant organization Hizbul Mujahideen.
On 14 April 1990, another Srinagar based newspaper Al-safa republished the same warning. The newspaper did not claim ownership of the statement and subsequently issued a clarification. Walls were pasted with posters with threatening messages to all Kashmiris to strictly follow Islamic rules which included abidance by the Islamic dress code, a prohibition on alcohol, cinemas, and video parlors and strict restrictions on women. Unknown masked men with Kalashnikovs forced people to reset their time to Pakistan Standard Time. Offices buildings, shops, and establishments were colored green as a sign of Islamic rule. Shops, factories, temples and homes of Kashmiri Hindus were burned or destroyed. Threatening posters were posted on doors of Hindus asking them to leave Kashmir immediately. During the middle of the night of 18 and 19 January, a blackout took place in the Kashmir Valley where electricity was cut except in mosques which broadcast divisive and inflammatory messages, asking for a purge of Kashmiri Hindus.
On 21 January, two days after Jagmohan took over as governor, the Gawkadal massacre took place in Srinagar, in which the Indian security forces had opened fire on protesters, leading to the death of at least 50 people, and likely over 100. These events led to chaos. Lawlessness took over the valley and the crowd with slogans and guns started roaming around the streets. News of violent incidents kept coming and many of the Hindus who survived the night saved their lives by traveling out of the valley.
On 25 January, the Rawalpora shooting incident took place, wherein four Indian Air Force personnel, Squadron Leader Ravi Khanna, Corporal D.B. Singh, Corporal Uday Shankar and Airman Azad Ahmad were killed and 10 other IAF personal were injured, while they were waiting at Rawalpora bus stand for their vehicle to pick them up in the morning. Altogether around 40 rounds were fired by the terrorists, apparently from 2 to 3 automatic weapons and one semi-automatic pistol. The Jammu and Kashmir Armed Police post located nearby, with 7 armed constables and one head constable, did not react. Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF), with its leader Yasin Malik in particular, were allegedly involved in the killings. Incidents like these further expedited the exodus of Hindus from Kashmir.
Several intelligence operatives were assassinated, over the course of January.
On 2 February, Satish Tikoo, a young Hindu social worker was murdered near his own house in Habba Kadal, Srinagar.
On 13 February, Lassa Kaul, Station Director of Srinagar Doordarshan, was shot dead.
On 29 April, Sarwanand Koul Premi, a veteran Kashmiri poet and his son were shot and hanged.
On 4 June, Girija Tickoo, a Kashmiri Hindu teacher was gang raped by terrorists, who ripped her abdomen and chopped her body into two pieces with a saw machine while she was still alive.
Many Kashmiri Pandit women were kidnapped, raped and murdered, throughout the time of exodus.
The local organisation of Hindus in Kashmir, Kashmiri Pandit Sangharsh Samiti (KPSS), after carrying out a survey in 2008 and 2009, estimated 357 Hindus were killed in Kashmir in 1990.
== Aftermath ==
Militancy in Kashmir increased after the exodus, and militants targeted properties of Kashmiri Hindus.
Indian Home Ministry data records 1,406 Hindu civilian fatalities from 1991 to 2005.
Jammu and Kashmir government stated that 219 members of the Hindu Pandit community had been killed between 1989 and 2004 and none thereafter. The local organisation of Hindus in Kashmir, Kashmir Pandit Sangharsh Samiti (KPSS) after carrying out a survey in 2008 and 2009, said that 399 Kashmiri Hindus were killed by insurgents from 1990 to 2011 with 75% of them being killed during the first year of the Kashmiri insurgency, and that during the last 20 years, about 650 Hindus have been killed in the valley.
In response to the exodus, an organisation Panun Kashmir, a political group representing the Hindus who fled Kashmir, was formed. In late 1991, the organisation adopted the Margdarshan Resolution, which stated the need for a separate Union Territory in Kashmir division, Panun Kashmir. Panun Kashmir would serve as a homeland for Kashmiri Hindus and would resettle the displaced Kashmiri Pandits.
In 2009 Oregon Legislative Assembly passed a resolution to recognise 14 September 2007, as Martyrs Day to acknowledge ethnic cleansing and campaigns of terror inflicted on non-Muslim minorities of Jammu and Kashmir by militants seeking to establish an Islamic state.
Kashmiri Hindus continue to fight for their return to the valley and many of them live as refugees. The exiled community had hoped to return after the situation improved. Most have not done so because the situation in the Valley remains unstable and they fear a risk to their lives. Most of them lost their properties after the exodus and many are unable to go back and sell them. Their status as displaced people has adversely harmed them in the realm of education. Many Hindu families could not afford to send their children to well regarded public schools. Furthermore, many Hindus faced institutional discrimination by predominantly Muslim state bureaucrats. As a result of the inadequate ad hoc schools and colleges formed in the refugee camps, it became harder for Hindu children to access education. They suffered in higher education as well, as they could not claim admission in PG colleges of Jammu university, while getting admitted in the institutes of Kashmir valley was out of question.
During the 2016 Kashmir unrest following the killing of Burhan Wani, transit camps housing Kashmir Hindus in Kashmir were attacked by mobs. About 200–300 Kashmiri Hindu employees fled the transit camps during night time on 12 July due to the attacks, and held protests against the government for attacks on their camp and demanded that all Kashmiri Hindus employees in Kashmir valley be evacuated immediately. Over 1300 government employees belonging to the community had fled the region during the unrest. Posters threatening the Hindus to leave Kashmir or be killed were also put up near transit camps in Pulwama allegedly by the militant organisation Lashkar-e-Toiba.
An organisation called Roots of Kashmir filed a petition in 2017 to reopen 215 cases of more than 700 alleged murders of Kashmiri Hindus, however the Supreme Court of India refused its plea. They have also demanded the creation of a "special crimes tribunal" to look into the ethnic cleansing and crimes committed. They also demanded a one time compensation for displaced Kashmiri Hindus who are not able to apply for government jobs.
== Rehabilitation ==
The Indian Government has tried to rehabilitate the Hindus and the separatists have also invited the Hindus back to Kashmir.
As of 2016, a total of 1,800 Kashmiri Hindu youths have returned to the Valley since the announcing of Rs. 1,168-crore package in 2008 by the UPA government. However, R.K. Bhat, president of Youth All India Kashmiri Samaj criticised the package to be a mere eyewash and claimed that most of the youths were living in cramped prefabricated sheds or in rented accommodation. He also said that 4,000 posts have been lying vacant since 2010 and alleged that the BJP government was repeating the same rhetoric and was not serious about helping them. The apathy on the part of the government and the sufferings of the Kashmiri Hindus have been highlighted in a play titled 'Kaash Kashmir'. Such efforts or claims have lacked political will as journalist Rahul Pandita writes in a memoir.
In an interview with NDTV on 19 January, Farooq Abdullah created controversy when he stated that the onus was on Kashmiri Hindus to come back themselves and nobody would beg them to do so. His comments were met with disagreement and criticism by Kashmiri Hindu authors Neeru Kaul, Siddhartha Gigoo, Congress MP Shashi Tharoor and Lt. General Syed Ata Hasnain (retd.). He also said that during his tenure as Chief Minister in 1996, he had asked them to return but they refused to do so. He reiterated his comments on 23 January and said that the time had come for them to return.
The issue of separate townships for Kashmiri Hindus has been a source of contention in the Kashmir valley, with Islamists, separatists, as well as mainstream political parties, all opposing it. Hizbul Mujahideen militant, Burhan Muzaffar Wani, had threatened of attacking the "Hindu composite townships" which were meant to be built for the rehabilitation of the non-Muslim community. In a 6-minute long video clip, Wani described the rehabilitation scheme as resembling Israeli designs. Kashmiri Hindus residing in the Valley also mourned Burhan Wani's death. Burhan Wani's self-styled successor in the Hizbul Mujahideen, Zakir Rashid Bhat, also asked the Kashmiri Hindus to return and ensured them protection.
In 2010, the Government of Jammu and Kashmir noted that 808 Hindus families, comprising 3,445 people, were still living in the Valley and that financial and other incentives put in place to encourage others to return there had been unsuccessful. The employment package was also extended to Hindus who did not migrate out of the valley with an amendment to J&K Migrants (Special Drive) Recruitment Rules, 2009 in October 2017. The Indian Government has taken up the issue of education of the displaced students from Kashmir, and helped them get admissions in various Kendriya Vidyalayas and major educational institutions & universities across the country.
Some consider the now-abrogated Article 370 as a roadblock in the resettlement of Kashmiri Hindus as the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir does not allow those living in India outside Jammu and Kashmir to freely settle in the state and become its citizens.
Sanjay Tickoo, president of Kashmiri Pandit Sangharsh Samiti (KPSS), says that the 'Article 370' affair is different from the issue of exodus of Kashmiri Hindus and both should be dealt with separately. He remarks that, linking both the affairs is an "utterly insensitive way to deal with a highly sensitive and emotive issue".
== In popular culture ==
=== Books ===
Our Moon Has Blood Clots, 2013 book by Indian journalist Rahul Pandita is based on the firsthand account of the exodus.
A Long Dream of Home – The persecution, exile and exodus of Kashmiri Pandits by Siddhartha Gigoo and Varad Sharma.
=== Movies ===
2020 Hindi film Shikara directed by Vidhu Vinod Chopra is based on the exodus of Kashmiri Hindus
2022 Hindi film The Kashmir Files directed by Vivek Agnihotri
== See also ==
Partition of India
Panun Kashmir
Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir
Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
== Further reading ==
The Administrator, Volume 35, Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration, 1990, pp. 69–73
== External links ==
A. G. Noorani (9 July 2016). "Kashmir's Pandits". Dawn.
Tikoo, Col (Dr) (Retd.) Tej Kumar (19 January 2021). "Kashmiri Pandits offered three choices by Radical Islamists (Book Excerpt: Kashmir: Its Aborigines and their Exodus)". Indian Defence Review.
Kashmiri pandits: The forgotten minority (Aired: October 2004), NDTV – Reality Bites, published 7 May 2013. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlow_Award#:~:text=1983,David%20W.%20Oxtoby | Marlow Award | The Marlow Medal and Prize is an early-career award in physical chemistry given by the Royal Society of Chemistry. One or two prizewinners each year, who must be junior researchers under 35 or within 10 years of completing their doctorate, receive £2000 and hold lectures at universities in the UK. The award was established in 1957 and commemorates the chemist George Stanley Withers Marlow (1889–1948).
Award winners are also entitled to £3000 in travel expenses to give a lecture tour in Australia, New Zealand, Singapore or Malaysia. This lecture series, instituted in 1981, is named for Robert Anthony Robinson (1903–1979).
== Winners ==
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Better_Mistakes | Better Mistakes | Better Mistakes is the second studio album by American singer-songwriter Bebe Rexha, released on May 7, 2021, by Warner Records. It serves as the follow-up to her debut studio album, Expectations (2018) and contains guest features from Travis Barker, Ty Dolla Sign, Trevor Daniel, Lil Uzi Vert, Doja Cat, Pink Sweats, Lunay and Rick Ross. The album was preceded by the singles "Baby, I'm Jealous", "Sacrifice", and "Sabotage".
== Background ==
Bebe worked on the album and finished it before the COVID-19 pandemic, with most of the recording taking place in the summer and fall of 2020. Rexha announced the album's title as Better Mistakes, along with its artwork and release date (May 7, 2021), on April 14, 2021, along with the announcement of the third single, "Sabotage". On April 15, she revealed the tracklist on her social media accounts. The album was available for pre-order on April 16, conceding with the release of "Sabotage".
== Composition ==
Rexha described the album as a pop record with "a lot of hip-hop in it". She added that it's "not...dance music, but you can bop to it". The opening track, "Break My Heart Myself", which features Travis Barker, makes references to how Rexha lives with bipolar disorder.
== Singles ==
On October 5, 2020, Bebe Rexha announced the lead single called "Baby, I'm Jealous", featuring Doja Cat, would be released on October 9. The song charted at number 58 on the US Billboard Hot 100. She released the follow-up single, "Sacrifice", on March 4, 2021. On April 14, Rexha announced the third single, "Sabotage", would be released on April 16, along with the album's pre-order. On April 28, Rexha announced the song "Die for a Man" featuring American rapper-singer-songwriter Lil Uzi Vert would be released as the promotional single off the album on April 30. She later gave a snippet of the song a day before the single's release.
A remix of "Break My Heart Myself" featuring Yeji and Ryujin of the K-pop girl group Itzy was released as a single on July 29, 2022, following a viral dance performance of the original track by the duo in June.
== Critical reception ==
Robin Murray from Clash called the album a "bulldozer 30 minute pop experience" that "affords Bebe Rexha space to amplify her potency while exposing her insecurities", further summarizing it as "13 songs that punch out their truths and then dissipate".
== Commercial performance ==
Better Mistakes debuted at number 140 on the US Billboard 200 becoming Rexha's lowest charting album on the chart. In Canada, the album debuted at number 57 on the Billboard Canadian Albums.
== Track listing ==
Notes
"Amore" contains an interpolation of the 1953 song "That's Amore", written by Harry Warren and Jack Brooks.
"Mama" contains an interpolation of the 1975 song "Bohemian Rhapsody", by the band Queen.
== Personnel ==
Musicians
Bebe Rexha – lead vocals
Travis Barker – drums (1)
Peter Rycroft – bass, drums, guitar, synthesizer programming (4)
David Strääf – drum programming (4), guitar (4, 11), backing vocals, drums, synthesizer (10, 11); acoustic guitar, electric guitar, percussion, programming, violin (10)
Richard Boardman – drum programming, synthesizer (4, 11); keyboards (10)
Burns – all instruments (5)
Pablo Bowman – backing vocals (5), guitar (10)
Technical
Colin Leonard – masterer
Jaycen Joshua – mixer (1, 2, 6–9, 12, 13)
Şerban Ghenea – mixer (3)
Tom Norris – mixer (5)
Mitch McCarthy – mixer (10)
Greg Kurstin – recording engineer (2)
Alex Pasco – recording engineer (2)
Julian Burg – recording engineer (2)
Burns – recording engineer (5)
Devon Corey – vocal engineer (2)
Jon Hume – vocal engineer (2)
== Charts ==
== Release history ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_Catalysis_Award#:~:text=2012,Thomas%20Colacot | Applied Catalysis Award | The Applied Catalysis Award is awarded by the Royal Society of Chemistry to individuals for "creativity and excellence in novel approaches or use of catalysis in industry." The award was established in 2008. The winner of the award is chosen by the Industry & Technology Division Awards Committee, and receives £2000, a medal and a certificate.
== Previous winners ==
Source: RSC
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMx | IMx | Immature (later known as IMx) is an American R&B boy band, managed by record producer Chris Stokes. Its members include Marques "Batman" Houston (born August 4, 1981), Jerome "Romeo" Jones (born October 25, 1981), and Kelton "LDB" Kessee (born January 2, 1981), all natives of Los Angeles, where the group was formed. The group released four albums under the Immature moniker: On Our Worst Behavior (1992; the only album to include original member Don "Half Pint" Santos, later replaced by Kessee), Playtyme Is Over (1994), We Got It (1995) and The Journey (1997).
In 1999, the group changed its name to IMx, marking ten years of being a group and released two studio albums Introducing IMx and IMx, as well as a Greatest Hits album in 2001. The group also branched out into film (such as House Party 3 and House Party 4: Down to the Last Minute) and television (such as A Different World, Sister, Sister, Family Matters, Soul Train and All That) before disbanding in 2002.
On November 6, 2013, Immature performed their first show since reuniting at Club Nokia in Los Angeles with Next and Dru Hill. In September 2019, Immature announced their #TBTour with special guests Ray J, B5 and J. Holiday.
== Biography ==
Immature was formed in Los Angeles, California in 1991 by Marques "Batman" Houston, Jerome "Romeo" Jones and Don "Half-Pint" Santos. Kelton "LDB" Kessee (the group's drummer at the time) joined the group full-time in 1994, replacing Santos due to his parents pulling him from the group after him and the rest of the members starred in House Party 3. In 1999, the group would change their name to IMx, feeling Immature no longer reflected the band.
=== After IMx ===
In 2002, the group disbanded. Houston and Jones (under the name Young Rome) began pursuing solo careers, while Kessee continued his work as a record producer. Houston became the first former member to release a solo album, MH, in 2003. Jones followed suit with the release of his debut solo album, titled Food for Thought, in 2004. Houston later released five additional albums: Naked (2005), Veteran (2007), Mr. Houston (2009), Mattress Music (2010) and Famous (2013).
Houston and Jones have also pursued acting careers, with both starring in the dance film, You Got Served (2004). Houston co-starred in Fat Albert (2004) and landed a lead role in UPN's comedy sitcom Cuts. In 2007, he starred in the horror film Somebody Help Me. He also appeared as Roger on the show Sister, Sister (1994–1998).
== Music career ==
=== Immature ===
==== On Our Worst Behavior ====
In 1992, Immature released their debut album, On Our Worst Behavior, on September 22. The album featured singles "Da Munchies", "I Wanna Know U That Way", "Be My Girl" and "Tear It Up (On Our Worst Behavior)" which also appeared on the soundtrack for the animated film Bebe's Kids, in which Houston provided his voice for the character Khalil.
Although the album failed to make it onto any of Billboard's charts, their song "Tear It Up (On Our Worst Behavior)" managed to make it onto Billboard's Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs, peaking at number 29.
==== Playtyme Is Over ====
Immature released their second album, Playtyme Is Over, on August 2, 1994, after signing a deal with MCA Records. The album featured singles "Never Lie" (their biggest hit), "Constantly" and "I Don't Mind".
In the United States, Playtyme Is Over peaked at number 88 on the Billboard 200 and peaked at number 26 on Billboard's Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.
==== We Got It ====
In 1995, Immature released their third album, We Got It. The album featured singles "We Got It", "Lover's Groove" and "Please Don't Go".
In the United States, We Got It peaked at number 76 on the Billboard 200 and peaked at number 14 on Billboard's Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.
==== The Journey ====
In 1997, Immature released their fourth album, The Journey, which was their last under the name Immature. The album featured singles "I'm Not a Fool", "Give Up The Ghost" (featuring Bizzy Bone) and "Extra, Extra" (written by and featuring Keith Sweat).
In the United States, The Journey peaked at number 92 on the Billboard 200 and peaked at number 20 on Billboard's Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.
The track "Tamika" appeared on the sitcom Sister, Sister episode "A Friend in Deed", which first aired on October 29, 1997. In this episode, the group performed as themselves at the school fundraiser.
==== Introducing IMx ====
In 1999, Immature changed their name to IMx and released their fifth album, Introducing IMx. The album featured singles "Stay the Night", "Keep It On the Low" and "In & Out of Love". It was the group's last album with MCA Records.
In the United States, Introducing IMx peaked at number 101 on the Billboard 200 and peaked at number 31 on Billboard's Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.
==== IMx ====
On August 21, 2001, IMx released their sixth album, IMx, after signing a deal with TUG Entertainment and New Line Records (now WaterTower Music). The album featured singles "First Time", "Beautiful (You Are)", "Clap Your Hands Pt. 1" and "Ain't No Need" (which also appeared on the soundtrack for the film The Adventures of Pluto Nash).
In the United States, IMx peaked at number 126 on the Billboard 200, being their lowest charting Billboard spot. and peaked at number 26 on Billboard's Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.
==== Remember ====
In early 2015, the band reunited to release a comeback EP titled Remember, and changed their name back to Immature. The album featured mature-sounding remakes of their classic hits "Never Lie" and "Please Don't Go" along with six newly released songs such as "Let Me Find Out", "Oh My" and "Best Sex".
=== Other works ===
On February 27, 2001, IMx released their Greatest Hits album which featured all of the popular singles that Immature/IMx had released in the past nine years. It also included several remixes of the original versions and songs, on which they had made guest appearances (such as R&B singer Monteco's song "Is It Me?").
The group's song "Keep it on the Low" was used as the theme song for the film House Party 4: Down to the Last Minute, of which they also are the stars.
Immature collaborated with comedy actor Kel Mitchell on the hit song "Watch Me Do My Thing", which was featured on the soundtrack of the Nickelodeon sketch comedy, All That.
== Members ==
=== Current lineup ===
Marques "Batman" Houston – lead vocals (1991–present)
Kelton "LDB" Kessee – background vocals (1994–present)
Jerome "Romeo" Jones – main rapper, background vocals (1991–present)
=== Former members ===
Don "Half Pint" Santos – background vocals, rapper (1991-1994)
== Discography ==
On Our Worst Behavior (1992)
Playtyme Is Over (1994)
We Got It (1995)
The Journey (1997)
Introducing IMx (1999)
IMx (2001)
Remember EP (2015)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Randi | James Randi | James Randi (born Randall James Hamilton Zwinge; August 7, 1928 – October 20, 2020) was a Canadian-American stage magician, author, and scientific skeptic who extensively challenged paranormal and pseudoscientific claims. He was the co-founder of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI), and founder of the James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF). Randi began his career as a magician under the stage name The Amazing Randi and later chose to devote most of his time to investigating paranormal, occult, and supernatural claims. Randi retired from practicing magic at age 60, and from his foundation at 87.
Although often referred to as a "debunker", Randi said he disliked the term's connotations and preferred to describe himself as an "investigator". He wrote about paranormal phenomena, skepticism, and the history of magic. He was a frequent guest on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, famously exposing fraudulent faith healer Peter Popoff, and was occasionally featured on the television program Penn & Teller: Bullshit!
Before Randi's retirement, JREF sponsored the One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge, which offered a prize of $1 million to applicants who could demonstrate evidence of any paranormal, supernatural, or occult power or event under test conditions agreed to by both parties.
== Early life ==
Randi was born on August 7, 1928, in Toronto, Canada. He was the son of Marie Alice (née Paradis; 1906–1987) and George Randall Zwinge (1903–1967), an executive at Bell Telephone Company. He was of French, Danish and Austrian descent. He had a younger brother and sister. He took up magic after seeing Harry Blackstone Sr. and reading conjuring books while spending 13 months in a body cast following a bicycle accident. He confounded doctors, who expected he would never walk again. He often skipped classes, and at 17, dropped out of high school to perform as a conjurer in a carnival roadshow. He practiced as a mentalist in local nightclubs and at Toronto's Canadian National Exhibition and wrote for Montreal's tabloid press. As a teenager, he stumbled upon a church where the pastor claimed to read minds. When Randi interrupted the performance and showed the parishioners how the trick worked, the pastor's wife called the police and Randi spent four hours in a jail cell. This inspired his career as a scientific skeptic.
In his 20s, Randi posed as an astrologer, and to establish that they merely were doing simple tricks, he briefly wrote an astrological column in the Canadian tabloid Midnight under the name "Zo-ran" by simply shuffling up items from newspaper astrology columns and pasting them randomly into a column. In his 30s, Randi worked in the UK, Europe, Philippine nightclubs, and Japan. He witnessed many tricks that were presented as being supernatural. One of his earliest reported experiences was that of seeing an evangelist using a version of the "one-ahead" technique to convince churchgoers of his divine powers.
== Career ==
=== Magician ===
Although defining himself as a conjuror, Randi began a career as a professional stage magician and escapologist in 1946. He initially presented himself under his real name, Randall Zwinge, which he later dropped in favor of "The Amazing Randi". Early in his career, he performed numerous escape acts from jail cells and safes around the world. On February 7, 1956, he appeared live on NBC's Today show, where he remained for 104 minutes in a sealed metal coffin that had been submerged in a hotel swimming pool, breaking what was said to be Harry Houdini's record of 93 minutes, though Randi called attention to the fact that he was much younger than Houdini had been when he established the original record in 1926.
Randi was a frequent guest on the Long John Nebel program on New York City radio station WOR, and did character voices for commercials. After Nebel moved to WNBC in 1964, Randi was given Nebel's time slot on WOR, where he hosted The Amazing Randi Show until January 1966, and often had guests who defended paranormal claims, among them Randi's then-friend James W. Moseley. Randi stated that he was fired from WOR over complaints from the archbishop of New York that Randi had said on-air that "Jesus Christ was a religious nut," a claim that Randi disputed.
Randi also hosted numerous television specials and went on several world tours. As "The Amazing Randi" he appeared regularly on the New York-based children's television series Wonderama from 1959 to 1967. In 1970, he auditioned for a revival of the 1950s children's show The Magic Clown, which showed briefly in Detroit and in Kenya, but was never picked up. In the February 2, 1974, issue of the British conjuring magazine Abracadabra, Randi, in defining the community of magicians, stated: "I know of no calling which depends so much upon mutual trust and faith as does ours." In the December 2003 issue of The Linking Ring, the monthly publication of the International Brotherhood of Magicians, it is stated: "Perhaps Randi's ethics are what make him Amazing" and "The Amazing Randi not only talks the talk, he walks the walk."
During Alice Cooper's 1973–1974 Billion Dollar Babies tour, Randi performed on stage both as a mad dentist and as Cooper's executioner. He also built several of the stage props, including the guillotine. In a 1976 performance for the Canadian TV special World of Wizards, Randi escaped from a straitjacket while suspended upside-down over Niagara Falls.
Randi has been accused of actually using "psychic powers" to perform acts such as spoon bending. According to James Alcock, at a meeting where Randi was duplicating the performances of Uri Geller, a professor from the University at Buffalo shouted out that Randi was a fraud. Randi said: "Yes, indeed, I'm a trickster, I'm a cheat, I'm a charlatan, that's what I do for a living. Everything I've done here was by trickery." The professor shouted back: "That's not what I mean. You're a fraud because you're pretending to do these things through trickery, but you're actually using psychic powers and misleading us by not admitting it." A similar event involved Senator Claiborne Pell, a confirmed believer in psychic phenomena. When Randi personally demonstrated to Pell that he could reveal—by simple trickery—a concealed drawing that had been secretly made by the senator, Pell refused to believe that it was a trick, saying: "I think Randi may be a psychic and doesn't realize it." Randi consistently denied having any paranormal powers or abilities.
Randi was a member of the Society of American Magicians (SAM), the International Brotherhood of Magicians (IBM), and The Magic Circle in the UK, holding the rank of "Member of the Inner Magic Circle with Gold Star."
=== Author ===
Randi wrote ten books, among them Conjuring (1992), a biographical history of prominent magicians. The book is subtitled Being a Definitive History of the Venerable Arts of Sorcery, Prestidigitation, Wizardry, Deception, & Chicanery and of the Mountebanks & Scoundrels Who have Perpetrated these Subterfuges on a Bewildered Public, in short, MAGIC! The book's cover indicates it is by "James Randi, Esq., A Contrite Rascal Once Dedicated to these Wicked Practices but Now Almost Totally Reformed". The book features the most influential magicians and tells some of their history, often in the context of strange deaths and careers on the road. This work expanded on Randi's second book, Houdini, His Life and Art. This illustrated work was published in 1976 and was co-authored with Bert Sugar. It focuses on the professional and private life of Houdini.
Randi's book The Magic World of the Amazing Randi (1989) was intended as a children's introduction to magic tricks. In addition to his magic books, he wrote several educational works about paranormal and pseudoscientific claims. These include biographies of Uri Geller and Nostradamus, as well as reference material on other major paranormal figures. In 2011, he was working on A Magician in the Laboratory, which recounted his application of skepticism to science. He was a member of the all-male literary banqueting club the Trap Door Spiders, which served as the basis of his friend Isaac Asimov's fictional group of mystery solvers, the Black Widowers.
Other books by Randi include Flim-Flam! (1982), The Faith Healers (1987), James Randi, Psychic Investigator (1991), Test Your ESP Potential (1982), and An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural (1995).
Randi was a regular contributor to Skeptic magazine, penning the "'Twas Brillig ..." column, and also served on its editorial board. He was a frequent contributor to Skeptical Inquirer magazine, published by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, of which he was also a fellow.
=== Skeptic ===
Randi gained the international spotlight in 1972 when he publicly challenged the claims of Uri Geller. He accused Geller of being nothing more than a charlatan and a fraud who used standard magic tricks to accomplish his allegedly paranormal feats, and he presented his claims in the book The Truth About Uri Geller (1982).
Believing that it was important to get columnists and TV personalities to challenge Geller and others like him, Randi and CSICOP reached out in an attempt to educate them. Randi said that CSICOP had a "very substantial influence on the printed media ... in those days." During this effort, Randi made contact with Johnny Carson and discovered that he was "very much on our side. He wasn't only a comedian ... he was a great thinker." According to Randi, when he was on The Tonight Show, Carson broke his usual protocol of not talking with guests before their entrance on stage, but instead would ask what Randi wanted to be emphasized in the interview. "He wanted to be aware of how he could help me."
In 1973, Geller appeared on The Tonight Show, and this appearance is recounted in the Nova documentary "Secrets of the Psychics".
In the documentary, Randi says that Carson "had been a magician himself and was skeptical" of Geller's claimed paranormal powers, so before the date of taping, Randi was asked "to help prevent any trickery". Per Randi's advice, the show prepared its own props without informing Geller, and did not let Geller or his staff "anywhere near them". When Geller joined Carson on stage, he appeared surprised that he was not going to be interviewed, but instead was expected to display his abilities using the provided articles. Geller said "This scares me" and "I'm surprised because before this program your producer came and he read me at least 40 questions you were going to ask me." Geller was unable to display any paranormal abilities, saying "I don't feel strong" and expressing his displeasure at feeling like he was being "pressed" to perform by Carson. According to Adam Higginbotham's November 7, 2014, article in The New York Times:
The result was a legendary immolation, in which Geller offered up flustered excuses to his host as his abilities failed him again and again. "I sat there for 22 minutes, humiliated," Geller told me, when I spoke to him in September. "I went back to my hotel, devastated. I was about to pack up the next day and go back to Tel Aviv. I thought, That's it—I'm destroyed."
However, this appearance on The Tonight Show, which Carson and Randi had orchestrated to debunk Geller's claimed abilities, backfired. According to Higginbotham:
To Geller's astonishment, he was immediately booked on The Merv Griffin Show. He was on his way to becoming a paranormal superstar. "That Johnny Carson show made Uri Geller," Geller said. To an enthusiastically trusting public, his failure only made his gifts seem more real: if he were performing magic tricks, they would surely work every time.
According to Higginbotham, this result caused Randi to realize that much more must be done to stop Geller and those like him. So in 1976, Randi approached Ray Hyman, a psychologist who had observed the tests of Geller's ability at Stanford and thought them slipshod, and suggested they create an organization dedicated to combating pseudoscience. Later that same year, together with Martin Gardner, a Scientific American columnist whose writing had helped hone Hyman's and Randi's skepticism, they formed the Committee for Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP).
Using donations and sales of their magazine, Skeptical Inquirer, they and secular humanist philosopher Paul Kurtz took seats on the executive board, with Isaac Asimov and Carl Sagan joining as founding members. Randi travelled the world on behalf of CSICOP, becoming its public face, and according to Hyman, the face of the skeptical movement.
András G. Pintér, producer and co-host of the European Skeptics Podcast, called Randi the grandfather of European skepticism by virtue of Randi "playing a role in kickstarting several European organizations."
Geller sued Randi and CSICOP for $15 million in 1991 and lost. Geller's suit against CSICOP was thrown out in 1995, and he was ordered to pay $120,000 for filing a frivolous lawsuit. The legal costs Randi incurred used almost all of a $272,000 MacArthur Foundation grant awarded to Randi in 1986 for his work. Randi also dismissed Geller's claims that he was capable of the kind of psychic photography associated with the case of Ted Serios. It is a matter, Randi argued, of trick photography using a simple hand-held optical device. During the period of Geller's legal dispute, CSICOP's leadership, wanting to avoid becoming a target of Geller's litigation, demanded that Randi refrain from commenting on Geller. Randi refused and resigned, though he maintained a respectful relationship with the group, which in 2006 changed its name to the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI). In 2010, Randi was one of 16 new CSI fellows elected by its board.
Randi went on to write many articles criticizing beliefs and claims regarding the paranormal. He also demonstrated flaws in studies suggesting the existence of paranormal phenomena; in his Project Alpha hoax, Randi successfully planted two fake psychics in a privately funded psychic research experiment.
Randi appeared on numerous TV shows, sometimes to directly debunk the claimed abilities of fellow guests. In a 1981 appearance on That's My Line, Randi appeared opposite claimed psychic James Hydrick, who said that he could move objects with his mind and appeared to demonstrate this claim on live television by turning a page in a telephone book without touching it. Randi, having determined that Hydrick was surreptitiously blowing on the book, arranged foam packaging peanuts on the table in front of the telephone book for the demonstration. This prevented Hydrick from demonstrating his abilities, which would have been exposed when the blowing moved the packaging. Randi writes that, eventually, Hydrick "confessed everything".
Randi was awarded a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship in 1986. The fellowship's five-year $272,000 grant helped support Randi's investigations of faith healers, including W. V. Grant, Ernest Angley, and Peter Popoff, whom Randi first exposed on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson in April 1986. Hearing about his investigation of Popoff, Carson invited Randi onto his show without seeing the evidence he was going to reveal. Carson appeared stunned after Randi showed a brief video segment from one of Popoff's broadcasts showing him calling out a woman in the audience, revealed personal information about her that he claimed came from God, and then performed a laying-on-of-hands healing to drive the devil from her body. Randi then replayed the video, but with some of the sound dubbed in that he and his investigating team captured during the event using a radio scanner and recorder. Their scanner had detected the radio frequency Popoff's wife Elizabeth was using backstage to broadcast directions and information to a miniature radio receiver hidden in Popoff's left ear. That information had been gathered by Popoff's assistants, who had handed out "prayer cards" to the audience before the show, instructing them to write down all the information Popoff would need to pray for them.
The news coverage generated by Randi's exposé on The Tonight Show led to many TV stations dropping Popoff's show, eventually forcing him into bankruptcy in September 1987. However, the televangelist returned soon after with faith-healing infomercials that reportedly attracted more than $23 million in 2005 from viewers sending in money for promised healing and prosperity. The Canadian Centre for Inquiry's Think Again! TV documented one of Popoff's more recent performances before a large audience who gathered in Toronto on May 26, 2011, hoping to be saved from illness and poverty.
In February 1988, Randi tested the gullibility of the media by perpetrating a hoax of his own. By teaming up with Australia's 60 Minutes program and by releasing a fake press package, he built up publicity for a "spirit channeler" named Carlos, who was actually artist José Alvarez, Randi's partner. While performing as Carlos, Alvarez was prompted by Randi using sophisticated radio equipment. According to the 60 Minutes program on the Carlos hoax, "it was claimed that Alvarez would not have had the audience he did at the Opera House (and the resulting potential sales therefrom) had the media coverage been more aggressive (and factual)", though an analysis by The Skeptic's Tim Mendham concluded that, while the media coverage of Alvarez's appearances was not credulous, the hoax "at least showed that they could benefit by being a touch more sceptical". The hoax was exposed on 60 Minutes Australia; "Carlos" and Randi explained how they had pulled it off.
In his book The Faith Healers, Randi wrote that his anger and relentlessness arose from compassion for the victims of fraud. Randi was also critical of João de Deus, a.k.a. "John of God", a self-proclaimed psychic surgeon who had received international attention. Randi observed, referring to psychic surgery, "To any experienced conjurer, the methods by which these seeming miracles are produced are very obvious."
In 1982, Randi verified the abilities of Arthur Lintgen, a Philadelphia doctor, who was able to identify the classical music recorded on a vinyl LP solely by examining the grooves on the record. However, Lintgen did not claim to have any paranormal ability, merely knowledge of the way that the groove forms patterns on particular recordings.
In 1988, John Maddox, editor of the prominent science journal Nature, asked Randi to join the supervision and observation of the homeopathy experiments conducted by Jacques Benveniste's team. Once Randi's stricter protocol for the experiment was in place, the positive results could not be reproduced.
Randi stated that Daniel Dunglas Home, who could allegedly play an accordion that was locked in a cage without touching it, was caught cheating on a few occasions, but the incidents were never made public. He also stated that the actual instrument in use was a one-octave mouth organ concealed under Home's large mustache and that other one-octave mouth organs were found in Home's belongings after his death. According to Randi, author William Lindsay Gresham told Randi "around 1960" that he had seen these mouth organs in the Home collection at the Society for Psychical Research (SPR). Eric J. Dingwall, who catalogued Home's collection on its arrival at the SPR, does not record the presence of the mouth organs. According to Peter Lamont, the author of an extensive Home biography, "It is unlikely Dingwall would have missed these or did not make them public." The fraudulent medium Henry Slade also played an accordion while held with one hand under a table. Slade and Home played the same pieces. They had at one time lived near each other in the U.S. The magician Chung Ling Soo exposed how Slade had performed the trick.
Randi distinguished between pseudoscience and "crackpot science". He regarded most of parapsychology as pseudoscience because of the way in which it is approached and conducted, but nonetheless saw it as a legitimate subject that "should be pursued", and from which real scientific discoveries may develop. Randi regarded crackpot science as "equally wrong" as pseudoscience, but with no scientific pretensions.
Despite multiple debunkings, Randi did not like to be called a "debunker", preferring to call himself a "skeptic" or an "investigator":
(...) if you go into a situation calling yourself a debunker then it is as if you have prejudged the topic. It's not neutral or scientific, and it can turn people against you.
Skeptics and magicians Penn & Teller credit Randi and his career as a skeptic for their own careers. During an interview at TAM! 2012, Penn stated that Flim-Flam! was an early influence on him, and said "If not for Randi there would not be Penn & Teller as we are today." He went on to say "Outside of my family ... no one is more important in my life. Randi is everything to me."
At the NECSS skeptic conference in 2017, Randi was asked by George Hrab what a "'skeptic coming of age ceremony' would look like" and Randi talked about what it was like as a child to learn about the speed of light and how that felt like he was looking into the past. Randi stated "More kids need to be stunned".
At The Amaz!ng Meeting in 2011 (TAM 9) the Independent Investigations Group (IIG) organized a tribute to Randi. The group gathered together with other attendees, put on fake white beards, and posed for a large group photo with Randi. At the CSICon in 2017, in absence of Randi, the IIG organized another group photo with leftover beards from the 2011 photo. After Randi was sent the photo, he replied, "I'm always very touched by any such expression. This is certainly no exception. You have my sincere gratitude. I suspect, however that a couple of those beards were fake. But I'm in a forgiving mood at the moment. I'm frankly very touched. I'll see you at the next CSICon. Thank you all."
In a 2019 Skeptical Inquirer magazine article, Harriet Hall, a friend of Randi, compares him to the fictional Albus Dumbledore. Hall describes their long white beards, flamboyant clothing, associated with a bird (Dumbledore with a phoenix and Randi with Pegasus). They both are caring and have "immense brainpower" and both "can perform impressive feats of magic". She states that Randi is one of "major inspirations for the skeptical work I do ... He's way better than Dumbledore!".
=== Exploring Psychic Powers ... Live television show ===
Exploring Psychic Powers ... Live was a two-hour television special aired live on June 7, 1989, wherein Randi examined several people claiming psychic powers. Hosted by actor Bill Bixby, the program offered $100,000 (Randi's $10,000 prize plus $90,000 put up by the show's syndicator, LBS Communications, Inc.) to anyone who could demonstrate genuine psychic powers.
An astrologer, Joseph Meriwether, claimed that he was able to ascertain a person's astrological sign after talking with them for a few minutes. He was presented with twelve people, one at a time, each with a different astrological sign. They could not tell Meriwether their astrological sign or birth date, nor could they wear anything that would indicate it. After Meriwether talked to them, he had them go and sit in front of the astrological sign that he thought was theirs. By agreement, Meriwether needed to get ten of the 12 correct, to win. He got none correct.
The next psychic, Barbara Martin, claimed to be able to read auras around people, claiming that auras were visible at least five inches above each person. She selected ten people from a group of volunteers who she said had clearly visible auras. On stage were erected ten screens, numbered 1 through 10, just tall enough to hide the volunteer while not hiding their aura. Unseen by Martin, some of the volunteers positioned themselves behind different screens, then she was invited to predict which screens hid volunteers by seeing their aura above. She stated that she saw an aura over all ten screens, but people were behind only four of the screens.
A dowser, Forrest Bayes, claimed that he could detect water in a bottle inside a sealed cardboard box. He was shown twenty boxes and asked to indicate which boxes contained a water bottle. He selected eight of the boxes, which he said contained water, but it turned out that only five of the twenty contained water. Of the eight selected boxes, only one was revealed to contain water and one contained sand. It was not revealed whether any of the remaining six boxes contained water.
A psychometric psychic, Sharon McLaren-Straz, claimed to be able to receive personal information about the owner of an object by handling the object itself. In order to avoid ambiguous statements, the psychic agreed to be presented with both a watch and a key from each of twelve different people. She was to match keys and watches to their owners. According to the prior agreement, she had to match at least nine out of the twelve sets, but she succeeded in only two.
Professional crystal healer Valerie Swan attempted to use ESP to identify 250 Zener cards, guessing which of the five symbols was on each one. Random guessing should have resulted in about fifty correct guesses, so it was agreed in advance that Swan had to be right on at least eighty-two cards in order to demonstrate an ability greater than chance. However, she was able to get only fifty predictions correct, which is no better than random guessing.
=== James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF) ===
In 1996, Randi established the James Randi Educational Foundation. Randi and his colleagues publish in JREF's blog, Swift. Topics have included the interesting mathematics of the one-seventh area triangle, a classic geometric puzzle. In his weekly commentary, Randi often gave examples of what he considered the nonsense that he dealt with every day.
Beginning in 2003, the JREF annually hosted The Amaz!ng Meeting, a gathering of scientists, skeptics, and atheists. The last meeting was in 2015, coinciding with Randi's retirement from the JREF.
=== 2010s ===
Randi began a series of conferences known as "The Amazing Meeting" (TAM) which quickly became the largest gathering of skeptics in the world, drawing audiences from Asia, Europe, South America, and the UK. It also attracted a large percentage of younger attendees. Randi was regularly featured on many podcasts, including The Skeptics Society's official podcast Skepticality and the Center for Inquiry's official podcast Point of Inquiry. From September 2006 onwards, he occasionally contributed to The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe podcast with a column called "Randi Speaks". In addition, The Amazing Show was a podcast in which Randi shared various anecdotes in an interview format.
In 2014, Part2Filmworks released An Honest Liar, a feature film documentary, written by Tyler Measom and Greg O'Toole, and directed and produced by Measom and Justin Weinstein. The film, which was funded through Kickstarter, focuses on Randi's life, his investigations, and his relationship with longtime partner José Alvarez (born Deyvi Orangel Peña Arteaga), to whom he was married in 2013. The film was screened at the Tribeca Film Festival, at Toronto's Hot Docs film festival, and at the June 2014 AFI Docs Festival in Silver Spring, Maryland, and Washington, D.C., where it won the Audience Award for Best Feature. It also received positive reviews from critics. The film was featured on the PBS Independent Lens series, shown in the U.S. and Canada, on March 28, 2016.
In December 2014, Randi flew to Australia to take part in "An Evening with James Randi" tour, organized by Think Inc. This tour included a screening of An Honest Liar followed by a "fireside chat" with Randi on stage. Cities visited were Adelaide, Perth, Brisbane, Melbourne, and Sydney. MC in Adelaide was Dr. Paul Willis with Richard Saunders interviewing Randi. MC in Perth was Jake Farr-Wharton with Richard Saunders interviewing Randi. MC for Brisbane, Melbourne and Sydney was Richard Saunders with Lawrence Leung interviewing Randi.
In 2017, Randi appeared in animated form on the website Holy Koolaid, in which he discussed the challenge of finding the balance between connecting sincerely with his audience and at the same time tricking/fooling them with an artful ruse, and indicated that this is a balance with which many magicians struggle.
== One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge ==
The James Randi Educational Foundation (JREF) offered a prize of US$1,000,000 to anyone able to demonstrate a supernatural ability under scientific testing criteria agreed to by both sides. Based on the paranormal challenges of John Nevil Maskelyne and Houdini, the foundation began in 1996, when Randi put up $1,000 of his own money payable to anyone who could provide objective proof of the paranormal. The prize money grew to $1,000,000, and had formal published rules. No one progressed past the preliminary test, which was set up with parameters agreed to by both Randi and the applicant. He refused to accept any challengers who might suffer serious injury or death as a result of the testing.
On April 1, 2007, it was ruled that only persons with an established, nationally recognized media profile and the backing of a reputable academic were allowed to apply for the challenge, in order to avoid wasting JREF resources on frivolous claimants.
On Larry King Live, March 6, 2001, Larry King asked claimed medium Sylvia Browne if she would take the challenge and she agreed. Randi appeared with Browne on Larry King Live six months later, and she again appeared to accept his challenge; however, according to Randi, she ultimately refused to be tested, and the Randi Foundation kept a clock on its website recording the number of weeks since Browne allegedly accepted the challenge without following through, until Browne's death in November 2013.
During a subsequent appearance on Larry King Live on June 5, 2001, Randi challenged Rosemary Altea, another claimed medium, to undergo testing for the million dollars, but Altea refused to address the question. Instead, Altea replied only, "I agree with what he says, that there are many, many people who claim to be spiritual mediums, they claim to talk to the dead. There are many people, we all know this. There are cheats and charlatans everywhere." On January 26, 2007, Altea and Randi again appeared on the show, and Altea again refused to answer whether or not she would take the One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge.
In October 2007, claimed psychic John Edward appeared on Headline Prime, hosted by Glenn Beck. When asked if he would take "the Amazing Randi's" challenge, Edward responded, "It's funny. I was on Larry King Live once, and they asked me the same question. And I made a joke [then], and I'll say the same thing here: why would I allow myself to be tested by somebody who's got an adjective as a first name?" Beck simply allowed Edward to continue, ignoring the challenge.
Randi asked British businessman Jim McCormick, the inventor of the bogus ADE 651 bomb detector, to take the challenge in October 2008. Randi called the ADE 651 "a useless quack device which cannot perform any other function than separating naive persons from their money. It's a fake, a scam, a swindle, and a blatant fraud. Prove me wrong and take the million dollars." There was no response from McCormick. According to Iraqi investigators, the ADE 651, which was corruptly sold to the Baghdad bomb squad, was responsible for the deaths of hundreds of civilians who died as a result of terrorist bombs which were not detected at checkpoints. On April 23, 2013, McCormick was convicted of three counts of fraud at the Old Bailey in London; he was subsequently sentenced to ten years' imprisonment for his part in the ADE 651 scandal, which Randi was the first to expose.
A public log of past participants in the Million Dollar Challenge exists. In 2015, after Randi's retirement, his foundation said the Million Dollar Challenge would no longer consider applicants unless they meet a set of minimum protocols, to reduce the amount of frivolous claims.
== Legal disputes ==
Randi was involved in a variety of legal disputes, but said that he had "never paid even one dollar or even one cent to anyone who ever sued me." However, he said, he had paid out large sums to defend himself in these suits.
=== Uri Geller ===
Randi met magician Uri Geller in the early 1970s, and found Geller to be "Very charming. Likable, beautiful, affectionate, genuine, forward-going, handsome—everything!" But Randi viewed Geller as a con-man, and began a long effort to expose him as a fraud. According to Randi, Geller tried to sue him several times, accusing him of libel. Geller never won, save for a ruling in a Japanese court that ordered Randi to pay Geller one-third of one per cent of what Geller had requested. This ruling was cancelled, and the matter dropped, when Geller decided to concentrate on another legal matter.
In May 1991, Geller sued Randi and CSICOP for $15 million on a charge of slander, after Randi told the International Herald Tribune that Geller had "tricked even reputable scientists" with stunts that "are the kind that used to be on the back of cereal boxes", referring to the old spoon-bending trick. The court dismissed the case and Geller had to settle at a cost to him of $120,000, after Randi produced a cereal box which bore instructions on how to do the spoon-bending trick. Geller's lawyer Don Katz was disbarred mid-way into this action and Geller ended up suing him. After failing to pay by the deadline imposed by the court, Geller was sanctioned an additional $20,000.
Geller sued both Randi and CSICOP in the 1980s. CSICOP argued that the organization was not responsible for Randi's statements. The court agreed that including CSICOP was frivolous and dropped them from the action, leaving Randi to face the action alone, along with the legal costs. Geller was ordered to pay substantial damages, but only to CSICOP.
=== Other cases ===
In 1993, a jury in the U.S. District Court in Baltimore found Randi liable for defaming Eldon Byrd for calling him a child molester in a magazine story and a "shopping market molester" in a 1988 speech; however, the jury found that Byrd was not entitled to any monetary damages after hearing testimony that he had sexually molested and later married his sister-in-law. The jury also cleared the other defendant in the case, CSICOP.
Late in 1996, Randi launched a libel suit against a Toronto-area psychic named Earl Gordon Curley. Curley had made multiple objectionable comments about Randi on Usenet. Despite suggesting to Randi on Usenet that Randi should sue—Curley's comments implying that if Randi did not sue, then his allegations must be true—Curley seemed entirely surprised when Randi actually retained Toronto's largest law firm and initiated legal proceedings. The suit was eventually dropped in 1998 when Earl Curley died at the age of 51 of "alcohol toxicity".
Allison DuBois, on whose life the television series Medium was based, threatened Randi with legal action for using a photo of her from her website in his December 17, 2004, commentary without her permission. Randi removed the photo and subsequently used a caricature of DuBois when mentioning her on his site, beginning with his December 23, 2005, commentary.
Sniffex, producer of a dowsing bomb detection device, sued Randi and the JREF in 2007, and lost. Sniffex sued Randi for his comments regarding a government test in which the Sniffex device failed. The company was later investigated and charged with fraud.
== Views ==
=== Political views ===
Randi was a registered Democrat. In April 2009, he released a statement endorsing the legalization of most illegal drugs.
Randi had been reported as a believer in Social Darwinist theories, although he denounced the ideologies and movements that formed around the theories in 2013.
=== Views on religion ===
Randi's parents were members of the Anglican Church but rarely attended services. He attended Sunday school at St. Cuthbert's Church in Toronto a few times as a child, but he independently decided to stop going after receiving no answer to his request for proof of the teachings of the Church.
In his essay "Why I Deny Religion, How Silly and Fantastic It Is, and Why I'm a Dedicated and Vociferous Bright", Randi, who identified himself as an atheist, opined that many accounts in religious texts, including the virgin birth, the miracles of Jesus Christ, and the parting of the Red Sea by Moses, are not believable. Randi refers to the Virgin Mary as being "impregnated by a ghost of some sort, and as a result produced a son who could walk on water, raise the dead, turn water into wine, and multiply loaves of bread and fishes" and questions how Adam and Eve's family "managed to populate the Earth without committing incest". He wrote that, compared to the Bible, "The Wizard of Oz is more believable. And much more fun."
Clarifying his view of atheism, Randi wrote "I've said it before: there are two sorts of atheists. One sort claims that there is no deity, the other claims that there is no evidence that proves the existence of a deity; I belong to the latter group, because if I were to claim that no god exists, I would have to produce evidence to establish that claim, and I cannot. Religious persons have by far the easier position; they say they believe in a deity because that's their preference, and they've read it in a book. That's their right."
In An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural (1995), he examines various spiritual practices skeptically. Of the meditation techniques of Guru Maharaj Ji, he writes "Only the very naive were convinced that they had been let in on some sort of celestial secret." In 2003, he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto.
Regarding his 2006 coronary artery bypass surgery, Randi was asked if he was tempted by religious ideas about an afterlife or if he went through it any differently than if he had been religious. Randi replied "I allowed Daniel Dennett to speak for me" referring to Dennett's essay "Thank Goodness", which Dennett wrote after a serious surgery. Summing up the essay, Randi continued:
(...) when he was recovering in the hospital he had people coming in and saying "Oh, thank God, you're doing this, that and the other", and he wrote this little essay, he said "No, never mind 'thank god' but I'll accept thank goodness. Thank the goodness of the anaesthesiologist. Thank the goodness of the nurses who empty my bedpan. Thank the goodness of the intern who sweeps the floor regularly so that I don't have to breathe too much dust. Thank the designers and makers of Dacron."
All of these things, he said, "Yes, thank their goodness but don't thank a mythical being."
And, essentially that's a contraction of it, rather severely, but that's the way I feel, yes.
In a discussion with Kendrick Frazier at CSICon 2016, Randi stated "I think that a belief in a deity is ... an unprovable claim ... and a rather ridiculous claim. It is an easy way out to explain things to which we have no answer." He then summarized his current concern with religious belief as follows: "A belief in a god is one of the most damaging things that infests humanity at this particular moment in history. It may improve, and I see signs that it may be improving, and I'll leave it at that."
== Personal life and death ==
When Randi hosted his own radio show in the 1960s, he lived in a small house in Rumson, New Jersey, that featured a sign on the premises that read: "Randi—Charlatan".
In the 1970s and 80s, Randi supported seven foster children.
In 1987, Randi became a naturalized citizen of the United States. Randi said that one reason he became an American citizen was an incident while he was on tour with Alice Cooper, during which the Royal Canadian Mounted Police searched the band's lockers during a performance, completely ransacking the room, but finding nothing illegal.
In February 2006, Randi underwent coronary artery bypass surgery. The weekly commentary updates to his Web site were made by guests while he was hospitalized. Randi recovered after his surgery and was able to help organize and attend The Amaz!ng Meeting in 2007 in Las Vegas, Nevada, his annual convention of scientists, magicians, skeptics, atheists, and freethinkers.
Randi was diagnosed with colorectal cancer in June 2009. He had a series of small tumors removed from his intestines during laparoscopic surgery. He announced the diagnosis a week later at The Amaz!ng Meeting 7, as well as the fact that he was scheduled to begin chemotherapy in the following weeks. He also said at the conference: "One day, I'm gonna die. That's all there is to it. Hey, it's too bad, but I've got to make room. I'm using a lot of oxygen and such—I think it's good use of oxygen myself, but of course, I'm a little prejudiced on the matter."
Randi underwent his final chemotherapy session in December 2009, an experience that he said was not as unpleasant as he had imagined it might be. In a video posted in April 2010, Randi stated that he had been given a clean bill of health.
In a 2010 blog entry, Randi came out as gay, a move he said was inspired by seeing the 2008 biographical drama film Milk.
Randi married Venezuelan artist José Alvarez (born Deyvi Orangel Peña Arteaga) on July 2, 2013, in Washington, D.C. In 1986, Randi met Alvarez in a Fort Lauderdale public library after he had recently moved to Florida. Alvarez, who was then known as Peña, had left his native land in fear of his life after being threatened for being homosexual. The alias Peña used, Jose Alvarez, was already an actual person in the United States. The identity confusion caused the real Alvarez some legal and financial difficulties. Peña was arrested for identity theft and faced deportation. They resided in Plantation, Florida.
In the 1993 documentary Secrets of the Psychics, Randi stated, "I've never involved myself in narcotics of any kind; I don't smoke; I don't drink, because that can easily just fuzz the edges of my rationality, fuzz the edges of my reasoning powers, and I want to be as aware as I possibly can. That means giving up a lot of fantasies that might be comforting in some ways, but I'm willing to give that up in order to live in an actually real world, as close as I can get to it".
In a video released in October 2017, Randi revealed that he had recently suffered a minor stroke, and that he was under medical advice not to travel during his recovery, so would be unable to attend CSICon 2017 in Las Vegas later that month.
Randi died at his home on October 20, 2020, at the age of 92. The James Randi Educational Foundation attributed his death to "age-related causes". The Center for Inquiry said that Randi "was the public face of skeptical inquiry, bringing a sense of fun and mischievousness to a serious mission." Kendrick Frazier said, as part of the statement, "Despite his ferocity in challenging all forms of nonsense, in person he was a kind and gentle man."
== Awards and honors ==
== World records ==
The following are Guinness World Records:
Randi was in a sealed casket underwater for one hour and 44 minutes, breaking the previous record of one hour and 33 minutes set by Harry Houdini on August 5, 1926.
Randi was encased in a block of ice for 55 minutes.
== Bibliography ==
Randi, James; Sugar, Bert Randolph (1976). Houdini, His Life and Art. New York: Grosset & Dunlap. ISBN 978-0448125527. OCLC 3017457.
—— (1982). Flim-Flam!: Psychics, ESP, Unicorns, and Other Delusions. Introduction by Isaac Asimov. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0879751982. LCCN 82060953. OCLC 9066769.
—— (1982). Test Your ESP Potential: A Complete Kit With Instructions, Scorecards, and Apparatus. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486242699. OCLC 7924713.
—— (1982) [Originally published 1975 as The Magic of Uri Geller; New York: Ballantine Books]. The Truth About Uri Geller. New York: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0879751999. OCLC 9164994.
—— (1987). The Faith Healers. Foreword by Carl Sagan. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-0879753696. OCLC 16353426.
—— (1989). The Magic World of the Amazing Randi. Holbrook, MA: Adams Media Corporation. ISBN 978-1558509825. OCLC 21303371.
—— (1990). The Mask of Nostradamus: The Prophecies of the World's Most Famous Seer. Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 978-0684190563. OCLC 824193656.
—— (1991). James Randi: Psychic Investigator. London: Boxtree Ltd. ISBN 978-1852831448. OCLC 26359284. Companion book to the Open Media/Granada Television series.
—— (1992). Conjuring: Being a Definitive History of the Venerable Arts of Sorcery, Prestidigitation, Wizardry, Deception, & Chicanery and of the Mountebanks & Scoundrels Who have Perpetrated these Subterfuges on a Bewildered Public, in short, Magic! (1st ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0312097714. OCLC 640909937.
—— (1995). An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural. Introduction by Arthur C. Clarke (1st ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0312151195. OCLC 35978760. (Online version)
== Television and film appearances ==
=== As an actor ===
Is There Sex After Death? (1971) as Seance Medium
Good to See You Again, Alice Cooper (1974) as the Dentist/Executioner
Ragtime (1981) (stunt coordinator: Houdini)
Penn & Teller's Invisible Thread (1987) (TV)
Penn & Teller Get Killed (1989) as the 3rd Rope Holder
Beyond Desire (1994) as the Coroner
=== Appearing as himself ===
Wonderama (1959–1967) (TV) as The Amazing Randi
I've Got a Secret (1965) (TV) as The Amazing Randi
Sesame Street Test Show 1 (1969) (TV) as The Amazing Randi
Happy Days – "The Magic Show" (1978) as the Amazing Randi
Zembla, 'De trucs van Char' (The tricks Char uses). (March 2008)
ZDF German TV (2007)
Wild Wild Web (1999)
West 57th (1980s)
Welt der Wunder – Kraft der Gedanken (January 2008)
Today (many appearances)
The Don Lane Show (Australia)
That's My Line (1981) (Appeared with James Hydrick)
The View (ABC) multiple appearances 1997 onwards
The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (32 appearances between 1973 and 1993 plus repeats)
The Secret Cabaret (produced by Open Media for Channel 4 in the UK)
The Power of Belief (October 6, 1998) (ABC News Special) (TV)
People are Talking (1980s)
The Patterson Show (1970s)
Superpowers? (an Equinox documentary made by Open Media for Channel 4 in 1990)
After Dark (September 3, 1988, and September 9, 1989)
Weird Thoughts, Open Media discussion hosted by Tony Wilson for BBC TV, with Mary Beard and others, 1994
The Art of Magic (1998) (TV)
The Ultimate Psychic Challenge (Discovery Channel/Channel 4) (2003)
Spotlight on James Randi (2002) (TV)
Secrets of the Super Psychics (Channel 4/The Learning Channel), produced by Open Media, 1997/8
Scams, Schemes, and Scoundrels (A&E Special) (March 30, 1997)
RAI TV Italy (1991)
Politically Incorrect with Bill Maher
Penn & Teller: Bullshit! several appearances
"End of the World" (2003) TV Episode
"ESP" (2003) TV Episode
"Signs from Heaven" (2005) TV Episode
The Oprah Winfrey Show 2 episodes
Lawrence Leung's Unbelievable (Australia) TV Episode
Nova: "Secrets of the Psychics" (1993)
Mitä ihmettä? (Finland) (2003) TV Series
Midday (Australia) (1990s)
Magic or Miracle? (1983) TV special
Magic (2004) (mini) TV Series
Larry King Live (CNN) (June 5, 2001, September 3, 2001, January 26, 2007, several more)
James Randi: Psychic Investigator (1991) (Open Media series for the ITV network)
James Randi Budapesten – Hungarian documentary
Inside Edition – (1991, 2006, and 2007) TV
Horizon – "Homeopathy: The Test" (2002) BBC/UK TV Episode
Dead Men Talking (The Biography Channel) (2007)
Fornemmelse for snyd (2003) TV Series (also archive footage) Denmark
Extraordinary People – "The Million Dollar Mind Reader" (September 2008).
Exploring Psychic Powers ... Live (June 7, 1989; hosted by Bill Bixby)
CBS This Morning (1990s)
Anderson Cooper 360°, CNN (January 19, 2007, and January 30, 2007)
A Question of Miracles (HBO) (1999)
20/20 (ABC) (May 11, 2007)
"Captain Disillusion" Randi + Pantry Ghost...debunk? (June 18, 2009)
An Honest Liar (2014, aired as Exposed: Magicians, Psychics and Frauds on BBC Storyville)
== Appearances in other media ==
Randi was featured as the cover story for the November 1981 issue of Dynamite magazine.
In 2007, Randi delivered a TED talk in which he discussed psychic fraud, homeopathy, and his foundation's Million Dollar Challenge.
Randi is featured in Tommy Finke's song "Poet der Affen/Poet of the Apes," released on the album of the same name in 2010.
In 2022, Randi made a cameo appearance in the posthumously released online magic special Piff the Magic Dragon: Reptile Dysfunction.
A character based on Randi named Carmichael Haig appears in the 2023 horror film Late Night with the Devil. Like Randi, Haig is a magician-turned-skeptic who offers a considerable sum of money to anyone who can provide him with convincing proof of the paranormal. Haig is portrayed by Australian actor Ian Bliss.
== See also ==
List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
Pigasus Award
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Official website
Wakelet Randi collection
=== Listings ===
James Randi in The Skeptic's Dictionary
James Randi at IMDb
=== Media ===
James Randi interview (May 2009) from the podcast of MagicNewswire.com in which Randi discusses his career in magic, his feud with Uri Geller and more.
James Randi interview (November 2007) from the BSAlert.com radio show where Randi discusses NBC's Phenomenon TV show, the current status of Uri Geller and his thoughts about whether society is becoming more or less superstitious.
"Homeopathy: The Test – webchat with James Randi". BBC Science. November 26, 2002.
"20 Major Aspects of Liars, Cheats, and Frauds" by James Randi |
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