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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Jones | Lucy Jones | Lucile M. Jones (born 1955) is an American seismologist and public voice for earthquake science and earthquake safety in California. One of the foremost and trusted public authorities on earthquakes, Jones is viewed by many in Southern California as "the Beyoncé of earthquakes" who is frequently called upon to provide information on recent earthquakes.
She is currently a research associate at the Seismological Laboratory at Caltech and chief scientist and founder of the Dr. Lucy Jones Center for Science and Society. She was previously at the US Geological Survey from 1985 to 2016, where she conducted research in the areas of foreshocks, seismotectonics, and the application of hazards science to improve societal resilience after natural disasters. At USGS, she was also part of the team of scientists that developed the Great Shakeout Earthquake Drills, during which millions around the world participate in annual earthquake safety drills.
== Scientific career ==
Jones has authored over 100 papers on research seismology with primary interest in the physics of earthquakes, foreshocks and earthquake hazard assessment, and the seismotectonics (earthquake-producing geologic structures) of southern California. Jones received a Bachelor of Arts degree in Chinese language and literature, magna cum laude, from Brown University in 1976 and a Ph.D. in geophysics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1981. She visited China in February 1979 in order to study the 1975 Haicheng earthquake, which had apparently been successfully predicted by the Chinese authorities based on an analysis of its foreshock sequence. In doing so, she became one of the first United States scientists to enter China following the normalization of relations between the two countries. She is a past Secretary of the Seismology Section of the American Geophysical Union, and past director and past chair of the publications committee of the Seismological Society of America.
Jones served as the Science Advisor for Risk Reduction for the USGS Natural Hazards Mission Area, as part of the SAFRR Project. She also worked as a Commissioner of the California Seismic Safety Commission (CSSC), which advises the governor and legislature on seismic safety, by appointment of Governor Gray Davis in 2002 and reappointment by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger in 2005 and served on the California Earthquake Prediction Evaluation Council. In January 2014, she entered into a partnership on behalf of the USGS with the City of Los Angeles to serve as Seismic Risk Advisor to Mayor Eric Garcetti.
After retiring from the USGS in 2016, Jones founded the Dr. Lucy Jones Center for Science and Society and wrote a book published in 2018 titled The Big Ones: How Natural Disasters Have Shaped Us (and What We Can Do About Them). In the book, Jones chronicles some of the world's greatest natural disasters, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, and hurricanes, and analyzes how people have responded to them in order to understand how future crises can be survived.
Jones was in residence at the University of Oregon's Wayne Morse Center for Law and Politics as the Wayne Morse Chair, where she provided public talks on disaster preparedness and science communication.
== Public outreach ==
Since 1986, Jones has given many interviews to the press on behalf of the US Geological Survey following significant earthquakes in southern California. In many media appearances, she worked together with fellow Caltech seismologist, Kate Hutton. In a 2004 profile of Jones, Tom Jordan of the Southern California Earthquake Center at USC was quoted as saying, "Lucy provides Southern California – and the nation – with a very calming voice and an authoritative voice to the public's inquiry in disaster." He also said that her high public profile may make her "one of the most effective chairs of CSSC ever".
Public perception of Jones as a voice of calm and reassurance has been attributed, in part, to an incident following the 1992 Joshua Tree earthquake in which she answered press questions while holding her sleeping child in her arms. In a 2011 interview, Jones denied the story that she asked the press to be quiet so as not to wake her son. She also expressed some regret that she became a symbol that "women can have it all".
In 2014, Jones was embedded at Los Angeles City Hall, a move by the USGS that Caltech's Tom Heaton credited with the September 2015 passage of a retrofitting plan that would increase seismic survivability of over 15,000 structures largely built of soft first story and non-ductile concrete.
=== COVID-19 ===
In light of her reputation as a respected and trusted authority on earthquakes, Jones has been called upon for her comments regarding other natural disasters and crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. According to Jones, in a crisis, the public is best served when they are given "one clear message" to minimize the possibility of overwhelming or confusing people. And for the COVID-19 pandemic, that message, says Jones, is "[d]on't share your air" by wearing a mask and maintaining physical distance.
=== Climate change ===
In 2022, Jones founded an initiative called "Tempo: Music for Climate Action" to encourage climate scientists, social scientists, and musicians to gather and explore climate issues.
== Selected awards ==
Jones has received the Alquist Award from the California Earthquake Safety Foundation, the Shoemaker Award for Lifetime Achievements in Science Communication from the USGS, the Samuel J. Heyman Service to America Medal from the Partnership for Public Service in 2015, and the Seismological Society of America's Frank Press Public Service Award in 2018. In 2024, Jones was one of USA Today's Women of the Year.
== Personal life ==
Jones's uncle was an American diplomat living in Taiwan, and she moved to Taiwan to live with her uncle's family. In 1971, she graduated as the salutatorian from the Taipei American School before entering Brown University. Her Chinese name is 章光月.
Jones, a fourth-generation resident of southern California, currently lives in Pasadena, California. She is married to fellow seismologist Egill Hauksson and they have two sons.
Jones is a musician and composer, who plays a Renaissance stringed instrument called the viol. She is a member of Los Angeles Baroque, which calls itself "LA's Community Baroque Orchestra." In 2019, Jones released a music video accompanying a piece she composed called In Nomine Terra Calens, which translates to "In the Name of a Warming Earth". In Nomine Terra Calens is her musical interpretation of global temperature data from 1880 to 2017, which shows an increase at what Jones calls a "terrifying" rate. In February 2019, Los Angeles Baroque performed In Nomine Terra Calens at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.
== References ==
== External links ==
"USGS Professional Pages: Lucile M. Jones". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 27 May 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
Lucy Jones speaking on the expected CA ‘Big One’ and the needed preparations, December 2013
2015 SCEC Annual Meeting Honoree: Lucy Jones – Southern California Earthquake Center
Dr. Lucy Jones Center for Science and Society
The Great ShakeOut
Science Application for Risk Reduction (SAFRR)
Southern California Seismic Network
Los Angeles Baroque |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fayaz_A._Malik | Fayaz A. Malik | Dr. Fayaz Ahmad Malik is an Indian pharmacologist, cancer biologist and a scientist at the Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. He is known for his studies on investigating the regulatory mechanisms of Cancer Stem Cells during tumor metastasis. His studies also involve the identification of signaling networks conferring resistance to current anti-cancer therapies. His discovery of new anticancer agents holds a number of patents for the processes he has developed. The Department of Biotechnology of the Government of India awarded him the National Bioscience Award for Career Development, one of the highest Indian science awards, for his contributions to Biosciences, in 2014.
The Department of Science and Technology (DST) of the Government of India awarded him the Swaranajayanti Fellowship, one of the prestigious Fellowship awards, for his advanced research in cancer biology, in 2013-14. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research felicitated him with CSIR-Young Scientist Award (CSIR-YSA) in 2009. In 2010 Government of Jammu and Kashmir also awarded him with Young Scientist Award in Biological Sciences.
== Biography ==
Fayaz Malik, after securing a master's degree in biotechnology and a PhD,. He started his career by joining the Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research where he is a senior scientist of the Cancer Research and Drug Discovery group. His major research focus remains to understand the critical regulatory biological mechanisms predisposed to the failure of current therapies, acquired resistance, and the onset of metastasis by exploring cellular catabolic machinery and regulatory networks of Cancer Stem Cells in subtypes of breast cancer. He has also developed many processes for which he holds the patents. His studies have been documented by way of a number of articles and Google Scholar, an online repository of scientific articles has listed 70 of them. Besides, he has contributed chapters to books published by others. He has also participated in various seminars and conferences to give invited speeches.
== Awards and honors ==
Malik received the Young Scientist of Year Award from the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research in 2009 and Young Scientist Awards from Jammu and Kashmir Government in 2010 The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) of the Government of India awarded him the National Bioscience Award for Career Development, one of the highest Indian science awards in 2014. Malik has been bestowed with several other international awards and fellowships in various conferences and workshops.
== Selected bibliography ==
=== Research Articles ===
Korkaya, Hasan; Kim, Gwang-il; Davis, April; Malik, Fayaz; Henry, N. Lynn; Ithimakin, Suthinee; Quraishi, Ahmed A.; Tawakkol, Nader; D'Angelo, Rosemarie; Paulson, Amanda K.; Chung, Susan; Luther, Tahra; Paholak, Hayley J.; Liu, Suling; Hassan, Khaled A.; Zen, Qin; Clouthier, Shawn G.; Wicha, Max S. (August 2012). "Activation of an IL6 Inflammatory Loop Mediates Trastuzumab Resistance in HER2+ Breast Cancer by Expanding the Cancer Stem Cell Population". Molecular Cell. 47 (4): 570–584. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2012.06.014. PMC 3432419. PMID 22819326.
Kim, G; Ouzounova, M; Quraishi, A A; Davis, A; Tawakkol, N; Clouthier, S G; Malik, F; Paulson, A K; D'Angelo, R C (17 February 2014). "SOCS3-mediated regulation of inflammatory cytokines in PTEN and p53 inactivated triple negative breast cancer model". Oncogene. 34 (6): 671–680. doi:10.1038/onc.2014.4. PMC 4285772. PMID 24531711.
Pathania, Anup S.; Guru, Santosh K.; Kumar, Suresh; Kumar, Ashok; Ahmad, Masroor; Bhushan, Shashi; Sharma, Parduman R.; Mahajan, Priya; Shah, Bhahwal A.; Sharma, Simmi; Nargotra, Amit; Vishwakarma, Ram; Korkaya, Hasan; Malik, Fayaz (29 September 2016). "Interplay between cell cycle and autophagy induced by boswellic acid analog". Scientific Reports. 6 (1) 33146. Bibcode:2016NatSR...633146P. doi:10.1038/srep33146. PMC 5041107. PMID 27680387.
Ithimakin, S.; Day, K. C.; Malik, F.; Zen, Q.; Dawsey, S. J.; Bersano-Begey, T. F.; Quraishi, A. A.; Ignatoski, K. W.; Daignault, S.; Davis, A.; Hall, C. L.; Palanisamy, N.; Heath, A. N.; Tawakkol, N.; Luther, T. K.; Clouthier, S. G.; Chadwick, W. A.; Day, M. L.; Kleer, C. G.; Thomas, D. G.; Hayes, D. F.; Korkaya, H.; Wicha, M. S. (26 February 2013). "HER2 Drives Luminal Breast Cancer Stem Cells in the Absence of HER2 Amplification: Implications for Efficacy of Adjuvant Trastuzumab". Cancer Research. 73 (5): 1635–1646. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-12-3349. PMC 3600586. PMID 23442322.
Pathania, Anup S; Wani, Zahoor A; Guru, Santosh K; Kumar, Suresh; Bhushan, Shashi; Korkaya, Hasan; Seals, Darren F; Kumar, Ajay; Mondhe, Dilip M; Ahmed, Zabeer; Chandan, Bal K; Malik, Fayaz (2015). "The anti-angiogenic and cytotoxic effects of the boswellic acid analog BA145 are potentiated by autophagy inhibitors". Molecular Cancer. 14 (1): 6. doi:10.1186/1476-4598-14-6. PMC 4509694. PMID 25608686.
Wadhwa, Bhumika; Makhdoomi, Ubaid; Vishwakarma, Ram; Malik, Fayaz (July 2017). "Protein kinase B". Anti-Cancer Drugs. 28 (6): 569–580. doi:10.1097/CAD.0000000000000496. PMID 28379898. S2CID 52887047.
Kumar, S.; Guru, S K; Pathania, A S; Kumar, A.; Bhushan, S.; Malik, F. (1 October 2013). "Autophagy triggered by magnolol derivative negatively regulates angiogenesis". Cell Death & Disease. 4 (10): e889. doi:10.1038/cddis.2013.399. PMC 3920944. PMID 24176847.
Pathania, Anup Singh; Guru, Santosh Kumar; Verma, M.K.; Sharma, Chetna; Abdullah, Sheikh Tasduq; Malik, Fayaz; Chandra, Suresh; Katoch, Meenu; Bhushan, Shashi (2013). "Disruption of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling cascade and induction of apoptosis in HL-60 cells by an essential oil from Monarda citriodora". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 62: 246–254. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2013.08.037. PMID 23994707.
Ke, Jia; Zhao, Zhiju; Hong, Su-Hyung; Bai, Shoumin; He, Zhen; Malik, Fayaz; Xu, Jiahui; Zhou, Lei; Chen, Weilong; Martin-Trevino, Rachel; Wu, Xiaojian; Lan, Ping; Yi, Yongju; Ginestier, Christophe; Ibarra, Ingrid; Shang, Li; McDermott, Sean; Luther, Tahra; Clouthier, Shawn G.; Wicha, Max S.; Liu, Suling (4 February 2015). "Role of microRNA221 in regulating normal mammary epithelial hierarchy and breast cancer stem-like cells". Oncotarget. 6 (6): 3709–21. doi:10.18632/oncotarget.2888. PMC 4414148. PMID 25686829.
Malik, Fayaz; Korkaya, Hasan; Clouthier, Shawn G.; Wicha, Max S. (12 October 2012). "Breast Cancer Heterogeneity: Need to Review Current Treatment Strategies". Current Breast Cancer Reports. 4 (4): 225–231. doi:10.1007/s12609-012-0093-5. S2CID 72596197.
Guru, Santosh Kumar; Pathania, Anup Singh; Kumar, Suresh; Ramesh, Deshidi; Kumar, Manjeet; Rana, Satiander; Kumar, Ajay; Malik, Fayaz; Sharma, P. R.; Chandan, B. K.; Jaglan, Sundeep; Sharma, J. P.; Shah, Bhahwal Ali; Tasduq, Sheikh Abdullah; Lattoo, Surrinder K.; Faruk, Abdul; Saxena, A. K.; Vishwakarma, R. A.; Bhushan, Shashi (15 July 2015). "Secalonic Acid-D Represses HIF1α/VEGF-Mediated Angiogenesis by Regulating the Akt/mTOR/p70S6K Signaling Cascade". Cancer Research. 75 (14): 2886–2896. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-14-2312. PMID 25977334.
Khajuria, Anamika; Gupta, Amit; Singh, Surjeet; Malik, Fayaz; Singh, Jaswant; Suri, K.A.; Satti, N.K.; Qazi, G.N.; Srinivas, V.K. (2007). "RLJ-NE-299A: A new plant based vaccine adjuvant". Vaccine. 25 (14): 2706–2715. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.06.036. PMID 16872726.
=== Books/Chapters ===
Malik, Fayaz; Korkaya, Hasan; Clouthier, Shawn G.; Wicha, Max S. (2015). "Regulation of Breast Cancer Stem Cells by Mesenchymal Stem Cells in the Metastatic Niche". Principles of Stem Cell Biology and Cancer. pp. 123–143. doi:10.1002/9781118670613.ch7. ISBN 978-1-118-67061-3.
Pathania, Anup S.; Makhdoomi, Ubaid S.; Malik, Fayaz A. (2017). "Genetic and Epigenetic Regulation of Autophagy in Cancer". Genome Analysis and Human Health. pp. 1–29. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-4298-0_1. ISBN 978-981-10-4297-3.
Korkaya, Hasan; Malik, Fayaz (2013). "Breast Cancer Stem Cells: Responsible for Therapeutic Resistance and Relapse?". Breast Cancer Metastasis and Drug Resistance. pp. 385–398. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-5647-6_21. ISBN 978-1-4614-5646-9.
Jaswant, Singh; Malik, Fayaz; Qazi, G. N. (2008). "Protective role of tea against cancer and infectious diseases through immune activation". In Jain, N. K.; Weisburger, John; Maqsood, Siddiqi (eds.). Economic crisis in tea industry: strategies for scientific management. Houston: Studium Press LLC. ISBN 978-1-933699-37-0.
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Malik, Fayaz (26 October 2015). "Five year journey at CSIR-IIIM". India BioScience. Retrieved 2018-05-14. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Nagel | Patrick Nagel | Patrick Nagel (November 25, 1945 – February 4, 1984) was an American artist and illustrator. He created popular illustrations on board, paper, and canvas, most of which emphasize the female form in a distinctive style, descended from Art Deco and pop art.
He produced many illustrations for Playboy magazine. His cover for the rock group Duran Duran's Rio album has been acclaimed as one of the greatest album covers of all time.
== Early life and education ==
Nagel was born in Dayton, Ohio, on November 25, 1945, but was raised and spent most of his life in the Los Angeles area. After serving in the United States Army with the 101st Airborne Division in Vietnam, Nagel attended the Chouinard Art Institute in Los Angeles in 1969, and in that same year he received his Bachelor of Fine Arts degree from California State University, Fullerton.
== Career ==
=== Illustration and design ===
In 1971, Nagel worked as a graphic designer for ABC Television, producing graphics for promotions and news broadcasts. The following year, he began work as a freelance artist for major corporations and magazines, including Architectural Digest, Harper's Magazine, IBM, ITT Corporation, MGM, Oui, Rolling Stone, United Artists, and Universal Studios.
Nagel produced album covers for recording artists such as Tommy James, Charlene, Thelma Houston and Cissy Houston.
Nagel's 1982 painting for the album cover of rock group Duran Duran's hit album Rio, designed by Malcolm Garrett, became one of his best known images. The model in Nagel's painting has been identified as Marcie Hunt, who featured in a 1981 issue of Vogue Paris. A lithograph of the album cover is part of the collection of MoMA.
He worked for many commercial clients, including Intel, Lucky Strike cigarettes, Ballantine's Whiskey, and Budweiser.
Nagel contributed to Playboy magazine between August 1975 and July 1984, with one of his paintings being published in every issue, most notably in the Playboy Advisor, Playboy Forum and Playboy After Hours columns. This helped to improve his exposure to a wider audience and encouraged the popularity of "the Nagel Woman" image. He created roughly 285 pieces of art work for Playboy during his career. In the early part of his time with Playboy he was given very specific illustration instructions, but that ended sometime between 1977 and 1978; thereafter, Nagel chose his theme and approach and submitted his work for approval before publication. In 1993, roughly nine years after Nagel's death, his widow Jennifer Dumas went into litigation with Playboy over the rights to the artwork published in the magazine. See Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v. Dumas.
=== The Nagel woman ===
In 1977, Nagel made his first poster image for Mirage Editions, with whom he printed many images, his most famous being those of "Nagel women". The "Nagel woman" was developed over time and increased in popularity after Nagel began publishing his work with Playboy in 1975. The women were drawn as "Nagel's ideal woman". His female figures tended to have black hair, and bright white skin. Nagel worked with many models, including Playboy Playmates Cathy St. George, Tracy Vaccaro and Shannon Tweed, and also painted several celebrity portraits, including those of Joan Collins and Joanna Cassidy.
Nagel's portraits were created by tracing a photograph of the subject with Nagel usually making edits to hair and clothing to better match his tastes and style. The source material for much of his work was found objects that included fashion magazine spreads and advertisements. In many cases the original model had no idea it was their image that was used. Model Marcie Hunt, whose image Nagel picked from a Vogue Paris feature, did not know she was used for the cover of Rio until forty-two years later.
There has been much discussion about the inspiration for Nagel's style; since little is known about Nagel's art background, there is no definite answer to this.
Like some of the old print masters (Toulouse-Lautrec and Bonnard, for example), Nagel was influenced by the Japanese woodblock print, with figures silhouetted against a neutral background, with strong areas of black and white, and with bold line and unusual angles of view. He handled colors with rare originality and freedom; he forced perspective from flat, two-dimensional images; and he kept simplifying, working to convey more with fewer elements. His simple and precise imagery is also reminiscent of the art-deco style of the 1920s and 1930s- its sharp linear treatment, geometric simplicity, and stylization of form yield images that are formal yet decorative.
Art historians have speculated that he may have been influenced by Japanese-style art, but there is no specific evidence for that. His mapmaking experiences in Vietnam possibly did more to steer him into high contrast imagery than anything else.
== Death and legacy ==
=== Death ===
Nagel died February 4, 1984, after participating in a 15-minute celebrity "aerobathon" to raise funds for the American Heart Association in Santa Monica. An autopsy determined his cause of death was a heart attack, and a further autopsy revealed that Nagel had a congenital heart defect that went undetected his entire life. He was survived by his wife, Jennifer Dumas, and his daughter from a previous marriage, Carole Nagel LaVigne. Against his parents' wishes and through no direction attributable to him, Patrick Nagel was cremated and his ashes scattered over the Pacific Ocean.
=== Legacy ===
Nagel's works "capture the emotional state of an era: 1980s American desire, collective materialistic aspiration, a Less than Zero state of mind", said Alex Israel, whom Duran Duran hired to create the album art for their 2015 release Paper Gods, which visually references Nagel's famous Rio cover.
The short-lived cartoon Moonbeam City starring Rob Lowe and Elizabeth Banks based all of its characters on the male and female models of Nagel’s work. Its architectural aesthetic also borrowed from Nagel’s minimalist sensibilities and applied them to the chrome and tile designs of the Memphis Group, which created the predominant deco-influenced style of the 1980s.
=== Art market ===
Nagel prints flooded the market in the 1980s. Nagel's manager, Karl Bornstein, president of Mirage Editions Inc., continued publication of Nagel's works after his death, including open edition prints and mass-market posters. In addition, in 1991, the FBI discovered and dismantled a counterfeiting ring which flooded the market with forged serigraphs. While this contributed to Nagel's cultural ubiquity—Nagel artwork was in a reported two million homes worldwide—it also served to exploit the brand and ultimately, dramatically lowered its value.
By 2019, the market showed signs of a comeback, with one of his original works from 1982 selling for $112,500 at auction, nearly doubling its estimated value, while limited-run silkscreen posters can go for several thousand dollars. Nagel has also had a resurgence in the form of collaborations with mass-market brands. In 2020, fast fashion retailer Forever 21 launched an apparel collection featuring Nagel portraits.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bradbury, Ray (1985). The Art of Playboy. New York: A. van der Marck Editions. pp. 21, 29. ISBN 9780912383194.
Frankel, Rob (2016). The Artist Who Loved Women: The Incredible Life and Work of Patrick Nagel. Los Angeles, CA: Frankel & Anderson. ISBN 9780692685921.
Millie, Elena G. (October 1985). Nagel: The Art of Patrick Nagel. St. James Press. ISBN 0-912383-11-9.
Nagel, Patrick; Millie, Elena G. (1987). Nagel: The Art of Patrick Nagel (Art book). New York: Alfred van der Marck Editions. ISBN 9780912383361.
== External links ==
Official website, with biography and selected works |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amrita_Sher-Gil#:~:text=Her%20family%20faced%20financial%20problems,began%20learning%20piano%20and%20violin. | Amrita Sher-Gil | Amrita Sher-Gil (30 January 1913 – 5 December 1941) was a Hungarian–Indian painter. She has been called "one of the greatest avant-garde women artists of the early 20th century" and a pioneer in modern Indian art. Drawn to painting from an early age, Sher-Gil started formal lessons at the age of eight. She first gained recognition at the age of 19, for her 1932 oil painting Young Girls. Sher-Gil depicted everyday life of the people in her paintings.
Sher-Gil traveled throughout her life to various countries including Turkey, France, and India, deriving heavily from precolonial Indian art styles as well as contemporary culture. Sher-Gil is considered an important painter of 20th-century India, whose legacy stands on a level with that of the pioneers from the Bengal Renaissance. She was also an avid reader and a pianist. Sher-Gil's paintings are among the most expensive by Indian women painters today, although few acknowledged her work when she was alive.
== Early life and education ==
Amrita Sher-Gil was born Dalma-Amrita on 30 January 1913, at 4 Szilágyi Dezső square, Budapest, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Her father was Umrao Singh Sher-Gil Majithia, a Punjabi Indian Jat Sikh aristocrat from the Majithia family and a scholar in Sanskrit and Persian, and her mother was Marie Antoinette Gottesman, a Hungarian-Jewish opera singer who came from an affluent bourgeois family. Her parents first met in 1912, while Marie Antoinette was visiting Lahore. Her mother came to India as a companion of Princess Bamba Sutherland, the granddaughter of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Sher-Gil was the elder of two daughters; her younger sister was Indira Sundaram (née Sher-Gil; born in March 1914), mother of the contemporary artist Vivan Sundaram. The family were obliged to remain in Budapest until after the First World War. She was the niece of Indologist Ervin Baktay. Baktay noticed Sher-Gil's artistic talents during his visit to Shimla in 1926 and was an advocate of Sher-Gil pursuing art. He guided her by critiquing her work and gave her an academic foundation to grow on. When she was a young girl she would paint the servants in her house, and get them to model for her. The memories of these models would eventually lead to her return to India.
Her family faced financial problems in Hungary. In 1921, her family moved to Summer Hill, Shimla, India, and Sher-Gil soon began learning piano and violin. By age nine she, along with her younger sister Indira, was giving concerts and acting in plays at Shimla's Gaiety Theatre at Mall Road, Shimla. Though she had already been painting since the age of five, she started studying painting formally at age eight. Sher-Gil received formal lessons in art from Major Whitmarsh, who was later replaced by Hal Bevan-Petman. In Shimla, Sher-Gil lived a relatively privileged lifestyle. As a child, she was expelled from her Catholic school Convent of Jesus and Mary for declaring herself an atheist.
In 1923, Marie came to know an Italian sculptor, who was living in Shimla at the time. In 1924, when he returned to Italy, she too moved there, along with Amrita, and got her enrolled at Santa Annunziata, an art school in Florence. Though Amrita did not stay at this school for long and returned to India in 1924, it was here that she was exposed to works of Italian masters.
At sixteen, Sher-Gil sailed to Europe with her mother to train as a painter in Paris, first at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière under Pierre Vaillent and Lucien Simon (where she met Boris Taslitzky) and later at the École des Beaux-Arts (1930–1934). She drew inspiration from European painters such as Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin and Amedeo Modigliani, while working under the influence of her teacher Lucien Simon and through the company of artist friends and lovers like Taslitzky. While in Paris, she is said to have painted with a conviction and maturity rarely seen in a 16-year old.
In 1931, Sher-Gil was briefly engaged to Yusuf Ali Khan, but rumours spread that she was also having an affair with her first cousin and later husband Viktor Egan. Her letters reveal same-sex affairs.
== 1932–1936: Early career, European and Western styles ==
Sher-Gil's early paintings display a significant influence of the Western modes of painting, more specifically, the Post-Impressionism style. She practiced a lot in the Bohemian circles of Paris in the early 1930s. Her 1932 oil painting, Young Girls, came as a breakthrough for her; the work won her accolades, including a gold medal and election as an Associate of the Grand Salon in Paris in 1933. She was the youngest ever member, and the only Asian to have received this recognition. Her work during this time include a number of self-portraits, as well as life in Paris, nude studies, still life studies, and portraits of friends and fellow students. The National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi describes the self-portraits she made while in Paris as "[capturing] the artist in her many moods – somber, pensive, and joyous – while revealing a narcissistic streak in her personality".
When she was in Paris, one of her professors said that judging by the richness of her colouring Sher-Gil was not in her element in the west, and that her artistic personality would find its true atmosphere in the east. In 1933, Sher-Gil "began to be haunted by an intense longing to return to India feeling in some strange way that there lay her destiny as a painter". She returned to India at the end of 1934. In May 1935, Sher-Gil met the English journalist Malcolm Muggeridge, then working as assistant editor and leader writer for The Calcutta Statesman. Both Muggeridge and Sher-Gil stayed at the family home at Summer Hill, Shimla and a short intense affair took place during which she painted a casual portrait of her new lover, the painting now with the National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi. By September 1935 Amrita saw Muggeridge off as he traveled back to England for new employment. She left herself for travel in 1936 at the behest of art collector and critic Karl Khandalavala, who encouraged her to pursue her passion for discovering her Indian roots. In India, she began a quest for the rediscovery of the traditions of Indian art which was to continue till her death. She was greatly impressed and influenced by the Mughal and Pahari schools of painting and the cave paintings at Ajanta.
== 1937–1941: Later career, influence of Indian art ==
Later in 1937, Sher-Gil toured South India and produced her South Indian trilogy of paintings Bride's Toilet, Brahmacharis, and South Indian Villagers Going to Market following her visit to the Ajanta Caves, when she made a conscious attempt to return to classical Indian art. These paintings reveal her passionate sense of colour and empathy for her Indian subjects, who are often depicted in their poverty and despair. By now the transformation in her work was complete and she had found her 'artistic mission' which was, according to her, to express the life of Indian people through her canvas. While in Saraya, Sher-Gil wrote to a friend: "I can only paint in India. Europe belongs to Picasso, Matisse, Braque.... India belongs only to me." Her stay in India marks the beginning of a new phase in her artistic development, one that was distinct from the European phase of the interwar years when her work showed an engagement with the works of Hungarian painters, especially the Nagybánya school of painting.
Sher-Gil married her Hungarian first cousin, Viktor Egan when she was 25. He had helped Sher-Gil obtain abortions on at least two occasions prior to their marriage. She moved with him to India to stay at her paternal family's home in Saraya, Sardar nagar, Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh. Thus began her second phase of painting, whose impact on Indian art rivals that of Rabindranath Tagore and Jamini Roy of the Bengal school of art. The 'Calcutta Group' of artists, which transformed the Indian art scene, was to start only in 1943, and the 'Progressive Artist's Group', with Francis Newton Souza, Ara, Bakre, Gade, M. F. Husain and S. H. Raza among its founders, lay further ahead in 1948. Sher-Gil's art was strongly influenced by the paintings of the two Tagores, Rabindranath and Abanindranath who were pioneers of the Bengal School of painting. Her portraits of women resemble works by Rabindranath while the use of 'chiaroscuro' and bright colours reflect the influence of Abanindranath.
During her stay at Saraya, Sher-Gil painted the Village Scene, In the Ladies' Enclosure, and Siesta, all of which portray the leisurely rhythms of life in rural India. Siesta and In the Ladies' Enclosure reflect her experimentation with the miniature school of painting while Village Scene reflects influences of the Pahari school of painting. Although acclaimed by art critics Karl Khandalavala in Bombay and Charles Fabri in Lahore as the greatest painter of the century, Sher-Gil's paintings found few buyers. She travelled across India with her paintings but the Nawab Salar Jung of Hyderabad returned them and the Maharaja of Mysore chose Raja Ravi Varma's paintings over hers.
Although from a family that was closely tied to the British Raj, Sher-Gil was a Congress sympathiser. She was attracted to the poor, distressed and the deprived and her paintings of Indian villagers and women are a meditative reflection of their condition. She was also attracted by Gandhi's philosophy and lifestyle. Nehru was charmed by her beauty and talent and when he went to Gorakhpur in October 1940, he visited her at Saraya. Her paintings were at one stage even considered for use in the Congress propaganda for village reconstruction. Despite befriending Nehru, she never drew his portrait, supposedly because she thought he was "too good looking". Nehru attended her exhibition held in New Delhi in February 1937. Sher-Gil exchanged letters with Nehru for a time, but those letters were burned by her parents when she was away getting married in Budapest.
In September 1941, Egan and Sher-Gil moved to Lahore, then in undivided India and a major cultural and artistic centre. She lived and painted at 23 Ganga Ram Mansions, The Mall, Lahore where her studio was on the top floor of the townhouse she inhabited. Sher-Gil was known for her many affairs with both men and women, and she also painted many of the latter. Her work Two Women is thought to be a painting of herself and her lover Marie Louise. Some of her later works include Tahitian (1937), Red Brick House (1938), Hill Scene (1938), and The Bride (1940) among others. Her last work was left unfinished just prior to her death in December 1941.
== Illness and death ==
In 1941, at age 28, just days before the opening of her first major solo show in Lahore, Sher-Gil became seriously ill and slipped into a coma. She later died around midnight on 5 December 1941, leaving behind a large volume of work. The reason for her death has never been ascertained. A failed abortion and subsequent peritonitis have been suggested as possible causes for her death. Her mother accused her doctor husband Egan of having murdered her. The day after her death, Britain declared war on Hungary and Egan was interned as an enemy alien. Sher-Gil was cremated on 7 December 1941 in Lahore.
== Artistic and cultural legacies ==
Sher-Gil's art has influenced generations of Indian artists from Sayed Haider Raza to Arpita Singh and her depiction of the plight of women has made her art a beacon for women at large both in India and abroad. The Government of India has declared her works as National Art Treasures, and most of them are housed in the National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi. Some of her paintings also hang at the Lahore Museum. A postage stamp depicting her painting Hill Women was released in 1978 by India Post, and the Amrita Shergil Marg is a road in Lutyens' Delhi named after her. Sher-Gil was able to prove to western societies that Indians were able to make fine art. Her work is deemed to be so important to Indian culture that when it is sold in India, the Indian government has stipulated that the art must stay in the country – fewer than ten of her works have been sold globally. In 2006, her painting Village Scene sold for ₹6.9 crores at an auction in New Delhi which was at the time the highest amount ever paid for a painting in India.
The Indian cultural centre in Budapest is named the Amrita Sher-Gil Cultural Centre. Contemporary artists in India have recreated and reinterpreted her works.
Amrita Sher-Gil (1969) is a documentary film about the artist, directed by Bhagwan Das Garga and produced by the Government of India's Films Division. It won the National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Film.
Besides remaining an inspiration to many a contemporary Indian artists, in 1993, she also became the inspiration behind the Urdu play Tumhari Amrita.
UNESCO announced 2013, the 100th anniversary of Sher-Gil's birth, to be the international year of Amrita Sher-Gil.
Sher-Gil's work is a key theme in the contemporary Indian novel Faking It by Amrita Chowdhury.
Aurora Zogoiby, a character in Salman Rushdie's 1995 novel The Moor's Last Sigh, was inspired by Sher-Gil.
Claire Kohda refers repeatedly to Amrita Sher-Gil and to her painting the Three Girls in her 2022 novel Woman, Eating, which features a British main character of mixed Malaysian and Japanese origin. Struggling with alienation and with living between worlds as the vampire offspring of a vampire mother and human father, the protagonist, Lydia, identifies with the Three Girls and speculates that they were vampires: "I'm pretty sure that all of Sher-Gil's subjects were vampires and that maybe she was one, too..."
Sher-Gil was sometimes known as India's Frida Kahlo because of the "revolutionary" way she blended Western and traditional art forms.
On 30 January 2016, Google celebrated her 103rd birthday with a Google Doodle. In 2018, The New York Times published a belated obituary for her. That year, at a Sotheby's auction in Mumbai, her painting The Little Girl in Blue was sold at auction for a record-breaking 18.69 crores. It is a portrait of her cousin Babit, a resident of Shimla and was painted in 1934, when the subject was eight years old.
In 2021, Sher-Gil's painting Portrait of Denyse was put up for auction by Christie's with an estimated value to be between $1.8-2.8 million. The 1932 portrait features Denyse Proutaux, a Parisian art critic, whom Sher-Gil met in 1931. Proutaux was featured in other Sher-Gil paintings, including Young Girls and Denise Proutaux, which were both included in the exhibition "Amrita Shergil: The Passionate Quest" at the National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi.
On 18 September 2023, Sher-Gil's 1937 painting The Story Teller fetched $7.4 million (Rs 61.8 crore) at a recent auction, setting a record for the highest price achieved by an Indian artist. SaffronArt, the auction house, organised the sale on Saturday night. This came just 10 days after modernist Syed Haider Raza's painting, Gestation, fetched ₹ 51.7 crore at Pundole auction house. In a page dedicated to the artwork, SaffronArt said the legendary artist sought to explore the realm of domestic life in The Story Teller.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
List of paintings by Amrita Sher-Gil
Amrita Sher-Gil's paintings at Lahore (1937)
== Explanatory notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Dalmia, Yashodhara (2013). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Life. Gurugram: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-342026-2.
Sundaram, Vivan (2010). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Self-Portrait in Letters and Writings. Vol. 1. New Delhi: Tulika Books. pp. 1–417. ISBN 978-81-89487-59-1.
Sundaram, Vivan (2010). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Self-Portrait in Letters and Writings. Vol. 2. New Delhi: Tulika Books. pp. 418–821. ISBN 978-81-89487-59-1.
== Further reading ==
Ananth, Deepak (2007). Amrita Sher-Gil: An Indian Artist Family of the Twentieth Century. Munich: Schirmer/Mosel. ISBN 978-3-8296-0270-9. OCLC 166903259.
Dalmia, Yashodhara (2013) [2006]. Amrita Sher-Gil: A Life. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-81-8475-921-1. OCLC 973928579 – via OverDrive.
Doctor, Geeta (2002). Amrita Sher Gil: A Painted Life. New Delhi: Rupa & Co. ISBN 978-81-7167-688-0. OCLC 50728719.
Khandalavala, Karl J. (1945). Amrita Sher-Gil. Bombay: New Book Co. OCLC 2605226.
Gupta, Indra (2004) [2003]. India's 50 Most Illustrious Women (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Icon Publications. ISBN 978-81-88086-19-1. OCLC 858639936.
JRF, Dileep (22 November 2019). "अमृता शेरगिल 1913-1941" [Amrita Shergill 1913-1941] (in Hindi). History of Fine Art. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
NGMA. "Virtual Galleries - Amrita Sher-Gil". New Delhi: National Gallery of Modern Art. Retrieved 13 April 2022.
Sharma, Mahima (15 March 2022). "Amrita Sher Gil: A Bisexual Artist Who Even Spellbound Nehru". Simplykalaa Homepage.
Kapur, Geeta (2020) [2000]. When was Modernism: Essays on Contemporary Cultural Practice in India. New Delhi, India: Tulika Books. ISBN 978-81-89487-24-9. OCLC 1129791065.
Nandan, Kanhaiyalal; Shergil, Amrita (1987). Amrita Shergil (in Hindi). Delhi: Parag. OCLC 59068198.
Rahman, Maseeh (6 October 2014). "In the shadow of death". The Arts. India Today. 39 (40): 68–69.
Salim, Ahmad (1987). Amrita Sher-Gil: a personal view. Karachi: Istaʹarah Publications. OCLC 21297600.
Śarmā, Vishwamitra (2008). "Amirita Shergil, Maestro of Modern Art (1913–1941)". Famous Indians of the 20th Century. New Delhi: Pustak Mahal. pp. 153–154. ISBN 978-81-920796-8-4. OCLC 800734508 – via Internet Archive.
Sen, Geeti (2002). "Chapter II: Woman Resting on a Charpoy". Feminine Fables: Imaging the Indian Woman in Painting, Photography and Cinema. Ahmedabad & Middletown, NJ: Mapin Pub. Grantha Corp. pp. 10, 14–16, 61–100, 136. ISBN 978-81-85822-88-4. OCLC 988874350 – via Internet Archive.
Sher-Gil, Amrita (1943). The art of Amrita Sher-Gil (ten coloured plates). Roerich Centre of Art and Culture. Allahabad: Allahabad Block Works. OCLC 699310.
Sher-Gil, Amrita; Appasamy, Jaya; Dhingra, Baldoon (1965). Sher-Gil. New Delhi: Lalit Kala Akademi. OCLC 837971308.
Singh, Narayan Iqbal (1984). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Biography. New Delhi: Vikas. ISBN 978-0-7069-2474-9. OCLC 12810037.
Sundaram, Vivan (1972). Amrita Sher-Gil; essays. Bombay: Marg Publications; sole distributors: India Book Centre, New Delhi. OCLC 643542124.
Sundaram, Vivan; Sher-Gil, Umrao Singh (2001). Re-Take of Amrita : Digital Photomontages Based on Photographs by Umrao Singh Sher-Gil (1870-1954) and Photographs from the Sher-Gil Family Archive. New Delhi: Tulika. ISBN 978-81-85229-49-2. OCLC 50004509.
Wojtilla, Gyula; Sher-Gil, Amrita (1981). Amrita Sher-Gil and Hungary. New Delhi: Allied Publishers. OCLC 793843789.
== External links ==
Media related to Amrita Sher-Gil at Wikimedia Commons
Quotations related to Amrita Sher-Gil at Wikiquote |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehta_Basti_Ram | Mehta Basti Ram | Mehta Basti Ram was a Dogra officer and commander of the Fateh Shibji battalion under Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu (later Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir). Basti Ram later served as the governor (thanadar) of Leh in Ladakh between 1847 and 1861. Basti Ram joined the service of Raja Gulab Singh in 1821 and became an officer under General Zorawar Singh during his conquest of Ladakh between 1834 and 1841. After holding positions such as the governor of Taklakot (briefly) and thanadar of Zanskar, he became the second governor of Leh under Maharaja Gulab Singh.
== Life ==
In 1821, when Gulab Singh, the Raja of Jammu under the Sikh Empire, conquered Kishtwar, Basti Ram joined his service and was soon under General Zorawar Singh. At a rank of Colonel, he led Zorawar Singh's Jangi Fauj, later reorganised and renamed as the Fateh Shibji force from 1834 to 1841. Fateh Shibji went on to become the 4th Battalion of the Jammu and Kashmir Rifles Regiment (it retains the historic name Fateh Shibji). Major General G. D. Bakshi wrote in 2002 that Basti Ram was a "tactician par excellence" and that he "should be a role model for Indian battalion commanders".
=== Dogra conquest of Ladakh ===
Basti Ram was one of the main officers of Zorawar's force and played a crucial role at multiple locations in the conquest of Ladakh which started in 1834. He led an attack that resulted in the capture of the Fort of Sod/Soth (in Kargil) and subsequently the Gyalpo. The assault included crossing the Indus River on inflated goatskins. During the conquest of Baltistan, which started during the end of 1840, he found a way to cross a river that had caused Zorawar's army to halt for over a month in the cold and snow. For this innovation, Zorawar Singh gifted Basti Ram Rs. 500 and a pair of gold bangles. Basti Ram was also present during the capture of Skardu.
After Zorawar Singh's forces captured Western Tibet, Basti Ram was appointed the governor of Taklakot (Burang). Soon afterwards, the Tibetans launched a counterattack during winter. Zorawar Singh was killed on 12 December 1941 and his army was defeated. The men stationed at Taklakot fled to the British province of Kumaon. Basti Ram escaped to Almora where the British commissioner gave him shelter. By the autumn of 1846, Basti Ram was appointed the thanadar of Zanskar and "one of the confidential servants of Maharaja Gulab Sing.
Basti Ram provided one of the earliest written accounts of the Dogra conquest of Ladakh and beyond, twelve years after the events. While the original version was lost, Alexander Cunningham had re-written Basti Ram's account based on a dictation by Basti Ram himself. August Hermann Francke notes that Basti Ram may have exaggerated the enemy numbers at certain locations.
=== Governor of Leh ===
Basti Ram was appointed the thanadar of Leh between 1847 and 1861. At the time there were four thanadars for Ladakh, in Zanskar, Kargil, Dras and Nubra. All the thanadars had military and civil authority in their districts and were accountable directly to the Maharaja. Alexander Cunningham estimated that Basti Ram's income would have been a "respectable" Rs.18,000 annually, (roughly £1,800 a year). Lieutenant Colonel Henry Torrens, who passed through Ladakh in 1862, noted that Basti Ram had retired to his home in Kishtawar on account of old age, and a successor had not yet been appointed by the Maharaja". Instead, Torrens met the Kahlon of Leh, the "nominal governor", who got little respect from the Sikhs [Dogras].
== Family ==
Basti Ram was born in the Mehta family from Kishtwar. His grandfather had been in charge of military affairs under the last Kishtwar ruler Mohammad Teg Singh. Basti Ram's son Mehta Mangal succeeded him as Governor of Ladakh.
Basti Ram's great-granddaughter was Krishna Mehta, who went on to become the first woman member of parliament from Jammu and Kashmir. Krishna Mehta had been married to Duni Chand Mehta who was appointed as the wazir-e-wazarat of Muzaffarabad. In October 1947, Duni Chand was killed by Pashtun tribal militias, and Krishna Mehta was taken prisoner and eventually repatriated by Pakistan. Krishna Mehta's brother Om Mehta served as a Minister of State for Home Affairs in Indira Gandhi's government in 1976. Another younger brother Ved Mehta was at one time the president of Chamber of Commerce and Industry Jammu.
== References ==
Notes
CitationsBibliography
Francke, August Hermann (1926). "Basti Ram's account of Dogra War and Cunningham's 'other information'". In Thomas, Frederick William (ed.). Antiquities of Indian Tibet. Vol. 2: The Chronicles of Ladakh and Minor Chronicles. New Delhi: S. Chand & Co. (published 1972). ISBN 9788120607699 – via archive.org. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Bakshi, G. D. (2002). "9—Colonel Basti Ram: Tactician Par Excellence". Footprints in the Snow: On the Trail of Zorawar Singh. New Delhi: Lancer Publishers. ISBN 9788170622925.
Torrens, Lieut–Colonel Henry D. (1862). Travels in Ladakh, Tartary, and Kashmir. London: Saunders, Otley's, and Co.
Neve, Arthur (1913). Thirty Years in Kashmir. London: Edward Arnold.
Cunningham, Alexander (1854). Ladak, Physical, Statistical, and Historical; with notices of the surrounding countries. London: W. H. Allen & Co.
== Further reading ==
Charak, Sukhdev Singh (1978). Indian Conquest of the Himalayan Territories: Military Exploits of General Zorawar Singh Dogra. Jammu: Ajaya Prakashan.
Charak, Sukhdev Singh (2016). General Zorawar Singh Dogra. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India. ISBN 9788123026480.
Prasad, Shankar (2005). The Gallant Dogras: An Illustrated History of the Dogra Regiment. Dogra Regimental Centre. New Delhi: Lancer Publishers. ISBN 9788170622680.
Kaul, Shridhar; Kaul, H. N. (1992). Ladakh Through the Ages, Towards a New Identity (3 ed.). New Delhi: Indus Publishing. ISBN 9788185182759.
Kaul, H. N. (1998). Rediscovery of Ladakh. New Delhi: Indus Publishing. ISBN 9788173870866. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Brother_(American_TV_series) | Big Brother (American TV series) | Big Brother is an American reality competition television show based on the Dutch show of the same name created by producer John de Mol Jr. and Ron Diesel in 1997. The American series launched on July 5, 2000, on CBS and since the discontinuation of the Spanish version in 2022, is the longest-running adaptation in the Big Brother franchise.
The show broadly follows the premise of other versions, in which a group of contestants, known as "houseguests", live together in a specially constructed house that is isolated from the outside world and compete for a cash prize of $750,000 ($500,000 prior to season 23). The houseguests are continuously monitored during their stay by live television cameras as well as personal audio microphones. Throughout the course of the competition, houseguests are "Evicted" from the House, eliminating them from the game.
In its inaugural season (which followed the original Dutch format in which audience voting determined evictees and the eventual winner), ratings declined, and critical reaction grew increasingly negative, prompting the series to be revamped for the second season, which focused on competition and gameplay.
The show's twenty-seventh season premiered on July 10, 2025, serving as the show's 25-year anniversary season.
== Format ==
Big Brother is a reality game show in which a group of contestants, known as houseguests, live in a custom-built residence—the Big Brother House— under constant video surveillance. While the exact duration varies by season, seasons last approximately three months. Houseguests are isolated from the outside world, with no contact allowed except for medical emergencies or family crises. The show is often regarded as a social experiment, requiring contestants to navigate relationships and conflicts with people from diverse backgrounds, beliefs, and values.
=== Season 1 ===
The first season mirrored the original Dutch version, focusing on the social experiment aspect with minimal competition. Houseguests did not compete for power or safety, and the nomination process was not discussed among them. The season received mixed reviews.
==== Challenges ====
Challenges were divided into "food," "tasks," and "live challenges". For most of the food challenges, each houseguest was required to wager a certain percentage of their allowance, up to 50%, to complete a certain objective. One competition was the "luxury challenge", where the winner received a golden ticket to the Primetime Emmy Awards.
==== Banishment ====
Every two weeks, houseguests secretly nominated two others for eviction in the "Red Room". The two houseguests with the most nomination votes were then "Marked for Banishment". In the event of a tie, three or more houseguests with the most nomination votes became nominated for eviction. The public voted to remove one of the nominated houseguests. This process later switched to a weekly nomination system. The banished houseguest then had to immediately gather their belongings and walk out the front door.
==== Final vote ====
When three houseguests remained, the public vote decided the winner, who received $500,000, while the runners-up got $100,000 (2nd place) and $50,000 (3rd place).
=== Season 2–present ===
After spending millions on the series, CBS announced a second season with major format changes, shifting the focus to competition and strategy, similar to Survivor.
The key change was that houseguests, not the public, decide who to remove (evict) from the game. In the new format, houseguests also compete for safety and power. The game continues in this format until its final day, in which a panel of evicted houseguests vote for the winner among two finalists. The winner receives $750,000 ($500,000 prior to season 23) while the runner-up receives $75,000 ($50,000 prior to season 23).
==== Head of Household ====
The Head of Household (HOH) competition, introduced in season 2, is held at the beginning of each week. The winner of the competition receives immunity from eviction and has the power to nominate two houseguests for eviction. They also receive other special privileges, including their own bedroom. The incumbent HOH is not allowed to compete in the following week's competition. Most competitions are either quiz-based, endurance-based, or skill-based. Some competitions are finished during the live eviction broadcast.
Since season 26, the HOH has nominated three houseguests for eviction rather than two; the three nominees then compete in a Big Brother Block Buster challenge whose winner is saved from eviction.
==== Power of Veto ====
The Power of Veto (POV) competition, introduced in season 3, takes place after the HOH competition. Six houseguests compete in the POV competition: the HOH, two nominees, and three other houseguests. Before the start of each POV competition, the HOH and the two eviction nominees select three additional houseguests for the competition.
The winner of the POV competition has the power to either save one nominee from risk of eviction, or leave the HOH's original nominations intact. The veto meeting is the formal setting in which the winning POV holder announces their decision.
During season 3, the power was known as the Silver Power of Veto and did not allow a nominated houseguest to use the veto on themselves. The final Power of Veto that season was the Golden Power of Veto, allowing a nominated houseguest to remove themselves from the nomination block. Beginning in season 4, the Golden Power of Veto was made a permanent component of the game.
==== Eviction ====
At the end of the week, all houseguests (except the HOH and the nominees) cast a vote for eviction. Broadcast live, houseguests enter the diary room one-by-one and privately cast their votes. Prior to season 10, houseguests' eviction votes were prerecorded, with the voting switching to a live phase about halfway through the game. The houseguest receiving a majority of the votes is evicted from the house. In the event of a tie, the HOH casts the deciding vote.
A notable variant, called "double eviction", has been done in two forms. The first, dubbed Fast Forward Week, had week-long events occur in an accelerated format, with two houseguests evicted over the course of a week. The second, "Double Eviction Night", introduced in season 7, had the events of a traditional week occur over the course of a single live eviction episode. This event became a staple of the show. Season 22 introduced the Triple Eviction Night, with three houseguests being evicted in a similar manner. Season 27 revealed once an eviction vote is cast, it is official and cannot be rescinded.
Another variant is Eviction Competition, as seen in seasons 14 and 18, in which houseguests compete in a series of competitions for survival in the house, and the houseguest who finished last may face automatic eviction.
==== Final three ====
The standard nomination process continues until there are three houseguests left. At this point, houseguests participate in the season's final HOH competition, which is divided into three rounds: the first is endurance-based, the second is skill-based, and the final is quiz-based. The winner of the first round automatically qualifies for final round, while the remaining houseguests compete in round two. The winner of round three casts the final eviction vote, choosing who to stand against for the jury's vote.
==== Other competitions ====
The food and luxury competitions, which have been a staple of the show since the beginning, have also been adjusted to reflect the current game's format. Houseguests may compete in luxury competitions, with prizes including the opportunity to watch a film or a small cash prize.
==== Have-nots ====
In the early seasons, the losers of a "have-not competition" would not be permitted to eat any food except peanut butter and jelly sandwiches. Beginning in season 7, the losers were instead required to eat "slop", sleep in an uncomfortable have-not room, and take cold showers. Since season 22, later weeks forego have-not competitions. Instead, either the current HOH or the previous have-not recipients decide the week's have-nots. Houseguests may be penalized for not following have-not rules, usually with a penalty vote for eviction, or in some cases, an additional day of have-not status.
==== Jury ====
===== Seasons 2 and 3 =====
In seasons 2 and 3, all evicted houseguests were part of the jury. Before the final vote, each evicted houseguest asked one question to the final two contestants, who could hear but not see the jury. The finalists then had the opportunity to make a final statement before the vote. Each evicted houseguest voted for the winner by choosing a gold key labeled with the chosen finalist's name. They placed their key into one of twelve slots on the voting box. After reuniting with the final two contestants in the house, the evictees revealed their choices, one by one. The houseguest with the most votes was declared the winner of Big Brother.
===== Season 4–present =====
Beginning in season 4, evicted houseguests were known as jurors. Jurors live in the sequestered "jury house", and are shown group events and competitions. Jurors are not shown contestant interviews or any other footage that may include strategy or details regarding nominations.
Prior to the finale, the jury is asked to agree on three questions for each of the final two houseguests. At the studio on finale night, the jurors question the finalists. After the questioning is complete, each of the two finalists make a final speech. Then, in order of eviction, each of the jurors secretly selects the key of the houseguest that they want to win. The host then pulls out the keys from the box, revealing whom each juror chose. The houseguest receiving the majority of votes is then declared the winner of Big Brother.
==== America's Favorite Houseguest ====
Beginning in season 7, viewers have voted to determine the recipient of the "America's Favorite Houseguest". The winner receives a cash prize of $50,000 ($25,000 prior to season 23); the results are announced during the season finale.
== History ==
The series was bought by CBS in early 2000 for an estimated $20 million. It officially premiered on July 5, 2000, with ten houseguests entering the house. The series takes its name from the character in George Orwell's 1949 novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. Since 2001, as a result of a lawsuit settlement, Big Brother displays the following disclaimer in the end credits: "This program is not associated or affiliated with the Estate of George Orwell and is not based on the novel '1984'."
Since its inception, the show has been hosted by Julie Chen Moonves. It is produced by Allison Grodner and Rich Meehan for Fly on the Wall Entertainment and Endemol Shine North America (formerly Endemol USA). The series airs once a year, during the summer, except for the ninth season, which aired in the spring of 2008.
Throughout its run, Big Brother has been criticized following reports of "HIB" (Harassment, Intimidation and Bullying), violence in the house, obscene language, breach of integrity, and the physical and mental strain of appearing on the series. Several seasons have also been criticized for racism and discrimination, most notably season 15 and season 21.
On September 9, 2018, Chen's husband, Les Moonves, resigned as President of CBS after a second wave of reports of sexual misconduct allegations against him. On September 13, Chen closed out that evening's episode by saying, "From outside the Big Brother house with Brett, I'm Julie Chen Moonves. Good night." As Chen had previously never used Moonves professionally, many saw the move as Chen standing in solidarity with her husband. Following her resignation from The Talk on September 18 after eight years as co-host, there was speculation on whether Chen would continue as host of Big Brother. Chen did return to host the following year, and has become increasingly spiritual and religious on and off the program in the wake of such revelations.
Beginning with the 2021–2022 broadcast season, CBS mandated that its reality shows' casts were at least 50% BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, and people of color).
Big Brother was nominated for Best Competition Show at the 2023 MTV Movie & TV Awards.
== Series overview ==
== Broadcast ==
Since its launch in the United States, Big Brother has aired on CBS. The show is simulcast in Canada on Global. Seasons 4 and 9 aired in the United Kingdom.
The first season featured six episodes per week, though all future installments would air three nights per week. Of these three episodes, the weekly eviction episode is the only one that is live, and the only to feature host Julie Chen Moonves. This show generally airs on Thursdays. The series typically airs once per year during the summer; season 9 aired during the spring.
Big Brother was the last prime-time show to transition to high-definition television: the first 15 seasons aired in standard definition, with season 16 being the first to be produced in HDTV. The live feeds were not broadcast in HD until season 17.
Seasons 3 and 4 were released on DVD. Beginning with season 7, seasons are available for purchase on digital retail sites. With season 15, TVGN (now Pop) began airing reruns of the series, making it the first season to be aired following its premiere; this continued with the 16th season. All seasons of Big Brother are available on Paramount+ (formerly CBS All Access).
=== Live feeds ===
A major aspect of Big Brother is the live feeds, in which viewers can view the contestants inside the house. Feeds are shut off during the weekly nomination ceremony, Power of Veto ceremony, competitions, and evictions for that week; this is to provide suspense for the series. Slanderous statements and singing of copyrighted music may be blocked for legal reasons.
During the first season, access to live feeds was free, hosted by AOL on the show's official site. Beginning with the second season, a paid subscription has been required to access the live feeds. From season 2–14, live feeds were available through RealNetworks either as a subscription or as a free addition for Gold members. Since 2016, the live feeds have aired on CBS All Access (known as Paramount+ since March 2021). In 2023, the live feeds launched on Pluto TV with commercials, marking the first time they have been offered for free since the first season.
== Companion shows ==
From 2004 to 2008, Big Brother aired the companion web series House Calls: The Big Brother Talk Show. The series, which lasted for thirty minutes and aired on weeknights, allowed fans to call in and discuss the events of the game. House Calls was the first live internet talk show produced exclusively for a television network. During its first two seasons, House Calls was hosted by Gretchen Massey and season 3 houseguest Marcellas Reynolds. Beginning with the show's third season, different co-hosts were featured on the series each day. During the fifth and sixth seasons, each co-host was given a designated day of the week to host alongside Gretchen. Following sixth season of House Calls, it was confirmed that the show would not be renewed.
Big Brother: After Dark debuted in 2007, airing nightly on Showtime 2 from 12:00 a.m.–3:00 a.m. ET. In 2013, it was moved to TVGN (now Pop), where it remained until 2019. Former houseguest Jeff Schroeder began hosting the Big Brother: Live Chat online discussion show in 2012, where he interviewed houseguests both before they entered the house and following their evictions. He also performed post-finale backyard interviews with the cast. On August 10, 2017, Schroeder announced that he was moving to Colorado and would no longer be able to do the interviews.
For season 20, the Live Chat was replaced by Off the Block with Ross and Marissa. Hosted by former Celebrity Big Brother houseguests Marissa Jaret Winokur and Ross Mathews, the show aired on Fridays on Facebook following the live eviction.
For season 27, CBS announced Big Brother: Unlocked. Airing bi-weekly on CBS, Unlocked is hosted by former Big Brother winners Taylor Hale and Derrick Levasseur along with a rotating guest. The show features gameplay analysis by the hosts as well as additional footage not included on the regular Big Brother broadcast.
== Spin-offs ==
There have been three spin-offs of Big Brother. In October 2016, CBS premiered Big Brother: Over the Top, as an original series for CBS All Access. Unlike the flagship television version, it was broadcast exclusively online (over-the-top) with a shorter, ten-week season.
The second spin-off, Celebrity Big Brother, aired its first season on CBS on February 7, 2018. Its second season aired in 2019, and its third season aired in 2022.
Big Brother Reindeer Games, a holiday-themed spin-off, aired in December 2023. It had six episodes, broadcast over two weeks. The season, featuring nine returning players, was entirely pre-taped and did not have live feeds. Julie Chen Moonves did not host Reindeer Games.
== See also ==
List of Big Brother (American TV series) houseguests
The Glass House
Opposite Worlds
Love Island
The Truman Show
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Big Brother's Canadian Website at GlobalTV.com
Big Brother at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granite_State_(Breaking_Bad) | Granite State (Breaking Bad) | "Granite State" is the fifteenth and the penultimate episode of the fifth season of the American television crime drama series Breaking Bad. Directed and written by executive producer Peter Gould, it aired on AMC in the United States and Canada on September 22, 2013. The episode's plot serves as a continuation of the previous episode, "Ozymandias", and mainly follows Walter White (Bryan Cranston) as he evades arrest by fleeing to New Hampshire.
The episode was the second one that Gould directed after "Problem Dog" in the show's fourth season. While writing the episode, the team was troubled on how to continue the story of the series, primarily the character progression of Walt. They ultimately decided to have Walt slowly become depressed throughout the course of the episode. The scenes set in New Hampshire were filmed in Crawford Notch. "Granite State" also marked the show's final appearance of character Saul Goodman (Bob Odenkirk) before the premiere of Better Call Saul later in 2015.
"Granite State" received positive reviews from critics, who mainly focused on the storytelling and the phone-call scene between Walter White and his son. It was watched by over 6.4 million viewers, setting a new record for the show. It was nominated for several awards, with Robert Forster's guest performance earning him the Saturn Award for Best Guest Starring Role on Television.
== Plot ==
Saul Goodman and Walter White wait at Ed Galbraith's shop while Ed obtains them new identities. Wanting revenge on Jack Welker, Walt attempts to coerce Saul into coming with him but is subdued by a coughing fit. No longer intimidated, Saul leaves for his new life in Nebraska.
Jack's gang raids Marie Schrader's house and finds Jesse Pinkman's confession tape. While Jack wants to kill Jesse for informing, Todd Alquist wants Jesse to cook meth so Todd can impress Lydia Rodarte-Quayle, with whom he has become infatuated. Knowing Skyler once met Lydia, Todd and other gang members break into her house and threaten her to keep quiet. Lydia is not convinced Skyler will stay silent, and aims to end their meth operation, but reconsiders after Todd informs her the meth the gang produces is now at 92% purity because of Jesse. Jesse tries to escape, but is recaptured and forced to watch Todd murder Andrea Cantillo. Jack threatens to murder Andrea's son Brock if Jesse attempts another escape.
Ed takes Walt to a secluded cabin in New Hampshire and says he will visit monthly to bring food and supplies. He cautions that Walt risks capture if he leaves the cabin. Months later, a disheveled, lonely Walt has a long beard and full head of hair. Ed tells Walt that Skyler is using her maiden name and working part-time as a taxi dispatcher. As the nationwide manhunt for Walt continues, his abandoned house has become a tourist attraction.
Walt packs $100,000 into a box and walks into town. He stops at the local bar and pays a barmaid to call Walter White Jr.'s school pretending to be Marie. Walt tries reconciling with Walter Jr., who has reverted to using the name Flynn, and says he will mail money to Flynn's friend Louis for Flynn to give Skyler. Continuing to blame him for Hank Schrader's death, an enraged Flynn wishes Walt dead and ends the call. A dejected Walt calls the DEA to surrender, leaving the phone off the hook so they can trace his location. While waiting, Walt sees television host Charlie Rose interviewing Gretchen and Elliott Schwartz, who trivialize his involvement with Gray Matter Technologies. Now roused to anger, Walt flees before the police arrive.
== Production ==
"Granite State" aired on AMC in the United States and Canada on September 22, 2013. It was written and directed by executive producer Peter Gould. It was the second episode that Gould directed, after "Problem Dog", an episode of the fourth season. The episode title refers to the nickname of New Hampshire, which is where Walt is relocated upon being given a new identity.
The writing team faced difficulties during the production of "Granite State", primarily on how to continue the character progression of Walter White. After the death of character Hank Schrader in the previous episode, the team was unsure whether Walt would become depressed, or if he would have a different reaction. They ultimately decided that the episode would be the former, with Gould describing it as Walt "hitting bottom". The episode's reposing tone was an intentional contrast from the previous episode, "Ozymandias". An example of a scene that demonstrated this was where Walt attempts to "conjure up the spirit of Heisenberg" by attempting to intimidate Saul and formulate a plan on how to succeed, but Saul instead simply tells him that "it's over".The portions of the episode in New Hampshire were filmed in Crawford Notch, while the filming of Walt's cabin was done in the Sandia Mountains, a mountain range in New Mexico. During filming, parts of the phone call between Walt and his son needed to be redone after an airplane ran over the film. The episode, alongside the following episode "Felina", were given extended run-times compared to the rest of the series.
"Granite State" marked the final appearance of Saul Goodman (played by Bob Odenkirk) as he flees to Nebraska. Odenkirk returned as Saul in Better Call Saul, the spin-off prequel to Breaking Bad. In "Granite State", Saul tells Walt, "if I'm lucky, a month from now, best-case scenario, I'm managing a Cinnabon in Omaha." Gould said this was simply a throwaway line as Better Call Saul had not yet been conceptualized, but once that series was greenlit, it was decided to show in the flash-forward of the series premiere that Saul had indeed become a Cinnabon manager in Omaha, Nebraska. Scenes that take place during the events of "Granite State" are featured in the Better Call Saul episodes "Quite a Ride", "Wine and Roses", and "Saul Gone".
== Reception ==
"Granite State" was generally well received by critics. It was watched by nearly 6.6 million viewers on its original broadcast, which was an increase from the 6.4 million viewers of "Ozymandias", and a record high for the series. It is the seventh highest rated episode of Breaking Bad on IMDb, with an average rating of 9.7 out of 10 among viewers.
Several critics praised the story and writing of "Granite State". Reviewers generally praised the episode for its role as a precursor to the series finale, "Felina", and many initial reviewers became more anticipated for that episode due to "Granite State". Slant's Chuck Bowen wrote that episode "coolly navigates a rich variety of tones" as it showcased Walt's "final oblivion". He also said that the episode allowed viewers to process how mentally drained Walt had become over the course of the show. Seth Amitin of IGN and June Thomas of Slate felt similarly to Bowen, with Thomas believing that if there was any takeaway from the episode's plot, it was that "things can always get worse". Allison Keene of Collider was indifferent, and further believed that the episode did a "great job" of showcasing Walt's desperation and loneliness after a long time away from human contact.
In their rankings of every Breaking Bad episode, The Ringer ranked "Granite State" as the seventh best episode of the series. An editor of the site, Chris Ryan, wrote that the episode was "epic in scope" and had a "season's worth of plot" whilst also not feeling "too tidy or rushed". He further described the episode's plot as "full of terror and tenderness" in reference to the last appearance of Saul, and that the episode could have been a "fitting ending" for the series on its own. Another ranking of every Breaking Bad episode by Vulture placed "Granite State" as the twenty-seventh best episode of the series.
=== Analysis ===
During the phone call between Walt and Flynn, where Walt attempts to give him the money in a final act of desperation, Flynn yells "why don't you just die?" to his father, which were the same words spoken by Flynn during season 1 when Walt was first diagnosed with cancer. Comparing both uses of the line, Laura Hudson of Wired described the usage in season 1 to be the "angry, wounded talk" of a teenager grieving at the thought of losing his father, and its usage in "Granite State" to be Flynn quite literally wishing for his father's death after the damage he had done to the family. Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter compared Walt's voice on the phone to "an animal's dying desperation", and Flynn's voice to be "rage and anger of the wronged".
After his son berates him over the phone, Walt cries "it can't all have been for nothing", which Goodman further described as what the story of Breaking Bad effectively was, and that it was, in fact, all for nothing. Hudson echoed similar thoughts, furthermore describing the episode as the embodiment of what Saul telling Walt "it's over" in the opening of the episode. Amitin believed that the episode's predominant usage of the color white showcased a visual metaphor within the series, with earlier episodes being noticeably more colorful than "Granite State"; he believed that this represented a "new start or a blank slate for a new ending".
=== Accolades ===
This episode was nominated for two Creative Arts Emmy Awards. Michael Slovis was nominated for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series (One Hour), while Kelley Dixon and Chris McCaleb were nominated for Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series, losing to Skip Macdonald for the following episode "Felina". Peter Gould was nominated for the Writers Guild of America Award for Television: Episodic Drama for writing "Granite State", while Robert Forster's guest performance earned him the Saturn Award for Best Guest Starring Role on Television.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Tim Goodman (September 22, 2013). "'Breaking Bad' Deconstruction, Ep. 15: 'Granite State'". The Hollywood Reporter.
== External links ==
"Granite State" at the official Breaking Bad site
"Granite State" at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ana_Figuero | Ana Figuero | Ana Figueroa (June 19, 1907 - 1970) was a Chilean educator, feminist, political activist, and government official.
== Biography ==
Figuero was born in Santiago on 19 June 1907 as the daughter of Miguel Figueroa Rebolledo and Ana Gajardo Infante. She studied at the University of Chile and graduated in 1928. She became a professor of English in 1928. She then worked as Director of the Liceo San Felipe in 1938 and the Liceo de Temuco during 1939. She then continued her further studies in USA at the Columbia University Teachers College in 1946 and in the Colorado State College (Greely) in 1946.
From 1947 until 1949, she was the general supervisor for Chile's high school system. She promoted universal suffrage in 1948 in the capacity of president of the Chilean Federation of Women's institutions (Federación Chilena de Instituciones Femeninas), which was achieved gradually between 1931 and 1952. From 1949 to 1950, she was head of the Women's Bureau of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
She taught psychology in the University school for social workers. She was also a journalist in Social Periodistica del Sur.
Between 1950 and 1952 she represented Chile as "Minister plenipotentiary" to the Third General Assembly of the United Nations. She was envoy on the Commissions on Human Rights. She was also president of the Social, Cultural and Humanitarian Committee. In 1952, she attended the UN Security Council. Then, she was represented on several key positions at the UN, which included looking into issues related to refugees from all regions of the world. ) In 1952 she also attended the UN Security Council. In 1952, she joined as Assistant Director General of the International Labour Organization devolved with duties related to women's issues. She also worked in ILO as Assistant Secretary General of several sessions of the Annual Conference and attended many regional conferences.
Figuero was the first women to chair a United Nations committee of the General Assembly; the first woman on the United Nations Security Council and United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs; and the first woman to hold the position of assistant director general of the International Labour Organization.
Figuero took retirement from ILO in later half of 1967 due to reasons of poor health. She died in 1970. After her retirement, at the Governing Body session and subsequent to her death many of her colleagues paid rich tributes to her. Some of the tributes are:
"Anita Figuero knew how to arrange her work. She acted in defense of freedom for more than 25 years. Dedicated also to the creative work of the ILO she won the affection of all those who encountered her there."
"In expressing our condolences on the death of this great lady, it only remains for me on behalf of the workers of America, to undertake to honour her memory by defending while we live the noble ideals of justice which always inspired her actions and her personality."
"She has a unique place in the hearts of us all. She has the gift of speaking like Chilean wine. She is for all of us the beloved symbol of the grace and charm, of the warmth and gaiety of Latin America."
== Memberships ==
Figuero was a Member of Social de Profesores, Federaciaon Chilena de Instituiciones Femeninans, Sindicato de Profesores Chilenos, Ateneo (Temuco), and Honorary member of the Society of Cultural Interamericanea (Buenos Aires).
== Publications ==
Figuero authored a book titled Educacion sexual (1934).
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Bizzarro, Salvatore (20 April 2005). Historical Dictionary of Chile. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6542-6.
Editors of the American Heritage Dictionaries (2005). The Riverside Dictionary of Biography. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-618-49337-9.
Hilton, Ronald (1947). Who's Who in Latin America: Part IV, Bolivia, Chile and Peru. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0737-4. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Kinnear, Karen L. (22 July 2011). Women in Developing Countries: A Reference Handbook: A Reference Handbook. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-426-9.
Lubin, Carol Riegelman; Winslow, Anne (1990). Social Justice for Women: The International Labor Organization and Women. Duke University Press. p. 201. ISBN 0-8223-1062-7.
Olsen, Kirstin (1 January 1994). Chronology of Women's History. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-313-28803-6. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirin_Neshat#Exhibitions | Shirin Neshat | Shirin Neshat (Persian: شیرین نشاط; born March 26, 1957) is an Iranian photographer and visual artist who lives in New York City, known primarily for her work in film, video and photography. Her artwork centers on the contrasts between Islam and the West, femininity and masculinity, public life and private life, antiquity and modernity, and bridging the spaces between these subjects.
Since the Islamic Revolution, she has said that she has "gravitated toward making art that is concerned with tyranny, dictatorship, oppression and political injustice. Although I don’t consider myself an activist, I believe my art – regardless of its nature – is an expression of protest, a cry for humanity.”
Neshat has been recognized for winning the International Award of the XLVIII Venice Biennale in 1999, and the Silver Lion as the best director at the 66th Venice Film Festival in 2009, to being named Artist of the Decade by HuffPost critic G. Roger Denson. Neshat was a visiting critic in the photography department at the Yale School of Art in 2020.
== Early life and education ==
Neshat is the fourth of five children of wealthy parents, brought up in the religious city of Qazvin in north-western Iran under a "very warm, supportive Muslim family environment", where she learned traditional religious values through her maternal grandparents. Neshat's father was a physician and her mother a homemaker. Neshat said that her father "fantasized about the west, romanticized the west, and slowly rejected all of his own values; both her parents did. What happened, I think, was that their identity slowly dissolved, they exchanged it for comfort. It served their class".
Neshat was enrolled in a Catholic boarding school in Tehran. According to Neshat, her father encouraged his daughters to "be an individual, to take risks, to learn, to see the world". He sent his daughters, as well as his sons to college to receive higher education.
In 1975, Neshat left Iran to study art at University of California, Berkeley and completed her BA, MA and MFA degrees. In college she studied art under Harold Paris and Sylvia Lark. Neshat graduated from UC Berkeley in 1983, and soon moved to New York City. She quickly realized that making art wasn't her profession then. After meeting her future husband, who ran the Storefront for Art and Architecture, an alternative space in Manhattan, she dedicated ten years to working with him there.
During this time, Neshat made a few attempts at creating art, which was subsequently destroyed. She was intimidated by the New York art scene and believed her art was not substantial. She states, "Those ten years I made practically no art, and the art I did make I was dissatisfied with and eventually destroyed."
In 1990, Neshat returned to Iran, one year after Ayatollah Khomeini's death. "It was probably one of the most shocking experiences that I have ever had. The difference between what I had remembered from the Iranian culture and what I was witnessing was enormous. The change was both frightening and exciting; I had never been in a country that was so ideologically based. Most noticeable, of course, was the change in people's physical appearance and public behavior."
Since the Storefront ran like a cultural laboratory, Neshat was exposed to creators — artists, architects, and philosophers; she asserts Storefront eventually helped reignite her interest in art. In 1993 Neshat began earnestly to make art again, starting with photography.
== Works ==
Neshat's earliest works were photographs, such as the Unveiling (1993) and Women of Allah (1993–97) series, which explore notions of femininity about Islamic fundamentalism and militancy in her home country. As a way of coping with the discrepancy between the culture that she was experiencing and that of the pre-revolution Iran in which she was raised, she began her first mature body of work, the Women of Allah series, portraits of women entirely overlaid by Persian calligraphy.
Her work refers to the social, cultural and religious codes of Muslim societies and the complexity of certain oppositions, such as man and woman. Neshat often emphasizes this theme by showing two or more coordinated films concurrently, creating stark visual contrasts through motifs such as light and dark, black and white, male and female. Neshat has also made more traditional narrative short films, such as Zarin.
The work of Neshat addresses the social, political and psychological dimensions of women's experience in contemporary Islamic societies. Although Neshat actively resists stereotypical representations of Islam, her artistic objectives are not explicitly polemical. Rather, her work recognizes the complex intellectual and religious forces shaping the identity of Muslim women throughout the world. Using Persian poetry and calligraphy, she examined concepts such as martyrdom, the space of exile, the issues of identity and femininity.
In 2001–02, Neshat collaborated with singer Sussan Deyhim and created Logic of the Birds, which was produced by curator and art historian RoseLee Goldberg. The full-length multimedia production premiered at the Lincoln Center Summer Festival in 2002 and toured to the Walker Art Institute in Minneapolis and Artangel in London. In this collaboration and her other projects that incorporate music, Neshat uses sound to help create an emotionally evocative and beautiful piece that will resonate with viewers of both Eastern and Western cultures. In an interview with Bomb magazine in 2000, Neshat revealed: "Music becomes the soul, the personal, the intuitive, and neutralizes the sociopolitical aspects of the work. This combination of image and music is meant to create an experience that moves the audience." In 2011, Neshat created her second live performance, OverRuled, for Performa 11.
When Neshat first came to use film, she was influenced by the work of Iranian director Abbas Kiarostami. She directed several videos, among them Anchorage (1996) and, projected on two opposing walls: Shadow under the Web (1997), Turbulent (1998), Rapture (1999) and Soliloquy (1999). Neshat's recognition became more international in 1999, when she won the International Award of the XLVIII Venice Biennale with Turbulent and Rapture, a project involving almost 250 extras and produced by the Galerie Jérôme de Noirmont which met with critical and public success after its worldwide avant-première at the Art Institute of Chicago in May 1999. With Rapture, Neshat tried for the first time to make pure photography with the intent of creating an aesthetic, poetic, and emotional shock. Games of Desire, a video and still-photography piece, was displayed between September 3 and October 3 at the Gladstone Gallery in Brussels before moving in November to the Galerie Jérôme de Noirmont in Paris. The film, which is based in Laos, centers on a small group of elderly people who sing folk songs with sexual lyrics - a practice which had been nearing obsolescence.
In 2009, she won the Silver Lion for best director at the 66th Venice Film Festival for her directorial debut Women Without Men, based on Shahrnush Parsipur's novel of the same name. She said about the movie: "This has been a labour of love for six years. ... This film speaks to the world and to my country." The film examines the 1953 British-American backed coup, which supplanted Iran's democratically elected government with a monarchy.
In July 2009, Neshat took part in a three-day hunger strike at the United Nations Headquarters in New York in protest of the 2009 Iranian presidential election.
In 2010, Neshat appeared in an episode of the German documentary television series Durch die Nacht mit ... with musician Henry Rollins.
In 2022, she joined protests about the Death of Mahsa Amini, by showing her work Woman Life Freedom, at Piccadilly Circus, and Pendry West Hollywood.
== Exhibitions ==
Neshat's first solo exhibition was at Franklin Furnace in New York in 1993. A major retrospective of Neshat's work, organized by the Detroit Institute of Arts, opened 2013. In 2014, she had an exhibition titled "Afterwards", at the Mathaf: Arab Museum of Modern Art. In 2019, The Broad Museum in Los Angeles presented a 30-year retrospective of Neshat's work: Shirin Neshat: I Will Greet the Sun Again; the show traveled to the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth in 2021. In 2022, Neshat participated in the group exhibition "Eyes on Iran" at Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms State Park, Roosevelt Island, New York; in response to the Mahsa Amini protests. Shirin Neshat: I Will Greet the Sun Again at The Broad in Los Angeles, 2019–2020, was her largest exhibition to date.
== Recognition ==
Neshat was an artist in residence at the Wexner Center for the Arts in 2000 and at MASS MoCA in 2001. In 2004, she was awarded an honorary professorship at the Universität der Künste, Berlin. In 2006, she was awarded The Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize, one of the richest prizes in the arts, given annually to "a man or woman who has made an outstanding contribution to the beauty of the world and mankind's enjoyment and understanding of life."
In 2010, Neshat was named Artist of the Decade by Huffington Post critic G. Roger Denson, for "the degree to which world events have more than met the artist in making her art chronically relevant to an increasingly global culture," for reflecting "the ideological war being waged between Islam and the secular world over matters of gender, religion, and democracy," and because "the impact of her work far transcends the realms of art in reflecting the most vital and far-reaching struggle to assert human rights."
In 2015, Neshat was selected and photographed by Annie Leibovitz as part of the 43rd Pirelli Calendar.
== Opera ==
At the 2017 Salzburg Festival, Neshat directed Giuseppe Verdi's opera Aida, with Riccardo Muti as conductor and Anna Netrebko singing the main character. Asked by the festival organizers about the particular challenge for an Iranian woman to stage a play that deals with the threats of political obedience and religion to private life and love, Neshat said, "Sometimes the boundaries between Aida and myself are blurred."
== Works ==
Turbulent, 1998. Two channel video/audio installation.
Rapture, 1999. Two channel video/audio installation.
Soliloquy, 1999. Color video/audio installation with artist as the protagonist.
Fervor, 2000. Two channel video/audio installation.
Passage, 2001. Single channel video/audio installation.
Logic of the Birds, 2002. Multi-media performance.
Tooba, 2002. Two channel video/audio installation based on Shahrnush Parsipur's novel Women Without Men.
The Last Word, 2003. Single channel video/audio installation.
Mahdokht, 2004. Three channel video/audio installation.
Zarin, 2005. Single channel video/audio installation.
Munis, 2008. Color video/audio installation based on Shahrnush Parsipur's novel Women Without Men.
Faezeh, 2008. Color video/audio installation based on Shahrnush Parsipur's novel Women Without Men.
Possessed, 2009. Black & white video/audio installation.
Women Without Men, 2009. Feature film based on Shahrnush Parsipur's novel Women Without Men.
OverRuled, 2011. Performance.
Before My Eyes, 2011. Two channel short film. Part of the Seasons series.
Illusions & Mirrors, 2013. Short film commissioned by Dior and featuring Natalie Portman.
Looking for Oum Kulthum, 2017.Feature film co-directed by Shoja Azari.
Land of Dreams, 2021. Feature film co-directed with Shoja Azari, written by Jean-Claude Carrière.
The Fury, 2022. Monochrome two channel video installation.
== Awards ==
First International Prize at the Venice Biennale (1999)
Grand Prix at the Kwangju Biennale (2000)
Visual Art Award from the Edinburgh International Film Festival (2000)
Infinity Award from the International Center of Photography, New York (2002)
ZeroOne Award from the Universität der Künste Berlin (2003)
Hiroshima Freedom Prize from the Hiroshima Museum of Art (2005)
The Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize, New York (2006)
Rockefeller Foundation Media Arts Fellowship, New York (2008)
Cultural Achievement Award, Asia Society, New York (2008)
Silver Lion Award for Best Director, 66th Venice International Film Festival (2009)
Cinema for Peace Special Award, Hessischer Filmpreis, Germany (2009)
Crystal Award, World Economic Forum, Davos, Switzerland (2014)
Rockefeller Fellow, United States Artists, New York (2016)
Praemium Imperiale Award (2017)
Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society, Bristol (2020)
== Bibliography ==
=== Exhibition catalogues ===
Women of Allah
Two Installations
Shirin Neshat: 2002-2005, Barbara Gladstone Gallery, New York
I Know Something About Love, multimedia group exhibition with Christodoulos Panayiotou, Yinka Shonibare and Yang Fudong at Parasol Unit, London.
=== Other literature and film ===
Expressing the Inexpressible: Shirin Neshat. Documentary by Jörg Neumeister-Jung and Ralf Raimo Jung, originally produced by Westdeutscher Rundfunk in 2000. Video, 42 minutes, color. DVD: Films for the Humanities & Sciences, Princeton, NJ, 2004. Online: Films Media Group, New York, N.Y., 2005.
Hirahara, Naomi. We Are Here, Hachette, 2022
== See also ==
Iranian cinema
Iranian modern and contemporary art
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Grosenick, Uta; Riemschneider, Burkhard, eds. (2005). Art Now (25th anniversary ed.). Köln: Taschen. pp. 212–215. ISBN 9783822840931. OCLC 191239335.
== External links ==
Shirin Neshat: Investigating Cultural Identity Through Powerful Imagery
Mohammed Afkhami, Sussan Babaie, Venetia Porter, Natasha Morris. "Honar: The Afkhami Collection of Modern and Contemporary Iranian Art." Phaidon Press, 2017. ISBN 978-0-7148-7352-7.
Shirin Neshat at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bindy_Johal#:~:text=9%20External%20links-,Early%20life,respect%20and%20remorse%20for%20others. | Bindy Johal | Bhupinder "Bindy" Singh Johal (January 14, 1971 – December 20, 1998) was an Indo-Canadian gangster from Vancouver, British Columbia. A self-confessed drug kingpin, he was known for his outspoken nature, blatant disregard for authority and his longtime rivalry with his former Punjabi Mafia Bosses turned rivals; Robbie Kandola and the Dosanjh Brothers, who led a rival Punjabi Mafia faction, while Johal controlled his own faction alongside international Drug lord Ranjit Cheema. On December 20, 1998, Johal was fatally shot in the back of the head at a crowded nightclub in Vancouver.
== Early life ==
Johal was born in 1971 (although some sources have noted 1972 and 1973) in Punjab, India to a Jatt Sikh family of the Johal clan. He immigrated to Vancouver, British Columbia with his family at the age of four. His parents separated and he was raised by his mother. He was increasingly temperamental, resented discipline, and had a lack of respect and remorse for others. He suffered from severe depression when his parents cut his hair after an armed assault in Canada in the aftermath of the Assassination of Indira Gandhi, which happened miles away in Delhi, his mother said, "That was the only time I saw another expression of his other than anger and silence." Johal was considered to be a "problem child" by his teachers. One of Johal's teachers, Rob Sandhu, stated: "When he came into Grade 8, it didn't seem like he had any problems. It seems these kids are not being flagged. But teachers are raising these issues, so why aren't we acting on it?"
Although he did well in school and was even on the honour roll, he was expelled from Sir Charles Tupper Secondary School and sentenced to 60 days in jail after he "brutally" assaulted his vice-principal in 1989. Johal tried to justify his behaviour at his trial in a defence that the journalist Jerry Langton wrote "smacked of cold-blooded cynicism" by saying that as an Indo-Canadian that he was the victim of a racist society and he was only just lashing out against society by beating up his vice-principal so severely that he had to go to the hospital emergency room to save his life. The judge at Johal's trial rejected this defence. The judge noted there was no evidence that the vice-principal was a racist and that whatever slights and insults Johal may have endured from others was no excuse for the assault.
Having moved to Richmond, British Columbia, Johal enrolled in McNair Secondary School. Johal smashed in the window of a car using a baseball bat and was convicted of possession of a dangerous weapon. Johal enrolled in college, but dropped out after his first semester to begin his criminal career. Johal joined a once Hispanic gang called Los Diablos ("The Devils"). As the membership of Los Diablos became more Indo-Canadian, the gang was renamed as the Punjabi Mafia. He built a reputation as a hit-man working for Jimmy and Ron Dosanjh, both of whom he would later betray and have killed. Johal also started to sell cocaine.
On March 14, 1991, a Colombian drug trafficker, Teodoro Salcedo, was murdered in Vancouver Jimsher "Jimmy" Dosanjh was arrested and charged with the murder. While Dosanjh was in jail awaiting his trial which ended with his acquittal, Johal took advantage of his absence to make himself leader of the gang. Johal and his gang hijacked trucks carrying electronics and automobiles landed at the port of Vancouver, which he sold on the black market. A television documentary at the time estimated that Johal had an annual income of $4 million.
Bindy reportedly had antisocial personality disorder which may account for why he was so quick to kill those close to him. He didn't keep close friends and was extremely callous to his associates. According to Constable Spencer, "All he was concerned about was himself, he was very narcissistic in nature and had a general hatred of people. Bindy actually met Bal Buttar, one of his close associates, in prison when he was in his twenties. They never knew each other growing up and from Bal's statements, Bindy made it very clear that they were not friends, but business partners as he did with everyone else in his group." He attended school with Harjit Sajjan, who later became the Canadian Minister of Defense.
== Dosanjh murders ==
Johal was responsible in the murders of gangster brothers Ron Dosanjh and Jimmy Dosanjh. Jimmy Dosanjh was killed in February 1994, and Ron was killed in April 1994. Johal knew that Jimmy Dosanjh had taken out a contract to kill him for over C$230,000, according to Crown prosecutors. The hitman whom Jimmy Dosanjh hired to kill Johal instead approached him and made a deal for more money to kill Dosanjh. On February 25, 1994, Dosanjh went into a back alley to inspect some stolen electronics when he was ambushed and killed by his own men, whose true loyalty was to Johal. Afterwards remarked "This Jimmy Dosanjh, they portrayed him as a hit-man this that. Personally from what I've seen of him on the street I don't think he could have hit his way out of a paper bag."
In a television interview, Ranjit "Ron" Dosanjh told a television crew that if he saw Johal at his house, he’d “shoot him between the eyes". Johal when asked to comment about the remark by another television crew snapped back: "Basically, I just want these guys to know you got another thing coming, bitch! I'm still around!" On April 19, 1994, Ron Dosanjh was killed in his red pick-up truck while waiting for a traffic light when a car pulled alongside and a man opened fire with an AK-47 assault rifle. Dosanjh took several bullets to his face, killing him instantly; his truck veered wildly and crashed into a tree. On April 24, 1994, Johal's neighbour, Greg Olson, who was walking his dog, was killed in a case of mistaken identity. On April 25, 1994, Johal was charged with two counts of first-degree murder in connection with the Dosanjh murders along with Sarbjit Gill, Rajinder "Big Raj" Benji, Michael Kim Budai, Sun News Lai, Preet "Peter" Sarbjit Gill, and Kim "Phil" Ho-Sik, whom the Crown alleged to be the actual gunman who killed the Dosanjh brothers.
Because of the required security for the trial, it was one of the most expensive trials in Canadian history. His former brother-in-law, Peter Gill, was also accused. The accused, including Gill and Johal, were acquitted. During and following the trial, Gill had an affair with Gillian Guess, an active juror on the trial. Guess was sentenced to 18 months after being convicted of obstruction of justice. Gill was tried and convicted of the same crime and sentenced to six years in prison. The Crown appealed the acquittal of Johal and other defendants, but Johal was killed before the new trial began. Gill was not retried.
== The Punjabi Mafia and Johal's criminal activity ==
The Punjabi Mafia is a loosely affilicated criminal organization originating in British Columbia with gang members. The gang, initially being liberal in its membership, became more ethnocentric over time, some subgroups excepted. These groups are still active and notorious in Vancouver and have been since the early 1990s. They have been linked to the Independent Soldiers (IS), Red Scorpions, Lotus Triads, Hells Angels, and the United Nations (UN) gang in Canada, although several members of the Independent Soldiers can also be grouped as part of the mafia as well. Bindy Johal was accepted into the Punjabi Mafia in the early 1990s most likely through Ranjit Cheema or Ron Dosanjh. Ranjit Cheema and Ron Dosanjh were among the few who had full control of the criminal organization.
According to Johal's former lieutenant Bal Buttar, Punjabi Mafia hitmen claimed contracts in B.C. They are responsible for dozens of murders in Canada in the 90s alone and the majority of those murders still remain unsolved. Buttar admitted to performing several executions alongside Bindy, as well as the unsuccessful attempt to kill Johal's associate and former brother-in-law, Preet Sarbjit "Peter" Gill. However, Buttar was shocked when Bindy said he wanted his own cousin killed. "I thought this guy was kidding, but he was actually being serious, he wanted to take him out." Buttar was suspected of being behind the hit on Robbie Kandola outside his Coal Harbour penthouse. He believed Kandola was the one responsible for his younger brother's death. He is also suspected to be the one behind Bindy's death. It is still up for debate whether he was killed because Bal feared Bindy would kill him or because Ranj and other major players turned on him. He was charged with aggravated assault for beating two men in a bar with a broken beer bottle in 1997. When imprisoned, Johal was labelled a "menace to society."
Johal was earning approximately $500,000–$900,000 a week in his prime through various illegal activities including murder for hire, debt collecting, and drug dealing. He was also affiliated to the Buttar brothers who were well known across the Lower Mainland for their brutal gangland slayings. Even so, Johal coldly told Buttar: "You listen to me. If you take care of things at your end, I'll be happy with you, brother. If you fuck me over, I'll kill you. Right?". Johal's chosen instrument was a hit squad which Johal named "The Elite" consisting of five Indo-Canadian hit men. Buttar later stated that "The Elite" hit squad was responsible for 25 murders over a five year period. Johal had a "legendary" bad temper, known for his frequent outbursts of violent rage, which led him to be convicted in 1997 of attacking two men in a bar fight with a broken beer bottle. Johal had convictions for obstruction of justice, possession of dangerous weapons, and aggravated assault.
A Chinese-Canadian rival drug dealer, Randy Chan was kidnapped on October 25, 1996, and Johal was charged with his kidnapping. Reportedly Chan had been kidnapped by Roman Mann, one of Johal's associates. Mann was angry with the quality of the cocaine that Chan had just sold him, which he stated was very diluted despite the premium price. Chan was held captive for 50 or 56 hours, part of which was spent in an automobile trunk. Johal phoned Chan's older brother, Raymond, to tell him that if he wanted to see his brother alive again, to give him 5 kilograms of cocaine in exchange for his brothers' life. Johal negotiated Chan's release with his brother to be in exchange for $500,000 paid by the Lotus triads to the Punjabi Mafia faction of Johal. Chan's brother was Raymond Chan, a gang member of the Chinese criminal organization called the "Lotus".
Johal made no effort to disguise the fact that he was a gangster, and would threaten the lives of rivals in interviews with television crews. Johal became a folk hero in the Lower Mainland, being admired for his success as a gangster, and many of the young men who joined organized crime admitted that it was Johal's example that inspired them to turn to crime. One gangster who wished to remain anonymous told the academic Arthur J. Pais: "To many young people in the immigrant community who feel that Canadian society does not give them enough chance to succeed, joining gangsters is an exercise in building their self-esteem. Why do you think Bindy Johal was a hero to many young Indo-Canadians. His legend had spread wide in the past few years among Indians not only here but also in Toronto and Montreal, New York and San Francisco. He stood up to his school principles, he beat up those who called him racial names—and he was making a lot of money even though he was in his mid-twenties. He drove fancy cars, he had girls falling over him".
His gang was responsible for several murders. The first one killed was Amarjit Singh Dheil who was shot dead while leaving the Marpole-Oakridge Community Centre on January 19, 1997, after watching a hockey game. Dheil was an associate of the Dosanjh brothers, and Johal wanted to see all of the associates of the Dosanjh brothers killed least they try to avenge them. On October 21, 1997, "The Elite" killed Gorinder Singh Khun Khun as he leaving his home. Khun Khun had attended high school alongside Johal, and considered him a friend. Johal in a moment of paranoia was convinced that Khun Khun was involved in the Olson murder, which led him to order Khun Khun's murder. On July 1, 1998, Johal had "The Elite" kill Vinuse News MacKenzie. The reason for MacKenzie's murder was eliminate a romantic rival for the affections of a woman who preferred Mackenzie over Johal.
On September 19, 1998, a member of the gang, Derek Chand Shankar, insulted Johal, calling him an "idiot" and a "baby" after Johal stated he was felt too tired to go to a nightclub. Later the same night, Johal showed up at the nightclub and asked Buttar where Shankar was. Buttar stated that he was drunk and sleeping in a truck in the parking lot. Despite knowing that Johal was planning to kill Shankar, Buttar drove the truck to the Queensborough Bridge in New Westminster. As Shankar was waking up from his stupor, Johal shot him. On November 29, 1998, Johal's associate, Roman "Danny" Mann expressed the wish to leave the gang, leading to Johal to punch him out in fury. Later the same night, Mann's body was found in an empty industrial lot in Burnaby with a single bullet through his head. When Buttar asked Johal about the murder, he stated: "Blame it on the H.A. [Hells Angels]". Johal then asked Buttar if he wanted to go to a nightclub with him.
== Death ==
On Sunday, December 20, 1998, Johal was dancing at the Palladium nightclub in Vancouver when he was shot from behind at 4:30 a.m. He was rushed to Vancouver General Hospital where he died 4 hours later. No witnesses were able to describe the assailant. Four months before Johal's death, "at least three of Johal's associates had also been killed", with each killing alleged to be connected to Bindy, according to the confessions of Bal Buttar. In 2004, before he died, Bal Buttar told a reporter that he ordered the assassination of Johal, fearing that if he didn't do it, Johal would have had him murdered. The kidnapping trial was set to commence within two months of his murder; Buttar would have served up to 10 years if he had been convicted. Buttar was never convicted in the murder of Johal due to his blind and quadriplegic state.
Kash Heed, commanding officer of the 3rd Police District in Vancouver, stated that it was really disappointing that someone as bright and intelligent as Johal would turn to a life of crime. He added that young people who want to emulate gangsters like Bindy see the benefits of being a criminal, but do not see the danger of putting their lives at risk.
== See also ==
List of unsolved murders (1980–1999)
Beeba Boys, fictionalized film inspired by real crimes including those committed by Bindy Johal
== Notes ==
== Books ==
Langton, Jerry (2013). The Notorious Bacon Brothers : inside gang warfare on Vancouver streets. Etobicoke, Ont.: J. Wiley and Sons Canada. ISBN 978-1118388679.
Langton, Jerry (2015). Cold War How Organized Crime Works in Canada and Why It's About to Get More Violent. Toronto: HarperColllins. ISBN 978-1-4434-3255-9.
== References ==
== External links ==
Archive photo of Bindy Johal |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caridea | Caridea | The Caridea, commonly known as caridean shrimp or true shrimp, from Ancient Greek καρίς, καρίδος (karís, karídos, "shrimp"), are an infraorder of shrimp within the order Decapoda. This infraorder contains all species of true shrimp. They are found widely around the world in both fresh and salt water. Many other animals with similar names – such as the mud shrimp of Axiidea and the boxer shrimp of Stenopodidea – are not true shrimp, but many have evolved features similar to true shrimp.
== Biology ==
Carideans are found in every kind of aquatic habitat, with the majority of species being marine. Around a quarter of the described species are found in fresh water, however, including almost all the members of the species-rich family Atyidae and the Palaemonidae subfamily Palaemoninae. They include several commercially important species, such as Macrobrachium rosenbergii, and are found on every continent except Antarctica. The marine species are found at depths to 5,000 m (16,000 ft), and from the tropics to the polar regions.
In addition to the great variety in habitat, carideans vary greatly in form, from species a few millimetres long when fully grown, to those that grow to over 300 mm (1 ft) long. Except where secondarily lost, shrimp have one pair of stalked eyes, although they are sometimes covered by the carapace, which protects the cephalothorax. The carapace also surrounds the gills, through which water is pumped by the action of the mouthparts.
Most carideans are omnivorous, but some are specialised for particular modes of feeding. Some are filter feeders, using their setose (bristly) legs as a sieve; some scrape algae from rocks. The snapping shrimp of the genus Alpheus snap their claws to create a shock wave that stuns prey. Many cleaner shrimp, which groom reef fish and feed on their parasites and necrotic tissue, are carideans. In turn, carideans are eaten by various animals, particularly fish and seabirds, and frequently host bopyrid parasites.
=== Lifecycle ===
Unlike Dendrobranchiates, Carideans brood their eggs rather than releasing them into the water. Caridean larvae undergo all naupliar development within the egg, and eclose as a zoea. The zoea stage feeds on phytoplankton. There can be as few as two zoea stages, (e.g. some freshwater Palaemonidae), or as many as 13, (e.g. some Pandalidae). The post-zoeal larva, often called a decapodid, resembles a miniature adult, but retains some larval characteristics. The decapodid larva will metamorphose a final time into a post-larval juvenile: a young shrimp having all the characteristics of adults. Most adult carideans are benthic animals living primarily on the sea floor.
Common species include Pandalus borealis (the "pink shrimp"), Crangon crangon (the "brown shrimp") and the snapping shrimp of the genus Alpheus. Depending on the species and location, they grow from about 1.2 to 30 cm (1⁄2 to 11+3⁄4 in) long, and live between 1.0 and 6.5 years.
== Commercial fishing ==
The most significant commercial species among the carideans is Pandalus borealis, followed by Crangon crangon. The wild-capture production of P. borealis is about ten times that of C. crangon. In 1950, the position was reversed, with the capture of C. crangon about ten times that of P. borealis.
In 2010, the global aquaculture of all shrimp and prawn species (3.5 million tonnes) slightly exceeded the global wild capture (3.2 million tonnes). No carideans were significantly involved in aquaculture, but about 430,000 tonnes were captured in the wild. That is, about 13% of the global wild capture, or about 6% of the total production of all shrimp and prawns, were carideans.
== Systematics and related taxa ==
Shrimp of the infraorder Caridea are more closely related to lobsters and crabs than they are to the members of the sub-order Dendrobranchiata (prawns). Biologists distinguish these two groups based on differences in their gill structures. The gill structure is lamellar in carideans but branching in dendrobranchiates. The easiest practical way to separate true shrimp from dendrobranchiates is to examine the second abdominal segment. The second segment of a carideans overlaps both the first and the third segment, while the second segment of a dendrobranchiate overlaps only the third segment. They also differ in that carideans typically have two pairs of chelae (claws), while dendrobranchiates have three. A third group, the Stenopodidea, contains around 70 species and differs from the other groups in that the third pairs of legs is greatly enlarged.
Procarididea are the sister group to the Caridea, comprising only eleven species.
The cladogram below shows Caridea's relationships to other relatives within Decapoda, from analysis by Wolfe et al., 2019.
The below cladogram shows the internal relationships of eight selected families within Caridea, with the Atyidae (freshwater shrimp) being the most basal:
== Taxonomy ==
The infraorder Caridea is divided into 15 superfamilies:
== Fossil record ==
The fossil record of the Caridean is sparse, with only 57 exclusively fossil species known. The earliest of these cannot be assigned to any family, but date from the Lower Jurassic and Cretaceous. A number of extinct genera cannot be placed in any superfamily:
== See also ==
Crustaceans portal
Dendrobranchiata
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Caridea at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Caridea at Wikispecies |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._C._Reeves#:~:text=On%20September%201%2C%202021%2C%20Reeves,Sherri%20Myers%20and%20Steven%20Sharp. | D. C. Reeves | Darcy Curran Reeves is an American businessman, journalist and politician who has served as the 64th mayor of Pensacola since 2022.
The son of James J. Reeves, he worked for the Florida State University's student newspaper, the Pensacola News Journal, Warchant.com and the Tuscaloosa News before being hired as chief of staff for Quint Studer.
Reeves was the CEO of Perfect Plain Brewing Co., a brewing business, which he co-founded with his father, Jim Reeves, and his friend, Reed Odeneal, and sold to New Orleans–based Urban South Brewery in 2022.[1]
== Early life and career ==
Darcy Curran Reeves was born in Pensacola, Florida, to Connie Bookman and Jim Reeves, attorney and politician who served as a member of the Florida House of Representatives from the 4th district from 1966 to 1972 and on the Pensacola City Council from 1977 to 1983.
In 2019, he authored The Microbrewery Handbook, a how-to guide to understanding the business of opening a brewery, published by Wiley & Sons. In October 2022, Reeves sold Perfect Plain Brewery, along with the Well, Perennial, and Garden & Grain, three other businesses he founded with Odeneal, to Urban South Brewery, a New Orleans–based business.
In 2019, Reeves was the lead staff on the mayoral transition team for Mayor Grover C. Robinson IV, and was the chief entrepreneur officer at the Spring Entrepreneur Hub. From 2020 to 2021, Reeves served as chairman of the board for Visit Pensacola, the community's tourism marketing organization.
== Mayor of Pensacola ==
=== 2022 Pensacola mayoral election ===
On September 1, 2021, Reeves announced his candidacy for mayor of Pensacola in 2022. On August 23, 2022, in the primary election, Reeves earned the majority, 7,682 votes (51.11%), against three opponents, Jewell Cannada-Wynn, Sherri Myers and Steven Sharp. Because Reeves earned the majority in the primary, there was no runoff election on November 8.
=== Mayor of Pensacola ===
On November 22, 2022, Reeves was sworn in as the 64th mayor of Pensacola, succeeding Grover C. Robinson IV. At 38 years old, Reeves is the youngest mayor since J. Harvey Bayliss, appointed mayor in 1921, a span of 101 years.
== See also ==
List of mayors of Pensacola, Florida
== References ==
== External links ==
Campaign Website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Bad_Art | Museum of Bad Art | The Museum of Bad Art (MOBA) is a privately owned museum whose stated aim is "to celebrate the labor of artists whose work would be displayed and appreciated in no other forum". It was originally in Dedham, Massachusetts, and is currently in Boston, Massachusetts. Its permanent collection includes over 700 pieces of "art too bad to be ignored", 25 to 35 of which are on public display at any one time.
MOBA was founded in 1993, after antique dealer Scott Wilson showed a painting he had recovered from the trash to some friends, who suggested starting a collection. Within a year, receptions held in Wilson's friends' home were so well-attended that the collection needed its own viewing space. The museum then moved to the basement of a theater in Dedham. Explaining the reasoning behind the museum's establishment, co-founder Jerry Reilly said in 1995: "While every city in the world has at least one museum dedicated to the best of art, MOBA is the only museum dedicated to collecting and exhibiting the worst." To be included in MOBA's collection, works must be original and have serious intent, but they must also have significant flaws without being boring; curators are not interested in displaying deliberate kitsch.
MOBA has been mentioned in dozens of off-the-beaten-path guides to Boston, featured in international newspapers and magazines, and has inspired several other collections throughout the world. Deborah Solomon of The New York Times Magazine noted that the attention the Museum of Bad Art receives is part of a wider trend of museums displaying "the best bad art". The museum has been criticized for being anti-art, but the founders deny this, responding that its collection is a tribute to the sincerity of the artists who persevered with their art despite something going horribly wrong in the process. According to co-founder Marie Jackson, "We are here to celebrate an artist's right to fail, gloriously." In a chat with the Sunn on how to identify bad art, MOBA's curator Michael Frank says, "Here at the Museum Of Bad Art (MOBA) we collect art that we believe was created in a serious attempt to make art but in which, either in the execution or original concept, something has gone terribly wrong. Rather than simply amateurish, the resulting image must be, for one reason or another, compelling to be considered museum-worthy. Some of the most interesting pieces in our collection are ones that show that the artist had some technical skill, but made some questionable decisions such as over-the-top imagery."
== History ==
The Museum of Bad Art was founded by antique dealer Scott Wilson, who discovered what has become the museum's signature piece—Lucy in the Field with Flowers—protruding from between two trash cans on a Roslindale-area curb in Boston, among some garbage waiting to be collected. Wilson was initially interested only in the frame, but when he showed the picture to his friend Jerry Reilly, the latter wanted both the frame and the painting. He exhibited Lucy in his home, and encouraged friends to look for other bad art and notify Wilson of what they found. When Wilson acquired another "equally lovely" piece and shared it with Reilly, they decided to start a collection. Reilly and his wife, Marie Jackson, held a party in their basement to exhibit the collection to date, and hosted a reception they facetiously titled "The Opening of the Museum of Bad Art".
Regular showings of the pieces collected by Wilson, Reilly, and Jackson (and those donated by others), became too much for Reilly and Jackson's small home in West Roxbury, Massachusetts, as hundreds of people attended the receptions. The founders' initial attempt at dealing with their constrained exhibition space was to create the Virtual Museum Of Bad Art, a CD-ROM with a cast of 95 people that presented the MOBA art collection in a fictional imaginary museum. This fictional MOBA allowed the visitors not only to view the paintings but to go behind the scenes in the fictional museum.
The MOBA was officially founded in 1993, and its first exhibition was presented in March 1994.
Word of the museum's collection continued to spread until, according to "Permanent Interim Acting Director" Louise Reilly Sacco, "it got completely out of hand" when a group of senior citizens on a tour bus stopped to see it. In 1995, the display space was moved to the basement of the Dedham Community Theatre, a building with an aesthetic described in 2004 as "ramshackle". The museum in Dedham had no fixed operating hours, instead being open while the theater upstairs was open. As The Boston Globe notes, the art collection was appropriately placed "just outside the men's room", where sounds and smells carry to the collection and the constant flushing of the toilet "supposedly helps maintain a uniform humidity", according to the South China Morning Post.
In MOBA's early days, the museum hosted traveling shows; on one occasion the works were hung from trees in the woods on Cape Cod for the "Art Goes Out the Window—The Gallery in the Woods". Bad music was played during the public viewings to complete the ambiance. In an exhibition titled "Awash in Bad Art", 18 pieces of art were covered in shrink wrap for "the world's first drive-thru museum and car wash". Marie Jackson, formerly the Director of Aesthetic Interpretation noted, "We didn't put any watercolors in there." A 2001 exhibition, "Buck Naked—Nothing But Nudes" featured all of the MOBA nudes hung in a local spa.
MOBA features its works in rotating collections. In 2003, "Freaks of Nature" focused on landscape artwork "gone awry". A 2006 exhibit titled "Hackneyed Portraits" was designed to "pick up some of the slack" when the David Hockney show at Boston's Museum of Fine Arts closed. MOBA unveiled its show "Nature Abhors a Vacuum and All Other Housework" in 2006; this format continues on the museum's website.
A second gallery opened in 2008 at the Somerville Theatre in Davis Square, Somerville, Massachusetts, where the collection was placed near both the women's and men's restrooms. Although the original gallery was free and open to the public, the second is free with admission to the theater or with a pass requested from the museum. Exhibitions titled "Bright Colors / Dark Emotions" and "Know What You Like / Paint How You Feel" have been held in the academic gallery at Montserrat College of Art in Beverly, Massachusetts. One of MOBA's goals is "to take bad art on the road", according to Sacco. Pieces from MOBA's collection have been on display in museums in New York City, Ottawa, Taipei, and Virginia.
In February 2009, MOBA announced a fundraiser to assist the Rose Art Museum at Brandeis University, which was seriously considering whether to sell masterpieces because of the 2008 financial crisis, made worse for the university by some of its donors losing money in the Madoff investment scandal. Current MOBA curator Michael Frank placed Studies in Digestion—a four-panel piece showing four renditions of the human digestive tract in various media by artist Deborah Grumet—on eBay for a buy-it-now price of $10,000; the first bid was $24.99. It eventually sold for $152.53 and the meager proceeds went to the Rose Art Museum, while both museums gained publicity.
In 2010, the museum opened a third location in the offices of the Brookline Interactive Group.
In December 2012, the branch at the Dedham Community Theater closed to convert the space into a screening room. Another branch later opened at the New England Wildlife Center in South Weymouth. The Somerville location was closed in 2019 when theater owners sought to renovate the basement space it occupied. All locations closed after the breakout of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. The museum reopened at the Dorchester Brewing Company's tap room in Boston in September 2022.
=== Thefts ===
The loss of two MOBA works to theft has drawn media attention and enhanced the museum's stature. In 1996, the painting Eileen, by R. Angelo Le, vanished from MOBA. Eileen was originally acquired from the trash by Wilson and had a rip in the canvas from being slashed with a knife, "adding an additional element of drama to an already powerful work", according to MOBA.
The museum offered a reward of $6.50 for the return of Eileen, and although MOBA donors later increased that reward to $36.73, the work remained unrecovered for many years. The Boston Police listed the crime as "larceny, other", and Sacco was reported saying she was unable to establish a link between the disappearance of Eileen and a notorious heist at Boston's famed Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum that occurred in 1990. In 2006, 10 years after Eileen was stolen, MOBA was contacted by the purported thief demanding a $5,000 ransom for the painting; no ransom was paid, but it was returned anyway.
Prompted by the theft of Eileen, MOBA staff installed a fake video camera over a sign at their Dedham branch reading (in Comic Sans): "Warning. This gallery is protected by a fake security camera". In 2004, Rebecca Harris' Self Portrait as a Drainpipe was removed from the wall and replaced with a ransom note demanding $10, although the thief neglected to include any contact information. Soon after its disappearance the painting was returned, with a $10 donation. Curator Michael Frank speculates that the thief had difficulty fencing the portrait because "reputable institutions refuse to negotiate with criminals."
== Collection standards ==
Although the museum's motto is "Art too bad to be ignored", MOBA holds rigorous standards as to what they will accept. According to Marie Jackson, "Nine out of ten pieces don't get in because they're not bad enough. What an artist considers to be bad doesn't always meet our low standards." As stated in the introduction to The Museum of Bad Art: Masterworks, the primary attribute of an objet d'art to be acquired by MOBA is that it must have been seriously attempted by someone making an artistic statement. A lack of artistic skill is not essential for a work to be included; a prospective painting or sculpture for the collection ideally should "[result] in a compelling image", or as honorary curator Ollie Hallowell stated, the art must have an "Oh my God" quality.
An important criterion for inclusion is that a painting or sculpture must not be boring. Michael Frank says they are not interested in commercial works like Dogs Playing Poker: "We collect things made in earnest, where people attempted to make art and something went wrong, either in the execution or in the original premise." Montserrat College of Art used MOBA's exhibition as a demonstration to its students that "sincerity is still important, and pureness of intent is valid".
MOBA accepts unsolicited works if they meet its standards. Frequently, curators consider works by artists who display an intensity or emotion in the art that they are unable to reconcile with their level of skill. The museum dedicated a show to "relentless creativity" in an exhibition titled "I Just Can't Stop" that was covered by local news and CNN. Other artists are clearly technically proficient, but attempted an experiment that did not end well. Michael Frank has compared some of the works at MOBA with outsider art; some MOBA artists' works are also included in other galleries' outsider collections. Dean Nimmer, a professor at the Massachusetts College of Art (also holding the title of MOBA's Executive Director of Good Taste), noted the parallels between the Museum of Bad Art's standards and those of other institutions: "They take the model of a museum of fine arts and apply the same kind of criteria to acceptance for bad work ... [Their rules] are very similar to a gallery or museum that says 'Well, our area is really installation art or realist paintings or neo-post-modern abstractions.'"
MOBA does not collect art created by children, or art traditionally perceived as lesser in quality, such as black velvet paintings, paint-by-numbers, kitsch, or factory-produced art—including works specifically created for tourists. Curators are also not interested in crafts such as latch hook rug kits. MOBA curators jokingly suggest that more appropriate venues for such works would be the "Museum of Questionable Taste, The International Schlock Collection, or the National Treasury of Dubious Home Decoration".
The Museum of Bad Art has been accused of being anti-art, or taking works that were sincerely rendered and mocking them. However, Scott Wilson insists that a work of art accepted into MOBA is a celebration of the artist's enthusiasm. Marie Jackson reiterated this thought, saying "I think it's a great encouragement to people... who want to create [and] are held back by fear, and when they see these pieces, they realize there's nothing to be afraid of—just go for it." Louise Reilly Sacco agreed, stating, "If we're making fun of something, it's the art community, not the artists. But this is a real museum. It's 10 years. It's 6,000 people on a mailing list. It's recognition all over the world." Curators insist that artists whose works are selected by MOBA enjoy the attention and that it is a win-win; the museum gains another work of art, and the artist receives exposure in a museum. A 1997 article in The Chicago Tribune stated that none of the 10 to 15 artists who had stepped forward to acknowledge their work in MOBA had been upset.
Many of the works in MOBA are donated, often by the artists themselves. Others come from yard sales or thrift stores; the Trash Collectors Union in Cambridge, Massachusetts, has donated works rescued from imminent demise. Occasionally, a painting may be purchased; at one time, MOBA's policy was not to spend more than $6.50 on any piece. More recently, twice and even three times that amount has been paid for an exceptional work. Those pieces not retained by the museum are included in a "Rejection Collection" that may be sold at auction. In the past, some proceeds went to the Salvation Army for providing so many of MOBA's pieces; the museum itself usually benefits from most auctions.
== Collection highlights ==
Each painting or sculpture MOBA exhibits is accompanied by a brief description of the medium, size, name of the artist, as well as how the piece was acquired, and an analysis of the work's possible intention or symbolism. Museums Journal noted that the discussion accompanying each work would probably have most visitors reduced "to hysterics". The captions—described as "distinctly tongue-in-cheek commentaries" by David Mutch of the Christian Science Monitor—were primarily written by Marie Jackson, until the "dissolution of the MOBA interpretative staff"; the task was then taken over by Michael Frank and Louise Reilly Sacco.
=== Lucy in the Field with Flowers ===
Many of MOBA's works generate extensive discourse from visitors. Lucy in the Field with Flowers (oil on canvas by Unknown; acquired from trash in Boston) remains a favorite with the news media and patrons. As the first work acquired by the museum, Lucy is "a painting so powerful it commands its own preservation for posterity", setting a standard by which all future acquisitions would be compared.
Kate Swoger of The Montreal Gazette called Lucy a "gorgeous mistake", describing her thus: "an elderly woman dancing in a lush spring field, sagging breasts flopping willy-nilly, as she inexplicably seems to hold a red chair to her behind with one hand and a clutch of daisies in the other". Author Cash Peters, using less florid language, summarized it as "the old woman with an armchair glued to her ass".
MOBA's statement about Lucy reads: "The motion, the chair, the sway of her breast, the subtle hues of the sky, the expression on her face—every detail combines to create this transcendent and compelling portrait, every detail cries out 'masterpiece'." The Times recounted comments left by a museum visitor regarding the "endless layers of mysteries" the image offers: "What is Norman Mailer's head doing on an innocent grandma's body, and are those crows or F-16s skimming the hills?"
The granddaughter of the painting's subject, a Boston-area nurse named Susan Lawlor, became a fan of MOBA after seeing the portrait in a newspaper. She recognized it as her grandmother, Anna Lally Keane (c. 1890–1968); upon seeing the picture, Lawlor snorted Coca-Cola from her nose in astonishment. The painting was commissioned by her mother, and it hung in her aunt's house for many years, despite the trepidation family members felt at seeing the final composition. Says Lawlor: "The face is hauntingly hers, but everything else is so horribly wrong. It looks like she only has one breast. I'm not sure what happened to her arms and legs, and I don't know where all the flowers and yellow sky came from."
=== Sunday on the Pot with George ===
Sunday on the Pot with George (acrylic on canvas by John Gedraitis; donated by Jim Schulman) has been deemed "iconic" by Bella English of The Boston Globe, who assures the work is "100 percent guaranteed to make you burst out laughing". Wilson has pointed to George as an example of a technically well-executed piece of art using a subject not usually seen rendered in paint.
Many admirers of the first work donated to MOBA are hypnotized by the image of a portly man wearing "Y-front" underwear while sitting on a chamber pot, in pointillist impressionism similar to the style of Georges Seurat. One critic speculates the pointillist style in George may have been acquired "from watching too much TV". The title refers to the Stephen Sondheim musical Sunday in the Park with George, which contains a dramatic recreation of Seurat's painting A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte. Author Amy Levin suggests that George is a pastiche of Seurat's painting. The subject of this painting has been "tentatively identified" by the Annals of Improbable Research—the creators of the Ig Nobel award—as John Ashcroft, former United States Attorney General.
A visitor in response to seeing George displayed in the Dedham Community Theatre basement, wrote: "Someone had slipped into the bathroom as I took in this painting and began peeing loudly into a toilet. The reverberating sound of urine splashing while viewing George brought the painting to life, and when the denouement of the flush sounded, I wept." MOBA's accompanying caption introduces questions and observations: "Can the swirling steam melt away the huge weight of George's corporate responsibilities? This pointillist piece is curious for meticulous attention to fine detail, such as the stitching around the edge of the towel, in contrast to the almost careless disregard for the subject's feet."
=== Bone-Juggling Dog in Hula Skirt ===
In contrast to the pointillist impressionism of George, the museum also features a "fine example of labor-intensive pointlessism", according to MOBA staff. Mari Newman's Bone-Juggling Dog in Hula Skirt (tempera and acrylic paint on canvas; donated by the artist), inspired this description by MOBA: "We can only wonder what possesses an artist to portray a dog juggling bones while wearing a hula skirt." MOBA enjoys the mystery as much as any other aspect of art, however.
Newman, a professional artist from Minneapolis, responded to the curators' cogitation by describing how the image came into being. She bought used canvases while a poor art student, and was unsure how to use a canvas with these dimensions. Inspired by a cartoon of a dachshund, she chose that as a subject, but was unhappy with the effect until she added a hula skirt she had seen in a magazine, and colored dog bones she spied in a pet store. Newman wrote to them, saying "I almost threw it out until I heard of MOBA. After many years of slashing rejected work, now I wish I had saved them all for you."
=== Motifs and interpretations ===
Travel writer Cash Peters identifies six characteristics common to many of the museum's artworks. The first is that MOBA artists are unable to render hands or feet, and mask them by extending figures' arms off the canvas, hiding them with long sleeves, or placing shoes on feet in inappropriate scenarios. Second, Peters compared artists Rembrandt and J. M. W. Turner, masters of landscapes, who "could probably paint with their eyes shut" to MOBA artists who apparently did paint with their eyes shut, as skies are often painted in any color but blue, flora are created without reference to any existing plant organisms, and fauna appear so small in the background it is impossible to discern what kind of animals they are. Third, MOBA artists apply perspective inconsistently, either from one painting to the next, or within a single work. Peters's fourth observation concerns the difficulty MOBA artists seem to have in successfully rendering noses: he writes that a nose will be attempted so many times that the work takes on a third dimension as paint is reapplied over and over. Fifth, bad artists favor "mixed media": if in doubt, they glue feathers, glitter, or hair to their work. Lastly, Peters suggests that artists know their work is bad, but apparently feel the piece may be saved by including a monkey or a poodle in the composition.
Since late 2008, MOBA has been experimenting with allowing the public to title and caption some works. According to the curatorial staff, since some of the works are so puzzling, mere artistic interpretation is not sufficient: they must be "interpretated". The "Guest Interpretator's Collection" is an invitation for MOBA's visitors to include their thoughts on compelling artworks; a contest decides the best analysis and these interpretations are added as each contest ends. A professor at Boston University offered his thoughts: "The location of the museum as much as its collection suggests a commitment to the abject and a belief in the power and force of culture's marginalized effects. I was also reminded that I need to pick up some toilet bowl cleaner on my way home!"
== Influence ==
The Museum of Bad Art has been mentioned in hundreds of international publications, as well as in Boston-area travel guides highlighting offbeat attractions. It has inspired similar collections or events in Australia, Ohio, and Seattle.
Commedia Beauregard, a theatre company whose mission focuses on translation, was inspired by MOBA's mission to create their Master Works series of short play festivals. The company commissioned six playwrights to write short plays based on MOBA artworks. Master Works: The MOBA Plays was originally performed in January and February 2009 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The plays were based on the MOBA pieces Mana Lisa, Invasion of the Office Zombies, My Left Foot, Bone-Juggling Dog in Hula Skirt, Gina's Demons, and Lulli, Fowl and Gravestone. After moving to Chicago, the company again produced The MOBA Plays in March and April 2011, using three of the original plays and translating three new paintings.
=== Responses to bad art ===
Museum visitors can sign a guest book, and leave comments. One Canadian visitor wrote: "This collection is disturbing, yet I can't seem to look away...Just like a hideous car accident." Another visitor observes: "Her nipples follow you around the room. Creepy!"
Response to MOBA's opening and continued success is, for some, evocative of the way art is treated in society. MOBA works have been described as "unintentionally hilarious", similar to the films of Ed Wood. Visitors—and even MOBA staff—often laugh out loud at displays. In Gullible's Travels, Cash Peters contrasted this behavior with what is expected of patrons at galleries such as Southern California's Getty Museum; though viewers might find the art at the Getty equally hilarious, were they to show it they would almost certainly be thrown out.
In 2006, Louise Reilly Sacco participated in a panel discussion with authorities on art and architecture about standards of beauty and ugliness in art, published in Architecture Boston. She remarked that teachers bring high school art students to MOBA, then to the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (MFA). Sacco observes, "Somehow MOBA frees kids to laugh and point, to have their own opinions and argue about things. Then they take the experience to the MFA, where they might otherwise feel intimidated... Maybe the ugly ... frees us." Sacco believes that extreme ugliness is more striking than extreme beauty, and it forces people to think more deeply about what is wrong or misplaced. She connects this rigid judgment of what does not conform to beauty with intolerance for physical imperfections in people, noting that such rigidity sometimes causes parents to "fix" the perceived flaws in their children's faces to keep them from suffering later.
Jason Kaufman, a Harvard professor who teaches the sociology of culture, wrote that MOBA is part of a social trend he calls "annoyism", where mass media venues promote performances and artists who mix the deliberately bad with the clever. The Museum of Bad Art happens to embody this trend, and further illustrates its central aim to mock the judgment system by which people identify what is bad from what is not. For Kaufman, "The beauty of MOBA—though beauty is surely the wrong word—is the way it undermines aesthetic criteria from numerous angles." Amy Levin, describing how American history and culture have been shaped by small local museums, suggests that MOBA is a parody of art itself, and that MOBA's commentary, newsletter, website, and publications mock museums as authorities on what is good art. The director of the Ellipse Arts Center, a gallery in Arlington, Virginia, that hosted a traveling exhibition of MOBA works, was astonished to see people's exuberant laughter because no one visiting the Ellipse had ever responded to art this way. She observed, "If I didn't have a sign on the door, people might not think it's so bad. Who's to say what's bad and what's good?"
Deborah Solomon, in The New York Times Magazine, asserted that MOBA's success reflects a trend in modern art among artists and audiences. The arrival of abstraction and modern art in the early 20th century made art appreciation more esoteric and less accessible for the general community, showing that "the American public ... think[s] of museums as intimidating places ruled by a cadre of experts whose taste and rituals [seem] as mysterious as those of Byzantine priests." Bad art is in vogue, as a movement that rejects the anti-sentimentalism that marked earlier disdain for artists such as Norman Rockwell or Gustave Moreau, according to Solomon. Garen Daly, a MOBA fan on several Boston-area art councils, stated in 1995, "I go to a lot of openings, and sometimes they're pretty damn stuffy." Not only does the Museum of Bad Art offer different fare for the eyes, but instead of the wine and cheese that is provided for most museum and art gallery visitors, a MOBA show provides its patrons with Kool-Aid, Fluffernutters and cheese puffs.
=== Use in academic research ===
The works in the Museum of Bad Art have been used in academic studies as a standard of reference for low quality art. In one such study, published in Perspectives on Psychological Science, researchers tested the consistency of responses between people asked to make "gut" judgments versus those who gave conscious well-reasoned responses regarding the quality of various pieces of art. The researchers showed respondents images from MOBA and New York's Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) and asked them to rate each painting on a scale with two ends representing "Very Attractive" and "Very Unattractive". The study found that those who reasoned in conscious thought were neither more accurate nor as consistent in their ratings. Study participants identified and rated MoMA art higher quality, but those who used conscious reasoning did not find MoMA art more attractive than those who rated with "gut" judgments. Furthermore, the deliberators did not find MOBA art as unattractive as those with quicker response times. The study concluded that people who make quick judgments do so more consistently, with no significant change to accuracy.
In another study that appeared in the British Journal of Psychology, researchers tested how respondents considered balance in artwork composition of differing qualities. Fifteen pairs of works from ArtCyclopedia by artists such as Paul Gauguin, Georgia O'Keeffe, and Georges-Pierre Seurat, and fifteen from MOBA by artists including Doug Caderette, Unknown, and D. Alix were shown to participants. In each, an item in the painting was shifted vertically or horizontally, and respondents were asked to identify the original. The researchers hypothesized that respondents would identify balance and composition more easily in the traditional masterworks, and that study participants would find a greater change of quality when items were shifted in traditional masterworks than they would in MOBA pieces. However, the study concluded that balance alone did not define art of higher quality for the participants, and that respondents were more likely to see that original art was more balanced than the altered version, not necessarily that the traditional art was significantly better composed and balanced than MOBA works.
== See also ==
Museum of Particularly Bad Art
== Notes ==
== References ==
Belanger, Jeff; Moran, Mark; Sceurman, Mark (2008). Weird Massachusetts: Your Travel Guide to Massachusetts's Local Legends and Best Kept Secrets. Sterling Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4027-5437-1. OCLC 179788920.
Citro, Joseph A.; Foulds, Diane E. (2004). Curious New England: the unconventional traveler's guide to eccentric destinations. University Press of New England. ISBN 978-1-58465-359-2. OCLC 55591139.
Frank, Michael J.; Sacco, Louise Reilly (2008). Museum of Bad Art: Masterworks. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-1-58008-911-1. OCLC 182621558.
Levin, Amy K. (2007). Defining memory: local museums and the construction of history in America's changing communities. American Association for State and Local History book series. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-1050-2. OCLC 301935913.
Peters, Cash (2003). Gullible's Travels: The Adventures of a Bad Taste Tourist. Globe Pequot. ISBN 978-0-7627-2714-8. OCLC 51534983.
Stankowicz, Tom; Jackson, Marie (1996). The Museum of Bad Art: art too bad to be ignored. Riverside, New Jersey: Andrews and McMeel. ISBN 978-0-8362-2185-5. OCLC 34640796.
== External links ==
Media related to Museum of Bad Art at Wikimedia Commons
Official website
Dedham Community Theatre
Somerville Theater
Bad Taste Meets Bad Art: coverage of MOBA from Minnesota Public Radio
Museum Spotlight: Museum of Bad Art: Coverage of MOBA from Museum Bookstore |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Kashmir | History of Kashmir | The history of Kashmir is intertwined with the history of the broader Indian subcontinent in South Asia with influences from the surrounding regions of Central, and East Asia. Historically, Kashmir referred to only the Kashmir Valley of the western Himalayas. Today, it denotes a larger area that includes the Indian-administered union territories of Jammu and Kashmir (which consists of Jammu and the Kashmir Valley), Ladakh, the Pakistan-administered territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, and the Chinese-administered regions of Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract.
In the first half of the 1st millennium, the Kashmir region became an important centre of Hinduism and later—under the Mauryas and Kushanas—of Buddhism. Later in the ninth century, during the rule of the Karkota Dynasty, a native tradition of Shaivism arose. It flourished in the seven centuries of Hindu rule, continuing under the Utpala and the Lohara dynasties, ending in mid-14th century.
The spread of Islam in Kashmir began during the 13th century, accelerated under Muslim rule during the 14th and 15th centuries, and led to the eventual decline of Kashmiri Shaivism in the region.
In 1339, Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the Shah Mir dynasty. For the next five centuries, Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the Mughal Empire, who ruled from 1586 until 1751, and the Afghan Durrani Empire, which ruled from 1747 until 1819. That year, the Sikhs, under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir. In 1846, after the Sikh defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War, the Treaty of Lahore was signed and upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh, became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule of his descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former princely state became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China.
== Etymology ==
According to folk etymology, the name "Kashmir" means "desiccated land" (from the Sanskrit: ka = water and shimīra = desiccate). In the Rajatarangini, a history of Kashmir written by Kalhana in the mid-12th century, it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was formerly a lake. According to Hindu mythology, the lake was drained by the great rishi or sage, Kashyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills at Baramulla (Varaha-mula). When Kashmir had been drained, Kashyapa asked Brahmins to settle there. This is still the local tradition, and in the existing physical condition of the country, there is some ground for the story which has taken this form. The name of Kashyapa is by history and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the chief town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called Kashyapa-pura, which has been identified with Kaspapyros of Hecataeus (apud Stephanus of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44). Kashmir is also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria. Cashmere is an archaic spelling of Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way.
== Historiography ==
Nilamata Purana (complied c. 500–600 CE) contains accounts of Kashmir's early history. However, being a Puranic source, it has been argued that it suffers from a degree of inconsistency and unreliability. Kalhana's Rajatarangini (River of Kings), all the 8000 Sanskrit verses of which were completed by 1150 CE, chronicles the history of Kashmir's dynasties from earlier times to the 12th century. It relies upon traditional sources like Nilmata Purana, inscriptions, coins, monuments, and Kalhana's personal observations borne out of political experiences of his family. Towards the end of the work mythical explanations give way to rational and critical analyses of dramatic events between 11th and 12th centuries, for which Kalhana is often credited as "India's first historian".
During the reign of Muslim kings in Kashmir, three supplements to Rajatarangini were written by Jonaraja (1411–1463 CE), Srivara, and Prajyabhatta and Suka, which end with Akbar's conquest of Kashmir in 1586 CE. The text was translated into Persian by Muslim scholars such as Nizam Uddin, Farishta, and Abul Fazl. Baharistan-i-Shahi and Haidar Mailk's Tarikh-i-Kashmir (completed in 1621 CE) are the most important texts on the history of Kashmir during the Sultanate period. Both the texts were written in Persian and used Rajatarangini and Persian histories as their sources.
== Palaeolithic ==
At the Lower-Middle Palaeolithic Galander site near Pampore in the Kashmir Valley, remains of the extinct elephant species Palaeoloxodon turkmenicus have been found associated with knapped stone tools produced by archaic humans, with the bones of the elephant suggested to display deliberate fracturing, perhaps produced during the act of butchery. The stone tools exhibit production techniques reminiscent of the Levallois type, and the site is suggested to date to the Middle Pleistocene, around 400-300,000 years ago.
== Early history ==
The earliest Neolithic sites in the flood plains of Kashmir Valley are dated to c. 3000 BCE. Most important of these sites are the settlements at Burzahom, which had two Neolithic and one Megalithic phases. First phase (c. 2920 BCE) at Burzahom is marked by mud plastered pit dwellings, coarse pottery and stone tools. In the second phase, which lasted until c. 1700 BCE, houses were constructed on ground level and the dead were buried, sometimes with domesticated and wild animals. Hunting and fishing were the primary modes of subsistence though evidence of cultivation of wheat, barley, and lentils has also been found in both the phases. In the megalithic phase, massive circles were constructed and grey or black burnish replaced coarse red ware in pottery. During the later Vedic period, as kingdoms of the Vedic tribes expanded, the Uttara–Kurus settled in Kashmir.
In 326 BCE, Porus asked Abisares, the king of Kashmir, to aid him against Alexander the Great in the Battle of Hydaspes. After Porus lost the battle, Abhisares submitted to Alexander by sending him treasure and elephants.
During the reign of Ashoka (304–232 BCE), Kashmir became a part of the Maurya Empire and Buddhism was introduced in Kashmir. During this period, many stupas, some shrines dedicated to Shiva, and the city of Srinagari (Srinagar) were built. Kanishka (127–151 CE), an emperor of the Kushan dynasty, conquered Kashmir and established the new city of Kanishkapur. Buddhist tradition holds that Kanishka held the Fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir, in which celebrated scholars such as Ashvagosha, Nagarjuna and Vasumitra took part. By the fourth century, Kashmir became a seat of learning for both Buddhism and Hinduism. Kashmiri Buddhist missionaries helped spread Buddhism to Tibet and China and from the fifth century CE, pilgrims from these countries started visiting Kashmir. Kumārajīva (343–413 CE) was among the renowned Kashmiri scholars who traveled to China. He influenced the Chinese emperor Yao Xing and spearheaded translation of many Sanskrit works into Chinese at the Chang'an monastery.
The Alchon Huns under Toramana crossed over the Hindu Kush mountains and conquered large parts of western India including Kashmir. His son Mihirakula (c. 502–530 CE) led a military campaign to conquer all of North India. He was opposed by Baladitya in Magadha and eventually defeated by Yasodharman in Malwa. After the defeat, Mihirakula returned to Kashmir where he led a coup on the king. He then conquered of Gandhara where he committed many atrocities on Buddhists and destroyed their shrines. Influence of the Huns faded after Mihirakula's death.
In 659, Sogdia, Ferghana, Tashkent, Bukhara, Samarkand, Balkh, Herat, Kashmir, the Pamirs, Tokharistan, and Kabul all submitted to the protectorate under Emperor Gaozong of Tang.
=== Hindu Dynasties ===
A succession of Hindu dynasties ruled over the region from the 7th-14th centuries. After the seventh century, significant developments took place in Kashmiri Hinduism. In the centuries that followed, Kashmir produced many poets, philosophers, and artists who contributed to Sanskrit literature and Hindu religion. Among notable scholars of this period was Vasugupta (c. 875–925 CE) who wrote the Shiva Sutras which laid the foundation for a monistic Shaiva system called Kashmir Shaivism. Dualistic interpretation of Shaiva scripture was defeated by Abhinavagupta (c. 975–1025 CE) who wrote many philosophical works on Kashmir Shaivism. Kashmir Shaivism was adopted by the common masses of Kashmir and strongly influenced Shaivism in Southern India.
In the eighth century, the Karkota Empire established themselves as rulers of Kashmir. Kashmir grew as an imperial power under the Karkotas. Chandrapida of this dynasty was recognized by an imperial order of the Chinese emperor as the king of Kashmir. His successor Lalitaditya Muktapida lead a successful military campaign against the Tibetans. He then defeated Yashovarman of Kanyakubja and subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha, Kamarupa, Gauda, and Kalinga. Lalitaditya extended his influence of Malwa and Gujarat and defeated Arabs at Sindh. After his demise, Kashmir's influence over other kingdoms declined and the dynasty ended in c. 855–856 CE.
The Utpala dynasty founded by Avantivarman followed the Karkotas. His successor Shankaravarman (885–902 CE) led a successful military campaign against Gurjaras in Punjab. Political instability in the 10th century made the royal body guards (Tantrins) very powerful in Kashmir. Under the Tantrins, civil administration collapsed and chaos reigned in Kashmir until they were defeated by Chakravarman. Queen Didda, who descended from the Hindu Shahis of Udabhandapura on her mother's side, took over as the ruler in second half of the 10th century. After her death in 1003 CE, the throne passed to the Lohara dynasty. Suhadeva, last king of the Lohara dynasty, fled Kashmir after Zulju (Dulacha), a Turkic–Mongol chief, led a savage raid on Kashmir in about 1320. His wife, Queen Kota Rani ruled until 1339. She is often credited for the construction of a canal, named "Kutte Kol" after her, diverting the waters of the Jhelum to prevent frequent flooding in Srinagar.
During the 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni made two attempts to conquer Kashmir. However, both his campaigns failed because he could not take by siege the fortress at Lohkot.
== Muslim rulers ==
=== Prelude and Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1580s) ===
Historian Mohibbul Hasan states that the oppressive taxation, corruption, internecine fights and rise of feudal lords (Damaras) during the unpopular rule of the Lohara dynasty (1003–1320 CE) paved the way for foreign invasions of Kashmir. Rinchana was a Tibetan Buddhist refugee in Kashmir, who had established himself as the ruler after Zulju. Rinchana's conversion to Islam is a subject of Kashmiri folklore. He was persuaded to accept Islam by his minister Shah Mir, probably for political reasons. Islam had penetrated into countries outside Kashmir and in absence of the support from Hindus, who were in a majority, Rinchana needed the support of the Kashmiri Muslims. Shah Mir's coup on Rinchana's successor secured Muslim rule and the rule of his dynasty in Kashmir.
In the 14th century, Islam gradually became the dominant religion in Kashmir. With the fall of Kashmir, a premier center of Sanskrit literary creativity, Sanskrit literature there disappeared. Islamic preacher Sheikh Nooruddin Noorani, who is traditionally revered by Hindus as Nund Rishi, combined elements of Kashmir Shaivism with Sufi mysticism in his discourses. The Sultans between 1354 and 1470 CE were tolerant of other religions with the exception of Sultan Sikandar (1389–1413 CE). Sultan Sikandar imposed taxes on non–Muslims, forced conversions to Islam, and earned the title But–Shikan for destroying idols. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (c. 1420–1470 CE) invited artists and craftsmen from Central Asia and Persia to train local artists in Kashmir. Under his rule the arts of wood carving, papier-mâché, shawls and carpets weaving prospered. For a brief period in the 1470s, states of Jammu, Poonch and Rajauri which paid tributes to Kashmir revolted against the Sultan Hajji Khan. However, they were subjugated by his son Hasan Khan who took over as ruler in 1472 CE. By the mid 16th century, Hindu influence in the courts and role of the Hindu priests had declined as Muslim missionaries immigrated into Kashmir from Central Asia and Persia, and Persian replaced Sanskrit as the official language. Around the same period, the nobility of Chaks had become powerful enough to unseat the Shah Mir dynasty.
Mughal general Haidar Dughlat, a member of ruling family in Kashgar, invaded Kashmir in c. 1540 CE on behalf of emperor Humayun. Persecution of Shias, Shafi'is and Sufis and instigation by Suri kings led to a revolt which overthrew Dughlat's rule in Kashmir.
=== Mughals (1580s–1750s) ===
Kashmir did not witness direct Mughal rule until the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar the Great, who took control of Kashmir and added it to his Kabul Subah in 1586. Shah Jahan carved it out as a separate subah (imperial top-level province), with seat at Srinagar. During successive Mughal emperors many celebrated gardens, mosques and palaces were constructed. Religious intolerance and discriminatory taxation reappeared when Mughal emperor Aurangzeb ascended to the throne in 1658 CE. After his death, the influence of the Mughal Empire declined.
In 1700 CE, a servant of a wealthy Kashmir merchant brought Mo-i Muqqadas (the hair of the Prophet), a relic of Muhammad, to the valley. The relic was housed in the Hazratbal Shrine on the banks of Dal Lake. Nadir Shah's invasion of India in 1738 CE further weakened Mughal control over Kashmir.
=== Durrani Empire (1752–1819) ===
Taking advantage of the declining Mughal Empire, the Afghan Durrani Empire under Ahmad Shah Durrani took control of Kashmir in 1752. In the mid-1750s the Afghan-appointed governor of Kashmir, Sukh Jiwan Mal, rebelled against the Durrani Empire before being defeated in 1762. After Mal's defeat, the Durrani engaged in the oppression of the remaining Hindu population through forced conversions, killings, and forced labor. Repression by the Durrani extended to all classes, regardless of religion, and a heavy tax burden was levied on the Kashmiri populace. According to the historian Victoria Schofield: "The names of the Afghan governors who ruled Kashmir are all but forgotten but not their cruelty, which was directed mainly towards the Hindus". Extortion was common and many Kashmiris were sold as slaves to Afghanistan, adds Schofield.
A number of Afghan governors administered the region on behalf of the Durrani Empire. During the Durrani rule in Kashmir, income from the region constituted a large part of the Durrani Empire's revenue. The empire controlled Kashmir until 1819, after which the region was annexed by the Sikh Empire.
== Sikh rule (1819–1846) ==
After four centuries of Muslim rule, Kashmir fell to the conquering armies of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of Punjab after the Battle of Shopian in 1819. As the Kashmiris had suffered under the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikh rulers. However, the Sikh governors turned out to be hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally considered oppressive, protected perhaps by the remoteness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh Empire in Lahore. The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslim laws, which included handing out death sentences for cow slaughter, closing down the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar, and banning the azaan, the public Muslim call to prayer; these laws were however later repealed by the governor Muhyuddin during the last decade of Sikh rule. Kashmir had also now begun to attract European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abject poverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exorbitant taxes under the Sikhs. High taxes, according to some contemporary accounts, had depopulated large tracts of the countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth of the cultivable land to be cultivated. However, after a famine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half the produce of the land and also began to offer interest-free loans to farmers; Kashmir became the second highest revenue earner for the Sikh empire. During this time Kashmiri shawls became known worldwide, attracting many buyers especially in the west.
Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo, the kingdom of Jammu (to the south of the Kashmir valley) was also captured by the Sikhs and made a tributary. Ranjit Deo's grandnephew, Gulab Singh, subsequently sought service at the court of Ranjit Singh, distinguished himself in later campaigns and got appointed as the Raja of Jammu in 1820. With the help of his officer, Zorawar Singh, Gulab Singh soon captured for the Sikhs the lands of Ladakh and Baltistan. The notable governors appointed to Kashmir by the Sikh kingdom include Moti Ram, Hari Singh, Kirpa Ram, Mihan Singh and Muhyuddin.
== Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (Dogra Rule, 1846–1947) ==
In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out, and Gulab Singh "contrived to hold himself aloof until the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for (rupees) ten million of indemnity, the hill countries between Beas and Indus; by the second the British made over to Gulab Singh for (Rupees) 7.5 million all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of Indus and west of Ravi" (i.e. the Vale of Kashmir). The Treaty of Amritsar freed Gulab Singh from obligations towards the Sikhs and made him the Maharajah of Jammu and Kashmir. The Dogras' loyalty came in handy to the British during the revolt of 1857 which challenged British rule in India. Dogras refused to provide sanctuary to mutineers, allowed English women and children to seek asylum in Kashmir and sent Kashmiri troops to fight on behalf of the British. British in return rewarded them by securing the succession of Dogra rule in Kashmir. Soon after Gulab Singh's death in 1857, his son, Ranbir Singh, added the emirates of Hunza, Gilgit and Nagar to the kingdom.
The Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was then called) was constituted between 1820 and 1858 and was "somewhat artificial in composition and it did not develop a fully coherent identity, partly as a result of its disparate origins and partly as a result of the autocratic rule which it experienced on the fringes of Empire." It combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities: to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the Kashmiri brahmins or pandits; to the northeast, sparsely populated Baltistan had a population ethnically related to Ladakh, but which practised Shi'a Islam; to the north, also sparsely populated, Gilgit Agency, was an area of diverse, mostly Shi'a groups; and, to the west, Punch was Muslim, but of different ethnicity than the Kashmir valley.
Despite being in a majority the Muslims were made to suffer severe oppression under Hindu rule in the form of high taxes, unpaid forced labor and discriminatory laws. Many Kashmiri Muslims migrated from the Valley to Punjab due to famine and policies of Dogra rulers. The Muslim peasantry was vast, impoverished and ruled by a Hindu elite. The Muslim peasants lacked education, awareness of rights and were chronically in debt to landlords and moneylenders, and did not organize politically until the 1930s.
== 1947 ==
Ranbir Singh's grandson Hari Singh, who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent partition of the British Indian Empire into the newly independent Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan. An internal revolt began in the Poonch region against oppressive taxation by the Maharaja. In August, Maharaja's forces fired upon demonstrations in favour of Kashmir joining Pakistan, burned whole villages and massacred innocent people. The Poonch rebels declared an independent government of "Azad" Kashmir on 24 October. Rulers of Princely States were encouraged to accede their States to either Dominion – India or Pakistan, taking into account factors such as geographical contiguity and the wishes of their people. In 1947, Jammu and Kashmir's population was "77% Muslim and 20% Hindu". To postpone making a hurried decision, the Maharaja signed a standstill agreement with Pakistan, which ensured continuity of trade, travel, communication, and similar services between the two. Such an agreement was pending with India. Following huge riots in Jammu, in October 1947, Pashtuns from Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province recruited by the Poonch rebels, invaded Kashmir, along with the Poonch rebels, allegedly incensed by the atrocities against fellow Muslims in Poonch and Jammu. The tribesmen engaged in looting and killing along the way. The ostensible aim of the guerilla campaign was to frighten Hari Singh into submission. Instead the Maharaja appealed to the Government of India for assistance, and the Governor-General Lord Mountbatten agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India. Once the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession, Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. India accepted the accession, regarding it provisional until such time as the will of the people can be ascertained. Kashmir leader Sheikh Abdullah endorsed the accession as ad hoc which would be ultimately decided by the people of the State. He was appointed the head of the emergency administration by the Maharaja. The Pakistani government immediately contested the accession, suggesting that it was fraudulent, that the Maharaja acted under duress and that he had no right to sign an agreement with India when the standstill agreement with Pakistan was still in force.
== Post-1947 ==
In early 1948, India sought a resolution of the Kashmir conflict at the United Nations. Following the set-up of the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP), the UN Security Council passed Resolution 47 on 21 April 1948. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of people of J&K must be ascertained. The then Indian Prime Minister is reported to have himself urged U.N. to poll Kashmir and on the basis of results Kashmir's accession will be decided. However, India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars.
On 5 January 1949, UNCIP (United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan) resolution stated that the question of the accession of the State of Jammu and Kashmir to India or Pakistan will be decided through a free and impartial plebiscite. As per the 1948 and 1949 UNCIP Resolutions, both countries accepted the principle, that Pakistan secures the withdrawal of Pakistani intruders followed by withdrawal of Pakistani and Indian forces, as a basis for the formulation of a Truce agreement whose details are to be arrived in future, followed by a plebiscite; However, both countries failed to arrive at a Truce agreement due to differences in interpretation of the procedure for and extent of demilitarisation one of them being whether the Azad Kashmiri army of Pakistan is to be disbanded during the truce stage or the plebiscite stage.
In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices; however, since the plebiscite demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured, and eventually led to three more wars over Kashmir in 1965, 1971 and 1999. India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir; Pakistan controls a third of the region, governing it as Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "Although there was a clear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 partition and its economic, cultural, and geographic contiguity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (in Pakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the political developments during and after the partition resulted in a division of the region. Pakistan was left with territory that, although basically Muslim in character, was thinly populated, relatively inaccessible, and economically underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to number more than half the population of the entire region, lay in Indian-administered territory, with its former outlets via the Jhelum valley route blocked."
The UN Security Council on 20 January 1948 passed Resolution 39 establishing a special commission to investigate the conflict. Subsequent to the commission's recommendation the Security Council, ordered in its Resolution 47, passed on 21 April 1948 that the invading Pakistani army retreat from Jammu & Kashmir and that the accession of Kashmir to either India or Pakistan be determined in accordance with a plebiscite to be supervised by the UN. In a string of subsequent resolutions the Security Council took notice of the continuing failure by India to hold the plebiscite. However, no punitive action against India could be taken by the Security Council because its resolution, requiring India to hold a Plebiscite, was non-binding. Moreover, the Pakistani army never left the part of the Kashmir, they managed to keep occupied at the end of the 1947 war. They were required by the Security Council resolution 47 to remove all armed personnels from the Azad Kashmir before holding the plebiscite.
The eastern region of the erstwhile princely state of Kashmir has also been beset with a boundary dispute. In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and the official Chinese position did not change with the communist revolution in 1949. By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh.: "By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian war of October 1962." China has occupied Aksai Chin since 1962 and, in addition, an adjoining region, the Trans-Karakoram Tract was ceded by Pakistan to China in 1965.
In 1949, the Indian government obliged Hari Singh to leave Jammu and Kashmir and yield the government to Sheikh Abdullah, the leader of a popular political party, the National Conference Party. Since then, a bitter enmity has been developed between India and Pakistan and three wars have taken place between them over Kashmir. The growing dispute over Kashmir and the consistent failure of democracy also led to the rise of Kashmir nationalism and militancy in the state.
In 1986, the Anantnag riots broke out after the CM Gul Shah ordered the construction of a mosque at the site of a Hindu Temple in Jammu and Gul Shah made an incendiary speech. Hindu-Muslim riots (a reaction to the opening of Babri Masjid to Hindu worshippers) were a national event, taking place in seven other states as well. Following the 1987 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election that were widely perceived to have been rigged, disgruntled Kashmiri youth such as the so-called 'HAJY group' – Abdul Hamid Shaikh, Ashfaq Majid Wani, Javed Ahmed Mir and Mohammed Yasin Malik – joined the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front(JKLF) as an alternative to the ineffective democratic setup that was prevalent in Kashmir. This led to gain in the momentum of the popular insurgency in the Kashmir Valley. The year 1989 saw the intensification of conflict in Jammu and Kashmir as Mujahadeens from Afghanistan slowly infiltrated the region following the end of the Soviet–Afghan War the same year. Pakistan provided arms and training to both indigenous and foreign militants in Kashmir, thus adding fuel to the smouldering fire of discontent in the valley.
In August 2019, the Government of India repealed the special status accorded to Jammu and Kashmir under Article 370 of the Indian constitution in 2019, and the Parliament of India passed the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, which contained provisions to dissolve the state and reorganise it into two union territories – Jammu and Kashmir in the west and Ladakh in the east. These changes came into effect from 31 October 2019.
== Historical demographics of Kashmir ==
In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir was 2,905,578. Of these 2,154,695 were Muslims, 689,073 Hindus, 25,828 Sikhs, and 35,047 Buddhists. The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 50% of the population. In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "only 524 in every 10,000 of the population (i.e. 5.24%), and in the frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)." In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% of the population. These percentages have remained fairly stable for the last 100 years. In the 1941 Census of British India, Muslims accounted for 93.6% of the population of the Kashmir Valley and the Hindus constituted 4%. In 2003, the percentage of Muslims in the Kashmir Valley was 95% and those of Hindus 4%; the same year, in Jammu, the percentage of Hindus was 67% and those of Muslims 27%.
Among the Muslims of the Kashmir province within the princely state, four divisions were recorded: "Shaikhs, Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans. The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are the descendants of Hindus, but have retained none of the caste rules of their forefathers. They have clan names known as krams ..." It was recorded that these kram names included "Tantre", "Shaikh", "Bat", "Mantu", "Ganai", "Dar", "Damar", "Lon", etc. The Saiyids, it was recorded, "could be divided into those who follow the profession of religion and those who have taken to agriculture and other pursuits. Their kram name is 'Mir.' While a Saiyid retains his saintly profession Mir is a prefix; if he has taken to agriculture, Mir is an affix to his name." The Mughals who were not numerous were recorded to have kram names like "Mir" (a corruption of "Mirza"), "Beg", "Bandi", "Bach" and "Ashaye". Finally, it was recorded that the Pathans "who are more numerous than the Mughals, ... are found chiefly in the south-west of the valley, where Pathan colonies have from time to time been founded. The most interesting of these colonies is that of Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, who retain all the old customs and speak Pashtu." Among the main tribes of Muslims in the princely state are the Butts, Dar, Lone, Jat, Gujjar, Rajput, Sudhan and Khatri. A small number of Butts, Dar and Lone use the title Khawaja and the Khatri use the title Shaikh the Gujjar use the title of Chaudhary. All these tribes are indigenous of the princely state which converted to Islam from Hinduism during its arrival in region.
Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "Brahmins (186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the Khatris (48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)."
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
United Nations Security Council Resolution 47
Kashmiriyat
Sharada Peeth
Buddhism in Kashmir
Harsha of Kashmir
List of topics on the land and the people of "Jammu and Kashmir"
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Primary sources
=== Historiography ===
Ganguly, D.K. (1985), History and Historians in Ancient India, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 978-0-391-03250-7
Ghose, D. K. (1969), "Source-Material for the History of Kashmir (Second Half of the Nineteenth Century)", Quarterly Review of Historical Studies, 9 (1): 7–12
Hasan, Mohibbul (1983), Historians of medieval India, Meenakshi Prakashan, OCLC 12924924
Hewitt, Vernon (2007), "Never Ending Stories: Recent Trends in the Historiography of Jammu and Kashmir", History Compass, 5 (2): 288–301, doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2006.00372.x covers 1846 to 1997
Lone, Fozia Nazir (2009), "From âSale to Accession Deedââ Scanning the Historiography of Kashmir 1846â1947", History Compass, 7 (6): 1496–1508, doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00652.x
Sharma, Tej Ram (2005), Historiography: A History of Historical Writing, Concept Publishing Company, ISBN 978-81-8069-155-3
Sreedharan, E. (2004), A Textbook of Historiography: 500 BC to AD 2000, Orient Blackswan, ISBN 978-81-250-2657-0
Zutshi, Chitralekha (2012), "Whither Kashmir Studies?: A Review", Modern Asian Studies, 46 (4): 1033–1048, doi:10.1017/S0026749X11000345, S2CID 144626260
Zutshi, Chitralekha (2013), "Past as tradition, past as history: The Rajatarangini narratives in Kashmir's Persian historical tradition", The Indian Economic & Social History Review, 50 (2): 201–219, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.893.7358, doi:10.1177/0019464613487119, S2CID 143228373
== External links ==
Baharistan -i Shahi A Chronicle of Medieval Kashmir translated into English Archived 22 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine
Conflict in Kashmir: Selected Internet Resources by the Library, University of California, Berkeley, USA; Bibliographies and Web-Bibliographies list
Kashmir Website with Historical Timeline
Coins of the Kashmir Sultanate (1346–1586)
(in Arabic) "The Great History of the Events of Kashmir" from 1821 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoticon | Emoticon | An emoticon (, ə-MOH-tə-kon, rarely , ih-MOTT-ih-kon), portmanteau of emotion and icon, is a pictorial representation of a facial expression using characters—usually punctuation marks, numbers and letters—to express a person's feelings, mood or reaction, without needing to describe it in detail.
ASCII emoticons can be traced back hundreds of years with various one-off uses. The protocol as a way to use them to communicate emotion in conversations is credited to computer scientist Scott Fahlman, who proposed what came to be known as "smileys"—:-) and :-(—in a message on the bulletin board system (BBS) of Carnegie Mellon University in 1982. In Western countries, emoticons are usually written at a right angle to the direction of the text. Users from Japan popularized a kind of emoticon called kaomoji, using Japanese's larger character sets. This style arose on ASCII NET of Japan in 1986. They are also known as verticons (from vertical emoticon) due to their readability without rotations. This is often seen as the 1st generation of emoticons.
The second generation began when computing became more common in the west, and people began replacing the previous ASCII art with actual emoticon icons or designs. One term used to define these types of emoticons compared to ASCII was portrait emoticons, as portrait emoticons are meant to resemble a face from the front like a portrait painting. The use of these emoticons became prevalent when SMS mobile text messaging and the Internet became widespread in the late 1990s, emoticons became increasingly popular and were commonly used in texting, Internet forums and emails. Over time, the designs became more elaborate and emoticons such as 🙂 by Unicode became commonly referred to as Emoticons. They have played a significant role in communication as technology for communication purposes advanced and increased in use. Emoticons today convey non-verbal cues of language, such as facial expressions but also hand gestures, with The Smiley Company stating in interviews that emoticons now allow for greater emotional understanding in writing when emoticons are used. Emoticons were the precursors to modern emojis not just for facial expressions, but also replacing categories like weather, sports and animals.
== History ==
=== ASCII art and faces (pre-1981) ===
In 1648, poet Robert Herrick wrote, "Tumble me down, and I will sit Upon my ruins, (smiling yet:)." Herrick's work predated any other recorded use of brackets as a smiling face by around 200 years. However, experts doubted the inclusion of the colon in the poem was deliberate and if it was meant to represent a smiling face. English professor Alan Jacobs argued that "punctuation, in general, was unsettled in the seventeenth century ... Herrick was unlikely to have consistent punctuational practices himself, and even if he did he couldn't expect either his printers or his readers to share them." 17th century typography practice often placed colons and semicolons within parentheses, including 14 instances of ":)" in Richard Baxter's 1653 Plain Scripture Proof of Infants Church-membership and Baptism.
Precursors to modern emoticons have existed since the 19th century. The National Telegraphic Review and Operators Guide in April 1857 documented the use of the number 73 in Morse code to express "love and kisses" (later reduced to the more formal "best regards"). Dodge's Manual in 1908 documented the reintroduction of "love and kisses" as the number 88. New Zealand academics Joan Gajadhar and John Green comment that both Morse code abbreviations are more succinct than modern abbreviations such as LOL.
The transcript of one of Abraham Lincoln's speeches in 1862 recorded the audience's reaction as: "(applause and laughter ;)". There has been some debate whether the glyph in Lincoln's speech was a typo, a legitimate punctuation construct or the first emoticon. Linguist Philip Seargeant argues that it was a simple typesetting error.
Before March 1881, the examples of "typographical art" appeared in at least three newspaper articles, including Kurjer warszawski (published in Warsaw) from March 5, 1881, using punctuation to represent the emotions of joy, melancholy, indifference and astonishment.
In a 1912 essay titled "For Brevity and Clarity", American author Ambrose Bierce suggested facetiously that a bracket could be used to represent a smiling face, proposing "an improvement in punctuation" with which writers could convey cachinnation, loud or immoderate laughter: "it is written thus ‿ and presents a smiling mouth. It is to be appended, with the full stop, to every jocular or ironical sentence". In a 1936 Harvard Lampoon article, writer Alan Gregg proposed combining brackets with various other punctuation marks to represent various moods. Brackets were used for the sides of the mouth or cheeks, with other punctuation used between the brackets to display various emotions: (-) for a smile, (--) (showing more "teeth") for laughter, (#) for a frown and (*) for a wink. An instance of text characters representing a sideways smiling and frowning face could be found in the New York Herald Tribune on March 10, 1953, promoting the film Lili starring Leslie Caron.
The September 1962 issue of MAD magazine included an article titled "Typewri-toons". The piece, featuring typewriter-generated artwork credited to "Royal Portable", was entirely made up of repurposed typography, including a capital letter P having a bigger 'bust' than a capital I, a lowercase b and d discussing their pregnancies, an asterisk on top of a letter to indicate the letter had just come inside from snowfall, and a classroom of lowercase n's interrupted by a lowercase h "raising its hand". A further example attributed to a Baltimore Sunday Sun columnist appeared in a 1967 article in Reader's Digest, using a dash and right bracket to represent a tongue in one's cheek: —). Prefiguring the modern "smiley" emoticon, writer Vladimir Nabokov told an interviewer from The New York Times in 1969, "I often think there should exist a special typographical sign for a smile—some sort of concave mark, a supine round bracket, which I would now like to trace in reply to your question."
In the 1970s, the PLATO IV computer system was launched. It was one of the first computers used throughout educational and professional institutions, but rarely used in a residential setting. On the computer system, a student at the University of Illinois developed pictograms that resembled different smiling faces. Mary Kalantzis and Bill Cope stated this likely took place in 1972, and they claimed these to be the first emoticons.
=== ASCII emoticons - First generation (1982–mid-1990s) ===
In 1982, Carnegie Mellon computer scientist Scott Fahlman is generally credited with the protocol of communicating and portraying emotion in written text. The use of ASCII symbols, a standard set of codes representing typographical marks, was essential to allow the symbols to be displayed on any computer. In Carnegie Mellon's bulletin board system, Fahlman proposed colon–hyphen–right bracket :-) as a label for "attempted humor" to try to solve the difficulty of conveying humor or sarcasm in plain text. Fahlman sent the following message after an incident where a humorous warning about a mercury spill in an elevator was misunderstood as serious:
19-Sep-82 11:44 Scott E Fahlman :-)
From: Scott E Fahlman <Fahlman at Cmu-20c>
I propose that the following character sequence for joke markers:
:-)
Read it sideways. Actually, it is probably more economical to mark
things that are NOT jokes, given current trends. For this, use
:-(
Within a few months, the smiley had spread to the ARPANET and Usenet. Other suggestions on the forum included an asterisk * and an ampersand &, the latter meant to represent a person doubled over in laughter, as well as a percent sign % and a pound sign #. Scott Fahlman suggested that not only could his emoticon communicate emotion, but also replace language. Since the 1990s, emoticons (colon, hyphen and bracket) have become integral to digital communications, and have inspired a variety of other emoticons, including the "winking" face using a semicolon ;-), XD, a representation of the Face with Tears of Joy emoji and the acronym "LOL".
In 1996, The Smiley Company was established by Nicolas Loufrani and his father Franklin as a way of commercializing the smiley trademark. As part of this, The Smiley Dictionary website was launched and had a focus on ASCII emoticons, where available emoticons were catalogued. In total more than 500 were recorded. Notably this catalog removed the dash ( - ) for a nose and just had eyes and a mouth. The reasoning behind this was to make the ASCII emoticons more like the smiley, which resulted in :) instead of :-). The shortening or redesign of ASCII emoticons has not been covered in enough depth to know where the shorter versions originated, but The Smiley Dictionary could have as a minimum influenced the way ASCII emoticons are used today. Many other people did similar to Loufrani from 1995 onwards, including David Sanderson creating the book Smileys in 1997. James Marshall also hosted an online collection of ASCII emoticons that he completed in 2008. In 1998, the book Le Dico Smiley was also published.
A researcher at Stanford University surveyed the emoticons used in four million Twitter messages and found that the smiling emoticon without a hyphen "nose" :) was much more common than the original version with the hyphen :-). Linguist Vyvyan Evans argues that this represents a shift in usage by younger users as a form of covert prestige: rejecting a standard usage in order to demonstrate in-group membership.
=== Portrait emoticons - Second generation (1990s–present) ===
Nicolas Loufrani began to use the basic text designs and turned them into graphical representations, which are now known as portrait emoticons. His designs were registered at the United States Copyright Office in 1997 and appeared online as GIF files in 1998. For ASCII emoticons that did not exist to convert into graphical form, Loufrani also backward engineered new ASCII emoticons from the graphical versions he created. These were the first graphical representations of ASCII emoticons. Not only did these portrait emoticons portray existing and new ASCII emoticons, but also new features were added, such as hand gestures in the form of white gloves. These have since become standalone emojis along with other emojis that have replaced words in text communication. In 2001, he published his emoticon set online on the Smiley Dictionary. This dictionary included 640 different smiley icons and was published as a book called Dico Smileys in 2002. In 2017, British magazine The Drum referred to Loufrani as the "godfather of the emoji" for his work in the field.
The first American company to take notice of emojis was Google beginning in 2007. In August 2007, a team made up of Mark Davis and his colleagues Kat Momoi and Markus Scherer began petitioning the Unicode Technical Committee (UTC) in an attempt to standardise the emoji. The UTC, having previously deemed emoji to be out of scope for Unicode, made the decision to broaden its scope to enable compatibility with the Japanese cellular carrier formats which were becoming more widespread. Peter Edberg and Yasuo Kida joined the collaborative effort from Apple Inc. shortly after, and their official UTC proposal came in January 2009 with 625 new emoji characters. Notably the move included a large set of emoticons, designed in an emoji-style but representing different emotions.
In recent times, emoticons, emojis and smileys have often become intertwined and confused. Emojis represent the largest set of graphical communication, but they often include portrait emoticons. In fact, the majority of the most commonly used Emoji are emoticons (because they represent an emotion). In 2024, the BBC reported that 2 of the top 3 emojis were portrait emoticons.
On September 23, 2021, it was announced that Scott Fahlman was holding an auction for the original emoticons he created in 1982. The auction was held in Dallas, United States, and sold the two designs as non-fungible tokens (NFT). The online auction ended later that month, with the originals selling for US$237,500. A year later in 2022, The Smiley Company auctioned off an NFT of 42 original graphical emoticon on World Emoji Day. The proceeds of the sale went to the company's non-profit arm, Smiley Movement.
In some programming languages, certain operators are known informally by their emoticon-like appearance. This includes the Spaceship operator <=> (a comparison), the Diamond operator <> (for type hinting) and the Elvis operator ?: (a shortened ternary operator).
== Styles ==
=== Western ===
Usually, emoticons in Western style have the eyes on the left, followed by the nose and the mouth. It is commonly placed at the end of a sentence, replacing the full stop. The two-character version :), which omits the nose, is very popular. The most basic emoticons are relatively consistent in form, but some can be rotated (making them tiny ambigrams). There are also some variations to emoticons to get new definitions, like changing a character to express another feeling. For example, :( equals sad and :(( equals very sad. Weeping can be written as :'(. A blush can be expressed as :">. Others include wink ;), a grin :D, :P for tongue out, and smug :->; they can be used to denote a flirting or joking tone, or may be implying a second meaning in the sentence preceding it. ;P, such as when blowing a raspberry. An often used combination is also <3 for a heart and </3 for a broken heart. :O is also sometimes used to depict shock. :/ is used to depict melancholy, disappointment or disapproval. :| may be used to depict a neutral face.
A broad grin is sometimes shown with crinkled eyes to express further amusement; XD and the addition of further "D" letters can suggest laughter or extreme amusement, e.g., XDDDD. The "3" in X3 and :3 represents an animal's mouth. An equal sign is often used for the eyes in place of the colon, seen as =). It has become more acceptable to omit the hyphen, whether a colon or an equal sign is used for the eyes. One linguistic study has indicated that the use of a nose in an emoticon may be related to the user's age, with younger people less likely to use a nose.
Some variants are also more common in certain countries due to keyboard layouts. For example, the smiley =) may occur in Scandinavia. Diacritical marks are sometimes used. The letters Ö and Ü can be seen as emoticons, as the upright versions of :O (meaning that one is surprised) and :D (meaning that one is very happy), respectively. In countries where the Cyrillic alphabet is used, the right parenthesis ) is used as a smiley. Multiple parentheses )))) are used to express greater happiness, amusement or laughter. The colon is omitted due to being in a lesser-known position on the ЙЦУКЕН keyboard layout. The 'shrug' emoticon, ¯\_(ツ)_/¯, uses the glyph ツ from the Japanese katakana writing system.
=== Kaomoji (Japan ASCII movement) ===
Kaomoji are often seen as the Japanese development of emoticons that is separate to the Scott Fahlman movement, which started in 1982. In 1986, a designer began to use brackets and other ASCII text characters to form faces. Over time, they became more often differentiated from each other, although both use ASCII characters. However, more westernised Kaomojis have dropped the brackets, such as owo, uwu and TwT, popularised in internet subcultures such as the anime and furry communities.
=== 2channel ===
Users of the Japanese discussion board 2channel, in particular, have developed a variety emoticons using characters from various scripts, such as Kannada, as in ಠ_ಠ (for a look of disapproval, disbelief or confusion). Similarly, the letter ರೃ was used in emoticons to represent a monocle and ಥ to represent a tearing eye. They were picked up by 4chan and spread to other Western sites soon after. Some have become characters in their own right like Monā.
=== Korean ===
In South Korea, emoticons use Korean Hangul letters, and the Western style is rarely used. The structures of Korean and Japanese emoticons are somewhat similar, but they have some differences. Korean style contains Korean jamo (letters) instead of other characters.
The consonant jamos ㅅ, ㅁ or ㅂ can be used as the mouth or nose component and ㅇ, ㅎ or ㅍ for the eyes. Using quotation marks " and apostrophes ' are also commonly used combinations. Vowel jamos such as ㅜ and ㅠ can depict a crying face. Example: ㅜㅜ, (same function as T in Western style). Sometimes ㅡ (not an em-dash "—", but a vowel jamo), a comma (,) or an underscore (_) is added, and the two character sets can be mixed together, as in ㅠ.ㅡ, ㅡ^ㅜ and ㅜㅇㅡ. Also, semicolons and carets are commonly used in Korean emoticons; semicolons can mean sweating, examples of it are -;/, --^ and -_-;;.
=== Chinese ideographic ===
The character 囧 (U+56E7), which means 'bright', may be combined with the posture emoticon Orz, such as 囧rz. The character existed in Oracle bone script but was rarely used until its use as an emoticon, documented as early as January 20, 2005.
Other variants of 囧 include 崮 (king 囧), 莔 (queen 囧), 商 (囧 with a hat), 囧興 (turtle) and 卣 (Bomberman). The character 槑 (U+69D1), a variant of 梅 'plum', is used to represent a double of 呆 'dull' or further magnitude of dullness. In Chinese, normally full characters (as opposed to the stylistic use of 槑) might be duplicated to express emphasis.
== Posture emoticons ==
=== Orz ===
Orz (other forms include: Or2, on_, OTZ, OTL, STO, JTO, _no, _冂○ and 囧rz) is an emoticon representing a kneeling or bowing person (the Japanese version of which is called dogeza), with the "o" being the head, the "r" being the arms and part of the body, and the "z" being part of the body and the legs. This stick figure can represent respect or kowtowing, but commonly appears along a range of responses, including "frustration, despair, sarcasm, or grudging respect".
It was first used in late 2002 at the forum on Techside, a Japanese personal website. At the "Techside FAQ Forum" (TECHSIDE教えて君BBS(教えてBBS)), a poster asked about a cable cover, typing "_|￣|○" to show a cable and its cover. Others commented that it looked like a kneeling person, and the symbol became popular. These comments were soon deleted as they were considered off-topic. By 2005, Orz spawned a subculture: blogs have been devoted to the emoticon, and URL shortening services have been named after it. In Taiwan, Orz is associated with the concept of nice guys.
=== o7 ===
o7, or O7, is an emoticon that depicts a person saluting, with the o being the head and the 7 being its arm.
== Multimedia variations ==
A portmanteau of emotion and sound, an emotisound is a brief sound transmitted and played back during the viewing of a message, typically an IM message or email message. The sound is intended to communicate an emotional subtext. Some services, such as MuzIcons, combine emoticons and music players in an Adobe Flash-based widget. In 2004, the Trillian chat application introduced a feature called "emotiblips", which allows Trillian users to stream files to their instant message recipients "as the voice and video equivalent of an emoticon".
In 2007, MTV and Paramount Home Entertainment promoted the "emoticlip" as a form of viral marketing for the second season of the show The Hills. The emoticlips were twelve short snippets of dialogue from the show, uploaded to YouTube. The emoticlip concept is credited to the Bradley & Montgomery advertising firm, which wrote that they hoped it would be widely adopted as "greeting cards that just happen to be selling something".
== Intellectual property rights ==
In 2000, Despair, Inc. obtained a U.S. trademark registration for the "frowny" emoticon :-( when used on "greeting cards, posters and art prints". In 2001, they issued a satirical press release, announcing that they would sue Internet users who typed the frowny; the company received protests when its mock release was posted on technology news website Slashdot.
A number of patent applications have been filed on inventions that assist in communicating with emoticons. A few of these have been issued as US patents. US 6987991, for example, discloses a method developed in 2001 to send emoticons over a cell phone using a drop-down menu. The stated advantage was that it eases entering emoticons.
The emoticon :-) was also filed in 2006 and registered in 2008 as a European Community Trademark (CTM). In Finland, the Supreme Administrative Court ruled in 2012 that the emoticon cannot be trademarked, thus repealing a 2006 administrative decision trademarking the emoticons :-), =), =(, :) and :(. In 2005, a Russian court rejected a legal claim against Siemens by a man who claimed to hold a trademark on the ;-) emoticon. In 2008, Russian entrepreneur Oleg Teterin claimed to have been granted the trademark on the ;-) emoticon. A license would not "cost that much—tens of thousands of dollars" for companies but would be free of charge for individuals.
== Unicode ==
A different, but related, use of the term "emoticon" is found in the Unicode Standard, referring to a subset of emoji that display facial expressions. The standard explains this usage with reference to existing systems, which provided functionality for substituting certain textual emoticons with images or emoji of the expressions in question.
Some smiley faces were present in Unicode since 1.1, including a white frowning face, a white smiling face and a black smiling face ("black" refers to a glyph which is filled, "white" refers to a glyph which is unfilled).
The Emoticons block was introduced in Unicode Standard version 6.0 (published in October 2010) and extended by 7.0. It covers Unicode range from U+1F600 to U+1F64F fully.
After that block had been filled, Unicode 8.0 (2015), 9.0 (2016) and 10.0 (2017) added additional emoticons in the range from U+1F910 to U+1F9FF. Currently, U+1F90C – U+1F90F, U+1F93F, U+1F94D – U+1F94F, U+1F96C – U+1F97F, U+1F998 – U+1F9CF (excluding U+1F9C0 which contains the 🧀 emoji) and U+1F9E7 – U+1F9FF do not contain any emoticons since Unicode 10.0.
For historic and compatibility reasons, some other heads and figures, which mostly represent different aspects like genders, activities, and professions instead of emotions, are also found in Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs (especially U+1F466 – U+1F487) and Transport and Map Symbols. Body parts, mostly hands, are also encoded in the Dingbat and Miscellaneous Symbols blocks.
== See also ==
== Explanatory notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Asteroff, Janet (1988) [1987]. "Appendix C: Face Symbols and ASCII Character Set". Paralanguage in Electronic Mail: A Case Study (PhD thesis). New York: Columbia University Teachers College. pp. 221–228. OCLC 757048921. 8721076 – via University Microfilms International.
Bódi, Zoltán, and Veszelszki, Ágnes (2006). Emotikonok. Érzelemkifejezés az internetes kommunikációban (Emoticons: Expressing Emotions in the Internet Communication). Budapest: Magyar Szemiotikai Társaság.
Churches, Owen; Nicholls, Mike; Thiessen, Myra; Kohler, Mark; Keage, Hannah (January 6, 2014) [2013-07-17, 2013-12-05]. "Emoticons in mind: An event-related potential study". Social Neuroscience. 9 (2): 196–202. doi:10.1080/17470919.2013.873737. PMID 24387045.
Dresner, Eli, and Herring, Susan C. (2010). "Functions of the Non-verbal in CMC: Emoticons and Illocutionary Force" (preprint copy). Communication Theory 20: 249–268.
Edwards, Benj (November 20, 2025). "In 1982, a physics joke gone wrong sparked the invention of the emoticon". Ars Technica. Retrieved November 20, 2025.
Savage, Jon (February 21, 2009). "A Design for Life". Design. The Guardian. Archived from the original on March 29, 2024. Retrieved March 30, 2024.
Veszelszki, Ágnes (2012). Connections of Image and Text in Digital and Handwritten Documents. In: Benedek, András, and Nyíri, Kristóf (eds.): The Iconic Turn in Education. Series Visual Learning Vol. 2. Frankfurt am Main et al.: Peter Lang, pp. 97−110.
Veszelszki, Ágnes (2015). "Emoticons vs. Reaction-Gifs: Non-Verbal Communication on the Internet from the Aspects of Visuality, Verbality and Time". In: Benedek, András; Nyíri, Kristóf (eds.): Beyond Words: Pictures, Parables, Paradoxes (series Visual Learning, vol. 5). Frankfurt: Peter Lang. 131–145.
Walther, J. B.; D'Addario, K. P. (2001). "The impacts of emoticons on message interpretation in computer-mediated communication". Social Science Computer Review. 19 (3): 323–345. doi:10.1177/089443930101900307. ISSN 0894-4393. S2CID 16179750.
Wolf, Alecia (October 2000). "Emotional Expression Online: Gender Differences in Emoticon Use". CyberPsychology & Behavior 3(5): 827–833. doi:10.1089/109493100501918 (subscription required); doi:10.1089/10949310050191809..
== External links ==
Media related to Emoticon (category) at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaynes_Covered_Bridge | Jaynes Covered Bridge | The Jaynes Covered Bridge is a historic covered bridge, carrying Codding Hollow Road across the North Branch Lamoille River in Waterville, Vermont. Built in 1877, it is one of three 19th-century covered bridges in the town, and one of five to span the North Branch Lamoille in a five-mile span. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.
== Description and history ==
The Jaynes Covered Bridge stands in northern Waterville, a short way east of Vermont Route 109 on Codding Hill Road. It spans the North Branch Lamoille River, which flows south through the village of Waterville to the main branch of the river further south. The bridge is a single-span queen post truss structure, 56.5 feet (17.2 m) long and 15 feet (4.6 m) wide, with a roadway width of 12 feet (3.7 m) (one lane). It is covered by a gabled metal roof, and its exterior is finished in vertical board siding which stops short of the eaves. The bridge deck has been replaced by steel I-beams covered with wooden planking, so the trusses now only carry the superstructure. The joints between the truss posts and diagonals have also been reinforced with steel plating.
The bridge was built about 1877; its builder is unknown. It is one three period bridges in the town (all spanning the same river). Along with another two in neighboring Belvidere, this assemblage of bridges makes for one of the state's highest concentrations of bridges on a single waterway.
== See also ==
Transport portal
Engineering portal
National Register of Historic Places portal
List of covered bridges in Vermont
National Register of Historic Places listings in Lamoille County, Vermont
List of bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Jaynes Covered Bridge at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limpho_Hani#:~:text=Life%20with%20Chris%20Hani%3A%201973%E2%80%931993,-She%20married%20Chris&text=The%20couple%20had%20three%20daughters,and%20Lindiwe%20(born%201981). | Limpho Hani | Limpho Hani (née Sekamane; born 31 January 1948) is a Mosotho–South African activist who is the widow of anti-apartheid activist Chris Hani. After her husband was assassinated in 1993, she had her own brief political career in the post-apartheid government, representing the African National Congress (ANC) in the National Assembly from May 1994 to August 1999. She also served on the ANC's National Executive Committee during that period. She has since remained in the public eye, partly because of the national symbolic importance of her husband's murder and partly because of her own activism in seeking to oppose parole for the killers.
== Early life ==
She was born Limpho Sekamane on 31 January 1948 and is from Sea Point in Maseru, the capital of Lesotho.
== Life with Chris Hani: 1973–1993 ==
She married Chris Hani in 1974 at a magistrate's court in Lusaka, Zambia; they had a celebratory wedding lunch at Wimpy. After her wedding, Hani spent time studying overseas in Yugoslavia, but upon her return to Southern Africa in late 1975, she and her husband moved into a house in Lithabaneng in the suburbs of Maseru; the house came to be known to ANC members as "Moscow House". The couple had three daughters together: Neo (born 1973), Nomakhwezi (born 1978, died 2001), and Lindiwe (born 1981).
Hani's husband was a senior leader in Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), the armed wing of the African National Congress (ANC), and the South African Communist Party (SACP); the organisations were at that time operating in exile in Southern Africa – primarily out of Lusaka – because they were banned by the apartheid government in South Africa. Hani herself worked for the Lesotho Tourism Board, but she also became increasingly involved in MK operations; after the 1976 Soweto Uprising swelled the ANC's numbers, she was personally involved in smuggling new MK recruits across the South African border and through Swaziland. She was detained by the South African authorities for several months in 1977–1978 and during that time, according to her husband's biographer Hugh Macmillan, she gave evidence for the apartheid state against Mountain Qumbela, a former ANC leader in the Cape.
Hani's husband was subject to an assassination attempt in 1982, and in the aftermath she left her job at the Lesotho Tourism Board to move with him to Lusaka. She returned to Maseru in 1984 and took up employment with the local office of the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency and then, from 1985, at the Swedish Embassy in Maseru. Hani and her family moved to South Africa in 1990 after the ANC was unbanned during the negotiations to end apartheid. During an advanced stage of the negotiations, on 10 April 1993, Chris Hani was assassinated outside their home in Dawn Park in Boksburg; his teenage daughter Nomakhwezi was with him.
== Political career: 1994–1999 ==
In South Africa's first post-apartheid elections in April 1994, Hani was elected to represent the ANC as a Member of the National Assembly, the lower house of the new South African Parliament. She was re-elected in the next general election in June 1999, but she resigned from her seat on 17 August 1999; her seat was filled by Kay Moonsamy. At the same time, she served on the National Executive Committee of the ANC: she was first elected onto the body at the ANC's 49th National Conference in Bloemfontein in December 1994 and she was re-elected in December 1997, but she resigned during her second term "due to other commitments".
== TRC and widowhood ==
In the immediate and long-term aftermath of her husband's murder, Hani did not abide sentiments of forgiveness towards the killers, leading Sisonke Msimang to describe "her public refusal to forgive" as "almost heretical" given the conciliatory nation-building narrative exemplified by Nelson Mandela, South Africa's first post-apartheid president. During the post-apartheid Truth and Reconciliation Commission, two right-wing extremists, assassin Janusz Waluś and accomplice Clive Derby-Lewis, expressed regret to the family and applied for amnesty for their role in the murder, but Hani and her family – represented by George Bizos – vociferously, and successfully, opposed amnesty.
When a court approved medical parole for Derby-Lewis in 2014, Hani expressed outrage, saying that it was "a very sad day in South Africa". In 2022, Waluś was also granted parole, but only after a sustained campaign by Hani and the SACP to block it. Explaining her decision to continue opposing Waluś's parole, Hani told the media:This chap, whatever his name is, he murdered my husband in cold blood which resulted in my late daughter [Nomakhwezi] attempting to commit suicide twice... this child was going for counseling for six years and then died. In my view, he killed my husband and my daughter... this chap, I won't say his name, 20 years later he says he is sorry. He doesn't say it to me... I will never forgive. He took my husband's life [and] he took my children father... why should I forgive him?... I will never forgive him. All I am asking for is justice nothing more, nothing less.The case was ultimately arbitrated by the Constitutional Court, which ruled in November 2022 that the Minister of Justice and Correctional Services had been irrational in denying parole to Waluś, who had been eligible for release for more than 15 years. In a widely publicised outburst, Hani stormed out of the court after the verdict and told reporters that the judgement was "diabolical" and that the court and Chief Justice Raymond Zondo had "failed this country completely". She said, "This country is finished. In this country, a foreign white [Polish Waluś] can come into South Africa and kill my husband". She also expressed sympathy with the views of Minister Lindiwe Sisulu, who had recently received public attention for attacks on the judiciary and who Hani said was "the only one in this country who saw through these guys". A subsequent application by Hani and the SACP for rescission of the court's order was unanimously dismissed.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omsund_Bridge | Omsund Bridge | The Omsund Bridge (Norwegian: Omsundbrua) is a bridge that crosses the strait Omsundet between the islands of Frei and Nordlandet in Kristiansund Municipality in Møre og Romsdal county, Norway. The link is actually made up of two bridges: The main bridge crosses form Nordlandet to the islet of Rensvikholmen and then the smaller Rensviksundet bridge completes the crossing to Frei.
Prior to the merger of Kristiansund Municipality and Frei Municipality on 1 January 2008, the bridges crossed the border between the two municipalities. The original bridge was in use from 1940 until 1981. The second bridge is currently in use, and a third bridge has been proposed. The bridges lies just south of the Kristiansund Airport, Kvernberget.
== Old bridge ==
A bridge crossing of Omsundet was initially proposed in 1875 by the town engineer in Kristiansund, colonel Christian Fredrik Bødtker, together with a bridge crossing of Nordsundet, but no bridges were built.
The 200-metre (660 ft) long original bridge is a steel through arch bridge. The Omsund Bridge was opened for traffic in April 1940, but with no opening ceremony because of World War II and the invasion of Norway. Local young men just tore down the barricades in the middle of the night.
On 22 April 1940, German bombers tried to destroy the new bridge, but missed and managed only to kill the 15-year-old boy Ingolf Helge Vatten on a bicycle several hundred meters away on Frei, and set the forest on fire on Nordlandet. Remains of one of the bombs that caused the wildfire are on display next to the abutment. In May that year, the new bridge was crucial during the emergency evacuation caused by the burning of Kristiansund.
This bridge to the island of Frei made it possible to shorten the ferry between Kristiansund and Gjemnes Municipality on the mainland by 15 kilometres (9.3 mi), when a new road crossing Frei to Kvitnes on Flatsetøya was completed in 1951. The ferry was finally replaced with the undersea Freifjord Tunnel in 1992 as part of the Kristiansund Mainland Connection.
The old bridge was replaced in 1981, but it finally opened officially in a ceremony on 24 April 2005, 65 years late, and 24 years after it was replaced. It was then made accessible again for pedestrians and cyclists, and protected as an important sample of Norwegian bridges built in the 1930s.
== Current bridge ==
A new 292-metre (958 ft) long concrete cantilever bridge, with two lanes and a fenced walkway for pedestrians and cyclists, was built right alongside of the old, narrow bridge in 1981. The bridge carries Norwegian National Road 70, in that area named Freikollveien.
The main spans horizontal curvature was unusually tight, for a concrete cantilever bridge of the time. In the New Year's Day Storm of 1992, the bridge was hit by a large shrimp trawler, and concrete degradation repair was performed on the bridge in 2013.
== Future bridge ==
On 18 March 2010, preliminary plans for a new 600-metre (2,000 ft) long replacement bridge were unveiled, as a part of a future, larger highway to Kristiansund.
== See also ==
List of bridges in Norway
List of bridges in Norway by length
List of bridges
List of bridges by length
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sister,_Sister_episodes | List of Sister, Sister episodes | Sister, Sister is an American sitcom that was created by Kim Bass, Gary Gilbert, Fred Shafferman that originally aired on ABC and later The WB. It premiered on April 1, 1994, and ended on May 23, 1999, with a total of 119 episodes over the course of 6 seasons.
== Series overview ==
== Episodes ==
=== Season 1 (1994) ===
=== Season 2 (1994–95) ===
=== Season 3 (1995–96) ===
=== Season 4 (1996–97) ===
=== Season 5 (1997–98) ===
=== Season 6 (1998–99) ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Sister, Sister at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bajo_Nuevo_Bank#:~:text=On%2019%20November%202012%2C%20in,of%20Honduras%20or%20United%20States. | Bajo Nuevo Bank | Bajo Nuevo Bank, also known as the Petrel Islands (Spanish: Bajo Nuevo, Islas Petrel), is a small, uninhabited reef with some small grass-covered islets, located in the western Caribbean Sea at 15°53′N 78°38′W, with a lighthouse on Low Cay at 15°51′N 78°38′W. The closest neighboring land feature is Serranilla Bank, located 110 kilometres (68 miles) to the west.
The reef was first shown on Dutch maps dating to 1634 but was given its present name in 1654. Bajo Nuevo was rediscovered by the English pirate John Glover in 1660. The reef is now subject to a sovereignty dispute involving Colombia, Jamaica, and the United States. On 19 November 2012, regarding Nicaraguan claims to the islands, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) found, unanimously, that the Republic of Colombia has sovereignty over both Bajo Nuevo and Serranilla Banks, although the judgment does not analyze or mention the competing claims of Jamaica or the United States.
== Geography ==
Bajo Nuevo Bank is about 26 km (16 mi) long and 9 km (5.6 mi) wide. The satellite image shows two distinct atoll-like structures separated by a deep channel 1.4 km (0.87 mi) wide at its narrowest point. The larger southwestern reef complex measures 15.4 km (9.6 mi) northeast-southwest, and is up to 9.4 km (5.8 mi) wide, covering an area of about 100 km2 (39 sq mi). The reef partially dries on the southern and eastern sides. The smaller northeastern reef complex measures 10.5 km (6.5 mi) east-west and is up to 5.5 km (3.4 mi) wide, covering an area of 45 km2 (17 sq mi). The land area is minuscule by comparison.
The most prominent cay is Low Cay, in the southwestern atoll. It is 300 m (330 yd) long and 40 m (44 yd) wide (about 1 ha or 2.5 acres), no more than 2 m (6.6 ft) high, and barren. It is composed of broken coral, driftwood, and sand. The light beacon on Low Cay is a 21 m (69 ft) metal tower, painted white with a red top. It emits a focal plane beam of light as two white flashes of light every 15 seconds. The beacon was erected in 1982, and reconstructed by the Colombian Ministry of National Defence in February 2008. It is currently maintained by the Colombian National Navy and overseen by the state's Maritime Authority.
== Territorial dispute ==
Bajo Nuevo Bank is the subject of conflicting claims made by several sovereign states. In most cases, the dispute stems from attempts by a state to expand its exclusive economic zone over the surrounding seas.
Colombia currently claims the area as a part of the department of San Andrés and Providencia. Naval patrols in the area are carried out by the San Andrés fleet of the Colombian Navy. Colombia maintains that it has claimed these territories since 1886 as part of the geographic archipelago of San Andrés and Providencia. This date is disputed by other claimant states, who argue that Colombia had not claimed the territory by name until recently.
Jamaica's claim was largely considered to be resolved since entering into several bilateral agreements with Colombia. Between 1982 and 1986, the two states maintained a formal agreement which granted regulated fishing rights to Jamaican vessels within the territorial waters of Bajo Nuevo and nearby Serranilla Bank. Jamaica's signing of this treaty was regarded by critics as a de facto recognition of Colombian sovereignty over the two banks. However, the treaty is now extinguished, as Colombia declined to renew it upon its expiration in August 1986.
In November 1993, Colombia and Jamaica agreed upon a maritime delimitation treaty establishing the "Joint Regime Area" to cooperatively manage and exploit living and non-living resources in designated waters between the two aforementioned banks. However, the territorial waters immediately surrounding the cays themselves were excluded from the zone of joint-control, as Colombia considers these areas to be part of its coastal waters. The exclusion circles were defined in the chart attached to the treaty as "Colombia's territorial sea in Serranilla and Bajo Nuevo", even though the treaty mentioned the dispute over territorial waters. The agreement came into force in March 1994.
Nicaragua formerly claimed all the islands on its continental shelf, covering an area of over 50,000 km2 in the Caribbean Sea, including Bajo Nuevo Bank and all islands associated with the San Andrés and Providencia archipelagoes. It had persistently pursued this claim against Colombia in the International Court of Justice (ICJ), filing cases in both 2001 and 2007. The dispute originated in the debated validity and applicability of the Esguerr–Bárcenas treaty, exchanged with Colombia in March 1928. Nicaragua formally accepted the ICJ's 2012 ruling of Colombian sovereignty in a 2014 constitutional amendment.
The United States claim was made on 22 November 1869 by James W. Jennett under the provisions of the Guano Islands Act. Most claims made by the U.S. over the guano islands in this region were officially renounced in a treaty with Colombia dated September 1972. However, Bajo Nuevo Bank was not mentioned in the treaty, and Article 7 of the treaty states that matters not specifically mentioned in the treaty are not subject to its terms. The United States considers the bank an insular area.
Honduras, before its ratification of a maritime boundary treaty with Colombia on 20 December 1999, had previously also laid claim to Bajo Nuevo and nearby Serranilla Bank. Both states agreed upon a maritime demarcation in 1986 that excluded Honduras from any control over the banks or their surrounding waters. This bilateral treaty ensured that Honduras implicitly recognized Colombia's sovereignty over the disputed territories. Nicaragua disputed Honduras's legal right to hand over these areas before the ICJ.
== See also ==
Alice Shoal
List of Guano Island claims
Rosalind Bank
== References ==
== External links ==
U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Bajo Nuevo Bank
Website with a map of San Andrés and Providencia, Serranilla Bank, Bajo Nuevo Bank and Rosalind Bank Archived 2 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine
Aerial picture of Bajo Nuevo Bank at the Wayback Machine (archived 23 December 2010) – the website is related to San Andrés and Providencia.
WorldStatesmen – lists the bank under the United States.
Rowlett, Russ. "Lighthouses of Northern Colombia". The Lighthouse Directory. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katrina_Lehis | Katrina Lehis | Katrina Lehis (born 19 December 1994) is an Estonian left-handed épée fencer, 2018 individual European champion, 2021 team Olympic champion, and 2021 individual Olympic bronze medalist.
== Career ==
Lehis began fencing in 2004. Coached by Helen Nelis-Naukas and Peeter Nelis, she was a member of the Estonian Junior and Cadet fencing teams since 2009. In 2014, Lehis won individual gold at the Junior World Fencing Championships and was named Estonian Young Athlete of the Year. She won team épée silver medals at the 2015 European Fencing Championships and the 2015 European Games. In 2018, Lehis won the individual gold at the 2018 European Fencing Championships. At the 2020 Tokyo Summer Olympics, she won a gold medal in team épée and bronze in individual épée.
== Medal record ==
=== Olympic Games ===
=== European Championship ===
=== Grand Prix ===
=== World Cup ===
== Personal life ==
In 2017, Lehis gave birth to a son.
== References ==
== External links ==
Katrina Lehis at the International Fencing Federation
Katrina Lehis at Olympics.com
Katrina Lehis at Olympedia
Katrina Lehis at InterSportStats
Katrina Lehis at ESBL (in Estonian)
Katrina Lehis on Instagram |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naledi_Pandor | Naledi Pandor | Grace Naledi Mandisa Pandor (née Matthews; born 7 December 1953) is a South African politician, educator and academic who served as the Minister of International Relations and Cooperation from 2019 until 2024. She also served as a Member of Parliament (MP) for the African National Congress (ANC) from 1994 to 2024.
Born in Durban, Pandor completed high school in Botswana. She qualified as a teacher and taught at multiple schools and universities, while she achieved various degrees from different universities. Pandor took office as a Member of Parliament in 1994. She soon became Deputy Chief Whip of the ANC caucus in 1995. She was elected Deputy Chairperson of the National Council of Provinces in 1998 and became chairperson in 1999.
She initially became a member of the national cabinet in 2004, following President Thabo Mbeki's decision to appoint her as Minister of Education. She retained her post in the cabinet of Kgalema Motlanthe. Newly elected President Jacob Zuma named her Minister of Science and Technology in 2009. She served in the position until her appointment as Minister of Home Affairs in 2012. She returned to the post of Minister of Science and Technology in 2014 and held it until 2018, when she became Minister of Higher Education and Training in the first cabinet of President Cyril Ramaphosa. After the 2019 general election, Pandor was mentioned as a possible candidate for Deputy President of South Africa. She was instead appointed Minister of International Relations and Cooperation. Pandor unsuccessfully stood for re-election to the National Assembly at the 2024 general election.
She has been the chair of the board of trustees of the Nelson Mandela Foundation since the 1st of October 2024.
== Early life and education ==
Grace Naledi Mandisa Matthews was born on 7 December 1953 in Durban, Natal, to Regina Thelma (died 2002) and Joe Matthews (1929–2010), a political and anti-apartheid activist and the son of academic Z. K. Matthews (1901–1968). She received her primary and secondary education in Botswana. She matriculated from Gaborone Secondary School. Between 1973 and 1977, she achieved a Certificate for Continuing Education and a bachelor's degree from the University of Swaziland and the University of Botswana, respectively. She then went overseas and fulfilled a Diploma in Education and an MA degree from the University of London between 1978 and 1979.
Pandor obtained a diploma in higher education, administration and leadership from the Bryn Mawr Summer Programme in 1992, and soon enrolled at Harvard Kennedy School to receive a diploma in leadership in development in 1997. She also attained an MA degree in linguistics from the University of Stellenbosch in the same year. Pandor received her PhD in education at the University of Pretoria in 2019, with a thesis titled "The contested meaning of transformation in higher education in post-apartheid South Africa".
== Teaching career ==
Pandor became a teacher at the Ernest Bevin School in London in 1980. She was subsequently employed as a teacher in Gaborone from 1981 to 1984, and as an instructor at the Taung College of Education from 1984 to 1986. Pandor worked as a senior lecturer in English at the University of Bophuthatswana from 1986 to 1989, and then as a senior fellow in the Academic Support Programme of the University of Cape Town from 1989 to 1994.
While at the University of Bophuthatswana, Pandor served as the chair of the university's Union of Democratic Staff Associations between 1988 and 1990. She was appointed the chairperson of the Western Cape National Executive Committee of the National Education Coordinating Committee in 1991 and served in the position until 1993. At the same time, she was part of the ANC's Western Cape Education Committee.
Additionally, Pandor chaired the ANC Athlone Central branch, while serving as both the head of the Desmond Tutu Education Trust and the Western Cape School Building Trust.
From 1992 to 1995, she worked as deputy head of the Tertiary Education Fund of South Africa. She soon became head of the fund. She was also deputy chairperson of the Joint Education Trust Board of Trustees between 1993 and 2001.
She was chancellor of Cape Technikon from 2002 to 2004. During the same period, she was a member of the governing council of the University of Fort Hare.
== Early parliamentary career ==
Pandor became a Member of the Parliament in the lower house of Parliament, the National Assembly, following the 1994 general election. Within the ANC caucus, she served as Deputy Chief Whip from 1995 until her deployment to the upper house of Parliament, the National Council of Provinces, in 1998. She served as Deputy Chairperson until her appointment as Chairperson following the 1999 general election. She succeeded inaugural Chairperson Mosioua Lekota when she assumed the office on 21 June 1999. She was the first woman to hold the role. Joyce Kgoali succeeded Pandor in 2004 and consequently became the second woman to hold the role.
== National government ==
=== Minister of Education (2004–2009) ===
Pandor returned to the National Assembly following the 2004 general election. President Thabo Mbeki appointed her to the role of Minister of Education; she took office on 12 May 2004. During her tenure in the portfolio, she was responsible for a complete overhaul of the nation's education system. Pandor initiated reforms to the country's failed implementation of the outcomes-based education (OBE) system. Mbeki resigned in 2008 and left Kgalema Motlanthe in charge. Motlanthe retained Pandor in her position in his interim cabinet.
=== Minister of Science and Technology (2009–2012) ===
Following the 2009 general election, Jacob Zuma became the new President of South Africa. He unbundled the Education Ministry into two new portfolios and appointed Pandor to the newly established post of Minister of Science and Technology in May 2009. During her time in the position, Pandor served as a driving force for South Africa to host the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) in the Karoo region. South Africa won the bid.
=== Minister of Home Affairs (2012–2014) ===
In October 2012, Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma resigned as Minister of Home Affairs in order for her to take up the role as Chair of the African Union. Her resignation caused a vacancy in the cabinet. Zuma consequently appointed Pandor as Minister of Home Affairs in an acting capacity on 2 October 2012. Soon after on 4 October 2012, Zuma formally appointed her as Minister of Home Affairs. In October 2013, she served as acting president for a day as Zuma visited the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
=== Minister of Science and Technology (2014–2018) ===
Following her re-election in the 2014 general election, Zuma announced that Pandor would return to the Department of Science and Technology. Malusi Gigaba succeeded her as Minister of Home Affairs. She took office on 26 May 2014 and succeeded Derek Hanekom.
=== Minister of Higher Education and Training (2018–2019) ===
Cyril Ramaphosa assumed the office of President in February 2018. Pandor was appointed Minister of Higher Education and Training and took office on 27 February 2018, succeeding Hlengiwe Mkhize.
=== Minister of International Relations and Cooperation (2019–2024) ===
After the 2019 general election, the Ministry of Higher Education and Training was split. Pandor was speculated to be appointed Deputy President of South Africa. She was Ramaphosa's original choice for Deputy President back in 2017 at the ANC's elective conference. She was instead appointed Minister of International Relations and Cooperation and assumed office on 30 May 2019.
In response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Pandor and the Department of International Relations and Cooperation were initially critical of the invasion and released a statement, in which they called on Russia to withdraw its forces in Ukraine immediately. Ramaphosa was reportedly unhappy with Pandor and the department's statement, because it contradicted South Africa's position that negotiation was needed to end the war. Pandor later backtracked on her position, toeing the party line instead.
On 10 March 2022, Pandor said that she supported the idea of a single African currency to increase intra-continental trade.
In September 2022, Pandor stood in for Ramaphosa at the Seventy-seventh session of the United Nations General Assembly after he had decided to return to South Africa due to the ongoing electricity crisis after his working visit in Washington, D.C. In her address to the assembly, Pandor said that all ongoing wars and conflicts around the world should be given equal attention. She also called for Israel to be held accountable for its "destructive actions" in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, for the embargo against Cuba to be lifted and echoed the African Union's call for sanctions against Zimbabwe to be lifted.
Pandor was one of a number of sitting cabinet ministers who unsuccessfully sought re-election to the National Executive Committee of the African National Congress at the party's 55th National Conference in December 2022.
Reacting to the ICC arrest warrant for Vladimir Putin, Pandor criticized the International Criminal Court (ICC) for not having what she called an "evenhanded approach" to all leaders responsible for violations of international law. South Africa, which failed in its obligation to arrest visiting Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir in June 2015, invited Russian President Vladimir Putin to the 15th BRICS Summit of leaders of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa in August 2023. In May 2023, Pandor announced that she had approved diplomatic immunity for Vladimir Putin and his officials so that they could attend the 15th BRICS Summit despite the ICC arrest warrant.
Pandor is known, in part, for her strong anti-Israel stance. Following the October 7th attack on Israel, Pandor held a telephone call with Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh. According to reports, the phone call was described as "embarrassing" for President Cyril Ramaphosa, who was stated to have had "no prior knowledge" of its occurrence. Following news of the call, the South African Jewish Board of Deputies (SAJBD) issued a statement criticizing Minister Pandor’s reported expression of “support” for Hamas in the aftermath of the October 7 attacks on Israeli targets. The SAJBD argued that this stance had placed South Africa in "very dangerous waters" and subsequently called for Pandor’s immediate resignation or dismissal. On 12 November 2023, Pandor called on the ICJ to speed up its investigation of Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide in the Gaza Strip and that she expects the ICC to issue an arrest warrant for Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu.
Pandor lost her seat in Parliament at the 2024 general election, having been ranked 86th on the ANC's national parliamentary list and the ANC only winning 73 national list seats.
== Personal life ==
Pandor is married to Sharif Joseph Pandor, whom she met while studying in Botswana, and they have four children together.
Her daughter, Aisha Pandor, is a prominent tech entrepreneur and investor, becoming CEO of California-based AI health platform Pandora Health.
She converted to Islam after she met her husband. Her in-laws gave her the Islamic name of Nadia. On her religious conversion, Pandor said: "My parents said God is God. As long as you worship Him we will support you and the Islamic principles are universal. Certainly, Islam demands much more of you in terms of observance."
== References ==
== External links ==
Naledi Pandor at People's Assembly
Grace Naledi Mandisa Pandor – South African History Online
Grace Naledi Mandisa Pandor, Ms – South African Government
Profile: Dr Naledi Pandor, Minister – Dirco
Naledi Pandor Biographical notes – dst.gov.za Archived 4 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir_Martyrs%27_Day | Kashmir Martyrs' Day | Kashmir Martyrs' Day (Urdu: یومِ شہداءِ کشمیر Transliteration. Youm-e-Shuhada-e-Kashmir) , (Kashmiri: کٲشِرؠ شَہیٖدَن ہُینٛد دۄہ Transliteration: Keashir Shaheendan Hyund Doah) or Kashmir Day, was an official state holiday observed in Kashmir in remembrance of 21 Muslims killed on 13 July 1931 by Dogra forces of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir in British India.
On that day, Kashmiri Muslims were offering prayers outside the Srinagar Central Jail, where Abdul Qadeer, who had called on Kashmiris to rise against the rule of the Hari Singh. As the crowd grew restless and the Islamic call to prayer was started, the Dogra army opened fire, killing the person giving the Azan. Following this, another person continues giving the Azan, and was also killed. In total 23 were killed in attempts to finish the Azan. The crowds buried the bodies of those killed by the state forces in the graveyard attached to the Shrine of Khwaja Bahawuddin Naqshbandi (Ziyarat Naqshband Sahab) in Srinagar, which has since come to be known as Mazar-e-Shuhada or the Martyrs' Graveyard.
The day was removed as an official holiday of Jammu and Kashmir by the Government of India in December 2019. However, the Government of Pakistan still marks the day.
== Background ==
GM Lone writes in Kashmir Life that four incidents occurring in quick succession resulted in the tragedy of 13 July:
In the first case, a Hindu
businessman in Udhampur had converted to Islam. His property was taken from him and given to his brother. A suit filed was dismissed with remarks that unless he re-entered the Hindu faith, he was not entitled to any property. This was done in accordance with a decree issued by the Dogra Government on 31 December 1882.
In the second case, on 29 April 1931, Muslims were stopped from continuing with Khutbah after police intervened. Following an outburst by Mir Hussain Bakhsh related to excessive interference in religious matters by the King, a protest was held at the main masjid in the city. Following this, protests against the administration became more frequent.
In the third case, on 4 June in the Central Jail Jammu, police constable Fazal Dad Khan's copy of Panjsurah (five chapters from the Quran) was thrown away in "recklessness" by a sub-inspector. Fazal Dad approached the Mosque. The fourth incident took place in Srinagar on 20 June 1931 when leaves of the Quran were found in a public lavatory.
In his work "Inside Kashmir" date 1941, Prem Nath Bazaz writes, "The driving force behind the mass agitation till the 13th July was the discontent among the rank and file of the Muslims. [...] those who laid down their lives at the jail gate did so fighting against an unsympathetic government [...].
== Abdul Qadeer ==
Abdul Qadeer Khan was an employee of an English army officer, Major Butt of the Yorkshire Regiment posted at Peshawar, who was taking a vacation in Kashmir. Abdul Qadeer's place of origin is uncertain. He had been attending the protest meetings and at Khanqah-i-Maula, on 21 June 1931, he was unable to suppress his feelings, which resulted in his impromptu address to the crowd.
Rashid Taseer in his "Tarikh-i-Hurriyat", recorded his speech as:
"Muslim brothers: the time has now come when we should not meet force by great force to put an end to the tyrannies and brutalities to which you are subjected, nor will they solve the issue of disrespect to Holy Quran to your satisfaction. You must rely up on your own strength and wage a relentless war against oppression"; pointing his finger towards the palace he shouted, : "raze it to the ground". He said, "We have no machine guns. But we have plenty of stones and brickbats."
His speech was recorded by the authorities and a few days later, on 25 June, he was arrested. He was charged with "sedition" and "wantonly giving provocation with intent to cause riot" under the Ranbir Penal Code. His trial started on 4 July in the Court of the Sessions Judge, Srinagar. During the four hearings on 4, 6, 7 and 9 July, a large number of Muslims gathered in the compound of the Court to witness this trial.
== 13 July 1931 ==
On 13 July 1931, Khan's trial continued in Srinagar Jail. Combining police and jail forces, there were about 160 policemen of various ranks. Out of these at least 31 were armed with guns. About 4000 to 5000 people had turned up to witness the trial. They were denied entry into the compound. However about 200 nevertheless entered and remained inside peacefully. Khan's lawyers spoke with the crowd, who agreed to return home after the noon prayer. At noon, Muslims lined up for prayers. Shortly after this, the arrival of officials including the District Magistrate and Superintendent of Police caused commotion. Slogans such as "Allah-o-Akbar- Islam Zindabad" and "Abdul Qadeer Zindabad" were shouted.
As the call to prayer began, Governor Raizada Trilok Chand ordered the armed police to open fire. Police directed their first bullets at the muezzin, who died instantly. Another muezzin attempted to finish the adhan and was also shot dead on the spot, after which police fired indiscriminately. Soon the police charged with batons and the people fought with stone, bats, and hand-to-hand fighting. In the commotion a gun was snatched by a member in the crowd, and he was in turn shot dead by a policeman. According to the evidence officially placed before the Dalal Inquiry Commission (Srinagar Riot Enquiry Committee), 180 rounds were fired. Seventeen Muslims were killed on the spot and forty received serious injuries, five of whom died later. According to The Hindu, the Daily Tribune dated 28 July 1931 reported the deaths of 21 Muslims in the firing.
GS Raghavan described 13 July 1931, in his book The Warning From Kashmir:
"The hearing in jail fell on 13th July. On that day, a mob stormed the jail and demanded admittance [...] gates had been forced and the inner gates were attacked. At the suggestion of the Judge, two Muslim lawyers, representing the accused, harangued the visitors to go out of the Jail precincts. Finding that there was no possibility of ingress, the crowd went out and started stoning officials and set fire to the police lines. The police force was then called in. All efforts to pacify the unruly mob proved futile.[...] The crowd stoned the policemen and the prisoners were liberated. [...] the District Magistrate directed fire to be opened. The crowd fell off but later it re-assembled and resumed stoning. It had to be dispersed with a Lathi charge. [...] the cavalry had to pursue it and disperse it again. [...] loot over an extensive area followed [...] pandemonium prevailed."The crowds buried the bodies in the graveyard of the Shrine of Khwaja Bahawuddin Naqshbandi (Ziyarat Naqshband Sahab) in Srinagar, which has since come to be known as Mazar-e-Shuhada or the Martyrs' Graveyard.
== Commentary ==
Jyoti Bhusan Das Gupta, the author of "Jammu and Kashmir", wrote "[…] modern Kashmir's 'freedom movement' was born on 13 July 1931". Prem Nath Bazaz wrote "Historically and politically, 13th July 1931 was the most important day in the annals of contemporary Kashmir. From this day the struggle for independence and freedom in the most modern sense started openly". Sheikh Abdullah compared the day with the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. Chitralekha Zutshi however emphasized the "multi-casualty of the incident" and that the incident was "an outcome of the socio economic and socio political crisis in Kashmir".
== Aftermath ==
The Reading Room Party, in protest of the killings, announced a statewide shutdown. At a public meeting at the Martyrs' Graveyard, Sheikh Abdullah announced that 13 July, henceforth, would be Martyr's Day. Amidst the following unrest, arrests included those of Sheikh Abdullah and Chaudhry Ghulam Abbas.
The aftermath of 13 July resulted in Maharaja Hari Singh appointing a commission to look into Muslim grievances chaired by B J Glancy. B J Glancy was also given the task of democratizing the monarchy. This resulted in the suggestion to set up a legislative assembly which would materialize in 1934.
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
Bibliography
Dalal, Barjor; Sawhny, BR; Qayoom, Abdul (24 September 1931). Report Of The Srinagar Riot Enquiry Committee (1931-1988) (Report). Srinagar: Pratap Government Press. Retrieved 12 December 2020 – via archive.org/ Alama Iqbal Library, University of Kashmir.
Evidence Recorded In Public By The Srinagar Riots Enquiry Committee (1931) (Report). Jammu: The Ranbir Government Press. 1931. Retrieved 21 December 2020 – via archive.org/Allam Iqbal Library Kashmir University.
== External links ==
NC posts 1931 picture to recall Kashmir's "struggle for dignity and identity". The Tribune. 13 July 2020.
Manu Khajuria (13 July 2019). July 13, 1931: Not Martyrs Day but Black Day for the Hindu narrative in Jammu and Kashmir. DailyO
Sanatan Dharam YMA (24 October 1931) [31 October 2020]. 1931 – A Memorandum. Kashmir Life |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995_European_Tour | 1995 European Tour | The 1995 European Tour, titled as the 1995 Volvo Tour for sponsorship reasons, was the 24th season of the European Tour, the main professional golf tour in Europe since its inaugural season in 1972.
It was the eighth season of the tour under a title sponsorship agreement with Volvo, that was announced in May 1987.
== Changes for 1995 ==
The 1995 season marked the start of co-sanctioning arrangements with other tours, with the addition of the Southern Africa Tour's Lexington South African PGA Championship to the European Tour schedule. The season was ultimately made up of 36 tournaments counting for the Order of Merit, and several non-counting "Approved Special Events".
There were a few other changes from the previous season, with the addition of the South African PGA Championship and the loss of the Open V33 Grand Lyon and the Belgian Open. In addition, the Extremadura Open was originally scheduled but later cancelled.
== Schedule ==
The following table lists official events during the 1995 season.
=== Unofficial events ===
The following events were sanctioned by the European Tour, but did not carry official money, nor were wins official.
== Order of Merit ==
The Order of Merit was titled as the Volvo Order of Merit and was based on prize money won during the season, calculated in Pound sterling.
== Awards ==
== See also ==
1995 Challenge Tour
1995 European Seniors Tour
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Frederick_Koelsch | C. Frederick Koelsch | Charles Frederick Koelsch (31 January 1907 - 24 December 1999) was an American organic chemist who spent his faculty career at the University of Minnesota.
== Education and academic career ==
Koelsch was born in Boise, Idaho in 1907 in a family of German descent. He attended the University of Wisconsin and earned his bachelor's degree in 1928 and his Ph.D. from the same institution in 1931, working under the supervision of Samuel M. McElvain. After a postdoctoral fellowship at Harvard University with Elmer Peter Kohler, Koelsch was recommended for a position at the University of Minnesota by Lee Irvin Smith. He joined the faculty there as an instructor in 1932 and became an assistant professor in 1934. Koelsch was awarded the ACS Award in Pure Chemistry in 1934. He advanced to associate professor in 1937 and full professor in 1946. He remained at the University of Minnesota until his retirement, assuming professor emeritus status, in 1973. Through much of his academic career, Koelsch also served as an industry consultant, working first with Smith, Kline & French and later with Sterling Drug and Union Carbide.
During his work at Harvard, Koelsch attempted to publish a paper describing an unusually stable radical compound, but it was rejected at the time on the grounds that the compound's properties were unlikely to describe a radical. Subsequent experimental evidence and quantum mechanics calculations suggested his interpretation of the original experiment was correct, resulting in the publication of the paper nearly 25 years after the original experiments. The compound - 1,3-bisdiphenylene-2-phenylallyl (BDPA) - is now often referred to as the "Koelsch radical".
== Personal life ==
Koelsch married his wife Helen in 1938 and the couple had three children. He was a ham radio enthusiast. He died in Rochester, Minnesota in 1999.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tara_Chand_(Jammu-Kashmir_politician)#:~:text=He%20was%20Deputy%20Chief%20Minister,chairperson%20for%20Democratic%20Azad%20Party. | Tara Chand (Jammu-Kashmir politician) | Tara Chand is a politician and a leader from Jammu and Kashmir. He was Deputy Chief Minister of erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir from 2009 to 2014. He had earlier served as the Speaker of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly. On 30 August 2022, he resigned from Indian National Congress in support of Ghulam Nabi Azad. He was appointed as Vice chairperson for Democratic Azad Party. On 22 December 2022, he was removed from Democratic Azad Party after the allegations of 'anti-party' activities.
In the 2014 elections, Chand lost to BJP candidate Dr Krishan Lal in Chhamb Assembly constituency of Jammu district. He finished 3rd in 2024 election. On 30 August 2022, he quit Congress in support of Ghulam Nabi Azad.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_syncytial_virus#Further_reading | Respiratory syncytial virus | Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), also called human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) and human orthopneumovirus, is a virus that causes infections of the respiratory tract. It is a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus. Its name is derived from the large, multinucleated cells known as syncytia that form when infected cells fuse.
RSV is a common cause of respiratory hospitalization in infants, and reinfection remains common in later life, though often with less severity. It is a notable pathogen in all age groups. Infection rates are typically higher during the cold winter months. Infections can cause bronchiolitis in infants, common colds in adults, and more serious respiratory illnesses, such as pneumonia, in older individuals and those with immunocompromise resulting from, e.g., cardiopulmonary disease.
RSV can cause outbreaks in both community and hospital settings. Following initial infection via the eyes or nasal passages, the virus infects the epithelial cells of the upper and lower airways, causing inflammation, cell damage, and airway obstruction. A variety of methods are available for detecting and diagnosing RSV, including antigen testing, molecular testing, and viral culture.
Other than vaccination, prevention measures include hand-washing and avoiding close contact with infected individuals. The carriage of RSV in respiratory aerosols, along with the production of fine and ultrafine aerosols during normal breathing, talking, and coughing, and the emerging scientific consensus around transmission of all respiratory infections, may suggest airborne precautions are needed for reliable protection. In May 2023, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first RSV vaccines, Arexvy (developed by GSK plc) and Abrysvo (Pfizer). The prophylactic use of palivizumab or nirsevimab (both are monoclonal antibody treatments) can prevent RSV infection among infants with high-risk predispositions.
Treatment for severe illness is primarily supportive, including oxygen therapy and more advanced breathing support with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) or nasal high flow oxygen, as required. In cases of severe respiratory failure, intubation and mechanical ventilation may be required. Ribavirin is an antiviral medication licensed for the treatment of RSV infection in children.
== History ==
RSV was discovered in 1956 when researchers isolated a virus from a population of chimpanzees with respiratory illness. They named the virus chimpanzee coryza agent (CCA). In 1957, this same virus was identified by Robert M. Chanock in children with respiratory illness. Studies of human antibodies in infants and children revealed that the infection was common in early life.
The virus was later renamed human orthopneumovirus, or human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV).
Several other pneumoviruses show great similarity to hRSV. Bovine RSV (bRSV) shares approximately 80% of its genome with hRSV. It also shares hRSV's predilection for the young, causing more severe disease in calves less than six months old. Because bRSV-infected calves have almost identical symptoms to hRSV-infected children, they have proven to be an important animal model in RSV research.
== Signs and symptoms ==
RSV infection can present with a wide variety of signs and symptoms that range from mild upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) to severe and potentially life-threatening lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) requiring hospitalization and mechanical ventilation. While RSV can cause respiratory tract infections in people of all ages and is among common childhood infections, its presentation often varies between age groups and immune status. Reinfection is common throughout life, but infants and the elderly remain at risk for symptomatic infection.
=== Children ===
Nearly all children in the United States experience at least one RSV infection before two years of age. Childhood RSV infections are fairly self-limited with typical upper respiratory tract signs and symptoms, such as nasal congestion, runny nose, cough, and low-grade fever. Inflammation of the nasal mucosa (rhinitis) and throat (pharyngitis), as well as redness of the eyes (conjunctival infection), may be seen on exam. Approximately 15–50% of children will go on to develop more serious lower respiratory tracts infections, such as bronchiolitis, viral pneumonia, or croup. Infants are at the highest risk of disease progression.
Bronchiolitis is a common lower respiratory tract infection characterized by inflammation and obstruction of the small airways in the lungs. While several viruses can cause bronchiolitis, RSV is responsible for about 70% of cases. It usually presents with 2 to 4 days of runny nose and congestion followed by worsening cough, noisy breathing, tachypnea (fast breathing), and wheezing. As infants work harder to breathe, they can also show signs of respiratory distress, such as subcostal retractions (when the belly pulls under the ribcage), intercostal retractions (when the muscles between the ribs pull inward), grunting, and nasal flaring. If the child has not been able to feed adequately, signs of dehydration may also be present. Fever may be present, but high-grade fever is uncommon. Crackles and wheezing can often be heard on auscultation, and oxygen saturation levels may be decreased.
In very young infants under six weeks of age, especially premature infants, signs of infection may be less specific. They may have minimal respiratory involvement. Instead, they may exhibit decreased activity, irritability, poor feeding, or breathing difficulties. This can also be accompanied by apneic spells, or brief pauses in breathing.
=== Adults ===
Reinfection with RSV remains common throughout life. Reinfection in adulthood often produces only mild to moderate symptoms indistinguishable from the common cold or sinus infection. Infection may also be asymptomatic. If present, symptoms are generally isolated to the upper respiratory tract: runny nose, sore throat, fever, and malaise. In most cases, nasal congestion precedes the development of cough. Unlike other upper respiratory infections, RSV is more likely to cause new onset wheeze in adults. About 25% of infected adults will progress to significant lower respiratory tract infections, such as bronchitis or tracheobronchitis.
While RSV very rarely causes severe disease in healthy adults, it can cause morbidity and mortality in the elderly and in those with underlying immune compromise or cardiopulmonary disease. Older adults have a similar presentation to younger adults but tend to have greater symptom severity with an increased risk of lower respiratory tract involvement. In particular, the elderly are more likely to experience pneumonia, respiratory distress, and death.
=== Immunocompromised ===
In both adults and children, those who are immunocompromised are at an increased risk of severe infection with RSV. Infected individuals in this group are more likely to progress from upper to lower respiratory tract involvement and have prolonged viral shedding. Symptom severity seems closely related to the extent of immune suppression. Those who have undergone hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT), intensive chemotherapy, and lung transplant are particularly susceptible. Bone marrow transplant patients appear to be at the highest risk, especially before marrow engraftment. In this group, RSV infection carries a nearly 80% risk of both pneumonia and death.
=== Elderly ===
RSV or Respiratory syncytial virus affects many populations differently. The most at-risk populations for RSV complications are older adults and those with underlying medical conditions or immunocompromised individuals. Between 60,000-160,000 older adults in the United States are hospitalized annually with RSV. Between 6,000 and 10,000 older adults die from RSV infection each year. Additionally RSV can "... lead to worsening of serious conditions such as, Asthma, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) – a chronic disease of the lungs that makes it hard to breathe, and even Congestive heart failure – when the heart can't pump enough blood and oxygen through the body." Expedient and proper medical care is important for older adults as waiting or receiving a misdiagnosis can be associated with an increased risk of complications. As of August 2023, adults aged 60 years and older qualify for vaccination against RSV in Canada and the United States.
=== Complications ===
== Risk factors ==
Risk factors for the development of severe lower respiratory tract infection with RSV vary by population.
== Virology ==
=== Taxonomy ===
RSV is a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus. The scientific name for this viral species is human orthopneumovirus. This is synonymous with human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV), which is often shortened to just RSV. It belongs to the genus Orthopneumovirus, family Pneumoviridae, order Mononegavirales. Its name comes from the fact that F proteins on the surface of the virus cause neighboring cell membranes to merge, creating large multinucleated syncytia.
=== Antigenic subtypes ===
RSV is divided into two antigenic subtypes, A and B, based on the reactivity of the F and G surface proteins to monoclonal antibodies. The subtypes tend to circulate simultaneously within local epidemics, although subtype A tends to be more prevalent. Generally, RSV subtype A (RSVA) is thought to be more virulent than RSV subtype B (RSVB), with higher viral loads and faster transmission time. To date, 16 RSVA and 22 RSVB clades have been identified. Among RSVA, the GA1, GA2, GA5, and GA7 clades predominate; GA7 is found only in the United States. Among RSVB, the BA clade predominates worldwide.
=== Genome ===
RSV has a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA genome. The genome is linear and approximately 15,000 nucleotides in length. It has 10 genes encoding for 11 proteins. The gene order is NS1-NS2-N-P-M-SH-G-F-M2-L, with the NS1 and NS2 gene serving as nonstructural promoter genes.
=== Structure and proteins ===
RSV is a medium-sized (~150 nm) enveloped virus. While many particles are spherical, filamentous species have also been identified. The genome rests within a helical nucleocapsid and is surrounded by matrix protein and an envelope containing viral glycoproteins. There are 11 proteins, described further in the table below.
==== G protein ====
Surface protein G (glycoprotein) is primarily responsible for viral attachment to host cells. This protein is highly variable between strains. G protein exists in both membrane-bound and secreted forms. The membrane-found form is responsible for attachment by binding to glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), such as heparan sulfate, on the surface of host cells. The secreted form acts as a decoy, interacting with antigen-presenting cells to inhibit antibody-mediated neutralization. G protein also contains a CX3C fractalkine-like motif that binds to the CX3C chemokine receptor 1 (CX3CR1) on the surface of ciliated bronchial host cells. This binding may alter cellular chemotaxis and reduce the migration of immune cells into the lungs of infected individuals. G protein also alters host immune response by inhibiting signaling from several toll-like receptors, including TLR4.
==== F protein ====
Surface protein F (fusion protein) is responsible for the fusion of viral and host cell membranes, as well as syncytium formation between viral particles. Its sequence is highly conserved between strains. While viral attachment appears to involve both F and G proteins, F fusion occurs independently of G. F protein exists in multiple conformational forms. In the prefusion state (PreF), the protein exists in a trimeric form and contains the major antigenic site Ø. Ø serves as a primary target of neutralizing antibodies in the body. After binding to its target on the host cell surface (its exact ligand remains unclear), PreF undergoes a conformational change during which Ø is lost. This change enables the protein to insert itself into the host cell membrane and leads to fusion of the viral and host cell membranes. A final conformational shift results in a more stable and elongated form of the protein (postfusion, PostF). Opposite of the RSV G protein, the RSV F protein also binds to and activates toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), initiating the innate immune response and signal transduction.
=== Replication cycle ===
Following the fusion of the viral and host cell membranes, the viral nucleocapsid (containing the viral genome) and the associated viral polymerase are delivered into the host cell cytoplasm. Transcription and translation both occur within the cytoplasm. RNA-dependent RNA polymerase transcribes the genome into 10 segments of messenger RNA (mRNA) which is translated into structural proteins by host cell machinery. During replication of the negative-sense viral genome, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase synthesizes a positive-sense complement called the antigenome. This complementary strand is used as a template to construct genomic negative-sense RNA, which is packaged into nucleocapsids and transported to the plasma membrane for assembly and particle budding.
== Mechanism ==
=== Transmission ===
RSV is highly contagious and can cause outbreaks from both community and hospital transmission. For each person infected with RSV, it is estimated that an average of 5 to 25 uninfected people will become infected. RSV can spread when an infected person coughs or sneezes, releasing contaminated droplets into the air. Transmission usually occurs when these droplets come into contact with another person's eyes, nose, or mouth. As with all respiratory pathogens once presumed to transmit via respiratory droplets, it is highly likely to be carried by the aerosols generated during routine breathing, talking, and even singing. RSV can also live for up to 25 minutes on contaminated skin (i.e. hands) and several hours on other surfaces like countertops and doorknobs. It has an incubation period of 2 to 8 days. Once infected, people are usually contagious for 3 to 8 days. In infants and in people with weakened immune systems, however, the virus may continue to spread for up to 4 weeks (even after they are no longer showing symptoms).
=== Pathogenesis ===
Following transmission through the nose or eyes, RSV infects ciliated columnar epithelial cells of the upper and lower airway. RSV continues to replicate within these bronchial cells for about 8 days. After the first several days, RSV-infected cells will become more rounded and ultimately slough into the smaller bronchioles of the lower airway. This sloughing mechanism is also thought to be responsible for the spread of the virus from the upper to lower respiratory tract. Infection causes generalized inflammation within the lungs, including the migration and infiltration of inflammatory cells (such as monocytes and T-cells), epithelial necrosis, edema, and increased mucous production. Inflammation and cell damage tend to be patchy rather than diffuse. Together, the sloughed epithelial cells, mucous plugs, and accumulated immune cells obstruct the lower airway.
=== Reinfection ===
After recovery of "respiratory diseases associated with RSV infection, the virus interferes with the establishment of immunological memory, which leads to recurrent reinfections." An estimated of "36% of individuals" can be reinfected with RSV "at least once, during the winter season." Reinfections like these can be a result of "an initial encounter with RSV" that "fails to initiate adequate humoral and cellular immune responses to generate protective memory lymphocytes."
RSV reinfection can happen throughout life. As a result, it can cause "winter/early spring epidemics in temperate regions, but synchronization of RSV activity can vary widely" depending on the region that individual lives in. Usually, "unless immunocompromised," adults have mild symptoms when becoming reinfected. The mild symptoms tend to be restricting upper airways. However, younger individuals are extremely vulnerable to developing "severe symptoms," which typically involve the lower airways. Since infants have smaller airways than children do, "they might be obstructed by inflammation, edema, and mucus." This can contribute to developing a "more severe lower respiratory tract illness." As mentioned, RSV reinfection is frequent among all ages and the type of host response to reinfection can determine "which children will develop persistent wheezing and possibly asthma." It is possible that the age you are infected with RSV can be a vital factor in "determining the phenotype of airway response to subsequent RSV infection."
=== Immune escape ===
Genetic variations in viral epitopes and adjacent regions affect protein folding, post-transcriptional modifications, and antigenic processing, influencing B and T cell immunity during viral infections. This alteration in conformation can lead to immune evasion, potentially impacting disease severity, outbreaks, and reinfections. Notably, the variability observed in the G gene, followed by the SH and F genes, suggests a correlation between structural differences in proteins and their immunogenicity. Specifically, the irregular curl and low bond energy of the G protein make it prone to conformational changes, affecting its immunogenicity and potentially modulating the immune response.
Different genotypes of RSV exhibit variations in the structural conformation of key proteins such as G, SH, and F, impacting immune responses. The emergence of novel genotypes like ON1 and BA9 is associated with distinct structural differences, particularly in the G protein, which may contribute to immune evasion. Evidence suggests that RSV glycoprotein G plays a crucial role in immune modulation during infection, affecting cytokine expression and the antiviral response. In addition, positive selection pressure drives the dominance of certain genotypes over others, potentially driven by mutations within specific regions of the G gene.
The F protein is a major target for neutralizing antibodies, but its variability enables viral evasion from neutralization, affecting the efficacy of antibodies like Palivizumab. Cross-reactions between RSV subtypes and genotypes are observed, but immune responses are subtype- or genotype-specific, indicating the impact of gene mutations, particularly in the G protein, on immune evasion. Additionally, differences in cytokine expression and immune cell responses highlight the complexity of immune interactions during RSV infection. Genomic variations in RSV, particularly in proteins like G and F, influence immune responses and contribute to immune evasion. This multifaceted immunomodulatory arsenal likely contributes to RSV's ability to cause mild respiratory symptoms in most cases, yet it poses a severe threat to vulnerable populations such as infants and the elderly, potentially leading to life-threatening lung disease characterized by immune dysregulation. RSV has evolved numerous strategies to evade the host's antiviral response, with over half of its proteins exerting immunomodulatory effects.
== Diagnosis ==
=== Laboratory diagnosis ===
A variety of laboratory tests are available for the diagnosis of RSV infection. While the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) does not routinely recommend the use of lab testing to diagnose RSV bronchiolitis (for which the treatment is largely supportive), confirmation of RSV infection may be warranted in high-risk groups if the result will guide clinical decisions. Common identification techniques include antigen testing, molecular testing, and viral culture.
==== Antigen testing ====
Antigen testing involves the detection of RSV antigen fragments (or pieces of molecular viral structures), usually from an nasopharyngeal swab or aspirate. This can be accomplished either by viewing fluorescently labeled antigens under a microscope (direct fluorescence assay, or DFA) or using a commercially available rapid antigen detection test (RADT). Overall, antigen testing is highly sensitive in young children (80–90%) but substantially less reliable in older children and adults, who have less viral shedding. Antigen tests are also subject to higher false positive rates outside of the peak RSV season, such as in the summer months. In these scenarios, the use of either viral culture or nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) may aid in an accurate RSV diagnosis.
Rapid antigen detection tests (RADT) are commonly used as point-of-care testing due to their ease of use and quick turnaround time (as little as 10 minutes). These include both enzyme immunosorbent assays (EIA) and chromatographic immunoassays (CIA).
Direct fluorescence assay (DFA) allows for direct microscopic examination of virus-infected cells. The sensitivity of DFA testing depends on an adequate specimen.
==== Molecular testing ====
Molecular assays, such as nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs), enable sensitive detection of very small amounts of virus in nasopharyngeal swabs and aspirates. NAAT assays such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detect virus-specific genetic material, rather than viral antigens. They have a sensitivity and specificity approaching 100%. However, they tend to be more expensive and require more complex equipment than other testing methods, making them less practical in resource-limited areas. Molecular testing for RSV is not routinely recommended for all people with respiratory symptoms. However, it may be recommended for those at high risk of RSV complications, such as infants, older adults, and people with chronic medical conditions. RT-PCR has a sensitivity of 90-95% and a specificity of 98-99%, while LAMP has a sensitivity of 95-100% and a specificity of 99-100%.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a type of NAAT that allows a very small sample of genetic material to be rapidly amplified into millions of copies for study. PCR is more sensitive than either antigen testing or viral culture. Therefore, it can be used to detect virus in those with lower viral shedding, such as older children and adults. It may also be used to detect the disease earlier in at-risk individuals (such as hospitalized or immunocompromised patients), when the viral burden may still be too low to be identified by traditional techniques. Because of its sensitivity, PCR can also often detect asymptomatic carriers and may remain positive even days after an infection has clinically resolved.
Multi-pathogen panels are also available, which can detect the presence of multiple viral infections (including RSV) in a single person.
==== Viral culture ====
In traditional viral culture, a sample of the virus is introduced to different cell lines and allowed to replicate so it can be studied. Benefits of this technique include the ability to perform genetic characterization, strain typing, and antiviral susceptibility testing. However, it is limited by its prolonged turnaround time of 3–7 days, making it less common in patient care and more common in research settings.
==== Serologic testing ====
Serology (the measurement of virus-specific antibodies in the serum) is not frequently used in RSV diagnosis. The time required for the body to mount a significant serologic response (and demonstrate a significant rise in antibodies that can be detected in serum) is usually not useful in guiding patient care. Up to 30% of patients with documented RSV infection will have negative serology results. As such, this method is generally reserved for research and surveillance studies.
=== Imaging findings ===
Chest X-ray findings in children with RSV bronchiolitis are generally nonspecific and include perihilar markings, patchy hyperinflation, and atelectasis. However, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) does not recommend routine imaging for children with presumed RSV bronchiolitis because it does not change clinical outcomes and is associated with increased antibiotic use. Chest X-ray is sometimes considered when the diagnosis of bronchiolitis is unclear or when there is an unexpected worsening. In adults with RSV infection, chest films are often normal or demonstrate nonspecific changes consistent with viral pneumonia, such as patchy bilateral infiltrates.
=== Differential diagnosis ===
The differential diagnosis for individuals presenting with signs and symptoms of upper and lower respiratory tract infection includes other viral infections (such as rhinovirus, metapneumovirus, and influenza) and primary bacterial pneumonia. In children, inhaled foreign bodies and congenital conditions such as cystic fibrosis or asthma are typically considered.
== Prevention ==
Other than vaccination, the main prevention measure is to avoid close contact with infected individuals. Airborne precautions such as respirators, ventilation, and HEPA/high MERV filters, are likely protective against RSV-laden aerosols.
=== Vaccines ===
In May 2023, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first RSV vaccines, Arexvy (developed by GSK plc) and Abrysvo (Pfizer). Mresvia is an mRNA vaccine that was approved for medical use in the United States in May 2024.
The primary pharmaceutical developers, GSK and Pfizer, obtained Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for RSV vaccines targeting adults aged 60 and above. GSK's Arexvy boasts 94% efficacy against severe and 83% against symptomatic RSV in this age group, while Pfizer's Abrysvo is 86% effective against severe symptoms and 67% against symptomatic disease in adults aged 60 and older.
Addressing the more challenging aspect, the need for a newborn vaccine, researchers employed a pregnancy-administered approach to protect infants during the first six months, a critical period for RSV susceptibility. The FDA's advisory committee endorsed Pfizer's parental RSV vaccine, acknowledging its 82% effectiveness against severe RSV in newborns up to three months and 69% efficacy through six months. While unanimous in favor of efficacy, the committee voted 10 to 4 for safety, with concerns about a slightly higher premature birth rate in the vaccinated group. GSK halted its own trial due to a 38% higher likelihood of premature births in the vaccine group.
==== Background ====
The virus's disease burden and the lack of disease-specific therapies spurs interest and research in vaccine development, which faced obstacles that blocked its progress. Among these were infant-specific factors, such as the immature infant immune system and the presence of maternal antibodies, which make infantile immunization difficult.
RSV infection is widespread in early childhood, contributing significantly to the global disease burden. The association between severe childhood infections and subsequent respiratory issues is not fully understood—particularly the suggested link between bronchiolitis, recurrent infantile wheezing, and childhood asthma. Unlike other vaccine-preventable respiratory pathogens, RSV has proven challenging for vaccine development. Ongoing efforts focus on creating vaccines that confer durable protection, with field trials eagerly anticipated. Supportive care remains the mainstay for treating RSV disease, as effective antiviral drugs are awaited. The introduction of antivirals, coupled with vaccines and advanced diagnostic techniques, holds promise for reducing RSV's global impact in the coming years. These interventions may alter infection dynamics and weaken RSV's hold on communities worldwide.
Potential vaccines being researched fall into five broad categories: live-attenuated, protein subunit, vector-based, virus particle subunit, and messenger RNA. Each targets different immune responses and thus may be better suited to prevent disease in different at-risk groups. Live-attenuated vaccines have shown some success in RSV-naive infants. Other vaccine candidates hope to target vulnerable populations across the lifespan, including pregnant women and the elderly.
=== Immunoprophylaxis ===
Historically, RSV-specific intravenous immunoglobin (IVIG) was used to provide passive immunity to prevent RSV infection and hospitalization in the highest-risk infants. This involved monthly administration of RSV-neutralizing antibodies (or immunoglobins) from human donors recovering from the disease. While this transfer of antibodies was reasonably effective in providing short-term immunization to at-risk infants, it was limited by both its intravenous administration and cost.
RSV-IVIG has since been replaced with the use of a monoclonal antibody (MAb) that can be delivered through muscular injection. Palivizumab (Synagis) is a monoclonal antibody directed against the surface fusion (F) protein of the RSV virus. It was licensed in 1998 and is effective in providing temporary prophylaxis against both RSV A and B. It is given by monthly injections, which begin just before the RSV season and are usually continued for five months. Palivizumab has been shown to reduce both hospitalization rates and all-cause mortality in certain groups of high-risk children (such as those with chronic lung disease, congenital heart disease, and those born preterm). However, its cost limits its use in many parts of the world. More potent derivatives of this antibody have since been developed (including motavizumab) but were associated with considerable adverse events.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP 2014) recommends RSV prophylaxis with palivizumab during RSV season for:
Infants born at ≤28 weeks 6 days gestational age and <12 months at the start of RSV season
Infants <12 months old with chronic lung disease of prematurity
Infants ≤12 months old with hemodynamically significant congenital heart disease
Infants <24 months old with chronic lung disease of prematurity requiring medical therapy
Per AAP guidelines, palivizumab prophylaxis may also be considered in infants with:
Congenital airway abnormality
Neuromuscular disorder
Cystic fibrosis
Severe immunocompromise
Recent or upcoming heart transplantation
Nirsevimab (Beyfortus) is another antiviral monoclonal antibody, that has been approved for the prevention of RSV lower respiratory tract disease in newborns and infants during their first RSV season. Nirsevimab requires only one dose that lasts the entire RSV season, unlike palivizumab, which has to be injected about once a month for up to four times to remain effective. Nirsevimab was approved for medical use in the European Union and the United Kingdom in November 2022, and in Canada in April 2023.
== Treatment ==
=== Supportive care ===
Treatment for RSV infection is focused primarily on supportive care. This may include monitoring a patient's breathing or using suction to remove secretions from the upper airway. Supplemental oxygen may also be delivered through a nasal cannula or face mask in order to improve airflow. In severe cases of respiratory failure, intubation and mechanical ventilation may be required to support breathing. If signs of dehydration are present, fluids may also be given orally or through an IV.
Additional supportive treatments have been investigated in infants hospitalized with RSV bronchiolitis. These include:
Nebulized hypertonic saline has been shown to reduce length of hospitalization and reduce clinical severity in infants with viral bronchiolitis. A possible mechanism is reduced airway edema and mucus plugging to decrease airway obstruction.
Heliox, a mixture of oxygen with helium, may reduce respiratory distress within the first hour of treatment. It works by decreasing airway resistance and easing the work of breathing. However, it has not been shown to affect overall illness outcomes.
Chest physiotherapy including forced respiratory techniques for infants has not been found to reduce disease severity or yield any other improvement. Evidence supporting other physiotherapy approaches including instrumental physiotherapy and rhinopharyngeal retrograde technique (RRT) is very limited, The effects and any potential use needs further assessment in clinical trials. There is also no evidence to support hypertonic saline therapy combined with chest physiotherapy. There is very weak evidence to suggest that passive slow expiratory technique physiotherapy may contribute to a "mild to moderate" positive change in the severity of bronchiolitis for hospitalized infants, however, the benefit of this approach for infants treated in ambulatory settings is not known.
Inhaled recombinant human deoxyribonuclease (rhDNase), an enzyme that digests the DNA that contributes to mucus plugging and airway obstruction, has not been shown to improve clinical outcomes in this group.
=== Viral-specific therapies ===
Ribavirin is an antiviral medication licensed for the treatment of RSV in children. It is a guanosine analog that acts by inhibiting viral RNA synthesis and capping. It was approved in 1986 for treatment of RSV infection. However, the use of ribavirin remains controversial due to unclear evidence of efficacy and concerns about toxicity to exposed staff members, as well as cost. As such, treatment guidelines do not make recommendations for its use in children. In adults, ribavirin is used off-label and is generally reserved for the severely immunocompromised, such as those undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplants.
Presatovir, an experimental antiviral drug, has shown promising results in clinical trials but has not yet been approved for medical use. It acts as a fusion inhibitor by inhibiting the RSV F protein.
Immunoglobins, both RSV-specific and non-specific, have historically been used for RSV-related illnesses. However, there is insufficient evidence to support the use of immunoglobins in children with RSV infection.
=== Anti-inflammatories ===
Corticosteroids (systemic or inhaled) have not been found to decrease hospitalization length or disease severity in viral bronchiolitis. Their use may also prolong viral shedding, and thus is not commonly recommended. However, the use of oral corticosteroids remains common in adults with RSV-related exacerbation of underlying lung disease.
Leukotriene inhibitors such as montelukast have been used in the treatment of infants and children with bronchiolitis. However, the evidence supporting their use remains inconsistent with no definitive conclusions on their efficacy.
=== Bronchodilators ===
Bronchodilators, medications commonly used to treat asthma, are sometimes used to treat the wheezing associated with RSV infection. These medications (such as albuterol (sin. salbutamol)) are beta-agonists that relax the muscles of the airways to allow for improved airflow. However, bronchodilators have not been found to improve the clinical severity of infection or the rate of hospitalization among those with RSV infection. Given their limited benefit, plus their adverse event profile, they are not routinely recommended for use in RSV bronchiolitis.
=== Antibiotics ===
Antibiotic therapy is not appropriate for the treatment of RSV-related bronchiolitis or viral pneumonia. Antibiotics target bacterial pathogens, not viral pathogens such as RSV. However, antibiotics may be considered if there is clear evidence that a secondary bacterial infection has developed. Ear infections may also develop in a small number of infants with RSV bronchiolitis, in which case oral antibiotics may sometimes be used.
Beyond vaccines, AstraZeneca and Sanofi introduced nirsevimab, a prophylactic monoclonal antibody with 75% efficacy against RSV cases in infants under one year. Europe approved nirsevimab in November 2022, and the FDA followed suit in July 2023. Merck's clesrovimab, a similar monoclonal antibody, is in late-stage trials.
== Epidemiology ==
=== Infants and children ===
Worldwide, RSV is the leading cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia in infants and children under the age of 5. The risk of serious infection is highest during the first 6 months of life. Of those infected with RSV, 2–3% will develop bronchiolitis, necessitating hospitalization. Each year, approximately 30 million acute respiratory illnesses and over 60,000 childhood deaths are caused by RSV worldwide. An estimated 87% of infants will have experienced an RSV infection by the age of 18 months, and nearly all children will have been infected by 3 years. In the United States, RSV is responsible for up to 20% of acute respiratory infection hospitalizations in children under the age of 5. However, the vast majority of RSV-related deaths occur in low-income countries that lack access to basic supportive care.
The prophylactic use of palivizumab or nirsevimab (both are monoclonal antibody treatments) can prevent RSV infection in high-risk infants. Passive immunization is available to prevent RSV infection and hospitalization in the highest-risk infants.
A 2024 JAMA Open article suggested a rise in sudden unexpected infant deaths (SUID) may be connected to an unusual surge of RSV in 2021. Researchers analyzed over 14,000 SUID cases using CDC records and found that the rate per 100,000 live births increased by 10% between 2019 and 2021. The study revealed that the risk of SUID was highest from June to December 2021, coinciding with an off-season spike in RSV hospitalizations after the virus deviated from its typical winter pattern in 2020.
=== Adults ===
It is rare for healthy young adults to develop severe illness requiring hospitalization from RSV. However, it is now recognized as a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in certain adult populations, including the elderly and those with underlying heart or lung diseases. Its clinical impact among elderly adults is estimated to be similar to that of influenza. Each year, approximately 5–10% of nursing home residents will experience RSV infection, with significant rates of pneumonia and death. RSV is also responsible for 2–5% of adult community-acquired pneumonias.
=== Immunocompromised ===
In both adults and children, immunosuppression increases susceptibility to RSV infection. Children living with HIV are more likely to develop acute illness and are 3.5 times more likely to require hospitalization than children without HIV. Bone marrow transplant patients before marrow engraftment are at particularly high risk, with RSV accounting for nearly half of the viral infections in this population. This group has also demonstrated mortality rates of up to 80% among those with RSV pneumonia. While infection may occur within the community, hospital-acquired infection is thought to account for 30–50% of cases among immunocompromised individuals.
=== Seasonality ===
RSV seasonality varies around the world. In temperate climates, infection rates tend to be highest during the cold winter months. This is often attributed to increased indoor crowding and increased viral stability in lower temperatures. In tropical and arctic climates, however, the annual variation is less well-defined and seems to be more prevalent during the rainy season. Annual epidemics are generally caused by the presence of several different viral strains. Subtype A and B viruses will often circulate simultaneously within a specific geographic region, although group A viruses are more prevalent.
== Research ==
A study investigated RSV-specific T cell responses in 55 infants hospitalized for RSV bronchiolitis and found that these responses were similar during both acute illness and recovery, and did not increase after subsequent RSV infections. This suggests that RSV-specific T-cell responses may not prevent reinfection and might not expand effectively in the body after reinfection. However, these cells might be located in specific areas of the lungs and respond more strongly to secondary infection, as seen in animal studies. For instance, a study using mice showed that the "extent of the BALF inflammatory response to reinfection response to reinfection in adulthood is determined by the age at first infection." The study also discovered that the patterns differ for "neonatal infection primes the host to develop a Th2-biased response." The exact mechanisms behind this phenomenon remain unclear. One possibility is that a lack of IFN-γ production in newborns during their first encounter with RSV, possibly due to an immature immune system, allows for the emergence of a Th2-biased response that persists and can be triggered again during subsequent RSV infections. However, it is improbable that variations solely in IFN-γ levels explain this susceptibility window. IL-13 appears to play a significant role as a regulator in this process. IL-13 is a protein located in the lung. It is a "mediator of allergic asthma" and it is in charge of "regulating eosinophilic inflammation, mucus secretion, and airway hyperresponsiveness."
SARS-CoV-2 infections, the virus responsible for COVID-19, may lead to a higher risk of infection with RSV. In November 2022, the RSV hospitalization rate for newborns was seven times the rate in 2018. This, combined with increasing influenza circulation, caused the US state of Oregon to declare a state of emergency. The Children's Hospital Association and the American Academy of Pediatrics asked US President Joe Biden to declare a state of emergency.
The findings of a 2024 cross-sectional study of 6,248 hospitalized adults with RSV infection suggest that acute cardiac events are common among hospitalized older adults with RSV infection, and are associated with severe clinical outcomes. Nearly a quarter of hospitalized people over 50 with RSV experienced an acute cardiac event (most frequently acute heart failure), including 1 in 12 adults (8.5%) without documented underlying cardiovascular disease. Patients who had acute cardiac events had nearly twice the risk of a severe outcome than patients who did not.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Park GY, Tishkowski K (2024). "Paramyxovirus". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID 33620863.
Walsh EE, Hall CB (2015). "Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)". Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. pp. 1948–1960.e3. doi:10.1016/B978-1-4557-4801-3.00160-0. ISBN 978-1-4557-4801-3. PMC 7173590.
Carbonell-Estrany X, Simões EA, Bont LJ, Gentile A, Homaira N, Scotta MC, et al. (November 2022). "Identifying the research, advocacy, policy and implementation needs for the prevention and management of respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract infection in low- and middle-income countries". Frontiers in Pediatrics. 10 1033125. doi:10.3389/fped.2022.1033125. PMC 9682277. PMID 36440349.
Kassem E, Na'amnih W, Bdair-Amsha A, Zahalkah H, Muhsen K (April 2019). "Comparisons between ethnic groups in hospitalizations for respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in Israel". PLOS ONE. 14 (4) e0214197. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1414197K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0214197. PMC 6443173. PMID 30933992.
Dakhama A, Park JW, Taube C, Joetham A, Balhorn A, Miyahara N, et al. (August 2005). "The Enhancement or Prevention of Airway Hyperresponsiveness during Reinfection with Respiratory Syncytial Virus Is Critically Dependent on the Age at First Infection and IL-13 Production". The Journal of Immunology. 175 (3): 1876–1883. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.175.3.1876. PMID 16034131.
Carvajal JJ, Avellaneda AM, Salazar-Ardiles C, Maya JE, Kalergis AM, Lay MK (September 2019). "Host Components Contributing to Respiratory Syncytial Virus Pathogenesis". Frontiers in Immunology. 10 2152. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.02152. PMC 6753334. PMID 31572372.
Chakraborty C, Sharma AR, Bhattacharya M, Lee SS (February 2022). "A Detailed Overview of Immune Escape, Antibody Escape, Partial Vaccine Escape of SARS-CoV-2 and Their Emerging Variants With Escape Mutations". Frontiers in Immunology. 13 801522. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.801522. PMC 8863680. PMID 35222380.
Zhou X, Jiang M, Wang F, Qian Y, Song Q, Sun Y, et al. (January 2023). "Immune escaping of the novel genotypes of human respiratory syncytial virus based on gene sequence variation". Frontiers in Immunology. 13 1084139. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.1084139. PMC 9871593. PMID 36703972.
Wynn TA (April 2003). "IL-13 Effector Functions". Annual Review of Immunology. 21 (1): 425–456. doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.141142. PMID 12615888.
Mousa JJ, Williams JV, Crowe JE (2022). "Pneumoviruses: Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Human Metapneumovirus". Viral Infections of Humans. pp. 1–53. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-9544-8_26-1. ISBN 978-1-4939-9544-8. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fencing_at_the_1908_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_sabre#:~:text=There%20were%2076%20competitors%20from,enter%20up%20to%2012%20fencers. | Fencing at the 1908 Summer Olympics – Men's sabre | The men's sabre was one of four fencing events on the Fencing at the 1908 Summer Olympics programme. The top two places were won by Hungarian fencers, who also took the gold medal in the team sabre event. Jenő Fuchs took the gold medal and Béla Zulawszky the silver. Bronze went to Bohemian Vilém Goppold von Lobsdorf. There were 76 competitors from 11 nations. Each nation could enter up to 12 fencers.
== Background ==
This was the fourth appearance of the event, which is the only fencing event to have been held at every Summer Olympics. The 1900 gold medalist, Georges de la Falaise of France, returned after not competing in 1904.
Belgium, Bohemia, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and South Africa each made their debut in the men's sabre. Austria made its third appearance in the event, most of any nation, having missed only the 1904 Games in St. Louis.
== Competition format ==
The competition was held over four rounds. In each round, each pool held a round-robin, with bouts to 3 touches. European sabre rules at the time used a target area of the whole body, in contrast to above-the-waist target area provided for by the American rules of the time, used in the 1904 Games, and which became standard after World War I. Barrages were used as necessary to determine the advancing fencers.
First round: 13 pools of between 4 and 8 fencers each. The 3 fencers in each pool with the fewest bouts lost advanced to the second round.
Quarterfinals: 8 pools of 5 fencers each (except one had only 4 by design and one had only 4 due to a non-starter). The 2 fencers in each pool with the fewest bouts lost advanced to the semifinals.
Semifinals: 2 pools of 8 fencers each. The 4 fencers in each pool with the fewest bouts lost advanced to the final.
Final: 1 pool of 8 fencers.
== Schedule ==
== Results ==
=== Round 1 ===
The first round was conducted in round-robin format, to three touches. Pool sizes ranged from 4 to 8 fencers. The three contestants who had lost the fewest bouts advanced.
==== Pool A ====
==== Pool B ====
The three-way tie for the two remaining places resulted in the British fencer being eliminated.
Barrage B
==== Pool C ====
Renaud lost both his playoff matches, eliminating him and allowing Grade and Jack to advance.
Barrage C
==== Pool D ====
The playoff resulted in two losses for Lichtenfels.
Barrage D
==== Pool E ====
The fifth pool was small, with only 4 fencers. This meant only one, Langevin, was eliminated.
==== Pool F ====
Petri defeated van Tomme in the playoff for third place after having lost to the Belgian in the main pool.
Barrage F
==== Pool G ====
Badman defeated van Minden again in the playoff for third place.
Barrage G
==== Pool H ====
==== Pool I ====
==== Pool J ====
The tenth pool was the largest, at fully twice the size of the fifth. Five of the eight fencers were eliminated. The Bohemian fencer, von Lobsdorf, defeated each of his seven opponents for a decisive first place in the pool. There was no match between Sarzano and Stohr.
==== Pool K ====
==== Pool L ====
Chapuis was eliminated in the three-way playoff for second and third.
Barrage L
==== Pool M ====
The final pool was one of the larger pools, with 7 fencers.
=== Quarterfinals ===
There were eight second round pools, ranging in size from 4 to 5.
==== Quarterfinal 1 ====
Notley's pair of victories in the playoff gave him second in the pool, allowing him to advance.
Barrage 1
==== Quarterfinal 2 ====
==== Quarterfinal 3 ====
==== Quarterfinal 4 ====
==== Quarterfinal 5 ====
==== Quarterfinal 6 ====
==== Quarterfinal 7 ====
Doorman, who had lost to Petri in the main pool, defeated the German in the playoff for second place.
Barrage 7
==== Quarterfinal 8 ====
Barrage 8
=== Semifinals ===
There were two semifinals, each of 8 fencers. The top 4 in each advanced to the final.
==== Semifinal 1 ====
==== Semifinal 2 ====
Four fencers tied at 5-2 records, all advancing to the finals. Ceccherini gave up after his first four bouts, giving Tóth, van der Voodt, and Doorman wins by walkover.
=== Final ===
Fuchs and de Lobsdorf did not finish within the time limit, resulting in a loss for both of them. The playoff match for the gold medal was won by Fuchs, with the one-touch bout decided by a parry and riposte to his fellow Hungarian's head.
Barrage
== Notes ==
== Sources ==
Cook, Theodore Andrea (1908). The Fourth Olympiad, Being the Official Report. London: British Olympic Association.
De Wael, Herman. Herman's Full Olympians: "Fencing 1908". Accessed 1 May 2006. Available electronically at [1] Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_Pieces | Number Pieces | The term Number Pieces refers to a body of late compositions (40, or 41 if Seventeen was actually composed) by John Cage. Each piece is named after the number of performers involved: for instance, Seven is a piece for seven performers, One9 (read "One Nine") is the ninth work for one performer, and 1O1 is a piece for an orchestra of 101 musicians. The vast majority of these works were composed using Cage's time bracket technique: the score consists of short fragments (frequently just one note, with or without dynamics) and indications, in minutes and seconds, during which the fragment can start and by what time it should end. Time brackets can be fixed (e.g. from 1.15 to 2.00) or flexible (e.g. from anywhere between 1.15 and 1.45, and to anywhere between 2.00 and 2.30).
All of the Number Pieces were composed during the last six years of Cage's life, 1987–1992. Most are for traditional instruments, with six exceptions that range from works for rainsticks, the Japanese aerophone shō and conch shells to an electronically amplified version of 4′33″. This article lists all Number Pieces, organized by number of performers.
== List of Number Pieces ==
=== One ===
=== Two ===
=== Three ===
=== Four ===
=== Five ===
=== Six to Twenty ===
=== Twenty to 108 ===
Cage's late orchestral works are to be performed without a conductor.
== Notes ==
== Further reading ==
Emmerik, Paul van (in collaboration with Herbert Henck and András Wilheim). "A John Cage Compendium"
Haskins, Rob. 2004. "An Anarchic Society of Sounds": The Number Pieces of John Cage. Ph.D. Diss., Eastman School of Music, University of Rochester.
Popoff, A. 2010. "John Cage’s Number Pieces: The Meta-Structure of Time-Brackets and the Notion of Time". Perspectives of New Music, pp. 65–84, 48/1.
Popoff, A. 2011. Indeterminate music and probability spaces: The case of John Cage's number pieces, Springer Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Volume 6726 LNAI, pp. 220–229
Popoff, A. 2015. A Statistical Approach to the Global Structure of John Cage’s Number Piece Five5, Springer Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, Volume 9110 LNAI, pp. 231–236
Weisser, B. 2003. " '... the whole paper would potentially be sound': Time-Brackets and the Number Pieces". Perspectives of New Music, pp. 176–225, 41/2.
Musicage: Cage Muses on Words, Art, Music, editor: Joan Retallack, Wesleyan University Press 1996, ISBN 0-8195-5285-2
== External links ==
John Cage Database – Worklist, includes a complete catalogue of Cage's music, details and lists of recordings for all pieces.
John Cage Complete Works, hosted and developed by the John Cage Trust
Rob Haskins: Program and Liner Notes, includes a number of essays on Number Pieces in general, One4, One9, Two2, Two3, Two4, Four, Four4, Twenty-Nine and 108.
James Pritchett: Liner Notes: One8 for cello and curved bow
Publication release notice by C. F. Peters, New York: One13 for cello with curved bow and 3 loud-speakers |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zulfikar_Ali_Bhutto#Trial_and_execution | Zulfikar Ali Bhutto | Zulfikar Ali Bhutto NPk (5 January 1928 – 4 April 1979) was a Pakistani barrister, politician and statesman who served as the fourth president of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973 and later as the ninth prime minister of Pakistan from 1973 until his overthrow in 1977. He was also the founder and first chairman of the Pakistan People's Party (PPP) from 1967 until his execution in 1979.
Born in Sindh and educated at the University of California, Berkeley and the University of Oxford, Bhutto trained as a barrister at Lincoln's Inn before entering politics. He was a cabinet member during president Iskandar Mirza's tenure, holding various ministries during president Ayub Khan's military rule from 1958. Bhutto became the foreign minister in 1963, advocating for Operation Gibraltar in Kashmir, leading to the 1965 war with India. Following the Tashkent Declaration, he was dismissed from the government. Bhutto established the PPP in 1967, focusing on a left-wing and socialist agenda, and contested the 1970 general election, arising as the largest political party in Western Pakistan with a landslide victory in Punjab and Sindh; and a coalition victory with National Awami Party in Balochistan and the North-West Frontier. The Awami League, victorious with a landslide in East Pakistan, and the PPP were unable to agree on power transfer, leading to civil unrest in the east — further intensified by military action under Yahya Khan's military government — followed by a civil war and a war with India, resulting in the creation of Bangladesh. After Pakistan's loss in the east, Yahya resigned amidst a military revolt against him and Bhutto assumed the presidency in December 1971, imposing emergency rule and securing a ceasefire on the western front.
Bhutto secured the release of 93,000 prisoners of war through the Delhi Agreement, a trilateral accord signed between India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh on 28 August 1973, and ratified only by India and Pakistan. He also reclaimed five thousand square miles (13,000 km2) of Indian-held territory through the Simla Agreement, signed between India and Pakistan in July 1972. He strengthened diplomatic ties with other Muslim countries, as well as China; and recognised Bangladesh in 1974 while hosting the historic Islamic Summit in Lahore, attended by leaders from across the Muslim world. In collaboration with the parliamentary opposition, Bhutto's government drafted and promulgated Pakistan’s current constitution in 1973, with the approval of 97 percent of the parliament — bringing an end to emergency rule and restoring parliamentary democracy across the country, with Bhutto assuming office as prime minister. He brought in Abdul Qadeer Khan, strengthened the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, and initiated the country's nuclear program which he regarded as a 'national priority'. Bhutto also introduced a policy of extensive nationalisation under his socialist agenda.
Despite winning the 1977 parliamentary elections, the Peoples Party faced allegations of vote rigging by the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA), the populist opposition, sparking violence across the country. In an effort to resolve the crisis, Bhutto's government reached an agreement with the opposition to hold fresh elections under a neutral caretaker administration in October of the same year, but Bhutto was deposed two days later in a military coup by army chief Zia-ul-Haq on 5 July 1977. Controversially tried and executed in 1979, his trial — widely described, both in Pakistan and internationally, as a 'judicial murder' — was later declared 'unfair' by the Supreme Court of Pakistan in a mea culpa.
Bhutto's legacy remains contentious, praised for nationalist and a secular internationalist agenda, yet criticised for economic challenges, political repression and human rights abuses. He is often considered one of Pakistan's greatest leaders and referred to as the Quaid-e-Awām ("the People's Leader"). He was posthumously awarded the Nishan-e-Pakistan, the highest civilian award of the country. His party, the PPP, continues to be a significant political force in Pakistan, with his daughter Benazir Bhutto serving twice as prime minister, and his son-in-law, Asif Ali Zardari, becoming president.
== Early life and education ==
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto belonged to a Sindhi family; Owen Bennett-Jones writes that the family traces its ancestry back to a 9th-century Rajput prince of the Bhati clan who ruled the town of Tanot (in current-day Rajasthan, India), Bhutto's ancestors later appearing in different Rajasthani chronicles in prominent roles, the family converting to Islam mostly around the 17th century before moving to Sindh.
He was born to Shah Nawaz Bhutto and Khursheed Begum near Larkana. His father was the dewan of the princely state of Junagadh and enjoyed an influential relationship with the officials of the British Raj. His mother, Khursheed Begum, was born Lakhi Bai, and had been a professional dance girl from a Hindu family but converted to Islam when she married Shah Nawaz. Reportedly, Shah Nawaz Bhutto had seen her dancing and had proposed, eventually marrying her. Zulfikar was their third child — the first, Sikandar Ali, had died from pneumonia at age seven in 1914, and the second, Imdad Ali, died of cirrhosis at age 39 in 1953.
As a young boy, Bhutto moved to Worli Seaface in Bombay, where he studied at the Cathedral and John Connon School and later at St. Xavier's College, Mumbai. He then also became an activist in the Pakistan Movement. In 1943, his marriage was arranged with Shireen Amir Begum. In 1947, Bhutto was admitted to the University of Southern California to study political science.
In 1949, as a sophomore, Bhutto transferred to the University of California, Berkeley, where he earned a B.A. (honours) degree in political science in 1950. A year later on 8 September 1951, he married a woman of Iranian Kurdish origin—Nusrat Ispahani, popularly known as Begum Nusrat Bhutto. During his studies at the University of California, Berkeley, Bhutto became interested in the theories of socialism, delivering a series of lectures on their feasibility in Islamic countries. During this time, Bhutto's father played a controversial role in the affairs of Junagadh. Coming to power in a palace coup, he secured the accession of his state to Pakistan, which was ultimately negated by Indian intervention in December 1947. In June 1950, Bhutto travelled to the United Kingdom to study law at Christ Church, Oxford and received a BA in jurisprudence, followed by an LLM degree in law and an M.Sc. (honours) degree in political science. Upon finishing his studies, he served as a lecturer in international law at the University of Southampton in 1952, and he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1953.
== Political career ==
In 1957, Bhutto became the youngest member of Pakistan's delegation to the United Nations. He addressed the UN Sixth Committee on Aggression that October and led Pakistan's delegation to the first UN Conference on the Law of the Sea in 1958. That year, Bhutto became Pakistan's youngest cabinet minister, taking up the reins of the Ministry of Commerce by President Iskander Mirza, pre-coup d'état government. Bhutto became a trusted ally and advisor of Ayub Khan, rising in influence and power despite his youth and relative inexperience. Bhutto was a junior minister in Ayub Khan administration at the time of signing the Indus Waters Treaty with India in 1960 and was not part of the negotiating team. Bhutto was against this treaty due to yielding too much of water resources to India. Later he vehemently talked publicly against the IWT during his campaign against Ayub Khan regime. Bhutto negotiated an oil-exploration agreement with the Soviet Union in 1961, which agreed to provide economic and technical aid to Pakistan.
=== Foreign Minister ===
Bhutto, a Pakistani nationalist and socialist, held distinctive views on the democracy required in Pakistan. Upon becoming foreign minister in 1963, his socialist stance led to a close relationship with neighboring China, challenging the prevailing acceptance of Taiwan as the legitimate government of China when two governments each claimed to be "China". In 1964, the Soviet Union and its satellite states broke off relations with Beijing over ideological differences, with only Albania and Pakistan supporting the People's Republic of China. Bhutto staunchly supported Beijing in the UN and the UNSC, while also maintaining connections with the United States.
Bhutto's strong advocacy for closer ties with China drew criticism from the United States, with President Lyndon B. Johnson cautioning him about potential repercussions on congressional support for aid to Pakistan. Bhutto, known for his demagogic speeches, led the foreign ministry assertively, rapidly gaining national prominence. During a visit to Beijing, Bhutto and his staff received a warm welcome from the Chinese leadership, including Mao Zedong. Bhutto contributed to negotiating trade and military agreements between Pakistan and China, fostering collaboration on various military and industrial projects.
Bhutto signed the Sino-Pakistan Boundary Agreement on 2 March 1963, transferring 750 square kilometers of territory from Gilgit Baltistan to Chinese control. Bhutto embraced non-alignment, making Pakistan an influential member in non-aligned organisations. Advocating pan-Islamic unity, Bhutto developed closer relations with Indonesia and Saudi Arabia. Bhutto significantly transformed Pakistan's pro-West foreign policy. While maintaining a role in the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization and the Central Treaty Organization, Bhutto asserted an independent foreign policy for Pakistan, free from U.S. influence. Bhutto also visited Poland in 1962, establishing diplomatic relations and fostering mutual cooperation, reaching out to the Polish community in Pakistan. Using Pakistan Air Force's Brigadier-General Władysław Turowicz, Bhutto initiated military and economic links between Pakistan and Poland.
In 1962, as territorial differences escalated between India and China, Beijing considered staging an invasion in northern Indian territories. Premier Zhou Enlai and Mao invited Pakistan to join the raid to reclaim the State of Jammu and Kashmir from India. Bhutto supported the plan, but Ayub opposed it due to fears of Indian retaliation. Instead, Ayub proposed a "joint defense union" with India, shocking Bhutto, who felt Ayub Khan lacked understanding of international affairs. Bhutto, aware of China's restraint from criticising Pakistan despite its membership in anti-communist western alliances, criticised the U.S. for providing military aid to India during and after the 1962 Sino-Indian War, seen as a breach of Pakistan's alliance with the United States.
On Bhutto's counsel, Ayub Khan launched Operation Gibraltar in an attempt to "liberate" Kashmir. The operation failed, leading to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. This war followed brief skirmishes between March and August 1965 in the Rann of Kutch, Jammu and Kashmir, and Punjab. Bhutto joined Ayub in Uzbekistan to negotiate a peace treaty with Indian prime minister Lal Bahadur Shastri. Ayub and Shastri agreed to exchange prisoners of war and withdraw respective forces to pre-war boundaries. The agreement, deeply unpopular in Pakistan, caused significant political unrest against Ayub's regime. Bhutto's criticism of the final agreement created a major rift with Ayub. Initially denying rumors, Bhutto resigned in June 1966, expressing strong opposition to Ayub's regime.
During his term, Bhutto formulated aggressive geostrategic and foreign policies against India. In 1965, Bhutto received information from his friend Munir Ahmad Khan about the status of India's nuclear program. Bhutto stated, "Pakistan will fight, fight for a thousand years. If India builds the (atom) bomb, Pakistan will eat grass or leaves, even go hungry, but we (Pakistan) will get one of our own (atom bomb).... We (Pakistan) have no other choice!" In his 1969 book The Myth of Independence, Bhutto argued for the necessity of Pakistan acquiring a fission weapon and starting a deterrence program to stand up to industrialised states and a nuclear-armed India. He developed a manifesto outlining the program's development and selected Munir Ahmad Khan to lead it.
== Creation of the Pakistan People's Party ==
After resigning as foreign minister, large crowds gathered to hear Bhutto's speech upon his arrival in Lahore on 21 June 1967. Riding a wave of anger against Ayub, Bhutto traveled across Pakistan, delivering political speeches. In October 1966, Bhutto explicitly outlined the beliefs of his new party: "Islam is our faith, democracy is our policy, socialism is our economy. All power to the people."
On 30 November 1967, at the Lahore residence of Mubashir Hassan, a gathering including Bhutto, political activist Sufi Nazar Muhammad Khan, Bengali communist J. A. Rahim, and Basit Jehangir Sheikh founded the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), establishing a strong base in Punjab, Sindh, and among the Muhajirs.
Mubashir Hassan, an engineering professor at UET Lahore, played a pivotal role in the success and rise of Bhutto. Under Hassan's guidance and Bhutto's leadership, the PPP became part of the pro-democracy movement involving diverse political parties from all across Pakistan. PPP activists staged large protests and strikes in different parts of the country, increasing pressure on Ayub to resign.
Asghar Khan recalls Bhutto asking him to join his party, the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP). Asghar Khan declined, stating he had no interest in politics. After Dr. Hassan and Bhutto's arrest on 12 November 1968, Asghar Khan held a press conference in Lahore on 17 November 1968. Asghar Khan led protests calling for Bhutto's release, which ultimately led to his freedom and grew so close to Bhutto that many saw him as a potential successor. After his release, Bhutto, joined by key leaders of PPP, attended the Round Table Conference called by Ayub Khan in Rawalpindi but refused to accept Ayub's continuation in office and Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's Six point movement for regional autonomy.
=== 1970 elections ===
Following Ayub's resignation, his successor, General Yahya Khan, promised to hold parliamentary elections on 7 December 1970. Under Bhutto's leadership, the democratic socialists, leftists, and Marxist-communists gathered and united into one party platform for the first time in Pakistan's history. The Socialist-Communist bloc, under Bhutto's leadership, intensified its support in Muhajir and poor farming communities in West Pakistan, working through educating people to cast their vote for their better future. Gathering and uniting the scattered socialist-communist groups in one single center was considered Bhutto's greatest political achievement and as a result, Bhutto's party and other leftists won a large number of seats from constituencies in West-Pakistan. However, Sheikh Mujib's Awami League won an absolute majority in the legislature, receiving more than twice as many votes as Bhutto's PPP. Bhutto strongly refused to accept an Awami League government and infamously threatened to "break the legs" of any elected PPP member who dared to attend the inaugural session of the National Assembly. On 17 January 1971, President Yahya visited Bhutto at his baronial family estate, Al-Murtaza, in Larkana, Sindh, accompanied by Lt. General S. G. M. Pirzada, Principal Staff Officer to President Yahya, and General Abdul Hamid Khan, Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army and Deputy Chief Martial Law Administrator.
On 22 February 1971, the generals in West Pakistan took a decision allegedly to crush the Awami League and its supporters. Capitalising on West Pakistani fears of East Pakistani separatism, Bhutto demanded that Sheikh Mujibur Rahman form a coalition with the PPP. And at some stage proposed "idhar hum, udhar tum", meaning he should govern the West and Mujib should Govern the East. President Yahya postponed the meeting of the national assembly which fueled a popular movement in East Pakistan. Amidst popular outrage in East Pakistan, on 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujib called the Bengalis to join the struggle for "Bangladesh". According to historical references and a report published by the leading Pakistani newspaper The Nation, "Mujib no longer believed in Pakistan and is determined to make Bangladesh". Many also believed that Bhutto wanted power in the West even at the expense of the separation of the East. However, Mujib still kept doors open for some sort of settlement in his speech of 7 March.
=== Fall of East Pakistan ===
Yahya started a negotiating conference in Dhaka, presumably to reach a settlement between Bhutto and Mujib. The discussion was expected to be "fruitful" until the president left for West Pakistan on the evening of 25 March. On that night of 25 March 1971, the army initiated Operation Searchlight, which had been planned by the military junta of Yahya Khan, presumably to suppress political activities and movements by the Bengalis. Mujib was arrested and imprisoned in West Pakistan. Genocide and atrocities by the military against the Bengali population were alleged during the operation.
Bhutto stayed in Dhaka on the night of 25 March and commented that Pakistan had been saved by the army before leaving on the 26th. While supportive of the army's actions and working to rally international support, Bhutto distanced himself from the Yahya Khan regime and began to criticise Yahya Khan for mishandling the situation. He refused to accept Yahya Khan's scheme to appoint Bengali politician Nurul Amin as prime minister, with Bhutto as deputy prime minister. Soon after Bhutto's refusal and continuous resentment toward General Yahya Khan's mishandling of the situation, Khan ordered Military Police to arrest Bhutto on charges of treason, quite similar to Mujib. Bhutto was imprisoned in the Adiala Jail along with Mujib, where he was set to face the charges. The army crackdown on the Bengalis of East Pakistan fueled an armed resistance by the Mukti-Bahini (a guerrilla force formed for the campaign of an independent Bangladesh and trained by the Indian army). Pakistan launched an air attack on India in the western border that resulted in the Indian intervention in East Pakistan, which led to the very bitter defeat of Pakistani forces, who surrendered on 16 December 1971. Consequently, the state of People's Republic of Bangladesh was born, and Bhutto and others condemned Yahya Khan for failing to protect Pakistan's unity. Isolated, Yahya Khan resigned on 20 December and transferred power to Bhutto, who became president, commander-in-chief, and the first civilian chief martial law administrator.
Bhutto was the country's first civilian chief martial law administrator since 1958, as well as the country's first civilian president. With Bhutto assuming control, the leftists and democratic socialists entered the country's politics and later emerged as power players in the country's politics. And, for the first time in the country's history, the leftists and democratic socialists had a chance to administer the country with the popular vote and widely approved exclusive mandate, given to them by the West's population in the 1970s elections.
In a reference written by Kuldip Nayar in his book Scoop! Inside Stories from the Partition to the Present, Nayar noted that "Bhutto's releasing of Mujib did not mean anything to Pakistan's policy as in [sic] if there was [sic] no liberation war." Bhutto's policy, and even as of today, the policy of Pakistan continues to state that "she will continue to fight for the honor and integrity of Pakistan. East Pakistan is an inseparable and unseverable part of Pakistan".
== Leader of Pakistan (1971–1977) ==
A Pakistan International Airlines flight was sent to fetch Bhutto from New York City, where he was presenting Pakistan's case before the United Nations Security Council on the East Pakistan Crisis. Bhutto returned home on 18 December 1971. On 20 December, he was taken to the President House in Rawalpindi, where he took over two positions from Yahya Khan, one as president and the other as the first civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator. Thus, he was the first civilian Chief Martial Law Administrator of the dismembered Pakistan. By the time Bhutto had assumed control of what remained of Pakistan, the nation was completely isolated, angered, and demoralised. Bhutto addressing the nation through radio and television said:My dear countrymen, my dear friends, my dear students, labourers, peasants... those who fought for Pakistan... We are facing the worst crisis in our country's life, a deadly crisis. We have to pick up the pieces, very small pieces, but we will make a new Pakistan, a prosperous and progressive Pakistan, a Pakistan free of exploitation, a Pakistan envisaged by the Quaid-e-Azam.
As president, Bhutto faced mounting challenges on both internal and foreign fronts. The trauma was severe in Pakistan, a psychological setback and emotional breakdown for Pakistan. The two-nation theory—the theoretical basis for the creation of Pakistan—lay discredited, and Pakistan's foreign policy collapsed when no moral support was found anywhere, including long-standing allies such as the U.S. and China. However, this is disputed even by Bangladeshi academics who insist that the two-nation theory was not discredited. Since her creation, the physical and moral existence of Pakistan was in great danger. On the internal front, Baloch, Sindhi, Punjabi, and Pashtun nationalisms were at their peak, calling for their independence from Pakistan. Finding it difficult to keep Pakistan united, Bhutto launched full-fledged intelligence and military operations to stamp out any separatist movements. By the end of 1978, these nationalist organisations were brutally quelled by Pakistan Armed Forces.
Bhutto immediately placed Yahya Khan under house arrest, brokered a ceasefire, and ordered the release of Mujib, who was being held prisoner by the Pakistan Army. To implement this, Bhutto overturned the verdict of Mujib's earlier court-martial trial, in which Brigadier Rahimuddin Khan had sentenced him to death. Bhutto aimed to prevent East Pakistan's secession through dialogue and sought to create a loose confederation within the framework of one Pakistan. Stanley Wolpert writes that he sent Mujib to a bungalow in Rawalpindi, where Mujib swore upon the Quran to retire and hand over the nation to him. Bhutto also offered him 50,000, which Mujib declined. Mujib informed Bhutto that he would make this decision once he arrived in Bangladesh. On 8 January, he was flown to London, from where he was taken to Delhi, where Indira Gandhi and her cabinet greeted him. From there, he was taken to Dhaka, as a direct flight to Bangladesh was not possible. There, he delivered a speech at the Ramna Racecourse, completely rejecting Bhutto's offer and severing ties with West Pakistan, saying, "You live in peace and let us live in peace."
Appointing a new cabinet, Bhutto appointed Lieutenant-General Gul Hasan as Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army in 20 December 1971. On 2 January 1972 Bhutto announced the nationalisation of all major industries, including iron and steel, automobiles, heavy engineering, heavy electricals, petrochemicals, cement, and public utilities. Bhutto had named his economic policies Islamic Socialism or as he called "Mussawat-e Muhammadi". 31 industries across 10 sectors were nationalised including 13 banks, 10 shipping companies, 26 Vegetable Oil Companies, Two petroleum companies and 43 insurance companies which were tied together into State Life Insurance Corporation of Pakistan. Ayub Khan's Ghandhara Industries, Sharif owned Ittefaq Foundry, National Bank of Pakistan and Habib Bank Limited were also nationalised. This wave of nationalisation didn't effect textile production light and food industries. In addition to foreign owned companies, Such as the British Attock Petroleum Company and American owned Esso Fertilizers.
In June 1972, Bhutto visited India to meet Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and negotiated a formal peace agreement and the release of 93,000 Pakistani prisoners of war. The two leaders signed the Simla Agreement, which committed both nations to establish a new-yet-temporary Line of Control in Kashmir and obligated them to resolve disputes peacefully through bilateral talks. Bhutto also promised to hold a future summit for the peaceful resolution of the Kashmir dispute and pledged to recognise Bangladesh. Although he secured the release of Pakistani soldiers held by India, Bhutto was criticised by many in Pakistan for allegedly making too many concessions to India. It is theorised that Bhutto feared his downfall if he could not secure the release of Pakistani soldiers and the return of territory occupied by Indian forces. Bhutto established an atomic power development program and inaugurated the first Pakistani atomic reactor, built in collaboration with Canada in Karachi on 28 November. On 30 March, 59 military officers were arrested by army troops for allegedly plotting a coup against Bhutto, who appointed then-Brigadier Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq to head a military tribunal to investigate and try the suspects. The National Assembly approved the new 1973 Constitution, which Bhutto signed into effect on 12 April. The constitution proclaimed an "Islamic Republic" in Pakistan with a parliamentary form of government. On 10 August, Bhutto turned over the post of president to Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry, assuming the office of prime minister instead.
=== Nuclear weapons program ===
Bhutto, the founder of Pakistan's atomic bomb program, earned the title "Father of Nuclear Deterrence" due to his administration and aggressive leadership of this program. Bhutto's interest in nuclear technology began during his college years in the United States, attending a political science course discussing the political impact of the U.S.'s first nuclear test, Trinity, on global politics.
While at Berkeley, Bhutto witnessed the public panic when the Soviet Union first exploded their bomb, codenamed First Lightning in 1949, prompting the U.S. government to launch their research on 'hydrogen' bombs. However, in 1958, as Minister for Fuel, Power, and National Resources, Bhutto played a key role in setting up the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) administrative research bodies and institutes. Soon, Bhutto offered a technical post to Munir Ahmad Khan in PAEC in 1958 and lobbied for Abdus Salam to be appointed as Science Adviser in 1960. Before being elevated to Foreign Minister, Bhutto directed funds for key research in nuclear weapons and related science.
In October 1965, as the foreign minister, Bhutto visited Vienna, where nuclear engineer Munir Ahmad Khan held a senior technical post at the IAEA. Munir Khan briefed him on the status of the Indian nuclear programme and the options for Pakistan to develop its own nuclear capability. Both agreed on the necessity for Pakistan to establish a nuclear deterrent against India. Although Munir Khan had failed to convince Ayub Khan, Bhutto assured him, "Don't worry, our turn will come." Shortly after the 1965 war, Bhutto declared at a press conference, "Even if we have to eat grass, we will make a nuclear bomb. We have no other choice," observing India's progress toward developing the bomb. In 1965, Bhutto advocated for Salam, successfully appointing him as the head of Pakistan's delegation at the IAEA, and assisted Salam in lobbying for nuclear power plants. In November 1972, Bhutto advised Salam to travel to the United States to avoid the war and encouraged him to return with key literature on nuclear weapons history. By the end of December 1972, Salam returned to Pakistan with suitcases loaded with literature on the Manhattan Project. In 1974, Bhutto initiated a more aggressive diplomatic offensive on the United States and the Western world over nuclear issues. Writing to world and Western leaders, Bhutto conveyed:
Pakistan was exposed to a kind of "nuclear threat and blackmail" unparalleled elsewhere.... If the world's community failed to provide political insurance to Pakistan and other countries against nuclear blackmail, these countries would be constrained to launch atomic bomb programs of their own!... Assurances provided by the United Nations were not 'Enough!'...
Roughly two weeks after the 1971 winter war, on 20 January 1972, Bhutto convened a conference of nuclear scientists and engineers at Multan. While at the Multan meeting, scientists wondered why the President, who had much on his hands in those trying days, was paying so much attention to scientists and engineers in the nuclear field. At the meeting, Bhutto slowly discussed the recent war and the country's future, emphasising the great mortal danger the country faced. As the academicians listened carefully, Bhutto stated, "Look, we're going to have the bomb". He asked them, "Can you give it to me? And how long will it take to make a bomb?"
Before the 1970s, nuclear deterrence was well-established under the government of Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, but it was entirely peaceful and dedicated to civilian power needs. Bhutto, in his book The Myth of Independence in 1969, wrote:If Pakistan restricts or suspends her nuclear deterrence, it would not only enable India to blackmail Pakistan with her nuclear advantage but would impose a crippling limitation on the development of Pakistan's science and technology.... Our problem in its essence is how to obtain such a weapon in time before the crisis begins...
After India's nuclear test—codenamed Smiling Buddha—in May 1974, Bhutto sensed and saw this test as the final anticipation for Pakistan's death. In a press conference held shortly after India's nuclear test, Bhutto said, "India's nuclear program is designed to intimidate Pakistan and establish "hegemony in the subcontinent". Despite Pakistan's limited financial resources, Bhutto was so enthusiastic about the nuclear energy project that he is reported to have said "Pakistanis will eat grass but make a nuclear bomb".
The militarisation of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission was initiated on 20 January 1972 and, in its initial years, was implemented by Pakistan Army's Chief of Army Staff General Tikka Khan. The Karachi Nuclear Power Plant (KANUPP-I) was inaugurated by Bhutto during his role as the president of Pakistan at the end of 1972. The nuclear weapons program was set up loosely based on the Manhattan Project of the 1940s under the administrative control of Bhutto.
Senior academic scientists had direct access to Bhutto, who kept him informed about every inch of the development. Bhutto's Science Advisor, Abdus Salam's office was also set up in Bhutto's prime minister secretariat. On Bhutto's request, Salam had established and led the Theoretical Physics Group (TPG) that marked the beginning of the nuclear deterrent program. The TPG designed and developed the nuclear weapons as well as the entire program. Later, Munir Ahmad Khan had him personally approved the budget for the development of the programme.
Wanting a capable administrator, Bhutto sought Lieutenant-General Rahimuddin Khan to chair the commission, which Rahimuddin declined, in 1971. Instead, in January 1972, Bhutto chose a U.S.-trained nuclear engineer, Munir Khan, as chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC). Bhutto realised he wanted an administrator who understood the scientific and economic needs of this technologically ambitious program. Since 1965, Munir Khan had developed an extremely close and trusted relationship with Bhutto, and even after his death, Benazir and Murtaza Bhutto were instructed by their father to keep in touch with Munir Khan. In the spring of 1976, Kahuta Research Facility, then known as Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL), as part of codename Project-706, was also established by Bhutto and brought under nuclear scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan and the Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers' Lieutenant-General Zahid Ali Akbar.
Because Pakistan, under Bhutto, was not a signatory or party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), Commissariat à l'énergie atomique (CEA), and British Nuclear Fuels (BNFL) had immediately cancelled fuel reprocessing plant projects with PAEC. According to Causar Nyäzie, the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission officials had misled Bhutto, and he embarked on a long journey to try to obtain a nuclear fuel reprocessing plant from France. It was on the advice of A. Q. Khan that no fuel existed to reprocess and urged Bhutto to follow his pursuit of uranium enrichment. Bhutto tried to show he was still interested in that expensive route and was relieved when Kissinger persuaded the French to cancel the deal. Bhutto had trusted Munir Ahmad Khan's plans to develop the programme ingeniously, and the mainstream goal of showing such interest in the French reprocessing plant was to give time to PAEC scientists to gain expertise in building its own reprocessing plants. By the time France's CEA cancelled the project, the PAEC had acquired 95% of the detailed plans of the plant and materials.
Munir Ahmad Khan and Ishfaq Ahmad believed that, since PAEC had acquired most of the detailed plans, work, and materials, the PAEC, based on that 95% work, could build the plutonium reprocessing reactors on its own. Pakistan should stick to its original plan, the plutonium route. Bhutto did not disagree but saw an advantage in establishing another parallel programme, the uranium enrichment programme under Abdul Qadeer Khan. Both Munir Khan and Ahmed had shown their concern over Abdul Qadeer Khan's suspected activities, but Bhutto backed Khan when Bhutto maintained that: "No less than any other nation did what Abdul Qadeer Khan (is) doing; the Soviets and Chinese; the British and the French; the Indians and the Israelis; stole the nuclear weapons designs previously in the past and no one questioned them but rather tend to be quiet. We are not stealing what they (illegally) stole in the past (as referring the nuclear weapon designs) but we're taking a small machine which is not useful for making the atomic bomb but for a fuel". International pressure was difficult to counter at that time, and Bhutto, with the help of Munir Ahmad Khan and Aziz Ahmed, tackled the intense heated criticism and diplomatic war with the United States at numerous fronts—while the progress on nuclear weapons remained highly classified.
During this pressure, Aziz Ahmed played a significant role by convincing the consortium industries to sell and export sensitive electronic components before the United States could approach them and try to prevent the consortium industries from exporting such equipment and components. Bhutto slowly reversed and thwarted the United States' any attempt to infiltrate the programme as he had expelled many of the American diplomatic officials in the country, under Operation Sun Rise, authorised by Bhutto under ISI. On the other hand, Bhutto intensified his staunch support and blindly backed Abdul Qadeer Khan to quietly bring the Urenco's weapon-grade technology to Pakistan, keeping the Kahuta Laboratories hidden from the outside world. Regional rivals such as India and the Soviet Union had no basic intelligence on Pakistan's nuclear energy project during the 1970s, and Bhutto's intensified clandestine efforts seemed to pay off in 1978 when the programme was fully matured.
In a thesis presented in The Myth of Independence, Bhutto argued that nuclear weapons would enable India to deploy its Air Force warplanes with small battlefield nuclear devices against the Pakistan Army cantonments, armoured and infantry columns, PAF bases, and nuclear and military industrial facilities. The Indian Air Force would not face adverse reactions from the world community as long as civilian casualties could be minimised. This strategy aimed to lead India to defeat Pakistan, compel its armed forces into a humiliating surrender, and annex the Northern Areas of Pakistan and Azad Kashmir. Subsequently, India would partition Pakistan into smaller states based on ethnic divisions, marking the resolution of the "Pakistan problem" once and for all.
By the time Bhutto was ousted, this crash programme had fully matured in terms of technical development and scientific efforts. By 1977, PAEC and KRL had constructed their uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing plants, and the selection for test sites at Chagai Hills was completed by the PAEC. In 1977, the PAEC's Theoretical Physics Group had completed the design of the first fission weapon, and KRL scientists succeeded in electromagnetic isotope separation of Uranium fissile isotopes. Despite this, little progress had been made in the development of weapons, and Pakistan's nuclear arsenal was actually created during General Zia-ul-Haq's military regime, overseen by several Naval admirals, Army and Air Force generals, including Ghulam Ishaq Khan. In 1983, Bhutto's decision was posthumously vindicated when PAEC conducted a cold test near Kirana Hills, evidently made from non-fissioned plutonium. Recent press speculation suggests that Dr. Khan's uranium enrichment designs were exchanged with the Chinese for uranium hexafluoride (UF6) and some highly enriched weapons-grade uranium. Later, this weapons-grade uranium was offered back to the Chinese as the Pakistanis used their own materials.
We (Pakistan)...know that (Israel) and (South Africa) have full nuclear capability — a Christian, Jewish and Hindu civilization have this [nuclear] capability ... the Islamic civilization is without it, but the situation (is) about to change!...
=== Transition to premiership ===
Bhutto was sworn in as the prime minister of the country on 14 August 1973, after securing 108 votes in a house of 146 members. Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry was elected as the president under the new constitution. During his five years of government, the Bhutto administration implemented extensive reforms at every level of governance. Capital and Western reforms initiated and built in 1947 were transformed and replaced with a socialist system throughout the 1970s. Bhutto's policies were perceived as people-friendly but failed to yield long-lasting effects, and civil disorder against Bhutto began to escalate in 1977.
=== Constitutional reforms ===
Bhutto is considered the main architect of the 1973 constitution as part of his vision to lead Pakistan toward parliamentary democracy. One of the major achievements in Bhutto's life was the drafting of Pakistan's first-ever consensus constitution for the country. Bhutto supervised the promulgation of the 1973 constitution, triggering an unstoppable constitutional revolution through his politics wedded to the emancipation of the downtrodden masses, giving them a voice in Parliament and introducing radical changes in the economic sphere for their benefit.
During his time in office, the government carried out seven major amendments to the 1973 Constitution. The First Amendment led to Pakistan's recognition of and diplomatic ties with Bangladesh. The Second Amendment in the constitution declared the Ahmadis as non-Muslims and defined the term non-Muslim. The rights of the detained were limited under the Third Amendment, while the powers and jurisdiction of the courts for providing relief to political opponents were curtailed under the Fourth Amendment. The Fifth Amendment, passed on 15 September 1976, focused on curtailing the power and jurisdiction of the Judiciary. This amendment was highly criticised by lawyers and political leaders. The main provision of the Sixth Amendment extended the term of the Chief Justices of the Supreme Court and the High Courts beyond the age of retirement. This amendment was made in the Constitution to favour the then Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, who was supposed to be a friend of Bhutto.
=== Industrial reforms ===
The Bhutto government implemented a series of reforms in the industrial sector, focusing on nationalisation and improving workers' rights. The initial phase, in 1972, involved the nationalisation of basic industries such as steel, chemical, and cement. A significant move occurred on 1 January 1974, when Bhutto nationalised all banks. The final step in this sequence was the nationalisation of all flour, rice, and cotton mills across the country. However, this nationalisation process didn't meet Bhutto's expectations and faced challenges. Many nationalised units were small businesses that didn't qualify as industrial units, leading to adverse consequences for numerous small businessmen and traders who were either ruined, displaced, or left unemployed. In hindsight, nationalisation resulted in significant losses to both the national treasury and the people of Pakistan.
The Bhutto government established an extensive network of both rural and urban schools, including approximately 6,500 elementary schools, 900 middle schools, 407 high schools, 51 intermediate colleges, and 21 junior colleges. Departing from the Western education system, Bhutto returned most literature to the Western world and encouraged local academicians to publish books in their respective fields. Although these local books were made more affordable to the public, these reforms stirred controversy. Bhutto's government mandated the inclusion of Islamic and Pakistan studies in school curricula. Book banks were introduced in most institutions, and over 400,000 copies of textbooks were supplied to students.
Bhutto is credited with establishing the world-class Quaid-e-Azam University and Allama Iqbal Open University in Islamabad in 1974, along with founding Gomal University in Dera Ismail Khan in 1973. During his tenure as foreign minister, he collaborated with Abdus Salam in 1967 to set up the Institute of Theoretical Physics. As prime minister, Bhutto made groundbreaking efforts to enhance the education system, founding the Allama Iqbal Medical College in 1975.
In 1974, with Abdus Salam's assistance, Bhutto authorised the International Nathiagali Summer College on Contemporary Physics (INSC) at Nathiagali. To this day, the INSC conference continues to be held in Pakistan, attracting thousands of scientists worldwide to interact with Pakistan's academic community. In 1976, Bhutto established the Engineering Council, Institute of Theoretical Physics, Pakistan Academy of Letters, and Cadet College Razmak in North Waziristan. Additionally, he inaugurated four new universities in Multan, Bahawalpur, and Khairpur. The People's Open University, another innovative venture, commenced operations in Islamabad. The government's Education Policy included fee remission and the provision of numerous scholarships for higher education to the children of low-paid employees. After the 1977 election, plans were in place to add seven thousand new hostel seats to the existing accommodation. In 1975, Bhutto acknowledged the challenges and shortcomings faced by college students in many existing hostels. Consequently, he directed the provision of fans, water coolers, and pay telephones in each hostel as quickly as physically possible.
=== Land, flood, and agriculture reforms ===
During his tenure as prime minister, several land reforms were introduced. The significant land reforms included the reduction of land ceilings and the introduction of tenancy security for tenant farmers. The land ceiling was fixed at 150 acres (0.61 km2) of irrigated land and 300 acres (1.2 km2) of non-irrigated land. Another step that Bhutto took was to democratise Pakistan's Civil Service. In Balochistan, the pernicious practice of Shishak and Sardari System was abolished. In 1976, the Bhutto government established the Federal Flood Commission (FFC), tasked with preparing national flood protection plans, flood forecasting, and research to harness floodwater. Bhutto later went on to upgrade a number of dams and barrages built in Sindh Province.
Bhutto strongly advocated empowering small farmers, asserting that a weak and demoralised farming community would jeopardise Pakistan's agricultural strength. He believed that farmers needed to feel psychologically secure for the country to achieve self-sufficiency in food. Consequently, the Bhutto government launched programmes to lead the country towards self-sufficiency in rice hulling, sugar milling, and wheat husking industries. Bhutto's government increased control over rice hulling, sugar mills, and wheat husking factories, initially believing that public sector involvement would diminish the influence of multinational corporations and prevent monopolies. The government sponsored schemes to address waterlogging and salinity issues. Tax exceptions were introduced for small landowners to promote agricultural growth. While his nationalisation of Sindh-based industries benefited the poor, it caused discontent among influential feudal lords.
=== Economic policy ===
Bhutto implemented socialist economics while working to prevent any further division of the country. Major heavy mechanical, chemical, and electrical engineering industries were immediately nationalised by Bhutto, and all of the industries came under direct control of government. Industries, such as Karachi Electric Supply Corporation (KSEC), were under complete government control with no private influence in KESC decision. Bhutto abandoned Ayub Khan's state capitalism policies and introduced socialist policies in a move to reduce income inequality. Bhutto also established the Port Qasim, Pakistan Steel Mills, the Heavy Mechanical Complex (HMC), and several cement factories. However, the growth rate of the economy relative to that of the 1960s when East Pakistan was still part of Pakistan and large generous aid from the United States declined after the global oil crises in 1973, which also had a negative impact on the economy. Despite the initiatives undertaken by Bhutto's government to boost the country's economy, the economical growth remained at an equilibrium level. But Bhutto's policy largely benefited the poor and working class when the level of absolute poverty was sharply reduced, with the percentage of the population estimated to be living in absolute poverty falling from 46.5% by the end of 1979–80, under General Zia-ul-Haq's military rule, to 30.8%. The land reform programme provided increased economic support to landless tenants, and development spending was substantially increased, particularly on health and education, in both rural and urban areas, and provided "material support" to rural wage workers, landless peasants, and urban wage workers.
Bhutto's nationalisation policies aimed to empower workers, giving them control over the means of production and protecting small businesses. However, economic historians argued that the nationalisation program initially affected small industries and had devastating effects on Pakistan's economy, diminishing Bhutto's credibility. Conservative critics believed the nationalisation policies damaged investor confidence, and government corruption in nationalised industries grew, although no serious corruption cases were ever proven against Bhutto by the military junta. In 1974, Bhutto maintained that foreign companies and industries in Pakistan were exempt from nationalisation policies, and his government would welcome foreign investment to establish factories. Commenting on his policies in 1973, Bhutto told a group of investors from the Lahore Chamber of Commerce and Industry (LCCI) that "activity of the public sector or state sector prevents the concentration of economic power in a few hands and protects small and medium entrepreneurs from the clutches of giant enterprises and vested interests."
Bhutto's departure from certain socialist policies greatly displeased his democratic socialist alliance and many in the Pakistan Peoples Party. Notably, Malik Meraj Khalid and other colleagues, resigned from Bhutto and left for the Soviet Union. Ongoing disagreements eventually led to the collapse of the government's socialist alliance, which later united with the secular Independence Movement led by Asghar Khan.
As part of his investment policies, Bhutto established the National Development Finance Corporation (NDFC) in July 1973, with an initial government investment of 100 million PRs. Initially aimed at financing public sector industrial enterprises, its charter was later modified to provide finance to the private sector as well. The NDFC is currently the largest development finance institution in Pakistan, engaging in diversified activities in industrial financing and investment banking. Forty-two projects financed by NDFC have contributed Rs. 10,761 million to Pakistan's GDP, generating Rs. 690 million in after-tax profits and creating 40,465 jobs. By the mid-1990s, NDFC had a pool of resources amounting to US$878 million. The Bhutto government increased the level of investment, both private and public, in the economy from less than Rs. 7,000 million in 1971–72 to more than Rs. 17,000 million in 1974–75.
=== Banking and Export expansion ===
Banking reforms were introduced to provide more opportunities to small farmers and businesses, such as mandating that 70% of institutional lending should be for small landholders of 12.5 acres or less—a revolutionary idea at a time when banks primarily served privileged classes. The number of bank branches increased by 75% from December 1971 to November 1976, rising from 3,295 to 5,727. This move by Bhutto was one of the most radical, expanding bank infrastructure to cover all towns and villages with a population of 5,000, following the nationalisation of banks.
By the end of Bhutto's government, the concentration of wealth had declined compared to the height of the Ayub Khan era when 22 families owned 66% of industrial capital and controlled banking and 97% of insurance.
Measures taken in the first few months of 1972 set a new framework for the revival of the economy. The diversion of trade from East Pakistan to international markets was completed within a short period. By 1974, exports exceeded one billion dollars, showing a 60% increase over the combined exports of East and West Pakistan before separation. This growth was achieved and benefited from during the major 1973 oil crisis and in the middle of a global recession. The national income of Pakistan increased by 15%, and industrial production rose by as much as 20% in four years.
=== Balochistan ===
==== Military operation ====
Following the secession of East Pakistan, calls for the independence of Balochistan by Baloch nationalists grew immensely. Surveying the political instability, Bhutto's central government sacked two provincial governments within six months, arrested the two chief ministers, two governors, and forty-four MNAs and MPAs, obtained an order from the Supreme Court banning the National People's Party on the recommendation of Akbar Bugti, and charged everyone with high treason to be tried by a specially constituted Hyderabad tribunal of hand-picked judges.
In January 1973, Bhutto ordered the Pakistan Armed Forces to suppress a rising insurgency in the province of Balochistan. He dismissed the governments in Balochistan and the North-West Frontier Province once more. Following the alleged discovery of Iraqi arms in Islamabad in February 1973, Bhutto dissolved the Provincial Assembly of Balochistan. The operation, under General Tikka Khan, soon took shape in a five-year conflict with the Baloch separatists. The sporadic fighting between the insurgency and the army started in 1973, with the largest confrontation taking place in September 1974. Later on, Pakistan Navy, under Vice-Admiral Patrick Julius Simpson, also jumped into the conflict as it had applied naval blockades to Balochistan's port. The Navy began its separate operations to seize the shipments sent to aid Baloch separatists. Pakistan Air Force also launched air operations, and with the support of navy and army, the air force had pounded the mountainous hidden havens of the Separatists. The Iranian military, also fearing a spread of the greater Baloch resistance in Iran, aided the Pakistani military as well. Among Iran's contributions were 30 Huey cobra attack helicopters and $200 million in aid.
==== Iraqi intervention ====
Iraq under Sunni President Saddam Hussein sent Iraqi-made weapons to Pakistan's warm water ports. Pakistan's navy mounted an effective blockade. Saddam's government provided support for Baloch separatists in Pakistan, hoping their conflict would spread to rival Iran. In 1973, Iraq provided the Balochs with conventional arms, and it opened an office for the Baluchistan Liberation Front (BLF) in Baghdad. This operation was supposed to be covert, but in 1973, the operation was exposed by M.I. when senior separatist leader Akbar Bugti defected to Bhutto, revealing a series of arms stored in the Iraqi Embassy.
On the midnight of 9 February 1973, Bhutto launched an operation to seize control of the Iraqi Embassy, and preparation for the siege was hastily prepared. The operation was highly risky, and a wrong step could have started a war between the two countries. The operation was carefully analysed and at 00:00 hrs (12:00 am), the SSG Division accompanied by Army Rangers stormed the Embassy. Military Police arrested the Iraqi Ambassador, the military attaché, and Iraq's diplomatic staff. Following the incident, authorities discovered 300 Soviet sub-machine guns with 50,000 rounds of ammunition and a large amount of money that was to be distributed amongst Baloch separatist groups. Bhutto was angered and frustrated. Without demanding an explanation, he ordered the Military Police to immediately expel the Iraqi Ambassador and his staff as persona non grata on the first available flight. The government announced the Iraqi plan to further dismember the country, and Bhutto's successful diplomatic offensive against Iraq isolated Saddam internationally with global condemnation. This incident caused Pakistan to support Iran during the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s.
=== Passport reforms ===
The Bhutto government granted the right of a passport to every citizen of Pakistan, facilitating millions of skilled and non-skilled Pakistanis to seek employment in Gulf countries through a series of bilateral agreements. From Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, alone, 35,000 workers were given the opportunity to work in the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia. Bhutto utilised the Pakistani community of London to lobby and influence European governments to improve the rights of expatriate Pakistani communities in Europe. The remittances from overseas Pakistanis, now totaling around $US25 billion per annum, constitute a dependable source of foreign exchange for Pakistan.
=== Labour policy and social security ===
Bhutto's government implemented comprehensive labour reforms, introducing conditions on worker dismissals and establishing Labour Courts for swift grievance redressal. A scheme for workers' participation in management was introduced, ensuring 20% participation at the factory level. The government abolished workers' contribution to the Social Security Fund, shifting the burden to employers. Compensation rates under the Worker's Compensation Act were increased.
In 1972, the government initially provided old age benefits through group insurance, enhanced compensation rates, and gratuity. To address immediate needs, a pension scheme was introduced, offering Rs. 75 per month after retirement at 55 for men and 50 for women with 15 years of insurable employment. This applied to establishments employing ten or more workers with monthly wages up to Rs. 1,000, including benefits for skilled workers invalid after five years of insurable employment. Contrary to the Western model, Bhutto's government aimed to relieve workers of the financial burden, funding the scheme through a 5% contribution from employers based on the wage bill.
=== Foreign policy ===
After assuming power, Bhutto aimed to diversify Pakistan's relations, leading to its exit from CENTO and SEATO. He strengthened Arab relations and developed Sino-Pakistani relations. Bhutto believed in an independent Foreign Policy, distinct from Western influence, particularly the United States' sphere of influence. With Bhutto as foreign minister and prime minister, Pakistan and Iran formed a special relationship, as Iran provided military assistance.
Sino-Pakistani relations were immensely improved, and Pakistan, under Bhutto, had built a strategic relationship with the People's Republic of China, when PRC was isolated. In 1974, Bhutto hosted the second Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) in 1974 where he delegated and invited leaders from the Muslim world to Lahore, Punjab Province of Pakistan. Bhutto was a strong advocate of Afro-Asian Solidarity and had cemented ties with Afro-Asian and Islamic countries and by 1976 had emerged as the Leader of the Third World.
Bhutto pursued a peace agreement, the Simla Agreement, with Indira Gandhi, the premier of India. He successfully brought back 93,000 P.O.Ws to Pakistan and secured 5,000 sq mi (13,000 km2) held by India without compromising on the Kashmir stance or recognising Bangladesh, which were key Indian demands. Negotiating with a power that had dismembered the country was a significant challenge for Bhutto, but he smoothly convinced India to return the territory and the POWs to Pakistan. Before the conference, Bhutto and his colleagues thoroughly prepared, considering that the Arabs had not succeeded in regaining territory lost in the 1967 war with Israel. Bhutto understood that capturing land does not attract the same international attention as the plight of prisoners. According to Benazir Bhutto, Bhutto demanded control of the territory in the first stage of the Agreement, surprising and shocking the Indian delegation. From Bhutto's perspective, the POW problem was more of a humanitarian problem that could be addressed at any time, but the territorial problem could become integrated into India over time. Indian premier Gandhi was stunned and astonished at Bhutto's demand but eventually agreed to give the territory back to Bhutto in the first stage of the agreement after Bhutto negotiated with economic packages. Bhutto's knowledge and intellectualism impressed Gandhi personally, making this agreement, with Pakistan paying a small price, one of Bhutto's most significant diplomatic successes.
Bhutto's extensive knowledge, intelligence, and keen awareness of post-World War II and the nuclear history enabled him to shape foreign policy, resulting in unparalleled unity in Pakistan's foreign policy history. Elements of his policy were continued by successive governments, playing a vital role in world politics. In 1974, Bhutto and his Foreign Minister Aziz Ahmed brought a U.N. resolution, recommending the establishment of a nuclear-weapon-free zone in South Asia. They aggressively criticised the Indian nuclear program. While Abdul Qadeer Khan was tasked with acquiring gas-centrifuge technology through atomic proliferation, the resolution's goal was achieved when Bhutto put India on the defensive and promoted Pakistan as a non-proliferationist.
==== East Asia ====
Since the 1960s, Bhutto had been anti-SEATO and preferred a non-aligned policy. Soon after assuming office, Bhutto took a lengthy foreign trip to Southeast Asia, seeking closer relations with Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma, and North Korea. His policy largely followed tight relations with China, normalised relationships with the Soviet Union, built an Islamic bloc, and advocated the creation of a new economic alliance benefiting third and second world countries.
All of these initiatives and implications had disastrous effects on Japan, prompting Japan to oppose Bhutto, although Bhutto was a great admirer of Japan, even though Japan was not a constituent part of Bhutto's foreign policy. In the 1970s, Japan made several attempts to get close to Bhutto, sending its military officials, scientists, and parliamentary delegations to Pakistan. Hence Japan went far by condemning India for carrying out a nuclear test, Smiling Buddha, in 1974, and publicly supported Pakistan's non-nuclear weapon policy and pledged to build several new nuclear power plants. In 1970, Bhutto advised Japan not to be a party to NPT, but Japan signed it but later regretted not being properly progressed.
In Bhutto's view, Japan had been under the United States' influence, and a much bigger role of Japan in Asia would only benefit American interests in the region. By the 1970s, Japan completely lost its momentum in Pakistan as Pakistan followed a strict independent policy. Bhutto envisioned Pakistan's new policy as benefiting economic relations rather than the military alliance, which also affected Japan's impact on Pakistan. However, much of the foreign policy efforts were reverted by General Zia-ul-Haq, and ties were finally restored after Bhutto's execution.
==== Arab world and Israel ====
Bhutto sought to improve Pakistan's ties with the Arab world and sided with the Arab world during the Arab-Israeli conflict. Colonel Gaddafi of former Socialist Libya considered Bhutto one of his greatest inspirations and was said to be very fond of Bhutto's intellectualism. In 1973, during the Yom Kippur War, Pakistan's relations with the Arab world represented a watershed. In both Pakistan and the Arab world, Pakistan's swift, unconditional, and forthright offer of assistance to the Arab states was deeply appreciated.
In 1974, pressured by other Muslim nations, Pakistan eventually recognised Bangladesh as Mujib stated he would only go to the OIC conference in Lahore if Pakistan recognised Bangladesh. Pakistan established full diplomatic relations with Bangladesh on 18 January 1976, and relations improved in the following decades. Bhutto aided the Syrian and Egyptian Air Force by sending the Pakistan Air Force and Navy's top fighter pilots, where they flew combat missions against Israel. However, Iraq did not benefit from Bhutto's policies.
In early 1977, Bhutto decided to use the ISI to provide credible intelligence on the Iraqi nuclear program that Pakistan and the ISI had secretly gained. The government passed intel that identified the Iraqi nuclear program and the Osirak Nuclear Reactor at Osirak to Israel's Mossad. Helping Israel infiltrate the Iraqi nuclear program was also continued by General Zia-ul-Haq as their policy to teach Iraq and Saddam Hussein a lesson for supporting the Baloch liberation fronts and movements.
==== United States and Soviet Union ====
In 1974, India carried out a nuclear test, codenamed Smiling Buddha, near Pakistan's eastern border. Bhutto unsuccessfully lobbied for the United States to impose economic sanctions on India. However, at the request of Bhutto, Pakistan's ambassador to the United States convened a meeting with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. Kissinger told Pakistan's ambassador to Washington that the test is "a fait accompli and that Pakistan would have to learn to live with it", although he was aware this was "a little rough" on the Pakistanis. In 1976, ties were further strained as Bhutto had continued to administer the research on weapons, and in 1976, in a meeting with Bhutto and Kissinger, Kissinger had told Bhutto, "that if you [Bhutto] do not cancel, modify, or postpone the Reprocessing Plant Agreement, we will make a horrible example of you". The meeting was ended by Bhutto as he had replied: For my country's sake, for the sake of the people of Pakistan, I did not succumb to that blackmailing and threats.
After this meeting, Bhutto intensified Pakistan's foreign policy towards a more neutral stance, aligning with the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries, and sought to develop relations with both the Soviet Union and the United States. Bhutto was keenly aware of Great Britain's policy of "divide and rule" and American policy of "unite and rule." In 1974, Bhutto, as prime minister, visited the Soviet Union. Prime Minister Bhutto deliberately worked to improve relations with the Soviet Union and the Communist bloc. The foundation stone for Pakistan Steel Mills was laid on 30 December 1973 by Bhutto. The Soviet Union sent advisors and experts to supervise the construction of the mega-project.
Though Richard Nixon maintained amicable relations with Bhutto, Pakistan's ties with the United States soured during Jimmy Carter's presidency as the US opposed Pakistan's nuclear program. Carter intensified the embargo on Pakistan and exerted pressure through the United States Ambassador to Pakistan, Brigadier-General Henry Byroade. Bhutto's socialist orientation irked the United States, concerned about losing Pakistan as an ally in the Cold War. When Carter was elected in 1976, he declared in his inaugural speech his intent to pursue a nuclear weapons ban. With Carter's election, Bhutto lost the connections to the United States administration that he had enjoyed during Nixon's term. Despite Carter's embargo on Pakistan, Bhutto persisted in acquiring materials for Pakistan's atomic bomb project, ultimately contributing to the breakdown of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks.
==== Afghanistan and Central Asia ====
In 1972, Bhutto initially attempted to forge friendly ties with Afghanistan, but these efforts were rebuffed in 1973. By 1974, Afghanistan covertly engaged in Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, causing increasing concern for Bhutto's government. Afghan President Dawood Khan's controversial Pashtunisation policies led to gruesome violence and civil disturbances in Pakistan. The ISI highlighted President Daud's support for anti-Pakistan militants, including backing Baloch separatists in the conflict. Consequently, Bhutto's government opted to retaliate, launching a covert counter-operation in 1974 under Major-General Naseerullah Babar, then Director-General of the M.I. Directorate-General for Western Fronts (DGWI). General Babar deemed it an excellent idea, with a significant impact on Afghanistan. The operation aimed to arm Islamic fundamentalists and instigate attacks across Afghanistan. In 1974, Bhutto authorised a covert operation in Kabul, where the Pakistan Air Force, AI, and the ISI successfully extradited Burhanuddin Rabbani, Jan Mohammad Khan, Gulbadin Hekmatyar, and Ahmad Shah Massoud to Peshawar. Fearful of Rabbani's potential assassination, this move took place amid heightened tensions.
By the end of 1974, Bhutto had given final authorisation for a covert operation to train Afghan mujaheddin, ultimately proving successful.
By 1976, Daud grew concerned about his country's overdependence on the Soviet Union and the rising insurgency. Bhutto's three-day state visit to Afghanistan in June 1976 was followed by Daud Khan's five-day visit to Pakistan in August 1976. An agreement on the resumption of air communications between Afghanistan and Pakistan was reached on 2 March 1977, signaling improved relations. Bhutto and Daud exchanged official visits to pressure Afghanistan to accept the Durand Line as the permanent border. However, these developments were interrupted by Bhutto's removal and Daud Khan's overthrow in a military coup shortly after. Western experts considered Bhutto's policy astute in addressing the border question, increasing pressure on Afghanistan and likely contributing to the Afghan government's move towards accommodation. Deputy Afghan Foreign Minister Abdul Samad Ghaus also admitted that, before the compromise, Afghanistan had been heavily involved inside Pakistan.
== Downfall and overthrow ==
=== Popular unrest ===
Bhutto faced mounting criticism and growing unpopularity during his term. Initially targeting opposition leader Abdul Wali Khan and his National Awami Party (NAP), a democratic socialist party, the socialist and communist masses under Bhutto's leadership began to disintegrate. Despite ideological similarities, clashes between them became increasingly farcical. The federal government ousted the NAP provincial government in Balochistan for alleged secessionist activities, leading to the ban on the NAP. Subsequently, much of the NAP top leadership was arrested, following the killing of Bhutto's confidant Hayat Khan Sherpao in a Peshawar bomb blast. Chief Justice Hamoodur Rahman also died of a cardiac arrest while in office. Between 1974 and 1976, many of Bhutto's original members left due to political differences or natural causes. In 1974, Bhutto's trusted Science Advisor Abdus Salam left Pakistan when Parliament declared Ahmadis as non-Muslims. Salam's departure slowed down nuclear weapons research as Dr. Mubashir Hassan, now Bhutto's appointed Science Advisor, focused more on politics than scientific research. Many civil bureaucrats and military officers loyal to Bhutto were replaced by new faces, leaving Bhutto with new advisers and collaborators.
Dissidence grew within the PPP, and the murder of dissident leader Ahmed Raza Kasuri's father triggered public outrage and intra-party hostility. Bhutto faced accusations of masterminding the crime. Prominent PPP leaders, including Ghulam Mustafa Khar, former governor of Punjab, openly condemned Bhutto, urging protests against his regime. The political crisis in the North-West Frontier Province and Balochistan escalated, with civil liberties suspended. An estimated 100,000 deployed troops faced accusations of human rights abuses and large-scale civilian casualties.
On 8 January 1977, the opposition coalesced into the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA), a nine-party coalition against Bhutto's government. Despite Bhutto calling for fresh elections, the PNA failed to secure a clear majority and disputed the results, accusing their opponents of rigging the election. Claiming that 40 seats in the national assembly were rigged, the dissidents boycotted the provincial elections, leading to low voter turnout. The PNA declared the newly elected Bhutto government illegitimate, with hard-line Islamist leaders like Maulana Maududi calling for Bhutto's overthrow. Bhutto's Science Advisor, Mubashir Hassan, feared a possible coup and unsuccessfully attempted to reach an agreement with the PNA. A crackdown on the conservative Pakistan Muslim League followed, initiated by Bhutto's government.
The president of the People's National Party and former Leader of the Opposition, Khan Abdul Wali Khan, viewed Bhutto's actions as his last stand against the PNA, leaving Bhutto and his colleagues isolated. In a public seminar, Vali Khan quoted, "There is one possible grave for two people ... let us see who gets in first." The Federal Security Force allegedly arrested or extrajudicially killed members of the Muslim League, leading to protest and civil unrest in Lahore, resulting in the People's Party losing administrative control over the city.
=== Military coup ===
On 3 July 1977, General Khalid Mahmud Arif secretly met with Bhutto, revealing that a coup was being planned in the General Combatant Headquarters (GHQ). General Arif urged Bhutto to "rush the negotiation with the PNA before it's too late." Growing political and civil disorder led Bhutto to engage in talks with PNA leaders, resulting in an agreement to dissolve the assemblies and hold fresh elections under a government of national unity. However, on 5 July 1977, Bhutto and his cabinet members were arrested by troops under the command of General Zia. Despite Bhutto reaching an agreement with the opposition, the coup took place on the pretext of unrest.
Bhutto had intelligence within the Army, and officers like Major-General Tajamül Hussain Malik remained loyal to him until the end. Nevertheless, General Zia-ul-Haq initiated a training program with officers from the Special Air Service (SAS). Many of Bhutto's loyal officers were ordered to attend the first course. Senior officers' classes were delayed until midnight, and none were allowed to leave until late in the evening before the coup, during which arrangements were made.
General Zia declared martial law, suspended the constitution, dissolved all assemblies, and promised elections within ninety days. Zia ordered the arrest of senior PPP and PNA leaders but assured elections in October. Bhutto was released on 29 July and received a warm welcome from supporters in Larkana. He toured Pakistan, delivering speeches to large crowds and planning his political comeback. Bhutto was arrested again on 3 September and released on bail on 13 September. Fearing another arrest, he appointed his wife, Nusrat, as president of the Pakistan People's Party. Bhutto was imprisoned on 16 September, and many PPP leaders, including Mubashir Hassan, were arrested and disqualified from contesting elections. Observers noted that when Bhutto was removed from power in July 1977, thousands of Pakistanis cheered and celebrated.
== Trial and execution ==
On 5 July 1977, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq led a military coup, removing Bhutto from power and detaining him for a month. Zia promised new elections within 90 days but continuously postponed them, asserting that Bhutto's party wouldn't return to power if he participated.
Upon release, Bhutto toured the country, addressing adulatory crowds of PPP supporters. Banned from train travel due to delays caused by these gatherings, Bhutto's last visit to Multan marked a turning point. Despite administration efforts to block the gathering, the crowd's size led to disorder, providing a pretext for Bhutto's arrest, claiming it was necessary for his safety.
On 3 September, Bhutto was arrested again, charged with authorising the murder of Nawab Muhammad Ahmed Khan Kasuri in March 1974. The charges were deemed "questionable" by some scholars, including Vali Nasr. A politician, Ahmed Raza Kasuri, claimed he was the target of the attack orchestrated by Bhutto. Bhutto's wife, Nusrat Bhutto, assembled a defense team, securing his release after ten days due to contradictory evidence. However, Bhutto was arrested again under martial law, leading to the cancellation of upcoming elections.
Arraigned before the Lahore High Court, Bhutto was denied a lower court appeal level. The trial, lasting five months, began on 24 October 1977, with key witness testimony from Masood Mahmood, director general of the Federal Security Force. Irregularities, alleged torture, and inconsistent confessions marred the trial. Former U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark observed numerous irregularities and lack of corroborating evidence. When Bhutto began testifying on 25 January 1978, Chief Justice Maulvi Mushtaq, presiding over the trial, closed the courtroom to observers. Bhutto, alleging bias, demanded a retrial, but the court refused.
=== Death sentence and appeal ===
On 18 March 1978, Bhutto was pronounced guilty of murder and was sentenced to death. Bhutto's former Legal Minister, Abdul Hafiz Pirzada petitioned the Supreme Court for the release of Bhutto's Science Adviser, Mubashir Hassan, and to review Bhutto's death sentence based on the split decision. The Supreme Court denied Hassan's release because he was held by Military Police, but the court agreed to hear the arguments. After 12 days of proceedings, the Supreme Court concluded that the president of Pakistan can change a death sentence into life imprisonment. Pirzada filed an application to then-chief martial law administrator. However, General Zia-ul-Haq did not act immediately and claimed that the application had gone missing.
Devastated, Pirzada relayed the news to Bhutto, disclosing General Zia-ul-Haq's intentions. Consequently, Bhutto chose not to pursue an appeal. As he was transferred to a cell in Rawalpindi central jail, his family appealed on his behalf, leading to a Supreme Court hearing in May. Bhutto was granted one week to prepare, issuing a comprehensive rejoinder to the charges, although Zia impeded its publication. Chief Justice S. Anwarul Haq adjourned the court until the end of July 1978, purportedly because five of the nine appeal court judges were inclined to overturn the Lahore verdict, with one pro-Bhutto judge set to retire in July.
Chief Justice S. Anwarul Haq, despite his close ties to Zia, presided over the trial and even served as Acting President when Zia was abroad. Bhutto's legal team successfully secured his right to conduct his own defense before the Supreme Court. On 18 December 1978, Bhutto appeared in public before a crowded courtroom in Rawalpindi. Having spent 9 months on death row, he had allegedly endured 25 days without fresh water at that point. Bhutto addressed the court for four days, delivering his statements without the aid of notes.
The appeal concluded on 23 December 1978. On 6 February 1979, the Supreme Court voted 4–3, delivering a guilty verdict. Bhutto's defender, Ramsey Clark, noted that during the appeal, "not one witness was re‐examined, nor did the court rectify" what he called "the glaring defects of the lower court's proceedings." Clark also highlighted that two of the Supreme Court's nine justices were absent from the decision, both showing signs of having been forced to not participate. One judge who had earlier remarked that he would not succumb to pressure retired in the fall of 1978 even though judicial propriety demanded that his leaving the Court be deferred until the conclusion of the case. The other judge was prevented from sitting in the Court from November because of an illness pronounced by a government‐appointed medical board. If they had been present and voted not guilty in a 5–4 decision, Bhutto would have gone free. The Bhutto family had seven days to appeal, and the court granted a stay of execution while studying the petition. Appeals for clemency arrived from many heads of state by 24 February 1979 when the next court hearing began, but Zia dismissed them as "trade union activity" among politicians.
On 24 March 1979, the Supreme Court dismissed the appeal, and Zia upheld the death sentence. Bhutto was hanged at Central Jail Rawalpindi on 4 April 1979, after enduring severe torture in jail, leading to vomiting and intense chest pain, and he was laid to rest at his family mausoleum in Garhi Khuda Baksh.
During his imprisonment, Bhutto's children Murtaza and Benazir worked tirelessly to garner international support for their father's release. Libya's Colonel Gaddafi dispatched his Prime Minister Abdus Salam Jalloud on an urgent mission to Pakistan for talks with the military establishment to secure Bhutto's release. In a press conference, Jalloud revealed that Gaddafi had proposed to exile Bhutto to Libya, and the Presidential aircraft awaited Bhutto at the Islamabad International Airport. However, after a week at the airport, General Zia rejected Jalloud's request and upheld the death sentence. Bhutto's execution shocked much of the Muslim world. In his final speech before being hanged, Bhutto's last words were: "Oh Lord, help me for... I am innocent".
=== Re-opening of the Bhutto trial ===
On 2 April 2011, 32 years after Bhutto's trial and execution, the PPP (the ruling party at that time) filed a petition at the Supreme Court of Pakistan (SCP) to reopen Bhutto's trial. Senior journalist Iftikhar Ahmad aired a series of televised interviews on Geo News with those who played significant and often controversial roles in Bhutto's death. Prime Minister Yusuf Raza Gilani's cabinet organised a legal team to seek the reopening of the trial. President Asif Ali Zardari consented to the resulting presidential order under Article 186 of the Constitution, and the Supreme Court took up the petition on 13 April 2011. Chief Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry eventually presided over the three-judge bench (expanded with law experts from four provinces of Pakistan), while Minister of Law Babar Awan counseled Bhutto's case.
Immediately, Babar Awan resigned from his position as Law Minister, opting to leave the Justice Ministry entirely to independently counsel Bhutto's case. Chief Justice Iftikhar Chaudhry commended this move by the senior PPP leadership, labeling it as "historic" in his noting remarks. In a significant development, the Supreme Court transferred the decision on the legal status of Bhutto's execution to a larger bench yet to be formed.
Following a series of hearings at the Supreme Court, the case was adjourned and eventually dismissed after the PPP sanctioned the suspension of Babar Awan on 2 May 2012.
On 6 March 2024, a nine-member SCP bench, headed by Chief Justice of Pakistan, Qazi Faez Isa, in response to the presidential reference provided an opinion that Bhutto was not provided a fair trial as mentioned in Article 4 and 9 of the Constitution of Pakistan.
== Personal life ==
In 1943, he entered into his first marriage with his cousin Shireen Amir Begum, from whom he later separated. On 8 September 1951, Zulfiquar Ali Bhutto married Nusrat Ispahani, also known as Begum Nusrat Bhutto, of Iranian Kurdish origin in Karachi. Their first child, Benazir, was born in 1953, followed by Murtaza in 1954, Sanam in 1957, and Shahnawaz in 1958.
== Reception and legacy ==
Bhutto remains a complex and debated figure in Pakistan. While lauded for his nationalism, he faced criticism for suppressing political opponents. In 1971, when he assumed control, Pakistan was in disarray after a brutal civil war. Critics blamed his socialist policies for economic setbacks, but Bhutto argued he addressed inequality from previous regimes.
Controversially, some attribute Bhutto for the Bangladesh Liberation War. General Zia-ul-Haq released General Yahya Khan in 1977, who accused Bhutto of breaking Pakistan in 1971. Bhutto also faces criticism for human-rights abuses in Baluchistan.
Internationally, Bhutto is viewed positively as a secular internationalist. Despite domestic criticism, he remains Pakistan's most popular leader. Bhutto successfully united parties for the 1973 constitution and pursued nuclear weapons, earning him the title of the father of Pakistan's nuclear program.
While his legacy is contested, Bhutto is hailed for his accomplishments. Some, like former statesman Roedad Khan, commend his early achievements but note a decline later on. His family, active in politics, faced tragedy with the assassinations of Benazir Bhutto in 2007 and Murtaza Bhutto in 1996.
Despite criticisms, Bhutto remains a revered figure in Pakistan's collective memory, symbolising influence in public, scientific, and political spheres. His family continues its political legacy, with Bilawal Bhutto Zardari serving as the Foreign Minister of Pakistan from April 2022 to August 2023.
== Honours ==
Pakistan: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Pakistan (awarded posthumously in March 2025)
=== Eponyms ===
These institutions stand as tributes to Bhutto's legacy:
Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology, Karachi, Sindh.
ZA Bhutto Agricultural College, Larkana, Sindh.
Zulfiqarabad, a planned city in Larkana District, named in memory of Bhutto.
== Books ==
== See also ==
Ghinwa Bhutto
Nusrat Bhutto
List of presidents of Pakistan
List of prime ministers of Pakistan
Movement for the Restoration of Democracy
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali (1969). The Myth of Independence. Oxford University Press.
Raza, Syed Rasul (2008). Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto; The Architect of New Pakistan. Karachi, Sindh Province, Pakistan: Printwise publication. ISBN 978-969-8500-00-9.
== External links ==
Official web site of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
Biography with brief video clip from TV address on 18 November 1970
Manifestos of Pakistan Peoples Party 1970 & 1977 Archived 10 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto at Encyclopedia Sindhiana
Farewell speech to the UN Security Council on 15 December 1971 on YouTube
Interview of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on YouTube |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_men%27s_national_field_hockey_team#:~:text=Pakistan%20is%20one%20of%20the,%2C%201982%2C%20and%201994).&text=Pakistan%20national%20team%20has%20played,coming%20in%202014%20and%202023. | Pakistan men's national field hockey team | The Pakistan men's national field hockey team (Urdu: پاکستان قومى ہاكى ٹیم) represents Pakistan in international field hockey. Having played its first match in 1948, it is administered by the Pakistan Hockey Federation (PHF), the governing body for hockey in Pakistan. It has been a member of the International Hockey Federation (FIH) since 1948 and was founding member of the Asian Hockey Federation (ASHF), which was formed in 1958.
Pakistan is one of the most successful national field hockey teams in the world with a record four Hockey World Cup wins (in 1971, 1978, 1982, and 1994).
Pakistan national team has played in all FIH World Cup editions with the only absence coming in 2014 and 2023. The Green Shirts are also the most successful national team in the Asian Games, with eight gold medals: 1958, 1962, 1970, 1974, 1978, 1982, 1990, and 2010, the highest number of times a country has become Asian Champion, and the only Asian team to have won the prestigious Champions Trophy thrice: 1978, 1980 and 1994. Pakistan has won a total of 29 official international titles to professional and grassroots level selections, with three gold medals in the Olympic Games field hockey tournaments: in Rome 1960, Mexico City 1968, and Los Angeles 1984.
Field hockey is the national sport of the country. The Pakistan national team has been ranked as the #1 team in the world in both 2000 and 2001 by the FIH. Former captain Sohail Abbas has the second the most international goals scored by a player in the history of international field hockey. Waseem Ahmad is the most-capped player for the team, having played 410 times between 1996 and 2013.
Pakistan is known for having fierce rivalry in field hockey with India, having a record of playing each other in South Asian Games and Asian Games finals. They have competed against one another in 20 major tournaments finals so far, out of which Pakistan has won 13 titles in total. Pakistan have a record of consecutively winning the first three championships of Hockey Asia Cup in 1982, 1985 and 1989 against India. Pakistan also has notable competitive rivalries with Netherlands and Australia.
Pakistan's home ground is National Hockey Stadium in Lahore. The current team's head coach is Shahnaz Sheikh and the team manager is Saeed Khan.
== History ==
=== Early history (1948–1955) ===
Originally, the game had been brought by British servicemen to British India, and like cricket it soon became a popular sport with the local population. Following the independence of Pakistan in 1947, soon after the Pakistan Hockey Federation came into being in 1948. Prior to the partition of India, players playing for Pakistan competed for the Indian side. The Federation soon established and organized the Provincial Hockey/Sports Associations of West Punjab, East Bengal, Sindh, Balochistan, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Bahawalpur & Services Sports Board. Despite the limited resources available on 2 August 1948, Pakistan national team, led by Ali Iqtidar Shah Dara, officially went on to play their first international game against Belgium winning the game 2–1 at the 1948 London Olympics. Pakistan remained unbeaten defeating the Netherlands, Denmark and France during the group stage round and ended up placing fourth. During the group stages Pakistan defeat of Netherlands by 6–1 was the highlight for the team. Following the Olympics Pakistan went on a tour of Europe where the played Belgium, Netherlands and Italy and remained undefeated during the tour.
The next international outing of the team came after a gap of two years when Pakistan participated in an invitational competition in Spain in 1950. Pakistan were declared joined winners with Netherlands after the final ended in a draw and organizers decided to end the game rather than going for a deciding period of play, this was Pakistan's first international tournament victory. Again there was a gap of two years before Pakistan again appeared in an international event and this time it was the 1952 Olympics in Helsinki. Pakistan won the first knock-out game against France 6–0 but lost to Netherlands and Great Britain to again finish fourth at the event. Over the four years Pakistan made tours to European teams and also hosted them in their own country and in Asia Pakistan particularly made regular tours to Malaysia and Singapore with whom they played quite a few times.
=== Rise in Olympics and Asian honors (1956–1970) ===
Pakistan won their first Olympic medal in 1956 at Melbourne when they reached the final but lost to India 1–0 to earn a silver medal, first podium finish this was also Pakistan's first medal at the Olympics. Field hockey was included in the Asian Games for the first time in 1958 at Tokyo. Pakistan were drawn against Japan, South Korea, Malaysia and archrivals India. They beat Japan 5–0 in their first match, then followed two consecutive victories over South Korea (8–0) and Malaysia (6–0). In the last match Pakistan drew 0–0 with India finishing top of the table in the round-robin format and clinched its first gold medal in an international competition.
In 1960 Rome Olympics where Pakistan played against in a group with Australia, Poland and Japan, winning all the matches. Pakistan then played the quarter-final round with Germany, winning the match 2–1 and advanced to the semi-final round where they defeated Spain. Pakistan eventually won the gold medal, defeating India 1–0 with a goal by Naseer Bunda in the final round held at the Olympic Velodrome and ended India's run of six successive gold medals at the Summer Olympic Games.
In the 1962 Asian Games, Pakistan earned its second gold medal with Chaudhry Ghulam Rasool as the captain leading the team to another successive award. However, during the 1964 Tokyo Olympics the national team ended up as runners-up for the second time after losing 1–0 to India in the final as well as finishing runners-up in the 1966 Asian Games held in Bangkok, Thailand.
Pakistan won its second Olympic Games gold medal in Mexico at the 1968 Summer Olympics. It fielded what has since then often been considered the best hockey squad ever led by captain Tariq Aziz with Saeed Anwar, Khalid Mahmood, Gulraiz Akhtar and Tariq Niazi. Even though Rasool had retired, this team was still a force to be reckoned with. They won all six of their games—against Kenya, Great Britain, Malaysia, Australia, France and the Netherlands during group play, and against West Germany in the knockout round. Pakistan made the final for the fourth straight Olympics, and won the gold medal, as they had in 1960, this time by defeating Australia, 2–1 with goals from Muhammad Asad Malik and Abdul Rashid. Rashid was the top scorer for Pakistan with seven goals; Tanvir Dar finished with six goals.
=== The Golden Era (1970–1984) ===
In the group stage of the 1970 Asian Games, Pakistan was competing with tournament hosts Thailand and contenders Japan for top spot and a place in the finals. In their first match of the group, Pakistan scored thrice against Japan to clinch their first win, followed by defeating Hong Kong 10–0 to go to the top of the group. The team then draw 0–0 with Thailand and progressed to the knock-out round, where they won 5–0 over Malaysia. In the final, Pakistan faced India, winning 1–0 and sealing their third Asian Games gold medal.
In 1971, the first-ever Hockey World Cup was to be hosted by Pakistan. However, political issues would prevent that first competition from being played in Pakistan. The FIH had inadvertently scheduled the first World Cup to be played in Pakistan during the Bangladesh Liberation War. Furthermore, Pakistan and India had been at war with each other only six years earlier. When Pakistan invited India to compete in the tournament, a crisis arose. Pakistanis, led by cricketer Abdul Hafeez Kardar, protested against India's participation in the Hockey World Cup. Given the intense political climate between Pakistan and India, the FIH decided to move the tournament elsewhere. In March 1971, coincidentally in the same month Bangladesh declared independence from Pakistan, the FIH decided to move the first Hockey World Cup to the Real Club de Polo grounds in Barcelona, Spain, which was considered a neutral and peaceful European site. On 27 March 1971, in Brussels, the trophy was formally handed to FIH President Rene Frank by H.E Masood, the Pakistani Ambassador to Belgium. A total number of 10 teams qualified for the event and were broken up into two groups.
The Pakistani team was drawn in a group with hosts Spain, Australia, Japan and the Netherlands. The group was topped by Spain and Pakistan respectively, and both the teams advanced into the semi-finals. In the first semi-final of the tournament Pakistan ousted India 2–1 in a tense and closely contested game and in the second semi-final Spain played safe and defeated a spirited Kenya 1–0 to enter the finals against Pakistan. In the final Pakistan scored early but then strengthened its defense to hold out for a 1–0 victory and win the first hockey World Cup, retaining its number one position in the world hockey rankings, closely followed by India and the Netherlands. Tanvir Dar finished as the top goal scorer at the tournament with eight goals.
The 1972 Munich Olympics, Pakistan lost the final to hosts West Germany losing the game 1–0 with a goal by Michael Krause and finished at fourth place, the following year, in the 1973 Hockey World Cup. The national team made a comeback in the international competition, by winning and retaining their title at the 1974 Asian Games but lost to their rivals India in the finals of the third hockey World Cup in 1975. 1976 Montreal Olympics saw the team secure their first bronze medal in the competition.
The year 1978 saw Pakistan national team win three major international tournaments: the third Hockey World Cup held at Buenos Aires, Argentina along with 1978 Asian Games and the first Champions Trophy. This was the first time a national team won three major titles in the history of international field hockey. In 1980, Pakistan Olympic Association, along with 65 countries, boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympics because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. This resulted in Pakistan hockey team not participating at the field hockey competition at the tournament. Pakistan hosted the 1980 and 1981 Champions Trophy tournaments, winning the title against West Germany in the final round in 1980 and finishing at fourth position a year later, held at the Hockey Club of Pakistan, Karachi. In the 1980s Pakistan won every international tournament it participated in including the 1982 World Cup in Mumbai and the 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles where Pakistan won the gold medal defeating West Germany in the final. Pakistan also won the Asian Games and Asia Cup consecutively in this period.
=== Surface change crisis and resurgence (1986–1996) ===
Although hockey was being played at synthetic surfaces from the 1970s but it was only until the 1986 World Cup in London the FIH completely moved on from grass pitches to AstroTurf, synthetic turf made from plastic fibers to give a grass like look. The change of surface made the game much more fasted paced and to align the game with the new conditions the governing body vastly changed the rules of the game which focused more on strength and pace rather than stick work and technique which was the hallmark of Asian style of hockey. This negatively effected Pakistan since they couldn't replace all of the grass pitches with more expensive synthetic surfaces compared to more affluent European nations. This resulted in Pakistan performing very poorly at the World Cup in London where they won just one pool game and finished second last at 11th place. Pakistan however managed to cope up with the new changes in the game in the following years and started to regain some of its past dominance. Pakistan first finished runner-up at the 1990 World Cup at home in Lahore after losing the final to Netherlands and won a bronze medal at the 1992 Olympics in Barcelona. The most glorious highlight of the decade came in 1994 when Pakistan first won the 1994 Champions Trophy at home ground, their first title in the competition after 14 years and later in the year Pakistan won the Hockey World Cup in Sydney after winning a penalty shootout against Netherlands.
=== Post-Atlanta Olympics (1998–2006) ===
After Atlanta 1996 the first major competition was the 1998 Hockey World Cup in Utrecht Pakistan finished 5th at the tournament. The following year Pakistan won the Sultan Azlan Shah Cup for the first time in 1999. Pakistan finished fourth at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney after losing the bronze medal match to Australia, this was the last time Pakistan played for a medal at the Olympics. Pakistan finished 5th at 2002 World Cup and Kuala Lumpur and won bronze medal at the Champions Trophy the same year. At the 2002 Asian Games Pakistan finished fourth, the first time the team didn't won a medal at the competition. In 2003 Pakistan lost the Hockey Asia Cup final to India and in 2004 Pakistan had a busy schedule where they played in many tournaments in lead up to the Olympics but Pakistan finished 5th at the 2004 Athens Olympics later in December Pakistan finished third at the 2004 Champions Trophy in Lahore, the third consecutive bronze medal. In 2005 Pakistan had a highlight when they defeated Olympic champion Australia to win the 2005 Hockey RaboTrophy in Netherlands. Pakistan finished 6th the 2006 World Cup and failed even to progress from the pool stages of the 2007 Asia Cup.
=== Beijing Olympics and competitive decline (2008–2012) ===
The 2008 Beijing Olympics proved to be the worst performance of the team at the event where they finished 8th. The year 2010 started with another record worst performance at the 2010 World Cup in New Delhi where the team finished last at 12th place but later in the same year Pakistan had a major success by winning the gold medal at the 2010 Asian Games in China. In 2011 Pakistan played in many minor tournaments in lead up to the 2012 Olympics where they finished 7th. Later in the year 2012 Pakistan won bronze medal at the 2012 Champions Trophy in Melbourne after upsetting tournaments favorites like Germany. The Pakistani national team most successful tournament, in this period, was the Asian Hockey Champions Trophy winning the trophy first in 2012 against India and finishing as runners-up in the first edition of Asian Hockey Champions Trophy in 2011. During this period despite not any major team honor won the Pakistan team had world renowned individual players in world hockey in the likes of Sohail Abbas who remained top scorer at the 2002 World Cup and 2004 Olympics, he later broke the record of highest goalscorer in international hockey with a total of 348 goals and Rehan Butt who was twice voted as the Best Asian Player by Asian Hockey Federation, Shakeel Abbasi, Salman Akbar and Muhammad Saqlain.
=== World Cup and Olympic absentee (2013–2020) ===
Pakistan, after having failed to get a direct entrance for the 2014 World Cup, were handed a last chance to qualify for the event by winning the 2013 Asia Cup, but they finished third and failed to qualify for the World Cup for the first time in their history. Pakistan failed to qualify for the Olympics for the first time at Rio 2016 after failing a qualification berth at the 2014–15 FIH Hockey World League. From 2016 to 2017, Pakistan performed poorly in different competitions even featuring a record 9–1 defeat against Australia in 2017. In 2018, Roelant Oltmans of Netherlands was brought in as coach and the team showed some improvement, but still performed poorly at the 2018 World Cup, failing to win a single match. Pakistan again failed to qualify for the 2020 Olympics in Tokyo, losing the Olympic Qualifiers against Netherlands over a two-legged tie in 2019.
=== Continued struggles and Olympic absentee (2021–2025) ===
PHF announced Pakistan's participation for the 2021 Asian Champions Trophy, the team's first appearance in an international competition after a gap of two years. A 20-man squad was announced with Siegfried Aikman as head coach prior to the tournament. Pakistan could not qualify for the 2023 World Cup despite it being a 16-team event. Pakistan participated in the 2022 Common wealth games where Pakistan performed poorly and finished 7th, In December 2022 Pakistan participated in 2022 Nations cup were Pakistan finished 7th, In July 2023 Shahnaz Sheikh was appointed as the head coach for the 2023 Asian Champions Trophy, In August 2023 PHF announced 36-man squad for Asian Games 2023, In the Asian Games 2023 Pakistan lost to India 10–2, which was the Biggest defeat in their history, Pakistan finished 5th. Pakistan also failed to qualify for the 2024 Summer Olympics, In 2024 Roelant Oltmans was brought in as coach of Pakistan for the 2024 Sultan Azlan Shah Cup and the 2024 Nations Cup.
In July 2025, Pakistan's under-18 team suffered a 3–0 defeat to Japan in the final of the Men's U-18 Asia Cup, held at the National Hockey Training Centre. Despite early aggression and multiple penalty corners, Pakistan failed to convert key chances. The loss underscored the systemic decline in the sport, widely attributed to chronic government neglect, lack of investment in grassroots development, and poor institutional support. Critics argue that such defeats are symptomatic of a broader national apathy toward sports excellence.
=== Pro league and present era (2025–present) ===
Pakistan received an invitation from FIH to compete in the 2025–26 FIH Pro League, thereby qualifying for the tournament.
== Logo and stadium ==
The motif of the Pakistan national field hockey team has a star and crescent on a dark green field; with a vertical white stripe at the hoist, usually in green, white color, as represented in the flag of Pakistan.
Pakistan played at a number of different venues across the country, though by 1978, this had largely settled down to having National Hockey Stadium (also known as Gaddafi Hockey Stadium, named after former Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi) in Lahore as the primary venue, with Faisalabad Hockey Stadium and the Hockey Club of Pakistan used on occasions where the National Hockey Stadium was unavailable for home matches. The stadium is considered to be the biggest international field hockey stadium in the world, and holds a capacity of 45,000 spectators.
The Pakistan Hockey Federation (PHF) has its headquarters at the stadium. Pakistan has hosted many international matches and competitions such as the Hockey Asia Cup of 1982 and Champions Trophy tournament in 1978, 1980, 1981, 1983, 1984, 1986, 1988, 1992, 1994, 1998, and 2004 along with the 1990 Hockey World Cup, where Pakistan lost 3–1 to the Netherlands in the final.
== Honors and recognition ==
Since its breakthrough in the 1948 Summer Olympics, Pakistan has won more than 20 official titles, which are detailed below:
Summer Olympics:
Gold medal: 1960 Rome, 1968 Mexico City, 1984 Los Angeles
Silver medal: 1956 Melbourne, 1964 Tokyo, 1972 Munich
Bronze medal: 1976 Montreal, 1992 Barcelona
World Cup:
Gold medal: 1971, 1978, 1982, 1994
Silver medal: 1975, 1990
Champions Trophy:
Gold medal: 1978, 1980, 1994
Silver medal: 1983, 1984, 1988, 1991, 1996, 1998, 2014
Bronze medal: 1986, 1992, 1995, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2012
Sultan Azlan Shah Cup:
Gold medal: 1999, 2000, 2003
Silver medal: 1983, 1987, 1991, 1994, 2004, 2011, 2024
Bronze medal: 1985, 2005, 2022
Asian Champions Trophy:
Gold medal: 2012, 2013, 2018
Silver medal: 2011, 2016
Bronze medal: 2024
Asia Cup:
Gold medal: 1982, 1985, 1989
Silver medal: 1999, 2003, 2009
Bronze medal: 1994, 2013, 2017
Asian Games:
Gold medal: 1958, 1962, 1970, 1974, 1978, 1982, 1990, 2010
Silver medal: 1966, 1986, 2014
Bronze medal: 1994, 1998, 2006
Commonwealth Games:
Silver medal: 2006
Bronze medal: 2002
South Asian Games:
Gold medal: 2006, 2010, 2016
Silver medal: 1995
Afro-Asian Games:
Silver medal: 2003
Hockey Champions Challenge:
Silver medal: 2009
FIH Hockey Nations Cup:
Silver Medal: 2025
== Competitive record ==
=== Team performance ===
TBD (to be determined), DNQ (did not qualify), DNP (did not participate)
==== Summer Olympics Qualifiers ====
==== World Cup Qualifiers ====
==== Pro League ====
== Records ==
As of 27 October 2019
Players in bold text are still active with Pakistan
=== Top goal scorers ===
=== Most-capped players ===
== Players ==
=== Officials ===
=== Current players ===
The following 18 players were named in the squad for the 2024 Men's Asian Champions Trophy in Hulunbuir.
Caps and goals current as of 9 June 2024, following the match against South Africa.
== Results and fixtures ==
=== 2025 ===
All times are (UTC+5).
2024–25 Men's FIH Hockey Nations Cup
2025 Asia Play-offs
2025–26 Men's FIH Pro League
=== 2026 ===
All times are (UTC+5).
2025–26 Men's FIH Pro League
== Head-to-head record ==
Record last updated as of the following matches:
Pakistan vs Netherlands at Santiago del Estero, Argentina in the 2025–26 Men's FIH Pro League, 13 December 2025
== See also ==
Pakistan Hockey League
India–Pakistan field hockey rivalry
Pakistan men's national under-21 field hockey team
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
FIH profile |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Nepal | Languages of Nepal | Languages of Nepal, referred to as Nepalese languages in the country's constitution, are the languages having at least an ancient history or origin inside the sovereign territory of Nepal, spoken by Nepalis.
There were 124 mother tongues according to the "National Report on caste/ethnicity, language & religion", National Population and Housing Census 2021 in Nepal.
Nepali accounted as a mother tongue for 44.86% while also being a second additional language for 46.2% of the total population. Most belong to the Indo-Aryan and Sino-Tibetan language families.
The official working language at federal level is Nepali, but the constitution provisions each province to choose one or more additional official working languages. The Language Commission of Nepal in 2021 recommended 14 official languages for different provinces of Nepal.
The mother languages of Nepal, or languages of Nepali origin are sometimes referred to as Nepali languages.
== National languages ==
According to the constitution of Nepal: "All languages spoken as the mother tongue in Nepal are the languages of the nation". Many of the languages also have various dialects. For example, the Rai people have about 30 languages. Some of the languages are similar and may be considered dialects. The distinction between dialects and languages is sometimes unclear.
== Classification ==
Nepal's languages are mostly either Indo-European or Sino-Tibetan, while only a very few of them are Austro-Asiatic and Dravidian.
Out of 123 languages of Nepal, the 48 Indo-European languages, which are of the Indo-Aryan (Indic) sub-family (excluding English), constitute the largest group in terms of the numeric strength of their speakers, nearly 82.1% of the population. Nepali, Bhojpuri, Maithili, Awadhi, the Tharu languages and Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) fall in this group.
The Sino-Tibetan family of Nepal's languages forms a part of its Tibeto-Burman group. Though spoken by relatively fewer people than the Indo-European family (17.3% of population), it includes a greater number of languages, about 63 languages. Languages belonging to this group include Tamang, Nepal Bhasa (Newar), Magar and Limbu.
The small declining number of Dravidian languages are represented by Kurux, and the Munda languages of the Austroasiatic family by Santali and Mundari.
The indigenous languages of Nepal that predated the influx of Indic, Tibeto-Burman, and other families barely survive in the Kusunda language, which is nearly extinct today.
Nepal also has at several indigenous village sign languages: Jhankot Sign Language, Jumla Sign Language, and Ghandruk Sign Language, in addition to the Nepali Sign Language designed for national use.
== Constitutional status ==
Part 1 of the Constitution of Nepal 2015 (2072 B.S.) contains these provisions about the languages of Nepal:
Article 6: All languages spoken as the mother tongue in Nepal are the languages of the nation.
Article 7(1): The Nepali language in the Devanagari script shall be the official language of Nepal.
Article 7(2): A Province may, by a provincial law, determine one or more than one languages of the nation spoken by a majority of people within the Province as its official language or languages, in addition to the Nepali language.
== Languages in Nepal as of 2021 ==
There were 124 mother tongues according to the "National Report on caste/ethnicity, language & religion", National Population and Housing Census 2021 in Nepal.
Nepali accounted as a mother tongue for 44.86% while also being a second additional language for 46.2% of the total population.
=== Mother tongues ===
There were 124 mother tongues according to the "National Report on caste/ethnicity, language & religion", National Population and Housing Census 2021 in Nepal.111 were previously reported in the earlier census 2011 and 13 were newly found in the census 2021.
The newly added mother tongues were Bhote, Lowa, Chum/Nubri, Baragunwa, Nar-Phu, Ranatharu, Karmarong, Mugali, Tichhurong Poike, Sadri, Done, Munda/Mudiyari and Kewarat.
Population by mother tongue and sex, NPHC 2021
=== Second Language ===
There were 25 languages that were being used as second language by more than 10 thousand population on each in the "National Report on caste/ethnicity, language & religion", National Population and Housing Census 2021 in Nepal, whereas there were only 18 such languages reported as second language in the earlier census 2011.
Population by second language, NPHC 2021
== Official languages ==
Nepali in Devanagari script is the official working language in federal level. The constitution has provisioned provinces to choose one or more than one official language(s) besides Nepali. According to the Language Commission of Nepal Maithili and Limbu are recommended to have official status in Province No. 1; Maithili, Bhojpuri and Bajjika in Province No. 2; Tamang and Nepal Bhasa in Bagmati Province; Magar and Gurung in Gandaki Province; Tharu and Awadhi in Lumbini Province; Nepali (Khas Bhasa)'s Karnali dialect and Magar in Karnali Province; Dotyali and Tharu in Sudurpashchim Province.
== Scripts ==
Most of the languages are found exclusively in oral form. According to the Language Commission, fifteen scripts are currently in use in Nepal, including the following:
== See also ==
Ethnic groups in Nepal
== Further reading ==
Hale, Austin. 1973. Clause, sentence, and discourse patterns in selected languages of Nepal IV: word lists. SIL and Tribhuvan University Press (CLDF dataset on Zenodo doi:10.5281/zenodo.3537629)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girvan_Yuddha_Bikram_Shah | Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah | Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah (Nepali: श्री ५ महाराजाधिराज गीर्वाणयुद्ध विक्रम शाह देव; 19 October 1797 – 20 November 1816) also called Girvanyuddha Bikrama Shah, was King of Nepal. Although he was not the legitimate heir to the throne his father, King Rana Bahadur Shah, made him the heir for being the son of his favourite wife Kantavati Jha.
Girvan Yuddha ascended the throne at the age of 1 and 1/2 years when his father abdicated to become an ascetic. He ruled under the regency of Queen Tripurasundari of Nepal and Prime Minister Bhimsen Thapa. He died at age 19 and was succeeded by his young son Rajendra Bikram Shah.
== Anglo-Nepalese War ==
The Gorkha War (1814–1816), or the Anglo–Nepalese War, was fought between the Kingdom of Nepal and the British East India Company as a result of border disputes and ambitious expansionism of both the belligerent parties. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816, which ceded around a third of Nepal's territory to the British. Most of the ceded territories had been acquired by Nepal by war only in the last 10 to 20 years from other kingdoms that had never been a part of Nepal.
The British were the invading forces, while the Nepalese maintained a defensive position. The British attacked in two successive waves of invasion. It was the most expensive war waged during the governorship of Lord Moira.
=== Battle of Makwanpur Gadhi ===
Colonel Ranabir Singh Thapa, brother of Bhimsen Thapa, was to be the Sector Commander of Makawanpur-Hariharpur axis. He was given a very large fortress and about 4,000 troops with old rifles and a few pieces of cannons. But the British could not move forward from the border. Colonel Ranabir Singh Thapa had been trying to lure the enemies to his selected killing area. But Major General Wood would not venture forward from Bara Gadhi and he eventually fell back to Bettiah.
=== Battle of Hariharpur Gadhi ===
No special military action had taken place in Hariharpur Gadhi fortress in the first campaign. Major General Bannet Marley and Major General George Wood had not been able to advance for an offensive against Makawanpur and Hariharpur Gadhi fortresses.
=== Battle of Nalapani ===
The Battle of Nalapani was the first battle of Anglo-Nepalese War. The battle took place around the Nalapani fort, near Dehradun, which was placed under siege by the British between 31 October and 30 November 1814. The fort's garrison was commanded by Captain Balbhadra Kunwar, while Major-General Rollo Gillespie, who had previously fought at the Battle of Java, was in charge of the attacking British troops. The failure to obey the field orders by his men led Gillespie to be killed on the very first day of the siege while rallying his men. Despite considerable odds, both in terms of numbers and firepower, Balbhadra and his 600-strong garrison successfully held out against more than 3,000 British troops for over a month.
After two costly and unsuccessful attempts to seize the fort by direct attack, the British changed their approach and sought to force the garrison to surrender by cutting off the fort's external water supply. Having suffered three days of thirst, on the last day of the siege, Balbhadra, refusing to surrender, led the 70 surviving members of the garrison in a charge against the besieging force. Fighting their way out of the fort, the survivors escaped into the nearby hills. The battle set the tone for the rest of the Anglo-Nepalese War, and a number of later engagements, including one at Jaithak, unfolded in a similar way.
The experience at Nalapani so discomforted the British that Lord Hastings so far varied his plan of operations as to forego the detachment of a part of this division to occupy Gurhwal. He accordingly instructed Colonel Mawbey to leave a few men in a strong position for the occupation of the Doon and to carry his undivided army against Amar Singh's son, Colonel Ranajor Singh Thapa, who was with about 2,300 elite of the Gurkha army, at Nahan. It was further intended to reinforce the division considerably; and the command was handed over to Major-General Martindell. In the meantime Colonel Mawbey had led back the division through the Keree pass, leaving Colonel Carpenter posted at Kalsee, at the north western extremity of the Doon. This station commanded the passes of the Jumna on the main line of communication between the western and eastern portions of the Gurkha territory, and thus was well chosen for procuring intelligence.
=== Battle of Jaithak ===
Major General Martindale now joined the force and took over command. He occupied the town of Nahan on 27 December, and started his attack on the fort of Jaithak. The fort had a garrison of 2000 men under the command of Ranajor Singh Thapa, the son of the Amar Singh Thapa. The first assault ended in disaster, with the Nepalese successfully warding off the British offensive. The second managed to cut off the water supply to the fort, but could not capture it mainly because of the exhausted state of the troops and shortage of ammunition. Martindale lost heart and ordered a withdrawal. Jaithak was eventually captured much later in the war, when Ochterlony had taken over the command.
A single day of battle at Jaithak cost the British over three hundred men dead and wounded and cooled Martindell's ardour for battle. For over a month and a half, he refused to take any further initiative against the Nepalese army. Thus by mid-February, of the four British commanders the Nepalese army had faced till that time, Gillespie was dead, Marley had deserted, Wood was harassed into inactivity, and Martindell was practically incapacitated by over-cautiousness. It set the scene for Octorloney to soon show his mettle and change the course of the war.
== Sugauli Treaty ==
The Treaty of Sugauli was ratified on 4 March 1816. As per the treaty, Nepal lost Sikkim (including Darjeeling), the territories of Kumaon and Garhwal, and most of the lands of the Terai. The Mechi River became the new eastern border and the Mahakali river the western boundary of the kingdom. The British East India Company would pay 200,000 rupees annually to compensate for the loss of income from the Terai region. Kathmandu was also forced to accept a British Resident. The fear of having a British Resident in Kathmandu ultimately proved to be unfounded, as the rulers of Nepal managed to isolate the Resident to such an extent as to be in virtual house arrest.
The Terai lands, however, proved difficult for the British to govern and some of them were returned to the kingdom later in 1816 and the annual payments accordingly abolished. However even after the conclusion of the Anglo-Nepalese War, the border issue between the two states was not yet settled. The boundary between Nepal and Oudh was not finally adjusted until 1830; and that between Nepal and the British territories remained as a matter of discussion between the two Governments for several years later.
The British never had the intention to destroy either the existence or the independence of a state which was usefully interposed between them and the dependencies of China. Lord Hastings had given up his plan to dismember Nepal for fear of antagonising China – whose vassal Nepal in theory was. In 1815, while British forces were campaigning in far western Nepal, a high-ranking Manchu official advanced with a large military force from China to Lhasa; and the following year, after the Anglo-Nepalese treaty had been signed, the Chinese army moved south again, right up to Nepal's frontier. The Nepalese panicked, because memories were still vivid of the Chinese invasion of 1792, and there was a flurry of urgent diplomatic activity. Hastings sent mollifying assurances to the imperial authorities, and ordered the British Resident, newly arrived in Kathmandu, to pack his bags and be ready to leave at once if the Chinese invaded again.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_Franz_Kafka | Head of Franz Kafka | The Head of Franz Kafka (Czech: Hlava Franze Kafky), also known as the Statue of Kafka, is an outdoor kinetic sculpture by David Černý depicting Czech German-language writer Franz Kafka, installed on 31 October 2014 outside of the Quadrio shopping mall in Prague, Czech Republic.
The price was 30 million crowns, paid by the investor CPI Property Group together with the adjacent Quadrio complex.
Kafka himself worked in the nearby building of a saving bank.
== Description ==
The kinetic sculpture is 10.6 metres tall and made of 42 rotating stainless steelpanels weighting 24 tonnes in total. Each layer is mechanized and rotates individually. Inside, there are 21 motor modules and 1 kilometre of cables.
The programming of the sculpture's movements can be changed and the artist can create new choreographies. The flip side of this is the high maintenance, as servicing must be done every fortnight.
== Criticism ==
Critics point out that the statue is more an advertising billboard for the mall than a work of art. Critics charge that the statue lacks a connection to Kafka's work, and that this shiny, glittering, and fascinating attraction lacks humility and sensitivity. When viewers look at the visually attractive and technologically perfect sculpture, they miss the lost and brooding soul of Franz Kafka.
Others disagree, arguing that the complexity of the steel panels and the change of form of the statue in time captures Kafka's work quite well. The statue attracts lots of visitors, so it has increased Kafka's presence in Prague.
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Kinetic Head of Franz Kafka at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiatic_lion#:~:text=The%20first%20scientific%20description%20of,named%20it%20Felis%20leo%20persicus. | Asiatic lion | The Asiatic lion is a lion population in the Indian state of Gujarat that belongs to the subspecies Panthera leo leo. The first scientific description of the Asiatic lion published in 1826 was based on a specimen from Persia.
Until the 19th century, it ranged from Saudi Arabia, eastern Turkey, Iran, Mesopotamia and southern Pakistan to Central India. Since the turn of the 20th century, its range has been restricted to Gir National Park and surrounding areas.
The Indian population has steadily increased since 2010. In 2015, the 14th Asiatic Lion Census was conducted over an area of about 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi); the lion population was estimated at 523 individuals, and in 2017 at 650 individuals. In 2020 the population was 674 and by 2025 it had increased to 891.
== Taxonomy ==
Felis leo persicus was the scientific name proposed by Johann N. Meyer in 1826 who described an Asiatic lion skin from Persia.
In the 19th century, several zoologists described lion zoological specimen from other parts of Asia that used to be considered synonyms of P. l. persica:
Felis leo bengalensis proposed by Edward Turner Bennett in 1829 was a lion kept in the menagerie of the Tower of London. Bennett's essay contains a drawing titled 'Bengal lion'.
Felis leo goojratensis proposed by Walter Smee in 1833 was based on two skins of maneless lions from Gujarat that Smee exhibited in a meeting of the Zoological Society of London.
Leo asiaticus proposed by Sir William Jardine, 7th Baronet in 1834 was a lion from India.
Felis leo indicus proposed by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville in 1843 was based on an Asiatic lion skull.
In 2017, the Asiatic lion was subsumed to P. l. leo due to close morphological and molecular genetic similarities with Barbary lion specimens.
However, several scientists continue using P. l. persica for the Asiatic lion. A standardised haplogroup phylogeny supports that the Asiatic lion is not a distinct subspecies, and that it represents a haplogroup of the northern P. l. leo.
== Evolution ==
Lions first left Africa at least 700,000 years ago, giving rise to the Eurasian Panthera fossilis which later evolved into Panthera spelaea (commonly known as the cave lion), which became extinct around 14,000 years ago. Genetic analysis of P. spelaea indicates that it represented a distinct species from the modern lion that diverged from them around 500,000 years ago and unrelated to modern Asian lions. Pleistocene fossils assigned as belonging or probably belonging to the modern lion have been reported from several sites in the Middle East, such as Shishan Marsh in the Azraq Basin, Jordan, dating to around 250,000 years ago, and Wezmeh Cave in the Zagros Mountains of western Iran, dating to around 70–10,000 years ago, with other reports from Pleistocene deposits in Nadaouiyeh Ain Askar and Douara Cave, Syria. In 1976, fossil lion remains were reported from Pleistocene deposits in West Bengal. A fossil carnassial excavated from Batadomba Cave indicates that lions inhabited Sri Lanka during the Late Pleistocene. This population may have become extinct around 39,000 years ago, before the arrival of humans in Sri Lanka.
=== Phylogeography ===
Results of a phylogeographic analysis based on mtDNA sequences of lions from across the global range, including now extinct populations like Barbary lions, indicates that sub-Saharan African lions are phylogenetically basal to all modern lions. These findings support an African origin of modern lion evolution with a probable centre in East and Southern Africa. It is likely that lions migrated from there to West Africa, eastern North Africa and via the periphery of the Arabian Peninsula into Turkey, southern Europe and northern India during the last 20,000 years. The Sahara, Congolian rainforests and the Great Rift Valley are natural barriers to lion dispersal.
Genetic markers of 357 samples from captive and wild lions from Africa and India were examined. Results indicate four lineages of lion populations: one in Central and North Africa to Asia, one in Kenya, one in Southern Africa, and one in Southern and East Africa; the first wave of lion expansion probably occurred about 118,000 years ago from East Africa into West Asia, and the second wave in the late Pleistocene or early Holocene periods from Southern Africa towards East Africa.
The Asiatic lion is genetically closer to North and West African lions than to the group comprising East and Southern African lions. The two groups probably diverged about 186,000–128,000 years ago. It is thought that the Asiatic lion remained connected to North and Central African lions until gene flow was interrupted due to extinction of lions in Western Eurasia and the Middle East during the Holocene.
Asiatic lions are less genetically diverse than African lions, which may be the result of a founder effect in the recent history of the remnant population in the Gir Forest.
== Characteristics ==
The Asiatic lion's fur ranges in colour from ruddy-tawny, heavily speckled with black, to sandy or buffish grey, sometimes with a silvery sheen in certain lighting. Males have only moderate mane growth at the top of the head, so that their ears are always visible. The mane is scanty on the cheeks and throat, where it is only 10 cm (4 in) long. About half of Asiatic lions' skulls from the Gir forest have divided infraorbital foramina, whereas African lions have only one foramen on either side. The sagittal crest is more strongly developed, and the post-orbital area is shorter than in African lions. Skull length in adult males ranges from 330–340 mm (13–13+1⁄2 in), and in females, from 292–302 mm (11+1⁄2–11+7⁄8 in). It differs from the African lion by a larger tail tuft and less inflated auditory bullae.
The most striking morphological character of the Asiatic lion is a longitudinal fold of skin running along its belly.
Males have a shoulder height of up to 107–120 cm (42–47 in), and females of 80–107 cm (31+1⁄2–42 in). Two lions in Gir Forest measured 1.98 m (6 ft 6 in) from head to body with a 0.79–0.89 m (31–35 in) long tail of and total lengths of 2.82–2.87 m (9 ft 3 in – 9 ft 5 in). The Gir lion is similar in size to the Central African lion, and smaller than large African lions.
An adult male Asiatic lion weighs 160.1 kg (353 lb) on average with the limit being 190 kg (420 lb); a wild female weighs 100 to 130 kg (220 to 285 lb).[1]
=== Manes ===
Colour and development of manes in male lions varies between regions, among populations and with age of lions. In general, the Asiatic lion differs from the African lion by a less developed mane. The manes of most lions in ancient Greece and Asia Minor were also less developed and did not extend to below the belly, sides or ulnas. Lions with such smaller manes were also known in the Syrian region, Arabian Peninsula and Egypt.
=== Exceptionally sized lions ===
The confirmed record total length of a male Asiatic lion is 2.92 m (9 ft 7 in), including the tail. Emperor Jahangir allegedly speared a lion in the 1620s that measured 3.10 m (10 ft 2 in) and weighed 306 kg (675 lb).
In 1841, English traveller Austen Henry Layard accompanied hunters in Khuzestan, Iran, and sighted a lion which "had done much damage in the plain of Ram Hormuz," before one of his companions killed it. He described it as being "unusually large and of very dark brown colour", with some parts of its body being almost black.
In 1935, a British admiral claimed to have sighted a maneless lion near Quetta in Pakistan. He wrote "It was a large lion, very stocky, light tawny in colour, and I may say that no one of us three had the slightest doubt of what we had seen until, on our arrival at Quetta, many officers expressed doubts as to its identity, or to the possibility of there being a lion in the district."
== Distribution and habitat ==
In Saurashtra's Gir forest, an area of 1,412.1 km2 (545.2 sq mi) was declared as a sanctuary for Asiatic lion conservation in 1965. This sanctuary and the surrounding areas are the only habitats supporting the Asiatic lion. After 1965, a national park was established covering an area of 258.71 km2 (99.89 sq mi) where human activity is not allowed. In the surrounding sanctuary only Maldharis have the right to take their livestock for grazing.
Lions inhabit remnant forest habitats in the two hill systems of Gir and Girnar that comprise Gujarat's largest tracts of tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests, thorny forest and savanna, and provide valuable habitat for a diverse flora and fauna. Five protected areas currently exist to protect the Asiatic lion: Gir Sanctuary, Gir National Park, Pania Sanctuary, Mitiyala Sanctuary, and Girnar Sanctuary. The first three protected areas form the Gir Conservation Area, a 1,452 km2 (561 sq mi) large forest block that represents the core habitat of the lion population. The other two sanctuaries Mitiyala and Girnar protect satellite areas within dispersal distance of the Gir Conservation Area. An additional sanctuary is being established in the nearby Barda Wildlife Sanctuary to serve as an alternative home for lions. The drier eastern part is vegetated with acacia thorn savanna and receives about 650 mm (26 in) annual rainfall; rainfall in the west is higher at about 1,000 mm (39 in) per year.
The lion population recovered from the brink of extinction to 411 individuals by 2010. In that year, approximately 105 lions lived outside the Gir forest, representing a quarter of the entire lion population. Dispersing sub-adults established new territories outside their natal prides, and as a result the satellite lion population has been increasing since 1995.
By 2015, the total population had grown to an estimated 523 individuals, inhabiting an area of 7,000 km2 (2,700 sq mi) in the Saurashtra region., comprising 109 adult males, 201 adult females and 213 cubs. The Asiatic Lion Census conducted in 2017 revealed about 650 individuals.
By 2020, at least six satellite populations had spread to eight districts in Gujarat and live in human-dominated areas outside the protected area network. 104 lived near the coastline. Lions living along the coast, as well as those between the coastline and the Gir forest, have larger individual ranges. By the time of the census, approximately 300–325 lions lived within the Gir preserve itself. The remainder of the population was instead spread across the adjoining Amreli, Bhavnagar, and Gir Somnath Districts, with populations recorded in the Girnar, Mitiyala, and Pania Wildlife Sanctuaries in addition to areas outside protected zones. In 2024 and 2025, lions began swimming to Diu Island, separated from the mainland of Gujarat by a narrow channel. These individuals were relocated to Gujarat on request of the Diu administration over concerns of disruption to human life, although conservationists protested the removal as unnecessary.
=== Former range ===
During the Holocene, from around 6,500 years ago and possibly as early as 8,000 years ago, modern lions colonised Southeast Europe (including modern Bulgaria and Greece in the Balkans), as well as parts of Central Europe like Hungary and Ukraine in Eastern Europe. Analysis of remains of these European lions suggests that they do not differ from those of modern Asiatic lions, and they should be assigned to this population. Historical records suggest that lions became extinct in Europe during Classical antiquity, though it has been suggested that they may have survived as late as the Middle Ages in Ukraine.
The Asiatic lion used to occur in Arabia, the Levant, Mesopotamia and Baluchistan. In South Caucasia, it was known since the Holocene and became extinct in the 10th century. Until the middle of the 19th century, it survived in regions adjoining Mesopotamia and Syria, and was still sighted in the upper reaches of the Euphrates River in the early 1870s. By the late 19th century, it had become extinct in Saudi Arabia and Turkey. The last known lion in Iraq was killed on the lower Tigris in 1918.
Historical records in Iran indicate that it ranged from the Khuzestan Plain to Fars province at elevations below 2,000 m (6,600 ft) in steppe vegetation and pistachio-almond woodlands. It was widespread in the country, but in the 1870s, it was sighted only on the western slopes of the Zagros Mountains, and in the forest regions south of Shiraz. It served as the national emblem and appeared on the country's flag. Some of the country's last lions were sighted in 1941 between Shiraz and Jahrom in Fars province, and in 1942, a lion was spotted about 65 km (40 mi) northwest of Dezful. In 1944, the corpse of a lioness was found on the banks of the Karun River in Iran's Khuzestan province.
In India, the Asiatic lion occurred in Sind, Bahawalpur, Punjab, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Bihar and eastward as far as Palamau and Rewa, Madhya Pradesh in the early 19th century. It once ranged to Bangladesh in the east and up to Narmada River in the south.
Because of the lion's restricted distribution in India, Reginald Innes Pocock assumed that it arrived from Europe, entering southwestern Asia through Balochistan only recently, before humans started limiting its dispersal in the country. The advent and increasing availability of firearms led to its local extirpation over large areas.
Heavy hunting by British colonial officers and Indian rulers caused a steady and marked decline of lion numbers in the country. Lions were exterminated in Palamau by 1814, in Baroda State, Hariana and Ahmedabad district in the 1830s, in Kot Diji and Damoh district in the 1840s. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, a British officer shot 300 lions. The last lions of Gwalior and Rewah were shot in the 1860s. One lion was killed near Allahabad in 1866. The last lion of Mount Abu in Rajasthan was spotted in 1872. By the late 1870s, lions were extinct in Rajasthan. By 1880, no lion survived in Guna, Deesa and Palanpur districts, and only about a dozen lions were left in Junagadh district. By the turn of the century, the Gir Forest held the only Asiatic lion population in India, which was protected by the Nawab of Junagarh in his private hunting grounds.
== Ecology and behaviour ==
Male Asiatic lions are solitary, or associate with up to three males, forming a loose pride. Pairs of males rest, hunt and feed together, and display marking behaviour at the same sites. Females associate with up to twelve other females, forming a stronger pride together with their cubs. They share large carcasses among each other, but seldom with males. Female and male lions usually associate only for a few days when mating, but rarely live and feed together.
Results of a radio telemetry study indicate that annual home ranges of male lions vary from 144 to 230 km2 (56 to 89 sq mi) in dry and wet seasons. Home ranges of females are smaller, varying between 67 and 85 km2 (26 and 33 sq mi). During hot and dry seasons, they favour densely vegetated and shady riverine habitats, where prey species also congregate.
Coalitions of males defend home ranges containing one or more female prides.
Together, they hold a territory for a longer time than single lions. Males in coalitions of three to four individuals exhibit a pronounced hierarchy with one male dominating the others.
The lions in Gir National Park are active at twilight and by night, showing a high temporal overlap with sambar (Rusa unicolor), wild boar (Sus scrofa) and nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus).
=== Feeding ecology ===
In general, lions prefer large prey species within a weight range of 190 to 550 kg (420 to 1,210 lb), irrespective of their availability. Domestic cattle have historically been a major component of the Asiatic lions' diet in the Gir Forest.
Inside Gir Forest National Park, lions predominantly kill chital (Axis axis), sambar deer, nilgai, cattle (Bos taurus), domestic water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), and less frequently wild boar. They most commonly kill chital, which weighs only around 50 kg (110 lb). They prey on sambar deer when the latter descend from the hills during summer. Outside the protected area where wild prey species do not occur, lions prey on water buffalo and cattle, and rarely on dromedary (Camelus dromedarius). They generally kill most prey less than 100 m (330 ft) away from water bodies, charge prey from close range and drag carcasses into dense cover.
They regularly visit specific sites within the protected area to scavenge on dead livestock dumped by Maldhari livestock herders.
During dry, hot months, they also prey on mugger crocodiles (Crocodylus palustris) on the banks of Kamleshwar Dam.
In 1974, the Forest Department estimated the wild ungulate population at 9,650 individuals. In the following decades, the wild ungulate population has grown consistently to 31,490 in 1990 and 64,850 in 2010, including 52,490 chital, 4,440 wild boar, 4,000 sambar, 2,890 nilgai, 740 chinkara (Gazella bennetti), and 290 four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis). In contrast, populations of domestic buffalo and cattle declined following resettlement, largely due to direct removal of resident livestock from the Gir Conservation Area. The population of 24,250 domestic livestock in the 1970s declined to 12,500 by the mid-1980s, but increased to 23,440 animals in 2010. Following changes in both predator and prey communities, Asiatic lions shifted their predation patterns. Today, very few livestock kills occur within the sanctuary, and instead most occur in peripheral villages. Depredation records indicate that in and around the Gir Forest, lions killed on average 2,023 livestock annually between 2005 and 2009, and an additional 696 individuals in satellite areas.
Dominant males consume about 47% more from kills than their coalition partners. Aggression between partners increases when coalitions are large, but kills are small.
=== Reproduction ===
Asiatic lions mate foremost between October and November. Mating lasts three to six days. During these days, they usually do not hunt, but only drink water. Gestation lasts about 110 days. Litters comprise one to four cubs.
The average interval between births is 24 months, unless cubs die due to infanticide by adult males or because of diseases and injuries. Cubs become independent at the age of about two years. Subadult males leave their natal pride latest at the age of three years and become nomads until they establish their own territory.
Dominant males mate more frequently than their coalition partners. During a study carried out between December 2012 and December 2016, three females were observed switching mating partners in favour of the dominant male. Monitoring of more than 70 mating events showed that females mated with males of several rivaling prides that shared their home ranges, and that these males were tolerant toward the same cubs. Only new males that entered the female territories killed unfamiliar cubs. Young females mated foremost with males within their home ranges. Older females selected males at the periphery of their home ranges.
== Threats ==
The Asiatic lion currently exists as a single subpopulation, and is thus vulnerable to extinction from unpredictable events, such as an epidemic or large forest fire. There are indications of poaching incidents in recent years, as well as reports that organized poacher gangs have switched attention from local Bengal tigers to the Gujarat lions. There have also been a number of drowning incidents, after lions fell into wells.
Prior to the resettlement of Maldharis, the Gir forest was heavily degraded and used by livestock, which competed with and restricted the population sizes of native ungulates. Various studies reveal tremendous habitat recovery and increases in wild ungulate populations following the resettlement of Maldharis since the 1970s.
Nearly 25 lions in the vicinity of Gir Forest were found dead in October 2018. Four of them had died because of canine distemper virus, the same virus that had also killed several lions in the Serengeti.
=== Conflicts with humans ===
Since the mid-1990s, the Asiatic lion population has increased to an extent that by 2015, about a third resided outside the protected area. Hence, conflict between local residents and wildlife also increased. Local people protect their crops from nilgai, wild boar, and other herbivores by using electrical fences that are powered with high voltage. Some consider the presence of predators a benefit, as they keep the herbivore population in check. But some also fear the lions, and killed several in retaliation for attacks on livestock.
In July 2012, a lion dragged a man from the veranda of his house and killed him about 50–60 km (31–37 miles) from Gir Forest National Park. This was the second attack by a lion in this area, six months after a 25-year-old man was attacked and killed in Dhodadar.
== Conservation ==
Panthera leo persica was included on CITES Appendix I, and is fully protected in India, where it is considered endangered.
=== Reintroduction ===
==== India ====
In the 1950s, biologists advised the Indian government to re-establish at least one wild population in the Asiatic lion's former range to ensure the population's reproductive health and to prevent it from being affected by an outbreak of an epidemic. In 1956, the Indian Board for Wildlife accepted a proposal by the Government of Uttar Pradesh to establish a new sanctuary for the envisaged reintroduction, Chandra Prabha Wildlife Sanctuary, covering 96 km2 (37 sq mi) in eastern Uttar Pradesh, where climate, terrain and vegetation is similar to the conditions in the Gir Forest. In 1957, one male and two female wild-caught Asiatic lions were set free in the sanctuary. This population comprised 11 animals in 1965, which all disappeared thereafter.
The Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project to find an alternative habitat for reintroducing Asiatic lions was pursued in the early 1990s. Biologists from the Wildlife Institute of India assessed several potential translocation sites for their suitability regarding existing prey population and habitat conditions. The Palpur-Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary in northern Madhya Pradesh was ranked as the most promising location, followed by Sita Mata Wildlife Sanctuary and Darrah National Park. Until 2000, 1,100 families from 16 villages had been resettled from the Palpur-Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary, and another 500 families from eight villages were expected to be resettled. With this resettlement scheme the protected area was expanded by 345 km2 (133 sq mi).
Gujarat state officials resisted the relocation, since it would make the Gir Sanctuary lose its status as the world's only home of the Asiatic lion. Gujarat raised a number of objections to the proposal, and thus the matter went before the Indian Supreme Court. In April 2013, the Indian Supreme Court ordered the Gujarat state to send some of their Gir lions to Madhya Pradesh to establish a second population there. The Gujarat state government has resisted relocation of lions to other states.
==== Iran ====
In 1977, Iran attempted to restore its lion population by transporting Gir lions to Arzhan National Park, but the project met resistance from the local population, and thus it was not implemented. However, this did not stop Iran from seeking to bring back the lion. In February 2019, Tehran Zoological Garden obtained a male Asiatic lion from Bristol Zoo in the United Kingdom, followed in June by a female from Dublin Zoo. There are hopes for them to successfully reproduce.
=== In captivity ===
Until the late 1990s, captive Asiatic lions in Indian zoos were haphazardly interbred with African lions confiscated from circuses, leading to genetic pollution in the captive Asiatic lion stock. Once discovered, this led to the complete shutdown of the European and American endangered species breeding programs for Asiatic lions, as its founder animals were captive-bred Asiatic lions originally imported from India and were ascertained to be intraspecific hybrids of African and Asian lions. In North American zoos, several Indian-African lion crosses were inadvertently bred, and researchers noted that "the fecundity, reproductive success, and spermatozoal development improved dramatically."
DNA fingerprinting studies of Asiatic lions have helped in identifying individuals with high genetic variability, which can be used for conservation breeding programs.
In 2006, the Central Zoo Authority of India stopped breeding Indian-African cross lions stating that "hybrid lions have no conservation value and it is not worth to spend resources on them". Now only pure native Asiatic lions are bred in India.
In 1972 the Sakkarbaug Zoo sold a pair of young pure-stock lions to the Fauna Preservation Society; which decided they would be accommodated at the Jersey Wildlife Trust where it was hoped to begin a captive breeding programme.
The Asiatic lion International Studbook was initiated in 1977, followed in 1983 by the North American Species Survival Plan (SSP). The North American population of captive Asiatic lions was composed of descendants of five founder lions, three of which were pure Asian and two were African or African-Asian hybrids. The lions kept in the framework of the SSP consisted of animals with high inbreeding coefficients.
In the early 1990s, three European zoos imported pure Asiatic lions from India: London Zoo obtained two pairs; the Zürich Zoologischer Garten one pair; and the Korkeasaari Zoo in Helsinki one male and two females. In 1994, the European Endangered Species Programme (EEP) for Asiatic lions was initiated. The European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) published the first European Studbook in 1999. By 2005, there were 80 Asiatic lions kept in the EEP – the only captive population outside of India. As of 2009, more than 100 Asiatic lions were kept within the EEP. The SSP had not resumed; pure-bred Asiatic lions are needed to form a new founder population for breeding in American zoos.
== In culture ==
=== South and East Asia ===
Neolithic cave paintings of lions were found in Bhimbetka rock shelters in central India, which are at least 30,000 years old.
The Sanskrit word for 'lion' is 'सिंह' siṃhaḥ, which is also a name of Shiva and signifies the Leo of the Zodiac. The Sanskrit name of Sri Lanka is Sinhala meaning 'Abode of Lions'. Singapore derives its name from the Malay words singa 'lion' and pura 'city', which in turn is from the Sanskrit 'सिंह' siṃhaḥ and पुर pur, latter also meaning 'fortified town'.
In Hindu mythology, the half man half lion avatar Narasimha is the fourth incarnation of Vishnu. Simhamukha is a lion-faced protector and dakini in Tibetan Buddhism.
In the 18th book of the Mahabharata, Bharata deprives lions of their prowess. The lion plays a prominent role in The Fables of Pilpay that were translated into Persian, Greek and Hebrew languages between the 8th and 12th centuries. The lion is the symbol of Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara in Jainism.
The lion is the third animal of the Burmese zodiac and the sixth animal of the Sinhalese zodiac.
The earliest known Chinese stone sculptures of lions date to the Han dynasty at the turn of the first millennium.
The lion dance is a traditional dance in Chinese culture that is strongly associated with Buddhism and known since at least the Han dynasty.
Cambodia has a native martial art called Bokator (Khmer: ល្បុក្កតោ, pounding a lion).
=== West Asia and Europe ===
Lions are depicted on vases dating to about 2600 BCE that were excavated near Lake Urmia in Iran.
The lion was an important symbol in Ancient Iraq and is depicted in a stone relief at Nineveh in the Mesopotamian Plain.
The lion makes repeated appearances in the Bible, most notably as having fought Samson in the Book of Judges.
Having occurred in the Arab world, particularly the Arabian Peninsula, the Asiatic lion has significance in Arab and Islamic culture. For example, Surah al-Muddaththir of the Quran criticizes people who were averse to the Islamic Prophet Muhammad's teachings, such as that the rich have an obligation to donate wealth to the poor, comparing their attitude to itself, with the response of prey to a qaswarah (Arabic: قَسْوَرَة, meaning "lion", "beast of prey", or "hunter"). Other Arabic words for 'lion' include asad (Arabic: أَسَد) and sabaʿ (Arabic: سَبَع), and they can be used as names of places, or titles of people. An Arabic toponym for the Israeli City of Beersheba (Arabic: بِئر ٱلسَّبَع) can mean "Spring of the Lion." Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hamzah ibn Abdul-Muttalib, who were loyal kinsmen of Muhammad, were given titles like Asad Allah (Arabic: أَسَد ٱلله, lit. 'Lion of God').
The lion of Babylon is a statue at the Ishtar Gate in Babylon The lion has an important association with the figure Gilgamesh, as demonstrated in his epic. The Iraqi national football team is nicknamed "Lions of Mesopotamia."
The symbol of the lion is closely tied to the Persian people. Achaemenid kings were known to carry the symbol of the lion on their thrones and garments. The name 'Shir' (also pronounced 'Sher') (Persian: شیر) is a part of the names of many places in Iran and Central Asia, like those of city of Shiraz and the Sherabad River, and had been adopted into other languages, like Hindi. The Shir-va-Khorshid (Persian: شیر و خورشید, "Lion and Sun") is one of the most prominent symbols of Iran, dating back to the Safavid dynasty, and was used on the flag of Iran until 1979.
The lion was an objective of hunting in the Caucasus, by both locals and foreigners. The locals were called 'Shirvanshakhs'.
The Nemean lion of pre-literate Greek myth is associated with the Labours of Hercules.
A Bronze Age statue of a lion from either Southern Italy or southern Spain from around 1000–1200 years BCE, the "Mari-Cha Lion", was exhibited at the Louvre Abu Dhabi.
== See also ==
Cape lion
Lions in Europe
Wildlife of Iran
Wildlife of India
In situ conservation
Ex situ conservation
Panthera leo fossilis
Panthera spelaea
Damnatio ad bestias
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group: Asiatic lion
The Telegraph, August 2018: Pride of India
Asiatic Lion Information Centre at the Wayback Machine (archived 25 August 2010)
Asiatic Lion Protection Society (ALPS), Gujarat, India
ARKive.org: Lion (Panthera leo)
Animal Diversity Web: Panthera leo
Asiatic lions in online video (3 videos)
Asiatic Lions Images
AAj Tak Video News Report in Hindi: Gir lions in palpur kuno century report rajesh badal.mp4 on YouTube by Rajesh Badal (2011)
DB Video Special Report on Asiatic lion in Gujarati: What Is the connection Between Gir lions and Africans lions
Skin of a Persian lioness, belonging to an Vulnerable subspecies of lions, brought to Dublin by King Edward VII in 1902 (during the reign of Shah Mozaffar ad-Din in Persia, and kept in the Natural History Museum (Ireland)).
Lion of Basrah
A lion in Iraq
Stuffed animals including Pakistan's last wild lion at Bahawalpur Zoo
Ancient Arabian account of Muhammad's descendant Musa al-Kadhim encountering a lion outside Medina in the mountainous region of the Hejaz
Description of the Arabian lion and art
4 انواع الأسود في العالم الأسد العربي الجزء (in Arabic)
الاسد العربي المنقرض عند العرب lion Arabian Extinct (in Arabic)
Asiatic lioness on a tree |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_In_Living_Color_cast_members | List of In Living Color cast members | Cast members came and went during the run of In Living Color (Fox-TV, 1990–1994). Some earlier cast members continued to appear in later seasons so later casts also include some previous years' cast members.
== First season (1990) ==
Keenen Ivory Wayans
Jim Carrey (credited as James Carrey)
Kelly Coffield
Kim Coles
Tommy Davidson
David Alan Grier
T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh
Damon Wayans
Kim Wayans
Shawn Wayans (as DJ SW-1) and the Fly Girls
DJ Daddy Mack (pilot only)
== Second season (1990–1991) ==
Keenen Ivory Wayans
Jim Carrey
Kelly Coffield
Tommy Davidson
David Alan Grier
T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh
Damon Wayans
Kim Wayans
Shawn Wayans (as DJ SW-1) and the Fly Girls
== Third season (1991–1992) ==
Starring
Keenen Ivory Wayans
Jim Carrey
Kelly Coffield
Tommy Davidson
David Alan Grier
T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh
Damon Wayans
Kim Wayans
Featuring
Jamie Foxx
Steve Park
Shawn Wayans
DJ Twist and the Fly Girls
== Fourth season (1992–1993) ==
Starring
Keenen Ivory Wayans (episodes 1–11 only)
Jim Carrey
Kelly Coffield
Tommy Davidson
David Alan Grier
T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh
Kim Wayans
Featuring
Damon Wayans (4 episodes only)
Jamie Foxx
Marlon Wayans (episodes 1–13 only)
Shawn Wayans
Alexandra Wentworth
DJ Twist and the Fly Girls
== Fifth season (1993–1994) ==
Jim Carrey
Tommy Davidson
Jamie Foxx
David Alan Grier
Anne-Marie Johnson
T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh
Reggie McFadden (episodes 12-26)
Jay Leggett
Carol Rosenthal
Alexandra Wentworth
Marc Wilmore
DJ Twist and the Fly Girls
Jim Carrey, Tommy Davidson, David Alan Grier and T'Keyah Crystal Keymáh were the only cast members for all five seasons.
== Guest stars ==
Chris Rock was never an official cast member on In Living Color, but did appear (as a "special guest star") in a number of skits in the fifth season, and reprised his "Cheap Pete" character from I'm Gonna Git You Sucka. In the early years of In Living Color, Rock was parodied as being the only African American cast member on Saturday Night Live (SNL also had Tim Meadows and Ellen Cleghorne). In an SNL skit honoring Mother's Day, Rock's mother jokes that she is disappointed in him for being on SNL, and asks "Has In Living Color called yet?" (and later, when Adam Sandler hosted, Chris Rock sang about how he got fired from SNL and kicked off In Living Color when the latter show got canceled).
Other recurring guest stars in the fifth season include show writer Nick Bakay (for The Dirty Dozens sketches) and Peter Marshall (ringmaster for several urban parodies of Hollywood Squares). Rapper Biz Markie also appeared in various roles as a guest star in the fifth season, such as being (not too much) in drag as Wanda the Ugly Woman's sister or as "Dirty Dozens" contestant Damian "Foosball" Franklin.
== Fly Girls (house dance troupe) ==
The Fly Girls troupe had various members over In Living Color's five-season run. The original lineup consisted of Cari French, Carrie Ann Inaba, Deidre Lang, Lisa Marie Todd, and Michelle Whitney-Morrison. Rosie Perez was the choreographer for the first four seasons. Lang was the only Fly Girl to stay for the entire run.
Sometimes the Fly Girls could be used as extras in sketches, or be part of an opening gag (in one sketch, they were shown performing open-heart surgery and revealed that they were dancing in order to pay their way through medical school), though, mostly, the Fly Girls appeared in commercial break bumpers and filler scenes in between sketches (not unlike the bikini-clad female cast members on Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In).
In the fifth season Arthur Rainer became the main choreographer with Lisa Joann Thompson and Deidre Lang as assistant choreographers.
Cari French: Seasons 1–3 (1990–1992)
Carla Garrido: part of Season 2 (1991)
Laurie Ann Gibson: Season 5 (1993–1994)
Jossie Harris: Seasons 4–5 (1992–1994)
Carrie Ann Inaba: Seasons 1–3 (1990–1992)
Deidre Lang: Seasons 1–5 (1990–1994)
Jennifer Lopez: Seasons 3–4 (1991–1993)
Lisa Joann Thompson: Seasons 4–5 (1992–1994)
Lisa Marie Todd: Seasons 1–3 (1990–1992)
Michelle Whitney-Morrison: Seasons 1–2 (1990–1991)
Masako Willis: Season 5 (1993–1994)
== Cast/DJ and Fly Girls timelines ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saba_Valadkhan#Awards_and_honours | Saba Valadkhan | Saba Valadkhan (Persian: صبا ولدخان) is an Iranian American biomedical scientist, and an Assistant Professor and RNA researcher at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio. In 2005, she was awarded the GE / Science Young Scientist Award for her breakthrough in understanding the mechanism of spliceosomes - "akin to finding the Holy Grail of the splicing catalysis field" - a critical area of research, given that "20 percent or 30 percent of all human genetic diseases are caused by mistakes that the spliceosome makes".
== Education ==
Valadkhan qualified as a medical doctor at Tehran University of Medial Sciences in Iran in 1996. She moved to America to pursue her Ph.D. at Columbia University, New York. In 2004, she joined as an Assistant Professor Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio.
== Doctoral research ==
Valadkhan studied the role of small nuclear RNAs in the human spliceosome under the supervision of Prof. James Manley. The main focus of her research is elucidating the structure and function of the catalytic core of the spliceosome by taking advantage of a novel, minimal spliceosome she recently developed. This minimal system, which consists of only two spliceosomal snRNAs, catalyzes a reaction identical to the splicing reaction. In addition to providing direct evidence for RNA catalysis in the spliceosome, and thus, settling the longstanding and central question of the identity of the catalytic domain, the minimal system provides a novel and powerful tool for studying the structure and function of the spliceosome.
== Awards and honours ==
Valadkhan was presented with the Harold Weintraub award from the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle for her doctoral thesis. She was named a Searle Scholar in 2004. She was also awarded the American Association for Advancement of Science (AAAS) Young Scientist Grand Prize in the same year.
In 2006, she became a founding member of the Rosalind Franklin Society. She was also honoured with the Nsoroma Award from Cleveland Chapter of the National Technical Association in 2006.
== See also ==
List of famous Iranian women
== References ==
== External links ==
Interview
Saba Valadkhan publications indexed by Google Scholar |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney_Imagineering | Walt Disney Imagineering | Walt Disney Imagineering Research & Development, Inc.—commonly referred to as Walt Disney Imagineering, Imagineering, or WDI—is the research and development arm of the Walt Disney Company, responsible for the creation, design, and construction of Disney theme parks and attractions worldwide. The company also operates Disney Live Entertainment and the Muppets Studio and manages Disney's properties, from Walt Disney Studios in Burbank to New Amsterdam Theatre and Times Square Studios Ltd. in New York City.
Founded on December 16, 1952 by Walt Disney to oversee the production of Disneyland Park, it was originally known as Walt Disney, Inc., then WED Enterprises, from the initials of "Walter Elias Disney", Disney's full name. Headquartered in Glendale, California, Imagineering is composed of "Imagineers", who are illustrators, architects, engineers, lighting designers, show writers and graphic designers.
The term "Imagineering", a portmanteau, was introduced in the 1940s by Alcoa to describe its blending of imagination and engineering, and used by Union Carbide in an in-house magazine in 1957, with an article by Richard F. Sailer called "BRAINSTORMING IS IMAGination engINEERING". Disney filed for a trademark for the term in 1989, claiming first use of the term in 1962. Imagineering is a registered trademark of Disney Enterprises, Inc.
== History ==
=== WED Enterprises ===
Walt Disney, Inc. (WDI) was formed by Walt Disney on December 16, 1952, with an engineering division tasked with designing Disneyland. In light of objections from his brother Roy O. Disney as well as those of potential stockholders, WDI was renamed WED Enterprises in 1953 based on Disney's initials. In 1961, WED moved into the Grand Central Business Park. WED Enterprises's theme park design and architectural group became so integral to the Disney studio's operations that Walt Disney Productions bought it on February 5, 1965, along with the WED Enterprises name.
=== Imagineering ===
The unit was renamed as of January 1986 to Walt Disney Imagineering. In 1996, Disney Development Company, the Disney conglomerate's real estate development subsidiary, merged into Imagineering.
Imagineering created Disney Fair, a U.S. traveling attraction, which premiered in September 1996. With poor attendance, the fair was pulled after a few stops. Disney Entertainment Projects (Asia Pacific), Inc., a new Disney Asian Pacific subsidiary, selected a renamed fair called DisneyFest as its first project, taking it to Singapore to open there on October 30, 1997.
By 1997, Imagineers were in several buildings in Grand Central Business Park when Disney purchased the park. In September 1999, Disney Imagineering announced the Grand Central Creative Campus redesign of the industrial park with a new office-studio complex anchored by Disney Imagineering. Some of the buildings were demolished to make way for new buildings. The additional space would be for sound stages, production facilities and offices.
As part of the Walt Disney Company's March 2018 strategic reorganization, Walt Disney Parks and Resorts merged with Disney Consumer Products and Interactive Media segments into Disney Parks, Experiences and Products (DPEP), giving Disney Imagineering oversight of merchandise, games and publishing development.
In July 2021, DPEP chairman Josh D'Amaro announced that approximately 2,000 DPEP positions would be transferred over the next couple of years to the Lake Nona area of Orlando, Florida. In November 2021, it was reported that as many as 90% of the positions to be transferred are Walt Disney Imagineering positions, as DPEP relocates Imagineering's headquarters from Glendale to a new 60-acre corporate campus in Lake Nona. The only Imagineering positions reportedly exempt from relocation were those dedicated to Disneyland or certain international parks. The relocation was reportedly motivated in part by $570 million in tax breaks from the state of Florida, as well as Florida's business-friendly climate, lower cost of living, and lack of a state income tax. This relocation was cancelled in May 2023 amidst a feud with Florida governor Ron DeSantis.
== Principles ==
New concepts and improvements are often created to fulfill specific needs. For instance, the Soarin' Over California ride system was designed to help guests experience the sensation of flight. During development, Imagineer Mark Sumner found an erector set in his attic, which quickly inspired the solution to create this experience. The ride effectively simulates hang gliding. One of Imagineering's techniques, "blue sky speculation", is a process in which ideas are generated without limitations. Imagineers may develop a bold idea in extreme detail, initially disregarding budgetary or physical constraints. It can take up to five years for an idea to turn into a finished attraction. The company considers this the beginning of a design process, believing, "if it can be dreamt, it can be built".
WDI partnered with the Khan Academy to create a series of online video classes called Imagineering in a Box, to allow students to "explore different aspects of theme park design, from characters to ride development..." The classes, which are organized into three main categories (Creating Worlds, Designing Attractions, and Bringing Characters to Life), are presented by WDI employees using multimedia lessons and exercises.
=== The Imagineering Pyramid ===
Past Disney Imagineers have shared 15 principles of Disney Imagineering, divided into five tiers. These are:
Tier 1: Foundations of Imagineering
1. It All Begins with a Story
2. Creative Intent
3. Attention to Detail
4. Theming
5. Long, Medium, and Close Shots
Tier 2: Wayfinding
6. Wienies
7. Transitions
8. Storyboards
9. Pre-Shows and Post-Shows
Tier 3: Visual Communication
10. Forced Perspective
11. "Read"-ability
12. Kinetics
Tier 4: Making It Memorable
13. The "It's a Small World" Effect
14. Hidden Mickeys
Tier 5: Walt’s Cardinal Rule
15. Plussing
Walt Disney coined the term "plussing" for the process of constantly striving to perfect Imagineering work. Disney believed that there is always room for innovation and improvement, stating, "Disneyland will never be completed as long as there's imagination left in the world." This sometimes takes the form of returning to previously abandoned ideas, such as the rework of the Museum of the Weird wax museum concept into the present The Haunted Mansion.
=== The Art of the Show ===
Disney theme parks are storytelling and visual experiences, also known as “The Art of the Show.” The use of theming, atmosphere, and attention to detail are essential in the Disney experience. Creative director John Hench noted the similarities between theme park design and film making, such as the use of techniques, including forced perspective. One example of forced perspective is Cinderella Castle in Magic Kingdom at Walt Disney World. The scale of architectural elements is much smaller in the upper reaches of the castle compared to the foundation, making it seem significantly taller than its actual height of 189 feet.
The attraction, Pirates of the Caribbean, evokes a “rollicking buccaneer adventure,” according to Hench. In contrast, the Disney Cruise Line ships create an elegant seafaring atmosphere. Minor details in theme park shops and restaurants are crucial; these include the menus, names of the dishes and the Cast Members’ costumes. When guests walk down the area of Main Street, U.S.A., they are likely to notice a bakery fragrance, reminiscent of suburban America in the 1900s. In addition to theme parks, Imagineering has devised retail stores, galleries, and hotels which have "stories" and create a specific mood. For instance, the Disney's Contemporary Resort features an A-frame structure, modern décor and futuristic features including a quiet monorail in the lobby. These details reinforce the hotel's contemporary nature.
In 2010, Disney Educational Products produced a series of videos called The Science of Disney Imagineering. Each video was presented by Imagineer Asa Kalama and focused on a different science subject. Each video featured at least one Disney attraction, to show how science was used in them. These science subjects include Gravity, Trajectory, Levers & Pulleys, Fluids, Energy, Design & Models, Magnetism, Motion, Animal Adaptations: Communication, Friction, and Electricity.
=== Mickey's Ten Commandments ===
In 1991, Marty Sklar (then-president of Imagineering) presented ten commandments attributed to Mickey Steinberg (the vice president of Imagineering). They are:
Know your audience
Wear your guest's shoes (don't forget the human factors; try to experience the parks from the guests' point of view)
Organize the flow of people and ideas (ensure experiences tell a story that is organized and logically laid out)
Create a "Wienie" (Walt Disney's term for a "visual magnet")
Communicate with visual literacy (use a dominant color or shape or building to reinforce a theme)
Avoid overload—create turn-ons (do not offer too much detailed information)
Tell one story at a time (put one 'big idea' in each show so guests leave with a clear understanding of the theme)
Avoid contradictions—maintain identity (avoid irrelevant or contradicting elements; make sure the audience has a clear idea of what is being said)
For every ounce of treatment, provide a ton of treat (take advantage of the distinction of the theme park, which is that it encourages active participation, compared to passive entertainment)
Keep it up (do not become complacent or allow things to run down)
== Innovation ==
Imagineering has been granted over 300 patents in areas such as advanced audio systems, fiber optics, interactive technology, live entertainment, ride systems and special effects. Imagineering pioneered technological advances such as the Circle-Vision 360° film technique and the FastPass virtual queuing system.
=== Audio-Animatronics ===
Imagineering is known for its development of Audio-Animatronics, a form of robotics, used in shows and theme park attractions that animate objects in three dimension (3D). The idea originated from Walt Disney's fascination with a mechanical bird that he purchased in New Orleans, which later led to the development of the attraction, The Enchanted Tiki Room. The attraction, which featured singing Audio-Animatronic birds, was the first to use this technology. In the 1964 World's Fair, a 3D figure of Abraham Lincoln was represented. The animated Lincoln delivered part of the Gettysburg Address for the "Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln" exhibit, the first human Audio-Animatronic figure.
Today, Audio-Animatronics are featured in many attractions, including Pirates of the Caribbean, The Haunted Mansion, The Hall of Presidents, Country Bear Musical Jamboree, Star Wars: Rise of the Resistance, and Tiana's Bayou Adventure. Some Audio-Animatronics figures can interact with park guests, such as Mr. Potato Head at Toy Story Mania!.
=== WEDway ===
WEDway is a people mover system using linear induction motor (LIM) technology to propel vehicles along a pair of steel rails. This system was developed in the company's early years. The system is in operation at Walt Disney World Resort's Magic Kingdom and George Bush Intercontinental Airport in Houston, Texas, United States. From 1967 to 1995, Disneyland utilized a version of this system which had rubber wheels placed every 9 feet along the guide-way.
== Projects developed by Imagineering ==
Since 1952, Imagineering has created twelve theme parks, a town, seven cruise ships, dozens of resort hotels, water parks, shopping centers, sports complexes and various entertainment venues.
=== Current Imagineering projects ===
== Other projects ==
Former creative director John Hench designed the "Tower of Nations" for the opening and closing ceremony of the 1960 Winter Olympics, whilst Walt Disney served as Pageantry Committee chairman.
Imagineering has collaborated with Disney Consumer Products on a number of projects for Disney Stores. The first store, in Glendale, was designed and constructed by a group of architectural Imagineers. Imagineering developed the now-defunct Walt Disney Gallery at the Main Place Mall in Santa Ana, California, and a Roman themed Disney Store at The Forum Shops at Caesars in Las Vegas. After the purchase of the Disney Stores by The Children's Place in 2004, Imagineering helped design an exclusive chain of flagship stores, called World of Disney. These are located in resorts, Lake Buena Vista, Florida and Anaheim, California, as well as New York City. Another flagship store arrived at Disneyland Paris in 2012. An overhaul of Disney Stores was planned in 2009 with the help of Apple CEO Steve Jobs. Disney hoped to transition from a traditional retail model to an interactive entertainment hub.
In the 1990s, Imagineering designed the 24,000 square feet (2,200 m2) Club Disney interactive family fun center in Thousand Oaks, California. Although now closed, it was the first of several location-based entertainment (LBE) venues. In 1998, DisneyQuest, an 80,000 square feet (7,400 m2) high-tech, virtual reality arcade was launched at Disney Springs in Lake Buena Vista, Florida. Another DisneyQuest in Chicago was launched a year later. In 2007, Imagineering oversaw design and construction of ships, Disney Dream and Disney Fantasy. They also helped design exhibitions for the Autry Museum of Western Heritage in Los Angeles and developed the Encounter Restaurant, which is located at the top of Theme Building in Los Angeles International Airport. Moreover, they provided exhibits for the Port Discovery children's museum at the Inner Harbor in Baltimore, Maryland, as well as the "Below Deck" sound show depicting Blackbeard's final battle as part of the Pirate and Treasure Museum in St. Augustine, Florida.
From 1995 to 1997, Imagineering oversaw the renovation of the New Amsterdam Theatre in New York City. Imagineering also remodeled the Times Square Studios in New York City in 1996, following the acquisition of ABC. In 1997, Disney purchased the California Angels and renamed the team to Anaheim Angels. Shortly after, Imagineering renovated the Anaheim Stadium. Imagineering worked with a charity, For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology, to create the teaser video and the story, as well as the theming of the 2016 FIRST Robotics Competition, FIRST Stronghold.
== Corporate locations ==
Since the 1960s, Imagineering's headquarters have been located in nondescript office buildings on the site of the former Grand Central Airport in Glendale, California, about two miles (3.2 km) east of Disney's corporate headquarters in Burbank. Many of these employees were set to be relocated to a new facility in Lake Nona, Orlando, Florida, however the move was canceled in May 2023 amid employee objections and disputes with Florida's state government. There are field offices at Epcot and Disney's Hollywood Studios at the Walt Disney World Resort. There are also offices located at:
Walt Disney Imagineering Disneyland Field Office, Disneyland Resort
Tokyo Disney Resort Administration Building, Tokyo Disney Resort
Walt Disney Imagineering Hong Kong Site Office, Hong Kong Disneyland Resort
Walt Disney Imagineering Germany GmbH, Meyer Werft Papenburg, Germany
== Bibliography ==
== See also ==
List of Disney Imagineers
List of female Disney Imagineers
Disney Live Entertainment
Disney Consumer Products and Interactive Media
Disneyland
Disney Research
The Imagineering Story
The Muppets Studio
Retlaw Enterprises
Walt Disney Animation Studios
Pixar
Marvel Studios
Lucasfilm
20th Century Studios
ESPN
National Geographic
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Rebuilding Tomorrowland, Scott Kirsner, Wired Magazine. Volume 10,12. September 2002.
Harriet Burns, who help create Disney rides, dies, Associated Press, Sfgate (San Francisco Chronicle), July 29, 2008.
The Way We Do Business. Walt Disney Imagineering Workshop 1991. Walt Disney Imagineering, The Disney Development Company. April 25–26, 1991. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
== External links ==
Official website
Walt Disney Imagineering YouTube channel |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Anatomy_of_the_Tongue_in_Cheek | The Anatomy of the Tongue in Cheek | The Anatomy of the Tongue in Cheek (often shortened to Anatomy) is the second full-length album released by Christian rock band Relient K. It was released on August 28, 2001, and peaked at No. 158 on the Billboard 200. On June 26, 2006, the album was certified Gold by the RIAA for sales in excess of 500,000 units in the United States. The cover of the original release is similar to that of the 1999 Ramones release Hey Ho! Let's Go: The Anthology.
== Background and release ==
The Anatomy of the Tongue in Cheek was produced and recorded by Mark Lee Townsend. The album was mixed by J.R. McNeely at the Castle in Nashville, while Ted Jensen mastered the album at Sterling Sound in New York City. It was the first album they recorded with drummer Dave Douglas, who replaced Stephen Cushman, after he left the band following the release of Relient K.
On the same day the group released the album, they released The Creepy EP, featuring two songs from the album and four exclusive tracks. "Less is More" was released as the album's lead single in 2001. It was followed up by the album's second single "Pressing On" released that same year. The group released the deluxe single "For The Moments I Feel Faint / Those Words Are Not Enough" in 2002. Gotee Records released a "Gold Edition" of the album on October 31, 2006, along with the release of a "Gold Edition" of Two Lefts Don't Make a Right...but Three Do on the same day. The Gold Edition of this album has remixed and remastered in a style similar to Mmhmm (the album was remixed by the same people who mixed Mmhmm) and it has a music video for the song "Pressing On".
The group toured in support of the album, playing nearly 200 shows in North America towards the end of 2001.
== Composition and lyrics ==
The album continues the band's liberal use of pop culture references as metaphors for Biblical principles (such as the song "I'm Lion-O," which is about the popular TV series Thundercats). Song themes range from pop culture to Christian themes—growth in faith ("Pressing On"), backsliding ("What Have You Been Doing Lately?"), worship ("Those Words Are Not Enough," "For the Moments I Feel Faint," and "Less Is More")—and social themes—such as racism and persecution ("Failure to Excommunicate"), judgementalism ("Down in Flames")—to making excuses or blaming others for one's own faults ("Maybe It's Maybeline"). There is also a song about one's experiences in high school ("Sadie Hawkins Dance").
The last line of "Pressing On" is from The Mary Tyler Moore Show theme. "Maybe It's Maybeline" (deliberately misspelled, much like the band's name) refers to the popular Maybelline line of beauty products and its tag line.
The group also showcases maturity and growth in their songwriting on the album. The album's sound is described as "tighter" and punk rock leaning.
== Critical reception ==
The album was met with positive reviews from music critics. Ashleight Kittle of AllMusic stated, "the pop culture references in tracks including 'Sadie Hawkins Dance' and 'Maybe Its Maybeline' are quickly identifiable and immediately grasp the listener's attention. Definite highlights include the acoustic 'For the Moments I Feel Faint' and 'The Rest Is up to You'." Andy Long of Cross Rhythms felt that the album was a "major improvement" compared to their previous debut self-titled studio album and remarked, "the band have honed their sound into a tighter and meaner package and the production has a more punk rock edge [...] 'Those Words Are Not Enough' is certainly one of the album's musical high points."
John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout called the album, "Not perfect, while still feeling just a little bit too youthful for some of the older crowd, but a leap above their debut, Relient K has created a sophomore album that is worth checking out by RK fans and non alike." Pär Winberg of Melodic praised the production on the album and said, "Add a superb lead vocalist in Matt Thiesen and great harmony vocals and you have an album to love."
The album has sold 300,000 copies in the United States.
== Track listing ==
Track 2 & 7, and all "First Three Gears" bonus tracks, originally from The Creepy EP.
== Credits and personnel ==
Credits adapted from album's liner notes.
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Nijenhuis#Personal_life | Albert Nijenhuis | Albert Nijenhuis (November 21, 1926 – February 13, 2015) was a Dutch-American mathematician who specialized in differential geometry and the theory of deformations in algebra and geometry, and later worked in combinatorics.
His high school studies at the gymnasium in Arnhem were interrupted by the evacuation of Arnhem by the Nazis after the failure of Operation Market Garden by the Allies. He continued his high school mathematical studies by himself on his grandparents’ farm, and then took state exams in 1945.
His university studies were carried out at the University of Amsterdam, where he received the degree of Candidaat (equivalent to a Bachelor of Science) in 1947, and a Doctorandus (equivalent to a Masters in Science) in 1950, cum laude. He was a Medewerker (associate) at the Mathematisch Centrum (now the Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica) in Amsterdam 1951–1952. He obtained a PhD in mathematics in 1952, cum laude (Theory of the geometric object). His thesis advisor was Jan Arnoldus Schouten.
He came to the United States in 1952 as a Fulbright fellow (1952–1953) at Princeton University. He then studied at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey 1953–1955, after which he spent a year as an Instructor in mathematics at the University of Chicago. He then moved to the University of Washington in Seattle, first as an assistant professor and then a professor of mathematics, departing in 1963 for the University of Pennsylvania, where he was a professor of mathematics until his retirement in 1987. He was a Fulbright Professor at the University of Amsterdam in 1963–1964, and a visiting professor at the University of Geneva in 1967–1968, and at Dartmouth College in 1977–1978. Following his retirement, he was a professor emeritus of the University of Pennsylvania and an Affiliate Professor at the University of Washington.
In 1958 he was an invited speaker at the International Mathematical Congress in Edinburgh. He was a J.S. Guggenheim Fellow in 1961–1962, again studying at the Institute for Advanced Study. In 1966 he became a correspondent member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, and in 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society.
== Career ==
His early work was in the area of differential geometry. He developed the Nijenhuis tensor in 1951, during his PhD studies at the University of Amsterdam. It was also during this time that he explored the properties of the Schouten-Nijenhuis bracket, although his work was not published until 1955. In a lecture at the American Mathematical Society Summer Institute in Differential Geometry (1956) in Seattle he was the first to mention deformations of complex structures and their exact relationship to cohomology.
With Alfred Frölicher, he developed the Frölicher-Nijenhuis bracket (1955). Further work in this area with Roger Richardson yielded the Nijenhuis–Richardson bracket (1964).
Soon thereafter his interests shifted to combinatorics. Much of his work was done with Herbert S. Wilf, with whom he published a book in 1975.
After retiring, his interest in differential geometry was rekindled. His last conference presentation and paper were presented when he was nearly 70.
== Personal life ==
Albert Nijenhuis became a U.S. citizen in 1959. He was married since 1955 and had four children. He died at the age of 88 after several months of failing health.
== Selected publications ==
Nijenhuis, Albert; Richardson Jr., Roger W. (1966). "Cohomology and deformations in graded Lie algebras". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 72 (1): 1–29. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1966-11401-5. MR 0195995.
Nijenhuis, Albert (1972). Natural bundles and their general properties. Tokyo: Diff. Geom. in Honour of K. Yano. pp. 317–334.
Nijenhuis, Albert; Wilf, Herbert S (1975). Combinatorial Algorithms. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-519250-9.
Nijenhuis, Albert; Wilf, Herbert S (1978). Combinatorial Algorithms for Computers and Calculators. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-519260-6.
Nijenhuis, Albert (1995). "Connection-free differential geometry". Diff. Geom. Appl., Proc. Conf.: 171–190.
== References ==
== External links ==
Albert Nijenhuis at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
University of Washington page Archived 2012-02-06 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Edison#:~:text=Edison%20made%20the%20first%20public,the%20rich%20will%20burn%20candles.%22 | Thomas Edison | Thomas Alva Edison (February 11, 1847 – October 18, 1931) was an American inventor and businessman. He developed many devices in fields such as electric power generation, sound recording, and motion pictures. These inventions, which include the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and early versions of the electric light bulb, have had a widespread impact on the modern industrialized world. He was one of the first inventors to apply the principles of organized science and teamwork to the process of invention, working with many researchers and employees. He established the first industrial research laboratory.
Edison was raised in the American Midwest. Early in his career he worked as a telegraph operator, which inspired some of his earliest inventions. In 1876, he established his first laboratory facility in Menlo Park, New Jersey, where many of his early inventions were developed. He went into business and became wealthy. Edison used his fortune to further his passion for invention. This was realized in experimental mining operations, the first film studio, and 1,093 US patents.
== Early life ==
Thomas Edison was born in 1847 in Milan, Ohio, but grew up in Port Huron, Michigan, after the family moved there in 1854. He was the seventh and last child of Samuel Ogden Edison Jr. (1804–1896, born in Marshalltown, Nova Scotia) and Nancy Matthews Elliott (1810–1871, born in Chenango County, New York). His patrilineal family line was Dutch by way of New Jersey.
His great-grandfather, loyalist John Edison, fled New Jersey for Nova Scotia in 1784. The family moved to Middlesex County, Upper Canada, around 1811, and his grandfather, Capt. Samuel Edison Sr. served with the 1st Middlesex Militia during the War of 1812. His father, Samuel Edison Jr. moved to Vienna, Ontario, and fled to Ohio after his involvement in the Rebellion of 1837.
Edison was taught reading, writing, and arithmetic by his mother, a former school teacher. He attended school for only a few months, but was a very curious child who learned most things by reading on his own. Inspired by A School Compendium of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, a book given to him by his mother, the young Edison tinkered and learned about electricity. His parents also owned a set of books by Thomas Paine, whose work inspired Edison's thinking throughout his life.
Edison developed hearing problems at the age of 12. Historian Paul Israel attributed the cause of his deafness to a bout of scarlet fever during childhood and recurring untreated middle-ear infections. He subsequently concocted elaborate fictitious stories about the cause of his deafness. He was completely deaf in one ear and barely hearing in the other. Edison later listened to a music player or piano by clamping his teeth into the wood to absorb the sound waves into his skull. As an adult, he believed his hearing loss allowed him to avoid distraction and concentrate more easily on his work.
Edison began his career as a news butcher, selling newspapers, candy, and vegetables on trains running from Port Huron to Detroit. He turned a $50-a-week profit by age 13, most of which went to buying equipment for electrical and chemical experiments. He founded the Grand Trunk Herald, which he sold with his other papers. The paper only ran twenty-four issues and was unique in its original coverage of local news. Five hundred people subscribed to the paper, and Edison was able to hire at least two assistants. Edison was proud of his work on the train, and he hung a frame with the first issue of the Grand Trunk Herald in his home until he died.
At age 15, in 1862, he saved a child from being struck by a runaway train. The father was so grateful that he trained Edison as a telegraph operator. He began working as a telegrapher in a local general store before moving to Stratford Junction, Ontario, where he worked as a night telegrapher for the Grand Trunk Railway. While on the job, he studied qualitative analysis, conducted chemical experiments, and negligently slept. This led to the near collision of two trains, after which he resigned.
== Telegraphy ==
From 1863 to 1869, Edison worked several night shift telegraphy jobs in Ontario, Michigan, Kentucky, Ohio, and Massachusetts. As an employee of Western Union, he worked the Associated Press bureau news wire. In Cincinnati, he lived with Ezra Gilliland, who he remained friends with for 25 years. He joined the National Telegraph Union and wrote for their magazine. In addition to spending his time tinkering, he studied Spanish. He created a reputation among the other young, male telegraph operators for being bright and trying new things, but on several occasions his tinkering interfered with his work.
In Boston, from 1867 to 1869, Edison made some money from inventing a stock ticker for some local customers but lost it when he tried to expand the venture to New York without adoption.
His first patent was for the electric vote recorder, U.S. patent 90,646, which was granted on June 1, 1869.
Edison moved to New York City in 1869. One of his mentors during those early years was a fellow telegrapher, Franklin Leonard Pope, who allowed the impoverished young Edison to live and work in the basement of his Elizabeth, New Jersey, home while Edison worked for Samuel Laws at the Gold Indicator Company. Pope and Edison founded their own company in October 1869, working as electrical engineers. Edison attracted wealthy and connected investors. With the money, they hired fifty employees within a few months and opened a larger shop in Newark, New Jersey. The company made money by renting out telegraph lines. To win business, they manufactured machines to record telegraphs and typewriters that printed directly to the wire. Edison strictly regulated his employees’ work and efficiency while trying many experiments.
Edison enrolled in a chemistry course at The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art to support his work on a new telegraphy system with Charles Batchelor. This appears to have been his only enrollment in courses at an institution of higher learning. At the factory, Edison and Batchelor collaborated fervently; their notebooks jointly signed "E&B" contain near-constant experimentation with improvements to the telegraph.
Edison grew the company to a few hundred employees, and in 1874, received $30,000 ($833,735 in 2024) for inventing the first telegraph that could simultaneously transmit four messages through a single wire. With the money, Edison invested in the Port Huron street railway, which was owned by his brother William Pitt. He expanded his own business, and he hired his young nephew and father.
== Menlo Park laboratory ==
=== Research and development facility ===
In Menlo Park, New Jersey, Edison created the first industrial laboratory concerned with creating knowledge and then controlling its application. It was built in 1876, a part of Raritan Township (now named Edison Township in his honor) with the funds from the sale of Edison's quadruplex telegraph. His staff was generally told to carry out his directions in conducting research, and he drove them hard to produce results. Edison's name is registered on 1,093 patents. As the leader of his laboratory, Edison was credited for inventions made in large part by those working under him. He worked extreme hours and expected those around him to follow suit. This often meant 18 hours per day Monday through Friday and additional work on Saturday and Sunday. One employee described the work as "the limits of human exhaustion." Edison often litigated and employed several patent lawyers. At times, this allowed him to challenge the intellectual property rights of many contemporaries.
For Edison, big business came with big publicity. He shut down public and reporter access to the laboratory at Menlo Park and tailored his image with interviews. He expanded his public involvement by funding the creation of Science, which published its first volume in 1880. He was the chief editor but kept his role anonymous. The journal began as a mouthpiece for pro-Edison articles. He gave up the journal in 1883 due to its lack of profit. It was subsequently led by Alexander Graham Bell.
In just over a decade, Edison's Menlo Park laboratory had expanded to occupy two city blocks. Edison said he wanted the lab to have "a stock of almost every conceivable material". In 1887 the lab contained "eight thousand kinds of chemicals, every kind of screw made, every size of needle, every kind of cord or wire, hair of humans, horses, hogs, cows, rabbits, goats, minks, camels ... silk in every texture, cocoons, various kinds of hooves, shark's teeth, deer horns, tortoise shell ... cork, resin, varnish and oil, ostrich feathers, a peacock's tail, jet, amber, rubber, all ores ..." and the list goes on.
=== Carbon telephone microphone ===
In 1876, Edison began work to improve the microphone for telephones by developing a carbon microphone, which consists of two metal plates separated by granules of carbon that would change resistance with the pressure of sound waves.
In 1877, Edison and his backers at Western Union wanted to compete with Alexander Graham Bell on telephone technology. Edison believed that the worst part of Bell's telephone was the microphone designed by Emile Berliner. Edison iterated many different designs and tested which gave the best sound while ensuring it was loud enough for his deaf ears. His core idea was to use a stronger current and vary it in proportion to the sound waves. The sound varied the current by applying pressure to a carbon pad, which in turn changed the resistance of the circuit. After testing 150 materials, Edison determined that parchment and tinfoil were best suited for constructing the diaphragm, while a specially coated rubber served as the semiconductor.
David Edward Hughes' also published a paper on the physics of loose-contact carbon microphones in 1878. He claimed, and at the time was credited for, discovering the semiconductor effect and presented a Hughes Telephone. This angered Edison and caused public controversy, particularly because Hughes acknowledged that he was advised by one of Edison's colleagues.
=== Phonograph ===
The invention that first gained him wider notice was the phonograph in 1877. He vigorously stirred up public awareness for this new invention by engaging with journalists and performing public demonstrations. The phonograph was so unexpected by the public at large as to appear almost magical. Edison became known as "The Wizard of Menlo Park". As he aged, he grew to resent titles representing him as a genius, and he emphasized "one percent inspiration and 99 percent perspiration."
His first phonograph recorded on tinfoil around a grooved cylinder. Despite its limited sound quality and that the recordings could be played only a few times, the phonograph made Edison a celebrity. Joseph Henry, president of the National Academy of Sciences and one of the most renowned electrical scientists in the US, described Edison as "the most ingenious inventor in this country... or in any other". In April 1878, Edison demonstrated the phonograph before the National Academy of Sciences. Although Edison obtained a patent for the phonograph in 1878, he did little to develop it until Alexander Graham Bell, Chichester Bell, and Charles Tainter produced a phonograph-like device in the 1880s that used wax-coated cardboard cylinders.
In 1887, the Edison Phonograph Company was founded to compete with Bell. Gilliland had worked for Bell developing the phonograph but came to help Edison start the new venture. Unfortunately for their friendship, the venture ran out of money before getting a product to market and had to raise money from an exploitative investor. Jesse Lippincott offered simultaneous deals to Edison, Gilliland, and Bell in an attempt to form a phonograph monopoly. However, he knew Edison would not take the bargain, so obfuscated his own, Gilliland's, and Bell's roles in the deal and made the offer through Edison's personal attorney. When Edison discovered the scheme, he was infuriated, but Gilliland went to Europe, which ended their friendship. After five years of litigation, Edison assumed total control of the company. The drama led to multiple other fall outs that tore apart the tight circle of Edison's wealthy inventor-friends.
Edison struggled for years to bring a phonograph to market. The principal technical issue was getting the recording material durable enough for prolonged use without it wearing out the phonograph's needle. He attempted to pivot to making talking dolls with a miniature phonograph inside. However, the system usually failed during shipment and production was shut down in 1890. Edison thought that the phonograph would be a powerful instrument for conducting business and would redefine the role of secretaries. However, by 1899 Edison's phonograph company submitted to market demands and produced a cheap model that was in high demand for entertainment. In 1900, this phonograph was sold for $10, and buyers could additionally select from the 3,000 different musical records produced by Edison's 1,000 employees in the phonograph works. The quality of line work was strictly supervised by experts.
Edison had no musical training, could not read sheet music, and was mostly deaf. Through 1915, he exerted tight control on the production of records, personally approving every artist based on what he thought sounded good and preventing their names from being attached to the music.
Widespread adoption of the radio was detrimental to phonograph sales. Edison's business sold 90% fewer records in 1921 compared to 1920. From 1922 to 1926, radio sales went up 843%. Younger managers, especially his son Charles, tried to get Edison to enter the radio business or adopt new advertising methods. However, Edison chose to focus on weeding out employees that did not meet his mark.
=== Tasimeter ===
Edison invented a highly sensitive device, that he named the tasimeter, which measured infrared radiation. His impetus for its creation was the desire to measure the heat from the solar corona during the total solar eclipse of July 29, 1878.
== Electric light ==
In 1878, Edison began working on a system of electrical illumination that he could deploy in a large-scale commercial utility, something he hoped could compete with gas and oil-based lighting. Key to his system would be developing a durable low resistance incandescent lamp, essential for a wide-scale indoor lighting system. There had been many incandescent lamps devised by inventors prior to Edison, but these early bulbs all had flaws such as an extremely short life and requiring a high electric current to operate, which made them difficult to apply on a large scale commercially. Edison first tried using a filament made of cardboard, carbonized with compressed lampblack. This burnt out too quickly to provide lasting light. He then experimented with different grasses and canes such as hemp, and palmetto, before settling on bamboo as the best filament.
He addressed lighting as a system. Solving it took experimental research; market research, with Grosvenor Lowrey that included forging connections with powerful investors, viewing a mechanical electric generator, and planning power distribution; and grand public statements to promote his work. Edison formed the Edison Electric Light Company in New York City with several financiers, including J. P. Morgan, Spencer Trask, and the members of the Vanderbilt family.
Edison continued trying to improve this design and on November 4, 1879, filed for U.S. patent 223,898 (granted on January 27, 1880) for an electric lamp using "a carbon filament or strip coiled and connected to platina contact wires". The patent described several ways of creating the carbon filament, including "cotton and linen thread, wood splints, papers coiled in various ways". It was not until several months after the patent was granted that Edison and Batchleor discovered that a carbonized bamboo filament could last over 1,200 hours. This high-resistance filament led Edison to select the 110V power source standard in the United States today. This was much higher voltage than what competitors were using. Many of his employees assisted in carrying out experiments on filaments, manufacturing the glass for the bulbs, and establishing vacuums for the filament to incandesce within. By February 1880, spectators were coming to see the "Village of Light" around Menlo Park.
Attempts to prevent blackening of the bulb due to emission of charged carbon from the hot filament culminated in Edison effect bulbs. Edison's 1883 patent for voltage-regulating is the first US patent for an electronic device due to its use of an Edison effect in an active component. The Edison Effect was instrumental in the eventual design of vacuum tubes.
Edison hired Francis Robbins Upton, a former student of Hermann von Helmholtz, in 1878. Upton received 5% of the company profits and eventually became the general manager after leading much of the research into electric lighting. He wrote some of Edison's speeches and assisted with hiring decisions. John Ott also worked for Edison. He made many of the mechanical improvements Edison suggested and conducted experiments in Edison's lab. Both men agreed to give Edison credit for most of the patents, but Ott was solely credited for some of the patents he worked on. Ott's testimony was important for holding up Edison's patent claims. John's brother, Fred, also worked for Edison as an experimental assistant for fifty-seven years.
Henry Villard, president of the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company, attended Edison's 1879 demonstration. Villard was impressed and requested Edison install his electric lighting system aboard the Columbia. Although hesitant at first, Edison agreed to Villard's request. Most of the work was completed in May 1880, and the Columbia went to New York City, where Edison and his personnel installed Columbia's new lighting system. The Columbia was Edison's first commercial application for his incandescent light bulb. The Edison equipment was removed from Columbia in 1895.
Villard was subsequently induced to finance the construction of an electrically powered and lighted train built on a custom track built by Edison's company. The train worked and some of the technology was patented, but Edison elected to focus on the bulbs and did not follow through with developing the train.
The incandescent light bulb patented by Edison began to gain widespread popularity in Europe as well. He sent engineers to promote their system, first to London, then around Europe.
On September 4 1882, Edison turned on the electrical lighting system to supply the company's 946 customers in Manhattan. Few people noticed and some came in the evening to ask why the system was not on yet, since the lights were so steady and so similar to the gas people were used to that they had not noticed the switch. There was little press but the Boston Globe stated, Edison has had an 'opening night.' His aim is to open night until it shall be as day.
In 1883, the US patent office ruled that Edison's patented filament improvement process was based on Sawyer's flashing method and was, therefore, invalid. Edison's company modified their improvement process until 1889, when a judge ruled that their new patent was valid. To avoid a possible court battle with yet another competitor, Joseph Swan, who held an 1880 British patent on a similar incandescent electric lamp, formed a joint company called Ediswan to manufacture and market the invention in Britain. Sawyer's original filament improvement process was better, and Westinghouse, which owned rights to Sawyer's patent, was able to take a sizeable portion of the bulb market share from Edison by 1889.
=== Electric power distribution ===
After devising a commercially viable electric light bulb on October 21, 1879, Edison developed an electric utility to compete with the existing gas light utilities. To prove he was making progress, Edison hosted a board meeting that was illuminated by his system. On December 17, 1880, he founded the Edison Illuminating Company, and during the 1880s, he patented a system for electricity distribution.
The amount of copper wire needed to commercialize this new technology was enormous. In order to reduce the copper requirement, Edison invented the three-prong wire system.
To expand its influence in New York, especially to secure the rights for installing underground electric lines, the Edison Illuminating Company opened a second office on 65th Avenue. The Edison Machine Works and Edison Electric Tube Company opened in New York by the end of the year. Edison paid his New York workers significantly more than other firms in the 1880s. Before fully commercializing power distribution, Edison needed a way to measure how much power his customers consumed. He invented a cell with a zinc solution and zinc plates that received some of each customer's current. This resulted in zinc from the solution precipitating onto the plates, which were weighed on a monthly basis to determine how much current had passed through and bill the customer accordingly.
In January 1882, to demonstrate feasibility, Edison had switched on the 93 kW first steam-generating power station at Holborn Viaduct in London. On September 4, 1882, in Pearl Street, New York City, his 600 kW cogeneration steam-powered generating station, Pearl Street Station's, electrical power distribution system was switched on, providing 110 volts direct current (DC). Subscriptions quickly grew to 508 customers with 10,164 lamps.
=== Expansion and competition ===
As Edison expanded his direct current (DC) power delivery system, he received stiff competition from companies installing alternating current (AC) systems. From the early 1880s, AC arc lighting systems for streets and large spaces had been an expanding business in the US. With the development of transformers in Europe and by Westinghouse Electric in the US in 1885–1886, it became possible to transmit AC long distances over thinner and cheaper wires, and "step down" (reduce) the voltage at the destination for distribution to users. This allowed AC to be used in street lighting and in lighting for small businesses and domestic customers, the market Edison's patented low voltage DC incandescent lamp system was designed to supply. Edison's DC empire suffered from one of its chief drawbacks: it was suitable only for the high density of customers found in large cities. Edison's DC plants could not deliver electricity to customers more than one mile (1.6 km) from the plant, and left a patchwork of unsupplied customers between plants. Small cities and rural areas could not afford an Edison style system, leaving a large part of the market without electrical service. AC companies expanded into this gap.
Edison expressed views that AC was unworkable and the high voltages used were dangerous. As George Westinghouse installed his first AC systems in 1886, Thomas Edison struck out personally against his chief rival stating, Just as certain as death, Westinghouse will kill a customer within six months after he puts in a system of any size. He has got a new thing and it will require a great deal of experimenting to get it working practically. Many reasons have been suggested for Edison's anti-AC stance. One notion is that the inventor could not grasp the more abstract theories behind AC and was trying to avoid developing a system he did not understand. Edison also appeared to have been worried about the high voltage from improperly installed AC systems killing customers and hurting the sales of electric power systems in general. The primary reason was that Edison Electric based their design on low voltage DC, and switching a standard after they had installed over 100 systems was, in Edison's mind, out of the question. By the end of 1887, Edison Electric was losing market share to Westinghouse, who had built 68 AC-based power stations to Edison's 121 DC-based stations. To make matters worse for Edison, the Thomson-Houston Electric Company of Lynn, Massachusetts (another AC-based competitor) built twenty-two power stations.
Parallel to expanding competition between Edison and the AC companies was rising public furor over a series of deaths in the spring of 1888 caused by pole mounted high voltage alternating current lines. This turned into a media frenzy against high voltage alternating current and the seemingly greedy and callous lighting companies that used it. Edison took advantage of the public perception of AC as dangerous, and joined with self-styled New York anti-AC crusader Harold P. Brown in a propaganda campaign, aiding Brown in the public electrocution of animals with AC, and supported legislation to control and severely limit AC installations and voltages (to the point of making it an ineffective power delivery system) in what was now being referred to as a "war of the currents". The development of the electric chair was used in an attempt to portray AC as having a greater lethal potential than DC and smear Westinghouse, via Edison colluding with Brown and Westinghouse's chief AC rival, the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, to ensure the first electric chair was powered by a Westinghouse AC generator.
Edison was becoming marginalized in his own company having lost majority control in the 1889 merger that formed Edison General Electric. In 1890 he told president Henry Villard he thought it was time to retire from the lighting business and moved on to an iron ore refining project that preoccupied his time. Edison's dogmatic anti-AC values were no longer controlling the company. By 1889 Edison's Electric's own subsidiaries were lobbying to add AC power transmission to their systems and in October 1890 Edison Machine Works began developing AC-based equipment.
Cut-throat competition and patent battles were bleeding off cash in the competing companies and the idea of a merger was being put forward in financial circles. With the Edison company winning its electric lamp patent infringement cases, Villard began to float the idea of acquiring one of Edison's AC rivals, thereby eliminating many of the further costly patent case and gaining control of that companies AC patents. In 1892 Villard teamed up with J. P. Morgan to engineer a merger of Edison General Electric with its main alternating current based rival, The Thomson-Houston Company. For Villard and Edison General Electric the plan backfired. Morgan decided Thomson-Houston was the more valuable of the two companies, ousted Villard, and put the Thomson-Houston board in charge of the new company, now called General Electric. General Electric now controlled three-quarters of the US electrical business and would compete with Westinghouse for the AC market.
Edison put on a brave face, noting to the media how his stock had gained value in the deal, but privately he was bitter that his company and all of his patents had been turned over to the competition. He served as a figurehead on the company's board of directors for a few years before selling his shares.
== Mining ==
Starting in the late 1870s, Edison became interested and involved with mining. High-grade iron ore was scarce on the east coast, resulting in high costs as ore was usually shipped from the Midwest. He tried to change this by mining low-grade ore and beach sand. Several others had attempted to improve the refining process by using magnets to separate iron from other metals, but none had been able to do so profitably.
The Edison Ore Milling Company began in 1880 with separating iron out of beach sand. Edison made promises to deliver hundreds of tons of ore a month to several customers, but after three years the operation was shut down and only one customer had received their ore. William Kennedy Dickson and John Birkinbine helped lead the venture. Batchelor and Insull provided some of the capital with Edison taking the majority share financed from his own pocket.
Rather than a complete loss, this first mining venture allowed Edison to license some of the technology to more profitable iron producers. The West Orange team continued to iterate on the technology for years and Edison purchased a mine in Bechtelsville, Pennsylvania. Birkinbine wanted to use this as a demonstration mine to sell the technology to mine owners, but Edison wanted to take over the mining industry himself. Birkinbine was fired in 1890.
Edison bought several mines in the eastern states and began constructing a new centralized mining operation in Ogdensburg, New Jersey. The new process used rollers and crushers that pulverized five ton rocks. To obtain the boulders, Edison purchased the largest steam shovel in America. One novelty of Edison's system was the electrically powered seventy ton rollers which were rotated 3500 ft/min. To protect the system, the roller's gears released at the moment the boulders were dropped in and their momentum crushed the rocks. Edison departed from contemporary, manually intensive, mining practices by prioritized automation. This meant the rocks journeyed up, down, and across the facility on conveyor belts utilizing gravity, sieves, and additional rollers to separate ore in fines. The fines were recirculated through a magnetic gradient created by an array of 480 electromagnets to select for iron.
Customers would not accept iron with a significant phosphorus content because it ruined the Bessemer process. Edison's system removed the phosphorus with a light pneumatic system that leveraged phosphorus' lower density. Economic forces also dictated that the iron ore be mixed into briquettes for transport and handling at steel mills. Edison advanced the automation of this process and was proud of it taking two hours. The eventual goal was for no humans to touch the iron. Nevertheless, the mine was rapidly losing money.
In 1893, the United States was in a severe recession. Between the capital investments in mining, falling iron prices, and the expensive lifestyle of Mina and his children, Edison was at risk of becoming insolvent. He was also unwell as his diabetes was beginning to effect him. He decided to take a loan from his father-in-law.
In 1901, Edison visited an industrial exhibition in the Sudbury area in Ontario, Canada, and thought nickel and cobalt deposits there could be used in his production of electrical equipment. He returned as a mining prospector and is credited with the original discovery of the Falconbridge ore body. His attempts to mine the ore body were not successful, and he abandoned his mining claim in 1903.
=== Cement ===
Despite the failure of his mining company, Edison used some of the materials and equipment to produce Portland cement. Manufacturing of iron ore produced a large quantity of waste sand which Edison sold to cement manufacturers. In 1899, he established the Edison Portland Cement Company, intending to manufacture his own cement and make improvements to its production process.
In the manufacturing of Portland cement, limestone, the primary ingredient, is baked at high temperature with the other minerals. Edison designed a novel system which improved the efficiency of this process by baking the cement in horizontal 150ft long kilns which allowed the cement to achieve the same quality after cooking longer at a lower temperature. This consumed less coal resulting in saving from the manual labor needed to load coal into kilns. Edison reused most of the factory material from the iron extraction process at the Ogden mine to construct his new system. In addition to selling the cement itself, Edison later licensed the proven system to cement manufactures in America and collected royalties into the 1920s.
Running machines in the dusty environment natural to crushing rocks yielded many problems for the machines. Dynamos in particular were problematic because they could not be sealed off due to heat dissipation being required. Edison invented a fan cooling system to bring in fresh air to cool the dynamos while sealing them off from the dusty factory air.
In 1901, Edison sought to parlay his cement business by starting a cheap housing development initiative. He wanted to create small towns in which every American could afford to buy a home. To bring down the cost of building he commissioned a system for casting a whole three storey house from cement in a single mold. He used this method to build employee housing and made a public relations campaign that did not yield sufficient demand for him to pursue it further.
== West Orange ==
=== Moving the works ===
The first labor strike against Edison occurred in the spring of 1886. It was led by D.J. O'Dare of the Edison Tube Works. Manufacturing in New York City was typically performed for nine hours a day, and Edison's employees were among the best paid in the city. However, they were not paid overtime for the additional work that was often performed. The strike sought more pay, overtime pay, and the right to unionize work. Edison and other managers were completely unwilling to negotiate unionization due to the loss of control. By the end of the year, the various manufacturing facilities in the city were closed and centralized as the Edison United Manufacturing Company opened a new factory in Schenectady, New York. The citizen's of Schenectady subsidized 16% of the real estate cost to help attract Edison's business to their town.
Samuel Insull began working for Edison in 1881 as a secretary. He had previously worked at Vanity Fair. The two became friends as Insull became a trusted lieutenant. Later, when Mary was dying, Insull helped the family make arrangements. As with all of Edison's men, Insull worked hard. When Edison United Manufacturing Company opened, he was one of two managers.
In December, Edison was housebound due to pleurisy. He recovered, but by May 1887 he needed emergency surgery to treat abscesses below his ear. He had surgeries there again in 1906 and 1908.
By 1887, Edison felt he had outgrown Menlo Park. He put Batchelor in charge of constructing a new laboratory complex in West Orange, which when finally constructed was more than ten times the size of the old lab.
In December 1914, a fire killed one employee and destroyed thirteen buildings causing $1.5 million in damages. The phonograph works was destroyed. Edison was optimistic about the situation, ordered everything rebuilt with the newest technology and was manufacturing records again by January. The impact of the fire was partially mitigated because the factory practiced regular fire drills.
In 1921, following the inauguration of Warren G. Harding, the American economy was entering a recession. At this point, Edison had experience leading his businesses through recessions and had seen several of his friends go bankrupt when they were unable to manage. He fired thousands of his employees including executives. By the fall, the economy recovered, and business returned; however, it was a near miss with bankruptcy.
=== Fluoroscopy ===
Edison learned about X-rays in 1896, following their discovery by Wilhelm Röntgen. He was sent a photo of Röntgen's hands with the bones visible. The new technology excited Edison and he tried developing an X-ray system with better glass and more electric power than previously used. While experimenting, Edison learned X-ray images display better on calcium tungstate screens and informed Lord Kelvin.
The fundamental design of Edison's fluoroscope is still in use today, although Edison abandoned the project after nearly losing his own eyesight and seriously injuring his assistants, Clarence Dally and Charles Dally. In 1903, a shaken Edison said: "Don't talk to me about X-rays, I am afraid of them." The brothers often acted as human guinea pigs for the fluoroscopy project. Clarence died, at the age of 39, of injuries related to the exposure, including mediastinal cancer.
=== Rechargeable battery ===
In the late 1890s, Edison worked on developing a lighter, more efficient rechargeable battery. He sought something customers could use to power their phonographs, but in the early 1900s he focused on batteries for electric cars. At the time, lead acid batteries were widely used, but they were not very efficient and protected by others' patents. In 1900, Edison decided to pursue an alkaline battery for electric cars. His lab tested 10,000 combinations of electrodes and solutions eventually settling on a nickel-iron combination.
Waldemar Jungner simultaneously worked on a similar design which Edison likely knew about. Edison and Junger litigated over their respective intellectual property as Edison attempted to commercialize his battery. Edison obtained a US and European patent for his nickel–iron battery in 1901 and founded the Edison Storage Battery Company. In 1904, Edison was worried about losing the patent fight and personally petitioned president Theodore Roosevelt to step in. Roosevelt obliged; however, the patent office still denied Edison's claim.
By 1904 Edison Storage Battery Company had 450 employees. The first rechargeable batteries they produced were for electric cars. A total recall was issued due to the batteries losing power after several recharge cycles. When the capital of the company was exhausted, Edison paid for the company with his private money.
Henry Ford first met Edison, in 1896, while working for Edison Illuminating Company. Edison encouraged Ford's nascent automobile tinkering and Ford resigned in 1899 to start his first motor company. By 1908, with the Model T on the road, gas cars were taking over the market. Edison did not demonstrate a mature battery until 1910: a very efficient and durable nickel-iron-battery with lye as the electrolyte. The nickel–iron battery was never very successful; by the time it was ready, electric cars were disappearing, and lead acid batteries had become the standard for starting gas-powered cars. Ford was still enamored with Edison and lent him $1.1 million ($34.5 million in 2024) to finance further battery research, but Edison was unable to bring a sufficient battery to market.
== Motion pictures ==
While working on the mining project, Edison and William Kennedy Dickson, one of his employees at the mine who was also a photographer, began trying to make camera "to do for the eye what the phonograph does for the ear". Edison focused on the electromechanical elements while Dickson lead the optical and film effort. Edison was granted a patent for a motion picture camera, labeled the "Kinetograph". Much of the credit for the invention belongs to Dickson.
In fact, Edison's eye was trained on a bigger prize than a motion camera. He wanted a kinetophonograph to capture motion picture and record sounds with synchronized playback. In the spring of 1890, Dickson produced the first video with sound starring himself. However, keeping the sound and video synchronized outside of a laboratory setting proved to be very difficult and Edison shelved commercial development of the technology.
In 1891, Thomas Edison built a Kinetoscope or peep-hole viewer. This device was installed in penny arcades, where people could watch short, simple films. The kinetograph and kinetoscope were both first publicly exhibited May 20, 1891.
Edison and Dickson were preoccupied with the mining project and growing revenue from the phonograph business. This slowed the commercialization of Edison's motion picture camera and gave Dickson more time to iterate on the details. In 1894, they shifted from marketing campaigns to raise awareness to commercializing their inventions.
In the last three months of 1894, an associate of Edison's sold hundreds of kinetoscopes in the Netherlands and Italy. In Germany and in Austria-Hungary, the kinetoscope was introduced by the Deutsche-österreichische-Edison-Kinetoscop Gesellschaft, founded by the Ludwig Stollwerck of the Schokoladen-Süsswarenfabrik Stollwerck & Co of Cologne.
By 1895, Dickson was beginning to set up business for himself separate from Edison. The exact motivation for the split is unknown but likely stemmed from disagreements between Dickson and Edison.
The first kinetoscopes arrived in Belgium at the Fairs in early 1895. The Edison's Kinétoscope Français, a Belgian company, was founded in Brussels on January 15, 1895, with the rights to sell the kinetoscopes in Monaco, France and the French colonies. The main investors in this company were Belgian industrialists. On May 14, 1895, the Edison's Kinétoscope Belge was founded in Brussels. Businessman Ladislas-Victor Lewitzki, living in London but active in Belgium and France, took the initiative in starting this business. He had contacts with Leon Gaumont and the American Mutoscope and Biograph Co. In 1898, he also became a shareholder of the Biograph and Mutoscope Company for France.
In April 1896, Thomas Armat reached a deal with Edison in which Edison's company manufactured and sold the Vitascope to project films produced in Edison's film studio. Armat advertised as an Edison invention to boost sales, but was in fact, Armat's invention. Edison had made his own projector, but both men knew the Vitascope was better at the time.
Edison's film studio made nearly 1,200 films. The majority of the productions were short films showing everything from acrobats to parades to fire calls including titles such as Fred Ott's Sneeze (1894), The Kiss (1896), The Great Train Robbery (1903), Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (1910), and the first Frankenstein film (1910). Edison was happy to have Edwin S. Porter porter run the creative side of the movie business. In 1903, the owners of Luna Park, Coney Island announced they would execute Topsy the elephant. Edison Manufacturing filmed, Electrocuting an Elephant, as AC current killed the poor animal.
As the film business expanded, competing exhibitors routinely copied and exhibited each other's films. To better protect the copyrights on his films, Edison deposited prints of them on long strips of photographic paper with the U.S. copyright office. Many of these paper prints survived longer and in better condition than the actual films of that era.
In 1908, Edison started the Motion Picture Patents Company, which was a conglomerate of nine major film studios (commonly known as the Edison Trust).
In 1913, movies used live actors and bands to add sound to the experience. However, Edison was again feeling confident in his kinetophone technology to synchronize recorded sound and motion picture playback. Simultaneously, Leon Gaumont was developing similar technology. Both their systems required a skilled projectionist who could adjust the video speed for the sound playback.
In 1914, Edison fired Porter for unclear reasons. The technical aspects of silent, black and white film were mostly solved and the storytelling did not capture the inventor's interest. The kinetophone was hard to sell due to the difficulty in operating it. Edison's movie business began to decline.
Edison said his favorite movie was The Birth of a Nation. He thought that talkies had "spoiled everything" for him. "There isn't any good acting on the screen. They concentrate on the voice now and have forgotten how to act. I can sense it more than you because I am deaf." His favorite stars were Mary Pickford and Clara Bow.
== National security ==
Due to the security concerns around World War I, Edison suggested forming a science and industry committee to provide advice and research to the US military, and he headed the Naval Consulting Board in 1915. However, he attended few of the meetings due to his deafness. One of the board's main tasks was to prepare a site to conduct research for the navy. Edison wanted to locate the site far from Washington DC, as too many visits from bureaucrats would slow down the research. However, he was not listened to by the other board members and turned his focus to experiments in military technology.
=== Submarines ===
At the start of the war, Edison attempted several methods for improving submarine detection which failed to gain adoption by the Navy. He allowed Miller Hutchinson, to promote his battery technology as a safer solution to lead battery power on submarines. An American submarine crew had suffered serious injuries due to one such battery leaking sulfuric acid which mixed with seawater to produce chlorine gas inside the vessel. However, the nickle-iron batteries, used by Edison, leak hydrogen gas. This was not a problem on automobiles but confined in a submarine can become explosive. In January 1916, while undergoing maintenance with the new Edison test battery there was a hydrogen explosion inside the USS E-2 which killed five men. Edison and Hutchinson defended their battery stating that the explosion was due to operator error. However, many naval officials blamed Edison and Hutchinson for overselling the battery. The event derailed sales of the battery but did not destroy Edison's good standing with the navy.
=== Rubber ===
In 1915, the United States consumed 75% of the world's rubber and produced a negligible amount. Edison, and many other businessmen, became concerned with America's reliance on foreign supply of rubber. He sought a native supply of rubber. Domestic fears were realized when the Stevenson Plan was introduced in 1921. The laboratory was funded by Edison, Ford, and Firestone with $75,000.
Age did not make Edison any less familiar with the press. He used his 80th birthday to give tours of his experimental garden and promote his research into various domestic plants for producing rubber.
After testing 17,000 plant samples, he eventually found an adequate source in the Goldenrod plant. Near the end of 1929, Edison announced Solidago leavenworthii, also known as Leavenworth's Goldenrod could be bred to give a 12% latex yield. Edison employed systematic problem solving to rubber production. He rejected other plants based on combinations of their latex content, the extraction processes needed to get the latex from the plant, where the latex is found in the plants, growth speed, and ability to harvest the plant.
=== Chemicals ===
The phonograph business had led Edison to personally search for and hire several chemists to develop chemicals to coat records with that would prevent them from being worn down as they were played. Edison eventually licensed Condensite from another chemist which was formed from the condensation of phenol and formaldehyde. At the start of World War I, the American chemical industry was primitive: most chemicals were imported from Europe. The war resulted in a shortage of phenol which was used to make explosives and Aspirin.
Edison responded by undertaking production of phenol at his Silver Lake facility using processes developed by his chemists. He built two plants with a capacity of six tons of phenol per day. Production began the first week of September, one month after hostilities began in Europe. He built two plants to produce raw material benzene at Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and Bessemer, Alabama, replacing supplies previously from Germany. Edison manufactured aniline dyes, which previously had been supplied by the German dye trust. Other wartime products include xylene, p-phenylenediamine, shellac, and pyrax. Wartime shortages made these ventures profitable. In 1915, his production capacity was fully committed by midyear. Edison preferred not to sell phenol for military uses. However, he sold his surplus to Bayer who exported it to Germany.
== Final years ==
Henry Ford, the automobile magnate, later lived a few hundred feet away from Edison at his winter retreat in Fort Myers. They were friends until Edison's death. Edison and Ford undertook annual motor camping trips from 1914 to 1924. Harvey Firestone and naturalist John Burroughs also participated. The trips functioned as a moving advertisement for Ford cars, Firestone tires, and whatever Edison had going on at the time. A team of reporters joined to ensure word spread.
In 1926, at 79 years old, Edison handed over the presidency of Thomas A. Edison, Inc. to Charles.
Edison was active in business right up to the end. Just months before his death, the Lackawanna Railroad inaugurated suburban electric train service from Hoboken to Montclair, Dover, and Gladstone, New Jersey. Electrical transmission for this service was by means of an overhead catenary system using direct current, which Edison had championed. Despite his frail condition, Edison was at the throttle of the first electric MU (Multiple-Unit) train to depart Lackawanna Terminal in Hoboken in September 1930, driving the train the first mile through Hoboken yard on its way to South Orange.
=== Death ===
In the final years of his life, Edison continued to chew tobacco daily and his diabetes worsened. Edison died on October 18, 1931, at Glenmont and was buried on the property.
Edison's last breath is kept, as a momento, in a test tube at The Henry Ford museum near Detroit. Charles Edison had the test tube prepared and sent to Ford as a symbol of his father's love of chemistry and friendship with Ford. A plaster death mask and casts of Edison's hands were also made.
== Domestic life ==
=== Mary ===
On December 25, 1871, at the age of 24, Edison married 16-year-old Mary Stilwell (1855–1884), whom he had met two months earlier; she was an employee at one of his shops. They had three children:
Marion Estelle Edison (1873–1965), nicknamed "Dot"
Thomas Alva Edison Jr. (1876–1935), nicknamed "Dash"
William Leslie Edison (1878–1937) Inventor, graduate of the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale, 1900.
Edison generally preferred spending time in the laboratory to being with his family. He did not provide Mary much companionship and she was closest with her sister.
Thomas Jr. was often sick as a child, but Edison left his care in Mary's hands. In her childhood, Marion often came to the laboratory at Menlo park.
Wanting to be an inventor, but not having much of an aptitude for it, Thomas Jr. became a problem for his father and his father's business. Starting in the 1890s, Thomas Jr. became involved in snake oil products and shady and fraudulent enterprises, producing products being sold to the public as "The Latest Edison Discovery". The situation became so bad that Thomas Sr. had to take his son to court to stop the practices, finally agreeing to pay Thomas Jr. an allowance of $35 (equivalent to $1,225 in 2024) per week, in exchange for not using the Edison name; the son began using aliases, such as Burton Willard. Thomas Jr. struggled with alcoholism and depression. Thomas Jr. had a disastrous one year marriage which began in 1899 and caused scandal for himself and the senior Edison. In 1931, nearing the end of his life, he obtained a role in the Edison company, thanks to the intervention of his half-brother Charles.
When the Edisons moved to New York, they lived by Gramercy Park. Edison neglected his wife after the first few years of their marriage. She enjoyed shopping for fashionable gowns, and attending balls. By 1882, Mary's mental health was highly concerning to her doctor.
Mary Edison died at age 29 on August 9, 1884, of unknown causes: possibly from a brain tumor or a morphine overdose. Doctors frequently prescribed morphine to women at this time to treat a variety of causes, and researchers believe that her symptoms could have been from morphine poisoning.
=== Mina ===
Thomas met Mina Miller at the World Cotton Centennial in December 1884. She was the daughter of the inventor Lewis Miller, who had made significant personal wealth by selling a wheat mower for which he had invented several improvements. He was a co-founder of the Chautauqua Institution, and a benefactor of Methodist charities. Mina enjoyed the socialite lifestyle and practiced a strict Methodist faith her whole life. She was a family friend of the Gillilands' and Edison met her several times in 1885 while working on a project with Ezra in Boston. He joined her for the Chautauqua gathering in 1885, but their flirting was dampened by the religious nature of the gathering. He proposed to her after the two took a trip in September.
On February 24, 1886, at the age of 39, Edison married the 20-year-old Mina Miller (1865–1947) in Akron, Ohio.
They had three children:
Madeleine Edison (1888–1979)
Charles Edison (1890–1969)
Theodore Miller Edison (1898–1992)
Marion did not get along with Mina and moved to Germany in 1894. She returned, in 1924, after divorcing her unfaithful husband.
According to Tesla:If Edison had not married a woman of exceptional intelligence, who made it the one object of her life to preserve him, he would have died many years ago from consequences of sheer neglect.
In his second marriage he was also often neglectful of his wife and children. When he was around, he was extremely controlling. He left nearly every aspect of housekeeping and child rearing to Mina and her five maids. One exception was the Fourth of July. Being deaf, Edison enjoyed the very loud boom made by fireworks. He made his own fireworks into which he added a small amount of TNT.
Edison wrote Mina love letters about missing her while he was away for extended periods.
Madeleine stated she had few childhood memories of her father, and he was typically only home once a week during her childhood. She married John Eyre Sloane.
Theodore was named after Mina's brother, who died in the Spanish–American War shortly before she gave birth. Her sister died in November of that year and her father died the following February 1899.
Theodore went on to study physics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). After working for Charles while their father stepped down, Theodore decided to become an independent inventor running his own lab.
Charles studied general science at MIT. He took over his father's business after his death. Later he served one term as Governor of New Jersey (1941–1944).
=== Property ===
In 1885, Thomas Edison bought 13 acres of property in Fort Myers, Florida, for roughly $2,750 (equivalent to $96,240 in 2024) and built what was later called Seminole Lodge as a winter retreat. The main house and guest house are representative of Italianate architecture and Queen Anne style architecture.
Edison purchased a home known as Glenmont in 1886, in Llewellyn Park in West Orange, New Jersey. He sold it to Mina in 1891.
Edison liked boats, cars, and fishing. He drove only on very limited occasions, but, for research purposes, owned several cars which helped him bond with his son, Charles, who he encouraged to drive even as a child.
== Views ==
=== On religion and metaphysics ===
Historian Paul Israel has characterized Edison as a "freethinker". Edison was heavily influenced by Thomas Paine's The Age of Reason. Edison defended Paine's "scientific deism", saying, "He has been called an atheist, but atheist he was not. Paine believed in a supreme intelligence, as representing the idea which other men often express by the name of deity." In an October 2, 1910, interview Edison stated:
Nature is what we know. We do not know the gods of religions. And nature is not kind, or merciful, or loving. If God made me—the fabled God of the three qualities of which I spoke: mercy, kindness, love—He also made the fish I catch and eat. And where do His mercy, kindness, and love for that fish come in? No; nature made us—nature did it all—not the gods of the religions.
Edison was labeled an atheist for those remarks, and although he did not allow himself to be drawn into the controversy publicly, he clarified himself in a private letter:
You have misunderstood the whole article, because you jumped to the conclusion that it denies the existence of God. There is no such denial, what you call God I call Nature, the Supreme intelligence that rules matter. All the article states is that it is doubtful in my opinion if our intelligence or soul or whatever one may call it lives hereafter as an entity or disperses back again from whence it came, scattered amongst the cells of which we are made.
He also stated, "I do not believe in the God of the theologians; but that there is a Supreme Intelligence I do not doubt."
Edison explored and promoted ideas in panpsychism.
=== Politics ===
==== Republican ====
Edison's father was a Democrat that supported the secession of the Confederate States of America. Edison was a lifelong Republican, but he briefly supported Theodore Roosevelt in his third attempt at the presidency as a Progressive party candidate. He liked the Republican party's support of industrial capitalism and tariffs.
==== Presidents ====
Edison met several presidents. He met Rutherford B. Hayes in 1879 to demonstrate the phonograph. He met Benjamin Harrison in 1890. In 1921, Edison met Harding with the Firestone, Ford summer caravan. He met Calvin Coolidge in 1924 at the president's home in Vermont. In 1928, Edison received the Congressional Gold Medal and Coolidge called into the ceremony via radio. Herbert Hoover met Edison in 1929 at Seminole Lodge. Ten months later, Hoover traveled with Edison and Ford to Ford's reconstruction of Menlo Park.
==== Suffrage ====
Edison was a supporter of women's suffrage. He said in 1915, "Every woman in this country is going to have the vote." Edison signed onto a statement supporting women's suffrage which was published to counter anti-suffragist literature spread by Senator James Edgar Martine. His employment of women was somewhat notable at the time. He assigned women factory jobs that required nimble fingers like making the brush wires for dynamos.
==== Pacifism ====
Nonviolence was key to Edison's political and moral views, and when asked to serve as a naval consultant for World War I, he specified he would work only on defensive weapons and later noted, "I am proud of the fact that I never invented weapons to kill." Following a tour of Europe in 1911, Edison spoke negatively about "the belligerent nationalism that he had sensed in every country he visited".
==== Monetary policy ====
In May 1922, he published a proposal, A Proposed Amendment to the Federal Reserve Banking System. Which proposes a commodity-backed currency. The proposals failed to find support and were abandoned.
== Awards ==
The following is an incomplete list of awards given to Edison during his lifetime:
In 1878, honorary PhD from Union College
On November 10, 1881, Officer of the Legion of Honour
In 1892, Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society
In 1889, the John Scott Medal
In 1899, the Edward Longstreth Medal of The Franklin Institute
In 1908, John Fritz Medal
In 1915, Franklin Medal of The Franklin Institute
In 1920, the Navy Distinguished Service Medal.
In 1923, the Edison Medal of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers
In 1927, the American Philosophical Society member
On May 29, 1928, the Congressional Gold Medal
== See also ==
Edison Pioneers – a group formed in 1918 by employees and other associates of Thomas Edison
Thomas Alva Edison Birthplace
Thomas Edison in popular culture
List of things named after Thomas Edison
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
== Further reading ==
Adair, Gene. Thomas Alva Edison : inventing the electric age (1996) online
Bryan, George S. Edison : the man and his works (1947) online
Carlson, W. Bernard, and Michael E. Gorman. “Understanding Invention as a Cognitive Process: The Case of Thomas Edison and Early Motion Pictures, 1888-91.” Social Studies of Science 20#3 1990, pp. 387–430. JSTOR 284991
Cole, Benjamin M., and David Chandler. “A Model of Competitive Impression Management: Edison versus Westinghouse in the War of the Currents.” Administrative Science Quarterly 64#4 (2019): 1020–63. doi:10.1177/0001839218821439.
DeGraaf, Leonard. “Confronting the Mass Market: Thomas Edison and the Entertainment Phonograph.” Business and Economic History 24#1 1995, pp. 88–96. JSTOR 23703274
Freeberg, Ernest. The Age of Edison: Electric Light and the Invention of Modern America (2014) online
Friedel, Robert, and Paul B. Israel. Edison's Electric Light: The Art of Invention (2010) The Johns Hopkins University Press in the Johns Hopkins Introductory Studies in the History of Technology.
Hargadon, Andrew B., and Yellowlees Douglas. "When Innovations Meet Institutions: Edison and the Design of the Electric Light" Administrative Science Quarterly 46#3 (2001) pp. 476–501, DOI 10.2307/3094872.
Millard, Andre. “Thomas Edison and the Theory and Practice of Innovation.” Business and Economic History 20, 1991, pp. 191–99. JSTOR 23702816
Ram, Hadar, et al. “Entrepreneurial Imagination: Insights from Construal Level Theory for Historical Entrepreneurship.” Business History 66#2 (2024): 364–85. doi:10.1080/00076791.2022.2149737; based on Edison's writings.
Sanford, Greg. “Illuminating Systems: Edison and Electrical Incandescence.” OAH Magazine of History (1989) 4#2 JSTOR 25162654
Thompson, Emily. “Machines, Music, and the Quest for Fidelity: Marketing the Edison Phonograph in America, 1877-1925.” The Musical Quarterly 79#1 1995, pp. 131–71. JSTOR 742520
Usselman, Steven W. “From Novelty to Utility: George Westinghouse and the Business of Innovation during the Age of Edison.” Business History Review, 66#2 pp. 251–304. JSTOR 3116939
Winchell, Mike. The Electric War: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, And The Race To Light The World (Henry Holt, 2019)
== Primary sources ==
The Thomas A. Edison Papers Digital Edition
The Papers of Thomas A. Edison, book edition in 9 volumes; each can be downloaded at no cost
volume 1 18471873 online; also download vol 1
volume 2 1873–1876 online; also download vol 2
== External links ==
"An Hour with Edison", Scientific American, July 13, 1878, p. 17
Interview with Thomas Edison in 1931
The Diary of Thomas Edison
Works by Thomas Edison at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Thomas Edison at the Internet Archive
Edison's patent application for the light bulb at the National Archives.
Thomas Edison Personal Manuscripts and Letters
Edison Papers Rutgers.
Edisonian Museum Antique Electrics
Thomas Edison at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John%27s_Church,_Gateshead_Fell | St John's Church, Gateshead Fell | St John's Church, Gateshead Fell, is in Church Road, Sheriff Hill, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear, England. It is an active Anglican parish church in the deanery of Gateshead, the archdeaconry of Sunderland, and the diocese of Durham. The church is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II listed building. It was a Commissioners' church, having received a grant towards its construction from the Church Building Commission. The church stands at the highest point in Gateshead.
== History ==
Section 12 of the Gateshead Inclosure Act 1809 (49 Geo. 3. c. cxxxv) set aside an acre of land at Gateshead Fell to build a church, and another act of Parliament passed the same day, the Gateshead Fell Church Act 1809 (49 Geo. 3. c. cxvi) decreed that there be a church built on it. A grant of £1,000 (equivalent to £110,000 in 2023) was given towards its construction by the Church Building Commission. Designed by John Ions, the foundation stone was laid by Rev. John Collinson, at a "lofty eminence" on Sour Milk Hill, on 13 May 1824. Building continued into the next year and the church was consecrated on 30 August 1825. The total cost was £2,742 (equivalent to £300,000 in 2023). In the 1990s alterations were carried out at the rear of the church to create meeting rooms, toilets, and a kitchen.
== Architecture ==
St John's is constructed in ashlar stone with a Welsh slate roof. Its architectural style is Gothic Revival. The plan of the church consists of a nave, a short chancel, and a west tower with a spire. The tower also has diagonal buttresses and an embattled parapet. The windows along the sides of the church are lancets. The two-manual organ was made by Harrison and Harrison. It replaced an organ made in about 1929 by Blackett and Howden, and was installed in 2000. The organ was formerly in St Aidan's Church, Blackhill, Consett.
== See also ==
List of Commissioners' churches in Northeast and Northwest England
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dance/Electronic_Albums | Dance/Electronic Albums | Top Dance Albums (formerly Top Electronic Albums and Top Dance/Electronic Albums) is a music chart published weekly by Billboard magazine which ranks the top-selling dance music albums in the United States based on sales compiled by Nielsen SoundScan. The chart debuted on the issue dated June 30, 2001 under the title Top Electronic Albums, with the first number-one title being the original soundtrack to the film Lara Croft: Tomb Raider. It originally began as a fifteen-position chart and has since expanded to twenty-five positions.
Top Dance Albums features full-length albums by artists who are associated with electronic dance music genres (house, techno, IDM, trance, etc.) as well as pop-oriented dance music and electronic-leaning hip hop. Also eligible for this chart are remix albums by otherwise non-electronic-based artists and DJ-mixed compilation albums and film soundtracks which feature a majority of electronic or dance music. In 2019, Billboard added a companion chart, Dance/Electronic Album Sales, which tracks the top 15 albums based solely on physical sales, but with an emphasis on core dance/electronic artists. Starting with the first full chart week of 2025, the chart was renamed to Top Dance Albums "to better represent the cross-reference of dance titles that appear on the ranking".
The current number-one album on the chart as of issue December 13 is Mayhem by Lady Gaga.
== Artist milestones ==
=== Most number-one albums ===
=== Most cumulative weeks at number one ===
=== Most entries on the chart ===
== Album milestones ==
=== Most weeks at number one ===
=== Most weeks on the chart ===
== Year-end number-one albums ==
List of albums that ranked number-one on the Billboard Top Dance/Electronic Albums Year-End chart.
2001: Pulse – Various Artists
2002: 18 – Moby
2003: N.Y.C. Underground Party 5 – Louie DeVito
2004: Fired Up! – Various Artists
2005: Demon Days – Gorillaz
2006: Confessions on a Dance Floor – Madonna
2007: St. Elsewhere – Gnarls Barkley
2008: Kala – M.I.A.
2009: The Fame – Lady Gaga
2010: The Fame – Lady Gaga
2011: Born This Way – Lady Gaga
2012: Sorry for Party Rocking – LMFAO
2013: Random Access Memories – Daft Punk
2014: Artpop – Lady Gaga
2015: Listen – David Guetta
2016: Now That's What I Call a Workout 2016 – Various Artists
2017: Memories...Do Not Open – The Chainsmokers
2018: Memories...Do Not Open – The Chainsmokers
2019: Marshmello Fortnite Extended Set – Marshmello
2020: Chromatica – Lady Gaga
2021: The Fame – Lady Gaga
2022: Honestly, Nevermind – Drake
2023: Renaissance – Beyoncé
2024: Brat – Charli XCX
== References ==
== External links ==
Current Dance/Electronic Albums |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eremiaphila_braueri | Eremiaphila braueri | Eremiaphila braueri is a species of praying mantis in the family Eremiaphilidae.
== See also ==
List of mantis genera and species
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cómbita | Cómbita | Cómbita is a town and municipality in the Colombian Department of Boyacá, part of the sub region of the Central Boyacá Province. Cómbita is situated on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense and borders Arcabuco and the department of Santander in the north, Sotaquirá in the northeast, Tuta and Oicatá in the east, department capital Tunja at 8.5 kilometres (5.3 mi) away and Motavita in the south and Arcabuco and Motavita in the west.
== History ==
Cómbita was in the time before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores inhabited by the Muisca, organized in their loose Muisca Confederation. The ruler of the northern Muisca was the zaque of Hunza, modern day Tunja. The cacique of Cómbita was loyal to the zaque.
In the Chibcha language of the Muisca, Cómbita means either "Hand of the jaguar and wheel of life" or "Force of the summit".
Modern Cómbita was founded in 1586.
== Economy ==
The economical activities of Cómbita are agriculture; potatoes, barley, wheat, maize and peas, and livestock farming.
== Notable people ==
Pedro Medina Avendaño, Colombian lawyer and poet
Nairo Quintana, professional cyclist, Giro d'Italia general classification winner, Vuelta a España general classification winner, 2nd place in the Tour de France of 2013 and 2015
Dayer Quintana, professional cyclist, brother of Nairo
Héctor Helí Rojas Jiménez, lawyer and politician
Ismael Sarmiento, former professional cyclist
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jensen_Interceptor_(1950) | Jensen Interceptor (1950) | The Jensen Interceptor made its debut in 1950 as the second car made by Jensen Motors after World War II. The car was based on Austin components with a body built by Jensen and styled by Eric Neale. The 3,993 cc (4.0 L; 243.7 cu in) straight-six engine and transmission came from the Austin Sheerline and the chassis was a lengthened version of the one used on the Austin A70 with a modified version of the independent coil sprung suspension.
Production continued through 1957. Jensen later reused the name for a second-generation Jensen Interceptor which debuted in 1966 and was revived several times after that.
== History ==
The Interceptor was launched as a convertible in a mix of aluminium and steel on a wood frame. The entire front section hinged forwards to give access to the engine. The wrap around rear window was made of rigid plastic (Perspex) and was arranged to drop down into a well for stowage when the top was lowered. In 1952 a hardtop version with fabric-covered roof was launched and a few sedanca versions were also made. Total production was 32 convertibles, 52 saloons and 4 sedancas.
The brakes used a mixed Girling hydraulic/mechanical system at first to be replaced by a full hydraulic system later. The four speed manual transmission gained optional overdrive in 1952. When the overdrive was fitted a lower, 3.77:1, rear axle gearing was used.
A convertible tested by The Motor in 1952 had a top speed of 95 mph (153 km/h) and could accelerate from 0-60 mph (97 km/h) in 17.8 seconds. A fuel consumption of 20.3 miles per gallon(imperial) was recorded.
In 1952 the car cost £2645 (including tax) on the home market. The overdrive was an extra £116.
In 1953 American race car legend Briggs Cunningham had a left hand drive Interceptor made with a 331 cu in (5.4 L), 180 bhp (134.2 kW) Chrysler "Firepower" hemi engine. With a top speed approaching 145 mph it was the second fastest production built car of 1955 behind the Mercedes Benz 300SL.
Jensen also made the Austin A40 Sports, a much smaller vehicle which somewhat resembled a scaled-down Interceptor.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noel_Fielding#:~:text=A%20second%20exhibition%20entitled%20Bryan,support%20for%20many%20art%20organisations. | Noel Fielding | Noel Fielding (; born 21 May 1973) is an English comedian, artist, and actor. He was part of The Mighty Boosh comedy troupe alongside Julian Barratt in the 2000s, and has been a co-presenter of The Great British Bake Off since 2017. He is known for his dark and surreal comedic style.
Fielding began performing stand-up comedy when he graduated from art school in 1995, and in 1997 he first met Mighty Boosh collaborator Barratt when they both appeared on the same comedy bill at a pub in north London. Around 1998, they performed their first comedy show together in London, which was a mix of stand-up and sketch comedy, then later in 1998 they took the show, The Mighty Boosh, to the Edinburgh Fringe Festival. They returned to the festival in 1999 with Arctic Boosh, and in 2000 with Autoboosh. In 2001 The Mighty Boosh became a six-part radio show on BBC London Live, called The Boosh later transferring to BBC radio 4.
In 2004, the Mighty Boosh became a television show The Mighty Boosh, which ran for three series on BBC Three until 2007. The show generated a cult following and won awards. From February to April 2006 they went on tour around the UK with the stage show The Mighty Boosh Live and then toured the UK for a second time from September 2008 to January 2009 with The Mighty Boosh Live: Future Sailors Tour.
During the 2000s, Fielding also had smaller roles in other comedy shows for Channel 4 including Nathan Barley, The IT Crowd, AD/BC: A Rock Opera, and Garth Marenghi's Darkplace. After The Mighty Boosh, he wrote and starred in two series of a solo show for Channel 4 called Noel Fielding's Luxury Comedy, which ran between 2012 and 2014. He has also appeared as a team captain on the BBC Two comedy panel show Never Mind the Buzzcocks, originally from 2009 to 2015, and again since 2021, and as a guest on Richard Ayoade's Travel Man series. He has also appeared in several music videos.
Fielding, along with Sergio Pizzorno from the band Kasabian, formed the band Loose Tapestries as an alternative project in 2012, to provide music for Noel Fielding's Luxury Comedy. Fielding has also exhibited his artwork in London, and collaborated with Fendi for their autumn/winter 2021 menswear collection.
== Early life and education ==
Fielding was born in the Westminster area of London in 1973, the son of Royal Mail manager Ray Fielding and Yvonne Fagan. He is of French descent through his grandmother. He grew up in Mitcham, Southwest London When Fielding was three years old, his father remarried and Fielding was mostly raised by his grandmother.
His father and stepmother, Diane, would later become more involved in parenting during Fielding's mother's illness in the 1980s. His mother had two more children before dying in 1990, aged 37 years old, from complications caused by liver damage. Fielding has commented that, "My parents had lots of parties... They were hopelessly bohemian."
Michael Fielding, his younger paternal half-brother, later played various characters in The Mighty Boosh TV show and live stage shows as well as Noel Fielding's Luxury Comedy. His father, Ray Fielding, and his stepmother appeared in The Mighty Boosh TV show, with his father having several cameos as Chris de Burgh.
At the age of 13, Fielding began writing comedy sketches. At the age of 15, Fielding became a goth and had goth girlfriends. At this time he first tried using makeup and said he loved being dressed up by his girlfriends.
Whilst studying at Croydon Art College Fielding met Mighty Boosh collaborator Dave Brown. From 1992 to 1995 Fielding studied for a BA in graphic design and advertising at Buckinghamshire College of Higher Education in High Wycombe, graduating in 1995.
Whilst at Buckinghamshire College both Dave Brown and Nigel Coan were studying the same course as Fielding and all three shared a student house together. Nigel Coan also collaborated with Fielding on the Mighty Boosh. After they had lived together in student housing whilst at Buckinghamshire College, Fielding, Brown, and Coan also later lived together in a flat in Hackney, London.
== Career ==
=== Stand-up comedy ===
Fielding began performing comedy while at university and he began performing stand up when he graduated in 1995.
In 1997, he first met Mighty Boosh collaborator Julian Barratt when they both appeared on the same comedy bill at a pub in north London. Barratt had had more experience in performing than Fielding. Later, on The Jonathan Ross Show, Barratt said that they had liked each other's comedy but didn't know if a collaboration would work, but, according to Fielding, they "had quite a good chemistry straight away".
On the day they met they both went back to Julian's place that night where Barratt played music on his Akai sampler while Fielding used a ping-pong ball to make an eye patch.
They shared an interest in music, with Fielding more into rock and roll and pop, and Barratt preferring jazz, but both enjoyed electro. Both had played in bands before meeting. They also shared common interests in comedy, including Vic Reeves and Bob Mortimer.
In 2010, Fielding was supposed to perform a solo tour across the country. It was cancelled so he could concentrate on writing The Mighty Boosh film with Julian Barratt and creating an album. Fielding announced via Twitter that he was too busy to do the tour. From 2014 to 2015 Fielding toured the UK and Australia with a new comedy show An Evening With Noel Fielding that included both stand-up comedy and sketch comedy and along with Fielding included performances from his brother Michael Fielding and long-term collaborator Tom Meeten. Mighty Boosh collaborator Nigel Coan created the animation for the animated sequences that occurred in the show.
Montreal's Just For Laughs comedy festival had to be moved online, during the COVID-19 pandemic. On 20 October 2020, Fielding and Jimmy Carr live streamed a conversation from their respective homes.
=== The Mighty Boosh ===
Barratt and Fielding said that they performed together for the first time in Stewart Lee's show, Moby Dick and King Dong (at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival, 1997), in which Barratt played King Dong's penis.
Sometime around 1998 they then put on their first comedy show at Oranje Boom Boom, which "was very raw, but... hilarious", and afterwards got a gig at Hen and Chickens Theatre, a theatre bar in Islington, London. They then took The Mighty Boosh up to Edinburgh in 1998, followed by Arctic Boosh (1999) and Autoboosh (2000). Fielding said about their first live show in 1998 that they had worked on their ideas together, and played "zookeepers [who] got sucked through our bosses' eyes and into a magic forest". Both Michael Fielding and Richard Ayoade appeared in a performance of the Mighty Boosh at the Hen and Chickens in 2002 during a live run through of a Mighty Boosh pilot. Fielding and Barratt said that they used to put potted plants all around the Hen and Chickens "to try and make it into a sort of play", but they "didn't know anything about theatre or what you did". The name "Mighty Boosh" was originally a phrase used by a friend of Michael Fielding's to describe the hair that Michael had as a child. From August 2008 to January 2009 they went on tour for a second time with a new stage show of the Mighty Boosh.
In 2001 The Mighty Boosh became a six-part radio show on BBC London Live, later transferring to BBC Radio 4.
In 2004, it became an 8-part TV show which aired on BBC Three, with a second series airing in 2005, and a third airing in 2007—20 episodes in all. In each series the setting changes, with the first series set in a zoo operated by Bob Fossil, the second in a flat, and the third in a secondhand shop in Dalston called Nabootique. The Mighty Boosh almost did not make it to television, until Steve Coogan's production company sold the concept to the BBC simply by saying: "If we were young, we'd want to be them". The style of humour in the Mighty Boosh is often described as being surreal, as well as being escapist and new wave comedy. Fielding has said "I think our show is magical and fantastical. We tell very intricate, weird stories. Vince Noir is quite modern, a bit of an indie kid; Howard Moon is... eccentric... and we rely heavily on Julian's music and my animation".
Fielding said that for the first three weeks of the TV show, he did all of the paintings for the animations, but this led to lack of sleep, so Ivana Zorn, Nigel Coan's partner, started doing most of the painting, with Fielding just designing the main characters.
Fielding formed "Secret Peter Productions" with Nigel Coan who, along with Fielding and Zorn, helped to animate series 1 and 2 of the Mighty Boosh TV show, An evening with Noel Fielding and Noel Fielding's Luxury Comedy. Coan also directed Noel Fielding's Luxury Comedy as well as helping to write it along with Fielding. Dave Brown also contributed to graphics for the Mighty Boosh. Barratt composed all the music. Other regular Boosh collaborators included Michael Fielding, Rich Fulcher, Dave Brown, Richard Ayoade, and Matt Berry The Mighty Boosh won the Shockwaves NME Best TV Award three times in 2007, 2008, and 2010.
In 2006, Fielding and Barratt went on tour with a new theatre show The Mighty Boosh Live. Fielding later said "We always thought we'd make one show and that'd be the end of it. But after we won the Perrier, everyone was telling us that we had to do another, which we did and brought it to Melbourne and won the Barry, and then we made a radio show that won the Douglas Adams Award... It went on and on".
Fielding has said several times that he talked about writing a film with Barratt, and he would have loved to do so, but they never got around to it. They wrote two film scripts which did not make it to production. One was a "Rocky Horror Picture Show type thing", according to Fielding, in which Barratt played a character who has woken up believing himself to be the last man on earth. The other was an Arctic adventure – "because we always liked the Arctic".
=== Other television appearances ===
At Bill Bailey's request, Fielding stood in as a team captain for three episodes during series 21 of Never Mind the Buzzcocks. He also achieved a record for the highest team score ever on the show. When Bailey returned, presenter Simon Amstell made various jokes about Fielding's departure. In 2009, Bailey left the show and Fielding became one of the regular team captains.
Between 2006 and 2017 Fielding appeared thirteen times on the quiz show The Big Fat Quiz of the Year as well as its spin-off shows The Big Fat Anniversary Quiz, The Big Fat Quiz of the Decade and The Big Fat Quiz of Everything. He appeared on the quiz show three times with Russell Brand, nine times with Richard Ayoade and once with Eddie Izzard.
In 2011, he took part in Catherine Tate's TV movie Laughing at the Noughties in which he and other British comedians discussed the comedy highlights of the noughties.
Fielding produced his first solo series for Channel 4 network's E4 channel in 2011, as the broadcaster invested an additional £5 million in its comedy budget following the cancellation of reality show Big Brother. Fielding said of the project, tentatively titled Noel Fielding: Boopus: "I want to make something in the spirit of Spike Milligan or the Kenny Everett Show but using modern techniques. Blending filmed comedy with animation. Television needs a madman! I want the show to be psychedelic and beautiful but have charm and personality. If Dalí made a show hopefully it would look like this." The show began broadcasting in January 2012, titled Noel Fielding's Luxury Comedy. The show's second series, titled Noel Fielding's Luxury Comedy 2: Tales From Painted Hawaii, was first broadcast on E4 in 2014.
Also in 2011, Fielding performed Kate Bush's "Wuthering Heights" dance routine for Series 3 of Let's Dance for Comic Relief, and reached the grand final.
In 2010 and 2014, he took part in Channel 4's Comedy Gala, a benefit show held in aid of Great Ormond Street Children's Hospital.
In March 2017, it was revealed that Fielding would co-host the upcoming series of The Great British Bake Off alongside Sandi Toksvig.
Fielding appeared as a contestant on Series 4 of the Dave comedy panel game Taskmaster in 2017, hosted by Greg Davies and Alex Horne: he was the overall series winner.
In January 2018, he was a panellist on QI alongside Russell Brand and Aisling Bea.
In 2024, Fielding played Dick Turpin in an Apple TV+ comedy series, The Completely Made-Up Adventures of Dick Turpin.
According to Neil Gaiman's blog, Fielding was scheduled to appear in the 2007 film Stardust, but had to drop out due to ill health.
=== Radio ===
In November 2007, Fielding starred in five episodes of BBC Radio 2 show Vic Reeves' House Arrest as a local vagrant who knocks on Reeves' door once a week to ask for work.
=== Music ===
Fielding has appeared in several music videos, including Mint Royale's "Blue Song", alongside Julian Barratt, Nick Frost and Michael Smiley. The video was directed by Edgar Wright and served as the inspiration for the opening sequence of his film Baby Driver (2017). He also made a brief appearance in the video for Razorlight's "In the Morning". He appeared in music videos for the Robots in Disguise songs "Girl" (alongside Chris Corner who was, at the time, boyfriend to Sue Denim), "The Tears", and "Turn It Up". In 2009, Noel was involved in the Kasabian video "Vlad the Impaler", in which he plays the titular character, and reprised the role at the 2014 Glastonbury Festival.
The music video was directed by Richard Ayoade. He was referenced in Kasabian's "La Fée Verte", a track on their Velociraptor! album (his friend Sergio Pizzorno said "The line, 'I met Dalí in the street.' Dalí is Noel Fielding. And he is the modern-day Dalí"). Fielding also makes a brief appearance as Vlad in the video for another Kasabian song, "Re-Wired", riding a five-seater bicycle with the band, and appears as a patient in a psychiatric hospital in "You're In Love With a Psycho", in which he re-enacts the broken mirror routine from the Marx Brothers film Duck Soup with Pizzorno and Tom Meighan. He has also appeared in Kate Bush's music video "Deeper Understanding" as a means of thanks for the Let's Dance For Comic Relief performance.
Fielding paired up with Sergio Pizzorno (Kasabian) to form a band, Loose Tapestries, formed to provide music for Noel Fielding's Luxury Comedy. Loose Tapestries released two albums and a Christmas single.
=== Art ===
Fielding has exhibited his paintings in London. He held his first exhibition of his paintings, entitled Psychedelic Dreams of the Jelly Fox, in a gallery above the patisserie Maison Bertaux, in Greek Street, Soho in December 2007. There Fielding listed some of his inspirations as Henri Rousseau, René Magritte, Willem de Kooning, Roy Lichtenstein, Dexter Dalwood, a former tutor of his from the Croydon School of Art and Fielding has also cited Salvador Dalí as an inspiration. A second exhibition of his paintings entitled Bryan Ferry vs the Jelly Fox also took place at Maison Bertaux, from 5 July 2010 through to 5 January 2011.
In October 2011, Fielding released an art book called Scribblings of a Madcap Shambleton, which he produced along with The Mighty Boosh cast member Dave Brown. It features many of his old and new paintings, drawings and photography.
Fielding's video installation of The Jelly Fox was shown at the Saatchi Gallery, and in 2012 he created a unique piece inspired by The Beatles for Liverpool Love at the Museum of Liverpool. In March 2015, his exhibition He Wore Dreams Around Unkind Faces was shown at the Royal Albert Hall.
In January 2021, the luxury fashion house Fendi unveiled a collection featuring abstract takes on the brand's logo, created by Fielding.
On 18 November 2025, British rock band Pink Floyd released a newly mixed version of Shine On You Crazy Diamond (Parts I–IX) along with an official YouTube video featuring a time-lapse painting by Fielding inspired by founding Pink Floyd member Syd Barrett.
== Recognition and honours ==
On 6 September 2011, Fielding received an honorary master's degree from his alma mater, now called Buckinghamshire New University, for his ongoing interest in the graphics area and support for many art organisations.
In 2015, Fielding was named one of GQ magazine's 50 best-dressed British men.
== Personal life ==
Fielding was formerly in a relationship with Robots in Disguise lead vocalist Dee Plume, who made minor appearances in The Mighty Boosh and in its live adaptations.
He began dating radio DJ Lliana Bird sometime around 2010, and they have two children.
During his time at art college, Fielding developed what was suspected to be the virus hepatitis A though it was later confirmed to be glandular fever. Nigel Coan, who studied the same course as Fielding at art college and also shared a flat with him during this time, helped Fielding during this period. Fielding was ill and exhausted for a year.
His paternal half-brother is Michael Fielding.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Music videos ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Noel Fielding at IMDb
PBJ Artist Page |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo_Ann_Hardesty | Jo Ann Hardesty | Jo Ann A. Hardesty (formerly Bowman, born October 15, 1957) is an American Democratic politician in the U.S. state of Oregon who served as a Portland City commissioner from 2019 to 2022. She previously served in the Oregon House of Representatives from 1995 until 2001.
Hardesty was the first African American woman and first minority woman to serve on the council. A longtime activist for racial justice and other progressive policy issues, she is well known as an advocate for police reform and defunding. In 2021, Portland Police Bureau's internal investigation concluded their officers leaked a false accusation that she was responsible for a hit and run in an act of retaliation. Hardesty faced several controversies during her tenure in office, such as her handling of personal credit card debt, vacation time, and placing a call to 9-1-1 over a dispute with a Lyft driver.
Hardesty stood for the November 2022 election runoff to serve a second term, but lost the seat to challenger Rene Gonzalez.
== Early life and education ==
Hardesty was born and raised in Baltimore, Maryland, as one of 10 children born to her longshoreman father and stay-at-home mother. She graduated from Edmondson-Westside High School and earned an Associate of Arts degree in business and accounting from the Baltimore City Community College.
== Career ==
After graduating from high school, Hardesty joined the United States Navy. She served for six years and was stationed in the Philippines.
After leaving the Navy, Hardesty settled in Portland, Oregon. She was elected to the Oregon House in 1994, holding office until 2001, when she resigned to unsuccessfully run for chair of the Multnomah County Board of Commissioners. She later served as executive director of Oregon Action, and became president of the Portland chapter of the NAACP in January 2015. Oregon Public Broadcasting reported Hardesty and the NAACP chapter did not report her income to the IRS or pay taxes on it, which Hardesty then amended.
In 2007 Hardesty began hosting "Voices from the Edge," a progressive talk radio program on KBOO, a community radio station in Portland. The call-in show addresses racial disparity, government accountability, environmental justice and politics on local, state and national levels. Hardesty suspended the show during her 2018 campaign to avoid violating the FCC's Equal-time rule, then resumed the show in March 2019.
=== Portland City Commissioner ===
==== 2018 race ====
Hardesty ran for Portland City Council in 2018, for the open seat being vacated by the retiring Dan Saltzman. The alternative newspaper Willamette Week endorsed Hardesty, stating she was the "best person for the job." She was also endorsed by AFSCME Local 189, the local branch of the American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees. During the race, Hardesty called her top two running-mates "idiots" for their suggestion the unused Wapato Corrections Facility be utilized to house homeless residents. It is now used as a homeless shelter. Hardesty won the race, against Multnomah County Commissioner Loretta Smith; the final tally showed her receiving 61.8% of the votes cast.
==== Commissioner term ====
Hardesty was sworn in as a city commissioner on January 2, 2019. She is the first Black woman and first minority woman to serve on the council. She is highly critical of the Portland Police Bureau. Oregon Public Broadcasting describes Hardesty as "one of the city's most vocal police critics". In 2020, Hardesty voted to cut $18 million in funding from the Portland Police Bureau budget. The vote failed 3–2.
As acting Fire Commissioner, Hardesty was criticized for her month-long vacation in August 2021, which coincides with peak fire season in the region. "That means she will not be available for feedback, council or check-ins. We do not make exceptions for this," announced her chief of staff of the move. This was the first time in over twenty years that a city commissioner took a full month away from the position.
==== 2022 race ====
Hardesty ran for reelection to City Council on the 2022 ballot. Hardesty was the first of the three frontrunners for the position who hit her limit on fundraising caps. Oregon Public Broadcasting reported over a dozen "union and left-leaning advocacy groups" had endorsed Hardesty as of April 2022, as well as U.S. Senator Jeff Merkley and U.S. Representative Earl Blumenauer, both from Oregon, and Multnomah County District Attorney Mike Schmidt. Willamette Week also endorsed Hardesty for the second time, an endorsement which the newspaper's editorial department stated was met with "frustration and scorn" from readers and respondents. Hardesty placed first in the primary with 44% of the vote.
Having received less than 50% of the vote, she advanced to a runoff in the November 2022 general election. Portland Firefighters Association announced in September 2022 that it was not endorsing Hardesty who was assigned to manage Portland Fire & Rescue. The union announced it is instead endorsing her opponent Rene Gonzalez. In October 2022, Willamette Week withdrew their May support for Hardesty stating "Hardesty has proven unwilling or unable to make a compromise with those who disagree with her, and that's why we're withdrawing our May endorsement" and changed their endorsement to her opponent Rene Gonzalez. While the election results had not been officially certified, The Oregonian announced Gonzalez had won by early November 9, saying he had "soundly defeated" Hardesty. She conceded the race later that day.
== Personal life ==
Hardesty was married to Skip Elliott Bowman in 1995; they divorced in 2008. By 2014, she was married to Roger Hardesty.
In November 2020, Hardesty called 9-1-1 during a dispute with a Lyft driver. The driver had refused to roll up a window, citing Lyft's pandemic air circulation recommendations. Hardesty was picked up from Ilani Casino Resort, and was about to be unexpectedly dropped off at a closing filling station along I-5 when she called 911 to report safety concerns about being about to be left alone on the side of the road in the dark, telling the dispatcher, "Well, I've got a Lyft driver that decided he would just drop me off at a filling station. Well, I'm not getting out of the car, in the dark, at a filling station, not happening - all because I asked him to put the window up. I'm not leaving." The event drew national attention.
Hardesty was erroneously accused of a hit and run in 2021. An internal investigation at the Portland Police Bureau found that there was no evidence behind the claims, and that the report claiming the incident was fabricated and disseminated to news outlets by three PPB officers, one of whom was acting as union president at the time. Hardesty has since filed a $3 million lawsuit against the Portland Police Association. The Portland Police Bureau confirmed in a letter to Hardesty that the officers' actions were an act of retaliation. Additionally, as a result of an internal affairs investigation, two of the officers involved received formal disciplinary action, and the former union president was fired by Portland Mayor Ted Wheeler.
In March 2022, Hardesty was issued a judgment for $16,000 after failing to appear in court on the matter of unpaid credit card debt she had accumulated. The debt was accumulated between two credit card accounts. The judge ordered her to pay the full amount. Hardesty resolved a case with an unknown creditor for $4,400 in unpaid debt in the past.
In September 2023, Hardesty settled with the Portland Police Union with Hardesty receiving $680,000 over the claim two police officers who leaked information implicating Hardesty as a hit and run suspect. The police union's insurance carrier decided to offer a settlement.
== References ==
== External links ==
Commissioner Jo Ann Hardesty on City of Portland website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurie_Anderson#2010s | Laurie Anderson | Laura Phillips "Laurie" Anderson (born June 5, 1947) is an American avant-garde artist, musician and filmmaker whose work encompasses performance art, pop music, and multimedia projects. Initially trained in violin and sculpting, Anderson pursued a variety of performance art projects in New York City during the 1970s, focusing particularly on language, technology, and visual imagery. She achieved unexpected commercial success when her song "O Superman" reached number two on the UK singles chart in 1981.
Anderson's debut studio album Big Science was released in 1982 and has since been followed by a number of studio and live albums. She starred in and directed the 1986 concert film Home of the Brave. Anderson's creative output has also included theatrical and documentary works, voice acting, art installations, and a CD-ROM. She is a pioneer in electronic music and has invented several musical devices that she has used in her recordings and performance art shows.
== Early life and education ==
Laura Phillips Anderson was born in Chicago on June 5, 1947, and grew up in the nearby suburb Glen Ellyn, Illinois, one of eight children born to Mary Louise (née Rowland) and Arthur T. Anderson. Growing up, she spent weekends studying painting at the Art Institute of Chicago and played with the Chicago Youth Symphony.
She graduated from Glenbard West High School. She attended Mills College in California, and, after moving to New York in 1966, graduated in 1969 from Barnard College with a B.A. magna cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa, studying art history. In 1972, she obtained an M.F.A. in sculpture from Columbia University.
Her first performance-art piece — a symphony played on automobile horns — was performed in 1969. In 1970 she drew the underground comix Baloney Moccasins, which was published by George DiCaprio. In the early 1970s she worked as an art instructor and as an art critic for magazines such as Artforum, and illustrated children's books — the first of which was titled The Package (1971), a mystery story in pictures alone.
== Career ==
=== 1970s ===
Anderson performed in New York during the 1970s. One of her most-cited performances, Duets on Ice, which she conducted in New York and other cities around the world, involved her playing the violin along with a recording while wearing ice skates with the blades frozen into a block of ice; the performance ended only when the ice had melted away. Two early pieces, "New York Social Life" and "Time to Go", are included in the 1977 compilation New Music for Electronic and Recorded Media, along with works by Pauline Oliveros and others. Two other pieces were included on Airwaves, a collection of audio pieces by various artists. She also recorded a lecture for Vision, a set of artist's lectures released by Crown Point Press as a set of six LPs.
Many of Anderson's earliest recordings remain unreleased or were issued only in limited quantities, such as her first single, "It's Not the Bullet that Kills You (It's the Hole)". That song, along with "New York Social Life" and about a dozen others, was originally recorded for use in an art installation that consisted of a jukebox that played the different Anderson compositions, at the Holly Solomon Gallery in New York City. Among the musicians on these early recordings are Peter Gordon on saxophone, Scott Johnson on guitar, Ken Deifik on harmonica, and Joe Kos on drums. Photographs and descriptions of many of these early performances were included in Anderson's retrospective book Stories from the Nerve Bible (1993).
During the late 1970s, Anderson made a number of additional recordings that were either released privately or included on compilations of avant-garde music, most notably releases by the Giorno Poetry Systems label run by New York poet John Giorno, an early intimate of Andy Warhol. In 1978, she performed at the Nova Convention, a major conference involving many counter-culture figures and rising avant-garde musical stars, including William S. Burroughs, Philip Glass, Frank Zappa, Timothy Leary, Malcolm Goldstein, John Cage, and Allen Ginsberg. She also worked with comedian Andy Kaufman in the late 1970s.
=== 1980s ===
In 1980, Anderson was awarded an honorary doctorate from the San Francisco Art Institute. In 1982, she was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship for Creative Arts — Film. In 1987, Anderson was awarded an honorary doctorate in the fine arts from the University of the Arts in Philadelphia.
Anderson became widely known outside the art world in 1981 with the single "O Superman", originally released in a limited quantity by B. George's One Ten Records, which ultimately reached number two on the UK singles chart. The sudden influx of orders from the UK (prompted partly by British station BBC Radio 1 playlisting the record) led to Anderson signing a seven-album recording contract with Warner Bros. Records, which re-released the single.
"O Superman" was part of a larger stage work titled United States Live (1984) and was included on her debut studio album Big Science (1982). Prior to the release of Big Science, Anderson returned to Giorno Poetry Systems to record the collaboration album You're the Guy I Want to Share My Money With (1981); Anderson recorded one side of the double-LP set, with William S. Burroughs and John Giorno recording a side each, and the fourth side featured a separate groove for each artist. This was followed by the back-to-back releases of her albums Mister Heartbreak and United States Live (both 1984), the latter of which was a five-LP (and, later, four-CD) recording of her two-evening stage show at the Brooklyn Academy of Music. She also appeared in a television special produced by Nam June Paik broadcast on New Year's Day 1984, titled "Good Morning, Mr. Orwell".
She next starred in and directed the 1986 concert film Home of the Brave and also composed the soundtracks for the Spalding Gray films Swimming to Cambodia (1987) and Monster in a Box (1992). During this time, she also contributed music to Robert Wilson's Alcestis at the American Repertory Theater in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She also hosted the PBS series Alive from Off Center during 1987, after having produced the short film What You Mean We? for the series the year before. What You Mean We? introduced a new character played by Anderson: "The Clone", a digitally altered masculine counterpart to Anderson who later "co-hosted" with her when she did her presenting stint on Alive from Off Center. Elements of the Clone were later incorporated into the titular "puppet" of her later work, Puppet Motel. In that year, she also appeared on Peter Gabriel's fifth studio album So, co-writing and performing on the song "This is the Picture (Excellent Birds)". (The first version of "Excellent Birds" had been released on Mister Heartbreak.)
Release of Anderson's first post-Home of the Brave album, 1989's Strange Angels, was delayed for more than a year in order for Anderson to take singing lessons. This was due to the album being more musically inclined (in terms of singing) than her previous works. The single "Babydoll" was a moderate hit on the Modern Rock Tracks chart in 1989.
=== 1990s ===
In 1991, she was a member of the jury at the 41st Berlin International Film Festival. In the same year, Anderson appeared in The Human Face, a feature arts documentary directed by artist-filmmakers Nichola Bruce and Michael Coulson for BBC Television. Anderson was the presenter in this documentary on the history of the face in art and science. Her face was transformed using latex masks and digital special effects as she introduced ideas about the relationship between physiognomy and perception. Her varied career in the early 1990s included voice-acting in the animated film The Rugrats Movie (1998). In 1994, she created a CD-ROM titled Puppet Motel, which was followed by Bright Red, co-produced by Brian Eno, and another spoken-word album, The Ugly One with the Jewels (1995). This was followed by an appearance on the 1997 charity single "Perfect Day".
In 1996, Anderson performed with Diego Frenkel (La Portuária) and Aterciopelados for the AIDS benefit album Silencio=Muerte: Red Hot + Latin produced by the Red Hot Organization.
An interval of more than half a decade followed before her next album release. During this time, she wrote a supplemental article on the cultural character of New York City for the Encyclopædia Britannica and created multimedia presentations, including one inspired by Moby-Dick (Songs and Stories from Moby Dick, 1999–2000). One of the central themes in Anderson's work is exploring the effects of technology on human relationships and communication.
Starting in the 1990s, Anderson and Lou Reed, whom she had met in 1992, collaborated on recordings together. Reed contributed to the tracks "In Our Sleep" from Anderson's Bright Red (1994), "One Beautiful Evening" from Anderson's Life on a String (2001), and "My Right Eye" and "Only an Expert" from Anderson's Homeland (2010), which Reed also co-produced. Anderson contributed to the tracks "Call on Me" from Reed's collaborative project The Raven (2003), "Rouge" and "Rock Minuet" from Reed's Ecstasy (2000), and "Hang On to Your Emotions" from Reed's Set the Twilight Reeling (1996).
In late 1998, Artist Space, New York presented an exhibit of Anderson’s work from 1970s to 1980s, along with her 1990s work, Whirlwind.
=== 2000s ===
Life on a String appeared in 2001, by which time she signed a new recording contract with another Warner Music Group label, Nonesuch Records. Life on a String was a mixture of new works (including one song recalling the death of her father) and works from the Moby-Dick presentation. In 2001, she recorded the audiobook version of Don DeLillo's novella The Body Artist. Anderson went on tour performing a selection of her best-known musical pieces in 2001. One of these performances was recorded in New York City a week after the September 11 attacks, and included a performance of "O Superman". This concert was released in early 2002 as the double CD Live in New York.
In 2003, Anderson produced albums with French musicians La Jarry and Hector Zazou and also performed with them. Zazou's album Strong Currents (2003), which brought together well-known soloists, features her alongside Jane Birkin, Lori Carson and Irene Grandi, among others. She became NASA's first artist-in-residence in the same year, which inspired her performance piece The End of the Moon. In May 2004, she received an honorary doctorate from Columbia University. She was part of the team that created the opening ceremony for the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens and collaborated with choreographer Trisha Brown and filmmaker Agnieszka Wojtowicz-Vosloo on the multimedia project O Zlozony/O Composite for the Paris Opera Ballet which premiered at the Palais Garnier in Paris in December 2004. She mounted a succession of themed shows and composed a piece for Expo 2005 in Japan. In 2005, Anderson visited Russia's space program — the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centre and mission control — with the Arts Catalyst and took part in the Arts Catalyst's Space Soon event at the Roundhouse to reflect on her experiences.
In 2005, her exhibition The Waters Reglitterized opened at the Sean Kelly Gallery in New York City. According to the press release by Sean Kelly, the work is a diary of dreams and their literal recreation as works of art. This work uses the language of dreams to investigate the dream itself. The resulting pieces include drawings, prints, and high-definition video. The installation ran until October 22, 2005.
In 2006, Anderson was awarded a Residency at the American Academy in Rome. She narrated Ric Burns' Andy Warhol: A Documentary Film, which was first televised in September 2006 as part of the PBS American Masters series. She contributed a song to Plague Songs, a collection of songs related to the 10 Biblical plagues. Anderson also performed in Came So Far for Beauty, the Leonard Cohen tribute event held at the Point Theatre in Dublin, Ireland, on October 4–5, 2006. In November 2006, she published a book of drawings based on her dreams, titled Night Life.
Material from Homeland was performed at small work-in-progress shows in New York throughout May 2007 supported by a four-piece band with lighting and video visuals mixed live by Willie Williams and Mark Coniglio, respectively. A European tour of the Homeland work in progress included performances on September 28–29, 2007, at the Olympia Theatre, Dublin; on October 17–19 at the Melbourne International Arts Festival; and in Russia at the Moscow Dom Muzyky concert hall on April 26, 2008. The work was performed in Toronto, Canada, on June 14, 2008, with husband Lou Reed, making the "Lost Art of Conversation" a duet with vocals and guitar. Anderson's Homeland Tour performed at several locations across the United States as well, such as at the Ferst Center for the Arts, Atlanta, Georgia; The Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, New York City; and Harris Theater for Music and Dance in Millennium Park, Chicago, Illinois, co-presented by the Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago.
=== 2010s ===
In February 2010, Anderson premiered a new theatrical work, titled Delusion, at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Canada. This piece was commissioned by the Vancouver 2010 Cultural Olympiad and the Barbican Centre, London. Anderson was honored with the Women's Project Theater Woman of Achievement Award in March 2010. In May–June 2010, Anderson curated the Vivid Live festival in Sydney, together with Lou Reed. Her new studio album Homeland was released on June 22. She performed "Only an Expert" on July 15, 2010, on the Late Show with David Letterman, and her song "Gravity's Angel" was featured on the Fox reality television dance competition show So You Think You Can Dance the same day. She appears as a guest musician on several tracks from experimental jazz musician Colin Stetson's studio album New History Warfare Vol. 2: Judges (2011).
Anderson developed a theatrical work titled "Another Day in America". The first public showings of this work-in-progress took place in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, in January 2012 as part of Theatre Junction Grand's 2011–12 season and One Yellow Rabbit's annual arts festival, the High Performance Rodeo. Anderson was named the Inaugural Distinguished Artist-In-Residence at the Experimental Media and Performing Arts Center (EMPAC) at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York, in May 2012. In March 2013, an exhibition of Anderson's work entitled Laurie Anderson: Language of the Future, selected works 1971–2013 at the Samstag Museum was part of the Adelaide Festival of the Arts in Adelaide, South Australia. Anderson performed her Duets on Ice outside the Samstag on opening night.
Anderson received the Honorary Doctor of Arts from the Aalto University School of Arts, Design and Architecture in 2013. In June/July 2013, Anderson performed "The Language of the Future" and guest curated at the River to River Festival in New York City. In November 2013, she was the featured Guest of Honor at the B3 Biennale of the Moving Image in Frankfurt, Germany. In 2018, Anderson contributed vocals to a re-recording of the David Bowie song "Shining Star (Makin' My Love)", originally from Bowie's seventeenth studio album Never Let Me Down (1987). She was asked to join the production by producer Mario J. McNulty, who knew that Anderson and Bowie had been friends.
On February 10, 2019, at the 61st Annual Grammy Awards, held in Los Angeles, Anderson and the Kronos Quartet's Landfall won the Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music/Small Ensemble Performance. It was Anderson's first collaboration with the Kronos Quartet and her first Grammy Award, and was the second Grammy for Kronos. Inspired by her experience of Hurricane Sandy, Nonesuch Records said, "Landfall juxtaposes lush electronics and traditional strings by Kronos with Anderson's powerful descriptions of loss, from water-logged pianos to disappearing animal species to Dutch karaoke bars."
Chalkroom is a virtual reality work by Anderson and Taiwanese artist Hsin-Chien Huang in which the reader flies through an enormous structure made of words, drawings, and stories. To the Moon, a collaboration with Hsin-Chien Huang, premiered at the Manchester International Festival on July 12, 2019. A 15-minute virtual reality artwork, To the Moon allows audience members to explore a moon that features donkey rides and rubbish from Earth in a non-narrative structure. Alongside, a film shows the development of the new work.
=== 2020s ===
Anderson was appointed the 2021 Charles Eliot Norton Professor of Poetry at Harvard University and presented a series of six lectures titled Spending the War Without You: Virtual Backgrounds over two semesters.
In 2021, Anderson created a show on the second floor of the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington, D.C., titled "The Weather" and described by The New York Times as "a sort of nonretrospective retrospective of one of America's major, and majorly confounding, modern artists".
In mid-2023, Laurie Anderson created "Looking into a Mirror Sideways", an exhibit that highlights various different styles of her art techniques. It opened at the Moderna Museet in Stockholm, Sweden. Since opening, this artwork has been Anderson's biggest solo show in Europe.
While in Europe, Anderson teamed up with Sexmob, a New York jazz band. Sexmob and Anderson toured Europe where they performed multiple versions of her songs, but adding a twist to them all. This tour was seen as "an attempt at defying gravity, resisting the pull, [and] reverting the downward fall".
In 2024, Anderson withdrew from a guest professorship at the Folkwang University of the Arts in Essen, Germany, after university officials objected to her support of a "Letter Against Apartheid" organised by Palestinian artists, calling for "an immediate and unconditional cessation of Israeli violence against Palestinians".
In November 2024 Anderson staged United States V, a multimedia performance envisioned as a sequel to United States. The work was commissioned by Factory International and staged at their Aviva Studios venue in Manchester, England. It featured video appearances from Ai Weiwei as God and Anohni as an angel.
She is a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music.
== Inventions ==
Anderson has invented several experimental musical instruments that she has used in her recordings and performances. In 1977, she created a tape-bow violin that uses recorded magnetic tape on the bow instead of horsehair and a magnetic tape head in the bridge. In the late 1990s, she collaborated with Interval Research to develop an instrument she called a "talking stick", a six-foot-long (1.8 m) baton-like MIDI controller that can access and replicate sounds.
=== Tape-bow violin ===
The tape-bow violin is an instrument created by Laurie Anderson in 1977. It uses recorded magnetic tape in place of the traditional horsehair in the bow, and a magnetic tape head in the bridge. Anderson has updated and modified this device over the years. She can be seen using a later generation of this device in her film Home of the Brave during the Late Show segment in which she manipulates a sentence recorded by William S. Burroughs. This version of the violin used MIDI-based audio samples, triggered by contact with the bow.
=== Talking stick ===
The talking stick is a six-foot-long baton-like MIDI controller. It was used in the Moby-Dick tour in 1999–2000. She described it in program notes as follows:
The Talking Stick is a new instrument that I designed in collaboration with a team from Interval Research and Bob Bielecki. It is a wireless instrument that can access and replicate any sound. It works on the principle of granular synthesis. This is the technique of breaking sound into tiny segments, called grains, and then playing them back in different ways. The computer rearranges the sound fragments into continuous strings or random clusters that are played back in overlapping sequences to create new textures. The grains are very short, a few hundredths of a second. Granular synthesis can sound smooth or choppy depending on the size of the grain and the rate at which they're played. The grains are like film frames. If you slow them down enough, you begin to hear them separately.
=== Voice filters ===
A recurring motif in Anderson's work is the use of an electric pitch-shifting voice filter that deepens her voice into a masculine register, a technique that Anderson has referred to as "audio drag". Anderson has long used the resulting character in her work as a "voice of authority" or conscience, although she later decided that the voice had lost much of its authority and instead began using the voice to provide historical or sociopolitical commentary, as it is used on "Another Day in America", a piece from her seventh studio album Homeland (2010).
For much of Anderson's career, the voice was nameless or called the Voice of Authority, although as early as 2009 it was dubbed Fenway Bergamot at Lou Reed's suggestion. The cover of Homeland depicts Anderson in character as Bergamot, with streaks of black makeup to give her a moustache and thick, masculine eyebrows.
In "The Cultural Ambassador", a piece on her second live album The Ugly One with the Jewels (1995), Anderson explained some of her perspective on the character:
(Anderson:) I was carrying a lot of electronics so I had to keep unpacking everything and plugging it in and demonstrating how it all worked, and I guess I did seem a little fishy — a lot of this stuff wakes up displaying LED program readouts that have names like Atom Smasher, and so it took a while to convince them that they weren't some kind of portable espionage system. So I've done quite a few of these sort of impromptu new music concerts for small groups of detectives and customs agents and I'd have to keep setting all this stuff up and they'd listen for a while and they'd say: So um, what's this? And I'd pull out something like(Bergamot:) this filter, and say, now this is what I like to think of as the voice of authority. And it would take me a while to tell them how I used it for songs that were, you know, about various forms of control, and they would say, now why would you want to talk like that? And I'd look around at the SWAT teams, and the undercover agents, and the dogs, and the radio in the corner, tuned to the Super Bowl coverage of the war. And I'd say, take a wild guess.
== Personal life ==
Anderson moved to New York in 1966 and now lives in Tribeca. She met musician and songwriter Lou Reed in 1992, and was married to him from April 2008 until his death in 2013.
In October 2012, Hurricane Sandy destroyed archives documenting decades of Anderson's creative work, including photographs, performance props, audiovisual equipment, musical instruments, and other materials. This loss became the impetus for her book All the Things I Lost in the Flood (2018), where she reflects on her career and the ephemeral nature of art. Anderson's album Landfall was also inspired by Hurricane Sandy and won the Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music/Small Ensemble Performance in 2019.
Anderson is a long-time student of Buddhism and meditation. She first learned meditation on a retreat with the Insight Meditation Society in 1977. She has since become a student of Tibetan Nepali teacher Yongey Mingyur Rinpoche.
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
=== Spoken word albums ===
The Ugly One with the Jewels (1995)
Heart of a Dog (Soundtrack) (2015)
=== Live albums ===
United States Live (boxed set) (1984) US No. 192
Live in New York (2002)
=== Compilation albums ===
Talk Normal: The Laurie Anderson Anthology (2000)
=== Audio book ===
The Body Artist by Don DeLillo (2001)
=== Collaborations ===
Airwaves (1977 – One Ten Records); various artists compilation including three tracks by Anderson
You're the Guy I Want to Share My Money With with William S. Burroughs and John Giorno (1981 – Giorno Poetry Systems)
"This Is the Picture (Excellent Birds)" with Peter Gabriel (1986, So – Geffen / Charisma)
"Design for Living", with Nona Hendryx (1983), Nona, also with Gina Schock of the Go-Go's, Valerie Simpson of Ashford & Simpson, Tina Weymouth of Tom Tom Club and Talking Heads, Nancy Wilson of Heart, and former bandmate Patti LaBelle
"Diva" from Zoolook by Jean-Michel Jarre (1984 – Disques Dreyfus)
"Tightrope" and "Speak My Language" (1993; Faraway, So Close! Soundtrack – SBK Records / ERG)
A Chance Operation: The John Cage Tribute with text by John Cage (1993 – Koch International Classics)
"Enquanto Isso" with Marisa Monte (1994, Verde, anil, amarelo, cor de rosa e carvão – EMI-Odeon) (1994, Rose and Charcoal – Blue Note Records)
"Una hoja, una raiz (One Leaf, One Root)" with Diego Frenkel (La Portuária) and Aterciopelados (1996, Silencio=Muerte: Red Hot + Latin – H.O.L.A)
"Je me souviens" by Jean Michel Jarre (2000, Métamorphoses – Sony Music)
"Gentle Breeze" with Lou Reed (2004, Mary Had a Little Amp – a preschool education benefit CD – Epic)
"The Fifth Plague (the Death of Livestock)" (2006, Plague Songs – 4AD)
The Stone: Issue Three with John Zorn and Lou Reed (2008 – Tzadik)
"The Electrician" (2009, Music Inspired by the Film Scott Walker: 30 Century Man – Lakeshore)
Femina by John Zorn (2009 – Tzadik)
New History Warfare Vol. 2: Judges by Colin Stetson (2011 – Constellation)
"Rely on Me" with Jean Michel Jarre (2015, Electronica 1: The Time Machine – Columbia)
Landfall (2018) (with Kronos Quartet) (BE #146, NL #186, PT #36)
Songs from the Bardo (2019) (with Tenzin Choegyal and Jesse Paris Smith)
The Great Lakes Suite (2025), with Rheostatics
=== Singles ===
"O Superman" (1981) No. 28 AUS; No. 2 UK; BE (Vl) No. 19; IRL No. 11; NL No. 10; NZ No. 21
"Big Science" (1981)
"Sharkey's Day" (1984)
"Language Is a Virus" (1986) No. 96 AUS;
"Strange Angels" (1989)
"Babydoll" (1989) No. 7 US Modern Rock Tracks
"Beautiful Red Dress" (1990)
"In Our Sleep" (1994)
"Big Science 2" (2007)
"Mambo and Bling" (2008)
"Only an Expert" (2010)
The single "Sharkey's Day" was for many years the theme song of basic cable channel Lifetime. Anderson also recorded a number of limited-release singles in the late 1970s (many issued from the Holly Soloman Gallery), songs from which were included on a number of compilations, including Giorno Poetry Systems' The Nova Convention and You're the Guy I Want to Share My Money With. Over the years she has performed on recordings by other musicians such as Peter Gabriel, Lou Reed, and Jean-Michel Jarre. She also contributed lyrics to the Philip Glass album Songs from Liquid Days, and contributed a spoken-word piece to a tribute album in honor of John Cage.
== Music videos ==
Formal music videos have been produced for:
"O Superman"
"Sharkey's Day"
"This Is the Picture (Excellent Birds)"
"Language Is a Virus" (from Home of the Brave)
"Beautiful Red Dress"
In addition, in lieu of making another music video for her Strange Angels album, Anderson taped a series of one- to two-minute "Personal Service Announcements" in which she spoke about issues such as the U.S. government debt and the arts scene. Some of the music used in these productions came from her soundtrack of Swimming to Cambodia. The PSAs were frequently shown between music videos on VH1 in early 1990.
== Films ==
== Digital media ==
Puppet Motel (Macintosh CD-ROM, 1995) – collaboration with Hsin-Chien Huang.
== Legacy ==
In 2013, Dale Eisinger of Complex ranked United States as the third greatest work of performance art ever, with the writer arguing that Anderson is "able to ascertain just exactly the climate of life in the United States, without being so punctuated that it causes a standoff. Perhaps the zenith of this configuration was her multimedia performance, 'United States I – IV.' [...] [Anderson displays] her vast, incisive range of talents on the 'United States Live' recordings."
== Awards and nominations ==
== Television ==
Bei Bio – musical guest on German TV show, 1984
The New Show – musical guest, 1984
Saturday Night Live – musical guest, 1986
Alive from Off Center – host, 1987
Space Ghost Coast to Coast – guest 1996
Late Show with David Letterman – guest 2010
PBS Newshour —guest October 4, 2024
== Audiobooks ==
The Path to Tranquility by His Holiness the Dalai Lama – co-narrator, 1999
The Body Artist by Don DeLillo – sole narrator, 2001
Nothing in My Pockets – two-part sound diary recorded in 2003, orig. 2006 French radio broadcast, booklet with text and photography (Dis Voir, 2009) ISBN 978-2-914563-43-7 (also published in French)
== Bibliography ==
United States (HarperCollins, 1984) ISBN 0-06-091110-7
Empty Places (A Performance) (Harper Perennial, 1991) ISBN 978-0-06-096586-0
Stories from the Nerve Bible: A Twenty-Year Retrospective (HarperCollins, 1994) ISBN 0-06-055355-3
Dal vivo (Fondazione Prada, 1999) ISBN 88-87029-10-5
Night Life (Edition 7L, 2007) ISBN 3-86521-339-1
All the Things I Lost in the Flood (Rizzoli Electa, 2018) ISBN 0-8478-6055-8
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Golden, Barbara. "Conversation with Laurie Anderson". eContact! 12.2 – Interviews (2) (April 2010). Montréal: CEC.
Mutant, Mite. "Talking with Laurie Anderson". Mutant Renegade Zine #7, June 1996.
Nicom, John. "Homeland insecurity: Laurie Anderson takes uncompromising look at how America has changed". LJWorld.com. September 12, 2008.
"Laurie Anderson". Music Technology. Vol. 1, no. 9. July 1987. p. 75. ISSN 0957-6606. OCLC 24835173.
== External links ==
Official website
Laurie Anderson at AllMusic
Laurie Anderson discography at Discogs
Laurie Anderson at IMDb
"Talk Normal: The Laurie Anderson Anthology (Liner Notes)". Archived from the original on January 11, 2001.
Some Notes on Seeing: The Waters Reglitterized By Laurie Anderson for exhibition 2005
"Eclectic Laurie Anderson visits Ames". Archived from the original on August 18, 2003.
"NASA Art Program". Archived from the original on December 1, 1998.
Guardian interview.
A Life of Storytelling. An interview with Laurie Anderson, 2016 Video by Louisiana Channel
SoundCloud - Hear the world's sounds with Georgina Godwin
Advice to Young Artists. An interview with Laurie Anderson, 2016 Video by Louisiana Channel
Laurie Anderson on Self-Playing Violin, MoMA Audio
A Trip to the Moon. An interview with Laurie Anderson & Hsin-Chien Huang, 2018 Video by Louisiana Channel
60 Minutes profile, April 3, 2022
WTF with Marc Maron, March 20, 2023 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarumal | Yarumal | Yarumal is a municipality in the Antioquia Department, Colombia. The municipality (three parishes and 20 villages) has an area of 738.3 km2 (285.1 sq mi). The population was 41,542 at the 2018 census. Its average elevation is 2,265 m (7,431 ft) above sea level.
It has a minor basilica, Our Lady of Mercy, which is a parish church of architectural note.
It gave its name to the Yarumal Society for the Foreign Missions (M.X.Y./I.M.E.Y.), a Medellín-based Latin Catholic Society of Apostolic Life of Pontifical Right for Men, which despite its name is especially active in Colombian missions.
== History ==
Yarumal was founded in 1787 as San Luis de Gongora. Municipal status was granted in 1821.
=== Name ===
The current name of Yarumal comes from a local plant of the family Moraceae, known in botanical Latin as Cecropia peltata L.
== Health ==
An unusually large proportion of the inhabitants suffer from early-onset Alzheimer's disease, which is caused by the gene mutation E280A. The genetic mutation is thought to have come from a Spanish conquistador. Approximately 5,000 residents will develop early-onset Alzheimer's. Half of the affected residents were shown to have developed symptoms by their early 40s.
== Climate ==
Yarumal has a subtropical highland climate (Cfb). It has heavy rainfall year round.
== Notable people ==
Jhon Jairo Velásquez (1962-2020), cartel hitman and You Tube personality
== See also ==
Yarumal climbing salamander, indigenous in Colombia
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey | Oprah Winfrey | Oprah Gail Winfrey (; born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and media proprietor. She is best known for her talk show, The Oprah Winfrey Show, broadcast from Chicago, which ran in national syndication for 25 years, from 1986 to 2011. Globally, she is the richest Black woman and the wealthiest female celebrity. Dubbed the "Queen of All Media", she was the richest African-American of the 20th century and was once the world's only Black billionaire. By 2007, she was often ranked as the most influential woman in the world.
Winfrey was born into poverty in rural Mississippi to a single teenage mother and later raised in inner-city Milwaukee. She has stated that she was molested during her childhood and early teenage years and became pregnant at 14; her son was born prematurely and died in infancy. Winfrey was then sent to live with the man she calls her father, Vernon Winfrey, a barber in Nashville, Tennessee, and landed a job in radio while still in high school. By 19, she was a co-anchor for the local evening news. Winfrey's often emotional, extemporaneous delivery eventually led to her transfer to the daytime talk show arena, and after boosting a third-rated local Chicago talk show to first place, she launched her own production company.
Credited with creating a more intimate, confessional form of media communication, Winfrey popularized and revolutionized the tabloid talk show genre pioneered by Phil Donahue. By the mid-1990s, Winfrey had reinvented her show with a focus on literature, self-improvement, mindfulness, and spirituality. She has been criticized for unleashing a confession culture, promoting controversial self-help ideas, and having an emotion-centered approach, and has also been praised for overcoming adversity to become a benefactor to others. Winfrey also emerged as a political force in the 2008 presidential race, with her endorsement of Barack Obama estimated to have been worth about one million votes during the 2008 Democratic primaries. In the same year, she formed her own network, the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN). In 2013, Winfrey was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama.
In 1994, Winfrey was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. Then in October, she finished the Marine Corps Marathon in less than four and a half hours. She has received honorary doctorate degrees from multiple universities. Winfrey has won many awards throughout her career, including 19 Daytime Emmy Awards (including the Lifetime Achievement Award and the Chairman's Award), 2 Primetime Emmy Awards (including the Bob Hope Humanitarian Award), a Tony Award, a Peabody Award, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award awarded by the Academy Awards, in addition to two competitive Academy Award nominations. Winfrey was elected as a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2021.
== Early life ==
Orpah Gail Winfrey was born on January 29, 1954; her first name was spelled Orpah on her birth certificate after the biblical figure in the Book of Ruth, but people mispronounced it regularly and "Oprah" stuck. She was born in Kosciusko, Mississippi, to a teenaged mother, Vernita Lee, and father Vernon Winfrey. Winfrey's parents never married. Vernita Lee (1935–2018) was a housemaid. Vernon Winfrey (1933–2022) was a coal miner turned barber turned city councilman who was in the Armed Forces when she was born. A genetic test in 2006 determined that her matrilineal line originated among the Kpelle ethnic group, from the area that became Liberia. Her genetic makeup was determined to be 89% Sub-Saharan African, 8% Native American, and 3% East Asian.
After Winfrey's birth, her mother traveled north, and Winfrey spent her first six years living in rural poverty with her maternal grandmother, Hattie Mae (Presley) Lee (April 15, 1900 – February 27, 1963). Her grandmother was so poor that Winfrey often wore dresses made of potato sacks, for which other children made fun of her. Her grandmother taught her to read before the age of three and took her to the local church, where she was nicknamed "The Preacher" for her ability to recite Bible verses. Her grandmother, a believer in the adage "spare the rod, spoil the child," beat her almost daily.
At age six, Winfrey moved to an inner-city neighborhood in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Her mother had little time for Oprah as a result of the long hours she worked as a maid. Around this time, Lee had given birth to another daughter, Winfrey's younger half-sister, Patricia, who died of causes related to cocaine addiction in February 2003 at age 43. By 1962, Lee was having difficulty raising both daughters, so Winfrey was temporarily sent to live with Vernon in Nashville, Tennessee. While Winfrey was in Nashville, Lee gave birth to a third daughter, who was put up for adoption in the hopes of easing the financial straits that had led to Lee's being on welfare, and was later also named Patricia. Winfrey did not know that she had a second half-sister until 2010. By the time Winfrey moved back with her mother, Lee had also given birth to Winfrey's half-brother Jeffrey, who died of AIDS-related causes in 1989. At the age of eight, she was baptized in a Baptist church.
Winfrey has stated she was molested by her cousin, uncle, and a family friend, starting when she was nine years old, something she first announced on a 1986 episode of her TV show regarding sexual abuse. A biographer alleged that when Winfrey discussed the alleged abuse with family members at age 24, they refused to believe her account. Winfrey once commented that she had chosen not to be a mother because she had not been mothered well. At 13, after suffering what she described as years of abuse, Winfrey ran away from home.
When she was 14, she became pregnant, but her son was born prematurely and died shortly after birth. Winfrey later stated she felt betrayed by the family member who had sold the story of her son to the National Enquirer in 1990.
Winfrey attended Lincoln Middle and High School in Milwaukee, but after early success in the Upward Bound program, was transferred to the affluent suburban Nicolet High School. Upon transferring, she said she was continually reminded of her poverty as she rode the bus to school with fellow African-Americans, some of whom were servants of her classmates' families. She began to rebel and steal money from her mother in an effort to keep up with her free-spending peers. As a result, her mother once again sent her to live with her father in Nashville, although this time, she did not take her daughter back. Vernon was strict but encouraging, and made her education a priority. Winfrey became an honors student, was voted Most Popular Girl, and joined her high school speech team at East Nashville High School, placing second in the nation in dramatic interpretation. In 1986, Winfrey said, "'When my father took me, it changed the course of my life. He saved me. He simply knew what he wanted and expected. He would take nothing less'".
Winfrey's first job as a teenager was working at a local grocery store. At the age of 17, Winfrey won the Miss Black Tennessee beauty pageant. She also attracted the attention of the local black radio station, WVOL, which hired her to do the news part-time. She worked there during her senior year of high school and in her first two years of college. Winfrey won an oratory contest, which secured her a full scholarship to Tennessee State University, a historically black institution, where she studied communication. However, she did not deliver her final paper until 1987, by which time she was a successful television personality. It was only then Winfrey earned her degree.
Winfrey's career in media would not have surprised her grandmother, who once said that ever since Winfrey could talk, she was on stage. As a child, she played games interviewing her corncob doll and the crows on the fence of her family's property. Winfrey later acknowledged her grandmother's influence, saying it was Hattie Mae who had encouraged her to speak in public and "gave me a positive sense of myself".
== Television ==
Working in local media, Winfrey was both the youngest news anchor and the first black female news anchor at Nashville's WLAC-TV (now WTVF-TV), where she often covered the same stories as John Tesh, who worked at a competing Nashville station. In 1976, she moved to Baltimore's WJZ-TV to co-anchor the six o'clock news. In 1977, she was removed as co-anchor and worked in lower profile positions at the station. She was then recruited to join Richard Sher as co-host of WJZ's local talk show People Are Talking, which premiered on August 14, 1978. She also hosted the local version of Dialing for Dollars.
In 1984, Winfrey relocated to Chicago to host WLS-TV's low-rated half-hour morning talk show, AM Chicago, after being hired by that station's general manager, Dennis Swanson. The first episode aired on January 2, 1984. Within months after Winfrey took over, the show went from last place in the ratings to overtaking Donahue as the highest-rated talk show in Chicago. The movie critic Roger Ebert persuaded her to sign a syndication deal with King World. Ebert predicted that she would generate 40 times as much revenue as his television show, At the Movies. It was then renamed The Oprah Winfrey Show and expanded to a full hour. The first episode was broadcast nationwide on September 8, 1986. Winfrey's syndicated show brought in double Donahue's national audience, displacing Donahue as the number-one daytime talk show in America. Their much-publicized contest was the subject of enormous scrutiny. According to Time magazine in August 1988:
Few people would have bet on Oprah Winfrey's swift rise to host of the most popular talk show on TV. In a field dominated by white males, she is a black female of ample bulk. As interviewers go, she is no match for, say, Phil Donahue ... What she lacks in journalistic toughness, she makes up for in plainspoken curiosity, robust humor and, above all empathy. Guests with sad stories to tell are apt to rouse a tear in Oprah's eye ... They, in turn, often find themselves revealing things they would not imagine telling anyone, much less a national TV audience. It is the talk show as a group therapy session.
TV columnist Howard Rosenberg said: "She's a roundhouse, a full course meal, big, brassy, loud, aggressive, hyper, laughable, lovable, soulful, tender, low-down, earthy, and hungry. And she may know the way to Phil Donahue's jugular." Newsday's Les Payne observed, "Oprah Winfrey is sharper than Donahue, wittier, more genuine, and far better attuned to her audience, if not the world" and Martha Bayles of The Wall Street Journal wrote, "It's a relief to see a gab-monger with a fond but realistic assessment of her own cultural and religious roots."
In the early years of The Oprah Winfrey Show, the program was classified as a tabloid talk show. In the mid-1990s, Winfrey began to host shows on broader topics such as heart disease, geopolitics, spirituality, and meditation. She interviewed celebrities on social issues they were directly involved with, such as cancer, charity work, or substance abuse, and hosted televised giveaways. The later years of the show faced accusations that Winfrey was promoting junk science. This has manifested as criticisms of Winfrey for promoting particular guests whose medical commentaries (both on her show and in the wider media) frequently lack supporting science. Common targets of this criticism include Jenny McCarthy's unfounded assertions about vaccines, and Suzanne Somers's promotion of bioidenticals.
In addition to her talk show, Winfrey moderated three ABC Afterschool Specials from 1992 to 1994 and also produced and co-starred in the drama miniseries The Women of Brewster Place (1989) and its short-lived spin-off, Brewster Place. As well as hosting and appearing on television shows, Winfrey co-founded the women's cable television network Oxygen, which was the initial network for her Oprah After the Show program from 2002 to 2006 before moving to Oprah.com when Winfrey sold her stake in the network. She is also the president of Harpo Productions (Oprah spelled backwards), a film and TV production company behind The Oprah Winfrey Show, Dr. Phil, Rachael Ray, The Dr. Oz Show and many others.
Dr. Phil has been criticized as being at best, simplistic and, at worst, ineffective or harmful. The National Alliance on Mental Illness has called Dr. Phil's conduct "unethical" and "incredibly irresponsible". Dr. Oz (Mehmet Oz) has been criticized by various medical publications and physicians for spreading pseudoscience Dr. Oz's promotion of various "miracle pills" (especially those aimed at weight loss), One website, Science-Based Medicine, said "No other show on television can top The Dr. Oz Show for the sheer magnitude of bad health advice it consistently offers, all while giving everything a veneer of credibility".
Multiple publications have called on Winfrey to denounce medical statements made by her former proteges long after her show ended. For example, there were calls for her to denounce Dr. Oz in 2020 reaction to his comments about coronavirus and his promotion of a poorly vetted drug as a cure.
On January 15, 2008, Winfrey and Discovery Communications announced plans to change Discovery Health Channel into a new channel called OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network. It was scheduled to launch in 2009 but was delayed, and actually launched on January 1, 2011.
The series finale of The Oprah Winfrey Show aired on May 25, 2011.
In January 2017, CBS announced that Winfrey would join 60 Minutes as a special contributor on the Sunday evening news magazine program starting in September 2017. The National Museum of African American History and Culture in 2018 opened a special exhibit on Winfrey's cultural influence through television. Winfrey left 60 Minutes by the end of 2018.
In June 2018, Apple announced a multi-year content partnership with Winfrey, in which it was agreed that Winfrey would create new original programs exclusively for Apple's streaming service, Apple TV+. The first show under the deal, Oprah's Book Club, premiered on November 1, 2019. Oprah's Book Club is based on the segment of the same name from The Oprah Winfrey Show. The second show under the deal, Oprah Talks COVID-19, debuted on March 21, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic. A third show, The Oprah Conversation debuted on July 30, 2020, with Winfrey "[continuing] to explore impactful and relevant topics with fascinating thought leaders from all over the world".
=== Celebrity interviews ===
In 1993, Winfrey hosted a rare prime-time interview called, Michael Jackson Talks ... to Oprah with Michael Jackson, which became the fourth most-watched event in American television history as well as the most watched interview ever, with an audience of 36.5 million. On December 1, 2005, Winfrey appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman for the first time in 16 years, to promote the new Broadway musical, The Color Purple, which she produced. The episode was hailed by some as the "television event of the decade" and helped Letterman attract his largest audience in more than 11 years: 13.45 million viewers. Although a much-rumored feud was said to have been the cause of the rift, both Winfrey and Letterman balked at such talk. "I want you to know, it's really over, whatever you thought was happening," said Winfrey. On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, as its season premiere was filmed in New York City.
In 2006, rappers Ludacris, 50 Cent, and Ice Cube criticized Winfrey for what they perceived as an anti-hip hop bias. In an interview with GQ magazine, Ludacris said that Winfrey gave him a "hard time" about his lyrics, and edited comments he made during an appearance on her show with the cast of the film Crash. He also said that he wasn't initially invited on the show with the rest of the cast. Winfrey responded by saying that she is opposed to rap lyrics that "marginalize women," but enjoys some artists, including Kanye West, who appeared on her show. She said she spoke with Ludacris backstage after his appearance to explain her position and said she understood that his music was for entertainment purposes, but that some of his listeners might take it literally. In September 2008, Winfrey received criticism after Matt Drudge of the Drudge Report reported that Winfrey refused to have Sarah Palin on her show, allegedly because of Winfrey's support for Barack Obama. Winfrey denied the report, maintaining that there never was a discussion regarding Palin's appearing on her show. She said that after she made public her support for Obama, she decided that she would not let her show be used as a platform for any of the candidates. Although Obama appeared twice on her show, those appearances were prior to his declaration as a presidential candidate. Winfrey added that Palin would make a fantastic guest and that she would love to have her on the show after the election, which she did on November 18, 2009.
In 2009, Winfrey was criticized for allowing actress Suzanne Somers to appear on her show to discuss hormone treatments that are not accepted by mainstream medicine. Critics have also suggested that Winfrey is not tough enough when questioning celebrity guests or politicians whom she appears to like. Lisa de Moraes, a media columnist for The Washington Post, stated: "Oprah doesn't do follow-up questions unless you're an author who's embarrassed her by fabricating portions of a supposed memoir she's plugged for her book club", referring to the controversy around James Frey's A Million Little Pieces.
In 2021, she conducted an interview with Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, and her husband Prince Harry, which was broadcast globally and received international media attention.
In 2024, ABC aired a new television special titled "AI and the Future of Us: An Oprah Winfrey Special". The one-hour show aimed to delve into the impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on daily life. It featured interviews with prominent figures from the tech industry, including OpenAI CEO Sam Altman and Bill Gates.
== Other media ==
=== Film ===
Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's The Color Purple (1985), as distraught housewife Sofia. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. The Alice Walker novel later became a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer. In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film Beloved, based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize–winning novel of the same name. To prepare for her role as Sethe, the protagonist and former slave, Winfrey experienced a 24-hour simulation of the experience of slavery, which included being tied up and blindfolded and left alone in the woods. Despite major advertising, including two episodes of her talk show dedicated solely to the film, and moderate to good critical reviews, Beloved opened to poor box-office results, losing approximately $30 million. While promoting the movie, co-star Thandiwe Newton described Winfrey as "a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade." Harpo Productions released a film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's 1937 novel Their Eyes Were Watching God in 2005. The made-for-television film was based upon a teleplay by Suzan-Lori Parks and starred Halle Berry in the lead female role.
In late 2008, Winfrey's company Harpo Films signed an exclusive output pact to develop and produce scripted series, documentaries, and movies exclusively for HBO.
In 2013, Winfrey starred in the film The Butler directed by Lee Daniels. Though her performance garnered significant Oscar buzz, she was not nominated for the award.
Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in Charlotte's Web (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in Bee Movie (2007), co-starring the voices of Jerry Seinfeld and Renée Zellweger. In 2009, Winfrey provided the voice for the character of Eudora, the mother of Princess Tiana, in Disney's The Princess and the Frog and in 2010, narrated the US version of the BBC nature program Life for Discovery.
In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel A Wrinkle in Time. She also lent her voice to an animated virtual-reality short film written and directed by Eric Darnell, starring John Legend, titled Crow: The Legend, telling a Native American origin tale.
=== Publishing and writing ===
Winfrey has co-authored five books. At the announcement of a weight-loss book in 2005, co-authored with her personal trainer Bob Greene, it was said that her undisclosed advance fee had broken the record for the world's highest book advance fee, previously held by the autobiography of former U.S. President Bill Clinton.
In 2015, her memoir, The Life You Want, was announced following on her tour of the same name, and scheduled for publication in 2017, but was "indefinitely postponed" in 2016.
Winfrey publishes the magazine Oprah Daily and from 2004 to 2008 also published a magazine called O At Home. In 2002, Fortune called O, the Oprah Magazine the most successful start-up ever in the industry. Although its circulation had declined by more than 10 percent to 2.4 million from 2005 to 2008, the January 2009 issue was the best selling issue since 2006. The audience for her magazine is considerably more upscale than for her TV show; the average reader earns well above the median for U.S. women. In July 2020, it was announced that O Magazine would end its regular print publications after the December 2020 issue. In the December 2020 issue, Winfrey thanked readers and acknowledged it was the magazine's "final monthly print edition".
=== Online ===
Winfrey's company created the Oprah.com website to provide resources and interactive content related to her shows, magazines, book club, and public charity. Oprah.com averages more than 70 million page views and more than six million users per month, and receives approximately 20,000 e-mails each week. Winfrey initiated "Oprah's Child Predator Watch List", through her show and website, to help track down accused child molesters. Within the first 48 hours, two of the featured men were captured.
=== Radio ===
On February 9, 2006, it was announced that Winfrey had signed a three-year, $55-million contract with XM Satellite Radio to establish a new radio channel. The channel, Oprah Radio, features popular contributors to The Oprah Winfrey Show and O, The Oprah Magazine including Nate Berkus, Dr. Mehmet Oz, Bob Greene, Dr. Robin Smith, and Marianne Williamson. Oprah & Friends began broadcasting at 11:00 am ET, September 25, 2006, from a new studio at Winfrey's Chicago headquarters. The channel broadcasts 24 hours a day, seven days a week on XM Radio Channel 156. Winfrey's contract requires her to be on the air 30 minutes a week, 39 weeks a year.
== Personal life ==
=== Homes ===
Oprah's extensive and continuously evolving real-estate portfolio has garnered heightened attention throughout her life and career, with many prominent industry outlets branding her a "tycoon" regarding her investments which as of 2022, are estimated to total approximately $127 million.
As her talk show was beginning, Oprah first purchased a condominium in Chicago's Water Tower Place in 1985, before purchasing the condos adjoining and directly below it in 1992, 1993, and 1994, respectively. In 1988, she purchased an 164-acre property including main and guest residences, orchard, and stables in Rolling Prairie, Indiana as her weekend refuge. In 1992, she purchased an 80-acre compound in Telluride, Colorado, which she would go on to sell in approximately late 2000. In 1994, she also purchased an apartment at the Four Seasons Hotel Chicago. Between 1996 and 2000 she purchased a total of five condos in different development areas of Fisher Island, Florida. In 2000, through her Chicago-based LLC Overground Railroad, Oprah purchased her friend Gayle King an estate in Greenwich, Connecticut. In 2001, Oprah sold all five of her Fisher Island condos and purchased what would become her "main home base" she has also called "The Promised Land" (where she currently lives as of 2022), a (then) 42-acre (17 ha) estate with ocean and mountain views in Montecito, California.
Additionally that year, she also purchased homes in both Elmwood Park, Illinois and Merrillville, Indiana for other family members and friends. Similarly, in 2002, she purchased her father's home in Franklin, Tennessee and a lakefront condo in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In 2003 she listed her compound in Rolling Prairie, Indiana, and sold it in 2004. From 2003 to 2005, Oprah acquired several properties totaling 163 acres in Kula and Hana, Hawaii as well as a penthouse apartment in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2005, she purchased a home in Douglasville, Georgia which was gifted in 2011 to a family member.
In 2006, Oprah purchased a co-op apartment along Lake Shore Drive in downtown Chicago, reportedly with plans to permanently move there from her prior adjoined-condo unit in Water Tower Place for the duration of her show; for reasons unknown, the property sat entirely unused until she sold it in 2012. In 2008, she sold her penthouse apartment in Atlanta. That year, she also listed Gayle King's estate and purchased her (through her second LLC Sophie's Penthouse) a penthouse apartment in midtown Manhattan, New York City which would later be sold in 2012.
In early 2014, she listed her combined-unit Chicago duplex on the market. Later that year, Oprah came back to Telluride, Colorado to purchase a 60-acre lot with plans to build on the property. A lawsuit filed against her that year by a retired nuclear physicist living in the area regarding trail access rights was dismissed later that year with the judge citing little case law to support his case, among other issues. The extent of the agreement between all the parties and jurisdictions regarding her subsequent development on the property remains undisclosed.
In 2015, Oprah purchased another property in Telluride, and later that year, expanded her Montecito compound with another 23-acre estate and yet another 44-acre dedicated crop and equestrian preserve. That year she also sold both of her downtown Chicago homes.
In 2018, Oprah obtained two adjoining parcels of land totaling 23 acres including the Madroneagle compound on Orcas Island, Washington and sold her last home property in the Chicago area from Elmwood Park. In late 2019, Oprah yet again expanded her Montecito home-base compound, this time to 70 contiguous acres, with the purchase of a four-acre complex from actor Jeff Bridges. In 2021, she sold her Orcas Island compound as she said she was too busy to use it and purchased another compound in Montecito further away from her home-base compound, flipping the latter in 2022 with split properties, one of which was sold to her property manager and longtime personal trainer Bob Greene, and the other to actress Jennifer Aniston. In 2023, Winfrey also purchased 870 acres of land in Maui for $6.6 million.
=== Romantic history ===
Winfrey's high school sweetheart Anthony Otey recalled an innocent courtship that began in Winfrey's senior year of high school, from which he saved hundreds of love notes; Winfrey conducted herself with dignity and was a model student. The two spoke of getting married, but Otey claimed to have always secretly known that Winfrey was destined for a far greater life than he could ever provide. She broke up with him on Valentine's Day of her senior year.
In 1971, several months after breaking up with Otey, Winfrey met William "Bubba" Taylor at Tennessee State University. According to CBS journalist George Mair, Taylor was Winfrey's "first intense, to-die-for love affair". Winfrey helped get Taylor a job at WVOL, and according to Mair, "did everything to keep him, including literally begging him on her knees to stay with her". Taylor, however, was unwilling to leave Nashville with Winfrey when she moved to Baltimore to work at WJZ-TV in June 1976. "We really did care for each other," Winfrey would later recall. "We shared a deep love. A love I will never forget."
In the 1970s, Winfrey had a romantic relationship with John Tesh. Biographer Kitty Kelley claims that Tesh split with Winfrey over the pressures of an interracial relationship.
When WJZ-TV management criticized Winfrey for crying on air while reporting tragedies and were unhappy with her physical appearance (especially when her hair fell out as a result of a bad perm), Winfrey turned to reporter Lloyd Kramer for comfort. "Lloyd was just the best," Winfrey would later recall. "That man loved me even when I was bald! He was wonderful. He stuck with me through the whole demoralizing experience. That man was the most fun romance I ever had."
According to Mair, when Kramer moved to NBC in New York, Winfrey had a love affair with a married man who had no intention of leaving his wife. Winfrey would later recall: "I'd had a relationship with a man for four years. I wasn't living with him. I'd never lived with anyone—and I thought I was worthless without him. The more he rejected me, the more I wanted him. I felt depleted, powerless. At the end, I was down on the floor on my knees groveling and pleading with him". Winfrey became so depressed that on September 8, 1981, she wrote a suicide note to best friend Gayle King instructing King to water her plants. "That suicide note had been much overplayed" Winfrey told Ms. magazine. "I couldn't kill myself. I would be afraid the minute I did it, something really good would happen and I'd miss it."
According to Winfrey, her emotional turmoil gradually led to a weight problem: "The reason I gained so much weight in the first place and the reason I had such a sorry history of abusive relationships with men was I just needed approval so much. I needed everyone to like me, because I didn't like myself much. So I'd end up with these cruel self-absorbed guys who'd tell me how selfish I was, and I'd say 'Oh thank you, you're so right' and be grateful to them. Because I had no sense that I deserved anything else. Which is also why I gained so much weight later on. It was the perfect way of cushioning myself against the world's disapproval."
Winfrey later confessed to smoking crack cocaine with a man she was romantically involved with during the same era. She explained on her show: "I always felt that the drug itself is not the problem but that I was addicted to the man." She added: "I can't think of anything I wouldn't have done for that man."
Winfrey was allegedly involved in a second drug-related love affair. Self-proclaimed former boyfriend Randolph Cook said they lived together for several months in 1985 and did drugs. In 1997, Cook tried to sue Winfrey for $20 million for allegedly blocking a tell-all book about their alleged relationship.
In the mid-1980s, Winfrey briefly dated movie critic Roger Ebert, whom she credits with advising her to take her show into syndication.
In 1985, before Winfrey's Chicago talk show had gone national, Haitian filmmaker Reginald Chevalier claims he appeared as a guest on a look-alike segment and began a relationship with Winfrey involving romantic evenings at home, candlelit baths, and dinners with Michael Jordan and Danny Glover. Chevalier says Winfrey ended the relationship when she met Stedman Graham.
Winfrey and her partner Stedman Graham have been together since 1986. They were engaged to be married in November 1992, but the ceremony never took place.
=== Close friends ===
Winfrey's best friend since their early twenties is Gayle King. King was formerly the host of The Gayle King Show and is currently an editor of O, the Oprah Magazine. Since 1997, when Winfrey played the therapist on an episode of the sitcom Ellen in which Ellen DeGeneres came out of the closet, Winfrey and King have been the target of persistent rumors that they were gay. "I understand why people think we're gay," Winfrey says in the August 2006 issue of O magazine. "There isn't a definition in our culture for this kind of bond between women. So I get why people have to label it—how can you be this close without it being sexual?" "I've told nearly everything there is to tell. All my stuff is out there. People think I'd be so ashamed of being gay that I wouldn't admit it? Oh, please."
Winfrey has also had a long friendship with Maria Shriver, after they met in Baltimore. Winfrey considered Maya Angelou, author of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, her mentor and close friend; she called Angelou her "mother-sister-friend". Winfrey hosted a week-long Caribbean cruise for Angelou and 150 guests for Angelou's 70th birthday in 1998, and in 2008, threw her "an extravagant 80th birthday celebration" at Donald Trump's Mar-a-Lago club in Palm Beach, Florida.
=== Personal wealth ===
Born in rural poverty, and raised by a mother dependent on government welfare payments in a poor urban neighborhood, Winfrey became a millionaire at the age of 32 when her talk show received national syndication. Winfrey negotiated ownership rights to the television program and started her own production company. At the age of 41, Winfrey had a net worth of $340 million and replaced Bill Cosby as the only African American on the Forbes 400. By 2000, with a net worth of $800 million, Winfrey is believed to have been the richest African American of the 20th century. There has been a course taught at the University of Illinois focusing on Winfrey's business acumen; namely, "History 298: Oprah Winfrey, the Tycoon". Winfrey was the highest-paid television entertainer in the United States in 2006, earning an estimated $260 million during the year, five times the sum earned by second-place music executive Simon Cowell. By 2008, her yearly income had increased to $275 million.
Forbes' list of The World's Billionaires has listed Winfrey as the world's only black billionaire from 2004 to 2006 and as the first black woman billionaire in the world that was achieved in 2003. One of the richest celebrities ever, as of 2014, Winfrey had a net worth in excess of 2.9 billion dollars and had overtaken former eBay CEO Meg Whitman as the richest self-made woman in America.
=== Religious views ===
Oprah was raised a Baptist. In her early life, she would speak at local, mostly African American congregations of the Southern Baptist Convention that were often deeply religious and familiar with such themes as evangelical Protestantism, the Black church, and being born-again.
She was quoted as saying: "I have church with myself: I have church walking down the street. I believe in the God force that lives inside all of us, and once you tap into that, you can do anything." She also stated, "Doubt means don't. When you don't know what to do, do nothing until you do know what to do. Because the doubt is your inner voice or the voice of God or whatever you choose to call it. It is your instinct trying to tell you something is off. That's how I have found myself to be led spiritually, because that's your spiritual voice saying to you, 'let's think about it.' So when you don't know what to do, do nothing."
Oprah has stated that she is a Christian and her favorite Bible verse is Acts 17:28.
Oprah attends The Potter's House, an Evangelical church in Dallas.
=== Other ===
After the loss of her infant child at age 14, Winfrey did not want more children. In a 2017 interview with Vanity Fair, she explained "I didn't want babies. I wouldn't have been a good mom for babies. I don't have the patience. I have the patience for puppies but that's a quick stage!"
== Influence ==
=== Rankings ===
Winfrey was called "arguably the world's most powerful woman" by CNN and TIME, "arguably the most influential woman in the world" by The American Spectator, "one of the 100 people who most influenced the 20th Century" and "one of the most influential people" from 2004 to 2011 by TIME. Winfrey is the only person to have appeared in the latter list on ten occasions.
At the end of the 20th century, Life listed Winfrey as both the most influential woman and the most influential black person of her generation, and in a cover story profile the magazine called her "America's most powerful woman". In 2007, USA Today ranked Winfrey as the most influential woman and most influential black person of the previous quarter-century. Ladies' Home Journal also ranked Winfrey number one in their list of the most powerful women in America and then Senator Barack Obama in 2007 said she "may be the most influential woman in the country". In 1998, Winfrey became the first woman and first African American to top Entertainment Weekly's list of the 101 most powerful people in the entertainment industry. Forbes named her the world's most powerful celebrity in 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010, and 2013.
As chairman of Harpo Inc., she was named the most powerful woman in entertainment by The Hollywood Reporter in 2008. She has been listed as one of the world's 100 most powerful women by Forbes, ranking 14th in 2014 and 31st in 2023. In 2010, Life magazine named Winfrey one of the 100 people who changed the world, alongside Jesus Christ, Elvis Presley, and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Winfrey was the only living woman to make the list.
Columnist Maureen Dowd seems to agree with such assessments. Interviewed by The Guardian in 2006, Dowd said: "She is the top alpha female in this country. She has more credibility than the president. Other successful women, such as Hillary Clinton and Martha Stewart, had to be publicly slapped down before they could move forward. Even Condi has had to play the protégé with Bush. None of this happened to Oprah – she is a straight ahead success story." Vanity Fair wrote: "Oprah Winfrey arguably has more influence on the culture than any university president, politician, or religious leader, except perhaps the Pope. Bill O'Reilly said: "this is a woman that came from nothing to rise up to be the most powerful woman, I think, in the world. I think Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in the world, not just in America. That's – anybody who goes on her program immediately benefits through the roof. I mean, she has a loyal following; she has credibility; she has talent; and she's done it on her own to become fabulously wealthy and fabulously powerful."
In 2005, Winfrey was named the greatest woman in American history as part of a public poll as part of The Greatest American. She was ranked No. 9 overall on the list of greatest Americans. However, polls estimating Winfrey's personal popularity have been inconsistent. A November 2003 Gallup poll estimated that 73% of American adults had a favorable view of Winfrey. Another Gallup poll in January 2007 estimated the figure at 74%, although it dropped to 66% when Gallup conducted the same poll in October 2007. A December 2007 Fox News poll put the figure at 55%. According to Gallup's annual most admired poll, Americans consistently rank Winfrey as one of the most admired women in the world. Her highest rating came in 2007 when she was statistically tied with Hillary Clinton for first place. In a list compiled by the British magazine New Statesman in September 2010, she was voted 38th in the list of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010".
In 1989, she was accepted into the NAACP Image Award Hall of Fame.
=== "Oprahfication" ===
The Wall Street Journal coined the term "Oprahfication", meaning public confession as a form of therapy. By confessing intimate details about her weight problems, tumultuous love life, and sexual abuse, and crying alongside her guests, Winfrey has been credited by Time magazine with creating a new form of media communication known as "rapport talk" as distinguished from the "report talk" of Phil Donahue: "Winfrey saw television's power to blend public and private; while it links strangers and conveys information over public airwaves, TV is most often viewed in the privacy of our homes. Like a family member, it sits down to meals with us and talks to us in the lonely afternoons. Grasping this paradox, ... She makes people care because she cares. That is Winfrey's genius, and will be her legacy, as the changes she has wrought in the talk show continue to permeate our culture and shape our lives."
Observers have also noted the "Oprahfication" of politics such as "Oprah-style debates" and Bill Clinton being described as "the man who brought Oprah-style psychobabble and misty confessions to politics". Newsweek stated: "Every time a politician lets his lip quiver or a cable anchor 'emotes' on TV, they nod to the cult of confession that Oprah helped create."
The November 1988 Ms. observed that "in a society where fat is taboo, she made it in a medium that worships thin and celebrates a bland, white-bread prettiness of body and personality [...] But Winfrey made fat sexy, elegant – damned near gorgeous – with her drop-dead wardrobe, easy body language, and cheerful sensuality."
==== Daytime talk show's impact on LGBT people ====
While Phil Donahue has been credited with pioneering the tabloid talk show genre, Winfrey's warmth, intimacy, and personal confession popularized and changed it. Her success at popularizing the tabloid talk show genre opened up a thriving industry that has included Ricki Lake, The Jenny Jones Show, and The Jerry Springer Show. In the book Freaks Talk Back, Yale sociology professor Joshua Gamson credits the tabloid talk show genre with providing much needed high-impact media visibility for gay, bisexual, transsexual, and transgender (LGBT) people and doing more to make them mainstream and socially acceptable than any other development of the 20th century. In the book's editorial review, Michael Bronski wrote, "In the recent past, lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, and transgendered people had almost no presence on television. With the invention and propagation of tabloid talk shows such as Jerry Springer, Jenny Jones, Oprah, and Geraldo, people outside the sexual mainstream now appear in living rooms across America almost every day of the week." Gamson credits the tabloid talk show with making alternative sexual orientations and identities more acceptable in mainstream society. Examples include a Time magazine article on early 21st-century gays coming out of the closet at an increasingly younger age and on plummeting gay suicide rates. Gamson also believes that tabloid talk shows caused gays to be accepted on more traditional forms of media.
In April 1997, Winfrey played the therapist in "The Puppy Episode" on the sitcom Ellen to whom the character (and the real-life Ellen DeGeneres) came out as a lesbian.
=== "The Oprah Effect" ===
The power of Winfrey's opinions and endorsement to influence public opinion, especially consumer purchasing choices, has been dubbed "the Oprah Effect". The effect has been documented or alleged in domains as diverse as book sales, beef markets, and election voting. Late in 1996, Winfrey introduced the Oprah's Book Club segment to her television show. The segment focused on new books and classics and often brought obscure novels to popular attention. The book club became such a powerful force that whenever Winfrey introduced a new book as her book-club selection, it instantly became a best-seller; for example, when she selected the classic John Steinbeck novel East of Eden, it soared to the top of the book charts. Being recognized by Winfrey often means a million additional book sales for an author. In Reading with Oprah: The Book Club that Changed America (2005), Kathleen Rooney describes Winfrey as "a serious American intellectual who pioneered the use of electronic media, specifically television and the Internet, to take reading – a decidedly non-technological and highly individual act – and highlight its social elements and uses in such a way to motivate millions of erstwhile non-readers to pick up books."
When author Jonathan Franzen's book was selected for the Book Club, he reportedly "cringed" and said selected books tend to be "schmaltzy". After James Frey's A Million Little Pieces was found to contain fabrications in 2006, Winfrey confronted him on her show over the breach of trust. In 2009, Winfrey apologized to Frey for the public confrontation. During a show about mad cow disease with Howard Lyman (aired on April 16, 1996), Winfrey said she was stopped cold from eating another burger. Texas cattlemen sued her and Lyman in early 1998 for "false defamation of perishable food" and "business disparagement," claiming that Winfrey's remarks sent cattle prices tumbling, costing beef producers $11 million. Winfrey was represented by attorney Chip Babcock and, on February 26, after a two-month trial in an Amarillo, Texas, court, a jury found Winfrey and Lyman were not liable for damages. Winfrey's ability to launch other successful talk shows such as Dr. Phil, The Dr. Oz Show, and Rachael Ray has also been cited as examples of "The Oprah Effect".
=== Politics ===
Matthew Baum and Angela Jamison performed an experiment testing their hypothesis, "Politically unaware individuals who consume soft news will be more likely to vote consistently than their counterparts who do not consume soft news". In their studies, they found that low-awareness individuals who watch soft news shows, such as The Oprah Winfrey Show are 14% more likely to vote consistently than low-awareness individuals who only watch hard news.
Winfrey states she is a political independent who has "earned the right to think for myself and to vote for myself". She endorsed presidential candidate Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election. On September 25, 2006, Winfrey made her first endorsement of Obama for president on Larry King Live, the first time she endorsed a political candidate running for office. Two economists estimate that Winfrey's endorsement was worth over a million votes in the Democratic primary race and that without it, Obama would have lost the nomination. Winfrey held a fundraiser for Obama on September 8, 2007, at her Santa Barbara estate. In December 2007, Winfrey joined Obama for a series of rallies in the early primary states of Iowa, New Hampshire, and South Carolina. The Columbia, South Carolina, event on December 9, 2007, drew a crowd of nearly 30,000, the largest for any political event of 2007. An analysis by two economists at the University of Maryland, College Park estimated that Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for between 420,000 and 1,600,000 votes for Obama in the Democratic primary alone, based on a sample of states that did not include Texas, Michigan, North Dakota, Kansas, or Alaska. The results suggest that in the sampled states, Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for the difference in the popular vote between Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton. The governor of Illinois, Rod Blagojevich, reported being so impressed by Winfrey's endorsement that he considered offering Winfrey Obama's vacant senate seat, describing Winfrey as "the most instrumental person in electing Barack Obama president," with "a voice larger than all 100 senators combined". Winfrey responded by stating that although she was absolutely not interested, she did feel she could be a senator. The Topps trading card company memorialized Oprah's involvement in the campaign by featuring her on a card in a set commemorating Obama's road to the White House.
In April 2014, Winfrey spoke for more than 20 minutes at a fundraiser in Arlington, Virginia, for Lavern Chatman, a candidate in a primary to nominate a Democratic Party candidate for election to the U.S. House of Representatives. Winfrey participated in the event even after reports had revealed that Chatman had been found liable in 2001 for her role in a scheme to defraud hundreds of District of Columbia nursing-home employees of at least $1.4 million in owed wages.
Winfrey endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 election, and referred to Republican candidate Donald Trump as a "demagogue". In 2018, Winfrey canvassed door-to-door for Georgia gubernatorial Democratic nominee Stacey Abrams and donated $500,000 to the March for Our Lives student demonstration in favor of gun control in the United States.
Winfrey has at times been the subject of media speculation that she may run for president herself, most notably in the lead-up to the 2020 election in which some reports claimed that she was actively considering launching a campaign for the Democratic nomination. Winfrey ultimately denied any plans to run for president, saying in 2018 that while it was "a humbling thing to have people think you can run the country", she "would not be able to do it. It's not a clean business. It would kill me." Winfrey suggested that she would publicly endorse a candidate in the 2020 Democratic primaries, however she ultimately did not do so. She later campaigned for Joe Biden during the general election.
In early 2018, Winfrey met with Mohammad bin Salman, the crown prince and de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia, when he visited the United States.
In the 2022 Pennsylvania Senate election, Winfrey endorsed Democrat John Fetterman over Republican Mehmet Oz, whose show she promoted. In the 2022 Maryland gubernatorial election, she endorsed Baltimore author Wes Moore in the Democratic primary, co-hosting a virtual fundraiser for him in June. Winfrey later attended and spoke at Moore's gubernatorial inauguration on January 18, 2023.
In 2022, Winfrey set up OWN Your Vote, a nonpartisan group dedicated to voter registration and a get-out-the-vote campaign focused on providing Black women with tools and resources to vote in the November election. Their partners include Advancement Project, African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), Color Of Change, Delta Sigma Theta sorority, The King Center, The Lawyers' Committee, NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, National Action Network, National Bar Association, National Council of Negro Women, Sigma Gamma Rho, Southern Poverty Law Center, VoteRunLead, and Vote.org.
On August 21, 2024, Winfrey endorsed Kamala Harris in the 2024 United States presidential election at the 2024 Democratic National Convention.
=== Spiritual leadership ===
In 2000, she was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP. In 2002, Christianity Today published an article called "The Church of O" in which they concluded that Winfrey had emerged as an influential spiritual leader. "Since 1994, when she abandoned traditional talk-show fare for more edifying content, and 1998, when she began 'Change Your Life TV', Oprah's most significant role has become that of a spiritual leader. To her audience of more than 22 million mostly female viewers, she has become a postmodern priestess—an icon of church-free spirituality." The sentiment was echoed by Marcia Z. Nelson in her book The Gospel According to Oprah. Since the mid-1990s, Winfrey's show has emphasized uplifting and inspirational topics and themes and some viewers say the show has motivated them to perform acts of altruism such as helping Congolese women and building an orphanage. A scientific study by psychological scientists at the University of Cambridge, University of Plymouth, and University of California used an uplifting clip from The Oprah Winfrey Show in an experiment that discovered that watching the 'uplifting' clip caused subjects to become twice as helpful as subjects assigned to watch a British comedy or nature documentary.
In 1998, Winfrey began an ongoing conversation with Gary Zukav, an American spiritual teacher, who appeared on her television show 35 times. Winfrey has said she keeps a copy of Zukav's The Seat of the Soul at her bedside, a book that she says is one of her all-time favorites.
On the season premiere of Winfrey's 13th season, Roseanne Barr told Winfrey "you're the African Mother Goddess of us all" inspiring much enthusiasm from the studio audience. The animated series Futurama alluded to her spiritual influence by suggesting that "Oprahism" is a mainstream religion in 3000 AD. Twelve days after the September 11 attacks, New York mayor Rudy Giuliani asked Winfrey to serve as host of a Prayer for America service at New York City's Yankee Stadium, which was attended by former president Bill Clinton and New York senator Hillary Clinton. Leading up to the U.S.-led 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, less than a month after the September 11 attacks, Winfrey aired a controversial show called "Islam 101" in which she portrayed Islam as a religion of peace, calling it "the most misunderstood of the three major religions". In 2002, George W. Bush invited Winfrey to join a US delegation that included adviser Karen Hughes and Condoleezza Rice, planning to go to Afghanistan to celebrate the return of Afghan girls to school. The "Oprah strategy" was designed to portray the war on terror in a positive light; however, when Winfrey refused to participate, the trip was postponed.
Leading up to the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, Winfrey's show received criticism for allegedly having an anti-war bias. Ben Shapiro of Townhall.com wrote: "Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in America. She decides what makes The New York Times Best Seller lists. Her touchy-feely style sucks in audiences at the rate of 14 million viewers per day. But Oprah is far more than a cultural force, she's a dangerous political force as well, a woman with unpredictable and mercurial attitudes toward the major issues of the day." In 2006, Winfrey recalled such controversies: "I once did a show titled Is War the Only Answer? In the history of my career, I've never received more hate mail – like 'Go back to Africa' hate mail. I was accused of being un-American for even raising the question." Filmmaker Michael Moore came to Winfrey's defense, praising her for showing antiwar footage no other media would show and begging her to run for president.
A February 2003 series, in which Winfrey showed clips from people all over the world asking America not to go to war, was interrupted in several East Coast markets by network broadcasts of a press conference in which President George W. Bush and Colin Powell summarized the case for war.
In 2007, Winfrey began to endorse the self-help program The Secret. The Secret claims that people can change their lives through positive thoughts or 'vibrations', which will then cause them to attract more positive vibrations that result in good things happening to them. Peter Birkenhead of Salon magazine argued that this idea is pseudoscience and psychologically damaging, as it trivializes important decisions and promotes a quick-fix material culture, and suggests Winfrey's promotion of it is irresponsible given her influence. In 2007, skeptic and magician James Randi accused Winfrey of being deliberately deceptive and uncritical in how she handles paranormal claims on her show. In 2008, Winfrey endorsed author and spiritual teacher Eckhart Tolle and his book, A New Earth: Awakening to Your Life's Purpose, which sold several million extra copies after being selected for her book club. During a Webinar class, in which she promoted the book, Winfrey stated "God is a feeling experience and not a believing experience. If your religion is a believing experience [...] then that's not truly God." Frank Pastore, a Christian radio talk show host on KKLA, was among the many Christian leaders who criticized Winfrey's views, saying "if she's a Christian, she's an ignorant one because Christianity is incompatible with New Age thought".
Winfrey was named as the 2008 Person of the Year by animal-rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) for using her fame and listening audience to help the less fortunate, including animals. PETA praised Winfrey for using her talk show to uncover horrific cases of cruelty to animals in puppy mills and on factory farms, and Winfrey even used the show to highlight the cruelty-free vegan diet that she tried.
In 2009, Winfrey filmed a series of interviews in Denmark highlighting its citizens as the happiest people in the world. In 2010, Bill O'Reilly of Fox News criticized these shows for promoting a left-wing society. Following the launch of the Super Soul Sunday and SuperSoul Sessions programs on Harpo Productions' SuperSoul TV, in 2016 Winfrey selected 100 people for the SuperSoul 100 list of "innovators and visionaries who are aligned on a mission to move humanity forward".
On using the N-word, Winfrey said, "You cannot be my friend and use that word around me. ... I always think of the...people who heard that as their last word as they were hanging from a tree."
=== Fan base ===
The viewership for The Oprah Winfrey Show was highest during the 1991–92 season, when about 13.1 million U.S. viewers were watching each day. By 2003, ratings declined to 7.4 million daily viewers. Ratings briefly rebounded to approximately 9 million in 2005 and then declined again to around 7.3 million viewers in 2008, though it remained the highest-rated talk show.
In 2008, Winfrey's show was airing in 140 countries internationally and seen by an estimated 46 million people in the US weekly. According to the Harris poll, Winfrey was America's favorite television personality in 1998, 2000, 2002–06, and 2009. Winfrey was especially popular among women, Democrats, political moderates, Baby Boomers, Generation X, Southern Americans, and East Coast Americans.
Outside the U.S., Winfrey has become increasingly popular in the Arab world. The Wall Street Journal reported in 2007 that MBC 4, an Arab satellite channel, centered its entire programming around reruns of her show because it was drawing record numbers of female viewers in Saudi Arabia. In 2008, The New York Times reported that The Oprah Winfrey Show, with Arabic subtitles, was broadcast twice each weekday on MBC 4. Winfrey's modest dress, combined with her attitude of triumph over adversity and abuse has caused some women in Saudi Arabia to idealize her.
=== Philanthropy ===
In 2004, Winfrey became the first Black person to rank among the 50 most generous Americans and she remained among the top 50 until 2010. By 2012, she had given away about $400 million to educational causes.
As of 2012, Winfrey had also given over 400 scholarships to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia. Winfrey was the recipient of the first Bob Hope Humanitarian Award at the 2002 Emmy Awards for services to television and film. To celebrate two decades on national TV, and to thank her employees for their hard work, Winfrey took her staff and their families (1,065 people in total) on vacation to Hawaii in the summer of 2006.
In 2013, Winfrey donated $12 million to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture. President Barack Obama awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom later that same year.
Winfrey purchased 2,130 acres of land in Maui and set up a bed and breakfast for entertaining friends as well as a (unprofitable) organic farm; she is dedicated to keeping the area unoccupied and growing native species to aid in the restoration of damaged watersheds. She distributed pillows, diapers and other supplies to survivors of a devastating fire and, with Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson, set up the People’s Fund of Maui, personally donating $25 million of her own towards the cause.
==== Oprah's Angel Network ====
In 1998, Winfrey created Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. Oprah's Angel Network raised more than $80 million ($1 million of which was donated by Jon Bon Jovi). Winfrey personally covered all administrative costs associated with the charity, so 100% of all funds raised went to charity programs. In May 2010, with Oprah's show ending, the charity stopped accepting donations and was shut down.
==== South Africa ====
In 2004, Winfrey and her team filmed an episode of her show, "Oprah's Christmas Kindness", in which Winfrey travelled to South Africa to bring attention to the plight of young children affected by poverty and AIDS. During the 21-day trip, Winfrey and her crew visited schools and orphanages in poverty-stricken areas, and distributed Christmas presents to 50,000 children, with dolls for the girls and soccer balls for the boys, and school supplies. Throughout the show, Winfrey appealed to viewers to donate money to Oprah's Angel Network for poor and AIDS-affected children in Africa. From that show alone, viewers around the world donated over $7 million. Winfrey invested $40 million and some of her time establishing the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in Henley on Klip south of Johannesburg, South Africa. The school, set over 22 acres, opened in January 2007 with an enrollment of 150 pupils (increasing to 450) and features state-of-the-art classrooms, computer and science laboratories, a library, a theatre, and a beauty salon. Nelson Mandela praised Winfrey for overcoming her own disadvantaged youth to become a benefactor for others. Critics considered the school elitist and unnecessarily luxurious. Winfrey rejected the claims, saying: "If you are surrounded by beautiful things and wonderful teachers who inspire you, that beauty brings out the beauty in you." Winfrey, who has no surviving biological children, described maternal feelings towards the girls at Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls. Winfrey teaches a class at the school via satellite.
== Filmography ==
== Bibliography ==
By Oprah Winfrey
Winfrey, Oprah (1996). The Uncommon Wisdom of Oprah Winfrey: A Portrait in Her Own Words
Winfrey, Oprah (1998). Journey to Beloved (Photography by Ken Regan)
Winfrey, Oprah (1998). Make the Connection: Ten Steps to a Better Body and a Better Life (co-authored with Bob Greene)
Winfrey, Oprah (2000). Oprah Winfrey: The Soul and Spirit of a Superstar
Winfrey, Oprah (2014). What I Know for Sure
Winfrey, Oprah (2016). Mr. or Ms. Just Right (co-authored with B. Grace)
Winfrey, Oprah (2017). Food, Health and Happiness
Winfrey, Oprah (2017). The Wisdom of Sundays: Life-Changing Insights from Super Soul Conversations
Winfrey, Oprah (2017). The Wisdom Journal: The Companion to The Wisdom of Sundays
Winfrey, Oprah (2019). The Path Made Clear: Discovering Your Life's Direction and Purpose
Winfrey, Oprah (2021). What Happened to You?: Conversations on Trauma, Resilience, and Healing (co-authored with B. Perry)
== Awards, honors, and recognition ==
American Library Association Honorary Membership (1997)
Honorary degrees from: Princeton University, Howard University, Duke University, Harvard University, University of Massachusetts Lowell, University of the Free State, Tennessee State University, Spelman College, Colorado College, Smith College, Skidmore College
Mural including her image by Shawn Michael Warren in Chicago (painted in 2020)
Portrait of her by Shawn Michael Warren for the National Portrait Gallery (unveiled in 2023)
== See also ==
African Americans in Mississippi
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
Mair, George (1994). Oprah Winfrey: The Real Story. Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 1-55972-250-9. (Mair (1995). updated.) (updated 2001)
Moore, Michael (2003). Dude, Where's My Country?. Warner Books. ISBN 0-446-53223-1.
Cooper, Irene (2007). Oprah Winfrey. Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-06162-4.
== External links ==
Official website
Oprah Winfrey at IMDb
NPR "Oprah: The Billionaire Everywoman". Audio file, video and biography. Retrieved September 17, 2010
Works by Oprah Winfrey at Open Library
Oprah Winfrey (Archived February 16, 2013, at the Wayback Machine)—Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America
Appearances on C-SPAN
Watching Oprah (Archived April 17, 2021, at the Wayback Machine)—Smithsonian exhibition on the Oprah Show and Winfrey |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_Serbia#:~:text=The%20United%20States%20established%20diplomatic,Romania%20and%20Greece%2C%20in%20Athens. | List of ambassadors of the United States to Serbia | This is a list of ambassadors of the United States to Serbia.
Some parts of today's Serbia had been under the occupation of the Ottoman Empire (from 1459 until 1804) while other parts were occupied by Habsburg monarchy (1526–1804), Austrian Empire (1804–1867), and Austria-Hungary (1867–1918). Upon regaining its independence (partial in 1804 and full in 1878), the Serbian state strengthened and expanded and was in 1918 the driving force behind the creation of Yugoslavia (the land of South Slavs, a multi-ethnic state that over the following seven decades experienced various models of governance). In 1992 Yugoslavia disintegrated, although two of its constituent units - Serbia and Montenegro - continued in the same federal state under the same name Yugoslavia until 2003, when they re-organized into Serbia and Montenegro. After the Montenegrin independence referendum in May 2006, Serbia, as the only remaining unit in the federation, restored its independence on 5 June 2006.
The United States established diplomatic relations with Serbia on November 10, 1882 when Eugene Schuyler was appointed resident U.S. Ambassador to Serbia, Romania and Greece, in Athens.
Since July 17, 1919, U.S. diplomatic missions were based in Yugoslavia and since May 1992 after the breakup of Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Serbia – United States relations cooled off, were severed after the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. The U.S. Embassy formally reopened in Belgrade in May 2001.
The United States Embassy in Serbia is located in Belgrade.
== Ambassadors ==
== Notes ==
== See also ==
Serbia–United States relations
Foreign relations of the United States
== References ==
United States Department of State: Background notes on Serbia
This article incorporates public domain material from U.S. Bilateral Relations Fact Sheets. United States Department of State.
== External links ==
United States Department of State: Chiefs of Mission for Serbia
United States Department of State: Serbia
United States Embassy in Belgrade |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_EOS_R50 | Canon EOS R50 | The Canon EOS R50 is an entry-level APS-C mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera produced by Canon. It was announced on 27 February 2023 alongside the full-frame Canon EOS R8. The camera serves as an RF-mount replacement for Canon's discontinued EOS M50 Mark II and EOS 250D.
== Design ==
The Canon EOS R50 follows the design principles of the EOS M50 Mark II and EOS 250D compact interchangeable lens cameras, primarily their compact and lightweight construction, while incorporating the newer RF lens mount system and other features from previously released EOS R series cameras. The camera fits the internals of Canon's previously released EOS R10 into a form factor better suited for vlogging and travel.
== Features ==
The R50 includes many features from the more expensive EOS R10, including its 24.2-megapixel APS-C CMOS sensor, DIGIC X processor, Dual Pixel CMOS AF II focus system, and 2.36-million-dot OLED electronic viewfinder, though the physical controls have been simplified to fit the R50's role as a camera for beginner photographers. Additionally, features such as a fully mechanical shutter, sensor self-cleaning, and in-body image stabilization were not included, though the R50 can utilize in-lens stabilization.
The R50 includes a fully-articulating 1.62-million-dot LCD touchscreen along with its electronic viewfinder, a built-in stereo microphone and a 3.5mm audio jack for use with an external microphone, a UHS-I capable SD card slot, and built-in Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity. It is capable of burst shooting at a framerate of 12 fps with a buffer up to 42 JPEG images when using the electronic first curtain shutter and 15 fps with a buffer up to 37 images when using the electronic shutter. It is capable of shutter speeds from as fast as 1/8000 seconds to as slow as 30 seconds. When recording video, the R50 is capable of up to 4K UHD resolution oversampled from the full sensor width at up to 29.97 fps while also supporting slow motion 1080p recording at up to 120 fps. Its DIGIC X processor enables multiple modes of subject detection, up to 651 autofocus zones and 4503 autofocus points, and in-camera focus bracketing.
== Reception ==
The EOS R50 received generally positive reviews upon its launch. Engadget awarded the R50 a score of 87/100 and found it to be "a good balance between power and affordability". Digital Photography Review gave the camera a score of 84%, noting its high-quality photo and video capture and its "impressive" autofocus system while deducting points for a lack of available RF-mount APS-C lenses.
Some reviewers were more critical in their reception of the R50, chiefly due to ergonomics and controls. TechRadar gave the camera 3.5 stars and described it as "affordable, but limited" due to its lack of physical controls when compared to the EOS R10. PCMag came to a similar conclusion in its review, where it also gave the R50 3.5 stars and noted that the small size of the camera made it difficult to hold comfortably.
== Variants ==
On 26 March 2025, Canon announced the EOS R50 V, a vlogging-focused variant of the R50. The R50 V loses the R50's built-in flash and electronic viewfinder, but gains improved video recording capabilities, improved wired and wireless connectivity, and more video-focused physical and digital controls, especially the capability to shoot in Canon Log Clog3.
== See also ==
List of lightest mirrorless cameras
Canon EOS R50 V
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Canon EOS R50 at Wikimedia Commons
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_roller_coaster_rankings#:~:text=Kingda%20Ka%2C%20the%20tallest%20roller,wooden%20coasters%20in%20the%20world. | List of roller coaster rankings | Roller coasters are amusement rides developed for amusement parks and modern theme parks. Early iterations during the 16th and 17th centuries, which were popular in Russia, were wooden sleds that took riders down large slides made from ice. The first roller coasters that attached a train to a wooden track appeared in France in the early 1800s. Although wooden roller coasters are still being produced, steel roller coasters, introduced in the mid-20th-century, became more common and can be found on every continent except Antarctica.
Amusement parks often compete to build the tallest, fastest, and longest rides to attract thrill seekers and boost park attendance. Ranked by height, speed, length, and number of inversions, roller coasters often became the focal point for competing parks. Computer-simulated models led to innovations that produced more intense thrills while improving quality and durability. The debut of Magnum XL-200 in 1989 at Cedar Point introduced the first complete-circuit roller coaster to exceed 200 feet (61 m), marking a pivot point in the industry. The new era, sometimes referred to as the Coaster Wars, saw increasing competition as parks sought to be the latest to break world records, with some only lasting a year or less.
The pace of competition eventually slowed, however. Former record holder Kingda Ka, the previous tallest coaster in the world at 456 feet (139 m), held onto its record from 2005 until its closure in 2024. Other notable coasters include Formula Rossa, the world's fastest, which reaches a top speed of 149 mph (240 km/h), Steel Dragon 2000, the world's longest, measuring 8,133 feet (2,479 m), and The Smiler which features fourteen inversions.
== Key ==
== Height rankings ==
=== Tallest steel roller coasters ===
=== Longest steel roller coaster drops ===
=== Tallest wooden roller coasters ===
=== Longest wooden roller coaster drops ===
=== Gallery ===
== Speed rankings ==
=== Fastest steel roller coasters ===
=== Fastest wooden roller coasters ===
=== Fastest accelerating roller coasters ===
=== Gallery ===
== Length rankings ==
=== Longest steel roller coasters ===
=== Longest wooden roller coasters ===
=== Gallery ===
== Inversion rankings ==
This listing contains all types of roller coaster inversions.
=== Steel roller coasters ===
=== Wooden roller coasters ===
=== Gallery ===
== Drop angle rankings ==
=== Steel roller coasters ===
=== Wooden roller coasters ===
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Roller coaster census at the Roller Coaster DataBase
Top 100 roller coasters on CoasterBuzz |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deputy_Speaker_of_the_National_Assembly_of_Pakistan | Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan | The deputy speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan presides over the assembly whenever the speaker is absent or unable to perform his or her duties. The office has its roots in 1947 when the Deputy Speaker was addressed as the Deputy President of the legislative assembly. After the ratification of the 1973 Constitution of Pakistan, the office was re-established. Currently, the position of Deputy Speaker is held by Ghulam Mustafa Shah who was elected by the National Assembly of Pakistan on 1 March 2024 along with the Speaker Ayaz Sadiq.
== Role and Responsibilities ==
The office of the Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly is created by Article 53 of the Chapter 2 in Part III of the Constitution of Pakistan. The Deputy Speaker acts as Speaker on occasions when the Speaker is unable to do so. If both the Speaker and Deputy Speaker are unable to fulfil the role, another person is appointed to temporarily act as Speaker.
== List ==
== See also ==
Speaker of National Assembly
Senate of Pakistan
Politics of Pakistan
Prime Minister of Pakistan
Constitution of Pakistan
== References ==
== External links ==
Deputy speakers of the National Assembly |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Flight_Award#:~:text=2005,Charles%20Elachi | Space Flight Award | The Space Flight Award is an award given by the American Astronautical Society most years since 1955. It is presented to "the person whose outstanding efforts and achievements have contributed most significantly to the advancement of space flight and space exploration". The Society refers to the Space Flight Award as its "highest award".
== See also ==
List of space technology awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_P._Zakim | Leonard P. Zakim | Leonard Paul Zakim (November 17, 1953 – December 2, 1999) was a Jewish American religious and civil rights leader in Boston. Zakim died in 1999 after a five-year battle with bone-marrow cancer. Boston's Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge was named in his honor.
== Early life and education ==
Zakim, nicknamed "Lenny", was born in Clifton, New Jersey and became interested in civil rights and activism after he encountered anti-semitism as a boy. He earned his B.A. degree from American University in Washington, DC and his J.D. degree from the New England School of Law in 1978. He settled in the Boston area after law school and lived there until the end of his life. In 1978, he worked as the southeast Massachusetts field director for the reelection campaign of then Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis. Paid $50 a week to work on the ultimately unsuccessful campaign, this experience nevertheless formed the cornerstone of his later political involvement. "The campaign was the beginning of an association with Dukakis and his wife, Kitty, that would bring Zakim to the policy-making level of the national Democratic Party, a standing he retained after Dukakis's political career faded," the Boston Globe wrote in its obituary on Zakim.
In 1979, he was hired by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) as its New England Civil Rights director and in 1984 he was named New England director for the organization. He and his wife Joyce had three children: Josh, Deena and Shari.
== Civil rights advocacy ==
Zakim was also co-founder of A World of Difference Institute, an anti-bias educational project formed in Boston in 1986. The project has been adapted in 29 other cities and six counties.
Zakim and Rev. Charles Stith founded an annual Black-Jewish Seder in Boston which inspired many interfaith Seders with Catholic, Protestant and Jewish participants in Boston and nationally. At the time of his death it was the largest Black-Jewish seder in the USA. He also "used his political connections and friendships with black ministers, Roman Catholic leaders and sports celebrities to establish community organizations and public-service events, including the 12,000-member Team Harmony antiracism rally for teenagers", the New York Times said in its obituary.
During the last years of his life, as he struggled with myeloma, he founded the Lenny Zakim Fund to fight poverty and racism in Boston. Shortly before his death, he organized a Catholic-Jewish pilgrimage to Rome with his friend Cardinal Bernard Law. There, he had an audience with Pope John Paul II, prompting the New Jersey native to say: "I've had my picture taken with the Pope, Bruce Springsteen and the Dalai Lama. Now I've got to get the three of them together." He condemned the protest by gay rights and abortion rights activists outside the Cathedral of the Holy Cross in Boston that disrupted an ordination of priests in 1990.
== Publications ==
Zakim published several articles about the Middle East, Black-Jewish and Catholic-Jewish relations, anti-Semitism, violence and hate crimes. He wrote a Brandeis University publication about coalition building and Lift Up Your Voice, a book about race and religious relations released in 1998. He co-authored, with Janice Ditchek, Confronting Anti-Semitism: A Practical Guide.
== Political relationships ==
Zakim served as a member of the Massachusetts Democratic State Committee. In addition to working on the gubernatorial and presidential election campaigns of Dukakis, he was a close advisor and good friend of Steven Grossman when Grossman was chairman of the Massachusetts Democratic Party and later the National Democratic Party.
His work in Boston revolved around his personal relationships. "I am a firm believer that relationships count more than institutions", he said. "It's because you know someone that you start to care about their issues." In particular, his relationship with Cardinal Law was crucial. The men were friendly before Law became Cardinal. (Zakim traveled with the delegation to Rome when Law was elevated from archbishop). Upon returning to Boston in 1985, Law delivered his first sermon as cardinal on anti-semitism and the two men traveled to Poland together in 1986, where they visited the Auschwitz concentration camp and spoke to Catholic groups about anti-semitism.
== Honors ==
For bringing together Catholics and Jews in Boston, he was honored with a Knighthood of St. Gregory from Pope John Paul II during his November, 1999 trip to Rome. Zakim also received the Urban League's Community Service Award and the Catholic Charities Medal. He also received an honorary degree in humane letters from Brandeis University and numerous other awards for leadership in human rights.
The Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge, the Charles River crossing of Interstate 93 and US 1 completed in 2003 as part of the Big Dig (the Central Artery/Tunnel Project), was named in his honor.
The World Wide Web Consortium's Zakim IRC bot is named "in honor both of human rights advocate Lenny Zakim who gave voice to the people and the Zakim bridge across the Charles."
== References ==
== External links ==
Lenny Zakim profile (1953-1999)
The Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_2000 | Windows 2000 | Windows 2000 is a major release of the Windows NT operating system developed by Microsoft, targeting the server and business markets. It is the direct successor to Windows NT 4.0, and was released to manufacturing on December 15, 1999, and then to retail on February 17, 2000 for all versions, with Windows 2000 Datacenter Server being released to retail on September 26, 2000.
Windows 2000 introduces NTFS 3.0, Encrypting File System, and basic and dynamic disk storage. Support for people with disabilities is improved over Windows NT 4.0 with a number of new assistive technologies, and Microsoft increased support for different languages and locale information. The Windows 2000 Server family has additional features, most notably the introduction of Active Directory, which in the years following became a widely used directory service in business environments. Although not present in the final release, support for Alpha (which was a 64-bit platform but only distributed as a 32-bit OS) was present in its alpha, beta, and release candidate versions. Its successor, Windows XP, only supports x86, x64 and Itanium processors. Windows 2000 was also the first NT release to drop the "NT" name from its product line.
Four editions of Windows 2000 have been released: Professional, Server, Advanced Server, and Datacenter Server; the latter of which was launched months after the other editions. While each edition of Windows 2000 is targeted at a different market, they share a core set of features, including many system utilities such as the Microsoft Management Console and standard system administration applications.
Microsoft marketed Windows 2000 as the most secure Windows version ever at the time; however, it became the target of a number of high-profile virus attacks such as Code Red and Nimda. Windows 2000 was succeeded by Windows XP a little over a year and a half later on October 2001 while Windows 2000 Server was succeeded by Windows Server 2003 more than three years after its initial release on April 2003. For ten years after its release, it continued to receive patches for security vulnerabilities nearly every month until reaching the end of support on July 13, 2010, the same day that support ended for Windows XP SP2.
Both the original Xbox and the Xbox 360 use a modified version of the Windows 2000 kernel as their system software; the former's source code was leaked in 2020.
== History ==
Windows 2000, originally named Windows NT 5.0, is a continuation of the Microsoft Windows NT family of operating systems, replacing Windows NT 4.0. Chairman and CEO Bill Gates was originally "pretty confident" Windows NT 5.0 would ship in the first half of 1998, revealing that the first set of beta builds had been shipped in early 1997; these builds were identical to Windows NT 4.0. The first official beta was released in September 1997, followed by Beta 2 in August 1998. On October 27, 1998, Microsoft announced that the name of the final version of the operating system would be Windows 2000, a name which referred to its projected release date. Windows 2000 Beta 3 was released in May 1999. Windows NT 5.0 Beta 1 was similar to Windows NT 4.0, including a very similarly themed logo. Windows NT 5.0 Beta 2 introduced a new 'mini' boot screen, and removed the 'dark space' theme in the logo. The Windows NT 5.0 betas had very long startup and shutdown sounds, though these were changed in the early Windows 2000 beta, but during Beta 3, a new piano-made startup and shutdown sounds were made, composed by Steven Ray Allen. It was featured in the final version as well as in Windows Me. The new login prompt from the final version made its first appearance in Beta 3 build 1946 (the first build of Beta 3). The new, updated icons (for My Computer, Recycle Bin etc.) first appeared in Beta 3 build 1964. The Windows 2000 boot screen in the final version first appeared in Beta 3 build 1983. Windows 2000 did not have an actual codename because, according to Dave Thompson of Windows NT team, "Jim Allchin didn't like codenames". Service Pack 1 for Windows 2000 was codenamed "Asteroid".
During development, builds for the Alpha architecture were compiled, but the project was abandoned in the final stages of development (between RC1 and RC2) after Compaq announced they had dropped support for Windows NT on Alpha. The Alpha 64-bit builds of Windows 2000 were also in development simultaneously with the 32-bit versions (versions of Windows NT for Alpha were 32-bit only due to it using 32-bit application binary interfaces on an otherwise 64-bit processor) until it to was discontinued; development of Windows for Alpha 64-bit continued on for some time as a development platform for the 64-bit Intel Itanium platform when no other Itanium hardware was available at the time. From here, Microsoft issued three release candidates between July and November 1999, and finally released the operating system to partners on December 12, 1999, followed by manufacturing three days later on December 15. The public could buy the full version of Windows 2000 on February 17, 2000. Three days before this event, which Microsoft advertised as "a standard in reliability," a leaked memo from Microsoft reported on by Mary Jo Foley revealed that Windows 2000 had "over 63,000 potential known defects." After Foley's article was published, she claimed that Microsoft blacklisted her for a considerable time. However, Abraham Silberschatz et al. claim in their computer science textbook that "Windows 2000 was the most reliable, stable operating system Microsoft had ever shipped to that point. Much of this reliability came from maturity in the source code, extensive stress testing of the system, and automatic detection of many serious errors in drivers." InformationWeek summarized the release "our tests show the successor to Windows NT 4.0 is everything we hoped it would be. Of course, it isn't perfect either." Wired News later described the results of the February launch as "lackluster." Novell criticized Microsoft's Active Directory, the new directory service architecture, as less scalable or reliable than its own Novell Directory Services (NDS) alternative.
Windows 2000 was initially planned to replace both Windows 98 and Windows NT 4.0. However, this would be changed later, as an updated version of Windows 98 called Windows 98 Second Edition was released in 1999.
On or shortly before February 12, 2004, "portions of the Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows NT 4.0 source code were illegally made available on the Internet." The source of the leak was later traced to Mainsoft, a Windows Interface Source Environment partner. Microsoft issued the following statement:
"Microsoft source code is both copyrighted and protected as a trade secret. As such, it is illegal to post it, make it available to others, download it or use it."
Despite the warnings, the archive containing the leaked code spread widely on the file-sharing networks. On February 16, 2004, an exploit "allegedly discovered by an individual studying the leaked source code" for certain versions of Microsoft Internet Explorer was reported. On April 15, 2015, GitHub took down a repository containing a copy of the Windows NT 4.0 source code that originated from the leak.
Microsoft planned to release in 2000 a version of Windows 2000 which would run on 64-bit Intel Itanium microprocessors, specially codenamed "Janus". 64-bit builds of Windows 2000 were already in development for the Alpha 64-bit platform (which served as testing grounds for Itanium), however the first officially released 64-bit version of Windows was Windows XP 64-Bit Edition, released alongside the 32-bit editions of Windows XP on October 25, 2001, followed by the server versions Windows Datacenter Server Limited Edition and later Windows Advanced Server Limited Edition, which were based on the pre-release Windows Server 2003 (then known as Windows .NET Server) codebase. These editions were released in 2002, were shortly available through the OEM channel and then were superseded by the final versions of Server 2003 on April 24, 2003.
== New and updated features ==
Windows 2000 introduced many of the new features of Windows 98 and 98 SE into the NT line, such as the Windows Desktop Update, Internet Explorer 5 (Internet Explorer 6, which followed in 2001, is also available for Windows 2000), Outlook Express, NetMeeting, FAT32 support, 3DNow!, SSE and SSE2 support, Windows Driver Model, Internet Connection Sharing, Windows Media Player 6.4, WebDAV support etc. Certain new features are common across all editions of Windows 2000, among them NTFS 3.0, the Microsoft Management Console (MMC), UDF support, the Encrypting File System (EFS), Logical Disk Manager, Image Color Management 2.0, support for PostScript 3-based printers, OpenType (.OTF) and Type 1 PostScript (.PFB) font support (including a new font—Palatino Linotype—to showcase some OpenType features), the Data protection API (DPAPI), an LDAP/Active Directory-enabled Address Book, usability enhancements and multi-language and locale support. Windows 2000 also introduced USB device class drivers for USB printers, Mass storage class devices, and improved FireWire SBP-2 support for printers and scanners, along with a Safe removal applet for removable storage devices. Windows 2000 SP4 added native USB 2.0 support, Wireless Zero Configuration support and SSE3 support. Windows 2000 is also the first Windows version to support hibernation at the operating system level (OS-controlled ACPI S4 sleep state) unlike Windows 98 which required special drivers from the hardware manufacturer or driver developer.
A new capability designed to protect critical system files called Windows File Protection was introduced. This protects critical Windows system files by preventing programs other than Microsoft's operating system update mechanisms such as the Package Installer, Windows Installer and other update components from modifying them. The System File Checker utility provides users the ability to perform a manual scan of the integrity of all protected system files, and optionally repair them, either by restoring from a cache stored in a separate "DLLCACHE" directory, or from the original install media.
Microsoft recognized that a serious error (a Blue screen of death or stop error) could cause problems for servers that needed to be constantly running and so provided a system setting that would allow the server to automatically reboot when a stop error occurred. Also included is an option to dump any of the first 64 KB of memory to disk (the smallest amount of memory that is useful for debugging purposes, also known as a minidump), a dump of only the kernel's memory, or a dump of the entire contents of memory to disk, as well as write that this event happened to the Windows 2000 event log. In order to improve performance on servers running Windows 2000, Microsoft gave administrators the choice of optimizing the operating system's memory and processor usage patterns for background services or for applications. Windows 2000 also introduced core system administration and management features, such as the Windows Installer, Windows Management Instrumentation and Event Tracing for Windows (ETW) into the operating system.
=== Plug and Play and hardware support improvements ===
The most notable improvement from Windows NT 4.0 is the addition of Plug and Play with full ACPI and Windows Driver Model support. Similar to Windows 9x, Windows 2000 supports automatic recognition of installed hardware, hardware resource allocation, loading of appropriate drivers, PnP APIs and device notification events. The addition of the kernel PnP Manager along with the Power Manager are two significant subsystems added in Windows 2000.
Windows 2000 introduced version 3 print drivers (user mode printer drivers) based on Unidrv, which made it easier for printer manufacturers to write device drivers for printers. Generic support for 5-button mice is also included as standard and installing IntelliPoint allows reassigning the programmable buttons. Windows 98 lacked generic support. Driver Verifier was introduced to stress test and catch device driver bugs.
=== Shell ===
Windows 2000 introduces layered windows that allow for transparency, translucency and various transition effects like shadows, gradient fills and alpha-blended GUI elements to top-level windows. Menus support a new Fade transition effect.
The Start menu in Windows 2000 introduces personalized menus, expandable special folders and the ability to launch multiple programs without closing the menu by holding down the SHIFT key. A Re-sort button forces the entire Start Menu to be sorted by name. The Taskbar introduces support for balloon notifications which can also be used by application developers. Windows 2000 Explorer introduces customizable Windows Explorer toolbars, auto-complete in Windows Explorer address bar and Run box, advanced file type association features, displaying comments in shortcuts as tooltips, extensible columns in Details view (IColumnProvider interface), icon overlays, integrated search pane in Windows Explorer, sort by name function for menus, and Places bar in common dialogs for Open and Save.
Windows Explorer has been enhanced in several ways in Windows 2000. It is the first Windows NT release to include Active Desktop, first introduced as a part of Internet Explorer 4.0 (specifically Windows Desktop Update), and only pre-installed in Windows 98 by that time. It allowed users to customize the way folders look and behave by using HTML templates, having the file extension HTT. This feature was abused by computer viruses that employed malicious scripts, Java applets, or ActiveX controls in folder template files as their infection vector. Two such viruses are VBS/Roor-C and VBS.Redlof.a.
The "Web-style" folders view, with the left Explorer pane displaying details for the object currently selected, is turned on by default in Windows 2000. For certain file types, such as pictures and media files, the preview is also displayed in the left pane. Until the dedicated interactive preview pane appeared in Windows Vista, Windows 2000 had been the only Windows release to feature an interactive media player as the previewer for sound and video files, enabled by default. However, such a previewer can be enabled in previous versions of Windows with the Windows Desktop Update installed through the use of folder customization templates. The default file tooltip displays file title, author, subject and comments; this metadata may be read from a special NTFS stream, if the file is on an NTFS volume, or from an OLE structured storage stream, if the file is a structured storage document. All Microsoft Office documents since Office 4.0 make use of structured storage, so their metadata is displayable in the Windows 2000 Explorer default tooltip. File shortcuts can also store comments which are displayed as a tooltip when the mouse hovers over the shortcut. The shell introduces extensibility support through metadata handlers, icon overlay handlers and column handlers in Explorer Details view.
The right pane of Windows 2000 Explorer, which usually just lists files and folders, can also be customized. For example, the contents of the system folders aren't displayed by default, instead showing in the right pane a warning to the user that modifying the contents of the system folders could harm their computer. It's possible to define additional Explorer panes by using DIV elements in folder template files. This degree of customizability is new to Windows 2000; neither Windows 98 nor the Desktop Update could provide it. The new DHTML-based search pane is integrated into Windows 2000 Explorer, unlike the separate search dialog found in all previous Explorer versions. The Indexing Service has also been integrated into the operating system and the search pane built into Explorer allows searching files indexed by its database.
=== NTFS 3.0 ===
Microsoft released the version 3.0 of NTFS (sometimes incorrectly called "NTFS 5" in relation to the kernel version number) as part of Windows 2000; this introduced disk quotas (provided by QuotaAdvisor), file-system-level encryption, sparse files and reparse points. Sparse files allow for the efficient storage of data sets that are very large yet contain many areas that only have zeros. Reparse points allow the object manager to reset a file namespace lookup and let file system drivers implement changed functionality in a transparent manner. Reparse points are used to implement volume mount points, junctions, Hierarchical Storage Management, Native Structured Storage and Single Instance Storage. Volume mount points and directory junctions allow for a file to be transparently referred from one file or directory location to another.
Windows 2000 also introduces a Distributed Link Tracking service to ensure file shortcuts remain working even if the target is moved or renamed. The target object's unique identifier is stored in the shortcut file on NTFS 3.0 and Windows can use the Distributed Link Tracking service for tracking the targets of shortcuts, so that the shortcut file may be silently updated if the target moves, even to another hard drive.
=== Encrypting File System ===
The Encrypting File System (EFS) introduced strong file system-level encryption to Windows. It allows any folder or drive on an NTFS volume to be encrypted transparently by the user. EFS works together with the EFS service, Microsoft's CryptoAPI and the EFS File System Runtime Library (FSRTL). To date, its encryption has not been compromised.
EFS works by encrypting a file with a bulk symmetric key (also known as the File Encryption Key, or FEK), which is used because it takes less time to encrypt and decrypt large amounts of data than if an asymmetric key cipher were used. The symmetric key used to encrypt the file is then encrypted with a public key associated with the user who encrypted the file, and this encrypted data is stored in the header of the encrypted file. To decrypt the file, the file system uses the private key of the user to decrypt the symmetric key stored in the file header. It then uses the symmetric key to decrypt the file. Because this is done at the file system level, it is transparent to the user.
For a user losing access to their key, support for recovery agents that can decrypt files is built into EFS. A Recovery Agent is a user who is authorized by a public key recovery certificate to decrypt files belonging to other users using a special private key. By default, local administrators are recovery agents however they can be customized using Group Policy.
=== Basic and dynamic disk storage ===
Windows 2000 introduced the Logical Disk Manager and the diskpart command line tool for dynamic storage. All versions of Windows 2000 support three types of dynamic disk volumes (along with basic disks): simple volumes, spanned volumes and striped volumes:
Simple volume, a volume with disk space from one disk.
Spanned volumes, where up to 32 disks show up as one, increasing it in size but not enhancing performance. When one disk fails, the array is destroyed. Some data may be recoverable. This corresponds to SPAN and not to RAID-1.
Striped volumes, also known as RAID-0, store all their data across several disks in stripes. This allows better performance because disk reads and writes are balanced across multiple disks. Like spanned volumes, when one disk in the array fails, the entire array is destroyed (some data may be recoverable).
In addition to these disk volumes, Windows 2000 Server, Windows 2000 Advanced Server, and Windows 2000 Datacenter Server support mirrored volumes and striped volumes with parity:
Mirrored volumes, also known as RAID-1, store identical copies of their data on 2 or more identical disks (mirrored). This allows for fault tolerance; in the event one disk fails, the other disk(s) can keep the server operational until the server can be shut down for replacement of the failed disk.
Striped volumes with parity, also known as RAID-5, functions similar to striped volumes/RAID-0, except "parity data" is written out across each of the disks in addition to the data. This allows the data to be "rebuilt" in the event a disk in the array needs replacement.
=== Accessibility ===
With Windows 2000, Microsoft introduced the Windows 9x accessibility features for people with visual and auditory impairments and other disabilities into the NT-line of operating systems. These included:
StickyKeys: makes modifier keys (ALT, CTRL and SHIFT) become "sticky": a user can press the modifier key, and then release it before pressing the combination key. (Activated by pressing Shift five times quickly.)
FilterKeys: a group of keyboard-related features for people with typing issues, including:
Slow Keys: Ignore any keystroke not held down for a certain period.
Bounce Keys: Ignore repeated keystrokes pressed in quick succession.
Repeat Keys: lets users slow down the rate at which keys are repeated via the keyboard's key-repeat feature.
Toggle Keys: when turned on, Windows will play a sound when the CAPS LOCK, NUM LOCK or SCROLL LOCK key is pressed.
SoundSentry: designed to help users with auditory impairments, Windows 2000 shows a visual effect when a sound is played through the sound system.
MouseKeys: lets users move the cursor around the screen via the numeric keypad.
SerialKeys: lets Windows 2000 support speech augmentation devices.
High contrast theme: to assist users with visual impairments.
Microsoft Magnifier: a screen magnifier that enlarges a part of the screen the cursor is over.
Additionally, Windows 2000 introduced the following new accessibility features:
On-screen keyboard: displays a virtual keyboard on the screen and allows users to press its keys using a mouse or a joystick.
Microsoft Narrator: introduced in Windows 2000, this is a screen reader that utilizes the Speech API 4, which would later be updated to Speech API 5 in Windows XP
Utility Manager: an application designed to start, stop, and manage when accessibility features start. This was eventually replaced by the Ease of Access Center in Windows Vista.
Accessibility Wizard: a control panel applet that helps users set up their computer for people with disabilities.
=== Languages and locales ===
Windows 2000 introduced the Multilingual User Interface (MUI). Besides English, Windows 2000 incorporates support for Arabic, Armenian, Baltic, Central European, Cyrillic, Georgian, Greek, Hebrew, Indic, Japanese, Korean, simplified Chinese, Thai, traditional Chinese, Turkic, Vietnamese and Western European languages. It also has support for many different locales.
Since Windows 2000, English versions of Windows (NT) can support display and input right-to-left languages (such as Arabic) and CJKV languages, but related files needed to be installed in Control Panel.
=== Games ===
Windows 2000 included version 7.0 of the DirectX API, commonly used by game developers on Windows 98. The last version of DirectX that was released for Windows 2000 was DirectX 9.0c (Shader Model 3.0), which shipped with Windows XP Service Pack 2. Microsoft published quarterly updates to DirectX 9.0c through the February 2010 release after which support was dropped in the June 2010 SDK. These updates contain bug fixes to the core runtime and some additional libraries such as D3DX, XAudio 2, XInput and Managed DirectX components. The majority of games written for versions of DirectX 9.0c (up to the February 2010 release) therefore run on Windows 2000.
Windows 2000 included the same games as Windows NT 4.0 did: FreeCell, Minesweeper, Pinball, and Solitaire.
=== System utilities ===
Windows 2000 introduced the Microsoft Management Console (MMC), which is used to create, save, and open administrative tools. Each of these is called a console, and most allow an administrator to administer other Windows 2000 computers from one centralised computer. Each console can contain one or many specific administrative tools, called snap-ins. These can be either standalone (with one function), or an extension (adding functions to an existing snap-in). In order to provide the ability to control what snap-ins can be seen in a console, the MMC allows consoles to be created in author mode or user mode. Author mode allows snap-ins to be added, new windows to be created, all portions of the console tree to be displayed and consoles to be saved. User mode allows consoles to be distributed with restrictions applied. User mode consoles can grant full access to the user for any change, or they can grant limited access, preventing users from adding snapins to the console though they can view multiple windows in a console. Alternatively users can be granted limited access, preventing them from adding to the console and stopping them from viewing multiple windows in a single console.
The main tools that come with Windows 2000 can be found in the Computer Management console (in Administrative Tools in the Control Panel). This contains the Event Viewer—a means of viewing system or application-related events and the Windows equivalent of a log file, a system information utility, a backup utility, Task Scheduler and management consoles to view open shared folders and shared folder sessions, configure and manage COM+ applications, configure Group Policy, manage all the local users and user groups, and a device manager. It contains Disk Management and Removable Storage snap-ins, a disk defragmenter as well as a performance diagnostic console, which displays graphs of system performance and configures data logs and alerts. It also contains a service configuration console, which allows users to view all installed services and to stop and start them, as well as configure what those services should do when the computer starts. CHKDSK has significant performance improvements.
Windows 2000 comes with two utilities to edit the Windows registry, REGEDIT.EXE and REGEDT32.EXE. REGEDIT has been directly ported from Windows 98, and therefore does not support editing registry permissions. REGEDT32 has the older multiple document interface (MDI) and can edit registry permissions in the same manner that Windows NT's REGEDT32 program could. REGEDIT has a left-side tree view of the Windows registry, lists all loaded hives and represents the three components of a value (its name, type, and data) as separate columns of a table. REGEDT32 has a left-side tree view, but each hive has its own window, so the tree displays only keys and it represents values as a list of strings. REGEDIT supports right-clicking of entries in a tree view to adjust properties and other settings. REGEDT32 requires all actions to be performed from the top menu bar. Windows XP is the first system to integrate these two programs into a single utility, adopting the REGEDIT behavior with the additional NT features.
The System File Checker (SFC) also comes with Windows 2000. It is a command line utility that scans system files and verifies whether they were signed by Microsoft and works in conjunction with the Windows File Protection mechanism. It can also repopulate and repair all the files in the Dllcache folder.
=== Recovery Console ===
The Recovery Console is run from outside the installed copy of Windows to perform maintenance tasks that can neither be run from within it nor feasibly be run from another computer or copy of Windows 2000. It is usually used to recover the system from problems that cause booting to fail, which would render other tools useless, like Safe Mode or Last Known Good Configuration, or chkdsk. It includes commands like fixmbr, which are not present in MS-DOS.
It has a simple command-line interface, used to check and repair the hard drive(s), repair boot information (including NTLDR), replace corrupted system files with fresh copies from the CD, or enable/disable services and drivers for the next boot.
The console can be accessed in either of the two ways:
Booting from the Windows 2000 CD, and choosing to start the Recovery Console from the CD itself instead of continuing with setup. The Recovery Console is accessible as long as the installation CD is available.
Preinstalling the Recovery Console on the hard disk as a startup option in Boot.ini, via WinNT32.exe, with the /cmdcons switch. In this case, it can only be started as long as NTLDR can boot from the system partition.
=== Windows Scripting Host 2.0 ===
Windows 2000 introduced Windows Script Host 2.0 which included an expanded object model and support for logon and logoff scripts.
=== Networking ===
Starting with Windows 2000, the Server Message Block (SMB) protocol directly interfaces with TCP/IP. In Windows NT 4.0, SMB requires the NetBIOS over TCP/IP (NBT) protocol to work on a TCP/IP network.
Windows 2000 introduces a client-side DNS caching service. When the Windows DNS resolver receives a query response, the DNS resource record is added to a cache. When it queries the same resource record name again and it is found in the cache, then the resolver does not query the DNS server. This speeds up DNS query time and reduces network traffic.
=== Server family features ===
The Windows 2000 Server family consists of Windows 2000 Server, Windows 2000 Advanced Server, Windows 2000 Small Business Server, and Windows 2000 Datacenter Server.
All editions of Windows 2000 Server have the following services and features built in:
Routing and Remote Access Service (RRAS) support, facilitating dial-up and VPN connections using IPsec, L2TP or L2TP/IPsec, support for RADIUS authentication in Internet Authentication Service, network connection sharing, Network Address Translation, unicast and multicast routing schemes.
Remote access security features: Remote Access Policies for setup, verify Caller ID (IP address for VPNs), callback and Remote access account lockout
Autodial by location feature using the Remote Access Auto Connection Manager service
Extensible Authentication Protocol support in IAS (EAP-MD5 and EAP-TLS) later upgraded to PEAPv0/EAP-MSCHAPv2 and PEAP-EAP-TLS in Windows 2000 SP4
DNS server, including support for Dynamic DNS. Active Directory relies heavily on DNS.
IPsec support and TCP/IP filtering
Smart card support
Microsoft Connection Manager Administration Kit (CMAK) and Connection Point Services
Support for distributed file systems (DFS)
Hierarchical Storage Management support including remote storage, a service that runs with NTFS and automatically transfers files that are not used for some time to less expensive storage media
Fault tolerant volumes, namely Mirrored and RAID-5
Group Policy (part of Active Directory)
IntelliMirror, a collection of technologies for fine-grained management of Windows 2000 Professional clients that duplicates users' data, applications, files, and settings in a centralized location on the network. IntelliMirror employs technologies such as Group Policy, Windows Installer, Roaming profiles, Folder Redirection, Offline Files (also known as Client Side Caching or CSC), File Replication Service (FRS), Remote Installation Services (RIS) to address desktop management scenarios such as user data management, user settings management, software installation and maintenance.
COM+, Microsoft Transaction Server and Distributed Transaction Coordinator
MSMQ 2.0
TAPI 3.0
Integrated Windows Authentication (including Kerberos, Secure channel and SPNEGO (Negotiate) SSP packages for Security Support Provider Interface (SSPI)).
MS-CHAP v2 protocol
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) and Enterprise Certificate Authority support
Terminal Services and support for the Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP)
Internet Information Services (IIS) 5.0 and Windows Media Services 4.1
Network quality of service features
A new Windows Time service which is an implementation of Simple Network Time Protocol (SNTP) as detailed in IETF RFC 1769. The Windows Time service synchronizes the date and time of computers in a domain running on Windows 2000 Server or later. Windows 2000 Professional includes an SNTP client.
The Server editions include more features and components, including the Microsoft Distributed File System (DFS), Active Directory support and fault-tolerant storage.
==== Distributed File System ====
The Distributed File System (DFS) allows shares in multiple different locations to be logically grouped under one folder, or DFS root. When users try to access a network share off the DFS root, the user is really looking at a DFS link and the DFS server transparently redirects them to the correct file server and share. A DFS root can only exist on a Windows 2000 version that is part of the server family, and only one DFS root can exist on that server.
There can be two ways of implementing a DFS namespace on Windows 2000: either through a standalone DFS root or a domain-based DFS root. Standalone DFS allows for only DFS roots on the local computer, and thus does not use Active Directory. Domain-based DFS roots exist within Active Directory and can have their information distributed to other domain controllers within the domain – this provides fault tolerance to DFS. DFS roots that exist on a domain must be hosted on a domain controller or on a domain member server. The file and root information is replicated via the Microsoft File Replication Service (FRS).
==== Active Directory ====
A new way of organizing Windows network domains, or groups of resources, called Active Directory, is introduced with Windows 2000 to replace Windows NT's earlier domain model. Active Directory's hierarchical nature allowed administrators a built-in way to manage user and computer policies and user accounts, and to automatically deploy programs and updates with a greater degree of scalability and centralization than provided in previous Windows versions. User information stored in Active Directory also provided a convenient phone book-like function to end users. Active Directory domains can vary from small installations with a few hundred objects, to large installations with millions. Active Directory can organise and link groups of domains into a contiguous domain name space to form trees. Groups of trees outside of the same namespace can be linked together to form forests.
Active Directory services could always be installed on a Windows 2000 Server Standard, Advanced, or Datacenter computer, and cannot be installed on a Windows 2000 Professional computer. However, Windows 2000 Professional is the first client operating system able to exploit Active Directory's new features. As part of an organization's migration, Windows NT clients continued to function until all clients were upgraded to Windows 2000 Professional, at which point the Active Directory domain could be switched to native mode and maximum functionality achieved.
Active Directory requires a DNS server that supports SRV resource records, or that an organization's existing DNS infrastructure be upgraded to support this. There should be one or more domain controllers to hold the Active Directory database and provide Active Directory directory services.
==== Volume fault tolerance ====
Along with support for simple, spanned and striped volumes, the Windows 2000 Server family also supports fault-tolerant volume types. The types supported are mirrored volumes and RAID-5 volumes:
Mirrored volumes: the volume contains several disks, and when data is written to one it is also written to the other disks. This means that if one disk fails, the data can be totally recovered from the other disk. Mirrored volumes are also known as RAID-1.
RAID-5 volumes: a RAID-5 volume consists of multiple disks, and it uses block-level striping with parity data distributed across all member disks. Should a disk fail in the array, the parity blocks from the surviving disks are combined mathematically with the data blocks from the surviving disks to reconstruct the data on the failed drive "on-the-fly."
== Deployment ==
Windows 2000 can be deployed to a site via various methods. It can be installed onto servers via traditional media (such as CD) or via distribution folders that reside on a shared folder. Installations can be attended or unattended. During a manual installation, the administrator must specify configuration options. Unattended installations are scripted via an answer file, or a predefined script in the form of an INI file that has all the options filled in. An answer file can be created manually or using the graphical Setup manager. The Winnt.exe or Winnt32.exe program then uses that answer file to automate the installation. Unattended installations can be performed via a bootable CD, using Microsoft Systems Management Server (SMS), via the System Preparation Tool (Sysprep), via the Winnt32.exe program using the /syspart switch or via Remote Installation Services (RIS). The ability to slipstream a service pack into the original operating system setup files is also introduced in Windows 2000.
The Sysprep method is started on a standardized reference computer – though the hardware need not be similar – and it copies the required installation files from the reference computer to the target computers. The hard drive does not need to be in the target computer and may be swapped out to it at any time, with the hardware configured later. The Winnt.exe program must also be passed a /unattend switch that points to a valid answer file and a /s file that points to one or more valid installation sources.
Sysprep allows the duplication of a disk image on an existing Windows 2000 Server installation to multiple servers. This means that all applications and system configuration settings will be copied across to the new installations, and thus, the reference and target computers must have the same HALs, ACPI support, and mass storage devices – though Windows 2000 automatically detects "plug and play" devices. The primary reason for using Sysprep is to quickly deploy Windows 2000 to a site that has multiple computers with standard hardware. (If a system had different HALs, mass storage devices or ACPI support, then multiple images would need to be maintained.)
Systems Management Server can be used to upgrade multiple computers to Windows 2000. These must be running Windows NT 3.51, Windows NT 4.0, Windows 98 or Windows 95 OSR2.x along with the SMS client agent that can receive software installation operations. Using SMS allows installations over a wide area and provides centralised control over upgrades to systems.
Remote Installation Services (RIS) are a means to automatically install Windows 2000 Professional (and not Windows 2000 Server) to a local computer over a network from a central server. Images do not have to support specific hardware configurations and the security settings can be configured after the computer reboots as the service generates a new unique security ID (SID) for the machine. This is required so that local accounts are given the right identifier and do not clash with other Windows 2000 Professional computers on a network.
RIS requires that client computers are able to boot over the network via either a network interface card that has a Pre-Boot Execution Environment (PXE) boot ROM installed or that the client computer has a network card installed that is supported by the remote boot disk generator. The remote computer must also meet the Net PC specification. The server that RIS runs on must be Windows 2000 Server and it must be able to access a network DNS Service, a DHCP service and the Active Directory services.
== Editions ==
Microsoft released various editions of Windows 2000 for different markets and business needs: Professional, Server, Advanced Server and Datacenter Server. Each was packaged separately.
Windows 2000 Professional was designed as the desktop operating system for businesses and power users. It is the client version of Windows 2000. It offers greater security and stability than many of the previous Windows desktop operating systems. It supports up to two processors, and can address up to 4 GB of RAM. The system requirements are a Pentium processor (or equivalent) of 133 MHz or greater, at least 32 MB of RAM, 650 MB of hard drive space, and a CD-ROM drive (recommended: Pentium II, 128 MB of RAM, 2 GB of hard drive space, and CD-ROM drive). However, despite the official minimum processor requirements, it is still possible to install Windows 2000 on 4th-generation x86 CPUs such as the 80486.
Windows 2000 Embedded and Windows 2000 Professional Embedded/Windows 2000 Professional For Embedded Systems are versions of Windows 2000 Professional that was designed for embedded use, and targeted at ATMs, vending machines and other large embedded devices. Windows 2000 Embedded was cancelled during development in favor of Windows XP Embedded, however the binary identical FES versions were released and function exactly the same as its retail counterpart, but licensed for embedded use.
Windows 2000 Server shares the same user interface with Windows 2000 Professional, but contains additional components for the computer to perform server roles and run infrastructure and application software. A significant new component introduced in the server versions is Active Directory, which is an enterprise-wide directory service based on LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol). Additionally, Microsoft integrated Kerberos network authentication, replacing the often-criticised NTLM (NT LAN Manager) authentication system used in previous versions. This also provided a purely transitive-trust relationship between Windows 2000 Server domains in a forest (a collection of one or more Windows 2000 domains that share a common schema, configuration, and global catalog, being linked with two-way transitive trusts). Furthermore, Windows 2000 introduced a Domain Name Server which allows dynamic registration of IP addresses. Windows 2000 Server supports up to 4 processors and 4 GB of RAM, with a minimum requirement of 128 MB of RAM and 1 GB hard disk space, however requirements may be higher depending on installed components.
Windows 2000 Server Embedded and Windows 2000 Server For Embedded Systems are binary identical versions of Windows 2000 Server that was targeted at the embedded market. Both versions function exactly the same as its retail counterpart, but is licensed for embedded use.
Windows 2000 Advanced Server is a variant of Windows 2000 Server operating system designed for medium-to-large businesses. It offers the ability to create clusters of servers, support for up to 8 CPUs, a main memory amount of up to 8 GB on Physical Address Extension (PAE) systems and the ability to do 8-way SMP. It supports TCP/IP load balancing and builds on Microsoft Cluster Server (MSCS) in Windows NT Enterprise Server 4.0, adding enhanced functionality for two-node clusters. System requirements are similar to those of Windows 2000 Server, however they may need to be higher to scale to larger infrastructure.
Windows 2000 Datacenter Server is a variant of Windows 2000 Server designed for large businesses that move large quantities of confidential or sensitive data frequently via a central server. Like Advanced Server, it supports clustering, failover and load balancing. Its minimum system requirements are similar to those of Advanced Server, but it was designed to be capable of handing advanced, fault-tolerant and scalable hardware—for instance computers with up to 32 CPUs and 32 GBs RAM, with rigorous system testing and qualification, hardware partitioning, coordinated maintenance and change control. Windows 2000 Datacenter Server was released to manufacturing on August 11, 2000 and launched on September 26, 2000. This edition was based on Windows 2000 with Service Pack 1 and was not available at retail.
== Service packs ==
Windows 2000 has received four full service packs and one rollup update package following SP4, which is the last service pack. Microsoft phased out all development of its Java Virtual Machine (JVM) from Windows 2000 in SP3. Internet Explorer 5.01 has also been upgraded to the corresponding service pack level.
Service Pack 4 with Update Rollup was released on September 13, 2005, nearly four years following the release of Windows XP and sixteen months prior to the release of Windows Vista.
Microsoft had originally intended to release a fifth service pack for Windows 2000, but cancelled this project early in its development, and instead released Update Rollup 1 for SP4, a collection of all the security-related hotfixes and some other significant issues. The Update Rollup does not include all non-security related hotfixes and is not subjected to the same extensive regression testing as a full service pack. Microsoft states that this update will meet customers' needs better than a whole new service pack, and will still help Windows 2000 customers secure their PCs, reduce support costs, and support existing computer hardware.
== Upgradeability ==
Several Windows 2000 components are upgradable to the latest versions, which include new versions introduced in later versions of Windows, and other major Microsoft applications are available. These latest versions for Windows 2000 include:
ActiveSync 4.5
DirectX 9.0c (February 5, 2010, Redistributable)
Internet Explorer 6 SP1 and Outlook Express 6 SP1
Microsoft Agent 2.0
Microsoft Data Access Components 2.81
Microsoft NetMeeting 3.01
Microsoft Virtual PC 2004 SP1
Office 2003 SP3
MSN Messenger 7.0 (Windows Messenger)
MSXML 6.0 SP2
.NET Framework 2.0 SP2
Tweak UI 1.33
Visual C++ 2008
Visual Studio 2005
Windows Desktop Search 2.66
Windows Script Host 5.7
Windows Installer 3.1
Windows Media Format Runtime and Windows Media Player 9 Series (including Windows Media Encoder 7.1 and the Windows Media 8 Encoding Utility)
== Security ==
During the Windows 2000 period, the nature of attacks on Windows servers changed: more attacks came from remote sources via the Internet. This has led to an overwhelming number of malicious programs exploiting the IIS services – specifically a notorious buffer overflow tendency. This tendency is not operating-system-version specific, but rather configuration-specific: it depends on the services that are enabled. Following this, a common complaint is that "by default, Windows 2000 installations contain numerous potential security problems. Many unneeded services are installed and enabled, and there is no active local security policy." In addition to insecure defaults, according to the SANS Institute, the most common flaws discovered are remotely exploitable buffer overflow vulnerabilities. Other criticized flaws include the use of vulnerable encryption techniques.
Code Red and Code Red II were famous (and much discussed) worms that exploited vulnerabilities of the Windows Indexing Service of Windows 2000's Internet Information Services (IIS). In August 2003, security researchers estimated that two major worms called Sobig and Blaster infected more than half a million Microsoft Windows computers. The 2005 Zotob worm was blamed for security compromises on Windows 2000 machines at ABC, CNN, the New York Times Company, and the United States Department of Homeland Security.
On September 8, 2009, Microsoft skipped patching two of the five security flaws that were addressed in the monthly security update, saying that patching one of the critical security flaws was "infeasible." According to Microsoft Security Bulletin MS09-048: "The architecture to properly support TCP/IP protection does not exist on Microsoft Windows 2000 systems, making it infeasible to build the fix for Microsoft Windows 2000 Service Pack 4 to eliminate the vulnerability. To do so would require re-architecting a very significant amount of the Microsoft Windows 2000 Service Pack 4 operating system, there would be no assurance that applications designed to run on Microsoft Windows 2000 Service Pack 4 would continue to operate on the updated system." No patches for this flaw were released for the newer Windows XP (32-bit) and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition either, despite both also being affected; Microsoft suggested turning on Windows Firewall in those versions.
== Support lifecycle ==
Windows 2000 and Windows 2000 Server were superseded by newer Microsoft operating systems: Windows 2000 Server products by Windows Server 2003, and Windows 2000 Professional by Windows XP Professional.
The Windows 2000 family of operating systems moved from mainstream support to the extended support phase on June 30, 2005. Microsoft says that this marks the progression of Windows 2000 through the Windows lifecycle policy. Under mainstream support, Microsoft freely provides design changes if any, service packs and non-security related updates in addition to security updates, whereas in extended support, service packs are not provided and non-security updates require contacting the support personnel by e-mail or phone. Under the extended support phase, Microsoft continued to provide critical security updates every month for all components of Windows 2000 (including Internet Explorer 5.0 SP4) and paid per-incident support for technical issues. Because of Windows 2000's age, updated versions of components such as Windows Media Player 11 and Internet Explorer 7 have not been released for it. In the case of Internet Explorer, Microsoft said in 2005 that, "some of the security work in IE 7 relies on operating system functionality in XP SP2 that is non-trivial to port back to Windows 2000." (though ironically, support for both Windows 2000 and Windows XP SP2 ended on July 13, 2010).
While users of Windows 2000 Professional and Server were eligible to purchase the upgrade license for Windows Vista Business or Windows Server 2008, neither of these operating systems can directly perform an upgrade installation from Windows 2000; a clean installation must be performed instead or a two-step upgrade through XP/2003. Microsoft has dropped the upgrade path from Windows 2000 (and earlier) to Windows 7. Users of Windows 2000 must buy a full Windows 7 license.
Although Windows 2000 is the last NT-based version of Microsoft Windows which does not include product activation, Microsoft has introduced Windows Genuine Advantage for certain downloads and non-critical updates from the Download Center for Windows 2000.
Windows 2000 reached the end of its lifecycle (EoL) on July 13, 2010 (alongside Service Pack 2 of Windows XP). It will not receive new security updates and new security-related hotfixes after this date. In Japan, over 130,000 servers and 500,000 PCs in local governments were affected; many local governments said that they will not update as they do not have funds to cover a replacement.
As of 2011, Windows Update still supports the Windows 2000 updates available on Patch Tuesday in July 2010, e.g., if older optional Windows 2000 features are enabled later. Microsoft Office products under Windows 2000 have their own product lifecycles. While Internet Explorer 6 for Windows XP did receive security patches up until it lost support, this is not the case for IE6 under Windows 2000. The Windows Malicious Software Removal Tool installed monthly by Windows Update for XP and later versions can be still downloaded manually for Windows 2000.
In 2020, Microsoft announced that it would disable the Windows Update service for SHA-1 endpoints for older Windows versions. Since Windows 2000 did not get an update for SHA-2, Windows Update Services are no longer available on the OS as of late July 2020. As of March 2024, many of the old updates for Windows 2000 are still available on the Microsoft Update Catalog. A third-party tool named Legacy Update allows previously released updates for Windows 2000 to be installed from the Update Catalog. An independent project named Windows Update Restored is also available since 2022 and aims to restore the Windows Update websites for older versions of Windows, including Windows 2000.
== Total cost of ownership ==
In October 2002, Microsoft commissioned IDC to determine the total cost of ownership (TCO) for enterprise applications on Windows 2000 versus the TCO of the same applications on Linux. IDC's report is based on telephone interviews of IT executives and managers of 104 North American companies in which they determined what they were using for a specific workload for file, print, security and networking services.
IDC determined that the four areas where Windows 2000 had a better TCO than Linux – over a period of five years for an average organization of 100 employees – were file, print, network infrastructure and security infrastructure. They determined, however, that Linux had a better TCO than Windows 2000 for web serving. The report also found that the greatest cost was not in the procurement of software and hardware, but in staffing costs and downtime. While the report applied a 40% productivity factor during IT infrastructure downtime, recognizing that employees are not entirely unproductive, it did not consider the impact of downtime on the profitability of the business. The report stated that Linux servers had less unplanned downtime than Windows 2000 servers. It found that most Linux servers ran less workload per server than Windows 2000 servers and also that none of the businesses interviewed used 4-way SMP Linux computers. The report also did not take into account specific application servers – servers that need low maintenance and are provided by a specific vendor. The report did emphasize that TCO was only one factor in considering whether to use a particular IT platform, and also noted that as management and server software improved and became better packaged the overall picture shown could change.
== See also ==
Architecture of Windows NT
BlueKeep (security vulnerability)
Comparison of operating systems
DEC Multia, one of the DEC Alpha computers capable of running Windows 2000 beta
Microsoft Servers, Microsoft's network server software brand
Windows Neptune, a cancelled consumer edition based on Windows 2000
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bolosky, William J.; Corbin, Scott; Goebel, David; & Douceur, John R. "Single Instance Storage in Windows 2000." Microsoft Research & Balder Technology Group, Inc. (white paper).
Bozman, Jean; Gillen, Al; Kolodgy, Charles; Kusnetzky, Dan; Perry, Randy; & Shiang, David (October 2002). "Windows 2000 Versus Linux in Enterprise Computing: An assessment of business value for selected workloads." IDC, sponsored by Microsoft Corporation. White paper.
Finnel, Lynn (2000). MCSE Exam 70–215, Microsoft Windows 2000 Server. Microsoft Press. ISBN 1-57231-903-8.
Microsoft. Running Nonnative Applications in Windows 2000 Professional . Windows 2000 Resource Kit. Retrieved May 4, 2005.
Microsoft. "Active Directory Data Storage." Retrieved May 9, 2005.
Minasi, Mark (2000). "Chapter 3 – Installing Windows 2000 On Workstations with Remote Installation Services". Mastering Windows 2000 Server (Second ed.). Sybex. ISBN 0-7821-2774-6. Archived from the original on March 11, 2005.
Russinovich, Mark (October 1997). "Inside NT's Object Manager." Windows IT Pro.
Russinovich, Mark (2002). "Inside Win2K NTFS, Part 1." Windows IT Pro (formerly Windows 2000 Magazine).
Saville, John (January 9, 2000). "What is Native Structure Storage?." Windows IT Pro (formerly Windows 2000 Magazine).
Siyan, Kanajit S. (2000). Windows 2000 Professional Reference. New Riders. ISBN 0-7357-0952-1.
Solomon, David; Russinovich, Mark E (2000). "System Architecture". Inside Microsoft Windows 2000 (Third ed.). Microsoft Press. ISBN 0-7356-1021-5. Archived from the original on March 23, 2005.
Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (2001). Modern Operating Systems (2nd ed.). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-031358-0.
Trott, Bob (October 27, 1998). "It's official: NT 5.0 becomes Windows 2000." InfoWorld.
Wallace, Rick (2000). MCSE Exam 70–210, Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional. Microsoft Press. ISBN 1-57231-901-1.
== External links ==
Official website at the Wayback Machine (archived 2000-02-29) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severance_(TV_series)#:~:text=Tramell%20Tillman%20as%20Seth%20Milchick,the%20severed%20floor%20at%20Lumon. | Severance (TV series) | Severance is an American science fiction psychological thriller television series created by Dan Erickson, and executive produced and primarily directed by Ben Stiller. It stars Adam Scott, Zach Cherry, Britt Lower, Tramell Tillman, Jen Tullock, Dichen Lachman, Michael Chernus, John Turturro, Christopher Walken, Patricia Arquette, and Sarah Bock. The series follows employees at Lumon Industries, a biotechnology corporation, that have undergone "severance"—a procedure that splits a person's memories between work and their personal life. This creates two separate identities for employees: the "innie", who has no knowledge of the outside world, and the "outie", who lives their life outside without any knowledge of their job.
Erickson and Stiller first developed Severance in 2015, with the series being greenlit by Apple TV+ in 2019, with Scott attached. The cast for the first season was rounded out by December 2020, and the cast for the second season was announced in October 2022. Principal photography for the series has taken place in New York, New Jersey and Newfoundland. Its first season aired from February 18 until April 8, 2022, and its second season from January 17 to March 21, 2025. Severance has been renewed for a third season.
Severance has received critical acclaim for its cinematography, direction, production design, musical score, story, and performances. It has received numerous accolades, including 41 Primetime Emmy Award nominations, winning for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for Lower and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for Tillman. Scott's performance earned him nominations for a Primetime Emmy Award, two Television Critics Association Awards, and a Golden Globe Award, while Stiller and Erickson also received Emmy nominations for directing and writing.
== Cast and characters ==
=== Main ===
Adam Scott as Mark S. / Mark Scout, a former history professor and a severed worker for Lumon Industries in the Macrodata Refinement (MDR) department.
Zach Cherry as Dylan G. / Dylan George, Mark's severed co-worker in the MDR department, who particularly enjoys company perks.
Britt Lower as Helly R., a rebellious new severed employee in the MDR department at Lumon.
Tramell Tillman as Seth Milchick, the Deputy Manager on the severed floor at Lumon.
Jen Tullock as Devon Scout-Hale, Mark's sister.
Dichen Lachman as Ms. Casey, who serves as the wellness counselor on the severed floor at Lumon.
Michael Chernus as Ricken Hale, an eccentric self-help author who is Devon's husband and Mark's brother-in-law.
John Turturro as Irving B. / Irving Bailiff, Mark's severed co-worker in the MDR department, who is a stickler for company policy and is drawn to Burt.
Christopher Walken as Burt G. / Burt Goodman, another severed employee and the head of the Optics and Design (O&D) division who is drawn to Irving.
Patricia Arquette as Harmony Cobel, the manager of the severed floor at Lumon, who outside of work uses the false identity of "Mrs. Selvig," and Mark's next-door neighbor.
Sarah Bock as Eustice Huang (season 2), the young new Deputy Manager of the Severed floor.
=== Recurring ===
Yul Vazquez as Peter "Petey" Kilmer (season 1; voice season 2), Mark's former severed co-worker and best friend in the MDR division, who left Lumon under mysterious circumstances.
Michael Cumpsty as Doug Graner (season 1), the head of security on Lumon's severed floor.
Nikki M. James as Alexa (season 1), Devon's midwife and one of Mark's love interests.
Sydney Cole Alexander as Natalie Kalen, Lumon's PR representative and speaker for the mysterious Board.
Nora Dale as Gabby Arteta (season 1), the wife of Senator Angelo Arteta, whom Devon encounters at a birthing retreat.
Mark Kenneth Smaltz as Judd, a security guard at Lumon.
Donald Webber Jr. as Patton, a friend of Ricken's.
Grace Rex as Rebeck, a friend of Ricken's.
Annie McNamara as Danise (season 1), a friend of Ricken's.
Claudia Robinson as Felicia, a severed O&D division employee who is close with Burt.
Karen Aldridge as Asal Reghabi, a former Lumon surgeon who performs reintegrations.
Michael Siberry as Jame Eagan, the current CEO of Lumon.
Darri Ólafsson as Mr. Drummond (season 2), an intimidating Lumon enforcer who is involved with severance operations.
Merritt Wever as Gretchen George (season 2), Dylan's wife.
Robby Benson as Dr. Mauer (season 2), a doctor on Lumon's testing floor.
Gwendoline Christie as Lorne (season 2), a severed employee running the Mammalians Nurturable division.
Sandra Bernhard as Cecily (season 2), a nurse on the testing floor.
=== Guest ===
Marc Geller as Kier Eagan, the late founder of Lumon, who is worshipped with cult-like devotion within the company; he is represented throughout the series in sculptures, paintings, and audio recordings.
Cassidy Layton as June Kilmer (season 1), Petey's daughter.
Joanne Kelly as Nina (season 1), Petey's ex-wife.
Ethan Flower as Angelo Arteta (season 1), a Lumon-backed state senator who supports legalizing the severance procedure and is married to Gabby Arteta, with whom he has three children.
Rajat Suresh as Balf (season 1), a friend of Ricken's.
Bob Balaban as Mark Wilkins (season 2), a new member of MDR, from Lumon branch 5X.
Alia Shawkat as Gwendolyn Y. (season 2), a new member of MDR, from Lumon branch 5X.
Stefano Carannante as Dario Rossi (season 2), a new member of MDR.
Sarah Sherman (season 2) as the voice of a stop-motion water tower in a Lumon industrial film.
Adrian Martinez as Mr. Saliba (season 2), a manager at a door factory who interviews Dylan for a position.
John Noble as Fields (season 2), Burt's husband.
James LeGros as Hampton (season 2), an acquaintance of Harmony Cobel from Salt's Neck.
Jane Alexander as Celestine "Sissy" Cobel (season 2), Harmony's reclusive aunt in Salt's Neck.
Ben Stiller has an uncredited voice cameo as an animated version of Kier Eagan in season 1. Keanu Reeves has an uncredited voice cameo as an animated Lumon building in a Lumon industrial film in season 2.
== Episodes ==
=== Season 1 (2022) ===
=== Season 2 (2025) ===
Episodes in season 2 were promoted as being released on Fridays globally from January 17, but were released in American time zones on the preceding Thursday evenings.
== Production ==
=== Development ===
Erickson conceived of Severance during a period of depression, working an office job at a door factory after he had completed his master's degree in television writing. He found the job so monotonous that he wished he could "skip the eight hours of the workday, to disassociate and just get it over with".
Erickson submitted his pilot script to Ben Stiller's production company Red Hour Productions in 2015, and it was passed to Stiller by the development executive Jackie Cohn and then head of creative Nicholas Weinstock. Stiller read it at least five years before Severance premiered, and said the project was "the longest thing I've ever worked on". He said he enjoyed the story's contributions to the genre of workplace comedy. Erickson has described his earlier versions of the pilot as "weirder" and containing many stray elements with no backstory such as a disembodied pair of legs running by Mark, a charred floor with burnt desks, and a woman trapped in a glass cubicle. Erickson credits Stiller with grounding the show, saying "he felt that the concept was weird enough that you didn't have to throw a bunch of other Terry Gilliam-esque bells and whistles at it." According to Erickson, "Ben fell in love with the part of the show that was this weird human sadness of a person who would willingly do this to himself."
In November 2019, Apple TV+ gave Severance a series order, with Stiller directing and Scott in the leading role. Stiller was only attached to direct the pilot, but decided to direct more episodes as the series entered development. On April 6, 2022, Apple renewed the series for a second season. In April 2023, it was reported that Beau Willimon had been hired as an executive producer and writer for the second and potential third seasons. On March 21, 2025, shortly after the premiere of the season 2 finale, Apple announced the renewal of the series for a third season. The Writers Guild of America West database lists new showrunners Eli Jorne and Mary Laws alongside Erickson for the third season, replacing Chris Black and Mark Friedman, who showran the first two seasons alongside Erickson.
=== Writing ===
Media that influenced Severance include the Backrooms creepypasta, the 2013 video game The Stanley Parable, films including Office Space, The Truman Show, Being John Malkovich, and Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, the Black Mirror episode "White Christmas", and the comic strip Dilbert. Older influences include the existential hell in the 1944 Jean-Paul Sartre play No Exit and the totalitarian dystopia in the 1949 George Orwell novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. Aesthetically, the series was influenced by the films Brazil, Dark City, and Playtime. Erickson's siblings inspired some of the characters. In 2016, his screenplay for the pilot of Severance appeared on Blood List's survey results of the best unproduced genre screenplays.
Erickson said: "The same frustrations that led us to this moment as a country [United States] and as a world are the ones that I was feeling when I wrote this because I was working office jobs, and I was dealing with all these increasingly insane requests that are made of workers. This was born of that ... Employees are the ones who are expected to give and give and give, with the understanding that this is a family—you're doing this out of love, but then that is often not returned by the employers in any kind of a substantive way."
=== Casting ===
In January 2017, Stiller invited Adam Scott to star. Stiller and Scott had previously worked together in Stiller's 2013 movie The Secret Life of Walter Mitty. Stiller intended to appear in the first season as a doctor character, but was later scrapped because Stiller didn't think it felt right and said he's happy to be off-camera.
In January 2020, Patricia Arquette, Britt Lower, Jen Tullock, and Zach Cherry were added to the cast. Tramell Tillman joined in February 2020, and John Turturro and Christopher Walken were added in November 2020. Dichen Lachman was cast in December 2020. Turturro said he recommended Walken for the role of Burt because he had known him for "a long time and I don't have to really act like we're friends".
On October 31, 2022, Gwendoline Christie, Bob Balaban, Merritt Wever, Alia Shawkat, Robby Benson, Stefano Carannante, Ólafur Darri Ólafsson, and John Noble were announced to have joined the cast for season two. Stiller offered former U.S. President Barack Obama a voice cameo role in the second season, but he declined; the role eventually went to Keanu Reeves.
=== Set design ===
Production designer Jeremy Hindle blended corporate looks from the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s for the show's distinctive look, and cited modernist architect Eero Saarinen as influential for the building design. This included the John Deere World Headquarters in Moline, Illinois, and the Bell Labs Holmdel Complex in New Jersey (the latter which served as both the exterior shots and the ground floor interiors for Lumon Industries), both buildings designed as "work designed to do work" according to Hindle. The set designs of Playtime also served as inspiration for the internal sets. The main sets for Severance were created on soundstages in The Bronx. One soundstage was used for the hallways within Lumon, using around 140 feet (43 m) of hallway that they would rearrange as necessary, along with special effects, to create the maze-like structure. Another soundstage used larger hallways that were used in latter episodes of the first season. A second soundstage was used for main rooms like the Macrodata Refinement Division. This space was designed to create the feeling of being trapped, using a large room (80 by 40 feet (24 m × 12 m)) with a low ceiling. Hindle also felt this room was meant to be a playroom for the newest Lumon hires, and gave it green carpeting in contrast with the whites to make it feel like grass. Other spaces within Lumon were inspired by the works of M.C. Escher.
Erickson said the mix of cars and technologies from different eras was meant to "give a slight sense of disorientation" and make Lumon "feel unmoored from time and space". To this end, the production team sourced an anachronistic collection of 400 cars, largely commonplace boxy vehicles from the 1980s and 1990s, all in relatively good condition. Each car, even in the far background, was intentionally placed to curate the retro science fiction aesthetic. Characters' vehicles, chosen to show more of who they are, include Mark's Volvo S90, Cobel's Volkswagen Rabbit, Helena's Lincoln Continental, and Milchick's Royal Enfield motorcycle. All the office equipment carries Lumon branding. The prop designers reconstructed old computers with functional trackball devices so the actors could perform the work presented on the show in order to get adjusted to the office setting. The computers lacked an escape key, as a metaphor for the lack of control the innies have while in Lumon's offices. The computer terminals were modeled from the Data General Dasher terminals from the 1970s and the keycaps were recreated by Signature Plastics, who also made the original keycaps for the 1970s Dasher terminals. The keycap set was re-released in 2025 under the name "SA Macrodata Refinement".
=== Filming ===
The COVID-19 pandemic postponed the initial production start of March 2020. Principal photography for the first season started in New York City under the working title Tumwater on November 8, 2020. The opening scene of the show was shot on January 6, 2021. The series filmed for a few days in February in Nyack, New York for the homes of Mark and Cobel, and in Kingston and Beacon, New York in March. In April, filming moved to central New Jersey, mainly in the Bell Labs Holmdel Complex which stood in for Lumon HQ. Filming was scheduled to conclude on June 23, 2021.
The second season began filming on October 3, 2022, in New York City, and was set to wrap on May 12, 2023. However, on May 8, 2023, production of the season was shut down due to the 2023 Writers Guild of America strike. Production had resumed by May 13, 2023, with filming occurring in Newfoundland. Filming was later shut down again due to both the actors strike and the writers strike, but resumed on January 29, 2024, and wrapped on April 23, 2024.
== Reception ==
=== Audience viewership ===
In 2025, Severance became the most watched series in the history of Apple TV+.
=== Critical response ===
Both seasons of Severance have received critical acclaim. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the overall series holds an approval rating of 96%. Meanwhile, on Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the overall series has received a score of 85 out of 100.
==== Season 1 ====
On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season of Severance has an approval rating of 97% based on 117 reviews, with an average rating of 8.5/10. The website's consensus reads: "Audacious, mysterious, and bringing fresh insight into the perils of corporate drudgery, Severance is the complete package." Metacritic assigned a score of 83 out of 100 based on 36 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".
The series received a rating of five out of five from Lucy Mangan of The Guardian and Rachael Sigee of I, 4 out of 5 stars from Huw Fullerton of Radio Times, John Nugent of Empire, Alan Sepinwall of Rolling Stone and Anita Singh of The Telegraph, and 3.5 out of 4 stars from Patrick Ryan of USA Today. In her review, Mangan praised Stiller's direction, the writing, and the performances of the cast (particularly those of Arquette, Turturro, Walken, and Tillman). Sigee also praised the performances, especially Scott's, Arquette's, Turturro's and Walken's, and wrote, "Severance moves slowly but surely, allowing time to absorb both the impressive world-building and stunning visuals, [...] [and] its breathtaking cinematography and design. With an exceptional cast [...], this is an original, weird, thought-provoking and beautifully crafted story that asks just how much of ourselves we should give over to our jobs." Fullerton also praised Scott's performance and called the series "an impressive creation". Nugent praised the direction, performances of Scott, Arquette, Turturro and Walken, and chemistry between the latter two. Sepinwall also praised Stiller's direction and the cast's performances (most notably those of Scott, Turturro, Walken, Lower and Tillman), in addition to the production design, tone, and season finale.
Grading the series an "A", Carly Lane of Collider wrote, "the most engrossing element of Severance is the many mysteries it presents, wrapped up in silent overarching questions of philosophy, morality, and free will versus choice, and as the series demonstrates, some of those questions aren't so easily solved, but some issues aren't as black-and-white as initially presented either." Also grading it an "A", Ben Travers of IndieWire wrote, "Whether you invest in the allegory, character arcs, or both, 'Severance' hits its marks. [...] Erickson and his writing staff deserve a ton of credit. The season plays out cleanly and efficiently; episodes range from nearly 60 minutes to a crisp 40; cliffhangers abound, but they're earned. [...] This is serialized storytelling that knows how to make the most of its episodic format." Stephen Robinson of The A.V. Club gave it an "A-" grade and praised Stiller's direction and the cast, with the performances of Lower, Scott, Tillman, Turturro, Walken, Tullock and Cherry singled out. For Entertainment Weekly, Kristen Baldwin graded it a "B+" and highlighted the performances of Scott, Lower and Tillman, writing, "Scott is a superb fit for Severance's central everyman, [...] Lower brings an effective vulnerability to the acerbic Helly, and Tramell Tillman is an absolute force of charisma as Milchick."
Giving the series a score of nine out of ten, Samantha Nelson of IGN wrote, "Severance [...] uses a clever premise and excellent cast to set up an intriguing mystery that leaves plenty of room for the characters to evolve." Writing for Paste, Shane Ryan gave it an 8.1 out of 10 and praised the performances of Scott, Arquette and Tillman as well as Stiller and McArdle's direction. Kyle Mullin of Under the Radar gave it eight out of ten and said, "Severance's writer/creator Dan Erickson is another newcomer who pens scenes with veteran-level aplomb. Every scene is a Golden Age of TV gem in its own right. But Severance's dramatic heart resides at the workplace, where it also becomes a white-knuckle thriller. This is where director Ben Stiller especially shines, training his lens and setting the scenes [...]. He certainly brings the best out of his cast."
The American Film Institute named it one of the ten best television programs of the year.
The first season was also recognized with The ReFrame Stamp for hiring people of underrepresented gender identities, and of color.
==== Season 2 ====
The second season has an approval rating of 94% based on 223 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes. The website's consensus reads: "Masterfully managing its two halves of adroit character study and surreal nightmare, Severance's long-awaited sophomore season makes cognitive dissonance a mind-melting pleasure." Metacritic assigned a score of 86 out of 100 based on 43 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".
Writing for Variety, Alison Herman awarded the second season with a perfect rating, noting: "Season 2 fulfills this sine qua non with deceptive ease. Real-time viewers have had their patience strained; future binge-watchers will barely notice a blip." John Nugent of Empire gave season two 4 stars out of 5, while stating: "After a storming Season One, Season Two expands and deepens the original mysteries while opening up new ones. Sharply made and skilfully executed, the employee benefits are there if you stay with it."
=== Critics' top ten list ===
=== Accolades ===
For its first season, the series received 7 major nominations for the 74th Primetime Emmy Awards, with an additional 7 nominations for the 74th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards. Nominations included Outstanding Drama Series, Adam Scott for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, John Turturro and Christopher Walken for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series, Patricia Arquette for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, Ben Stiller for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series, and Dan Erickson for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series. It won two awards at the Creative Arts Emmy Awards: Outstanding Title Design and Outstanding Music Composition for a Series (Original Dramatic Score).
For its second season, the series received 10 major nominations for the 77th Primetime Emmy Awards, with an additional 17 nominations for the 77th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, making it the most-nominated series at both ceremonies. It won for three acting awards: Britt Lower for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, Tramell Tillman for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series and Merritt Wever for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series; it won five additional awards in technical categories. Notable nominations included Outstanding Drama Series, Adam Scott for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, Zach Cherry and John Turturro for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series, Jessica Lee Gagné and Ben Stiller for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series, and Dan Erickson for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series.
== Marketing ==
The second season was teased during the Apple Event on September 7, 2022, which featured Helly (Britt Lower). The first footage from season 2 was released on June 10, 2024, as part of a promo for upcoming Apple TV+ programming.
On July 9, 2024, a post on the Apple TV+ account on social media platform X teased an announcement about season 2. In the video, a light blinks the word "tomorrow" in Morse code. The next day on July 10, Apple TV+ announced that season 2 would debut on January 17, 2025. The first trailer for season 2 was released on October 23, 2024.
On January 14, 2025, three days before the premiere of the second season, Apple TV+ recreated the show's 'Macrodata Refinement' office inside a glass box at Grand Central Terminal. Actors Scott, Cherry, Arquette, Lower, and Tillman entered the glass box and behaved as though they were working their respective jobs at Lumon Industries for about two and a half hours. The pop-up's uniqueness and the cast's dedication generated largely favorable responses from the public.
On March 21, 2025, IKEA India and Australia posted the same advertisement promoting office supplies replicating a similar set up to the Macrodata Refinement office. The tagline pokes fun at the "mysterious and important work" joke that is told by the office workers.
On March 26, 2025, some cast members appeared at Tower Bridge in London to celebrate the renewal of season 3. Cast members included Adam Scott, Britt Lower, Tramell Tillman, Zach Cherry, and Gwendoline Christie. At the event were balloons with Adam Scott's face. On the same day, Apple updated their computer section on their website to include the Lumon Terminal Pro. However, the item was not actually for sale but served as marketing to promote both the show and the Apple TV+ service.
== Release ==
The official release dates of second-season episodes were on Fridays, but Apple TV+ released episodes the prior Thursday at 9:00 pm ET.
=== Home media ===
The first season was released in the UK on Blu-ray and DVD on December 2, 2024, in Australia on December 4, 2024, and in the United States on December 17, 2024.
== Other media ==
An epistolary novel related to the series, Severance: The Lexington Letter, was released by Apple Books purporting to be a "tell-all" exposé of sinister occurrences at Lumon Corporation, in the form of a dialogue between former Lumon employee Margeret "Peg" Kincaid and her innie (work self), sent as a letter to a Topeka newsletter.
A fictional self-help book from the series, The You You Are, was released by Apple Books as an e-book and an audiobook, the latter read by the actor Michael Chernus in his role as Ricken Hale.
The official Severance podcast premiered in January 2025, hosted by Ben Stiller and Adam Scott. Each episode of the podcast recaps an episode of the series, and features interviews with an actor, crew member, or fan of the show.
== See also ==
Cypher, a 2002 thriller with similar themes of memory erasure and separate identities in a mysterious workplace setting
Drug-induced amnesia § In popular culture
My Own Worst Enemy, a 2008 TV series about a secret agent and his cover, who has no knowledge of his own double life
Paycheck, a 1952 novelette by Philip Dick, that explores a theme of erasing memory of the time spent on a contract
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Severance – official site
Severance at IMDb
Severance – wiki site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1900_Gordon_Bennett_Cup | 1900 Gordon Bennett Cup | The 1900 Gordon Bennett Cup, formally titled the I Coupe Internationale, was a motor race held on 14 June 1900, on public roads between Paris and Lyon in France. It was staged to decide the inaugural holder of the Gordon Bennett Cup, which was the first prize to be awarded for motorsport on an international level. The 568.66 km (353.35 mi) route started at Paris and headed south-west as far as Châteaudun. The route then took the competitors south-easterly, passing through Orléans, Nevers, and Roanne before reaching the finish at Lyon.
The race was won by Fernand Charron, who represented France and drove a car manufactured by Panhard. Léonce Girardot, also representing France on a Panhard, was the only other driver to finish. Five drivers had entered the race; three representing France, the maximum number any one country were permitted, one from Belgium, and one from the United States of America.
== Background ==
Prior to 1900, automobile racing consisted of city-to-city races, organised by various national automobile clubs. The Gordon Bennett Cup was established by American millionaire James Gordon Bennett, Jr. with the intention of encouraging automobile industries internationally through sport. Bennett had moved to Paris in 1887 and came up with the idea of an international competition between representatives of national motoring clubs. Among the principles of the competition were that each country was limited to three entries, that the race to determine the winner of the cup would be between 550 and 650 kilometres and that the race would be held annually between 15 May and 15 August. Bennett commissioned a trophy, which he offered to the custody of the Automobile Club de France (ACF) who he also entrusted to draft the technical rules for the competition, and to arrange the inaugural event. The latter responsibility would then be bestowed on the motoring club whose representative won the previous year's race.
In April 1900, a race for motor-tricycles was held from Paris-Roubaix. It was marred by many incidents, including a collision between two competitors which left two spectators injured, one of whom was the wife of the Deputy for the Department of the Seine. Soon after, motor racing was banned within the Department of the Seine, which was then extended by the Ministry of the Interior to all of France. Any exception to the law was required to be made through the central government, who had the choice of whether to grant a permit to allow a race to go ahead.
Despite rumours of building a purpose-built race track or moving the race to Italy, the race was eventually given permission to take place on public roads over the route between Paris and Lyons. However, the final decision on whether the race should take place was not made until the afternoon of 12 June, less than two days before it was due to start, as the ACF had to persuade local authorities to allow the race to travel through their area.
== Route ==
The Autocar magazine had suggested that the route should take the competitors in a straight-line, so as to minimize the chance of foreign entrants getting lost. The initial route proposed by the ACF in January 1900 would take the competitors from Paris to Lyon by the most direct route, heading south through Étampes, Pithiviers, and Montargis before reaching Nevers and going on to Lyon. However, this proved too short a distance to be permitted under the regulations, and a diversion was added that saw the cars initially head south-west from Paris towards Chartres and to Châteaudun. From there, they'd turn to head south-easterly towards Orléans, passing through Gien and Briare before rejoining the originally planned route at Nevers. They would then proceed towards Moulins, Roanne, and l'Arbresle before reaching the finish at Lyons. The total distance to be covered was 353.35 miles (568.66 km).
The late confirmation of the race taking place meant that route was, in places at least, lacking in terms of both signposting and crowd control. In addition, complaints were made that no map detailing the exact route was supplied to the competitors. Livestock and animals encroaching onto the road would prove to be a considerable hazard during the race.
== Entries and cars ==
Each country was limited to a maximum of three entries for the race. The cars were required to be manufactured in their entirety in the country they represented, including the tyres. The ACF racing regulations imposed a minimum weight limit—excluding fuel, tools, upholstery, wings, lights and light fittings—of 400 kilograms (880 pounds) upon each car. Each car also had to be occupied by two people at all times: a driver and a riding mechanic. In the event the combined weight of the two occupants was less than 120 kilograms (260 pounds), ballast was to be added to the car to make up the difference.
The ACF decided to choose its three drivers by balloting their representatives, the result of which was that Rene de Knyff, Fernand Charron, and Léonce Girardot were chosen as the three French entries for the event. Accusations of bias were made, due to de Knyff being a director of Panhard, and Charron and Giradot both being in the business of selling Panhard cars. Nevertheless, the result of the ballot stood and the three would drive a Panhard, powered by a 5.3-litre (325 cu in) four-cylinder engine producing 24 brake horsepower (18 kW). The Belgian automobile club originally indicated they would also enter the maximum complement of three cars, however in the end only Camille Jenatzy was entered for the race. His car was listed as a Snoeck-Bolide, and was effectively a French-designed Lefebvre-Bolide car built under licence in Belgium by Etablissements Mathias Snoeck, in order to meet the requirement that all parts of the car be produced in the country that it represents.
Germany were also due to compete in the race; Eugen Benz was entered in a car manufactured by his father Karl Benz. It was powered by a two-cylinder engine which produced 15 bhp (11 kW). However, the entry was withdrawn shortly before the start, Eugen Benz citing the short notice given of the race taking place as his reason, although he had already travelled to Paris. The final entries came from the US, Alexander Winton and Anthony L. Riker who were to drive cars bearing Winton's name. Although both arrived in Paris, only one car was designed as a racer, and Riker did not start the race. Winton's car was underpowered compared to its competitors, with a one-cylinder 3.7-litre (226 cu in) engine producing 16 bhp (12 kW). Uniquely amongst the cars, the Winton featured tiller steering rather than a steering wheel. The four nations were each allocated a colour, which their representatives' cars would be painted. These were blue for France, yellow for Belgium, white for Germany, and red for the USA.
== Race ==
Competitors gathered at the start line in Ville-d'Avray on the outskirts of Paris in the early hours of the morning of 14 June 1900. The race began at 3.14 am, at the drop of the starter's flag, with all five cars setting off together. Over the first five miles (8.0 km) of the race, to Versailles, there was one minute between the leader Giradot and fifth-place Winton. Giradot continued to extend his lead, and by the time the competitors reached Limours, approximately 30 km into the race, Giradot had extended his lead to three minutes over Charron in second place, de Knyff was in third, Belgium's Jenatzy in fourth, and Winton, the American, was fifth.
The next part of the race took the competitors from Chartres, through Bonneval to Châteaudun, a 44 km stretch of road that was largely straight. Unofficial timings yielded average speeds over this section, with the leader Giradot averaging 35.3 mph. Charron was the fastest, averaging 41.1 mph and Jenatzy averaged 36.7 mph. Top gear had failed on de Knyff's Panhard, and this slowed his speed down to an average of around 30 mph. However, Winton was by far the slowest of the five cars over this section, with an average speed of just 20 mph.
From Châteaudun, the route headed south-easterly towards Orléans. Along this section, at Saint-Jean-de-la-Ruelle, Charron hit a gutter that ran across the road whilst travelling at speeds in excess of 50 mph, bending the back axle of his Panhard. Spectators warned the cars that followed of the hazard, by holding a green flag 30 yards in advance to give the cars time to slow down before reaching the danger. Winton became the first driver to retire from the race, stopping at Orleans with a buckled wheel. The race order at Orléans, 173 km from the start, was Giradot leading by 17 minutes from Charron, with de Knyff third and a further 39 minutes behind, and Jenatzy fourth and three minutes further back.
As Giradot was leaving Orléans, he swerved to avoid a horse that was in the road, and in doing so collided with a kerb stone, which damaged his Panhard's steering and broke one of the back wheels. The repairs to his back wheel took around 80 minutes, which meant that Charron assumed the race lead. de Knyff retired from the race at Glen, leaving two French cars and one Belgian car in the race.
Charron and Giradot ran at a similar pace as they covered the 93 km distance between Gien and Nevers, the difference between the two over the section being just two minutes in Charron's favour. Charron gained slightly more of an advantage between Nevers and Moulins, completing the section in a time approximately four minutes faster than Giradot. At Moulins, with 376 of the 569 km of the race completed, Jenatzy retired from the race, his car suffered from issues with its gears and ignition, and sustained damage after colliding with five or six dogs along the route.
The gap between Charron and Giradot, now the only two drivers left in the race, stayed around an hour-and-a-half for most of the remainder of the race. 12 km from the finish in Lyons, a St. Bernard dog ran into the road in front of Charron's Panhard, which was travelling at nearly 100 km/h and the two collided. The body of the dog wedged itself between the steering gear and the springs of the Panhard, causing Charron to lose control and the car to veer off to the left. It passed through two trees at the side of the road, fell into a ditch and then went through a field before rejoining the road, again narrowly avoiding more trees. Despite the excursion, the only major damage to the Panhard was that a water pump had fallen loose. Charron therefore continued with his riding mechanic, Fournier, holding the pump in place for the remaining 12 km to the finish in Lyons.
Charron arrived at the finish control point, where a small crowd waited, at 12:23 pm, completing the race in nine hours and nine minutes, meaning he had averaged a speed of 38.6 mph. Giradot was the only other car to reach the finish, arriving at 2:00 pm having taken one hour, thirty-six minutes and twenty-three seconds longer than Charron to complete the course.
== Post-race ==
Charron's victory representing the ACF meant that France were the winners of the inaugural Gordon Bennett cup race, and the country would again host the contest the following year.
The race was not viewed as a successful event. The large gap between the only two cars to reach the end had made the finish an anticlimax. The limited number of entrants, that only two of them were from outside France and that the only two cars to finish were French also led to the race failing to make much of an impression internationally. American periodical The Horseless Age wrote at the time "it is the impression (in the USA) that the race was very badly organized, that insufficient preparations had been made for it and that it must be looked upon as a failure".
In a bid to address these concerns, the next two Gordon Bennett Cup races would be run in conjunction with another city-to-city event, which allowed the Gordon Bennett race to share resources with another race which didn't have limits on entry and hence had a much larger field of cars. The cup wouldn't be competed for in a standalone race again until the 1903 edition.
== Classification ==
== References ==
Notes
Footnotes
Bibliography |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beloit_College | Beloit College | Beloit College is a private liberal arts college in Beloit, Wisconsin, United States. Founded in 1846 when Wisconsin was still a territory, it is the state's oldest continuously operated college. It has an enrollment of roughly 1,000 undergraduate students.
== History ==
Beloit College was founded by the group Friends for Education, which was started by seven pioneers from New England who, soon after their arrival in the Wisconsin Territory, agreed that a college needed to be established. The group raised funds for a college in their town and convinced the territorial legislature to enact the charter for Beloit College on February 2, 1846. The first building (then called Middle College) was built in 1847, and remains in operation. Classes began in the fall of 1847, with the first degrees awarded in 1851.
Beloit's first president was Aaron Lucius Chapin, who served from 1849 to 1886.
The college became coeducational in 1895. In 1904, Grace Ousley became the first African-American woman to graduate from the college.
Although independent today, Beloit College was historically, though unofficially, associated with Congregationalism.
The college remained very small for almost its entire first century, with enrollment topping 1,000 students only with the influx of World War II veterans in 1945–46. The "Beloit Plan" was a year-round curriculum introduced in 1964 that comprised three full terms and a "field term" of off-campus study. The trustees returned to the two-semester program in 1978.
== Campus ==
Beloit's campus is within the Near East Side Historic District.
The campus has 20 conical, linear, and animal effigy mounds built between about 400 and 1200, created by Native Americans identified by archaeologists as Late Woodland people. One of the mounds, in the shape of a turtle, inspired Beloit's symbol and unofficial mascot. The mounds on Beloit's campus are "catalogued" burial sites, and therefore may not be disturbed without a Wisconsin Historical Society permit. Several of the Beloit College sites have been partially excavated and restored, and material found within them—including pottery and tool fragments—is held in the college's Logan Museum of Anthropology.
In 2008 Beloit College completed a 120,000 sq ft (11,000 m2) Center for the Sciences, which was named the Marjorie and James Sanger Center for the Sciences in 2017. The building was awarded LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) green building certification. It also won a Design Excellence Honor Award in Interior Architecture from the Chicago chapter of the American Institute of Architects (AIA) in 2009.
In 2010, Beloit College opened the Hendricks Center for the Arts, a 58,000-square-foot (5,400 m2) structure with dance, music, and theater facilities. The building previously held the Beloit Post Office and later the Beloit Public Library. The renovation and expansion of the facility is the largest single gift in the college's history. The building is named after Diane Hendricks, chair of ABC Supply of Beloit, and her late husband and former college trustee Ken Hendricks.
Two Beloit campus museums open to the public are run by college staff and students. The Logan Museum of Anthropology and the Wright Museum of Art were founded in the late 19th century. The Logan Museum, accredited by the American Alliance of Museums, curates over 300,000 ethnographic and archaeological objects from 125 countries and over 600 cultural groups. The Wright Museum's holdings of over 8,000 objects include a large collection of original prints and Asian art. Both museums feature temporary special exhibitions year-round.
The Beloit College campus shows two sculptures by artist Siah Armajani, Gazebo for One Anarchist: Emma Goldman 1991 and The Beloit College Poetry Garden.
== Academics ==
Beloit College is a four-year college that offers over 70 undergraduate majors, minors, and programs. Beloit also partners with other higher educational institutions, like Blackhawk Technical College, Johns Hopkins School of Nursing, Marquette University, Des Moines University, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Medical College of Wisconsin, to offer continuing education pathways and accelerated degree offerings.
College's average class size is around 12 students, with one-third of courses having 10 or fewer students. Beloit College is ranked in the top 100 of U.S. News & World Report's 2025 Best Colleges rankings. It also ranked highly as Most Innovative, Best Value, First-Year Experience, and Undergraduate Teaching. Beloit College's average class size is around 12 students, with one-third of courses having 10 or fewer students.
=== Majors & Degrees ===
Beloit offers over 70 undergraduate majors, minors, and programs.
Ancient Mediterranean Studies
Anthropology
Applied Chemistry
Art (Studio Art)
Biochemistry
Biology
Business Management
Chemistry
Cognitive Science
Computer Science
Creative Writing
Critical Identity Studies
Data Analytics
Data Science
Economics
Education and Youth Studies
Environmental Biology
Environmental Chemistry
Environmental Communication and Arts
Environmental Geology
Environmental Justice and Citizenship
French and Francophone Studies
Geology
Greek and Latin Studies
Health Sciences
Health and Society
History
International Relations
Japanese Language and Culture
Literary Studies
Mathematics
Media Studies
Performing and Applied Arts
Philosophy
Physics
Political Science
Psychology
Quantitative Economics
Self-Designed Integrative Learning
Self-Designed Interdisciplinary Studies
Sociology
Spanish Language and Culture
Beloit also offers degree paths in:
Athletic Training Dual Degree
Engineering
Environmental Sciences
Finance Dual Degree
Nursing Dual Degree
Pharmacy Dual Degree
Pre-Law Advising
Pre-Medical Advising
Teacher Certification
Academic strengths include field-oriented disciplines such as anthropology and geology. Its three most popular majors, by 2024 graduates, were Social Sciences, Biological/life sciences, and Physical sciences, a slight shift from 2021's most popular majors Biology/Biological Sciences, Psychology, and Business/Managerial Economics. In 2012, the college ranked among the top 20 American liberal arts colleges whose graduates go on to earn a Ph.D.
=== Schools & Departments ===
Beginning in late 2023, Beloit launched five schools within the college.
==== School of Business ====
The School of Business launched late 2023, focusing on an interdisciplinary business curriculum aligning with its liberal arts core. Majors include business management, economics, and quantitative economics. It operates out of Pearson's Hall, which was part of the college's $20 million investment in renovating campus spaces. The director of the School of Business is Diep Phan, a professor of economics and business at Beloit since 2009.
The college created a Center for Entrepreneurship known as CELEB, founded by Professor of Economics Emeritus Jerry Gustafson (Beloit '63). CELEB is a student-driven program housed off-campus. The space includes an entrepreneurship lab, public art gallery, TV & media lab, recording studio, and maker lab.
==== School of Health Sciences ====
The School of Health Sciences at Beloit opened alongside the School of Business in late fall 2023/early 2024. It is home to major paths focused in the healthcare field. The school also partners with other local institutions to provide various paths to health-related fields. In November 2023, Beloit partnered with the Medical College of Wisconsin in Milwaukee to provide a path toward a Pharmacy Doctorate Degree. In October 2025, Beloit partnered with neighboring state Des Moines University to offer various pathways from bachelors to graduate-level health science degrees. Beloit also partnered with Edgewood University in 2024 to offer dual-degree RN to BSN program.
The SHS is headed by Rachel A. Bergstrom, PhD, an associate professor of biology at Beloit.
==== School of Environment and Sustainability ====
The School of Environment and Sustainability launched in 2024 and is home to degree paths aimed at environmental study and sustainability impact. Majors include biology, chemistry, education and youth studies, environmental biology, environmental chemistry, environmental communication and arts, environmental geology, environmental justice and citizenship, geology, and political science. The director of the school is Jay Zambito, the department chair for Geology at Beloit.
The geology department continues a tradition that began with Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin more than a century ago. It combines a course load with field methods and research. The department is a member of the Keck Geology Consortium, a research collaboration of several similar colleges across the United States, including Amherst College, Pomona College, and Washington and Lee University. The Consortium sends undergraduate students worldwide to research and publish their findings.
==== School of Global & Public Service ====
The School of Global and Public Service launched in November 2024 and is home to its majors that focus on public, private, and non-profit social justice and human rights advocacy. Bachelor's degrees include anthropology, critical identity studies, education and youth studies, French and Francophone studies, history, international relations, Japanese language and culture, political science, psychology, sociology, and Spanish language and culture. The director of this school if Beth Dougherty, Manger Professor of International Relations.
==== School of Media and the Arts (SoMA) ====
The School of Media and the Arts is home to the college's various artistic and visual majors. Majors include creative writing, media studies, performing and applied arts, and studio art. The Hendricks Center for the Arts is home to SoMA, which houses studios, performance spaces, and other campus activities. The School of Media and the Arts is led by Cullyn Murphy, Assistant Professor of Music and Media Studies at Beloit.
== Student life ==
Beloit students' housing options range from substance-free dormitories to special interest houses, such as the Art, Spanish, Outdoor Environmental Club (OEC), and interfaith options. Beloit College has fraternities and sororities. The school also has over 45 student organizations and clubs. As of 2022, there is a creative writing club called the Aardvark Authors.
The student newspaper, The Round Table, was founded in 1853 as the Beloit Monthly. The student radio station, WBCR-FM, operates at 88.3 MHz and streams online.
Beloit College has a frisbee golf course contained almost entirely within the college grounds. In April 2006, Beloit students broke the world record for the longest game of Ultimate Frisbee, playing for over 72 hours.
In 2011 Beloit College received the Senator Paul Simon Award for Comprehensive Campus Internationalization. 48 states are represented at the college and approximately 14% of the student body is from countries outside the United States. In addition, about half of all Beloit College students study abroad in places such as China, Russia, Brazil, Germany, India, and Spain. Each year, students can share their experiences abroad on "Beloit and Beyond" Day, when all classes are canceled so that everyone can attend the presentations.
The "Mindset List", an annual list of the life experiences of entering college freshmen, originated at Beloit College in 1998. In 2019, the list moved to Marist College.
In 1969, like many campuses across the country, Beloit College received a set of demands from Black students called "The Black Demands". Various students protested by overtaking Middle College, turning it into a Black Cultural Center, and gathering in front of the Richardson Auditorium before a scheduled board of trustees meeting. The demands were met but the college has not successfully implemented all of them, such as increasing the percentage of both black faculty and students to 10%. In 2018 Beloit College edited its bias policy to add a section on hate acts in order to address hate acts that occurred in 2006, 2015 and 2017.
== Athletics ==
Beloit teams are nicknamed the Buccaneers. The university competes at the NCAA Division III level as a member of the Midwest Conference and fields varsity teams in football, baseball, softball, volleyball, men's and women's swimming and diving, men's and women's basketball, men's and women's cross country, men's and women's track and field, men's and women's lacrosse, men's and women's hockey, men's and women's soccer, and esports. Notable successes include baseball coach Dave DeGeorge recording his 558th career win. DeGeorge's teams have won three conference titles in twelve Midwest Conference Tournament appearances. Student-athletes earned All-American honors (Nate Otis track & field) and Scholar All-American Honors (Helena Harrison diving). Beloit College plans to build on past successes by appointing Pat Miller as Athletic Director.
== Recognition ==
In 2025, The Princeton Review listed Beloit College among the 391 Best Colleges. Likewise, U.S. News & World Report gave Beloit top rankings for 2025 Best Colleges rankings, Most Innovative, Best Value, First-Year Experience, and Undergraduate Teaching. Beloit College consistently ranks among the nation's top 100 liberal arts colleges. In their unique ranking based on their assessment of the college's contribution to the public good, the Washington Monthly ranked Beloit College number 23 in the nation. Niche ranks Beloit College as 737 of 1,6134 Best Colleges in America, 13 of 33 Best Colleges in Wisconsin, 43 of 1,615 in Most Diverse Colleges in America, 68 of 932 in Most Liberal Colleges in America, and 101 of 181 in Best Liberal Arts Colleges in America.
== Notable alumni ==
== Notable faculty ==
== See also ==
Thompson Observatory
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Athletics website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_E._Ingersoll#:~:text=Two%20years%20later%2C%20he%20returned,the%20Augusta%20as%20his%20flagship. | Royal E. Ingersoll | Royal Eason Ingersoll (20 June 1883 – 20 May 1976) was a United States Navy four-star admiral who served as Commander in Chief, U.S. Atlantic Fleet (CINCLANT) from January 1, 1942 to late 1944; Commander, Western Sea Frontier from late 1944 to 1946; and Deputy Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet/Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (DCOMINCH/DCNO) from late 1944 to late 1945.
Ingersoll was born in Washington, D.C., on 20 June 1883. He was second in a succession of three generations of U.S. Naval officers: his father, Rear Admiral Royal R. Ingersoll - United States Naval Academy class of 1868, and his son, Lieutenant Royal Rodney Ingersoll II - USNA class of 1934, was killed in a friendly fire accident on board the aircraft carrier Hornet (CV-8) on 4 June 1942, during the naval Battle of Midway.
== 1905–1937 ==
Ingersoll graduated from the Naval Academy in 1905, along with Chester W. Nimitz, and reported as a passed midshipman to the battleship Missouri (BB-11). In August of that year, he was one of the young officers assigned special temporary duty to attend the Russian-Japanese Peace Conference, held at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard, in Kittery, Maine. When detached from the Missouri in May 1906, he was assigned briefly to the Marietta (PG-15), and later the Hancock (AP-3), then assisted in fitting out the Connecticut (BB-18) at the New York Navy Yard. He served on board that battleship from her commissioning on 29 September 1906, until October 1907.
Ingersoll served as an instructor of Seamanship and International Law, and later of English, at the Naval Academy between 1911 and 1913, preceding his assignment to the Asiatic Squadron. There he joined the armored cruiser Saratoga (ACR-2), the flagship of the U.S. Asiatic Fleet. He served briefly as her First Lieutenant, and then he became the Aide and Flag Lieutenant to the Chief-of-Staff of the Asiatic Fleet's Commander.
He returned to the United States, and on 1 June 1916, reported as Assistant for Communications, and Communication Officer, in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Navy Department. Concerning that assignment, he subsequently wrote: "The work in this office began to pick up as the tension in the diplomatic relations with Germany increased, and overwhelmed us on 2 February 1917, when diplomatic relations with that country were broken...." For organizing the greatly expanded Naval Communications Office during World War I, he was awarded the Navy Cross and cited "for distinguished service in the line of his profession in organizing, developing, and administering the Communication Office of the Navy Department."
After the Armistice in November 1918, he was ordered to join Admiral William S. Benson, USN, then Chief of Naval Operations, concerning the establishment of a communication office for that commission. In February 1919, he returned home in the George Washington with the Presidential party, handling messages for President Woodrow Wilson on the voyage across the Atlantic.
In March 1919 he again joined the Connecticut, serving this time as her executive officer until September 1920, then transferring to the Arizona (BB-39). In June 1921, he reported to the Navy Department for a tour of duty in the Office of Naval Intelligence, and on 26 March 1924, assumed command of the Nokomis (SP-609). Under his command, that gunboat was fitted out as a survey ship and cruised in the Cuban–Haitian area, making new charts of the north coast of Cuba.
Completing the Senior Course at the Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island in June 1927, he served the following year as a member of that staff. In June 1928, he reported for duty as Assistant Chief of Staff to Commander Battle Fleet, in the California (BB-44) and continued similar duty on the Staff when Admiral William V. Pratt became Commander in Chief, United States Fleet, with his flag in the Texas (BB-35). In August 1930, he was assigned to the Division of Fleet Training, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Navy Department, where he served until May 1933. He then reported as Commanding Officer of the heavy cruiser Augusta (CA-31), and in November 1933, was transferred to the Mare Island Naval Shipyard to fit out the San Francisco (CA-38). He commanded this cruiser from her commissioning on 10 February 1934 until June 1935.
The following three years of duty in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, as Director of the War Plans Division, included his assignment in June 1936 as Technical Assistant to the American Delegation at the London Naval Conference in 1935 – 36. He again went to London in December 1937, concerned with requirements growing out of the London Naval Treaty limiting naval armament.
== 1938-1946 ==
On 16 July 1938, Ingersoll took command of Cruiser Division Six of the Scouting Force, his flag in the cruiser Minneapolis (CA-36). Two years later, he returned to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations as assistant to the Chief, and on 1 January 1942, with the rank of Vice Admiral, he was designated Commander in Chief, U.S. Atlantic Fleet, with the Augusta as his flagship.
Ingersoll was promoted to the rank of admiral on the following 1 July and broke his flag on the converted yacht USS Vixen (PG-53) on 17 July. Having organized the movements of the thousands of ships across the Atlantic to have men and supplies on hand at the precise hour for the North African landings in November 1942, he also had the responsibility of planning the composition of the naval escort forces which insured the troop convoys' safe arrival.
Following the African invasion, the Atlantic Fleet was employed in running troop convoys and transporting stores, munitions, and fuel to the United Kingdom and the Mediterranean. As a subsidiary responsibility, it ran the convoys on the coast of Brazil and continuously waged the anti-submarine war which had been a matter of primary concern since the outbreak of hostilities. Ingersoll is generally credited with solving the U-boat and Atlantic logistics problems. In addition, he had the responsibility of defense of the Western Hemisphere by U.S. naval forces and made changes in the disposition of air and surface forces stationed at various points in North and South America. For his services in this command, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal and cited as a "forceful and resolute leader under the critical conditions existing throughout a period of approximately three years... against a determined and ruthless enemy intent on world domination..."
In November 1944, he was detached from command of the Atlantic Fleet and became Commander Western Sea Frontier, with headquarters at San Francisco. In addition to commanding the naval forces engaged in protecting shipping in coastal waters, he managed the flow of supplies to the Pacific Fleet through West Coast ports. In carrying out this assignment, he had the status of a Deputy Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet, and Deputy Chief of Naval Operations. After the reorganization of the navy in October 1945, he continued to serve as Commander Western Sea Frontier until 10 April 1946, when he was relieved of all active duty pending his retirement that became official on 1 August 1946.
== Family ==
Ingersoll was married in 1910 to Louise Van Harlingen of Atlanta, Georgia and had two children. Ingersoll died on 20 May 1976. In 1979, Mrs. Louise Ingersoll was the sponsor for USS Ingersoll (DD-990); their daughter, Alice Jean Ingersoll Nagle, acting as proxy sponsor. Their son, Royal Rodney II, had been (with Admiral Ingersoll's father) the namesake of the USS Ingersoll (DD-652).
== Awards ==
In addition to the Navy Cross and the Distinguished Service Medal, Ingersoll was awarded the World War I Victory Medal; the American Defense Service Medal; European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal; and the World War II Victory Medal. He was also awarded the Chevalier of the Legion of Honor by the French Government, the Order of Naval Merit (Grand Cross) by the Government of Brazil and the Grand Officer of the Order of Orange Nassau with Swords by the Government of The Netherlands.
== References ==
This article incorporates public domain material from Admiral Royal Ingersoll. United States government. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Dialect_Society | American Dialect Society | The American Dialect Society (ADS), founded in 1889, is a learned society "dedicated to the study of the English language in North America, and of other languages, or dialects of other languages, influencing it or influenced by it." The Society publishes the academic journal American Speech.
Since its foundation, dialectologists in English-speaking North America have affiliated themselves with the American Dialect Society, an association which in its first constitution defined its objective as "the investigation of the spoken English of the United States and Canada" (Constitution, 1890). Over the years, its objective has remained essentially the same, only expanded to encompass "the English language in North America, together with other languages or dialects of other languages influencing it or influenced by it" (Fundamentals, 1991).
== History ==
The organization was founded as part of an effort to create a comprehensive American dialect dictionary, a near century-long undertaking that culminated in the publication of the Dictionary of American Regional English. In 1889, when Joseph Wright began editing the English Dialect Dictionary, a group of American philologists founded the American Dialect Society with the ultimate purpose of producing a similar work for the United States.
Members of the Society began to collect material, much of which was published in the Society's journal Dialect Notes, but little was done toward compiling a dictionary recording nationwide usage until Frederic G. Cassidy was appointed Chief Editor in 1963. The first volume of the Dictionary of American Regional English, covering the letters A-C, was published in 1985. The other major project of the Society is the Linguistic Atlas of the United States and Canada.
== Membership ==
The Society has never had more than a few hundred active members. With so few scholars advancing the enterprise, the developments in the field came slowly. Members of the organization include "linguists, lexicographers, etymologists, grammarians, historians, researchers, writers, authors, editors, professors, university students, and independent scholars." Its activities include a mailing list, which deals chiefly with American English but also carries some discussion of other issues of linguistic interest.
== Word of the Year ==
Since 1991, the American Dialect Society has designated one or more words or terms to be the word of the year. The New York Times stated that the American Dialect Society "probably started" the "word-of-the-year ritual". However, the "Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache" (GfdS) has announced a word of the year since 1977.
Special votes that they've made:
Word of the 20th Century: jazz
Word of the Past Millennium: she
Word of the Decade (1990–1999): web
Word of the Decade (2000–2009): Google (verb)
Word of the Decade (2010–2019): they (singular)
The society also selects words in other categories that vary from year to year, such as "most original", "most unnecessary", "most outrageous", or "most likely to succeed" (see: Word of the year).
A number of words chosen by the ADS are also on the lists of Merriam-Webster's Words of the Year.
=== List of Words of the Year ===
== See also ==
American English
Language planning
Language Report from Oxford University Press
Lists of Merriam-Webster's Words of the Year
Neologism
Word formation
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Lerer, Seth (2007). Inventing English: A Portable History of the Language. New York, New York: Columbia University Press. p. 195.
Mencken, H.L. (2006). The American Language: An Inquiry into the Development of English in the United States. Alfred A. Knopf.
Metcalf, Allan A. (2002). Predicting New Words: The Secrets of Their Success. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 188. ISBN 9780618130061.
Sheidlower, Jesse (January 11, 2005). "Linguists Gone Wild! Why "wardrobe malfunction" wasn't the word of the year". Slate Magazine. The Slate Group, LLC.
Wolfram, Walt; Natalie Schilling-Estes (2006). American English: Dialects and Variation. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. p. 24.
== External links ==
Official website
American Dialect Society, information page at Duke University Press
Publication of the American Dialect Society, archive articles at Duke University Press
American Dialect Society, information page at American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS)
American Dialect Society, news page at Dictionary Society of North America
American Dialect Society Collection, at Library of Congress
American Dialect Society, publications listed with timeline at WorldCat, from participation in the Online Computer Library Center
Creator: American Dialect Society, at website of Internet Archive |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ActRaiser | ActRaiser | ActRaiser is a 1990 video game developed by Quintet and published by Enix for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. It combines traditional side-scrolling platforming and sections with city building elements. A sequel, ActRaiser 2, was released for the Super NES in 1993. In 2007, ActRaiser became available on the Wii's Virtual Console download service in Europe, North America, and Japan. A version of the game was also released for European mobile phones in 2004. A remake, Actraiser Renaissance, was released for several platforms in 2021.
== Gameplay ==
The player plays as "The Master", the main protagonist of the game. Although the Master is never directly controlled, the player interacts with the world by controlling an angel and an animated statue. The player plays as an angel during the simulation sequences of the game, and as the statue during the action sequences.
The overhead-view simulation mode involves protecting and guiding the Master's new civilization towards prosperity, beginning with two humans. This portion of the game requires the player to take actions that encourage the growth of the population, including road planning and using lightning, rain, sunlight, wind, and earthquakes as miracles. The Angel can interact with the monsters in the area by shooting them with arrows as well as aid the Master by indicating where to build and use miracles.
One obstacle in the simulation mode is the presence of flying monsters that attempt to impede the progression of a civilization. The monsters originate from four lairs around the region at the beginning of each level. They continuously spawn the creatures as the servant kills them. As the population expands, it can seal the lairs of monsters, which prevents them from spawning, and eventually eliminate all the flying monsters in the land. Doing so increases the civilization level of the region, allowing more advanced structures to be built and increasing the potential population. Once all four lairs have been sealed the population will begin to build the most advanced homes available to the people in that region. The Master levels up by increasing the total population of the world, granting an increase in hit points and SP, used in performing miracles.
Each area has two side-scrolling action sequences, one before the building simulation and near the end. In the action sequences, the player controls a humanlike statue brought to life by the Master. The player must jump from platform to platform while defeating monsters to accrue a score. At the end of each action sequence, the player must defeat a boss.
The final level is an action-sequence boss marathon, culminating in the final fight against Tanzra.
== Plot ==
The plot follows a godlike being known only as "The Master" (God in the Japanese version) in his fight against Tanzra (Satan in the Japanese version), also referred to as "The Evil One". According to the instruction booklet, The Master was defeated in a battle with Tanzra and his six lieutenants. The Master retreated to his sky palace to tend to his wounds and fell into a deep sleep. In the Master's absence, Tanzra divided the world into six lands, one for each of his lieutenants; they later turned the people to evil.
After several hundred years, the Master awakens fully recovered to discover that he has lost his powers due to the lack of belief in him. As the game progresses, the Master defeats Tanzra's lieutenants and recovers his powers by rebuilding the civilizations of his people and communicating with them through prayer. After all lieutenants have been slain, the Master commences an assault on Tanzra's stronghold, Death Heim, eventually defeating him.
After the defeat of Tanzra, The Master and his servant revisit the many civilizations that they had helped to build and observe the people. During their observations, they note that nobody is at the temple worshiping the Master. The servant observes that, although the people once prayed to the Master in times of trouble, they no longer feel a need to because they are able to solve their remaining problems on their own. The Master and his servant then enter the sky palace and depart into the heavens to await a time when they may be needed.
== Development ==
=== Religious subtext ===
The game is seen as an allegory for Judeo-Christian monotheism. In the original Japanese version, the protagonist's name is God and the antagonist is referred to as Satan. According to Douglas Crockford's Expurgation of Maniac Mansion, Nintendo of America had a strict policy regarding game content in the early 1990s, especially in regards to material that could be deemed offensive, a blanket category that prohibited the inclusion of any overtly religious themes or plotlines in a game. Hence, the main character of the game was renamed "The Master", although the allegory remains, as he travels the globe in a palace on a cloud, accompanied by an angel; slays demons; creates life; performs miracles; and is prayed to by the populace of the world. The bosses are based on real-world religion or mythology, such as Greek mythology and Hinduism. The concept of religion is further explored at the end of the game, when the Angel and "Master" discover that the temples of the world have become empty, people having lost their concept of faith and need for a deity now that they had been given all they needed to solve problems on their own. They leave the planet, to come back if needed.
=== Version differences ===
Further changes were made for the game's North American release. The game's title was slightly changed to ActRaiser, with a new logo. Monster Lairs were now indicated by skull-like symbols (changed from Stars of David). Action segments possess an overall easier level design, enemies were given new attacks, spells require less magic to cast, spike pits do not instantly kill the player, and more time is given to finish each segment. Meanwhile the simulation segments have been made difficult and is difficult to reach the maximum experience level in this version. Finally, there is a "Professional!" mode, unlocked after completing the game, containing only the action segments with a level design similar to the original Japanese release.
European releases use changes from the North American version as a base. The Professional! mode, now called the "Action" mode, is available from the start. Both the original "Story" mode and this Action mode now have three difficulties. The action segments in the Normal and Expert settings for Story mode resemble the action segments from the previous North American and Japanese main modes respectively, while the new Beginner setting is even easier than Normal. The Normal setting for Action mode resembles the North American Professional! mode. Beginner mode resembles the North American main mode, though the new enemy attacks from the North American version of the game have been removed for both. The new Expert setting goes beyond any other version of the game, restoring the new attacks, increasing damage from enemies, and reducing damage dealt.
=== Ports ===
A modified version of the game was made for the Nintendo Super System arcade platform. This arcade version featured only the action stages, similar to the Professional! mode in the retail version. Among other changes, the game had a different scoring system, and was much more difficult than the retail version: for example, contact with spikes is instantly fatal to the player like in the Japanese version, instead of merely causing loss of HP.
Square Enix released a limited version of the game for mobile phones, published by Macrospace on September 1, 2004. It consists of the first three side-scrolling levels of the game, with the town-building portions completely omitted.
ActRaiser also became available on the Wii's Virtual Console. It was released in Japan on March 20, 2007, in Europe on April 13, and in North America on May 28. As the game was published by Enix, Square Enix currently holds the rights to the Virtual Console edition.
=== Actraiser Renaissance ===
A remake under the title of Actraiser Renaissance was released in September 2021, for Android, iOS, Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, and Windows. It drastically alters the flow of gameplay, with extra input commands in the action stages, and new tower defense segments in the simulator maps. It also introduces a post-game stage not present in the original game, Alcaleone.
== Music ==
Among many things, the game is recognized for its score, which was composed by Yuzo Koshiro. Its release within six months of the launch of the console demonstrated the compositional potential it represented to future projects, underscoring its ability to use and manipulate comparatively high-quality samples. A single disc soundtrack for the game was released on January 25, 1991, in Japan. A shorter arranged soundtrack titled Symphonic Suite from Actraiser was released on September 21. In 2004, a medley of music from the game arranged by the original composer was performed live at the second annual Symphonic Game Music Concert in Leipzig, Germany. The soundtrack was re-released by Wayô Records on vinyl and CD in 2021 as ActRaiser Original Soundtrack & Symphonic Suite. Koshiro would later return to not only fully recreate the original soundtrack for Actraiser Renaissance, but also composed fifteen new tracks, in both the original SNES sample quality and Renaissance's own higher quality audio.
== Reception ==
The Japanese publication Micom BASIC Magazine ranked ActRaiser eighth in popularity in its March 1991 issue, and it received a 23.68/30 score in a 1993 readers' poll conducted by Super Famicom Magazine, ranking among Super Famicom titles at the number 26 spot. The game received generally favorable reception from critics, holding a rating of 79.25% based on eight reviews according to review aggregator GameRankings. Super Gamer called it a brilliant mix of a strategic gods game and platforming elements.
ActRaiser was awarded Best Music of 1993 by Electronic Gaming Monthly. In 1997 Electronic Gaming Monthly editors ranked it the 75th best console video game of all time. They praised the unique combination of gameplay styles and its hypnotic atmosphere that makes playing the game seem more like a religious experience than other games on Super NES.
=== Sales and accolades ===
Quintet reported that ActRaiser sold 620,000 copies worldwide, with 400,000 copies sold in Japan, 180,000 copies sold in North America, and 40,000 copies sold in Europe. ActRaiser was inducted into GameSpot's Greatest Games of All Time in December 2003. It was rated the 150th best game made on a Nintendo System in Nintendo Power's Top 200 Games list. In 2007, ScrewAttack ranked ActRaiser #1 on their "Top 10 Big Names That Fell Off", which listed games that were popular in days past, whether good or bad, but have since faded into relative obscurity (ActRaiser was discussed positively). It was also #10 in their "Top 20 SNES Games" list. In 2018, Complex ranked ActRaiser 33rd on their "The Best Super Nintendo Games of All Time" list. In 2017, Gamesradar ranked ActRaiser 23rd on its "The best SNES games of all time" list. They praised the gameplay, calling it a good mix of 2D action and city-building simulation. In 1995, Total! placed the game 91st on its "Top 100 SNES Games" list.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Actraiser at Square-Enix.com (in Japanese)
ActRaiser at MobyGames |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Carlton_Gilbert | Alfred Carlton Gilbert | Alfred Carlton Gilbert (February 15, 1884 – January 24, 1961) was an American inventor, athlete, magician, toy maker and businessman. As the founder of A. C. Gilbert Company, Gilbert was known for inventing the Erector Set and American Flyer Trains.
== Early life and education ==
Born in Salem, Oregon, Gilbert was educated at the Tualatin Academy and attended Pacific University in nearby Forest Grove, Oregon, where he was a member of the Gamma Sigma Fraternity. He left Pacific after 1902 and transferred to Yale University, financing his education by working as a magician, and earning a degree in medicine. His thesis had the title The Genito-Urinary Phenomena of Athletes.
An accomplished athlete, he broke the world record for consecutive chin-ups (39) in 1900 and the distance record for the running long dive in 1902. He invented the pole vault box and set two world records in the pole vault including a record for 12′ 3″ (3.66 meters) at the Spring meet of the Irish American Athletic Club, held at Celtic Park, New York, in 1906. In the pole vault competition at the 1908 Summer Olympics, he tied for gold with fellow American Edward Cook, setting an Olympic record.
== Career ==
Choosing not to pursue a medical career, Gilbert founded Mysto Manufacturing, a manufacturer of magic sets, with his friend John Petrie, in 1907. This company later became the A. C. Gilbert Company. Gilbert developed the Erector Set, a construction toy, in 1913 (preceded by the similar Meccano set conceived by Frank Hornby in 1898 which he developed and patented as "Mechanics Made Easy" in 1901). His inspiration was steel construction girders used on the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad. In 1918, with the United States embroiled in World War I and the Council of National Defense considering a ban on toy production, Gilbert argued successfully against it. The press gave him the nickname "The man who saved Christmas." Gilbert had by then contributed to the war effort by becoming one of the Four Minute Men who gave short lectures to movie audiences, thus encouraging citizens to purchase war bonds.
By 1935, his company had sold more than 30 million of the Erector sets. He also added chemistry sets, microscope sets, and other educational toys to his product line, accumulating more than 150 patents during his 50-year career. In 1938, he acquired the rights to the American Flyer toy train line from W. O. Coleman and moved their production from Chicago to New Haven. At the same time, he adopted a 3/16 scale for this train line while keeping the three-rail O-gauge track then associated with Lionel, a competitor. Following World War II, O-gauge track was abandoned in favor of two-rail S-gauge track. Gilbert was lauded for his adherence to scale realism, making American Flyer trains look more real and less toylike.
Gilbert is credited with originating the concept of providing benefits for his employees, including free medical and legal advice and maternity leave. In 1915 he founded the Toy Manufacturers of America trade association and was its first president.
Frustrated that invention was an important part of American society not taught in schools, in 1941, Gilbert opened the Gilbert Hall of Science in New York City a science and technology museum. It served the dual purpose of promoting interest in science and selling Gilbert's products.
In 1950–1951 he marketed the Gilbert U-238 Atomic Energy Laboratory, which contained radioactive ore samples of autunite, carnotite, torbernite and uraninite.
== Personal life ==
In 1908, he married Mary Thompson, whom he had met at Pacific University. They had three children: two girls and a boy. In the 1930s, they lived in a property in Hamden, Connecticut called Maraldene which included kennels where Gilbert bred German Shepherds including one which won the Max von Stephanitz award. He also owned a nearby 600-acre estate that he called Paradise. He used it for hunting and it housed his big-game trophies. It was a venue for him to entertain clients and guests attending the Yale Bowl.
== Later years ==
Upon his retirement in 1954, Gilbert turned his company over to his son. The same year, he published his autobiography, titled The Man Who Lives in Paradise. After his death in 1961, the family sold its remaining shares in the A. C. Gilbert Company to Jack Wrather. It went out of business in 1967, although the Erector trademark continued to be used.
== Legacy ==
A museum in Gilbert's birthplace of Salem, Oregon, A. C. Gilbert's Discovery Village, is named in his honor. The museum comprises several historic structures, including the house of Gilbert's uncle Andrew T. Gilbert. It opened in 1989.
The television movie The Man Who Saved Christmas is a dramatization of Christmas during the years 1917 and 1918 when America was involved in World War I. He was portrayed by Jason Alexander. The film takes several historical liberties. It debuted December 15, 2002.
Pacific University in Forest Grove, Oregon, has a residential hall named after him that was opened in 2009.
== Publications ==
Gilbert Mysto Magic (1919)
Gilbert 75 Electrical Toys and Tricks (1919)
Gilbert Chemical Magic (1920)
Gilbert Handkerchief Tricks for Boys (1920)
Gilbert Hydraulic and Pneumatic Engineering (1920)
Gilbert Knots & Splices with Rope-Tying Tricks (1920)
Gilbert Magnetic Fun and Facts (1920)
Gilbert Carpentry for Boys (1920)
Gilbert Weather Bureau (meteorology) for Boys (1920)
Experimental Glass Blowing for Boys (1920)
Gilbert Mineralogy for Boys (1921)
Gilbert Mineralogy: Fun with Minerals (1922)
Gilbert Coin Tricks for Boys (1938)
Roar of the Rails (1944)
Fun With Gilbert Chemistry (1946)
American Flyer Instruction Book (1952)
Gilbert Home Chemistry (1952)
The Man Who Lives in Paradise (1954)
== References ==
== External links ==
The Eli Whitney Museum's extensive A. C. Gilbert Project includes collections, a bibliography, and pictures of Gilbert
A. C. Gilbert's Discovery Village
The A. C. Gilbert Heritage Society
A. C. Gilbert Papers (MS 1618). Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library.
Works by Alfred Carlton Gilbert at Project Gutenberg
Alfred Carlton Gilbert at World Athletics
Alfred Carlton Gilbert at Olympedia
Alfred Carlton Gilbert at Find a Grave |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxtel#:~:text=On%2020%20May%202010%2C%20Foxtel,Video%2Don%2Ddemand%20channels. | Foxtel | NXE Australia Pty Ltd, trading as the Foxtel Group, is an Australian pay television company that operates direct broadcast satellite television, and IPTV streaming services. It was formed in April 2018, superseding an earlier company from 1995. The service was established as a 50/50 joint venture between News Corp Australia (which held a controlling 65% stake) and Telstra (which held the remaining 35%).
Since 2025, the company is owned by DAZN. It shares many features with the Sky service in the UK and Ireland – including the iQ box, the electronic programme guide, a similar remote control, and Red Button Active. Foxtel is a merger between Fox under Lachlan Murdoch who is CEO and Telstra under Ross Lambi who is Chief Infrastructure Officer.
== History ==
Foxtel was established via a joint venture between News Corporation and Telstra in October 1995. It officially launched on 23 October 1995 with 20 channels, including an exclusive 100 hour commission from Artist Services for its Fox channel.
In May 1998, Australis Media, the owner of Galaxy, was declared insolvent. Foxtel was consequently able to significantly boost its customer base by acquiring Galaxy subscribers from Australis' liquidator and immediately commenced supplying programming to former Galaxy subscribers on an interim basis. In February 1999, Foxtel began offering its own satellite service to new customers.
Kerry Packer purchased a 25% stake in Foxtel for $150 million in October 1998. Publishing & Broadcasting Limited also bought half of News Corp's stake in Foxtel, which left Telstra with 50% of the company.
In 2002, a content sharing agreement between Foxtel and Optus Television was approved by the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission (ACCC).
On 11 July 2011, Austar announced that it would be acquired by Foxtel through a transaction agreement with Liberty Global. This takeover received a minority shareholder approval on 30 March 2012, ACCC approval on 10 April 2012, and approval from a Second Court Hearing . Austar shares were suspended from the ASX on 16 April 2012 and delisted on 27 April 2012. The takeover was completed on 24 May 2012.
News Corporation acquired Consolidated Media Holdings in November 2012, bringing its stake in Foxtel to 50%, up from 25%.
BBC and Foxtel announced a partnership in 2013 to launch a premium BBC channel on Foxtel. The channel launched as part of the Foxtel Drama & Lifestyle package in 2014. The deal also included Foxtel broadcasting privileges of four existing BBC channels – UKTV, BBC Knowledge, CBeebies and BBC World News.
In June 2015, Foxtel officially agreed to buyout 15% shares in Ten Network Holdings, thereby ending "nine months of failed takeover bids" from Discovery Channel and Time Warner.
In June 2017, Foxtel announced that it would be undergoing its first major "Foxtel is for everyone" rebrand. The former logo, described as "quite aggressive, quite arrogant, quite elitist", would be replaced with an all lowercase logo; its Foxtel Play service also rebranded to Foxtel Now.
On 6 March 2018, News Corp Australia announced a merger of Fox Sports Australia with Foxtel. As part of the deal, News Corp would own a 65% stake in the combined entity, with Telstra owning 35% of ownership. The combining of the two businesses placed emphasis on live-streaming sports and entertainment.
On 4 May 2020, it was announced that Foxtel would be closing down its owned & operated music video networks and replacing them with a new suite of MTV, Nickelodeon and CMT-branded channels (MTV Hits, NickMusic, Club MTV, MTV 80s and CMT), as part of a wider deal with Paramount.
On 26 February 2022, Foxtel suspended broadcast distribution of the Russian television network RT in Australia. In September 2022, Foxtel extended their partnership with WWE to become Australia's exclusive home of WWE. Foxtel is to relocate WWE Network into Foxtel's Binge streaming service in January 2023, following the launch of its dedicated linear TV channel in December 2022.
In August 2024, it was reported that News Corp Australia was pursuing a sale of Foxtel, citing third-party interest in the division during a strategic review of its assets. The sale also came amid trends towards cord-cutting and free ad-supported streaming television (FAST) services, and major cuts to News Corp Australia's publishing businesses amid declining advertising revenue. An initial suitor was American private equity firm Platinum Equity, but it was later reported that British sports streaming company DAZN was in active negotiations. On 23 December 2024, DAZN announced that it would acquire Foxtel, in a transaction valuing the company at $3.4 billion. As part of the sale, News Corp Australia and Telstra will take 6% and 3% minority stakes in DAZN.
The acquisition was completed on 2 April 2025 following the approval of the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission and Foreign Investment Review Board; DAZN stated that it would maintain "Foxtel" and its related brands. Following the merger, Foxtel laid off approximately 100 employees, reported to be mostly from the Hubbl subsidiary.
== Ratings ==
Foxtel grew rapidly in 2007, with most of Foxtel's highest-ever rating events being broadcast that year, including the 2007 AFC Asian Cup quarter-final between Australia and Japan, which drew an average of 419,000 viewers, an Australian pay television record at that time. This ratings record has since been eclipsed by the 2011 Rugby World Cup on Fox Sports 1 averaging around 500,000 viewers, which was smashed by the 2012 London Olympics Coverage, broadcast on 8 dedicated channels in both HD and SD formats, which saw an average of 946,432 viewers tuning in on the opening weekend, with around 600,000 to 700,000 viewers nightly thereafter.
As of 2012, Fox Sports channels, particularly Fox Footy, average between 90,000 and 300,000 + viewers for NRL/AFL matches throughout the week.
The highest-rated light entertainment shows are The Simpsons most weeknights on FOX8 with around 110,000 viewers, as well as Family Guy with around 70,000 viewers. A&E has also recorded healthy audience numbers for its TruTV and A&E US syndicated shows from the US – Pawn Stars (85,000), Hardcore Pawn (85,000), and Storage Wars (90,000). BBC UKTV also consistently rates well with British soaps EastEnders (80,000) and Coronation Street (65,000). The LifeStyle channel has experienced audiences in excess of 100,000 people for its Premiere shows Location Location Location Australia, Grand Designs Australia, Selling Houses Australia, Disney Channel (Australia) and The Real Housewives of Melbourne brings strong ratings.
== Availability ==
Foxtel transmitted its cable service via Telstra hybrid fibre-coaxial (HFC) cable into the Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth metropolitan areas, along with the Gold Coast. Foxtel now also transmits its satellite service into these cities as well as all over Australia, including regional areas since the takeover of Austar. Previous Austar customers are now 100% Foxtel customers with the conversion from Austar to Foxtel in regional Australia now complete. Foxtel on Mobile launched on Telstra's Next G Network in late 2006 and is now available within Telstra Next G (HSDPA/850 MHz) coverage areas, which covers 99% of the population.
With the transfer in ownership of Telstra's HFC network to NBN Co for the provision of broadband services, Foxtel announced in 2022 that it would be abandoning HFC in favour of satellite and IPTV services. The transition was completed in 2023, after which no Foxtel services have been provided via HFC, thus making NBN's HFC network all-IP, solely carrying DOCSIS services.
Telstra's network and Foxtel were created to combat the threat posed to Telstra's local call business by the combination of Optus Television content bundling with Optus' local telephony services; Foxtel was the content arm of Telstra's defence strategy, while Telstra's multimedia broadband network was originally the sole delivery system.
In 2002, Foxtel and Optus Television agreed to a content-sharing arrangement. Programming competition between the two companies has now dissipated. Prior to its acquisition by Foxtel in 2011, Austar, a regional pay television operator, also carried most Foxtel programming.
As of 2011, Foxtel is Australia's largest pay television operator, with programming available to over 70% of Australian homes, and delivered to over 1.65 million, either directly or by Foxtel's wholesale customers. In April 2008, Foxtel's penetration into Australian homes passed 30%. This penetration rate is significantly lower compared with market penetration rates in the US (over 85%) and in Western Europe (over 55%). This is due to the fact that Australian pay-TV fees are significantly more expensive and pay-TV began delivering its service much later in Australia than in the US.
Foxtel announced its maiden annual profit in 2006, more than 10 years after it commenced services. The installation and maintenance of Foxtel services is Telstra's responsibility. In many markets Telstra has outsourced installation and maintenance to large communications contractors, including ABB Communications and Siemens-Thiess Communications joint venture.
In 2007, Network 10 formed an agreement with Foxtel to allow them to carry a digital version of Ten's programming. Included in the deal is electronic program guide data, which allows Foxtel iQ users to schedule recordings on Ten. Before the agreement, Ten was carried in an analogue format on cable only. In 2008, Seven Network entered an agreement to allow Foxtel to carry its SD signal. In 2008, the first Pay TV package comparison site YouCompare was launched to allow Foxtel packages and pricing to be compared to SelecTV, however this service was ceased along with the ceasing of SelecTV's service in late 2010.
On 24 November 2009, Foxtel added 7two to the East Coast (satellite) and 7two and GO! to cable subscribers. ABC3 was recently introduced on 4 December 2009 to all Foxtel and Austar subscribers.
On 20 May 2010, Foxtel and Microsoft announced a new way of receiving Foxtel through Xbox 360's online service Xbox LIVE. The service launched November 2010 with 30+ channels and an additional 12 Video-on-demand channels. It also provided Foxtel's movie service, known as Foxtel On Demand, to non-subscribers for the first time on a pay-per-view basis. Further linear channels were added in April 2011 with the addition of 7 Telstra BigPond channels.
In June 2011, Foxtel launched an over-the-top service on Telstra's IPTV set top box called Foxtel on T-Box carrying the same services as the Foxtel on Xbox service. Also as of June 2011, Foxtel's subscribers numbered just over 1.65 million.
In November 2014, Foxtel added 2 new SD channels, 9 new HD channels and rebranded 2 sports channels to satellite and cable subscribers.
== Channels ==
Foxtel defines a virtual channel order that groups channels by their content.
General entertainment channels are from 100 to 151 which includes localised advertising on free to air channels such as Channel Nine, ABC TV, SBS, Channel Seven and Channel 10, with general entertainment and informational channels including Crime, Arena, LifeStyle, Fox8, BBC UKTV, Showcase, Foxtel One, Comedy, British, Comcast's Universal TV, Real Life, LifeStyle Food, LifeStyle Home, Discovery, DocPlay, Real History, Real Crime, Outdoor Channel, Trace Sport Stars, NatureTime, Haunt TV, Love Pets, Animal Planet, Discovery Turbo, Investigation Discovery, TLC, BoxSets and FashionTV.
Free to air channels including for ABC Kids/ABC Family, ABC Entertains, 7two, 7mate, 7flix, 7Bravo, 9Go!, 9Life, 9Gem, 10 Drama, 10 Comedy, Nickelodeon, SBS Viceland, SBS Food and NITV are from 152 to 172.
Special interest channels are from 173 to 179 which includes Aurora, TVSN and Expo.
Religious channels are from 180 to 189 which includes GOOD., Daystar Television Network and SBN.
High definition and Ultra High definition channels are from 200 to 299 which includes localised advertising versions of ABC HD, 7HD, 7mateHD, 9HD, 9Gem HD, 10 HD, SBS HD, SBS Viceland HD and NITV HD, as well as timeshifted versions of general entertainment and informational channels for a two-hour delay of Fox8, Crime, Foxtel One, Comedy, Arena, LifeStyle, LifeStyle Food, BBC UKTV, Showcase, British, Real Life, Discovery and Discovery Turbo.
Movie packaged channels are from 400 to 499 which includes Foxtel Movies Hits (themed movies and pop-up events), Ultra HD, Premiere, Family, Action, Comedy, Romance, Drama, Greats, British Cinema, Aussie Classics, PULP and SBS World Movies.
Sports channels are from 500 to 599 which includes Fox Sports News 500, Fox Cricket 501, Fox League 502, Fox Sports 503, Fox Footy 504, Fox Sports 505, Fox Sports 506, Fox Sports 507, Disney's ESPN and ESPN 2, Main Event (pay-per-view), Main Event 2 (pay-per-view), Main Event UFC, Sky Racing 1, Sky Racing 2, Sky Thoroughbred Central and Racing.com. As of 2025, they’re UHD and HD sports channels.
News channels are from 600 to 699 which includes Sky News Australia, Sky News Weather Channel, Sky News Extra, Sky News UK, Fox News (US sister channel of Sky News Australia), Warner Bros. Discovery's CNN International, NBCUniversal's MS NOW and CNBC, Bloomberg Television, ABC News, SBS WorldWatch, Al Jazeera English, CGTN, CGTN Documentary, NHK World-Japan and GB News.
Pre-Teenage entertainment channels are from 700 to 799 which includes DreamWorks Channel.
Music video channels are from 800 to 829 which includes Foxtel Networks‘s Trending, Kids, Club, Retro, Country Music Channel, Max and Australian Played and Vevo’s VEVO Pop, VEVO 2K, VEVO 90s, VEVO 70s, VEVO Rock and VEVO Country.
Audio only channels are from 830 to 899 which includes LiSTNR, SBS Radio, SBS Radio 2 and SBS Chill.
Foreign language channels are from 900 to 989 which includes Greek radio Ant1 Radio and ANT1 Pacific and Italian radio Rai Radio 1 and Rai Italia.
Also available on iQ3, iQ4 and iQ5 set top boxes are ABC iview, ABC Kids, SBS On Demand, 7plus, 9Now, 10, Netflix, Disney+, Paramount+, HBO Max, F1 TV, BeIN Sports Connect, YouTube, Amazon Prime Video, Apple TV+, BritBox, Stan and DocPlay apps.
=== Defunct channels ===
Channels that were re-branded include: 13th Street (rebranded as Fox Sleuth), Syfy (rebranded as Fox Sci-Fi), 111 Funny (split and rebranded into Fox Hits and Fox Funny), W (renamed SoHo), BBC HD (replaced by BBC UKTV HD), Fox Kids Australia (shared with Fox Classics), Weather 21 (replaced by The Weather Channel), The Weather Channel (replaced by Sky News Weather), Encore (renamed to Showtime Greats) (replaced by Showtime Action, Showtime Comedy and Showtime Drama, both swallowed with Foxtel Movies), VH1 Australia (Replaced by MTV Classic), MTV Live HD, Air Active (which was replaced by Foxtel Music), KidsCo (Replaced by Discovery Kids), Fuel TV, Speed (both replaced by Fox Sports 505 & 506 respectively), SoHo (Replaced by Binge), Channel [V] (Replaced by [V] Hits, later renamed [V]), MTV Music and MTV Dance (relaunched as MTV Hits and Club MTV respectively) and MTV Classic (replaced by MTV 80s).
HD multichannels that were replaced by other HD channels include 10 Drama (replaced by 10 HD, 10 Drama was reduced to SD) and 9Gem (replaced by 9HD, rebranded today as 9Gem and was reduced to SD). 9Gem later relaunched an HD simulcast.
Channels completely discontinued include BBC First, BBC Earth, BBC News, CBeebies, beIN Sports, MTV, Nickelodeon, Nick Jr., PBS Kids, Disney XD, Disney Channel, Disney Junior, Binge, Discovery Science, Discovery Kids, Foxtel Movies Disney, Eurosport, Your Money, The Soundtrack Channel, Movie Network (replaced by Foxtel Movies), Showtime Network (replaced by Foxtel Movies), TechTV, Ovation, KidsCo, History+2, Starpics (replaced by Foxtel Movies), Gamesworld Interactive Games and the Interactive Sports Selector. Also discontinued in July 2020 were music channels [V] (replaced by NickMusic) and Foxtel Smooth (closed down).
TV1 and SF ceased transmission at 11:59 pm, on 31 December 2013 after Foxtel chose not to renew their contracts as they wanted to bring as many channels in house as they did with their movie offerings.
STUDIO ceased transmission at 11:59 pm, on 27 March 2015 after choosing not to renew the contract with SBS Television. This was replaced by Foxtel Arts in both SD and HD on Channel 132.
Turner Classic Movies (TCM) was discontinued on 13 December 2016.
Disney XD ceased transmission on 6 January 2019.
The Comedy Channel ceased transmission on 1 September 2020.
Disney Channel and Disney Junior ceased transmission on 13 February 2020.
beIN Sports and PBS Kids ceased transmission on 1 July 2023.
Paramount channels MTV, Nickelodeon and Nick Jr. ceased transmission on 1 August 2023. The channels continue to operate on other providers in Australia and New Zealand, and Foxtel continues to carry Paramount's music video networks. By September 2023, all MTV music channels (except CMT) were switched from localised feeds to the global feed.
BBC Studios channels BBC First, BBC Earth, BBC News and CBeebies ceased transmission on 31 July 2024.
Audio only channels includes ABC NewsRadio, Radio National, ABC Local Radio stations, ABC Classic, Triple J, Double J and ABC Jazz.
On 3 June, Foxtel announced that it would discontinue its Paramount-branded music channels on 30 June.
== Current services ==
Although originally launching in 1995 with just a cable service, Foxtel has branched out into many new services since its inception including broadband and phone services in 2014.
=== Foxtel Go ===
Foxtel subscribers are able to access live and on-demand content within packages they are subscribed to through the internet via Foxtel Go.
Foxtel launched the Foxtel Go service on 7 November 2012. Originally, it was only available on iPad, but from 20 February 2013 it was also available on iPhone, and later on Mac, Windows PC and selected Android devices. Foxtel Go was launched after the success of its London 2012 app, which simulcast 8 live high definition channels that were also offered on the standard Foxtel service.
Access to the Foxtel Go app is free for residential customers with a set-top box and a Foxtel or Foxtel Now subscription, allowing access to any channel that they are subscribed to. Only five devices can be linked to an account during any given month with only two being able to view content at the same time.
Unlike Mobile Foxtel (provided by Telstra) – which only provides a loop of selected shows – Foxtel Go offers a live simulcast of a subset of channels available through the traditional cable and satellite services. The service also has no time limits; Mobile Foxtel offers only 15 minutes of programming per session, or a maximum 200 minutes per month.
The channels currently available to subscribers are:
Essentials – Showcase; Comedy; Fox8; BoxSets; Arena; Lifestyle; Real Life; Club MTV; NickMusic; MTV 80s; Sky News; Sky News Weather; Sky News Extra; Sky News UK; Fox Sports News; CNN; Fox News; BBC News; CNBC; Bloomberg; NHK World-Japan; Fox Comedy; TLC; E!; Lifestyle Food; Lifestyle Home; Foxtel Arts.
Drama Plus – UKTV; Fox Crime; BBC First; Universal TV; Fox One; Fox Sci-Fi; Fox Sleuth.
Kids – CBeebies; School Holidays Pop-Up Channel
Sport – Fox Sports, Fox Cricket; Fox League; Fox Footy; ESPN; ESPN 2
Movies – Premiere; Kids; Action; Comedy; Romance; Family; Drama; Hits; Thriller; Greats; LMN; SBS World Movies.
Docos – A&E; History; Discovery Channel; Discovery Turbo; Animal Planet; Investigation Discovery; Crime + Investigation; BBC Earth.
The Foxtel Go also offers an on demand service for most channels listed above including sports channels.
=== Foxtel Now ===
Foxtel Now (formerly Foxtel Play) is an internet television alternative to the traditional Foxtel subscription, offering customers a no lock in contract subscription starting at $10. The service offers over 50 live channels and hundreds of hours of video on-demand content across six subscription packages.
The service is available across a range of devices such as computers, TVs and video game consoles. In addition, subscribers have access to Foxtel's Foxtel Go app expanding access to smartphones and tablets.
On 4 October 2016, Foxtel announced that a new look Foxtel Play streaming service will roll out from December 2016 and that Foxtel Play will be a simpler, cheaper and more flexible IP-delivered product.
As part of a company wide rebrand in June 2017, Foxtel announced that from 7 June, Foxtel Play would be renamed Foxtel Now and would gain HD streaming and Chromecast support with a lower starting price of $10 per month (later increased to $25 per month).
=== Foxtel magazine ===
Foxtel has a magazine with a monthly reach of about 700,000. It is published for Foxtel by Medium Rare Content Agency, and distributed to Foxtel subscribers (who choose to pay for this service) via post.
== Hubbl ==
Hubbl, formerly Streamotion Pty Ltd, is a wholly owned subsidiary of Foxtel that develops and operates over-the-top subscription streaming services. Currently, the group operates Kayo, Binge and Flash, as well as WatchNRL and WatchAFL internationally.
== Past services ==
Foxtel Digital
Foxtel On-Demand
=== Foxtel HD ===
Foxtel announced their high definition service, originally called Foxtel HD+, on 30 January 2008. It became officially available on 19 May 2008 at a nominal price of $10 AUD despite similar "HD" resolution broadcast channels already available on free-to-air television. HD+ launched with four channels; BBC HD, ESPN HD, Fox Sports HD and a timeshared documentary channel for Discovery HD World and National Geographic HD programming. Foxtel Box Office also began simulcasting in high definition.
On 15 November 2009, another ten high definition channels were launched; Fox Sports 2 HD, Fox Sports 3 HD, Fox8 HD, Movie One HD, Showcase HD, Showtime Action HD, Showtime Premiere HD, Starpics 1 HD, Starpics 2 HD and W HD. BBC HD was relaunched as UKTV HD and the timeshared documentary channel was split into full-time versions of Discovery HD World and National Geographic HD. The pricing and packaging of the HD+ channels was also revised.
BBC Knowledge HD, MTVN Live HD, Nat Geo Wild HD and Speed HD launched almost a year later on 1 November 2010. ESPN 2 HD and Lifestyle HD launched on 1 March 2011. A&E HD, Fox Footy HD and FX HD launched in late February 2012. Eight new high definition channels for the London Olympics began broadcasting on 25 July 2012. Foxtel launched eight new high definition movie channels on 1 January 2013, replacing the five existing high definition movie channels from Showtime and The Movie Network. The new channels included Action/Adventure HD, Comedy HD, Drama/Romance HD, Family HD, Masterpiece HD, Premiere HD and Thriller/Crime HD. Main Event HD began broadcasting on 3 September 2013.
Syfy HD launched on 1 January 2014. Foxtel added Disney Movies HD on 10 April 2014. UKTV HD was replaced with BBC First HD on 3 August 2014. On 3 November 2014, nine new high definition channels were launched; 13th Street HD, Arena HD, BoxSets HD, Eurosport HD, Fox Sports 4 HD, Fox Sports News HD, History HD, Universal HD and World Movies HD. Speed HD was also relaunched as Fox Sports 5 HD at the same time. Binge HD launched on 5 October 2015. Sky News National HD began broadcasting on 1 December 2015, with Sky News Business HD beginning on 19 January 2016. Foxtel Arts HD began broadcasting in March 2016. On 1 April 2016, Sky Thoroughbred Central HD launched. Sky News Election Channel HD launched on 1 May 2016. Foxtel added another high definition movie channel with More Movies HD launching on 1 July 2016.
In response to Optus Sports winning the rights to the English Premier League, Foxtel launched six new high definition sports channels on 15 May 2016. These included beIN Sports 1 HD, beIN Sports 2 HD, beIN Sports 3 HD, Chelsea TV HD, LFCTV HD and MUTV HD. Sky News Election Channel HD was replaced with A-PAC HD in January 2017. Movie Greats HD was added on 23 March 2018. Sky News UK HD launched as a standalone channel on 27 May 2018 with A-PAC HD also rebranding to Sky News Extra HD. Fox News Channel HD launched in November 2018.
A retransmission of the free-to-air networks' high definition channels is also available to high definition cable subscribers and satellite subscribers with an iQ3 set-top box or later. These channels include ABC HD, SBS HD, SBS Viceland HD, SBS World Movies HD, 7HD, 7mateHD, 9HD, 9Gem HD and 10 HD.
Foxtel's high definition channels are broadcast in H.264 in both 720p and 1080i resolutions. As of 2011, almost a third of Foxtel's customers were receiving the HD service.
=== Foxtel Download ===
On 1 October 2009, Foxtel launched an online download service which allows all cable and satellite customers to access Foxtel content via their computer. The service were free for customers, who can download programmes from channels within their subscription package. There were one live streaming channel, ESPN3, while the remainder of the service provides episodes of programs from 38 channels. Then CEO, Kim Williams, highlighted that Foxtel planned to expand its live streaming channel range later in the year to coincide with the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics and the launch of thirty new channels for Foxtel Digital and HD. This service has been the source of great controversy as there was no support for Linux, Mac or any 64-bit Windows operating systems, leaving many users unable to install the client.
Foxtel Download was discontinued in September 2012, with the service no longer being available to subscribers.
=== Mobile Foxtel ===
Launched in late 2006 to coincide with Telstra's NextG 3G mobile phone network, Mobile Foxtel (previously Foxtel By Mobile) offers 33 standard channels of programming for a small subscription fee, optimised for mobile devices. the channels on the service were: Sky News National, Your Money, CNN, Fox Sports News, Fox8, The Comedy Channel, MTV, E! Entertainment, Fashion TV, Discovery Mobile, Disney Channel, Eurosport, Union Extreme Sports, Cartoon Network, TV1, National Geographic, ABC, SBS One and Eurosportnews.
With the exception of CNN, Fashion TV, Eurosportsnews, Eurosport, Fox News, BBC World News and Fox Sports News, which were direct simulcasts of the actual channel and Sky News channels which are taken from the Sky News Active service, all channels are pre-produced loops that do not directly correlate to the full scale satellite/cable channel. There were a limit of 200 minutes per month, with 15 minutes per session, may apply to the service, although this has not been strictly enforced.
The service was discontinued on 27 July 2016.
=== Foxtel on Xbox 360 and Internet TV ===
Foxtel launched in November 2010 for the Xbox 360 games console, offering 38 channels, catch-up television and on-demand movie streaming. It requires both an Xbox Live Gold subscription and a Foxtel subscription. Samsung Smart TVs received the same service at no additional cost in July 2012. This has been replaced with Foxtel Now.
=== Presto ===
In 2014, Foxtel launched a movie streaming operation Presto, which was initially priced at $19.99, but was halved a few months later. Presto was spin-off a television streaming service with Seven West Media in early 2015.
Foxtel announced the Presto service will be closed in January 2017, and customers moved to a Foxtel Now service.
=== Fox Movies ===
In August 2018, Foxtel launched a streaming VOD (video on demand) movie service called FoxFlicks. This service is available to subscribers who have either the movie pack or platinum pack with the new iQ4 set-top-box. It has since been rebranded as Foxtel Movies.
=== Live2Air ===
In December 2006, airline Virgin Australia (then known as Virgin Blue) announced a partnership with Foxtel and Austar to introduce a "Live2Air" service on most flights by mid-2007, providing live satellite TV to passengers via the in-flight entertainment system. The Live2Air system offered 24 Foxtel channels and was only available on selected Boeing 737 aircraft, and was phased out beginning in 2012.
== Devices ==
Foxtel devices are manufactured by Pace plc on behalf of Foxtel – they have manufactured a variety of devices including:
=== Foxtel Standard ===
There is a variety of Foxtel standard units. These lack the recording features of the iQ models, but can be connected to a VCR or DVR. Foxtel has phased out the standard boxes for all new installations and provides the iQ3, iQ4 or iQ5 instead. The additional features of the iQ models (such as recording) can be deactivated if the customer does not wish to pay for them, in effect making them operate as if they were a legacy model.
=== Foxtel iQ ===
Foxtel launched Foxtel iQ in early 2005. It is a timeshifting personal digital recorder in which subscribers are able to record programmes onto a 160 GB hard drive inside the set-top unit for later viewing. Foxtel iQ includes a feature called Series Link, which lets the viewer choose to record all future episodes in a given television series (availability is limited to certain programmes). Foxtel iQ also allows viewers to use live rewind and pause features during television programmes. Two new services, On Demand and Remote Record, launched in 2007. Remote Record was launched on 1 January 2007 and allows users to log into the interactive TV guide on the Foxtel website and then command their iQ at home to record shows, while On-Demand was launched on 8 February 2007. This service is based on Sky+, which was launched on News Corporation's UK television platform Sky in 2001.
There are currently two models of Foxtel iQ, with identical functionality to the user but different audio-visual output abilities. Both models have two tuners, allowing users to record two programmes (or record one and watch one) simultaneously.
Pace plc are the set top box provider for iQ, of which they claim that the cable version of iQ is the first DVB-based cable digital video recorder.
The updated version of the original iQ unit is physically smaller, however allows for better quality recordings and HDMI up-scaling as well as an Ethernet Port to allow Box Office downloads. It can also order On-Demand titles without the need of the phone line connected to the model. These boxes are referred to as the iQ1.5, to differentiate them from the original iQ boxes. As of 1 March 2017, these boxes are no longer available to new customers.
=== Foxtel iQ2 ===
The second-generation iQ2 box was launched alongside the Foxtel HD+ service in mid-2008. Equipped with a 320GB HDD, iQ2 is capable of recording 30 hours of HD and 90 hours of SD content and offers, double that of the original iQ. The unit also offers HDMI connectivity.
The iQ2 is equipped with four tuners, of which one is reserved for on demand content. This allows users to record two programs at once while watching a third live.
As of 2011, 75 per cent of Foxtel subscribers are using an iQ series unit, 40 per cent are using Multi-Room, and 40 per cent are using iQ2 (and therefore, HD).
On 2 November 2011, Foxtel started notifying subscribers of the option to upgrade (at an additional one-off $200 upgrade fee) to a 1TB model with 4 times the recording capacity. As of 17 August 2020, these boxes are no longer available to new customers.
=== Foxtel iQ3 ===
Foxtel's third-generation model, iQ3, was first referenced by CEO Richard Freudenstein in March 2012, and was released to customers on 23 March 2015. The iQ3 contains increased internet connectivity with the inclusion of Wi-Fi and the ability to re-watch certain broadcast programmes to the start using on-demand technology. The iQ3 includes a 1TB HDD (3x the capacity of the previous iQHD) and a bluetooth remote. After the release, many customers had complaints due to the unstable nature of the iQ3 graphical user interface and additionally accused Foxtel of releasing an 'unfinished product'. Foxtel denied such claims along with rumours that up to 2,000 iQ3 boxes were quickly launched in response to market rival Netflix launching in Australia in April 2015. As of November 2015, instability issues are yet to be resolved. However, an iQ3 software update in late 2019 allows integration with Netflix titles when connected to a television unit with an application for the service.
=== Foxtel iQ4 ===
Foxtel's fourth-generation model, iQ4 was launched in August 2018 and is 4K compatible. Foxtel launched Foxtel 4K – a dedicated 4K channel on 7 October 2018, with the broadcast of the Supercheap Auto Bathurst 1000.
=== Foxtel iQ5 ===
The iQ5 is Foxtel's latest set top box which came out in September 2021 and can operate in two different modes depending on what service is available at customer's premises. It can be connected to an existing Satellite service, where a dish is already installed and working, or connected to the internet to stream Foxtel content in internet-only mode.
== Advertising on Foxtel ==
When Foxtel was launched in 1995, advertising during programmes was banned under Australian Government legislation for the first two years. Foxtel has since significantly increased advertising across its platform, although still today legislation prevents Foxtel and other pay TV businesses from earning more than 50 per cent of their revenue from advertising. Sometimes, viewers are exposed to up to 5 minutes worth of adverts for every 8 minutes of programming. Certain programming on select channels are ad-free such as films or live games on Fox Sports, as well as select premium networks such as Fox Showcase.
== Legislation affecting Foxtel ==
=== Anti-siphoning ===
The Australian anti-siphoning laws also prevent Foxtel and other pay TV suppliers from acquiring exclusive rights to specific sporting events such as cricket, golf, tennis and the football codes. Under the legislation pay TV licensees are prevented from bidding for major sporting events until a right is acquired by the ABC, SBS, Seven, Nine and Ten networks. In 2009, the Minister for Communications announced a review of the legislation. In an Olympics year, the Australian anti-siphoning list runs to over 1300 events and is one of the longest in the world.
== Third party access ==
Foxtel prevents users from using their subscription card in a third-party decoder, and requires all users to watch the service on a supplied set-top box, included with the subscription, however some users have reported being able to watch certain channels on a computer with a DVB-C card and using sasc-ng to decrypt the video content using card readers to read the decoding keys stored on the card used in Foxtel's iQ.
== Foxtel Networks ==
On 24 May 2012, Foxtel merged with Austar, resulting in Foxtel gaining Austar's shares in XYZnetworks (which Foxtel closed and created Foxtel Networks), as well as their shares in Main Event.
The channels owned by Foxtel include:
=== Former channels ===
== Logo history ==
== See also ==
Fox Broadcasting Company
Subscription television in Australia
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bust_of_King_Charles_I_(Bernini)#: | Bust of King Charles I (Bernini) | The Bust of Charles I was a sculptural bust produced by the Italian artist Gianlorenzo Bernini which according to one historian, "set the visual conventions for centuries … [establishing itself as] the official portrait of secular absolutism.". The sculpture was of the then king Charles I of England, who wrote to Bernini that the artist's name was "exalted above those of all men of talent who have exercised your profession.".
== Creation ==
Bernini did not travel to London to undertake the work; rather he made use of a painted triple portrait of Charles I (i.e. a view of Charles from three points) created especially by the Flemish artist Anthony van Dyck for Bernini. Despite not meeting Charles I face-to-face, Bernini's bust was considered a success at the time, and the English king rewarded Bernini with jewellery worth over 4,000 Roman scudi (a figure over 60 times the average yearly salary of a worker in Rome).
Pope Urban VIII sent the bust to Charles's queen Henrietta Maria in 1637 in the hope of encouraging a reconciliation of the Roman Catholic Church with the Church of England. The bust was presented in 1637 and admired for its workmanship and likeness to the king. Charles rewarded Bernini with a valuable diamond ring. Queen Henrietta Maria commissioned Bernini to make a companion bust of her, but the English Civil War intervened and it was never made. The bust of Charles was sold at the end of the English Civil War but recovered for the Royal Collection on the Restoration, only to be destroyed by a fire in Whitehall Palace in January 1698.
Numerous copies of the image exist in other forms (e.g. engravings, bronze sculptures).
For a time in the 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a belief in England and elsewhere that Bernini had also created a bust of Oliver Cromwell, the victor over Charles I in the English Civil War. However, the attribution was refuted in 1922.
== See also ==
List of works by Gian Lorenzo Bernini
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Bust of King Charles I (Bernini) at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runaway_Tram#:~:text=Once%20the%20state%20signed%20off,public%20on%20August%209%2C%202019. | Runaway Tram | Runaway Tram is a steel family roller coaster located on Morey's Piers' Surfside Pier in North Wildwood, New Jersey. The attraction replaced the aging Flitzer roller coaster and required the reconfiguration of several rides on the pier and represented a total investment of $4 million. Runaway Tram spoofs the Wildwood Sightseer Tramcar, a local yellow-and-blue trackless train service.
== History ==
In September 2018, the Morey family announced that the iconic Flitzer on the Surfside Pier would be retired. Over the years, the aging coaster - which was manufactured in 1969 and opened at the park in 1983 - had undergone numerous refurbishments in order to extend its lifetime, but recent evaluations of the attraction determined that it was simply too old to continue operating safely. The Flitzer had its final day of operation on September 30, 2018, although the park assured that a new coaster was among the plans laid out to replace it.
Preparation began in October 2018, when the Flitzer, Doo Wopper wild mouse coaster, and other attractions were dismantled. The Formula One Raceway, a dormant go-kart track that had closed in 2016 and was located underneath the pier, was also gutted. On January 10, 2019, Morey's Piers formally announced the Runaway Tram coaster as the Flitzer's replacement, which would debut in time for the park's 50th anniversary and require the reconfiguration of seven existing attractions, including the Doo Wopper. Part of the pier was removed and footers poured into the ground below in April 2019, on space formerly occupied by the Raceway. Runaway Tram began vertical construction shortly afterwards, and the coaster train arrived on May 8, 2019.
Runaway Tram first began testing on June 17, 2019. The coaster was originally intended to open on July 2, 2019, in time for the 4th of July long weekend, but an unprecedentedly slow approval process delayed its opening. Once the state signed off on the attraction, Runaway Tram opened to the public on August 9, 2019.
== Characteristics ==
=== Statistics ===
Runaway Tram is 36 feet (11 m) tall, 922 feet (281 m) long, and reaches speeds of up to 28.6 mph (46.0 km/h). The coaster runs a single 10 car train, each car of seats 2 riders in a single row for a total occupancy of 20 riders. In addition, the coaster occupies a 194.6' x 87.9' site. The ride's track is supported by 118 support columns.
=== Model ===
Runaway Tram was manufactured by Zierer, and is one of their Force models. The layout is that of the Force 281 variant, which is composed of a single booster wheel lift hill and helix, as well as various twists and turns. As of 2021, only four of the 281 variant have been built, including Flight School (2019) at Emerald Park in Ireland and Flyvende Ørn (2018) at Legoland Billund Resort in Denmark. The latter coaster served as a direct influence for Runaway Tram's installation, as Morey's representatives had ridden it during a Scandinavia business trip in 2018 and felt that the attraction was the correct fit for their park.
=== Theme ===
Runaway Tram's train is modeled after the local Wildwood Sightseer Tramcar, a trackless train that runs along the Wildwood Boardwalk. The service was originally built for the 1939 New York World's Fair before debuting on the Wildwood Boardwalk in June 1949. Runaway Tram's themed train and station were designed by Cincinnati-based creative firm JRA while the custom LED signage was designed and manufactured by local firm A.B.S. Sign Company.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lux_Pascal | Lux Pascal | Lux Balmaceda Pascal (born June 4, 1992) is an American and Chilean actress and transgender activist. She is known for her roles in the Chilean television series Veinteañero a los 40 and Juana Brava and the Chilean drama film The Prince.
== Early and personal life ==
Lux was born in California as Lucas Balmaceda to Chilean parents José Balmaceda Riera and Verónica Pascal Ureta. She is a member of the Balmaceda family, a politically influential family that were part of the Castilian-Basque aristocracy. Her parents were exiled from Chile after the 1973 coup due to her mother's connection to Andrés Pascal Allende, a leader of the Chilean Revolutionary Left Movement, who was her cousin. Lux is the youngest of four siblings, including actor Pedro Pascal and producer Javiera Balmaceda. When she was three years old, her family returned to Chile where she attended Saint George's College.
In 2010, Lux began studying theater at the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile. In May 2023, she graduated from Juilliard School with an MFA in acting.
In February 2021, Lux publicly announced that she is a transgender woman and changed her name to reflect her maternal surname. She has been in a relationship with actor José Antonio Raffo since 2011.
== Career ==
In 2014, during her fourth year of studying theater, Lux made her stage debut in Pablo Rotemberg's play La noche obstinada. That same year, she landed her first television role on Canal 13's series Los 80, where she played "Axel Miller". In 2015, she co-starred in the TVN soap opera Juana Brava, and the following year, she acted in the soap opera Veinteañero a los 40 on Canal 13. Lux made her film debut in 2016 in Prueba de actitud, directed by Fabrizio Copano and Augusto Matte.
In 2017, Lux appeared in an international series for the first time, playing the role of Elias in the third season of the Netflix series Narcos, alongside her brother Pedro.
In 2019, Lux participated in three Chilean film productions: No quiero ser tu hermano, directed by Sebastián Badilla, Ella es Cristina, directed by Gonzalo Maza, and The Prince, directed by Sebastián Muñoz.
She landed her first leading role in a film in Miss Carbón, released in 2025.
== Theater ==
2014: La noche obstinada
2017: Tebas Land
2019: Kassandra
2025: Richard II
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
2011: Baby Shower
2016: Prueba de actitud
2019: No quiero ser tu hermano
2019: Ella es Cristina
2019: El príncipe
2024: Bust (short film)
2024: Miss Carbón
=== Television ===
2014: Los 80
2015: Veinteañero a los 40
2015: Juana Brava
2017: Narcos
2017: 12 días que estremecieron Chile
2018: Santiago Paranormal
2019: Héroes invisibles
2019–20: La jauría
== References ==
== External links ==
Lux Pascal at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy_M._Amato | Nancy M. Amato | Nancy Marie Amato is an American computer scientist noted for her research on the algorithmic foundations of motion planning, computational biology, computational geometry and parallel computing. Amato is the Abel Bliss Professor of Engineering and Head of the Department of Computer Science at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Amato is noted for her leadership in broadening participation in computing, and is currently a member of the steering committee of CRA-WP (formerly known as CRA-W), of which she has been a member of the board since 2000.
== Education ==
Amato received both a Bachelor of Arts degree in Economics and a Bachelor of Science degree in Mathematical Sciences from Stanford University in 1986. She received an MS in Computer Science from the University of California, Berkeley in 1988, with advisor Manuel Blum. In 1995, she received a PhD in computer science from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign under advisor Franco P. Preparata for her thesis "Parallel Algorithms for Convex Hulls and Proximity Problems".
== Career and research ==
She joined the Department of Computer Science at Texas A&M University as an assistant professor in 1995. She was promoted to associate professor in 2000, to professor in 2004, and to Unocal professor in 2011.
In July 2018, Amato was named the next head of the Department of Computer Science at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, starting in January 2019.
Amato has several notable results. Her paper on probabilistic roadmap methods (PRMs) is one of the most important papers on PRM. It describes the first PRM variant that does not use uniform sampling in the robot's configuration space. She wrote a seminal paper with one of her students that shows how the PRM methodology can be applied to protein motions, and in particular protein folding. This approach has opened up a new research area in computational biology. This result opens up a rich new set of applications for this technique in computational biology. Another paper she wrote with her students represents a major advance by showing how global energy landscape statistics, such as relative folding rates and population kinetics, can be computed for proteins from the approximate landscapes computed by Amato's PRM-based method. In another paper, she and a student introduced a novel technique, approximate convex decomposition (ACD), for partitioning a polyhedron into approximately convex pieces. Amato also co-leads the STAPL project with her husband Lawrence Rauchwerger, who is also a computer scientist on the faculty at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. STAPL is a parallel C++ library.
=== Awards and honors ===
Her notable awards include:
Elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2024
Elected an AAAI Fellow in 2018 by the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence
Elected an ACM Fellow in 2015 by the Association for Computing Machinery
In 2010, she was named an Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Fellow "for contributions to the algorithmic foundations of motion planning in robotics and computational biology."
A. Nico Habermann Award from the Computing Research Association in 2014
Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) 2013 for contributions to the algorithmic foundations of motion planning, computational biology, computational geometry, and parallel computing.
Hewlett-Packard/Harriett B. Rigas Award, 2013.
ACM Distinguished Member in 2012
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumpster_fire | Dumpster fire | Dumpster fire is an informal term in the United States used to describe a catastrophically bad situation for an entity, to the point of being unsalvageable. It has appeared in metaphorical form as early as 2003, and picked up traction in 2010 in the world of sports. The term was heavily used in 2016 to describe the United States presidential election that year.
== Etymology ==
Dumpster fire derives from fires that start in large trash bins. These bins are often termed "dumpsters" after the Dempster Dumpster brand of trash bin in the United States, which eventually came to be colloquialized as "dumpster".
== History ==
The earliest known use of the term dates back to a 2003 review of a remake of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, in which The Arizona Republic's Bill Muller said that the film was "the cinematic equivalent of a dumpster fire – stinky but insignificant". Urban Dictionary added a definition for the term as early as 2008, with one entry listing it as "a laughably poor performance." Usage of "dumpster fire" remained relatively obscure throughout the early 2010s, but gained widespread usage starting in 2010 in the world of American sports, where teams that performed exceptionally poorly would be labelled with the term in news, social media, and talk radio.
In late 2015 the term shifted towards the realm of politics, and particularly the 2016 United States presidential election. The Daily Beast suggested that it was linked to Republican Party candidate Donald Trump, with Google searches for the word spiking when he announced his presidential run in October 2015. That year, dumpster fire—as well as the two emoji that represent the individual words, "🗑️🔥"—was announced to be the American Dialect Society's word of the year, beating out "woke" in a run-off election. The president of the vote, sociolinguist Ben Zimmer, reasoned that people used the word to describe the unpleasant year in a "colorful, evocative" way, adding that it was a term suited for "pessimistic times".
In March 2018, dumpster fire was added to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, defined as "an utterly calamitous or mismanaged situation or occurrence".
== Analysis ==
Claire Fallon with HuffPost comments that the term might derive part of its goofiness from the consonants in "dumpster", arguing that the three plosive consonants in just two syllables might be naturally funny in a similar manner to the made-up words of Dr. Seuss. Fallon also comments that the phrase is both "too grandiose and too unserious for common parlance", pointing out that one would refer to neither the Middle East nor a colleague as a dumpster fire, but for different reasons.
After the word was added to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, National Public Radio commented that the word was more of the "I know it when I see it" variety, but said that the metaphor was also a "phrase for our time" they "wouldn't want to live without". CNN also commented that the term showed relevance to the present day, highlighting the Stormy Daniels–Donald Trump scandal, explosive cyclogenesis, and the 2018 NFL draft.
Several journalists who responded to the questions in Erin Gloria Ryan's oral history of the term in The Daily Beast expected or hoped that the term would go out of fashion, arguing that it was overused during the election cycle.
== References ==
== External links ==
The dictionary definition of dumpster fire at Wiktionary
Media related to Dumpster fires at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_Max_Born | Bibliography of Max Born | Max Born was a widely influential German physicist and mathematician who was awarded the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics for his pivotal role in the development of quantum mechanics. Born won the prize primarily for his contributions to the statistical interpretation of the wave function, though he is known for his work in several areas of quantum mechanics as well as solid-state physics, optics, and special relativity. Born's entry in the Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society included thirty books and 330 papers.
== Books ==
Born wrote several textbooks and popular science books throughout his career, including Dynamical Theory of Crystal Lattices and Principles of Optics.
=== English editions ===
=== German editions ===
== Articles ==
=== Sole author in English ===
=== Collaborations in English ===
=== Collaborations in German ===
=== Sole author in German ===
=== Reviews ===
=== Biographical ===
== Collections ==
== Interviews ==
=== American Institute of Physics ===
Born was interviewed several times by the American Institute of Physics.
Ewald, Paul Peter (1 June 1960). "Interview with Max Born - Session I". Retrieved 18 November 2020.
Ewald, Paul Peter (1 June 1960). "Interview with Max Born - Session II". Retrieved 18 November 2020.
Kuhn, Thomas S.; Hund, Friedrich (17 October 1962). "Interview with Max Born - Session III". Retrieved 18 November 2020.
Kuhn, Thomas S. (18 October 1962). "Interview with Max Born - Session IV". Retrieved 18 November 2020.
== Letters ==
== Translations ==
(BMFRS25) The book Klecksel the painter was published 1965 by the Frederick Ungar Publishing Company as a translation of Klecksel der Maler by Wilhelm Busch.
(BMFRS343) Born translated Wilhelm Busch's poem "" into English in 1962.
== Reference works edited ==
== See also ==
Bibliography of E. T. Whittaker
List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein
List of important publications in physics
List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics
List of textbooks in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics
List of textbooks in electromagnetism
== Primary sources ==
=== Publications ===
=== Reviewed works ===
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Clary, David C. (2022). Schrödinger in Oxford. World Scientific Publishing. ISBN 9789811251009.
== External links ==
Beebe, Nelson H. F. (17 April 2020). "A Bibliography of Publications by, and about, Max Born" (PDF). University of Utah. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
"HistCite - index: Max Born, 1909-1955". www.garfield.library.upenn.edu. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
"Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften Akademiebibliothek" (PDF). Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities library. 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 February 2007. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_state_highways_in_Tamil_Nadu | List of state highways in Tamil Nadu | State Highways in India are stretches with heavy traffic intensity of more than 10,000 Passenger Car Units (PCUs) but less than 30,000 PCUs which connects district headquarters, important towns and the National Highways in the state and neighboring states. The Construction & Maintenance wing of the Highways Department manages construction and maintenance of all the State Highways (SH), major district roads (MDR), and other district roads (ODR). The Tamil Nadu State Highways Network has eight circles: Chennai, Villupuram, Madurai, Salem, Tiruchirappalli, Coimbatore, Tiruppur and Tirunelveli.
The state has a total of 286 state highways, 161 state highways urban (SH-U) stretches and 905 major district roads (MDRs), apart from other district roads (ODRs).
== List of state highways ==
This is a list of state highways in Tamil Nadu (as of March 2019).
=== SH1 to SH50 ===
=== SH51 to SH100 ===
=== SH 101 to SH 150 ===
=== SH151 to SH200 ===
=== SH201 to SH234 ===
== List of state highways urban ==
This is a list of state highways urban stretches in Tamil Nadu (as of March 2019).
=== SHU to SHU50 ===
=== SHU51 to SHU100 ===
=== SHU101 to SHU150 ===
=== SHU151 to SHU223 ===
== See also ==
National Highways Authority of India
List of major district roads in Tamil Nadu
National highways of India
List of national highways in India
Road network in Tamil Nadu
Chennai bypass
Coimbatore bypass
== References ==
== External links ==
Government of Tamil Nadu – Highways Department
Tamil Nadu Highways – Right to information (Chapter-02)
Maps of TN state highways
Government of Tamil Nadu – Annual Plan 2008–09 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933 | Enabling Act of 1933 | The Enabling Act of 1933 (German: Ermächtigungsgesetz, officially titled Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich lit. 'Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich') was a law that gave the German Cabinet—most importantly, the chancellor, Adolf Hitler—the power to make and enforce laws without the involvement of the Reichstag or President Paul von Hindenburg. By allowing the chancellor to override the checks and balances in the constitution, the Enabling Act of 1933 was a pivotal step in the transition from the democratic Weimar Republic to the totalitarian dictatorship of Nazi Germany.
== Background ==
On 30 January 1933, Adolf Hitler, leader of the Nazi Party (NSDAP), was appointed as Chancellor, the head of the German government. Hitler immediately asked President von Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag. A general election was scheduled for 5 March 1933.
=== Reichstag fire ===
On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building of the German parliament caught fire. Acting as chancellor, Hitler immediately accused the Communists of perpetrating the arson as part of a larger effort to overthrow the German government. He persuaded Hindenburg to enact the Reichstag Fire Decree, which abolished most civil liberties, including the right to speak, assemble and protest, and the right to due process. A state of emergency was declared on the basis of the decree, which enabled a violent crackdown against the Nazis' political enemies, in particular the Communist Party.
Amid the ongoing repression, Hitler contended that the Reichstag Fire Decree was nonetheless insufficient and demanded a more sweeping measure. He submitted to the Reichstag a proposal for an enabling law that would grant effectively untrammeled power to his cabinet.
=== March 1933 election ===
For the general election of 5 March 1933, the Nazis were allied with other nationalist and conservative factions. At a secret meeting on 20 February, major German industrialists had agreed to finance the Nazis' election campaign. The main residual opposition was the Social Democrats. On election day Germans voted in an atmosphere of extreme voter intimidation, perpetrated mainly by the Nazi Sturmabteilung (SA) militia.
The NSDAP emerged from the election with five million more votes than in the previous election, but failed to gain an absolute majority in parliament. It remained dependent on the 8% of seats won by its coalition partner, the German National People's Party (DNVP), to attain a 52% majority.
In the first post-election cabinet meeting on 7 March, Hitler declared his intention to pass an Enabling Act in the form of a constitutional amendment that would enable the cabinet to bypass the Reichstag and the president in order to promulgate laws on its own.
== Preparations and negotiations ==
The Enabling Act would allow the National Ministry (essentially the cabinet) to enact legislation, including laws deviating from or altering the constitution, without the consent of the Reichstag, for a period of four years. The law was thus itself considered a constitutional amendment. It therefore required a two-thirds super-majority support from a quorum of at least two-thirds of all members of the Reichstag.
Despite the elimination of the Communists and heavy pressure on the rest of the opposition, the bill's passage was not a certainty. To pass it, the Nazis used a strategy of coercion, bribery, and manipulation of parliamentarians.
The Social Democrats and the Communists were expected to vote against. The government had already arrested all Communist and some Social Democrat deputies under the Reichstag Fire Decree. The conservative parties representing the middle class, the Junkers and business interests were expected to vote for the law.
A two-thirds majority would therefore be in reach with the votes of the Catholic Centre Party. Hitler negotiated with the Centre Party's chairman, Ludwig Kaas, a Catholic priest, and finalized an agreement on 22 March. Kaas agreed to support the law in exchange for assurances of his party's continued existence, the protection of Catholic civil liberties and Catholic schools, and the retention of civil servants affiliated with the party.
Some historians, such as Klaus Scholder, have maintained that Hitler also promised to negotiate a Reichskonkordat with the Holy See, a treaty that formalized the position of the Catholic Church in Germany on a national level. Kaas was a close associate of Cardinal Pacelli, then Vatican Secretary of State (and later Pope Pius XII). Pacelli had been pursuing a German concordat as a key policy for some years, but the instability of Weimar governments, as well as the opposition of some parties to a treaty, had blocked the project. The day after the Enabling Act vote, Kaas went to Rome in order to, in his own words, "investigate the possibilities for a comprehensive understanding between church and state".
== Text ==
As with most of the laws passed in the process of Gleichschaltung, the Enabling Act is quite short, especially considering its implications. The full text, in German and English, follows:
Articles 1 and 4 gave the government the right to draw up the budget, approve treaties, and enact almost any law without input from the Reichstag. By the rules of pre-1933 German legal interpretation, and post-1945 if such a law were not now unconstitutional, this would mean that such laws would henceforth be decided by a majority vote in the Cabinet. This was not followed.
In the years immediately preceding, the government had relied on Article 48 emergency decrees. These had to be made by the President, alongside ordinary laws which he simply enacted. In the passing of Enabling-Act-based laws, the President had no role to play at all. Until Hitler effectively assumed the President's role in 1934, laws were passed without any contribution by the head of state. This was a situation unique in German history.
== Signatories ==
The signatories of the Enabling Act (and their fates) were:
Reich President Paul von Hindenburg (died of lung cancer, 16 months later)
Reich Chancellor Adolf Hitler (committed suicide to avoid Allied, specifically Soviet capture)
Reich Minister of the Interior Frick (executed after Nuremberg conviction)
Reich Minister for Foreign Affairs Baron von Neurath (15 year Nuremberg sentence)
Reich Minister of Finances Count Schwerin von Krosigk (10 year Nuremberg sentence)
== Passage ==
Late on 23 March, the Reichstag assembled at the Kroll Opera House, its temporary home since the Reichstag fire. SA men were positioned inside and outside the chamber.
=== Party positions ===
The KPD had not been formally banned despite the Nazis' virulent anti-Communist rhetoric. A violent uprising was still feared, and it was hoped that the KPD's presence on the ballot would siphon off votes from the SPD. However, even before the election of 5 March, the party was subject to virulent police repression on the grounds of its purported involvement in the Reichstag fire and it was widely understood that the KPD deputies would not be allowed to take their seats in parliament.
The SPD's expected opposition was partly neutralized by the Reichstag Fire Decree, which had been used to detain a number of SPD deputies. Other SPD parliamentarians had fled into exile.
Debate within the Centre Party had continued until the day of the vote. Ludwig Kaas advocated voting in favour of the act, touting promised written guarantees from Hitler. Former Chancellor Heinrich Brüning wanted the bill to be rejected. The majority sided with Kaas, and Brüning agreed to maintain party cohesion by voting for the law.
=== Manoeuvring ===
The Reichstag, led by its president, Hermann Göring, changed its rules of procedure to make it easier to pass the bill. Under the Weimar Constitution, a quorum of two-thirds of the entire Reichstag membership was required to be present in order to pass a law amending the constitution. In this case, 432 of the Reichstag's 647 deputies would normally be required to be present. To sidestep this potential obstruction, Göring reduced this figure to 378 by not counting the 81 KPD deputies who were absent.
=== Speeches ===
Hitler spoke in favour of the proposed law. The speech recapitulated the supposed historical responsibility of the Weimar Republic in Germany's crisis, and then listed grievances that would be addressed by the Enabling Act. In a pitch to the Centre Party, Hitler emphasised the importance of Christianity in German culture and incorporated Ludwig Kaas's requested guarantees almost verbatim. His speech concluded with reassurances about the continuity of Weimar institutions, but an appeal to the inadequacy of parliamentary government: "Some of the [government's] planned measures require the approval of the majority necessary for constitutional amendments. The performance of these tasks and their completion is necessary. It would be inconsistent with the aim of the national uprising and it would fail to suffice for the intended goal were the Government to negotiate with and request the approval of the Reichstag for its measures in each given case."
The Centre's Ludwig Kaas spoke to voice his party's support for the bill amid "concerns put aside". He had still not received the written guarantee he had negotiated but had been assured it was being "typed up". It was never received. Heinrich Brüning remained silent.
Only SPD leader Otto Wels spoke against the Enabling Act. He defended the Social Democrats' record in rebuilding Germany following the First World War, and dismissed the Nazis' claimed need for special powers. Defying direct intimidation, Otto Wels declared his party's continued allegiance to Germany's institutions: "The Weimar Constitution is not a socialist constitution. But we stand by the principles enshrined in, the principles of a state based on the rule of law, of equal rights, of social justice. In this historic hour, we German Social Democrats solemnly pledge ourselves to the principles of humanity and justice, of freedom and socialism. No Enabling Act gives you the power to destroy ideas that are eternal and indestructible."
=== Voting ===
As voting proceeded, SPD deputies were actively intimidated by the Nazi SA men, who were present throughout the proceedings.
=== Results ===
All parties except the SPD voted in favour of the Enabling Act. With the KPD banned and 26 SPD deputies arrested or in hiding, the final tally was 444 in favour of the Enabling Act against 94 opposed (all Social Democrats). The Reichstag adopted the bill with the support of 83% of the deputies present. Even if all SPD deputies had been present, it would have passed with 78.7% support.
In the evening of the same day, the Reichsrat gave its assent, unanimously and without prior debate, and the Enabling Act was signed into law by President Paul von Hindenburg. Unless extended by the Reichstag, the act would expire after four years.
== Consequences ==
The Enabling Act completed the effect of the Reichstag Fire Decree. It transformed Hitler's government into a legal dictatorship and laid the groundwork for his totalitarian regime. Thus empowered, Hitler could begin German rearmament and achieve his aggressive foreign policy aims, which ultimately resulted in World War II.
The Reichstag effectively became the rubber stamp parliament that Hitler sought. The German conservative elite, including the vice-chancellor Franz von Papen, having underestimated the determination of the Nazis to monopolize state power, were soon marginalized by the Nazi regime. By mid-March 1933, the government began sending communists, trade union leaders, and other political dissidents to Dachau, the first Nazi concentration camp.
On 14 July 1933, the Law Against the Formation of Parties made the Nazi Party the only legally permitted party in Germany. With that, Hitler fulfilled what he had promised in earlier campaign speeches: "I set for myself one aim ... to sweep these thirty parties out of Germany!"
== Legal fate ==
The Weimar Constitution of 1919, as amended by the Enabling Act, remained technically in effect.
=== Consultation and deliberation ===
During the negotiations between the government and the political parties, it had been agreed that the government should inform the Reichstag parties of laws passed under the Enabling Act. For that purpose, a working committee was set up, co-chaired by Hitler and Centre Party chairman Kaas. However, the committee met only three times, without any major impact, and had become a dead letter even before all other parties were banned.
Although the Act had formally given legislative powers to the government as a whole, those powers were, for all intents and purposes, exercised by Hitler himself. After the passage of the Act, there were no longer serious deliberations in Cabinet meetings. After 1934, its meetings became more and more infrequent, and it did not meet in full after 1938.
=== Possible violations ===
The "Law on the Reconstruction of the Reich" (30 January 1934), passed by the Reichstag, dissolved the state parliaments, effectively rendering irrelevant the Reichsrat, which represented the states. Two weeks later (14 February) the Reichsrat itself was abolished by the Cabinet, in apparent contradiction of Article 2 of the Enabling Act, which stated that laws passed under the Enabling Act must "not affect" the Reichsrat. Moreover, Article 63 of the Weimar Constitution requires that "the states shall be represented in the Reichsrat by members of their ministries". However, Article 4 of the Law of the Reconstruction of the Reich reads: "The Reich Government may issue new constitutional laws." (See Law on the Abolition of the Reichsrat § Constitutional legitimacy.)
In August 1934, President Hindenburg died, and Hitler seized the president's powers for himself in accordance with the Law Concerning the Head of State of the German Reich, passed the previous day. The move was confirmed by a referendum later that month. But Article 2 of the Enabling Act stated that the president's powers were to remain "undisturbed" (or "unaffected", depending on the translation). Furthermore, a 1932 amendment to the constitution had made the president of the High Court of Justice, not the chancellor, first in the line of succession to the presidency—and even then on an interim basis pending new elections. This ostensible violation of Article 2 was never challenged in court.
=== Renewals ===
The Enabling Act was renewed twice, first in 1937 and then in 1941. Its renewal was practically assured because all other parties were banned. Voters were presented with a single list of Nazis and Nazi-approved candidates under far-from-secret conditions. On 25 January 1943, Hitler extended the term of the Reichstag members until 30 January 1947 by enacting the Law on the Extension of the Electoral Term of the Greater German Reichstag, effectively extending its provisions for the duration of the war.
=== In the Federal Republic of Germany ===
The Enabling Act was formally declared to be repealed by the Allied Control Council in Control Council Law No. 1, following the surrender of Germany at the end of World War II.
Germany's Basic Law (constitution) of 1949 stipulates that only bodies that are constitutionally endowed with legislative power can enact laws. This theoretically precludes legislation such as the 1933 Enabling Act.
Article 9 of the 1949 constitution allows for social groups to be labeled verfassungsfeindlich ("hostile to the constitution") and to be proscribed by the federal government. Political parties can be labeled enemies to the constitution only by the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) according to Art. 21 II. This clause makes clear that even a popular majority cannot be allowed to install a totalitarian or autocratic regime such as with the Enabling Act of 1933, which would violate the principles of the German constitution.
== Validity ==
In his 2003 book, The Coming of the Third Reich, British historian Richard J. Evans argued that the Enabling Act was legally invalid. He contended that Göring had no right to arbitrarily reduce the quorum required to bring the bill up for a vote. While the Enabling Act only required the support of two-thirds of those present and voting, two-thirds of the entire Reichstag's membership had to be present in order for the legislature to consider a constitutional amendment.
According to Evans, while Göring was not required to count the KPD deputies in order to get the Enabling Act passed, he was required to "recognize their existence" by counting them for purposes of the quorum needed to call it up, making his refusal to do so "an illegal act". Even if the Communists had been present and voting, the session's atmosphere was so intimidating that the Act would have still passed with at least 68.7% support.
He also argued that the act's passage in the Reichsrat was tainted by the overthrow of the state governments under the Reichstag Fire Decree; as Evans put it, the states were no longer "properly constituted or represented", making the Enabling Act's passage in the Reichsrat "irregular".
== In popular culture ==
The 2003 film Hitler: The Rise of Evil contains a scene portraying the passage of the Enabling Act.
== See also ==
Streitbare Demokratie
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/454_Mathesis | 454 Mathesis | 454 Mathesis is a main-belt asteroid that was discovered by German astronomer Friedrich Karl Arnold Schwassmann on March 28, 1900. Its provisional name was 1900 FC.
Photometric observations of this asteroid at the Altimira Observatory in 2004 gave a light curve with a period of 8.37784 ± 0.00003 hours and a brightness variation of 0.32 in magnitude. This differs from periods of 7.075 hours reported in 1994 and 7.745 hours in 1998.
== References ==
== External links ==
454 Mathesis at AstDyS-2, Asteroids—Dynamic Site
Ephemeris · Observation prediction · Orbital info · Proper elements · Observational info
454 Mathesis at the JPL Small-Body Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil_Smith_Jr. | Virgil Smith Jr. | Virgil K Smith (born December 18, 1979) is a Democratic former member of the Michigan House of Representatives and Michigan Senate. Smith previously represented the 4th Senate district, which is composed of Allen Park, Lincoln Park, Southgate and the north side of Detroit. From 2003 to 2008, Smith represented State House district 7, comprising the northern tier of Detroit.
== Personal life ==
Smith is the son of Third Judicial Circuit of Michigan of retired Chief Judge and former Michigan State Senator Virgil C. Smith. In 2000, he was arrested for possessing alcohol whilst underage.
In 2004, Smith's license was revoked after facing two different alcohol-related offenses. It was reinstated in 2008. In 2010, he was pulled over on allegations he had been driving under the influence but was not charged.
On May 6, 2009, Smith married Anistia Thomas. Smith filed for divorce in July 2009 and Thomas counter-sued for an annulment. Smith consented and it was granted on October 6, 2009. In May, 2015, Smith was charged with felonious assault, domestic violence, malicious destruction of property and felony firearm charges after he shot Thomas's car. Thomas was granted a Personal Protection Order against Smith as a result of the incident. In 2016, Smith plead guilty to the malicious destruction of personal property, a felony, and was sentenced to ten months in prison.
== Education ==
Smith did his undergraduate studies at Michigan State University earning a degree in political science. He received his master's degree in public administration from Western Michigan University.
== Political career ==
=== 2002 House election ===
Smith won the Democratic primary in 2002 against former state senator Henry Stallings II.
=== State Senate ===
In 2010, Smith was elected to the Michigan Senate, winning against. George Cushingberry. He ran again in 2016 against Rashida Tlaib, and was re-elected. In 2015, Smith pled guilty to malicious destruction of personal property after he shot at his ex-wife's car and resigned from his seat in the senate. The plea deal initially required Smith to resign senate seat and not run for public office for five years, but the county circuit overseeing the case judged that such a clause would violate the state constitution.
=== 2017 Detroit City Council election ===
Smith ran for the Detroit City Council in 2017. The Wayne County prosecutor appealed the ruling vacating part of his plea deal, but the appeal was dismissed in April 2017. Smith finished second in the August primary, where he faced Roy McCalister Jr. on the general election ballot. Smith went on to lose the general election to McCalister.
== See also ==
Michigan House of Representatives
Michigan Senate
Michigan Democratic Party
== External links ==
Campaign Finance
Voting Records
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabon | Sabon | Sabon is an old-style serif typeface designed by the German-born typographer and designer Jan Tschichold (1902–1974) in the period 1964–1967. It was released jointly by the Linotype, Monotype, and Stempel type foundries in 1967. The design of the roman is based on types by Claude Garamond (c. 1480–1561), particularly a specimen printed by the Frankfurt printer Konrad Berner. Berner had married the widow of a fellow printer Jacques Sabon, the source of the face's name, who had bought some of Garamond's type after his death. The italics are based on types designed by a contemporary of Garamond's, Robert Granjon. It is effectively a Garamond revival, though a different name was chosen as many other modern typefaces already carry this name.
A classic typeface for body text, Sabon's longstanding popularity has transcended its origin as a commission to fit a tight set of business requirements. Tschichold was commissioned by a coalition of German printers to create a typeface that could be printed identically on Linotype, Monotype or letterpress equipment, simplifying the process of planning lines and pagination when printing a book. The italic and bold styles were to take up exactly as much space as the roman, a feature imposed by the duplexing system of Linotype hot metal typesetting machines of the period. Finally, the new font was to be five per cent narrower than their existing Monotype Garamond, in order to save space and money. Sabon's name was therefore considered appropriate: a Frenchman who had moved to Frankfurt, he had played a role in bringing Garamond's type into use in German printing four hundred years before.
== History ==
Sabon was developed in the early 1960s for a group of German printers who sought a "harmonized" or uniform font that would look the same whether set by hand or on a Monotype or Linotype hot metal typesetting machine. They were specific about the kind of font that might work, rejecting the modern and fashionable in favour of solid 16th century tradition - something modelled on the work sixteenth-century engravers Claude Garamond and Robert Granjon. The requirement that all weights have the same width was influenced by the 'duplex' system of lead casting on the Linotype system: each Linotype-matrix can cast two different characters: roman or italic, roman or bold, which must have the same width. It also meant that the typeface then only required one set of copyfitting data (rather than three) when compositors had to estimate the length of a text prior to actual typesetting (a common practice before computer-assisted typesetting). Another hint of the design's origins in hot-metal typesetting technology is the narrow 'f', since Linotype machines cannot cast an 'f' that kerns, or extends beyond the letter's body.
Tschichold was well known as an eminent book designer in his own right, having promoted the now-popular ragged right style of book layout. A modernist, after the war, from 1947 to 1949, he played a hugely significant role in British book design, creating a unified, simple and inexpensive layout design for Penguin Books, a publisher which specialised in issuing cheap paperbacks. In his early life, he had lived in Leipzig and in the 1920s had devised a "universal alphabet" for German, improving its non-phonetic spellings and promoting the replacement of the jumble of fonts with a simple sans serif. Tschichold had become more interested in classical book design as his career progressed, and Sabon is a relatively faithful, organic book typeface strongly rooted in tradition. The name "Sabon" was proposed by Stanley Morison, an influential British Monotype artistic advisor and historian of printing. Different drawings were used for machining the larger sizes. Tschichold used an Egenolff-Berner specimen sheet from 1592 to provide initial models to work from, choosing a Garamond face for the roman letters and a Granjon face for the italics.
An early first use of Sabon was the setting of the Washburn College Bible in 1973 by the American graphic designer Bradbury Thompson. All books of the King James biblical text were set by hand in a process called thought-unit typography, where Thompson broke the lines at their spoken syntactical breaks.
Sabon was also used as the typeface in the 1979 Book of Common Prayer of the Episcopal Church (United States), as well as all of that church's secondary liturgical texts (such as the Book of Occasional Services and Lesser Feasts and Fasts).
Sabon was used in the 2000s as the official logo typeface of Stanford University until 2012. It is also used by Örebro University, together with the typeface Trade Gothic. Vogue and Esquire use a slightly modified version of it for headlines. Since 2010, First Things has used Sabon for the page text in its print edition. The Incorporated Council of Law Reporting uses Sabon for its Law Reports.
=== Digital releases ===
Several digital versions of Sabon exist, sold by Linotype and Monotype. Monotype Sabon is lighter than the Linotype version. Linotype also released Sabon Georgian and Sabon Paneuropean with extended language support. Adobe had its own version called Adobe Sabon, but it is not widely available as of 2022.
Fontsite released a version under the name Savoy, while Bitstream released a less faithful version under the name of Classical Garamond.
== Sabon Next (2002) ==
Jean-François Porchez designed the revival of Sabon known as Sabon Next. Sabon Next is based upon Tschichold's 1967 Sabon design for the Stempel foundry and Porchez' study of original Garamond and Le Bé models. Unlike in the original Sabon, Porchez rejected the approach of a matching-width italic for a more traditional design, narrower than the roman style, and chose to take advantage of digital typesetting technology to include a wide 'f' in the sixteenth-century style.
=== Commercial Version (Sabon Next LT Pro) ===
The commercial version of Sabon Next is commonly called Sabon Next LT Pro or Sabon Next Pro.
Sabon Next Pro consists of 6 weights (Display, Regular, Demi, Bold, Extra Bold, and Black). Despite its designation, the 'Display' weight is considered as another grade of the 'Roman weight' and Porchez recommended it for 11pt or above, while the 'Regular' weight is designed for smaller text sizes such as 8pt.
Sabon Next Pro includes Latin Extended characters, but does not have Greek and Cyrillic support. OpenType features include Small caps (except in Black weight), Ligatures, Special ligatures, Alternates, Caps figures, Oldstyle figures, Tabular figures, Fractions, Superiors, Ornaments, Swash, Proportional Lining figures. Except in Black weights, the fonts include a collection of printers' ornaments and dingbats. These ornaments are also offered independently as a font named Sabon Next Ornaments.
=== Microsoft Office Version (Sabon Next LT) ===
Users of Microsoft Office can download two weights (Regular and Bold) of Sabon Next via the cloud fonts feature. This version is called Sabon Next LT, without the 'Pro' label.
This version of Sabon Next does have support for Greek, Cyrillic, and Turkish characters, but some OpenType features (e.g., stylistic sets and alternative numeric figures) are not available.
== Sabon eText (2013) ==
Sabon eText is a version of Sabon optimized for screen use, designed by Steve Matteson. Changes include increased x-heights, heavier hairline and serifs, wider inter-character spacing, more open counters, adjusted thicks to thins ratio.
The family includes four fonts in two weights (regular, bold), with complementary italics. OpenType features include case-sensitive forms, fractions, ligatures, lining/old style figures, ordinals, superscript, small capitals.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Friedl, Friederich, Nicholas Ott and Bernard Stein. Typography: An encyclopedic survey of type design and techniques through history. Black Dog & Leventhal: 1998. ISBN 1-57912-023-7.
Lawson, Alexander S., Anatomy of a Typeface. Godine: 1990. ISBN 978-0-87923-333-4.
Meggs, Philip B. and Rob Carter.Typographic Specimens: The Great Typefaces. Wiley: 1993. ISBN 0-471-28429-7.
Meggs, Philip B. and McKelvey, Roy.Revival of the Fittest: Digital Versions of Classic Typefaces. RC Publications: 2000. ISBN 1-883915-08-2.
Meggs, Philip B. History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons: 1998. ISBN 0-470-04265-6.
Perfect, Christopher & Rookledge, Gordon. Rookledge's Classic International Typefinder. Laurence King Publishing: 2004. ISBN 978-1-85669-406-3.
== External links ==
Brochure about Sabon Next, part I, Linotype GmbH 2009
Linotype updates a classic: Sabon Next – new life for an old font
1969 advertisement comparing type set in Sabon on the three release versions |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibbutz_volunteer | Kibbutz volunteer | Kibbutz volunteers are people who come from all over the world to live and work in a kibbutz in Israel. These volunteers, mostly young people, usually stay at the kibbutz for a short period of time (such as a month or all summer), working in various branches of the kibbutz economy (agriculture, kitchen, gardening and factory). Most volunteers typically come to Israel for a short period of two to three months under a volunteer visa and participate. Volunteers receive food and board, and sometimes pocket money. Some volunteers combine work with studying Hebrew at a kibbutz ulpan. Some kibbutzim organize trips and cultural events for the volunteers.
== History ==
The volunteering phenomenon in the kibbutzim began in the mid-1960s when the young generation of Baby Boomers from western nations became curious about kibbutz life and eager to experience it first-hand, and as a result decided to come to Israel, volunteer in a kibbutz and gain experience of living and working in a collective community. Although up until the Six-Day War the kibbutzim had very few volunteers, after the conclusion of the Six-Day War the world's interest in Israel grew, and in the aftermath large numbers of volunteers arrived. As a result, many kibbutzim began arranging the necessary housing and infrastructure to accommodate this growing phenomenon. During this period there was also an increased interest in Israel among the Diaspora Jewish communities, from which the majority of kibbutz volunteers initially originated.
In the subsequent years kibbutz volunteering gradually increased significantly and was institutionalized. With time the proportion of Jewish kibbutz volunteers gradually decreased while the majority of the volunteers at that point were non-Jews who originated mostly from Western Europe and arrived either in organized groups or as individuals. Initially the kibbutzim were very satisfied with the phenomenon as it brought cheap labor, which minimized the need to hire workers and brought openness to the various cultures of the world. Nevertheless, over time some kibbutzim also became aware of the negative aspects of the phenomenon as it became evident that some individuals among the volunteers used drugs, consumed alcohol, and a growing rate of intermarriages with kibbutz members often involved the migration of some of those members to the country of origin of the volunteers.
During the peak of the kibbutz volunteers phenomenon in the 1970s, around 12,000 volunteers arrived each year, and worked in hundreds of kibbutzim throughout Israel.
Following an acute economic crisis that many of the kibbutzim in Israel experienced during the 1980s, many kibbutzim began adopting an action-oriented market economy and concluded that basing the economy on the volunteer workforce was not a profitable model. Meanwhile, some kibbutzim gradually began to employ foreign workers from Thailand in the agricultural sector of the kibbutz and Israeli workers in the industrial and services sectors.
Following the intensification of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict during the last decades of the 20th century, and in particular after the Second Intifada started in 2000, many countries ceased to cooperate with the project and as a result there was a significant decrease in the number of the kibbutz volunteers. The decrease hit its lowest point in 2001, when only 100 volunteers arrived in Israel. In recent years, there has been a slight increase in the number of volunteers, and in 2007 approximately 1,500 kibbutz volunteers came to Israel.
In total, 350,000 volunteers from 35 countries have volunteered in various kibbutzim in Israel since 1967, with most of the volunteers through the years coming from the United Kingdom (circa 50,000), South Africa (circa 40,000), Sweden (circa 25,000), Denmark (circa 20,000), and Germany (circa 15,000).
== Notable volunteers ==
Michele Bachmann, American Congresswoman and 2012 U.S. Presidential candidate, spent a summer volunteering at Kibbutz Be'eri at the age of 18 in 1974.
Sandra Bernhard, American comedian, actress, author and singer, volunteered for a year at Kibbutz Kfar Menachem at the age of 17 in 1972.
Noam Chomsky, American professor of linguistics, peace activist, spent time at Kibbutz HaZore'a in 1953.
Sacha Baron Cohen, British comedian best known for the roles of Ali G and Borat volunteered in Rosh HaNikra and Kibbutz Beit HaEmek for a year in the late 1980s as part of the Shnat Habonim Dror.
Heinz Fischer, Austrian president, volunteered at Kibbutz Sarid at the age of 25 in 1963.
Bob Hoskins, British actor and the star of Who Framed Roger Rabbit, volunteered at Kibbutz Zikim at the age of 25 in 1967.
Simon Le Bon, lead singer of Duran Duran, volunteered in Kibbutz Gvulot in 1978. The band's first album included a track called "Tel Aviv".
Annie Leibovitz, American portrait photographer, volunteered at Kibbutz Amir at the age of 20 in 1969.
Helen Mirren, British actress who starred in The Queen, volunteered in a Kibbutz for six months after the Six-Day War.
Oliver Sacks, British neurologist, spent the summer of 1955 in Ein HaShofet.
Bernie Sanders, American senator from Vermont, volunteered at Kibbutz Sha'ar HaAmakim in 1963.
Jerry Seinfeld, American comedian and star of the television comedy Seinfeld, volunteered at the age of 17 in Kibbutz Sa'ar in 1971.
Sigourney Weaver, American actress who starred in the Alien series, volunteered in a kibbutz for several months at the age of 18 in 1967.
Debra Winger, American actress and the star of An Officer and a Gentleman, for many years told interviewers that she volunteered on an kibbutz, sometimes even saying she had trained with the IDF, but in a 2008 interview she said she was merely on a typical youth tour that visited the kibbutz.
Boris Johnson, the former Mayor of London and British Prime Minister, spent the summer of 1984 volunteering at Kibbutz Kfar HaNassi in Northern Israel.
== See also ==
Agroecology
Birthright Israel
International volunteering
Working holiday visa
Youth village
== References ==
== External links ==
First-hand kibbutz volunteering guide by John Carson
Kibbutz Program Center (KPC) official site
Kibbutz Program Center (KPC) USA branch
Kibbutz Volunteers Program Center |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zippo_Pine_Bar | Zippo Pine Bar | Zippo Pine Bar (1969-1998) is the leading Western Pleasure sire of Quarter Horses.
== Life ==
Zippo Pine Bar was a 1969 sorrel son of Zippo Pat Bars out of Dollie Pine, a daughter of Poco Pine. Poco Pine was a son of Poco Bueno. Dollie Pine's dam was a descendant of Joe Moore, a half brother to Joe Reed P-3 and himself a descendant of Traveler. Norman Reynolds bought Zippo Pine Bar as a weanling at Lloyd Geweke's dispersal sale in 1969, hoping for a halter horse.
== Show career ==
During his show career, he earned from the American Quarter Horse Association an AQHA Championship, as well as a Performance Register of Merit and a Superior Western Pleasure Horse Award. He was the 1972 AQHA High Point Junior Western Pleasure Stallion and the 1972 AQHA High Point Junior Western Riding Horse. In 1992, he was inducted into the National Snaffle Bit Association Hall of Fame.
== Breeding record ==
He sired 1648 Quarter horse foals, 68 Appaloosas, and 72 Paints which collectively have earned over 50,000 show points. Five of his offspring have been inducted into the NSBA Hall of Fame — Mr Zippo Pine, Zippo By Moonlight, Zips Chocolate Chip, Zippos Mr Good Bar, and Zippos Amblin Easy. His son Zippos Mr Good Bar also was inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame in 2019. In 2000, Zippos Mr Good Bar was inducted as well into the National Snaffle Bit Association Hall of Fame.
Others of his influential offspring include Melody Zipper, Flashy Zipper, Zippo Cash Bar, Zippo Jack Bar, Zippos Honeybee and Don't Skip Zip. In 1991 his offspring won World Championships in Western Pleasure in the AQHA, the American Paint Horse Association (or APHA) and the Appaloosa Horse Club (or ApHC).
== Death and honors ==
He was euthanized on January 12, 1998, at age 29 following a major stroke.
He was inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame in 2000.
== Pedigree ==
== See also ==
List of historical horses
== Notes ==
== References ==
All Breed Pedigree Database Pedigree of Zippo Pine Bar accessed on June 22, 2007
- Zippo Pine Bar accessed on September 2, 2017
AQHA Hall of Fame accessed on September 2, 2017
Close, Pat and Roy Jo Sartin, ed. Legends 4: Outstanding Quarter Horse Stallions and Mares Colorado Springs:Western Horseman 2002 ISBN 0-911647-49-X
Ehringer, Gavin "Living Legends: Zippo Pine Bars" Horse & Rider p. 38-41
NSBA Hall of Fame accessed on July 5, 2007
Pitzer, Andrea Laycock The Most Influential Quarter Horse Sires Tacoma, Washington:Premier Publishing 1987
== External links ==
Zippo Pine Bar at Quarter Horse Directory
Zippo Pine Bar Information
Zippo Pine Bar at Quarter Horse Legends |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jugnu_(satellite) | Jugnu (satellite) | Jugnu (Hindi: जुगनू), is an Indian technology demonstration and remote sensing CubeSat satellite which was operated by the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur. Built under the guidance of Dr. N. S. Vyas, it is a nanosatellite which will be used to provide data for agriculture and disaster monitoring. It is a 3-kilogram (6.6 lb) spacecraft, which measures 34 centimetres (13 in) in length by 10 centimetres (3.9 in) in height and width. Its development programme cost around 25 million rupee. It has a design life of one year.
Jugnu was launched on 12 October 2011 into low Earth orbit by a PSLV-CA C18.
== Subsystems ==
Source:
=== Imaging ===
This Subsystem captures near IR images of targeted surface on Earth which helps in identification of the utilization of the place. The subsystem consists of a "Near IR camera", an external storage and an On-Board Computer(OBC) which acts as an interface between the two, apart carrying out the image compression/processing.
The camera captures a 640X480 px image which is then transferred to an external memory by the OBC. The image is then processed (if required) and transmitted to the ground station. An overall resolution of about 161 X 161 m2 per pixel is expected on Earth's surface.
The total area of view, on Earth's surface is expected to be around 103 X 77 km2.
=== GPS ===
The GPS payload in Jugnu helps in synchronizing the time of OBC from the time data retrieved from the GPS module. The Orbital Parameters from the GPS is fed into the ADCS system which assists in satellite positioning from time to time.
=== ADCS ===
The Attitude Determination and Control System (ADCS) orients the satellite in a manner such that maximum solar energy is incident on its solar panels. During imaging the satellite must point at a fixed location on Earth in order to capture high-quality images, which is accomplished by the ADCS. Control by the ADCS is necessary to ensure that the antennas, which have narrow beams, are pointed correctly towards the Earth. Gravitational forces from the Sun, Moon, and planets; solar pressure acting on the antennas and satellite body; and magnetic fields create rotational disturbances. Since the satellite moves around the Earth's center in its orbit, the forces described above vary cyclically. This tends to set up nutation of the satellite which is damped using ADCS.
=== Thermal ===
The Thermal Control Subsystem (TCS) maintains the temperature within the specified limit of 298K to 323K. It ensures that no large thermal gradients and no excessive thermal stress across the structures occur.
The Thermal control subsystem of JUGNU is essentially passive with MLI sheets, OSR and surface coatings as key components. It also has IC and thermocouple based sensors to provide for the feedback and maintain the health of sensitive IC's and Camera. The heat that is produced at the chip level is rapidly distributed to the system to prevent it from getting damaged.
=== Other subsytems ===
Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) system is used to measure vibrations in the satellite and angular rate of the satellite which is used to test the performance of the MEMS based sensors and to provide position and orientation data to OBC.
Ejection Subsystem is the interface between the satellite and the rocket. It is a box like structure that is bolted on the deck of the rocket nose top with the satellite placed inside that box. It separates from the rocket with small initial velocity imparted by a spring sitting at the base of the ejection system. It is an indigenous ejection system which can be used for future launches.
== Mission goals and objectives ==
Source:
The main goal of the mission was to make a Nano Satellite at IIT Kanpur that can be used as Micro Imaging Systems, GPS receiver for locating the position of satellite in the orbit and MEMS based Inertial Measurement Unit(IMU).
The Primary Objectives of the mission were:
To initiate research activities towards development of MEMS based Nano-satellite.
To test new cheap solutions for the future cost effective space missions.
To set the path for future up gradations and study such validation concepts for possible up gradations.
Its long-term objectives were:
To develop competence in design, fabrication and usage of micro satellites.
Complement the development efforts of India's satellite application requirements through technology development and validation at the micro satellite level.
Development and training of human resources.
Strengthen activities in MEMS sensor based technology applications.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Roque,_Antioquia#:~:text=The%20municipality%20was%20founded%20by,121%20km%20north%20of%20Medell%C3%ADn. | San Roque, Antioquia | San Roque is a town and municipality in the Colombian department of Antioquia. Part of the subregion of Northeastern Antioquia, it is located 1,475 m (4,839 ft) above sea level. The municipality was founded by Francisco Martinez de Ospina on the 8 February 1880. The town is located between the Nare River and the Nus River. The town was created due to the presence of gold in the areas around the town. The town is located 121 km north of Medellín. The people of this town celebrate most of the traditional festivals that are celebrated in Colombia.
== History ==
San Roque became a municipality in the year 1884. In 1911 the Antioquia Railway is built, traveling near the town and bringing some economy to the area. San Roque was known as a mining center at this time. The past history is what attracts the modern day tourists, and San Roque is often called "The Land of Cordiality" because the natives are so friendly.
== Climate ==
San Roque has a tropical rainforest climate (Af). It has very heavy rainfall year round.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Jump_Cannon_Award_in_Astronomy | Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy | The Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy is awarded annually by the American Astronomical Society (AAS) to a woman resident of North America, who is within five years of receipt of a PhD, for distinguished contributions to astronomy or for similar contributions in related sciences which have immediate application to astronomy. The awardee is invited to give a talk at an AAS meeting and is given a $1,500 honorarium. The award is named in honor of American astronomer Annie Jump Cannon.
Margaret Burbidge was due to be given the 1972 award, but she refused it on the grounds of gender discrimination, stating: "It is high time that discrimination in favor of, as well as against, women in professional life be removed". This prompted the AAS to set up its first committee on the status of women in astronomy and they ceased issuing the award directly. From 1973 to 2004 the American Association of University Women issued the awards, on advice from the AAS. The AAS resumed direct issuing of the award in 2005.
== List of winners ==
Source: American Astronomical Society
== See also ==
List of astronomy awards
List of women astronomers
List of prizes, medals, and awards for women in science
Prizes named after people
== Notes == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jockey | Jockey | A jockey is someone who rides horses in horse racing or steeplechase racing, primarily as a profession. The word also applies to camel riders in camel racing. The word "jockey" originated from England and was used to describe the individual who rode horses in racing. They must be light, typically around a weight of 100–120 lb. (45–55 kg), and physically fit. They are typically self-employed, and are paid a small fee from the horse trainer, whose colors they wear while competing in a race. They also receive a percentage of the horse's winnings. The job has a very high risk of debilitating or life-threatening injuries, not only from racing accidents but also, because of strict weight restrictions, from eating disorders.
Originally, in most countries, the jockeys were all male. Over time, female jockeys have been allowed to ride; thus, now there are many successful and well-known female jockeys. The participation of African American jockeys has also had a complex history.
== Etymology ==
The word is by origin a diminutive of jock, the Northern English or Scots colloquial equivalent of the first name John, which is also used generically for "boy" or "fellow" (compare Jack, Dick), at least since 1529. A familiar instance of the use of the word as a name is in "Jockey of Norfolk" in Shakespeare's Richard III. v. 3, 304.
In the 16th and 17th centuries the word was applied to horse-dealers, postilions, itinerant minstrels and vagabonds, and thus frequently bore the meaning of a cunning trickster, a "sharp", whence the verb to jockey, "to outwit", or "to do" a person out of something. The current meaning of a person who rides a horse in races was first seen in 1670. Polly Adler also used "jock" as shorthand for "jockey" in her 1953 book, A House Is Not a Home.
== Physical characteristics ==
Jockeys must be light to ride at the weights which are assigned to their mounts. There are horse carrying weight limits that are set by racing authorities. The Kentucky Derby, for example, has a weight limit of 126 lb (57 kg) including the jockey's equipment. The weight of a jockey racing on the flat usually ranges from 108 to 118 lb (49 to 54 kg). Despite their light weight, they must be able to control a horse that is moving at 40 mph (64 km/h) and weighs 1,190.5 lb (540.0 kg). Though there is no height limit for jockeys, they are usually fairly short due to the weight limits.
Jockeys racing on the flat typically stand around 4 ft 10 in (147 cm) to 5 ft 7 in (170 cm). Jump jockeys are often taller, with multiple examples over 5 ft 10 in (178 cm). Lester Piggott, considered one of the greatest flat jockeys, was nicknamed "Longfellow" for his height of 5 ft 8 in (173 cm), and Jack Andrews, who is 6 ft 4 in (193 cm), can ride at a weight of 142 lb (64 kg). Bruce Hobbs was at 6 ft 1.5 in (186.7 cm) the tallest jockey ever to win the Grand National.
== Role ==
Jockeys are normally self employed, nominated by horse trainers to ride their horses in races, for a fee (which is paid regardless of the prize money the horse earns for a race) and a percentage of the purse winnings. In Australia, employment of apprentice jockeys is in terms of indenture to a master (a trainer); and there is a clear employee-employer relationship. When an apprentice jockey finishes their apprenticeship and becomes a "fully fledged jockey", the nature of their employment and insurance requirements change because they are regarded as "freelance", like contractors. Jockeys often cease their riding careers to take up other employment in racing, usually as trainers. In this way the apprenticeship system serves to induct young people into racing employment.
Jockeys usually start out when they are young, exercising horses in the morning for trainers, and entering the riding profession as apprentice jockeys. It is normally necessary for an apprentice jockey to ride a minimum of about 20 barrier trials successfully before being permitted to ride in races. An apprentice jockey is known as a "bug boy" because the asterisk that follows the name in the program looks like a bug. All jockeys must be licensed and usually are not permitted to bet on a race. An apprentice jockey has a master, who is a horse trainer, and the apprentice is also allowed to "claim" weight off the horse's back: in handicapped races, more experienced riders will have their horses given an extra amount of weight to carry, whereas a jockey in their apprenticeship will have less weight on their horse, giving trainers an incentive to hire these less-experienced jockeys. This weight allowance is adjusted according to the number of winners that the apprentice has ridden. After a four-year indentured apprenticeship, the apprentice becomes a senior jockey and usually develops relationships with trainers and individual horses. Sometimes senior jockeys are paid a retainer by an owner which gives the owner the right to insist the jockey ride their horses in races.
Racing modeled on the English Jockey Club spread throughout the world with colonial expansion.
== Racing colours ==
The colours worn by jockeys in races are the registered "colours" of the owner or trainer who employs them. The practice of riders wearing colours probably stems from medieval times when jousts were held between knights. However, the origins of racing colours of various patterns may have been influenced by racing held in Italian city communities since medieval times. Purple, gold and or yellow/nude, Such traditional events are still held on town streets and are known for furious riding and the colorful spectacle they offer.
While the term "silks" is used in the United States to refer to racing colours, technically "silks" are the white breeches and bib, stock or cravat. Obtaining them is a rite of passage when a jockey is first able to don silken pants and colors in their first race ride. At one time silks were invariably made of silk chosen for being a lightweight fabric, though now synthetics are used instead. Silks and their colours are important symbols of loyalty and festivity.
Many of the silks bear chequered patterns, polka dots, stripes or icons such as quatrefoils. The wearing of silks originated in the United Kingdom. They were first mentioned in 1515, and the current system was formally established in the 1700s. Horses are identified as they race by the colourful, traditional silk shirts and helmets their jockeys wear, these representing the horses' owners. The colours need to be significantly different to serve this purpose and are registered by each Australian state's Principal Racing Authority (PRA).
The silks of famous jockeys, horses and owners can fetch high prices at auction, suggesting the esteem in which history and tradition are held in horse racing. Although Racing Australia requires that all jockeys wear approved helmets and safety vests, racegoers are unaware of this latter safety equipment as it is worn beneath the silks. Jockeys also wear a 'skivvy' under the silks. On race days the skivvy chosen is a lightweight mesh or microfibre bodysuit, sleeved or sleeveless, whereas, for track work, a more heavy-duty version may be worn. Summarising, during an Australian race day, jockeys must wear the following: the helmet (or skullcap), goggles, silks, vest, breeches, gloves, boots, saddle and girth and stirrups.
== Awards ==
Various awards are given annually to jockeys by organizations affiliated with the sport of thoroughbred racing in countries throughout the world. They include:
Australia
Scobie Breasley Medal
Canada
Avelino Gomez Memorial Award
United Kingdom
Lester Award
Champion Flat Jockey Award
Champion Jump Jockey Award
United States
George Woolf Memorial Jockey Award
Isaac Murphy Award
== Risk factors ==
Horse racing is a sport where jockeys may incur permanent, debilitating, and even life-threatening injuries. Chief among them include concussion, bone fractures, arthritis, trampling, and paralysis. Jockey insurance premiums remain among the highest of all professional sports. Between 1993 and 1996, 6,545 injuries occurred during official races for an injury rate of 606 per 1,000 jockey years. In Australia race riding is regarded as being the second most deadly job, after offshore fishing. From 2002 to 2006 five deaths and 861 serious injuries were recorded.
Eating disorders (such as anorexia) are also very common among jockeys, as they face extreme pressure to maintain unusually low (and specific) weights, sometimes within a five-pound (2.3 kg) margin. The bestselling biography, Seabiscuit: An American Legend chronicled the eating disorders of jockeys living in the first half of the twentieth century. As in the cases of champion jockey Kieren Fallon and Robert Winston, the pressure to stay light has been blamed in part for jockeys suffering agonies of thirst from dehydration while racing. Sports Dietitians Australia warns: "Dehydration and energy depletion may compromise concentration and coordination." Indeed, recent research carried out in association with the Irish Turf Club measured the effects of rapid weight loss to make weight in professional and apprentice jockeys and found significant levels of dehydration; however, cognitive function was maintained, suggesting jockeys had become accustomed to performing in a dehydrated state and had potentially developed a preventative mechanism to enable them to perform under these conditions.
In January 2016 it was announced that the International Concussion and Head Injury Research Foundation (ICHIRF) will run a new study. Named 'Concussion in Sport' it will be the first study to take a detailed look at the effects of concussion on sports people, including on around 200 retired jockeys.
== Female jockeys ==
Based on American statistics, women comprise only 14% of working jockeys, and ride only 10% of all race starts.
=== Australia ===
During the 1850s, women-only horse-racing events were held in Victoria, Australia; women were not permitted to ride as professional jockeys or on professional tracks with men.
Although women jockeys were barred from riding at registered race meetings, in the mid-1900s Wilhemena Smith rode as Bill Smith at north Queensland racecourses. She was nicknamed Bill Girlie Smith because she arrived on course with her riding gear on under her clothes and did not shower on course. It was only at the time of her death in 1975 that the racing world was officially told that Bill was really Wilhemena. Subsequent inquiries proved that William Smith was actually a woman who had been born Wilhemena Smith in a Sydney hospital in 1886. In an era when women were clearly denied equality, she had become known as a successful jockey in Queensland country districts as 'Bill Smith'. Elizabeth Williams Berry rode in Melbourne and internationally, disguised as a boy and using the name, Jack Williams.
During the late 1960s, restrictions against female trainers were lifted in Australia, but female jockeys were still confined to "ladies only" events, which were held on non-professional tracks. The Victoria Racing Club in 1974 permitted women jockeys to be registered for professional "ladies only" events. In 1978, racing rules in New Zealand were amended to permit women jockeys.
In the late 1970s, pioneers such as Pam O'Neill in Australia and Linda Jones from New Zealand forced jockey club officials to grant women the right to compete on an equal footing in registered races against men. They were unquestionably the first women jockeys to be licensed to ride in the metropolitan areas of Australia. Previously women had been riding against men in Australia at the unregistered "all-height" meetings. O'Neill created a world record for any jockey, male or female, when she rode a treble at Southport on her first day's riding.
Australia's top woman jockey, Bev Buckingham, became the first woman in the Southern Hemisphere to win 1,000 races. In 1998, in a fall at the Elwick Racecourse (Hobart), she broke her neck. She used a wheelchair for some time afterward, but regained her strength and mobility and was able to walk again without assistance.
In 2004–05, Clare Lindop won the Adelaide jockeys' premiership and became the first woman to win a metropolitan jockeys' premiership in mainland Australia. In 2005, Andrea Leek became the first woman to ride the winner of the Grand National Hurdle (4,300 m) at Flemington when she won aboard Team Heritage.
In 2009 it was reported women account for 17% of jockeys in Victoria. But, they receive only 10% of the rides, and are often overlooked in favour of male jockeys, especially in the cities. In some regions of Australia about half of the apprentice jockey intakes are women.
In January 2015 at Mount Gambier, South Australia, all eight races on the card were won by women jockeys: Emily Finnegan (3 wins), Clare Lindop (2), Holly McKechnie (2) and Chelsea Jokic (1).
Michelle Payne became the first female jockey to win the Melbourne Cup on 3 November 2015.
=== Great Britain and Ireland ===
Women were initially banned from racing under Jockey Club rules in Britain, though records indicate that women rode, disguised as men, as early as 1804. In the Victorian era, Elizabeth Williams Berry of Australia, noted above, came to England and rode disguised as a man, continuing to use the name Jack Williams. To help her disguise, she smoked cigars and wore a bowler hat. In the 20th century, after many years of debate, a series of a dozen races was approved for female jockeys in 1972. Meriel Patricia Tufnell overcame childhood disability to ride the novice Scorched Earth to victory in the first race, the Goya Stakes at Kempton Park on 6 May 1972. In 1976 Valerie Greaves became the first amateur woman to "beat professionals under Rules" at Hexham Racecourse. In September, 1978, Karen Wiltshire, age 22, won a Salisbury handicap on The Goldstone, making her the first woman professional jockey to ride a winner in a British flat race. In 2024, Wiltshire published an account of the prejudice she had to deal with as a woman jockey in the 1970s. In 1996, Alex Greaves, the daughter of Valerie Greaves, became the first woman to ride in the Epsom Dash in Epsom Derby's 216-year history.
The first decade of the 21st century saw the profile of women jockeys rise considerably in British Flat racing. In 2005 Hayley Turner became Champion Apprentice rider, before becoming the first woman to ride 100 winners in a British season in 2008. Also in 2008, Kirsty Milczarek became the first woman to ride three winners at a single British race meeting, at Kempton in February. Milczarek rode 71 winners that year. This period saw the total number of female jockeys in British Flat racing rise significantly. Two further female jockeys have won the apprentice championship since Turner – Amy Ryan in 2012 and Josephine Gordon in 2016. This change has not applied in National Hunt racing, though amateur riders Nina Carberry and Katie Walsh (sister of Ruby Walsh) have gained success in Ireland and ridden winners at the Cheltenham Festival. In the 2010 National Hunt Chase at the Cheltenham Festival the winner and runner-up were both ridden by female jockeys. Katie Walsh was on board Poker de Sivola finishing ahead of Becauseicouldntsee which was ridden by Nina Carberry.
On Boxing Day 2015 Lizzie Kelly became the first female jockey to win a grade one race in Britain, on Tea For Two in the Kauto Star Novices' Chase at Kempton Park. Lizzie Kelly won another grade 1 in 2017. It was the Betway Bowl at the Grand National Festival, on Tea For Two. In the 2016/17 season Rachael Blackmore became the first female jockey to win the Irish Conditional Jockeys title. In 2018 Lizzie Kelly became the first female professional jockey to ride a winner at the Cheltenham Festival. She rode Coo Star Sivola in the Ultima handicap chase. In 2019 Bryony Frost became the first female jockey to ride a grade 1 winner at the Cheltenham Festival. She rode Frodon in the Ryanair Chase. In 2021, Rachael Blackmore became the first female jockey to win the Grand National, the most valuable jump race in Europe. The British Horseracing Authority (BHA) has set about encouraging the women who make up three quarters of the graduates from the two principal racing schools in the UK to stay in the profession as jockeys.
=== New Zealand ===
In Thoroughbred racing in New Zealand women constitute over 40% of jockeys.
The first win by a woman in New Zealand was visiting Canadian jockey Joan Phipps, at Te Awamutu in November 1977.
Linda Jones is believed to be the first New Zealand woman to apply for an apprentice's licence, however she was turned down. She had ridden in a number of lady riders events over many years in New Zealand and overseas such as in Brazil, which highlighted that New Zealand and Australia were outliers in not allowing women to compete with male jockeys in professional races. She persevered and the New Zealand Racing Conference eventually accepted female jockeys. They became eligible to ride on 15 July 1978 with the first New Zealand woman to ride in a totalisator race in New Zealand being Joanne Hale (Giles) on that day at Waimate. Sue Day (Christchurch), Joanne Lamond (Oamaru) and Vivienne Kaye (Awapuni) also rode in later races on that same day.
Sue Day became the first New Zealand female jockey winner in a totalisator race against males on 22 July 1978 when she won with the Ned Thistoll-trained Jaws in the Waybrook Handicap at Timaru. Another female jockey riding then was Cherie Saxon (Hastings).
Linda Jones' first win was on Big Bickies at Te Rapa and soon after she won with Royal Petite, the first Open Handicap winner for a female jockey. Subsequent highlight wins for Jones were Lovaro in the Queen Elizabeth Handicap and Holy Toledo in the Wellington Derby on 22 January 1979 (possibly the first female jockey world-wide to win a Derby). Jones was also the first female jockey to win a professional race against males at a registered meeting in Australia, winning aboard Pay The Purple in the Labour Day Cup at Doomben Racecourse, Brisbane on May 7, 1979.
In 1982 Maree Lyndon was the first female jockey to win a Group I race in New Zealand when winning the New Zealand Cup on Sirtain.
In 1986 Trudy Thornton became the first woman jockey to ride in New Zealand's longest thoroughbred race, the Great Northern Steeplechase. In 1995, Tina Egan was the first woman to win the race.
In 1997 Catherine Hutchinson (née Tremayne) was the first female jockey to ride six winners in a day, which she did at Ruakaka.
In 2005 and 2006 Lisa Cropp won the New Zealand jockeys' premierships. In recent years the New Zealand jockeys premiership has been won by Lisa Allpress (2012, 2016, 2019 and 2020), Samantha Collett (2018) and Danielle Johnson (2021).
In April 2017 at Timaru eight of the nine races on the card were won by women jockeys: Alysha Collett, Kylie Williams, Tina Comignaghi, Amanda Morgan and Samantha Wynne.
On 10 October 2019 at Tauherenikau Racecourse all eight races were won by women riders: Rosie Myers (4 races), Lisa Allpress (2), Charlotte O'Beirne (A) and Leah Mischewski.
=== United States and Canada ===
Eliza Carpenter (1851 – 1924) was an early African-American race horse owner. In Ponca City, Oklahoma, she trained horses for racing, becoming one of the few African-American stable owners in the West. When dissatisfied with the way a race was going, she sometimes would ride her own horses as a jockey, winning some races. Recorded names of her horses include "Irish Maid", "Blue Bird", "Jimmy Rain", "Sam Carpenter", and "Little Brown Jug", the last of which she reportedly raced at Tijuana, Baja California.
Anna Lee Aldred (1921 – 2006) was given a license at age 18 in 1939 at Agua Caliente Racetrack in Tijuana, Mexico, when officials were unable to find a rule that would bar women jockeys and she finished second by a nose in her first professional race. Hollywood stuntwoman Alice Van-Springsteen (1918 – 2008) also rode as a jockey and was one of the first women ever to receive a trainer's license for Thoroughbred horses.
Wantha Davis (1918 – 2012) was known to have won over 1,000 races in the 1930s, 40s and 50s, including a famous 1949, six furlong match-race against Johnny Longden at Agua Caliente. She rode at some state-sanctioned pari-mutuel tracks, but without a license, most events were of the dusty county fair and half-mile variety of the western circuit. Even though she was always in demand as a training jockey, her applications for a license were turned down in state after state.
Twelve years after Davis retired, the "modern era of female jockeys" began when Olympic equestrian and show jumping competitor Kathy Kusner, who had also ridden as a jockey, successfully sued the Maryland Racing Commission for a jockey's license in 1967 under the Civil Rights Act. She won her case in 1968 and became one of the earliest women to be licensed in the United States, though an injury prevented her from racing at the time. In late 1968, Penny Ann Early was the first woman to earn a mount as a licensed Thoroughbred jockey in the U.S., when she entered three races at Churchill Downs in November, but the male jockeys announced a boycott of those races, and so she could not ride. On 7 February 1969, Diane Crump was the first licensed woman rider to ride in a parimutuel Thoroughbred race in the United States at the Hialeah Park Race Track in Florida. She required a police escort to get to the paddock. Two weeks later, on 22 February at Charles Town in West Virginia, Barbara Jo Rubin became the first woman to win a race, and went on to win 11 of her first 22. Others soon followed suit and over the years American women jockeys have proven their ability. Julie Krone's 3,704 victories is the most by an American woman and As of June 2012, at least nineteen others have each ridden more than 1,000 winners.
For the most part Canada has generally followed the lead of the U.S. in opportunities for women riders. Canada has far fewer tracks than the U.S. and to date Canada has only two female jockeys with 1,000 wins. However, in both actual and relative numbers as well as overall success rate, Canada has surpassed its southern neighbor in opportunities for women at the highest level; their respective Triple Crown series: Starting with Joan Phipps in the 1973 Breeders' Stakes, 10 different women have competed in 30 Canadian Triple Crown races, with a combined 2 wins, 3 places, 4 shows. Moreover, while no US Triple Crown race has ever featured more than one female rider, that feat has occurred on 10 occasions in Canada, and 3 different women—Francine Villeneuve, Chantal Sutherland and Emma-Jayne Wilson—have raced in all three Canadian races. Sutherland has done it twice over and Wilson thrice over.
By comparison, since Diane Crump rode in the 1970 Kentucky Derby, six different women have competed in U.S. Triple Crown events, some multiple times: 10 times in the Derby, four times in the Preakness and nine times in the Belmont. with a combined record of one win, one place, one show. Julie Krone is the only woman to have won a US Triple Crown race, on Colonial Affair in the 1993 Belmont. With appearances in the 2011 Kentucky Derby, the 2012 Belmont Stakes and the 2013 Preakness Stakes, Rosie Napravnik became the first woman to ride in all three of the U.S. Triple Crown races. In 2013, Napravnik also became the first woman to ride in all three US Triple Crown races in the same year, and is the only woman to have won the Kentucky Oaks, which she has won twice.
== Robot jockeys ==
To replace child jockeys whose use had been deplored by human rights organizations, a camel race in Doha, Qatar, for the first time featured robots at the reins. On 13 July 2005, workers fixed robotic jockeys on the backs of seven camels and raced the machine-mounted animals around a track. Operators controlled the jockeys remotely, signalling them to pull their reins and prod the camels with whips.
== Early history of African American jockeys ==
In North America during the 1800s, most aspects of horse racing were primarily performed by enslaved African Americans. Plantation owners would bring their enslaved workers and their horses to other plantations and organize and bet on races. When horse racing became more mainstream, enslaved and free black people were involved with horse racing though most were identified with grooming, feeding, backing, exercising, and other auxiliary chores connected with the sport. Then they would work their way up to trainers, and then become full-time racers. By the end of the 1800s, horse racing was almost exclusively run by African American jockeys. The three most successful black jockeys being Isaac Murphy, Willie Simms, and Jimmy Winkfield, with Murphy winning the Kentucky Derby in 1884, 1887, and 1890. This dominance of the sport by African Americans came to an abrupt stop in 1896 when Plessy vs. Ferguson was decided, basically legalizing segregation. This led to the end of the supremacy of African American jockeys.
== See also ==
List of jockeys
Disc jockey
List of films about horse racing
U.S. National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame
Thoroughbred horse racing
== References ==
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Jockey". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 427.
== External links ==
An Overview of Safety and Health for Workers in the Horse-Racing Industry. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
Job Guide: Jockey. Department of Education, Employment, and Workplace Relations. Australian Government.
Jockeys: Darren Beadman. The Australian Racing Museum.
"Jockey Career Description". Career Descriptions
At the Races: The Jockeys Archived 25 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine – slideshow by Life magazine
"Mammals & Events: A Jockey's Hard Life" Archived 3 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine. American Experience: Seabiscuit. PBS.org.
Thoroughbred Horse Racing Jockeys and Workers: Examining On-track Injury Insurance and Other Health and Welfare Issues: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, One Hundred Ninth Congress, Second Session, May 9, 2006
A Review of Efforts to Protect Jockeys and Horses in Horseracing: Hearing before the Subcommittee on Health of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, Second Session, April 30, 2012 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boavita | Boavita | Boavita is a town and municipality in the Colombian Department of Boyacá, part of the subregion of the Northern Boyacá Province. The urban centre of Boavita is situated in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes at an altitude of 2,114 metres (6,936 ft) and a distance of 184 kilometres (114 mi) from the department capital Tunja. The municipality borders Capitanejo, Santander, and the Nevado River in the north, San Mateo and La Uvita in the east, Tipacoque and Soatá in the west and Susacón in the south.
== Etymology ==
The name of Boavita is derived from Chibcha and doesn't mean "good life", but rather "Point on the hill worshipping the Sun" or "Gate of the Sun".
== History ==
The area of modern Boavita in the times before the Spanish conquest of the Muisca was inhabited by a tribe called "Guavitas", pertaining to the Laches and Muisca. It was ruled by a cacique who was loyal to the Tundama of Tundama.
Modern Boavita was founded on February 9, 1613, by Sr. Hugarte.
== Economy ==
Main economical activities of Boavita are agriculture, livestock farming and mining. Main agricultural products cultivated are dates, sugarcane, yuca, coffee, cotton, potatoes, maize, chick peas, beans, peas, wheat and arracacha. The mining activities exist of carbon exploitation.
== Climate ==
Boavita has a subtropical highland climate (Köppen: Cfb) with moderate temperatures throughout the year.
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Tuzo_Wilson_Medal | J. Tuzo Wilson Medal | The J. Tuzo Wilson Medal is given out annually by the Canadian Geophysical Union to recognize scientists who have made an outstanding contribution to the field of geophysics in Canada. Factors taken into account in the selection process include excellence in scientific or technical research, instrument development, industrial applications and/or teaching. The award was created in 1978 and named after its first recipient, John Tuzo Wilson.
== Past recipients ==
Source: CGU
== See also ==
List of geology awards
List of geophysics awards
List of physics awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Politkovskaya#Detention_in_Chechnya | Anna Politkovskaya | Anna Stepanovna Politkovskaya (née Mazepa; 30 August 1958 – 7 October 2006) was a Russian investigative journalist who reported on political and social events in Russia, in particular, the Second Chechen War (1999–2005). She was found murdered in the elevator of her apartment block in Moscow on 7 October 2006, Vladimir Putin's birthday.
It was her reporting from Chechnya that made her national and international reputation. For seven years, she refused to give up reporting on the war despite numerous acts of intimidation and violence. Politkovskaya was arrested by Russian military forces in Chechnya and subjected to a mock execution. She was poisoned while flying from Moscow via Rostov-on-Don to help resolve the 2004 Beslan school hostage crisis, and had to turn back, requiring careful medical treatment in Moscow to restore her health.
Her post-1999 articles about conditions in Chechnya were turned into books several times; Russian readers' main access to her investigations and publications was through Novaya Gazeta, a Russian newspaper that featured critical investigative coverage of Russian political and social affairs. From 2000 onwards, she received numerous international awards for her work. In 2004, she published Putin's Russia, a personal account of Russia for a Western readership.
On 7 October 2006 (the 54th birthday of Russian president Vladimir Putin), she was murdered in the elevator of her block of apartments, an assassination that attracted international attention. In 2014, five men were sentenced to prison for the murder, but it is still unclear who ordered or paid for the contract killing.
== Early life and education ==
Anna Stepanovna Mazepa was born in New York City in 1958, the daughter of Ukrainian Soviet diplomats at the United Nations, Stepan Fedorovich Mazepa (1927–2006) from Kostobobriv, and Raisa Aleksandrovna (née Novikova; 1929–2021) from Kerch in Crimea. Her father was ethnically Ukrainian and had attended a Ukrainian-language school in Chernihiv before the 1941 Nazi invasion of the USSR. He met her mother at a Russian-language night school in Kerch after the war while serving in the fleet. By 1952, her father was admitted to study at an institute in Moscow, and her parents married there. Her father was appointed to the Ukrainian delegation at the United Nations during the Khrushchev era. He became a founding member of the Special Committee against Apartheid in 1962, and served as its secretary as late as 1974.
Her parents bought an apartment in central Moscow in 1962 and Politkovskaya mostly grew up there. She attended a music school and trained figure skating; according to her mother, she was noted for her frequent use of the local Krupskaya Library. She graduated from Moscow State University's school of journalism in 1980 with a thesis about the poetry of Marina Tsvetaeva. The faculty head at the time was Yasen Zasurskii, a close friend of the Mazepas and their frequent guest in New York. She married fellow student Alexander Politkovsky in 1978; by 1981 they had two children, Ilya and Vera. At first Alexander was better known, joining TV journalist Vladislav Listyev as one of the hosts on the late-night TV-program Vzglyad. Apart from her childhood years, Politkovskaya spent no more than a few weeks outside Russia at any one time, even when her life came under threat. She was a U.S. citizen and had a U.S. passport, although she never relinquished her Russian citizenship.
== Journalistic work ==
=== Beginnings ===
Politkovskaya's initial employment was with Izvestia, the organ of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, in 1982. According to her ex-husband in 2011, it was a brief internship in the mailroom and her only journalistic engagement during the 1980s as he failed to assist her career. In her son's words, until the mid-1990s she "wasn't even a journalist, she was a housewife". Her own later account stated that "Sasha's work ... kept me from doing my own thing". She is said by Politkovsky to have worked temporarily as a cleaner at the Mayakovsky Theatre. However, after the spell at Izvestia she soon held another internship at the Vozdushnyi transport (Воздушный транспорт, the in-house magazine of the Ministry of Civil Aviation), as a reporter and editor of the Aeroflot emergencies and accidents section. As recalled by Politkovsky, her first travel assignment was on the plane crash in Omsk (1984). The correspondent role came with an unlimited air ticket, which enabled her to travel widely across the country and observe Russian society. She was privy to developments in the media sphere through her husband, "Russia's number one television journalist" from 1987 onwards, and shared his political interests. In the 1990 film about the Politkovsky family, she was portrayed as her husband's "assistant". By the time of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, she experienced threats against their family, which forced her teenage son's exile in London in 1992. She was a columnist for the socio-political newspaper Megapolis-Express, founded in 1990, before it turned into a tabloid serving fake news in September 1994. She was professionally involved in the creative union Eskart – which by 1991 offered advertising services through its partnership with major media outlets, such as the All-Union Radio, the organ of the Ministry of Railways Gudok, Kuranty, Literaturnaya Gazeta, Moskovskiye Novosti, My, Ogoniok, Oktyabr, Sovetskaya Kultura, Stolitsa, and Trud – and in the St Petersburg publishing house Paritet, founded in 1992.
Politkovskaya's career took off with the decline of her husband's influence following the 1993 Russian constitutional crisis. From 1994 to 1999, she worked as the assistant chief editor of Obshchaya Gazeta, headed by Yegor Yakovlev, where she wrote frequently about social problems, particularly the plight of refugees. From June 1999 to 2006, she wrote columns for the biweekly Novaya Gazeta, a newspaper with strong investigative reporting that was critical of the new post-Soviet regime from the outset. She published several award-winning books about Chechnya, life in Russia, and Russia under Vladimir Putin, including Putin's Russia.
=== Reports from Chechnya ===
Politkovskaya won awards for her work. She used each of these occasions to urge greater concern and responsibility by Western governments that, after the September 11 attacks on the United States, welcomed Putin's contribution to their "war on terror". She talked to officials, the military and the police and also frequently visited hospitals and refugee camps in Chechnya and in neighboring Ingushetia to interview those injured and uprooted by the renewed fighting.
In numerous articles critical of the war in Chechnya and the pro-Russian regime there, Politkovskaya described alleged abuses committed by Russian military forces, Chechen rebels, and the Russian-backed administration led by Akhmad Kadyrov and his son Ramzan Kadyrov. She also chronicled human rights abuses and policy failures elsewhere in the North Caucasus. In one characteristic instance in 1999, she not only wrote about the plight of an ethnically-mixed old peoples' home under bombardment in Grozny, but helped to secure the safe evacuation of its elderly inhabitants with the aid of her newspaper and public support. Her articles, many of which form the basis of A Dirty War (2001) and A Small Corner of Hell (2003), depict a conflict that brutalized both Chechen fighters and conscript soldiers in the federal army, and created hell for the civilians caught between them.
As Politkovskaya reported, the order supposedly restored under the Kadyrovs became a regime of endemic torture, abduction, and murder, by either the new Chechen authorities or the various federal forces based in Chechnya. One of her last investigations was into the alleged mass poisoning of Chechen schoolchildren by a strong and unknown chemical substance which incapacitated them for many months.
=== Criticism of Vladimir Putin and FSB ===
After Politkovskaya became widely known in the West, she was commissioned to write Putin's Russia (later subtitled Life in a Failing Democracy), a broader account of her views and experiences after former KGB lieutenant colonel Vladimir Putin became Boris Yeltsin's Prime Minister, and then succeeded him as President of Russia. This included Putin's pursuit of the Second Chechen War. In the book, she accused the Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) of stifling all civil liberties to establish a Soviet-style dictatorship, but admitted: [It] is we who are responsible for Putin's policies ... [s]ociety has shown limitless apathy ... [a]s the Chekists have become entrenched in power, we have let them see our fear, and thereby have only intensified their urge to treat us like cattle. The KGB respects only the strong. The weak it devours. We of all people ought to know that. She also wrote:
We are hurtling back into a Soviet abyss, into an information vacuum that spells death from our own ignorance. All we have left is the internet, where information is still freely available. For the rest, if you want to go on working as a journalist, it's total servility to Putin. Otherwise, it can be death, the bullet, poison, or trial—whatever our special services, Putin's guard dogs, see fit.
"People often tell me that I am a pessimist, that I don't believe in the strength of the Russian people, that I am obsessive in my opposition to Putin and see nothing beyond that", she opens an essay titled "Am I Afraid?", finishing it—and the book—with the words "If anybody thinks they can take comfort from the 'optimistic' forecast, let them do so. It is certainly the easier way, but it is the death sentence for our grandchildren."
=== A Russian Diary ===
In May 2007, Random House posthumously published Politkovskaya's A Russian Diary, containing extracts from her notebook and other writings. Subtitled A Journalist's Final Account of Life, Corruption, and Death in Putin's Russia, the book gives her account of the period from December 2003 to August 2005, including what she described as "the death of Russian parliamentary democracy", the Beslan school hostage crisis, and the "winter and summer of discontent" from January to August 2005. Because she was murdered "while translation was being completed, final editing had to go ahead without her help", wrote translator Arch Tait in a note to the book.
"Who killed Anna and who lay beyond her killer remains unknown", wrote Jon Snow, the main news anchor for the United Kingdom's Channel 4 in his foreword to the book's UK edition. "Her murder robbed too many of us of absolutely vital sources of information and contact", he concluded, "Yet it may, ultimately, be seen to have at least helped prepare the way for the unmasking of the dark forces at the heart of Russia's current being. I must confess that I finished reading A Russian Diary feeling that it should be taken up and dropped from the air in vast quantities throughout the length and breadth of Mother Russia, for all her people to read."
== Attempted hostage negotiations ==
Politkovskaya was closely involved in attempts to negotiate the release of hostages in the Moscow theatre hostage crisis of 2002. When the Beslan school hostage crisis erupted in the North Caucasus in early September 2004, Politkovskaya attempted to fly there to act as a mediator, but was taken off the plane, acutely ill due to an attempted poisoning, in Rostov-on-Don (see #Poisoning).
== Access to Russian authorities ==
In Moscow, Politkovskaya was not invited to press conferences or gatherings that Kremlin officials might attend, in case the organizers were suspected of harboring sympathies toward her. Despite this, many top officials allegedly talked to her when she was writing articles or conducting investigations. According to one of her articles, they did talk to her, "but only when they weren't likely to be observed: outside in crowds, or in houses that they approached by different routes, like spies". She also claimed that the Kremlin tried to block her access to information and discredit her:I will not go into the other joys of the path I have chosen, the poisoning, the arrests, the threats in letters and over the Internet, the telephoned death threats, the weekly summons to the prosecutor general's office to sign statements about practically every article I write (the first question being, "How and where did you obtain this information?"). Of course I don't like the constant derisive articles about me that appear in other newspapers and on Internet sites presenting me as the madwoman of Moscow. I find it disgusting to live this way. I would like a bit more understanding.
== Death threats ==
After Politkovskaya's murder, Vyacheslav Izmailov, her colleague at Novaya Gazeta – a military man who had helped negotiate the release of dozens of hostages in Chechnya before 1999 – said that he knew of at least nine previous occasions when Politkovskaya had faced death, commenting "Frontline-soldiers do not usually go into battle so often and survive".
Politkovskaya herself did not deny being afraid, but felt responsible and concerned for her informants. While attending a December 2005 conference on the freedom of the press in Vienna organized by Reporters Without Borders, she said "People sometimes pay with their lives for saying aloud what they think. In fact, one can even get killed for giving me information. I am not the only one in danger. I have examples that prove it." She often received death threats as a result of her work, including being threatened with rape and experiencing a mock execution after being arrested by the military in Chechnya.
=== Detention in Chechnya ===
Early in 2001, Politkovskaya was detained by military officials in the southern mountain village of Khattuni. She was investigating complaints from 90 Chechen families about "punitive raids" by federal forces. She interviewed a Chechen grandmother from the village of Tovzeni, Rosita, who endured 12 days of beatings, electric shocks, and confinement in a pit. The men who arrested Rosita presented themselves as FSB-employees. The torturers requested a ransom from Rosita's relatives, who negotiated a smaller amount that they were able to pay. Another interviewee described killings and rapes of Chechen men in a "concentration camp with a commercial streak" near the village of Khattuni.
Upon leaving the camp, Politkovskaya was detained, interrogated, beaten, and humiliated: "The young officers tortured me, skillfully hitting my sore-spots. They looked through my children's pictures, making a point of saying what they would like to do to the kids. This went on for about three hours." She was subjected to a mock execution using a BM-21 Grad multiple-launch rocket system, then poisoned with a cup of tea that made her vomit. Her tape-records were confiscated. She described her mock execution:
A lieutenant colonel with a swarthy face and dull dark bulging eyes said in a businesslike tone: "Let's go. I'm going to shoot you." He led me out of the tent into complete darkness. The nights here are impenetrable. After we walked for a while, he said, "Ready or not, here I come." Something burst with pulsating fire around me, screeching, roaring, and growling. The lieutenant colonel was very happy when I crouched in fright. It turned out that he had led me right under the "Grad" rocket launcher at the moment it was fired.
After the mock execution, the Russian lieutenant colonel said to her: "Here's the banya. Take off your clothes." Seeing that his words had no effect, he got very angry: "A real lieutenant colonel is courting you, and you say no, you militant bitch."
In 2006, the European Court of Human Rights found the Russian Federation responsible for the forced disappearance of a suspected Ingush militant, Khadzhi-Murat Yandiyev. Colonel-General Alexander Baranov, the commander of the Russian Caucasus deployment mentioned by Politkovskaya's camp guide as the one who ordered captured militants to be kept in the pits, was filmed as he ordered Yandiyev to be executed.
=== Poisoning ===
While flying south in September 2004 to help negotiate with those who had taken over a thousand hostages in a school in Beslan (North Ossetia), Politkovskaya fell violently ill and lost consciousness after drinking tea given to her by an Aeroflot flight attendant. She had reportedly been poisoned, with some accusing the former Soviet secret police poison facility.
=== Threats from OMON officer ===
In 2001, Politkovskaya fled to Vienna, following e-mail threats that a police officer whom she had accused of atrocities against civilians in Chechnya was looking to take revenge. Corporal Sergey Lapin was arrested and charged in 2002, but the case against him was closed the following year. In 2005, Lapin was convicted and jailed for the torture and subsequent disappearance of a Chechen civilian detainee, the case exposed by Politkovskaya in her article "Disappearing People". A former fellow officer of Lapin's was among the suspects in Politkovskaya's murder, on the theory that the motive might have been revenge for her part in Lapin's conviction.
=== Conflict with Ramzan Kadyrov ===
In 2004, Politkovskaya had a conversation with Ramzan Kadyrov, then Prime Minister of Chechnya. One of his assistants said to her, "Someone ought to have shot you back in Moscow, right on the street, like they do in your Moscow". Kadyrov echoed him: "You're an enemy. To be shot...." On the day of her murder, said Novaya Gazeta's chief editor Dmitry Muratov, Politkovskaya had planned to file a lengthy story on the torture practices believed to be used by the Chechen security detachments known as Kadyrovites. In her final interview, she described Kadyrov—now president of Chechnya—as the "Chechen Stalin of our days".
== Assassination and investigation ==
Politkovskaya was found dead in the lift, in her block of apartments in central Moscow on 7 October 2006, Putin's birthday. She had been shot twice in the chest, once in the shoulder, and once in the head at close range. There was widespread international reaction to the assassination.
The funeral was held on 10 October 2006 at the Troyekurovskoye Cemetery in the outskirts of Moscow. Before Politkovskaya was buried, more than one thousand mourners filed past her coffin to pay their last respects. Dozens of Politkovskaya's colleagues, public figures, and admirers of her work gathered at the cemetery. No high-ranking Russian officials could be seen at the ceremony. Politkovskaya was buried near her father, who had died shortly before her.
In May 2007, a large posthumous collection of her articles entitled With Good Reason was published by Novaya Gazeta, and launched at the Gorbachev Foundation in Moscow. The event came soon after the birth of Anna's namesake grandchild: Vera's daughter was named Anna in honor of her grandmother. A few months later, 10 men were detained on suspicion of various degrees of involvement in Politkovskaya's murder. Four of them were brought before the Moscow District Military Court in October 2008.
=== First trial, 2008–2009 ===
Three men were charged with directly aiding Politkovskaya's killer, who was allegedly the brother of two of the suspects. There was insufficient evidence to charge the fourth man—an FSB colonel—with the murder, though he was suspected of a leading role in its organization; he stood trial at the same time for another offence. The case was held before a jury (a rare occurrence in Russia) and, after the jurors insisted, was open to the press and public.
On 25 November 2008, it was reported that Politkovskaya's murder might have been ordered by a politician inside Russia. Murad Musayev, a lawyer for the men on trial, told journalists that the case notes—as one of the interpretations of the crime—mentioned that a politician, based in Russia (but not named in those notes), was behind her death.
On 5 December 2008, Sergei Sokolov, a senior editor of Novaya Gazeta, testified in court that he had received information (from sources he would not name) that defendant Dzhabrail Makhmudov was an agent of the FSB. He said Makhmudov's uncle Lom-Ali Gaitukayev, who was serving a 12-year jail sentence for the attempted murder of a Ukrainian businessman, also worked for the FSB.
=== Following the acquittal ===
After all three men were acquitted of Politkovskaya's murder in February 2009, her children Vera and Ilya, their lawyers Karinna Moskalenko and Anna Stavitskaya, and senior Novaya Gazeta editor Sergei Sokolov gave their reaction to the trial at a press conference in Moscow. In his comments on the end of the trial, Andrew McIntosh, Chairman of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe's Sub-Committee on the Media and Rapporteur on media freedom, expressed frustration at what he perceived to be a lack of progress in investigating the murder, or the inability of the Russian authorities to find her killers:
Two years ago, in its Resolution 1535 (2007), the Assembly called on the Russian Parliament closely to monitor the progress in the criminal investigations regarding the murder of Anna Politkovskaya and hold the authorities accountable for any failures to investigate or prosecute. The closure of the trial yesterday can only be regarded as a blatant failure. I call on the Russian authorities and Parliament to relaunch a proper investigation and shed light on this murder, which undermines not only freedom of expression in Russia, but also its democratic foundation based on the rule of law. There are no excuses for these flawed investigations into murders of politically critical journalists writing against corruption and crime within government, such as the murders of Georgy Gongadze in Ukraine in 2000 and Paul Klebnikov in Moscow in 2004.
Before the trial ended, Stanislav Markelov, a lawyer who had investigated many of the abuses documented by Politkovskaya, was assassinated in Moscow on 19 January 2009. Journalist Anastasia Baburova, who was with Markelov at the time, died later of injuries sustained while trying to intervene.
More closely related to Politkovskaya's work as a journalist was 15 July 2009 murder of Natalia Estemirova. A board member of the Memorial human rights society and one of Politkovskaya's key informants, guides, and colleagues in Chechnya, Estemirova was abducted in Grozny and found dead, several hours later, in the neighboring Republic of Ingushetia.
=== Retrial, 2012 and 2014 ===
On 5 August 2009, the prosecution service's objection to the acquittals in the Politkovskaya trial was upheld by the Supreme Court, and a new trial was ordered.
In August 2011, Russian prosecutors claimed they were close to solving the murder after detaining Dmitry Pavliuchenkov, a former policeman, who they alleged was the principal organizer. In December 2012, Dmitry Pavliutchenkov was found guilty and sentenced to 11 years in a high security penal colony.
In May 2014, five men were convicted of murdering Politkovskaya, including three defendants who had been acquitted in a previous trial. In June 2014 the men were sentenced to prison, two of them, Lom-Ali Gaitukayev and his nephew Rustam Makhmudov, receiving life sentences. It was unclear who ordered or paid for the contract killing.
=== Murder remained unsolved, 2016 ===
In September 2016, Vladimir Markin, official spokesman for the Investigative Committee, included Politkovskaya's killing in a list of the Most Dramatic Crimes in 21st century Russia and claimed that it had been solved. Her colleagues at Novaya Gazeta protested that until the instigator or sponsor of the crime was identified, arrested and prosecuted the case was not closed.
On 7 October 2016, Novaya Gazeta released a video clip of its editors, correspondents, photographers and technical and administrative staff holding text-boards giving details of the case and stating, repeatedly, "The sponsor of Anna's murder has not been found". On the same day deputy chief editor Sergei Sokolov published a damning summary of the official investigation, describing its false turns and shortcomings, and emphasized that it had now effectively been wound up. After the three Makhmudov brothers, Khadjikurbanov and Lom-Ali Gaitukayev were convicted in 2014, wrote Sokolov, the once large team of investigators was reduced to one person and within a year he retired, to be replaced by a lower-ranking investigator. The 2000 killing of Igor Domnikov, another Novaya Gazeta journalist, showed that the perpetrators might be identified (they were convicted in 2008).
The Intercept published a top-secret document released by Edward Snowden with a screenshot of Intellipedia according to which:
(TS//SI/REL TO USA, AUS, CAN, GBR, NZL) Russian Federal Intelligence Services (probably FSB) are known to have targeted the webmail account of the murdered Russian journalist Anna Politkovskaya. On 5 December 2005, RFIS initiated an attack against the account annapolitovskaya@US Provider1, by deploying malicious software which is not available in the public domain. It is not known whether the attack is in any way associated with the death of the journalist.
== Documentary ==
2008, documentary by Masha Novikova Anna, Seven Years on the Frontline; 78 min., the Netherlands.
In 2008, Swiss director Eric Bergkraut made a documentary, Letter to Anna, about Politkovskaya's life and death. It includes interviews with her son Ilya, her daughter Vera, her ex-husband Alexander Politkovsky, and others—such as businessman Boris Berezovsky and filmmaker Andrei Nekrasov.
In 2011, Russian director Marina Goldovskaya made the documentary A Bitter Taste of Freedom, a Swedish-Russian-American co-production. The title refers to an earlier documentary film by the same director, A Taste of freedom (1991) which is about Russian life in the new, post-Soviet reality and features the Politkovsky family. A Bitter Taste of Freedom was shown at the 27th Warsaw International Film Festival where it won the Best Documentary Feature Award. From the festival's program:
She was brave, she was bold, and she was beautiful. In her fearless quest to uncover the wrongdoings of the Russian State, Anna Politkovskaya inspired awe in some and fear in countless others. An investigative journalist for Moscow's liberal Novaya Gazeta, she was the only spokesperson for victims of Putin's government. Hers was a lonely voice, yet loud enough for the entire country to hear. It was too loud. At age 48 she was assassinated for simply doing her job. A documentary about the bravery of the human spirit. As the director says, it "is especially important now, when the world is so full of cynicism and corruption, when we so desperately need more people with Anna's level of courage and integrity and commitment".
=== Biopic ===
Principal production on a biographical film, then entitled Anna, began in 2022, with Maxine Peake playing Politkovskaya and also featuring Jason Isaacs and Ciaran Hinds. Ultimately titled Words of War, it had a limited release that began on May 2, 2025.
== Awards and honours ==
2001: "Golden Pen Prize" of the Russian Union of Journalists
2001: Amnesty International Global Award for Human Rights Journalism
2002: Norwegian Authors Union Freedom of Expression Prize ("Ytringsfrihetsprisen")
2002: Index on Censorship Award for the "Defence of Free Expression".
2002: PEN American Center Freedom to Write Award
2002: International Women's Media Foundation Courage in Journalism Award
2003: Lettre Ulysses Award for the Art of Reportage
2003: Hermann Kesten Medal
2004: Olof Palme Prize (shared with Lyudmila Alexeyeva and Sergei Kovalev)
2004: Vázquez Montalbán Award of International Journalism
2005: Civil Courage Prize (with Min Ko Naing and Munir Said Thalib)
2005: Prize for the Freedom and Future of the Media
2006: International Journalism Award named after Tiziano Terzani
2006: World Press Freedom Hero of the International Press Institute
2007: UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize (awarded posthumously for the first time)
2007: National Press Club (United States)/John Aubuchon Freedom of the Press Award (posthumous)
2007: Geschwister-Scholl-Preis (posthumous)
2007: Democracy Award to Spotlight Press Freedom by the National Endowment for Democracy,
The 2007–2008 academic year at the College of Europe was named in her honour.
=== Anna Politkovskaya Award ===
The international human rights organization RAW in WAR (Reach All Women in War), which focuses on supporting and protecting women human rights defenders working in war and conflict zones, established in 2006 the annual Anna Politkovskaya Award in Politkovskaya's honour. The award recognizes "a woman human rights defender from a conflict zone in the world who, like Anna, stands up for the victims of this conflict, often at great personal risk". Mariana Katzarova, a close friend and a human rights colleague of Politkovskaya, founded RAW in WAR (Reach All Women in WAR) and the Anna Politkovskaya Award in 2006 in London, after working as a journalist and human rights advocate in the war zones of Bosnia, Kosovo and the North Caucasus, including 10 years as the Russia Researcher for Amnesty International.
The award was first given on the first anniversary of Politkovskaya's murder, to her friend and colleague, Chechen activist Natalia Estemirova, who was herself abducted and killed in 2009 in Chechnya.
=== Journalism prize "Anna Politkovskaja" (Ferrara, Italy) ===
There is also a "Journalism-prize Anna Politkovskaja" ("il premio giornalistico Anna Politkovskaja"), which is annually awarded in Ferrara, Italy, by the magazine L'internationale and the comune of Ferrara.
Winners of the Journalism prize "Anna Politkovskaja"
2015: Asif Mohiuddin
== Works ==
Politkovskaia, Anna (2000) Voyage en enfer: Journal de Tchetchenie, Robert Laffont: Paris.
Politkovskaya, Anna (2001) A Dirty War: A Russian Reporter in Chechnya, Harvill: London.ISBN 9781860468971
Политковская, Анна (2002) Вторая чеченская (The Second Chechen War), Zakharov: Moscow.
Politkovskaya, Anna (2003) A Small Corner of Hell: Dispatches from Chechnya, translation of Vtoraya chechenskaya, The University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 2015-02-28.
Politkovs'ka, Anna. "Druha chechens'ka." Trans. I. Andrusiak. Kyiv: Diokor, 2004. (In Ukrainian.)
Politkovskaya, Anna (2004) Putin's Russia, Harvill: London.ISBN 980293316-3
Politkovskaya, Anna (2007) A Russian Diary: A Journalist's Final Account of Life, Corruption, and Death in Putin's Russia, Harvill Secker: London.ISBN 9781400066827
Политковская, Анна (2007) (With Good Reason), Novaya Gazeta: Moscow. , 989 pp.
Includes all Anna Politkovskaya's finished and unfinished articles for Novaya Gazeta
The Russian title makes grim play of the frequent disbelieving question of victims of the late 1930s Great Terror in the Soviet Union: "But whatever for?!" («За что?!»)
Politkovskaya, Anna (2010) Nothing But the Truth: Selected Dispatches, Harvill Secker: London. ISBN 9781846552397
A 480-page selection from the 2007 volume За что (With Good Reason).
Politkovskaya, Anna (2011) Is Journalism Worth Dying For?: Final Dispatches, Melville House Publishing: Brooklyn, New York.ISBN 9781935554400
== See also ==
Alexander Litvinenko
List of journalists killed in Russia
List of unsolved murders (2000–present)
Petra Procházková
Putinism
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
Finkelstein, David (2008), "Investigative Journalism: Elena Poniatowska (1932–) and Anna Politkovskaya (1958–2006)", Journalism Practice, 2 (1): 130–134, doi:10.1080/17512780701768576
Jackman, Danielle Ilona (2016), Campaigning for Justice in Dark Times: Politkovskaya's Network and the Lapin Case, PhD thesis: La Trobe University, archived from the original on 11 June 2024
Simon, Scott (2007), Foreword, A Russian Diary: A Journalist's Final Account of Life, Corruption, and Death in Putin's Russia, by Politkovskaya, Anna, New York: Random House, pp. vii–xv, ISBN 9781400066827
== External links ==
Politkovskaya writing about her Ukrainian descent in preface of the Ukrainian edition of her book The Second Chechen War by Diokor Press (in Ukrainian)
""The Chronicles of Hell" Exhibition dedicated to the memory of Anna Politkovskaya". Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 27 October 2013. by IPVnews
Audio
Anna Politkovskaya readings at the Edinburgh International Book Festival
audio recordings and transcriptions 2004–05 (translated to English, streaming and downloadable audio mp3)
The Writer's Conscience: Remembering Anna Politkovskaya & Russia's Forgotten War, 6 December 2006, CUNY Graduate Center, New York City – audio
Images
Photo report from August 2008 Moscow rally dedicated to the 50th anniversary of Anna Politkovskaya's birth (in Russian) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugnosta_misella | Eugnosta misella | Eugnosta misella is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa.
The wingspan is 9–11 mm.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doni_Tondo#:~:text=The%20Doni%20Tondo%20portrays%20the,in%20a%20variety%20of%20ways. | Doni Tondo | The Doni Tondo or Doni Madonna is the only finished panel painting by the mature Michelangelo to survive. Now in the Uffizi in Florence, Italy, and still in its original frame, the Doni Tondo commissioned by Agnolo Doni, probably to commemorate his marriage to Maddalena Strozzi, the daughter of a powerful Tuscan family. The painting is in the form of a tondo, meaning in Italian 'round', a shape which is frequently associated during the Renaissance with domestic ideas.
The Doni Tondo portrays the Holy Family (the child Jesus, Mary, and Joseph) in the foreground, along with John the Baptist in the middle-ground, and contains five nude male figures in the background. The inclusion of these nude figures has been interpreted in a variety of ways.
== History ==
Vasari tells us that the work was commissioned by Agnolo Doni (portrait). The occasion may have been to celebrate his marriage in January 1504 to Maddelena Strozzi (portrait); the blazon of the Strozzi family with three crescent moons is carved in the frame.
Alternatively, it could have been commissioned to commemorate the birth of his daughter Maria in 1507. This last theory is supported by the noticeable influence that the Laocoon was unearthed in January 1506 in the presence of Michelangelo, and the similarities between the Doni Virgin and the Sybils in the Sistine Chapel frescoes, painted the following year.
In either case, Michelangelo completed it before started work in his frescoes in the Sistine Chapel ceiling, in 1508.
== Description ==
Mary is the most prominent figure in the composition, taking up much of the center of the image. She sits directly on the ground without a cushion between herself and the grass, to better communicate the theme of her relationship to the earth (?). Joseph is positioned higher in the image than Mary, although this is an unusual feature in compositions of the Holy Family. Mary is seated between his legs, as if he is protecting her, his great legs forming a kind of de facto throne. There is some debate as to whether Mary is receiving the Child from Joseph or vice versa. Saint John the Baptist, the patron saint of Florence, is very commonly included in Florentine works depicting the Madonna and Child. He is in the middle-ground of the painting, between the Holy Family and the background. The scene appears to be a rural one, with the Holy Family enjoying themselves on the grass and separated from the curiously (seemingly) unrelated group at the back by a low wall.
The painting is still in its original frame, one that Michelangelo might have influenced or helped design. The frame is ornately carved and rather unusual for the five heads it contains which protrude three-dimensionally into space. Similar to the nudes of the background, the meanings of these heads has been the subject of speculation. The frame also contains carvings of crescent moons, stars, vegetation, and lions' heads. These symbols are, perhaps, references to the Doni and Strozzi families, taken from each one's coat of arms. As depicted on the frame, "the moons are bound together with ribbons that interlock with the lions", possibly referring to the marriage of the two families.
There is a horizontal band, possibly a wall, separating the foreground and background. The background figures are five nudes, whose meaning and function are subject to much speculation and debate. Because they are much closer to us, the viewers, the Holy Family is much larger than the nudes in the background, a device to aid the illusion of deep space in a two-dimensional image. Behind Saint John the Baptist is a semi-circular ridge, against which the Sistine ignudi are leaning, or upon which they are sitting. This semi-circle reflects or mirrors the circular shape of the painting itself and acts as a foil to the vertical nature of the principal group (the Holy family). Mary and Joseph gaze at Christ, but none of the background nudes looks directly at him. The far background contains a mountainous landscape rendered in atmospheric perspective.
== Technique ==
The Doni Tondo is believed to be the only existing panel picture Michelangelo painted without the aid of assistants; and, unlike his Manchester Madonna and Entombment (both National Gallery, London), the attribution to him has never been questioned. The juxtaposition of bright colors foreshadows the same use of color in Michelangelo's later Sistine Ceiling frescoes. The folds of the drapery are sharply modelled, and the modelling of the figures is distinctly sculptural, suggesting they are carved in medium marble. The nude figures in the background have softer modelling and look to be precursors to the ignudi, the male nude figures in the Sistine Ceiling frescoes. Michelangelo's technique includes shading from the most intense colors first to the lighter shades on top, using the darker colors as shadows. By applying the pigment in a certain way, Michelangelo created an "unfocused" effect in the background and focused detail in the foreground. The most vibrant color is located within the Virgin's garments, signifying her importance within the image. The masculinity of Mary could be explained by Michelangelo's use of male models for female figures, as was done for the Sistine Chapel.
Michelangelo used a limited palette of pigments comprising Lead White, Azurite, Verdigris and a few others. He avoided ochres and used very little vermilion.
== Influences ==
The composition is, most likely, partially influenced by the cartoon (a term referring to a detailed later-stage preliminary drawing) for Leonardo da Vinci's The Virgin and Child with St. Anne. Michelangelo's Holy Family forms a tight, separated group in the centre foreground of the image, with the Virgin's figure constructing a typical Renaissance pyramid or triangle. Michelangelo saw the drawing in 1501 while in Florence working on the David.
The Doni Tondo is also associated with Luca Signorelli's Medici Madonna in the Uffizi. Michelangelo probably knew of the work and its ideas, and he wanted to incorporate those ideas into his own work. Signorelli's Madonna similarly uses a tondo form, depicts nude male figures in the background, and displays the Virgin sitting directly on the earth.
Three aspects of the painting can be attributed to an antique sardonyx cameo and a 15th-century relief from the circle of Donatello, available to Michelangelo in the Palazzo Medici: the circular form, the masculinity of Mary, and the positioning of the Christ Child. The Virgin's right arm mirrors the arm of the satyr in the cameo, and the cameo also depicts an infant located on the shoulders of the satyr, a position similar to the Christ Child being passed over the right arm of Mary.
Additionally, some scholars suggest that Michelangelo was inspired by the famous Greco-Roman group of Laocoön and His Sons, excavated in 1506 in Rome, an event at which Michelangelo is believed to have been present. The pose of the nude figure in the background immediately behind Saint Joseph, to our right, appears to have been influenced by the twisting contortions of the figures captured by the serpent in the Laocoön (again, if this were so, it would alter the date of the Doni Tondo by several years).
Furthermore, the inclusion of the five protruding heads in the paintings frame is often seen as a reference to a similar motif found on Ghiberti's Porta del Paradiso, the bronze doors of the Florence Baptistry which Michelangelo is known to have greatly admired.
== Plant symbolism ==
The plant in front of John the Baptist has aspects of both hyssop and cornflower, yet is most likely a hyssop because it grows from a wall. Cornflower is an attribute of Christ and symbolizes Heaven while hyssop symbolizes both the humility of Christ and baptism. There is a citron tree in the background, which represents the Cedar of Lebanon. Michelangelo uses the hyssop and tree as a visual representation of a quote by Rabanus Maurus, "From the Cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop which grows on a stony wall we have an explanation of the Divinity which Christ has in his Father and of the humanity that he derives from the Virgin Mary." The clover in the foreground represents the Trinity and salvation. The anemone plant represents the Trinity and the Passion of Christ.
== Scholarly theories ==
There is a multitude of interpretations for the various parts of the work. Most interpretations differ in defining the relationship between the Holy Family and the figures in the background.
Paul Barolsky argues that the Doni Tondo is a "devotional image […] more than an example of style, symbolism, [or] iconography". Barolsky bases much of his thesis on the language used by Giorgio Vasari in his work Lives of the Most Excellent Italian Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, from Cimabue to Our Times. His support for the idea of devotion comes from Christ being presented in the painting like a gift, which he links to the painting's patron due to a perceived pun on the Italian word for "gift", donare, and the patron's name, Doni (meaning literally, in Italian, 'gifts'). Furthering the Christ-as-gift metaphor, Mary's holding of Christ in the painting is seen to reference the elevating of the host during mass.
Mirella Levi D'Ancona argues that the image reflects Michelangelo's views on the roles of the members of the Holy Family in human salvation and the soul's immortality. The Virgin's placement and emphasis is due to her role in human salvation. She is both the mother of Christ and the best intercessor for appealing to him. Michelangelo, who had been strongly influenced by the Dominican Fra Girolamo Savonarola in Florence, is using the picture to defend the Maculist point of view, a philosophy of the Dominican order rejecting the idea of the Immaculate Conception of Mary. The Maculist view is that the Virgin did not receive her sanctification at birth but at the moment of the incarnation of Christ; thus, the image depicts the moment of Mary's sanctification by showing the Christ Child blessing her. Michelangelo depicts Christ as if he is growing out of Mary's shoulder to take human form, one leg hanging limply and the other not visible at all, therefore making him a part of Mary. Moreover, his muscles and balance convey an upward movement, as if he is growing out of her, although he is above Mary, asserting his superiority to her. Furthermore, she argues that the nudes are to be interpreted as sinners who have removed their clothes for cleansing and purification through baptism. The water, which separates the sinners from the Holy Family, just beyond the horizontal band in the middle of the painting, can therefore be seen as the "waters of separation" mentioned in the Bible. She also argues that the five figures may represent the five parts of the soul: the higher soul (soul and intellect) on the left and the lower soul (imagination, sensation, and nourishing faculty) on the right, a visual depiction of the views of Marsilio Ficino, whom Michelangelo references in other works. Additionally, in looking at them as separate groupings, she suggests that the two figures on Mary's right represents the human and divine natures of Christ, while the three on her left represent the Trinity.
Andrée Hayum argues that the commissioning of the tondo by the Doni family helped to emphasize the "secular and domestic ideals" of the painting rather than seeing it as a "devotional object". In choosing a tondo as the format for the picture, Michelangelo is referencing the form's long association with depicting the "Adoration of the Magi, the Nativity, [and] the Madonna and Child." Hayum also finds many allusions to Noah throughout the work. She posits a referencing of the Madonna to Noah's daughter-in-law, a sibyl, which thus makes Joseph an embodiment of Noah himself. Hayum further supports this by acknowledging the direct link between Joseph and Noah as depicted in Michelangelo's Sistine Ceiling paintings. This link to Noah also gives an explanation to the nudes in the background, whose forms may have inspired the sons in the Drunkenness of Noah. The allusion to the Noah story also brings up themes of baptismal water, thus giving rise to an interpretation of the nudes similar to D'Ancona's: "catechumens awaiting baptism" from John the Baptist, whose "isolation within a pit-like space" indicates his special role as baptizer.
Roberta Olson states that the painting depicts the "importance of the family" and is related to "Doni’s hoped-for descendants". One of the ways in which the painting depicts a "good marriage" is by the seemingly "reciprocal action" of the handling of Jesus between Joseph and Mary. Much importance is given to Joseph by way of the colors of his clothes: yellow, indicating the divine aspect of the family as well as "truth", and purple, standing for royal lineage tracing from the House of David. Additionally, Joseph is important to the painting by referencing the middle name of the "Doni's third child who lived beyond infancy". The theme of baptism is also suggested on the painting's frame through a possible reference to Ghiberti's Porta del Paradiso – being one of the three sets of doors of the Florence Baptistery (two of which by Ghiberti) – the sculpted details indirectly referring to the rite of Baptism, important for the Donis and their desire for a child as the product of a good marriage, exemplified by the Holy Family, perhaps one reason behind the commissioning of the work.
== See also ==
Media related to Tondo Doni at Wikimedia Commons
List of works by Michelangelo
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Barolsky, Paul (2003). "Michelangelo's Doni Tondo and the Worshipful Beholder". Notes in the History of Art. 22 (3): 8–11. doi:10.1086/sou.22.3.23206720. S2CID 192987028.
Buzzegoli, Ezio (December 1987). "Michelangelo as a Colourist, Revealed in the Conservation of the Doni Tondo". Apollo: 405–408.
d’Ancona, Mirella Levi (1968). "The Doni Madonna by Michelangelo: An Iconographic Study". The Art Bulletin. 50 (1). Taylor & Francis: 43–50. doi:10.2307/3048510. ISBN 978-0-8153-1823-1. JSTOR 3048510.
Hartt, Frederick; David G. Wilkins (2003). History of Italian Renaissance Art: Fifth Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. pp. 506–508.
Hayum, Andrée. "Michelangelo's Doni Tondo: Holy Family and Family Myth". Studies in Iconography. 7/8.1981/82(1982), No. 1: 209–251.
Olson, Roberta J. M. (1993). "Lost and Partially Found: The Tondo, a Significant Florentine Art Form, in Documents of the Renaissance". Artibus et Historiae. 14 (27): 31–65. doi:10.2307/1483444. JSTOR 1483444.
Olsen, Roberta J.M. (2000). "Painted Devotional Tondi: Michelangleo Buonarotti's Doni Tondo". The Florentine Tondo. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 219–226.
Smith, Graham (1975). "A Medici Source for Michelangelo's Doni Tondo". Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte. 38 Bd., H. 1 (1). Taylor & Francis: 84–85. doi:10.2307/1481909. ISBN 978-0-8153-1823-1. JSTOR 1481909.
Zimmer, William (1991). "The Tondo". Art Journal. 50 (1): 60–63. doi:10.2307/777088. JSTOR 777088.
Natali, Antonio (2014), Michelangelo. Inside and outside the Uffizi, Florence: Maschietto Editore, 2014. ISBN 978-88-6394-085-5
Michelangelo Buonarroti, Doni Tondo, ColourLex
E. Buzzegoli, R. Bellucci, Michelangelo’s Doni Tondo investigated with non-invasive analytical techniques, in Studying old master paintings, Technology and Practice, ed. by M. Spring, London 2011 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbie_Robertson | Robbie Robertson | Jaime Royal "Robbie" Robertson (July 5, 1943 – August 9, 2023) was a Canadian musician, composer, and producer. Robertson was the onetime lead guitarist for Bob Dylan's backing band. He was also the guitarist and primary songwriter of The Band from its inception until his 1976 departure. In his later solo career, Robertson released six albums.
Robertson's work with the Band was instrumental in creating the Americana music genre. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and the Canadian Music Hall of Fame as a member of the Band; he was also inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame, both with the Band and on his own. Robertson is ranked 59th in Rolling Stone magazine's 2011 list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time. He wrote "The Weight" and "The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down" with the Band and had a solo hit with "Somewhere Down the Crazy River". He was inducted into the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame and received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the National Academy of Songwriters.
Robertson collaborated on film and television soundtracks, usually with director Martin Scorsese. His soundtrack work began with The Band's farewell rockumentary film The Last Waltz (1978) and included dramatic films such as Raging Bull (1980), The King of Comedy (1983), The Color of Money (1986), The Irishman (2019), and Killers of the Flower Moon (2023), the last of which was dedicated to his memory and garnered him a posthumous nomination for the Academy Award for Best Original Score.
== Early life ==
Jaime Royal "Robbie" Robertson was born on July 5, 1943. His mother, Rosemarie Dolly Chrysler, was born on February 6, 1922. Chrysler was Cayuga and Mohawk, and was raised on the Six Nations of the Grand River reserve southwest of Toronto near Hamilton. Chrysler later lived with an aunt in the Cabbagetown neighbourhood of Toronto and worked at the Coro jewellery plating factory. She met James Patrick Robertson there and married him in 1942.
James and Rosemarie Robertson continued working at the Coro factory, and they lived in several Toronto neighbourhoods while Robbie Robertson was a child. An only child, Robbie Robertson often travelled with his mother to the Six Nations reserve to visit family. Here he was taught guitar, particularly by his older cousin Herb Myke. He became a fan of rock and roll and rhythm and blues through the radio, listening to disc jockey George "Hound Dog" Lorenz play rock on WKBW from Buffalo, New York, and staying up to listen to John R.'s all-night blues show on WLAC, a clear-channel station in Nashville, Tennessee.
When Robertson was 12 years of age, as his mother was in the process of obtaining a divorce from James Robertson, she told him that his biological father was Alexander David Klegerman. Klegerman was a Jewish-American gambler with whom Robertson's mother had been involved before her marriage to James Robertson. Klegerman had died in a hit-and-run accident on the Queen Elizabeth Way before Robbie Robertson was born. Robertson's mother arranged for her son to meet his paternal uncles, Morris (Morrie) and Nathan (Natie) Klegerman. Robertson later stated that his uncles "quickly pulled me into their world and went out of their way to make me feel like family".
== Early career ==
When Robertson was 14, he worked two brief summer jobs in the travelling carnival circuit, first for a few days in a suburb of Toronto, and later as an assistant at a freak show for three weeks during the Canadian National Exhibition. He later drew from this experience for his song "Life is a Carnival" (with the Band) and the movie Carny (1980), which he both produced and starred in.
The first band Robertson joined was Little Caesar and the Consuls, formed in 1956 by pianist/vocalist Bruce Morshead and guitarist Gene MacLellan. He stayed with the group for almost a year, playing popular songs of the day at local teen dances. In 1957, he formed Robbie and the Rhythm Chords with his friend Pete "Thumper" Traynor (who later founded Traynor Amplifiers). They changed their name to Robbie and the Robots after they watched the film Forbidden Planet and took a liking to the film's character Robby the Robot. Traynor customized Robertson's guitar for the Robots, fitting it with antennae and wires to give it a space age look. Traynor and Robertson joined with pianist Scott Cushnie and became The Suedes. At a Suedes show on October 5, 1959, when they played CHUM Radio's Hif Fi Club on Toronto's Merton Street, Ronnie Hawkins first became aware of them and was impressed enough to join them for a few numbers.
=== With Ronnie Hawkins and the Hawks ===
Robertson began shadowing Hawkins after the Suedes opened for the Arkansas-based rockabilly group Ronnie Hawkins and the Hawks at Dixie Arena. One afternoon he overheard Hawkins say he needed some new songs since they were going into the studio to record the next month. Hoping to ingratiate himself, Robertson stayed up all night and wrote two songs, "Someone Like You" and "Hey Boba Lu", and played them for Hawkins the next day. The showman was impressed and recorded both of them for his new album, Mr Dynamo (1959). Hawkins brought Robertson to the Brill Building in New York City to help him choose songs for the rest of the album.
Hawkins hired pianist Scott Cushnie away from the Suedes and took him on tour in Arkansas with the Hawks. When the Hawks' bass player left the group, Cushnie recommended that Hawkins hire Robertson to replace him on bass. Hawkins invited Robertson to Arkansas, and then flew to the UK to perform on television there. Left in Arkansas, Robertson spent his living allowance on records and practised intensively each day. Upon returning, Hawkins hired him to play bass. Cushnie left the band a few months later. Robertson soon switched from bass to playing lead guitar for the Hawks. He developed into a guitar virtuoso.
Roy Buchanan, a few years older than Robertson, was briefly a member of the Hawks and became an important influence on Robertson's guitar style: "Standing next to Buchanan on stage for several months, Robertson was able to absorb Buchanan's deft manipulations with his volume speed dial, his tendency to bend multiple strings for steel guitar-like effect, his rapid sweep picking, and his passion for bending past the root and fifth notes during solo flights."
Drummer/singer Levon Helm was already a member of the Hawks and soon became close friends with Robertson. The Hawks continued to tour the United States and Canada, adding Rick Danko, Richard Manuel, and Garth Hudson to the Hawks lineup in 1961. This lineup, which later became the Band, toured with Hawkins throughout 1962 and into 1963. They also hired the saxophone player Jerry Penfound and later Bruce Bruno, who were both with the group in their intermediary period as Levon and the Hawks.
Ronnie Hawkins and the Hawks cut sessions for Roulette Records throughout 1961–1963, all of which Robertson appeared on. The sessions included three singles: "Come Love" b/w "I Feel Good" (Roulette 4400 1961); "Who Do You Love" b/w "Bo Diddley" (Roulette 4483 1963); and "There's A Screw Loose" b/w "High Blood Pressure" (Roulette 4502 1963).
=== With Levon and the Hawks ===
The Hawks left Ronnie Hawkins at the beginning of 1964 to go on their own. The members of the Hawks were losing interest in playing in the rockabilly style and favoured blues and soul music. In early 1964, the group approached agent Harold Kudlets about representing them, which he agreed to do, booking them a year's worth of shows in the same circuits as they had been in before with Ronnie Hawkins. Originally dubbed The Levon Helm Sextet, the group included all of the future members of the Band as well as Jerry Penfound on saxophone and Bob Bruno on vocals.
After Bruno left the group in May 1964, the group changed their name to Levon and the Hawks. Penfound stayed with the group until 1965. Kudlets kept the group busy performing throughout 1964 and into 1965, finally booking them into two lengthy summer engagements at the popular nightclub Tony Mart's in Somers Point, New Jersey, at the Shore. They played six nights a week alongside Conway Twitty and other acts.
The members of Levon and the Hawks befriended blues artist John P. Hammond while he was performing in Toronto in 1964. Later in the year, the group agreed to work on Hammond's album So Many Roads (released in 1965) at the same time that they were playing the Peppermint Lounge in New York City. Robertson played guitar throughout the album, and was billed "Jaime R. Robertson" in the album's credits.
Levon and the Hawks cut the single "Uh Uh Uh" b/w "Leave Me Alone" under the name the Canadian Squires in March 1965. Both songs were written by Robertson. The single was recorded in New York and released on Apex Records in the United States and on Ware Records in Canada. As Levon and the Hawks, the group cut an afternoon session for Atco Records later in 1965, which yielded two singles, "The Stones I Throw" b/w "He Don't Love You" (Atco 6383) and "Go, Go, Liza Jane" b/w "He Don't Love You" (Atco 6625). Robertson also wrote all three of the tracks on Levon and the Hawks' Atco singles.
=== With Bob Dylan and the Hawks ===
==== 1965–1966 World Tour ====
Toward the end of Levon and the Hawks' second engagement at Tony Mart's in New Jersey, in August 1965, Robertson received a call from Albert Grossman Management requesting a meeting with singer Bob Dylan. The group had been recommended to both Grossman and to Dylan by Mary Martin, one of Grossman's employees; she was originally from Toronto and was a friend of the band. Dylan was also aware of the group through his friend John Hammond, whose album So Many Roads members of the Hawks had performed on.
Robertson agreed to meet with Dylan. Initially, Dylan intended simply to hire Robertson as the guitarist for his backing group. Robertson refused the offer, but did agree to play two shows with Dylan, one at the Forest Hills Tennis Stadium in Forest Hills, New York, on August 28, and one at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles on September 3. Robertson suggested they use Levon Helm on drums for the shows.
Robertson and Helm performed in Dylan's backing band, along with Harvey Brooks and Al Kooper for both shows. The first at Forest Hills received a predominantly hostile response, but the second in Los Angeles was received slightly more favourably. Dylan flew up to Toronto and rehearsed with Levon and the Hawks September 15–17, as Levon and the Hawks finished an engagement there, and hired the full band for his upcoming tour. Robertson thus became Dylan's guitarist as Dylan entered his "legendary electric period".
Dylan and the Hawks toured the United States throughout October–December 1965, with each show consisting of two sets: an acoustic show featuring only Dylan on guitar and harmonica, and an electric set featuring Dylan backed by the Hawks. The tours were largely met with a hostile reaction from fans who knew Dylan as a prominent figure in the American folk music revival, and thought his move into rock music a betrayal. Helm left the group after their November 28 performance in Washington, D.C.
On November 30, 1965, Dylan cut a studio session with members of the Hawks, which yielded the non-LP single "Can You Please Crawl Out Your Window?" Dylan completed the Blonde on Blonde album in Nashville in mid-February 1966, employing Robertson for one of these sessions, which took place on February 14.
Dylan and the Hawks played more dates in the continental United States from February to March 1966 of Bob Dylan's 1966 World Tour. From April 9–May 27, they played Hawaii, Australia, Europe, and the UK and Ireland. The Australian and European legs of the tour received a particularly harsh response from disgruntled folk fans. The May 17 Manchester Free Trade Hall show is best known for an angry audience member audibly yelling "Judas!" at Dylan; it became a frequently-bootlegged live show from the tour, but was eventually released officially as The Bootleg Series Vol. 4: Bob Dylan Live 1966, The "Royal Albert Hall" Concert.
==== "Basement Tapes" period ====
On July 29, 1966, Dylan sustained an injured neck from a motorcycle accident, and retreated to a quiet domestic life with his new wife and child in upstate New York. Some of the members of the Hawks were living at the Chelsea Hotel in New York City at the time, and were kept on a weekly retainer by Dylan's management.
In February 1967, Dylan invited the members of the Hawks to come up to Woodstock, New York to work on music. Robertson had met a French-Canadian woman on the Paris stop of Dylan's 1966 world tour, and the two moved into a house in the Woodstock area. The remaining three members of the Hawks rented a house near West Saugerties, New York; it was later dubbed "Big Pink" because of its pink exterior.
Dylan and the members of the Hawks worked together at the Big Pink house every day to rehearse and generate ideas for new songs, many of which they recorded in Big Pink's makeshift basement studio. The recordings were made between the late spring and autumn of 1967. Previous Hawks member Levon Helm returned to the group in August 1967. By this time, Robertson's guitar style had evolved to be more supportive of the songs and less devoted to displaying speed and virtuosity.
In time, word about these sessions began to circulate, and in 1968, Rolling Stone magazine co-founder Jann Wenner brought attention to these tracks in an article entitled "Dylan's Basement Tape Should Be Released".
In 1969, a bootleg album with a plain white cover compiled by two incognito music industry insiders featured a collection of seven tracks from these sessions. The album, which became known as The Great White Wonder, began to appear in independent record stores and receive radio airplay. This album became a runaway success and helped to launch the bootleg recording industry.
In 1975, Robertson produced an official compilation, The Basement Tapes, which included a selection of tracks from the sessions. An exhaustive collection of all 138 extant recordings was released in 2014 as The Bootleg Series Vol. 11: The Basement Tapes Complete.
== The Band ==
=== 1967–1968: Music from Big Pink ===
In late 1967, Dylan left to record his next album, John Wesley Harding (1967). After recording the basic tracks, Dylan asked Robertson and Garth Hudson about playing on the album to fill out the sound. Robertson liked the starkness of the sound and recommended Dylan leave the tracks as they were. Dylan worked with the Hawks again when they were his backup band for two Woody Guthrie memorial concerts at Carnegie Hall in New York City in January 1968. Three of these performances were later released by Columbia Records on the LP A Tribute to Woody Guthrie, Vol. 1 (1972).
Over the course of the "Basement Tapes" period, the group had developed a sound of their own. Grossman went to Los Angeles to shop the group to a major label, securing a contract with Capitol Records. The group went to New York to begin recording songs with music producer John Simon. Capitol brought the group to Los Angeles to finish the album. The resulting album, Music from Big Pink, was released in August 1968. The group called itself The Band, and Music from Big Pink was its debut studio album.
Robertson was the principal songwriter and lead guitarist of the Band. He wrote four of the songs on Music From Big Pink, including "The Weight", "Chest Fever", "Caledonia Mission", and "To Kingdom Come". He is listed in the songwriting credits as "J.R. Robertson". He sang lead vocals on the track "To Kingdom Come"; he did not sing on another Band song released to the public until "Knockin' Lost John" on 1977's Islands. Two of Robertson's compositions for the album, "The Weight" and "Chest Fever", became important touchstones in the group's career. "The Weight" was influenced by the films of director Luis Buñuel, in particular Nazarín (1959) and Viridiana (1961), and reflects the recurring theme in Buñuel's films about the impossibility of sainthood. The song portrays an individual who attempts to take a saintly pilgrimage and becomes mired in requests from other people to do favors for them along the way. The mention of "Nazareth" at the beginning of the song refers to Nazareth, Pennsylvania, where the C. F. Martin & Company guitar manufacturer is located; it was inspired by Robertson seeing the word "Nazareth" in the hole of his Martin guitar.
Although "The Weight" reached No. 21 on the British radio charts, it did not fare as well on the American charts, initially stalling at No. 63. Nevertheless, "The Weight" has since become the Band's best known song. It has been covered by many artists, appeared in dozens of films and documentaries, and has become a staple of American rock music.
=== 1969–1973: Expansion and acclaim ===
The Band began performing regularly in spring 1969, with their first live dates as the Band taking place at the Winterland Ballroom in San Francisco. Their most notable performances that year were at the 1969 Woodstock Festival and the UK Isle of Wight Festival with Bob Dylan in August.
The Band's self-titled second album was released in September 1969. It became a critical and commercial success. The album received almost universal critical praise, peaked at No. 9 on the U.S. pop charts, and stayed on the Top 40 for 24 weeks. Robertson wrote or co-wrote each song on the album. The Band works as a loose concept album of Americana themes, and was instrumental in the creation of the Americana music genre. It was included in the Library of Congress' National Recording Registry in 2009.
The song from The Band that had the strongest cultural influence was "The Night They Drove Old Dixie Down". The song was written by Robertson, who spent about eight months working on it. The lyrics tell of the last days of the American Civil War, portraying the suffering of the protagonist, Virgil Caine, a poor white Southerner. Robertson said he had the music to the song in his head and would play the chords over and over on the piano but had no idea what the song was to be about. Later, the concept came to him and he researched the subject with help from Helm, a native of Arkansas. Although the Band's original version of the song was only released as the B side of the single "Up on Cripple Creek", a cover version by Joan Baez went to No. 3 on the charts in 1971 and helped to popularize the song. The song was number 245 on Rolling Stone magazine's 2004 list of the 500 greatest songs of all time. Pitchfork Media named it the forty-second best song of the 1960s. The song is included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's "500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll" and Time magazine's All-Time 100.
On November 2, 1969, the Band appeared on the Ed Sullivan Show, one of only two television appearances they made. On January 12, 1970, the Band was featured on the cover of Time magazine. The Band rented The Woodstock Playhouse in Woodstock, New York with the intent of recording a new live album there, but the city council voted against it, so they recorded on location, but without an audience. Robertson handled most of the songwriting duties as before. Robertson brought in Todd Rundgren to engineer the album which was recorded in two weeks' time. These sessions resulted in the Band's third album, Stage Fright. Stage Fright became the Band's highest-charting album, peaking at No. 5 on September 5 and staying on the Billboard Top 40 for 14 weeks.
The Band's next album, Cahoots, was recorded at Albert Grossman's newly built Bearsville Studios and was released in October 1971. The album received mixed reviews and peaked at No. 24 on the Billboard charts, only remaining on the Billboard Top 40 for five weeks. Cahoots is notable for its cover of Bob Dylan's "When I Paint My Masterpiece", as well as for featuring the concert favourite "Life Is a Carnival". The inclusion of "When I Paint My Masterpiece" came about when Dylan stopped by Robertson's home during the recording of Cahoots and Robertson asked if he might have any songs to contribute. That led to Dylan playing an unfinished version of "When I Paint My Masterpiece" for him. Dylan soon completed the song and the Band recorded it for the album.
The Band continued to tour throughout 1970–1971. A live album recorded at a series of shows at the Academy of Music in New York City between December 28–31, 1971 was released in 1972 as the double album Rock Of Ages. Rock of Ages peaked at No. 6, and remained in the Top 40 for 14 weeks.
After the Academy of Music shows, the Band again retreated from performing live. They returned to the stage on July 28, 1973, to play the Summer Jam at Watkins Glen alongside the Allman Brothers Band and the Grateful Dead. A recording of the Band's performance was released by Capitol Records as the album Live at Watkins Glen in 1995. With over 600,000 people in attendance, the festival set a record for "Pop Festival Attendance" in the Guinness Book of World Records. The record was first published in the 1976 edition of the book.
In October 1973, the Band released an album of cover songs entitled Moondog Matinee, which peaked at No. 28 on the Billboard charts. Around the time of the recording of Moondog Matinee, Robertson began working on an ambitious project entitled Works that was never finished or released. One lyric from the Works project, "Lay a flower in the snow", was used in Robertson's song "Fallen Angel", which appeared on his 1987 self-titled solo album.
=== 1974: Reunion with Bob Dylan ===
Bill Graham took out a full-page advertisement in The New York Times to spread the word that Bob Dylan and the Band were going on tour in 1974. The response was one of the largest in entertainment history up to that point, with between five and six million requests for tickets mailed in for 650,000 seats. Graham's office ended up selling tickets off on a lottery basis, and Dylan and the Band netted $2 million from the deal.
While preparing for the tour, the Band went into the studio with Dylan to record a new album for Asylum Records, Planet Waves (1974). Sessions took place at Village Recorder in West Los Angeles, California, from November 2–14, 1973. Planet Waves was released on February 9, 1974. The album was No. 1 on the Billboard album charts for four weeks, and spent 12 weeks total in the Billboard Top 40. Planet Waves was Bob Dylan's first No. 1 album; it was also the first and only studio album that Dylan and the Band recorded together.
The 1974 tour began at the Chicago Stadium on January 3, 1974 and ended at The Forum in Inglewood, California on February 14. The final three shows of the tour at The Forum in Inglewood, California were recorded and assembled into the double album Before the Flood. Credited to "Bob Dylan/The Band", Before the Flood was released by Asylum Records on July 20, 1974. The album debuted at No. 3 on the Billboard charts, and spent ten weeks in the Top Forty.
=== 1974–1975: Shangri-La Studios ===
Following the 1974 reunion tour with Bob Dylan, rock manager Elliot Roberts booked the Band with the recently reunited Crosby, Stills, Nash, and Young. On September 4, both artists played Wembley Stadium in London, appearing with Jesse Colin Young and Joni Mitchell.
After moving to Malibu in 1973, Robertson and the Band had discovered a ranch in Malibu near Zuma Beach called "Shangri-La" and decided to lease the property. The album release of The Basement Tapes (1975), credited to Bob Dylan and the Band, was the first album production that took place in the new studio at Shangri-La. The album, produced by Robertson, featured a selection of tapes from the original 1967 Basement Tapes sessions with Dylan, as well as demos for tracks eventually recorded for the Music From Big Pink album. Robertson cleaned up the tracks, and the album was released in July 1975.
One of the best-known tracks on the Band's next album, Northern Lights – Southern Cross (1975), is "Acadian Driftwood", the Band's first song with specifically Canadian subject matter. Robertson was inspired to write "Acadian Driftwood" after seeing the 1971 documentary Acadia, Acadia (L'Acadie, L'Acadie?!?) on Canadian television while in Montreal. Northern Lights – Southern Cross was released on November 1, 1975. The album received generally positive reviews, and reached No. 26 on the Billboard charts, remaining on the Top 40 for five weeks.
=== 1976–1978: The Last Waltz ===
The Band began touring again in June 1976, performing throughout the summer. The members of the Band were splintering off to work on other projects, with Levon Helm building a studio in Woodstock and Rick Danko having been contracted to Arista Records as a solo artist. While on the summer tour, member Richard Manuel severely injured his neck in a boating accident, so ten dates were cancelled.
During this time, Robertson suggested the Band cease to tour. He said they agreed to perform a "grand finale" show, part ways to work on their various projects, and then regroup. Helm later made the case in his autobiography, This Wheel's on Fire, that Robertson had forced the Band's breakup on the rest of the group. For his part, Robertson later stated that concerns about heroin use by Danko, Helm, and Manuel led him to take control of the Band and led to his departure from the Band.
Concert promoter Bill Graham booked the Band at the Winterland Ballroom on American Thanksgiving, November 25, 1976. The Last Waltz was a gala event, with ticket prices of $25 per person. It included a Thanksgiving dinner served to the audience, and featured the Band performing with various musical guests.
Robertson wanted to document the event on film and approached director Martin Scorsese to see if he was interested in shooting the concert. Robertson and Scorsese developed a 200-page script for the show.
Rehearsals for The Last Waltz concert began in early November. Warner Bros. Records president Mo Ostin offered to fund its filming in exchange for the right to release its music on an album. The Band were contractually obligated to supply Capitol Records with one more album before they could be released to work with Warner Bros. In between rehearsals for The Last Waltz, they worked on the studio album Islands for Capitol. Robertson wrote or co-wrote eight of the ten tracks. One of the songs, "Knockin' Lost John", features Robertson on vocals; it was the first Band song Robertson had sung on since "To Kingdom Come" from Music From Big Pink. "Christmas Must Be Tonight" was inspired by the birth of Robertson's son, Sebastian, in July 1974.
Approximately 5,000 people attended The Last Waltz. After the concert event was finished, Scorsese had 400 reels of raw footage to work with. The Last Waltz album was released by Warner Brothers Records on April 7, 1978, as a 3-LP set. The first five sides feature live performances from the concert, and the last side contains studio recordings from the MGM sound stage sessions, including Out of the Blue, which would be released as a single and which is the third and last Band song on which Robertson sang lead. The album peaked at No. 16 on the Billboard charts, and remained in the Top 40 for 8 weeks.
The Last Waltz was released to movie theatres on April 26, 1978. The film fared well with both rock and film critics. Robertson and Scorsese made appearances throughout America and Europe to promote the film.Over time, The Last Waltz has become lauded by many as an important and pioneering rockumentary. Its influence has been felt on subsequent rock music films such as Talking Heads' Stop Making Sense (1984), and U2's Rattle and Hum (1988).
In his mixed review, Roger Ebert wrote, "In The Last Waltz, we have musicians who seem to have bad memories. Who are hanging on. Scorsese's direction is mostly limited to closeups and medium shots of performances; he ignores the audience. The movie was made at the end of a difficult period in his own life, and at a particularly hard time (the filming coincided with his work on New York, New York). This is not a record of serene men, filled with nostalgia, happy to be among friends."
Robertson left the band in 1976, but performed with them one final time on March 1, 1978 at the Roxy in Los Angeles.
=== Copyright controversy ===
Robertson is credited as writer or co-writer of the majority of The Band's songs and, as a result, has received most of the songwriting royalties generated from the music. That developed into a point of contention, especially for Helm. In his 1993 autobiography, This Wheel's on Fire: Levon Helm and the Story of The Band, Helm disputed the validity of the songwriting credits as listed on the albums and explained that The Band's songs were developed in collaboration with all members. Danko concurred with Helm: "I think Levon's book hits the nail on the head about where Robbie and Albert Grossman and some of those people went wrong and when The Band stopped being The Band... I'm truly friends with everybody but, hey—it could happen to Levon, too. When people take themselves too seriously and believe too much in their own bullshit, they usually get in trouble." Robertson denied that Helm had written any of the songs attributed to Robertson.
== Session work and production work ==
Robertson produced Jesse Winchester's debut self-titled album, which was released in 1970 on Ampex Records. The album features Robertson playing guitar throughout the album, and co-credits the track "Snow" to Robertson as well.
Robertson played guitar on ex-Beatle Ringo Starr's third solo album, Ringo (1973), performing with four-fifths of the Band on the track "Sunshine Life For Me (Sail Away Raymond)". Robertson contributed a guitar solo on the track "Snookeroo" on Starr's fourth album, Goodnight Vienna (1974).
Robertson played guitar for Joni Mitchell on the track "Raised on Robbery", which was released on her album Court and Spark. In 1974, Robertson also played guitar on Carly Simon's version of "Mockingbird", which featured Simon singing with her then-husband James Taylor.
In 1975, Robertson produced and played guitar on singer/guitarist Hirth Martinez's debut album Hirth From Earth. Bob Dylan had heard Martinez, and recommended him to Robertson. Robertson identified strongly with Martinez' music, helped him to secure a recording contract with Warner Bros. Records, and agreed to produce Martinez' debut album. He also played guitar on Martinez' follow-up album, Big Bright Street (1977).
In 1975, Eric Clapton recorded the album No Reason to Cry at the Band's Shangri-La Studios with help from members of the Band. Robertson played lead guitar on the track "Sign Language".
In the mid-1970s, Robertson connected with singer Neil Diamond, and the two began collaborating on a concept album about the life and struggles of a Tin Pan Alley songwriter. The resulting album, entitled Beautiful Noise, was recorded at Shangri-La Studios in early 1976. It reached No. 6 on the Billboard charts and remained in the Top 40 for sixteen weeks. Robertson produced the album, co-wrote the track "Dry Your Eyes" with Diamond (which he would go on to perform at The Last Waltz), and played guitar on "Dry Your Eyes", "Lady-Oh", and "Jungletime". He produced Diamond's live double album Love at the Greek (1977), which was recorded in 1976 at the Greek Theatre in Los Angeles. Love at the Greek reached No. 8 on the Billboard charts and remained in the Top 40 for nine weeks.
In 1977, Robertson contributed to two album projects from the Band alumni. Robertson played guitar on "Java Blues" on Rick Danko's self-titled debut album, and also played guitar on the Earl King-penned "Sing, Sing, Sing" on the album Levon Helm & the RCO All-Stars.
Also in 1977, Robertson contributed to the second self-titled album by singer-songwriter Libby Titus, who was the former girlfriend of Levon Helm. Robertson produced the track "The Night You Took Me To Barbados In My Dreams" (co-written by Titus and Hirth Martinez), and produced and played guitar on the Cole Porter standard "Miss Otis Regrets".
Robertson co-produced the track "The Best of Everything", which was originally intended for the film The King of Comedy but instead was included on the Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers album Southern Accents. Robertson also worked on the horn arrangements for the track, and brought in Band alumni Richard Manuel and Garth Hudson as guests.
In 1986, Robertson appeared as a guest on the album Reconciled by the Call, playing guitar on the track "The Morning".
Also in 1986, Robertson was brought on as creative consultant for Hail! Hail! Rock 'n' Roll (1987), a feature film saluting Chuck Berry. Robertson appears on camera, interviewing Chuck Berry, and then playing guitar while Berry recites poetry.
In 1988, Robertson collaborated as a songwriter with Lone Justice lead singer Maria McKee. One of the songs they co-wrote, "Nobody's Child", was released on McKee's self-titled debut album in 1989.
In 1992, Robertson produced the song "Love in Time" for Roy Orbison's posthumous album King of Hearts. "Love In Time" was a basic demo Orbison had recorded that was believed to be lost, but had just recently been rediscovered. Robertson set about augmenting Orbison's basic vocal track with new arrangements and instrumentation, with the intent of making it sound like the arrangements were there from the beginning instead of later additions.
== Solo career ==
=== Robbie Robertson (1987) ===
Robertson began work on his first solo album, Robbie Robertson, in July 1986 after signing with Geffen Records. Robertson chose fellow Canadian Daniel Lanois to produce the album. The album was recorded at The Village Recorder in West Los Angeles, California; at Bearsville Studios near Woodstock, New York; in Dublin, Ireland, with U2; and in Bath, England, with Peter Gabriel. Robertson employed a number of guest artists on the album, including U2, Gabriel, Bodeans, and Maria McKee. Garth Hudson and Rick Danko also made appearances on the album. Robertson wrote one track, "Fallen Angel", in honor of Richard Manuel after his death in March 1986. Released on October 26, 1987, Robbie Robertson peaked at No. 35 on the Billboard 200, remaining in the top 40 for three weeks. The album charted even higher in the UK, peaking at No. 23 on the UK Albums Chart and remaining on the chart for 14 weeks. Robbie Robertson received overwhelming critical acclaim at the time of its release, being listed as one of the top 10 albums of the year by several critics in Billboard's 1987 "The Critics' Choice" feature. The album was also listed as No. 77 on Rolling Stone's 1989 list of the 100 Best Albums of the Eighties.
Robertson had his single largest hit in the UK with "Somewhere Down the Crazy River", which features spoken word verses contrasted with singing in the choruses. The song reached No. 15 in the UK Hit Singles chart and remained in the chart for 11 weeks. The video for "Somewhere Down The Crazy River" was directed by Martin Scorsese, and features Maria McKee in an acting role. In the U.S., Robbie Robertson produced several hits on the Billboard Mainstream Rock charts, with "Showdown At Big Sky" coming in the highest (#2) and "Sweet Fire Of Love" the second highest (#7). The album was nominated for a Grammy Award for "Best Rock / Vocal Album" and was certified gold in the United States in 1991. In Canada, Robertson won Album of the Year, Best Male Vocalist of the Year, and Producer of the Year at the Juno Award ceremony in 1989. In 1991, Rod Stewart recorded a version of "Broken Arrow" for his album Vagabond Heart. Stewart's version of the song reached No. 20 on the Billboard 100 chart in the United States and No. 2 on the Billboard Top Canadian Hit Singles chart in Canada. "Broken Arrow" was also performed live by the Grateful Dead with Phil Lesh on vocals.
=== Storyville (1991) ===
Storyville was released on September 30, 1991. Robertson headed to New Orleans to collaborate with some of the city's natives like Aaron and Ivan Neville and the Rebirth Brass Band. Once again, Robertson brought in Band alumni Garth Hudson and Rick Danko as contributors. The album reached No. 69 on the Billboard 200 chart. Storyville received numerous positive reviews, with Rolling Stone giving it 4 1/2 stars out of 5, and the Los Angeles Times awarding it 3 stars out of 4. Two tracks from the album, "What About Now" and "Go Back To Your Woods", charted on the Billboard Mainstream Rock charts at No. 15 and No. 32 respectively. The album was nominated for Grammy Awards in the categories "Best Rock Vocal Performance (solo)" and "Best Engineer".
=== Music for the Native Americans (1994) ===
In 1994, Robertson returned to his roots. Forming a First Nations group called the Red Road Ensemble, Robertson recorded Music for the Native Americans, a collection of songs that accompanied a television documentary series produced by TBS. The Battle of Wounded Knee and the near-extinction of the bison are outlined in the song "Ghost Dance".
=== Contact from the Underworld of Redboy (1998) ===
On Contact from the Underworld of Redboy, Robertson departed from his typical production style and delved deep into a mix of rock, native, and electronic music. He employed the services of Howie B, DJ Premier, and producer Marius de Vries (Björk, Massive Attack). Through the songs on the album, he took a close look at native traditions like Peyote healing. Rolling Stone gave the album 4 out of 5 stars, and Robertson received a Juno Award for Best Music of Aboriginal Canada Recording.
=== How to Become Clairvoyant (2011) ===
Released on April 5, 2011, How to Become Clairvoyant was Robertson's fifth solo release. It arose from impromptu demo sessions in Los Angeles with Eric Clapton. Robertson performed "Straight Down The Line" with Robert Randolph and the Roots on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. How to Become Clairvoyant was also released as a deluxe edition containing five bonus tracks (four demos and the exclusive track "Houdini", named after the magician Harry Houdini). It debuted at No. 13 on the Billboard 200, marking the highest debut and highest chart position for his solo work. He teamed with painter and photographer Richard Prince to produce a limited collector's edition. The 2,500 LP-sized boxes came with an art book, a numbered set of five lithographs (including pieces by Prince and photographer Anton Corbijn), a set of original tarot cards, the original tracks, and ten bonuses.
=== Sinematic (2019) ===
Released on September 20, 2019, Sinematic was Robertson's sixth solo album. It features Van Morrison joining Robertson as dueling hitmen on the track "I Hear You Paint Houses", as well as other allusions to the world of Scorsese's films. Citizen Cope, Derek Trucks, and Frédéric Yonnet made guest appearances on the album.
== Film music career ==
Robertson assisted Martin Scorsese on the music for the film Raging Bull (1980). Robertson and Scorsese would go on to have a long working relationship, with Robertson finding or creating music to underscore Scorsese's films. Raging Bull was the first such collaboration, and Robertson credited his work on it for sparking his interest in sourcing and underscoring film music. Robertson supplied three newly recorded instrumental jazz tracks for sourced music, which he also produced. These three tracks feature Robertson playing guitar, along with performances from the Band alumni Garth Hudson and Richard Manuel. One of the tracks, "Webster Hall", is co-written by Robertson and Garth Hudson. Robertson also worked with Scorsese on selecting the film's opening theme music, choosing the intermezzo from Cavalleria Rusticana by Italian opera composer Pietro Mascagni. The soundtrack was finally released by Capitol Records in 2005 as a 37 track, 2-CD set.
Robertson worked with Scorsese again on his next film, The King of Comedy (1983), and is credited in the film's opening credits for "Music Production". Robertson contributed one original song, "Between Trains", to the film's soundtrack. The song was written in tribute to "Cowboy" Dan Johnson, an assistant of Scorsese's who had recently died.
In June 1986, Robertson began working with Scorsese on his next film, The Color of Money. In addition to sourcing music for the film, Robertson also composed the film's score; it was the first time Robertson had ever written a dramatic underscore for a film. Robertson brought in Canadian jazz composer Gil Evans to orchestrate the arrangements. The best-known song on The Color of Money soundtrack is Eric Clapton's "It's in the Way That You Use It", which was co-written by Robertson. "It's in the Way That You Use It" reached No. 1 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Songs chart in January 1987. Robertson produced a song for the film with blues player Willie Dixon entitled "Don't Tell Me Nothin'"; Dixon's track was co-written with Robertson.
In 1999, Robertson contributed songs to Oliver Stone's film, Any Given Sunday.
Robertson scored Scorsese's 2019 film, The Irishman, and consulted with music supervisor Randall Poster on the entire soundtrack.
He scored Scorsese's Killers of the Flower Moon shortly before his death. The film is dedicated to Robertson. He received a posthumous Academy Award nomination for his work on the film.
== Other work ==
=== Film appearances ===
After the release of The Last Waltz, MGM/UA, who released the film, viewed Robertson as a potential film actor, and provided Robertson with an office on the MGM lot. During this time, Martin Scorsese's agent, Harry Ulfand, contacted Robertson about the idea of producing a dramatic film about traveling carnivals, which Robertson was drawn to because of his childhood experiences working in carnivals. The screenplay for the film Carny was directed by documentary filmmaker Robert Kaylor.
Although Robertson was initially only intended to be the producer of Carny, he ended up becoming the third lead actor in the film, playing the role of Patch, the patch man. Gary Busey played "Frankie", the carnival bozo and Patch's best friend. Jodie Foster was selected to play the role of Donna, a small town girl who runs away to join the carnival and threatens to come between the two friends. The film cast real life carnies alongside professional film actors, which created a difficult atmosphere on set. Carny opened to theaters on June 13, 1980. Also in 1980, Warner Bros released a soundtrack album for Carny, which is co-credited to Robertson and composer Alex North, who wrote the orchestral score for the film. The soundtrack was re-released on compact disc by Real Gone Music in 2015.
In November 2024, Robertson posthumously appeared in the documentary Return of the King: The Fall and Rise of Elvis Presley.
In October 2025, Robertson would posthumously appear in the documentary series Mr. Scorsese.
=== Writing ===
Robertson co-authored Legends, Icons and Rebels: Music That Changed the World with his son, Sebastian Robertson, and colleagues Jim Guerinot and Jared Levine. He also wrote Hiawatha and the Peacemaker, illustrated by David Shannon. His autobiography, Testimony, written over the course of five years, was published by Crown Archetype in November 2016.
In April 2025, Penguin Random House Canada publishers announced that a second volume of Robertson's memoirs, focused on his working relationship with Martin Scorsese, would be published in November 2025.
== Personal life ==
On March 24, 1968, Robertson married Dominique Bourgeois, a Canadian journalist. They had two daughters and a son named Sebastian. The marriage ended in divorce.
Robertson married his girlfriend of four years, Canadian entrepreneur, restaurateur, and Top Chef Canada judge Janet Zuccarini, on March 12, 2023. Their marriage occurred only five months before his death.
Robertson was also involved in social causes and was a member of the Canadian charity Artists Against Racism, using his platform to support anti-racism initiatives and public awareness campaigns.
=== Death and tributes ===
Robertson died at a Los Angeles hospital on August 9, 2023, at the age of 80, after a year-long battle with prostate cancer. His longtime manager, Jared Levine, stated that Robertson was surrounded by his family at the time of his death. In lieu of flowers, Levine requested that donations be made to the Six Nations of the Grand River, honoring Robertson’s heritage and lifelong connection to the community.
In November 2023, director Martin Scorsese held a tribute concert for Robertson in Los Angeles. Notable guests in attendance were Joni Mitchell, Leonardo DiCaprio, and Lily Gladstone.
In October 2024, another tribute concert with Scorsese's involvement was held at the Kia Forum.
==== Aftermath ====
In May 2024, Robertson's three adult children filed a lawsuit against his wife, Janet Zuccarini, alleging elder abuse and undue influence. The suit claimed that during a period of significant health decline, Zuccarini took advantage of Robertson's weakened condition to have him sign legal documents that would financially benefit her in the event of his death, without the full awareness or involvement of his children.
== Credits ==
=== Discography ===
Robbie Robertson (1987)
Storyville (1991)
Music for the Native Americans (soundtrack) (1994)
Contact from the Underworld of Redboy (1998)
How to Become Clairvoyant (2011)
Sinematic (2019)
=== Filmography ===
== Honours and awards ==
The Band (including Robertson) was inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame in 1989 and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1994. In 1997, Robertson received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the National Academy of Songwriters. In 2003, Robertson received the Indspire Aboriginal Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2003, Robertson was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame.
In 2005, Robertson received an honorary doctorate from York University. In 2006, he received the Governor General's Performing Arts Award for Lifetime Artistic Achievement, Canada's highest honour in the performing arts. In 2008, Robertson and the Band received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2011, Robertson was inducted into the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame. On May 27, 2011, Robertson was made an Officer of the Order of Canada by Governor General David Johnston. In 2014, the Band was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame.
On October 14, 2017, Robertson received the first Lifetime Achievement Award from the community of Six Nations. In 2019, Robertson was given a key to the city of Toronto by Mayor John Tory during a TIFF press conference for Once Were Brothers: Robbie Robertson and The Band, a documentary about Robertson. In 2019, Robertson was the recipient of the Lifetime Achievement Award in the Canadian Music Industry Hall of Fame from Canadian Music Week (CMW).
Robertson is ranked 59th in Rolling Stone magazine's 2011 list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Robbie Robertson at IMDb
Robbie Robertson discography at Discogs
Robbie Robertson article at The Canadian Encyclopedia
Robbie Robertson Interview at NAMM Oral History Collection (2017) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limpho_Hani#:~:text=Limpho%20Hani%20(n%C3%A9e%20Sekamane%3B%20born,anti%2Dapartheid%20activist%20Chris%20Hani. | Limpho Hani | Limpho Hani (née Sekamane; born 31 January 1948) is a Mosotho–South African activist who is the widow of anti-apartheid activist Chris Hani. After her husband was assassinated in 1993, she had her own brief political career in the post-apartheid government, representing the African National Congress (ANC) in the National Assembly from May 1994 to August 1999. She also served on the ANC's National Executive Committee during that period. She has since remained in the public eye, partly because of the national symbolic importance of her husband's murder and partly because of her own activism in seeking to oppose parole for the killers.
== Early life ==
She was born Limpho Sekamane on 31 January 1948 and is from Sea Point in Maseru, the capital of Lesotho.
== Life with Chris Hani: 1973–1993 ==
She married Chris Hani in 1974 at a magistrate's court in Lusaka, Zambia; they had a celebratory wedding lunch at Wimpy. After her wedding, Hani spent time studying overseas in Yugoslavia, but upon her return to Southern Africa in late 1975, she and her husband moved into a house in Lithabaneng in the suburbs of Maseru; the house came to be known to ANC members as "Moscow House". The couple had three daughters together: Neo (born 1973), Nomakhwezi (born 1978, died 2001), and Lindiwe (born 1981).
Hani's husband was a senior leader in Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), the armed wing of the African National Congress (ANC), and the South African Communist Party (SACP); the organisations were at that time operating in exile in Southern Africa – primarily out of Lusaka – because they were banned by the apartheid government in South Africa. Hani herself worked for the Lesotho Tourism Board, but she also became increasingly involved in MK operations; after the 1976 Soweto Uprising swelled the ANC's numbers, she was personally involved in smuggling new MK recruits across the South African border and through Swaziland. She was detained by the South African authorities for several months in 1977–1978 and during that time, according to her husband's biographer Hugh Macmillan, she gave evidence for the apartheid state against Mountain Qumbela, a former ANC leader in the Cape.
Hani's husband was subject to an assassination attempt in 1982, and in the aftermath she left her job at the Lesotho Tourism Board to move with him to Lusaka. She returned to Maseru in 1984 and took up employment with the local office of the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency and then, from 1985, at the Swedish Embassy in Maseru. Hani and her family moved to South Africa in 1990 after the ANC was unbanned during the negotiations to end apartheid. During an advanced stage of the negotiations, on 10 April 1993, Chris Hani was assassinated outside their home in Dawn Park in Boksburg; his teenage daughter Nomakhwezi was with him.
== Political career: 1994–1999 ==
In South Africa's first post-apartheid elections in April 1994, Hani was elected to represent the ANC as a Member of the National Assembly, the lower house of the new South African Parliament. She was re-elected in the next general election in June 1999, but she resigned from her seat on 17 August 1999; her seat was filled by Kay Moonsamy. At the same time, she served on the National Executive Committee of the ANC: she was first elected onto the body at the ANC's 49th National Conference in Bloemfontein in December 1994 and she was re-elected in December 1997, but she resigned during her second term "due to other commitments".
== TRC and widowhood ==
In the immediate and long-term aftermath of her husband's murder, Hani did not abide sentiments of forgiveness towards the killers, leading Sisonke Msimang to describe "her public refusal to forgive" as "almost heretical" given the conciliatory nation-building narrative exemplified by Nelson Mandela, South Africa's first post-apartheid president. During the post-apartheid Truth and Reconciliation Commission, two right-wing extremists, assassin Janusz Waluś and accomplice Clive Derby-Lewis, expressed regret to the family and applied for amnesty for their role in the murder, but Hani and her family – represented by George Bizos – vociferously, and successfully, opposed amnesty.
When a court approved medical parole for Derby-Lewis in 2014, Hani expressed outrage, saying that it was "a very sad day in South Africa". In 2022, Waluś was also granted parole, but only after a sustained campaign by Hani and the SACP to block it. Explaining her decision to continue opposing Waluś's parole, Hani told the media:This chap, whatever his name is, he murdered my husband in cold blood which resulted in my late daughter [Nomakhwezi] attempting to commit suicide twice... this child was going for counseling for six years and then died. In my view, he killed my husband and my daughter... this chap, I won't say his name, 20 years later he says he is sorry. He doesn't say it to me... I will never forgive. He took my husband's life [and] he took my children father... why should I forgive him?... I will never forgive him. All I am asking for is justice nothing more, nothing less.The case was ultimately arbitrated by the Constitutional Court, which ruled in November 2022 that the Minister of Justice and Correctional Services had been irrational in denying parole to Waluś, who had been eligible for release for more than 15 years. In a widely publicised outburst, Hani stormed out of the court after the verdict and told reporters that the judgement was "diabolical" and that the court and Chief Justice Raymond Zondo had "failed this country completely". She said, "This country is finished. In this country, a foreign white [Polish Waluś] can come into South Africa and kill my husband". She also expressed sympathy with the views of Minister Lindiwe Sisulu, who had recently received public attention for attacks on the judiciary and who Hani said was "the only one in this country who saw through these guys". A subsequent application by Hani and the SACP for rescission of the court's order was unanimously dismissed.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rewind_(Johnny_Rivers_album)#Side_two | Rewind (Johnny Rivers album) | Rewind is the fourth studio album by the American musician Johnny Rivers, released in 1967 by Imperial Records. The album includes cover versions of "Baby, I Need Your Lovin'" and "The Tracks of My Tears". Produced by Lou Adler with arrangements by Jimmy Webb, who wrote seven of the songs. Noted Los Angeles session musicians the Wrecking Crew provided the music. The album spent 21 weeks on the Billboard albums chart and peaked at #14 . "Tracks of my Tears" spent nine weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 and peaked at #9, while "Baby I Need Your Lovin'" spent eleven weeks and peaked at #3.
== Reception ==
In his review in AllMusic, Zach Curd called Rewind, with its "big, clean production, and quality L.A. session musicians", a "great collection of blue-eyed soul and rock." Curd concluded that the album was "a solid, tight recording, with excellent production and inventive arrangements provided by Webb."
== Track listing ==
All songs written by Jimmy Webb except where noted.
=== Side one ===
"The Tracks of My Tears" (Warren "Pete" Moore, Smokey Robinson, Marvin Tarplin) – 2:53
"Carpet Man" – 3:02
"Tunesmith" – 3:10
"Sidewalk Song / 27th Street" – 2:25
"It'll Never Happen Again" (Tim Hardin) – 3:25
"Do What You Gotta Do" – 2:19
=== Side two ===
"Baby I Need Your Lovin'" (Lamont Dozier, Brian Holland, Eddie Holland) – 3:08
"For Emily, Whenever I May Find Her" (Paul Simon) – 2:47
"Rosecrans Boulevard" – 2:31
"The Eleventh Song" – 2:19
"Sweet Smiling Children" – 2:10
== Personnel ==
=== Musicians ===
Johnny Rivers – vocals, guitar
The Blossoms – backing vocals
Larry Knechtel – piano
Mike Deasy Sr. – guitar
Joe Osborn – bass guitar
Hal Blaine – drums
Mike Deasy Jr. – vocals
=== Technical ===
Lou Adler – producer
Armin Steiner, Michael Lietz – engineers
Jimmy Webb – arranger, conductor, liner notes
Marty Paich – horns and strings arranger/conductor
Woody Woodward – art direction
Bernard Yeszin, George Rodriguez, Ivan Nagy – photography
== References ==
== External links ==
Johnny Rivers official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Gqabi#:~:text=In%201976%20he%20became%20co%2Dchairman%2C%20with%20Martin%20Ramokgadi%2C%20of%20the%20clandestine%20ANC%20organisation%20in%20Johannesburg | Joe Gqabi | Joe Nzingo Gqabi (6 April 1929 – 31 July 1981) was a South African African National Congress activist who was the ANC's chief representative in Zimbabwe at the time of his assassination by the South African Defence Force in Harare (then Salisbury), Zimbabwe, in 1981.
== Early life ==
Gqabi was born on 6 April 1929 in Aliwal North in what is now known as Joe Gqabi District Municipality. His first language was Xhosa.
== Political activity ==
In the 1950s Gqabi was a journalist for New Age, during which time he was in frequent contact with ANC leader Walter Sisulu. As a member of the South African Communist Party and UMkhonto we Sizwe he was sent for guerilla training in China in the early 1960s. He was captured with 28 fellow members who were undergoing military training in Rhodesia and deported back to South Africa, where he was sentenced to two years' jail for leaving the country illegally and then ten years for crimes under the Sabotage Act, after which he was jailed at Robben Island.
He rejoined the ANC after being released from jail in 1975. In 1976 he became co-chairman, with Martin Ramokgadi, of the clandestine ANC organisation in Johannesburg, known as the Main Machinery. During this time, the South African security services attempted to assassinate him by placing a bomb in his car, but it was discovered before it could detonate. He was arrested again after the Soweto uprising (Oliver Tambo later asserted that he served as an intermediary between the ANC and the South African Students' Movement there) but the police, with little evidence, were unable to make a case against him. He was released in 1977, left for Botswana and then went to Zimbabwe after its independence in 1980.
== Death ==
He was assassinated by the South African Defence Force on 31 July 1981 in Ashdown Park, Salisbury (now Harare), Zimbabwe. His body was repatriated to South Africa in 2004 and he was reburied in Aliwal North on 16 December 2004.
== Honours ==
He was posthumously awarded the Order of Luthuli in silver by the South African government. The Joe Gqabi District Municipality was named in his honour.
Order of Luthuli (Silver) (OLS)
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Jeffrey | Shirley Jeffrey | Shirley Winifred Jeffrey (4 April 1930 – 4 January 2014) was an Australian marine biologist and naturalist, who researched biochemical separation techniques, specialising in micro-algal research; her discovery, isolation and purification of chlorophyll c allowed for the evaluation of oceanic microscopic plant biomass and photosynthesis. She was christened The Mother of chlorophyll c by one of her early mentors, Professor Andrew Benson of the Scripps Research Institute in San Diego.
== Early life and education ==
Jeffrey was born in Townsville, Queensland as the daughter of Tom Jeffrey and his wife, Dorothea (née Cherrington). During her younger years, she did not have a particular interest in science, preferring "playing with animals and dolls and helped my mother in the kitchen and loved cooking". While studying at Methodist Ladies College in Melbourne in the early 1940s, she was inspired by a "most memorable teacher", Connie Glass, who led her to be interested in studying the natural world.
Jeffrey completed her secondary schooling in Sydney at Wenona, and completed a Bachelor of Science degree in 1952 and a master's in 1954 at the University of Sydney. She completed a doctorate in biochemical pharmacology in 1958 at King's College, London.
== Scientific career ==
Dr Jeffrey returned to Australia in 1961 after completing her PhD, to work at the Division of Fisheries and Oceanography at CSIRO; it was during this time she researched pigmentation in microalgae, in 1962 becoming the first person to successfully isolate and purify the accessory pigment chlorophyll c previously known, but incompletely characterised, in various algae.
In 1965, she was aboard the maiden voyage of the scientific expedition on the Alpha Helix, the research vessel of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California, which was coming to Australia to study the ecology of the Great Barrier Reef. Her research led to a sabbatical at Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1973; during this period she met Australian biologist and future husband Dr Andy Heron.
Between 1971 and 1977, Dr Jeffrey was a principal scientist at CSIRO's marine biochemistry unit, then a senior principal research scientist CSIRO Division of Fisheries and Oceanography (1977 to 1981) and then senior principal research scientist and then acting chief of CSIRO Division of Fisheries Research (1981–84). While at CSIRO she was in charge of developing the CSIRO's Collection of Living Microalgae (also known as the Algal Culture Collection). Her co-edited work Phytoplankton Pigments in Oceanography was published in 1996 by UNESCO.
== Awards ==
Throughout her career, she received many awards, in recognition of her work, including the 1988 Inaugural Jubilee Award from the Australian Marine Science Association; Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science (FAA) (1991) and she was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) in 1993. In 1991 she was awarded the Clarke Medal by the Royal Society of New South Wales.
In 2000, Jeffrey received the Gilbert Morgan Smith Medal from the United States National Academy of Sciences, the first person outside the United States to receive this Medal, and was later elected as a foreign associate of the US National Academy of Sciences.
In 2003, she was awarded the Australian Centenary Medal, and in 2007 she received the Shinkishi Hatai Medal at the 21st Pacific Science Congress in Okinawa, Japan.
She was a member, Fellow and former Council member of Jane Franklin Hall, a college of the University of Tasmania and an office-bearer of the Royal Society of Tasmania.
In 2012, several of her colleagues recognised her achievements in "Tribute to Shirley Jeffrey: 50 years of research on chlorophyll c" published in Phycologia (Volume 51, 2: 123–125). Despite retiring in 1995, Dr Jeffrey continued to research and publish as an honorary research fellow with the CSIRO until her death in 2014, and was an accomplished violinist in the Hobart Chamber Orchestra.
== References ==
== External links ==
Interviews With Australian Scientists profile
"Obituaries: Shirley Jeffrey". Australian Academy of Science. Archived from the original on 16 May 2018.
|A Tribute to Shirley Jeffrey: 50 years of research on chlorophyll c - Phycologia
Sydney Morning Herald Obituary
Simon W. Wright, Gustaaf M. Hallegraeff, and R. Fauzi C. Mantoura, "Shirley W. Jeffrey", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (2015) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amal_Kumar_Sarkar | Amal Kumar Sarkar | Justice Amal Kumar Sarkar (Bengali: অমল কুমার সরকার) (29 June 1901 – 18 December 2001) was the eighth Chief Justice of India, from 16 March 1966 up to his retirement on 29 June 1966.
== Education ==
He studied at the prestigious Scottish Churches College, the Bangabasi College, and at the University Law College, all affiliated with the University of Calcutta.
== Life ==
He started his career by practising as an advocate in the Calcutta High Court at Kolkata. He became a judge at the Calcutta High Court on 25 January 1949, and went on to become Supreme Court Judge in March 1957.
As a Supreme Court judge, Sarkar authored 228 judgments and sat on 653 benches.
== References ==
Biography on Supreme Court website
Reference to the "late A.K. Sarkar" |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissing_Students#cite_note-visitestonia.com-1 | Kissing Students | Kissing Students (Estonian: Suudlevad tudengid) is sculpture and fountain in Raekoja plats, Tartu, Estonia. The structure locates in front of Tartu Town Hall. The sculpture is one of the most recognised symbols of Tartu, especially as Tartu is considered the "intellectual capital city" and "student capital" of the country, as it is home to the nation's oldest and most renowned university, the University of Tartu.
The fountain was built in 1948 and it was used especially by newlyweds who sought to find luck for future when standing there.
The sculpture was created in 1998 by Mati Karmin.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Liverpool_F.C._season#Disciplinary_record | 2021–22 Liverpool F.C. season | The 2021–22 season was Liverpool Football Club's 130th season in existence and their 60th consecutive season in the top flight of English football. Liverpool were on course to winning a unique quadruple, as they won a record-breaking ninth EFL Cup and the FA Cup, beating Chelsea on penalties in both finals. However, they lost the Premier League title by one point to Manchester City, and – in a repeat of the 2018 final – lost the Champions League final to Real Madrid. This was the first season since 2015–16 without Georginio Wijnaldum, who departed to Paris Saint-Germain and the first since 2017–18 without Xherdan Shaqiri, who departed to Lyon.
== Season overview ==
Liverpool excelled in both the FA Cup and EFL Cup, beating Chelsea in both finals on penalties after both matches ended in goalless draws. On the final day of the season, Liverpool faced Wolverhampton Wanderers at Anfield, while their title challengers Manchester City faced Aston Villa at the Etihad Stadium. Liverpool found themselves 0–1 down early in the match, however, City were also a goal down to Villa. Sadio Mané levelled the scoreline for Liverpool, and their title hopes were kept alive by the fact that City were now 0–2 down. However, City went on to score three goals in five minutes to take the lead and, despite Mohamed Salah and Andy Robertson scoring two late goals to beat Wolves 3–1, it was not enough and the Reds were pipped to the title by a point. Meanwhile in the UEFA Champions League, despite being drawn in a group with Atlético Madrid, AC Milan and Porto, Liverpool made history by becoming the first English club to win all six group stage matches. They advanced all the way to the final where they took on Real Madrid, as they had done four years earlier. In Paris, the same city in which the Reds won the European Cup against Madrid in 1981, they lost 0–1 as Vinícius Júnior scored the only goal of the game for Los Blancos.
== First-team squad ==
As of 28 May 2022
=== New contracts ===
== Transfers ==
=== Transfers in ===
=== Transfers out ===
=== Loans out ===
=== Transfer summary ===
== Pre-season and friendlies ==
On 12 July 2021, Liverpool announced that they would play four friendlies as part of a pre-season training camp in Austria. On 19 July, they stated that they would complete their pre-season campaign with two home friendlies. On 29 July, the Reds confirmed that they would face Bologna in two sixty-minute matches as part of a training camp in France in between the previously announced engagements.
Win
Draw
Loss
Fixtures
== Competitions ==
=== Overview ===
=== Premier League ===
==== League table ====
==== Results summary ====
==== Results by matchday ====
==== Matches ====
The league fixtures were revealed on 16 June 2021.
=== FA Cup ===
Liverpool were drawn at home to Shrewsbury Town in the third round to begin their participation in the competition.
=== EFL Cup ===
Liverpool entered the competition in the third round.
=== UEFA Champions League ===
Liverpool entered the competition in the group stage.
==== Group stage ====
The draw for the group stage was held on 26 August 2021, with the fixtures announced a day later.
==== Knockout phase ====
===== Round of 16 =====
The draw for the round of 16 took place on 13 December 2021 at UEFA's headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland. Liverpool were drawn against reigning Serie A champions Inter Milan.
===== Quarter-finals =====
The draw for the quarter-finals was held on 18 March 2022, with Liverpool being paired with Benfica.
===== Semi-finals =====
The draw for the semi-finals was held on 18 March 2022, after the quarter-finals draw, with Liverpool being drawn against Villarreal, reigning Europa League champions.
===== Final =====
The final was held on 28 May 2022 in Paris, with Liverpool facing 13-time winners Real Madrid. This was Liverpool's tenth European Cup final, the most of any English club, and third in five years; it was a rematch of the 2018 final, which Liverpool lost 1–3.
== Squad statistics ==
=== Appearances ===
Players with no appearances are not included on the list.
=== Goals ===
=== Clean sheets ===
=== Disciplinary record ===
== Club awards ==
=== End-of-season awards ===
Standard Chartered Men's Player of the Season: Mohamed Salah
Goal of the Season: Mohamed Salah (vs. Man City, 3 October 2021)
=== Player of the Month award ===
Awarded monthly to the player that was chosen by fans voting on Liverpoolfc.com
== See also ==
2021–22 in English football
List of Liverpool F.C. seasons
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Van_Vechten#:~:text=He%20graduated%20from%20Washington%20High,as%20%22that%20unloved%20town%22. | Carl Van Vechten | Carl Van Vechten (; June 17, 1880 – December 21, 1964) was an American writer and artistic photographer who was a patron of the Harlem Renaissance and the literary executor of Gertrude Stein. He gained fame as a writer, and notoriety as well, for his 1926 novel Nigger Heaven. In his later years, he took up photography and took many portraits of notable people. Although he was married to women for most of his adult years, Van Vechten engaged in numerous affairs with other men during his lifetime.
== Life and career ==
Born in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, he was the youngest child of Charles Duane Van Vechten and Ada Amanda Van Vechten (née Fitch). Both of his parents were well educated. His father was a wealthy, prominent banker. His mother established the Cedar Rapids Public Library and had great musical talent. As a child, Van Vechten developed a passion for music and theatre. He graduated from Washington High School in 1898.
After high school, Van Vechten was eager to take the next steps in his life, but found it difficult to pursue his passions in Iowa. He described his hometown as "that unloved town". To advance his education, he decided in 1899 to study at the University of Chicago, where he studied a variety of topics including music, art and opera. As a student, he became increasingly interested in writing and wrote for the college newspaper, the University of Chicago Weekly.
After graduating from college in 1903, Van Vechten accepted a job as a columnist for the Chicago American. In his column "The Chaperone", Van Vechten covered many different topics through a style of semi-autobiographical gossip and criticism. During his time with the Chicago American, he was occasionally asked to include photographs with his column. This was the first time he is thought to have experimented with photography, which later became one of his greatest passions. Van Vechten was fired from his position with the Chicago American because of what was described as an elaborate and complicated style of writing. Some commentators jokingly described his contributions to the paper as "lowering the tone" of the lowbrow and sensationalist Hearst papers. In 1906, he moved to New York City. He was hired as the assistant music critic at The New York Times. His interest in opera had him take a leave of absence from the paper in 1907 to travel to Europe and explore opera.
While in England, he married Anna Snyder, his longtime friend from Cedar Rapids. He returned to his job at The New York Times in 1909, where he became the first American critic of modern dance. Through the guidance of his mentor, Mabel Dodge Luhan, he became engrossed in the avant garde. He began to frequently attend groundbreaking musical premieres at the time when Isadora Duncan, Anna Pavlova, and Loie Fuller were performing in New York City. He also attended premieres in Paris where he met American author and poet Gertrude Stein in 1913. He became a devoted friend and champion of Stein and was considered to be one of Stein's most enthusiastic fans. They continued corresponding for the remainder of Stein's life, and, at her death, she appointed Van Vechten her literary executor; he helped to bring into print her unpublished writings. A collection of the letters between Van Vechten and Stein has been published.
Van Vechten wrote a piece called "How to Read Gertrude Stein" for the arts magazine The Trend. In his piece, Van Vechten attempted to demystify Stein and bring clarity to her works. Van Vechten came to the conclusion that Stein can be best understood when one has been guided through her work by an "expert insider". He writes that "special writers require special readers".
The marriage to Anna Snyder ended in divorce in 1912, and he wed actress Fania Marinoff in 1914. Van Vechten and Marinoff were known for ignoring the social separation of races during the times and for inviting black people to their home for social gatherings. They were also known to attend public gatherings for black people and to visit black friends in their homes.
Although Van Vechten's marriage to Fania Marinoff lasted for 50 years, they often argued about Van Vechten's affairs with men. Van Vechten kept a circle of handsome young men around him, including Donald Angus, Jimmie Daniels, Max Ewing, and Prentiss Taylor. Van Vechten was also known to have romantic and sexual relationships with men, especially Mark Lutz. Lutz (1901–1968) grew up in Richmond, Virginia, and was introduced to Van Vechten by Hunter Stagg in New York in 1931. Lutz was a model for some of Van Vechten's earliest experiments with photography. The friendship lasted until Van Vechten's death. At Lutz's death, as per his wishes, the correspondence with Van Vechten, amounting to 10,000 letters, was destroyed. Lutz donated his collection of Van Vechten's photographs to the Philadelphia Museum of Art.
Several books of Van Vechten's essays on various subjects, such as music and literature, were published between 1915 and 1920, and Van Vechten also served as an informal scout for the newly formed Alfred A. Knopf. Between 1922 and 1930, Knopf published seven novels by him, starting with Peter Whiffle: His Life and Works and ending with Parties. His sexuality is most clearly reflected in his intensely homoerotic portraits of working-class men.
As an appreciator of the arts, Van Vechten was extremely intrigued by the explosion of creativity that was occurring in Harlem. He was drawn towards the tolerance of Harlem society and the excitement it generated among black writers and artists. He also felt most accepted there as a gay man. Van Vechten promoted many of the major figures of the Harlem Renaissance, including Paul Robeson, Langston Hughes, Ethel Waters, Richard Wright, Zora Neale Hurston and Wallace Thurman. Van Vechten's controversial novel Nigger Heaven was published in 1926. His essay "Negro Blues Singers" was published in Vanity Fair in 1926. Biographer Edward White suggests Van Vechten was convinced that African American culture was the essence of America.
Van Vechten played a critical role in the Harlem Renaissance and helped to bring greater clarity to the African-American movement. However, for a long time he was also seen as a very controversial figure. In Van Vechten's early writings, he claimed that black people were born to be entertainers and sexually "free". In other words, he believed that black people should be free to explore their sexuality and singers should follow their natural talents such as jazz, spirituals and blues. Van Vechten wrote about his experiences of attending a Bessie Smith concert at the Orpheum Theatre in Newark, New Jersey, in 1925.
In Harlem, Van Vechten often attended opera and cabarets. He was credited for the surge in white interest in Harlem nightlife and culture as well as involved in helping well-respected writers such as Langston Hughes and Nella Larsen to find publishers for their early works.
In 2001, Emily Bernard published Remember Me to Harlem, a collection of letters that documents the long friendship between Van Vechten and Langston Hughes, who publicly defended Nigger Heaven. Bernard's 2010 book Carl Van Vechten and the Harlem Renaissance: A Portrait in Black and White explores the messy and uncomfortable realities of race, and the complicated tangle of black and white in America.
His older brother Ralph Van Vechten died on June 28, 1927; when Ralph's widow Fannie died in 1928, Van Vechten inherited $1 million invested in a trust fund, which was unaffected by the stock market crash of 1929 and provided financial support for Carl and Fania.
By 1930, at the age of 50, Van Vechten was finished with writing and took up photography, using his apartment at 150 West 55th Street as a studio, where he photographed many notable people.
Van Vechten died in 1964 at the age of 84 in New York City. His ashes were scattered over the Shakespeare garden in Central Park. He was the subject of a 1968 biography by Bruce Kellner, Carl Van Vechten and the Irreverent Decades, as well as Edward White's 2014 biography, The Tastemaker: Carl Van Vechten and the Birth of Modern America. In the 2015 HBO film Bessie, about blues singer Bessie Smith, Van Vechten is portrayed by Oliver Platt and is shown discussing his novel Nigger Heaven.
== Works ==
At the age of 40, Van Vechten wrote the book Peter Whiffle (1922), which established him as a respected novelist. This novel was recognized as contemporary and an important work to the collection of Harlem Renaissance history. In his novel, autobiographical facts were arranged into a fictional form. In addition to Peter Whiffle, Van Vechten wrote several other novels. One is The Tattooed Countess, a disguised manipulation of his memories of growing up in Cedar Rapids. His book The Tiger in the House explores the quirks and qualities of Van Vechten's most beloved animal, the cat.
One of his more controversial novels, Nigger Heaven, was received with both controversy and praise. Van Vechten called this book "my Negro novel". He intended for this novel to depict how African Americans were living in Harlem and not about the suffering of Black people in the South who were dealing with racism and lynchings. Although many encouraged Van Vechten to reconsider giving his novel such a controversial name, he could not resist having an incendiary title. Some worried that his title would take away from the content of the book. In one letter, his father also cautioned him: "Whatever you may be compelled to say in the book," he wrote, "your present title will not be understood & I feel certain you should change it."
Many black readers were divided over how the novel depicted African Americans. Some felt that it depicted black people as "alien and strange", and others valued the novel for its representation of African Americans as everyday people, with complexity and flaws just like typical white characters. The novel's supporters included Nella Larsen, Langston Hughes and Gertrude Stein, who all defended the novel for bringing Harlem society and racial issues to the forefront of America.
His supporters also sent him letters to voice their opinions of the novel. Alain Locke sent Van Vechten a letter from Berlin citing his novel Nigger Heaven and the excitement surrounding its release as his primary reason for making an imminent return home. Gertrude Stein sent Van Vechten a letter from France writing that the novel was the best thing he had ever written. Stein also played an important role in the development of the novel.
Well known critics of this novel included African American scholar W. E. B. Du Bois and black novelist Wallace Thurman. Du Bois dismissed the novel as "cheap melodrama". Decades after the book was published, novelist and literary critic Ralph Ellison remembered Van Vechten as a bad influence, an unpleasant character who "introduced a note of decadence into Afro-American literary matters which was not needed". In 1981, David Levering Lewis, historian and author of a classic study of the Harlem Renaissance, called Nigger Heaven a "colossal fraud", a seemingly uplifting book with a message that was overshadowed by "the throb of the tom-tom". He viewed Van Vechten as being driven by "a mixture of commercialism and patronizing sympathy".
== Archives and museum collections ==
Most of Van Vechten's personal papers are held by the Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library at Yale University. The Beinecke Library also holds a collection titled "Living Portraits: Carl Van Vechten's Color Photographs of African Americans, 1939–1964", a collection of 1,884 color Kodachrome slides.
The Library of Congress has a collection of approximately 1,400 photographs which it acquired in 1966 from Saul Mauriber (May 21, 1915 – February 12, 2003). There is also a collection of Van Vechten's photographs in the Prentiss Taylor collection in the Smithsonian's Archives of American Art, and a Van Vechten collection at Fisk University. The Museum of the City of New York's collection includes 2,174 of Carl Van Vechten's photographs. Brandeis University's department of Archives & Special Collections holds 1,689 Carl Van Vechten portraits. Van Vechten also donated materials to Fisk University to form the George Gershwin Memorial Collection of Music and Musical Literature.
The Philadelphia Museum of Art currently holds one of the largest collection of photographs by Van Vechten in the United States. The collection began in 1949 when Van Vechten made a gift of sixty of his photographs to the museum. In 1965, Mark Lutz made a gift to the museum of more than 12,000 photographs by Van Vechten from his personal collection. Included in the collection are images from extensive portrait sessions with figures of the Harlem Renaissance such as Langston Hughes, Ella Fitzgerald, Billie Holiday, Zora Neale Hurston, and Cab Calloway; artists such as Marcel Duchamp, Henri Matisse, Gaston Lachaise, Joan Miró, and Frida Kahlo; and countless other actors, musicians, and cultural figures. Also included in the Mark Lutz gift is an extensive body of photographs Van Vechten took at the 1939 New York World's Fair as well as a large number of photographs depicting scenes across Western Europe and Northern Africa taken during Van Vechten's travels in 1935–1936.
In 1980, concerned that Van Vechten's fragile 35 mm nitrate negatives were fast deteriorating, photographer Richard Benson, in conjunction with the Eakins Press Foundation, transformed 50 of the portraits into handmade gravure prints. The album 'O, Write My Name': American Portraits, Harlem Heroes was completed in 1983. That year, the National Endowment for the Arts transferred the Eakins Press Foundation's prototype albums to the permanent collection of the Smithsonian American Art Museum.
The National Portrait Gallery, London, holds 17 of Van Vechten's portraits of leading creative talents of his era.
More than 3,000 Van Vechten portraits, most of which come from the Library of Congress collection, are included in Wikimedia Commons. His public domain photographs illustrate countless Wikipedia entries on mid-century (mostly American) notables. See examples in the gallery below.
Carl Van Vechten Papers. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
Carl Van Vechten Papers Relating to African American Arts and Letters. James Weldon Johnson Collection in the Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
Guide to the Carl Van Vechten papers, 1833–1965. Manuscripts and Archives, New York Public Library.
Carl Van Vechten collection of papers, 1911–1964. Berg Collection of English and American Literature, New York Public Library.
Carl Van Vechten theatre photographs, 1932–1943, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division at the New York Public Library for the Performing Arts
Carl Van Vechten photographs, 1932–1964 at Brandeis University's Archives & Special Collections, contains 1,689 Van Vechten portraits.
Images by Carl Van Vechten in the Collections of the Museum of the City of New York
Living Portraits: Carl Van Vechten's Color Photographs of African Americans, 1939–1964, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University, features a searchable database of 1,884 rare color Kodachrome slides
Portraits by Carl Van Vechten at the National Portrait Gallery, London
Creative Americans: Portraits by Carl Van Vechten at the Library of Congress
Carl Van Vechten's Portraits from the collection of the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University: more than 9,000 black-and-white prints
Postcards from Manhattan: The Portrait Photography of Carl Van Vechten at Marquette University: hundreds of portrait postcards sent by Van Vechten to Wisconsin artist Karl Priebe from 1946 to 1956.
Guide to the Carl Van Vechten Photograph Collection 1932–1956 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
The Rose McClendon Memorial Collection of Photographs of Celebrated Negroes by Carl Van Vechten at the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center at Howard University, Washington, D.C.
Carl Van Vechten Papers at the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center at Howard University, Washington, D.C.
== Gallery ==
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Sources ===
== External links ==
Works by Carl Van Vechten at Project Gutenberg
Works by Carl Van Vechten at Faded Page (Canada)
Works by or about Carl Van Vechten at the Internet Archive
Works by Carl Van Vechten at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Extravagant Crowd: Carl Van Vechten's Portraits of Women, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University
Booknotes interview with Emily Bernard on Remember Me to Harlem: The Letters of Langston Hughes and Carl Van Vechten, 1925–1964, April 22, 2001.
Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University: "Carl Van Vechten: American Portraitist" exhibit materials, 1992 (curated by Deborah Willis)
Carl Van Vechten theatre photographs, 1932–1943, held by the Billy Rose Theatre Division, New York Public Library for the Performing Arts |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavian_Masters | Scandinavian Masters | The Scandinavian Masters was an annual golf tournament on the European Tour played in Sweden. In 2020, the tournament became co-sanctioned with the Ladies European Tour and was rebranded as the Scandinavian Mixed, in which both male and female golfers competed.
== History ==
The tournament had its origins in the Volvo Open and the Scandinavian Enterprise Open, which, in 1973, became the first Swedish stop on the European Tour schedule. In 1991, the SEO merged with the PLM Open, with the resultant tournament being called the Scandinavian Masters.
The Scandinavian Masters was generally the only European Tour event to be held in Scandinavia, and in 2013 had a prize fund of €1,500,000, which was at the lower end of the scale for European Tour events held in the tour's home continent.
Until 2011, the tournament was played at the end of July or the beginning of August each year. For 2012, it moved to the first weekend in June, and was played from Wednesday to Saturday to allow players more time to travel to the following week's U.S. Open. From 2013 to 2017 it was played in late May/early June, two weeks before the U.S. Open, but in 2018 it was played in August.
In 2019 Lagardère Group passed management of the tournament on to the European Tour, which renamed it Scandinavian Invitation.
=== Mixed event ===
In 2020 the European Tour and Ladies European Tour created the Scandinavian Mixed hosted by Henrik and Annika, for the first time bringing 78 men and 78 women together to compete in the same tournament for the same prize money, but playing from different tees. Official World Golf Ranking points are offered for both tours, along with points toward the European Tour's and LET's respective season-long competitions, as well as Ryder Cup and Solheim Cup points, if applicable, which require the results to be divided between men and women.
The first event was originally scheduled to take place in June 2020, however it was cancelled like many other events at the time, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
The event did return in June 2021, with Jonathan Caldwell winning the inaugural mixed event; shooting a final-round 64 to beat Adrián Otaegui by one shot. Alice Hewson was the highest placed female; finishing in third place.
The 2022 event created history as Linn Grant became the first woman to win on the European Tour. She won by nine strokes ahead of Henrik Stenson and Marc Warren. The next best-placed female was Gabriella Cowley, 14 strokes behind Grant. Linn Grant went on to win again in 2024, beating Calum Hill and Sebastian Söderberg by one shot. The 2024 event proved to be the final edition of the tournament and in October 2024 it was confirmed that the tournament would not return in 2025.
== Venues ==
The following venues have been used since the founding of the Scandinavian Masters in 1991.
== Winners ==
== See also ==
List of sporting events in Sweden
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Coverage on the European Tour's official site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_of_Life_(album)#Weekly_charts | Meaning of Life (album) | Meaning of Life is the eighth studio album by American pop singer Kelly Clarkson. It was released on October 27, 2017, by Atlantic Records. Executive produced by Clarkson and Craig Kallman, the album is her debut release for the label after completing her recording contract and leaving previous label, RCA Records, which she had signed after winning the first season of American Idol. Weary of the structure of the previous record deal where she was strictly limited to releasing pop music, Clarkson wanted to pursue a different genre—soul and R&B music, which she had previously wanted to make and had only finally found the opportunity to do so after being signed by Kallman to the label.
Meaning of Life is Clarkson's second foray into soul and R&B music, after the lead single to her debut album "Miss Independent", departing from the predominant pop and pop rock sound established from her previous studio releases and returning to her multi-genre performances on American Idol. Inspired by the music of the 1990s and prominent singers Aretha Franklin, Mariah Carey, Whitney Houston, En Vogue and Bonnie Raitt, Clarkson wanted the album to evoke a music similar to the early works of those artists—with the overall goal of emoting a "soulful" spirit. To achieve this, Clarkson commissioned several collaborators—from previous associates Jesse Shatkin, Greg Kurstin, Mozella and Jason Halbert, to new project partners The Monarch, Mick Schultz, Harlœ and James Morrison. The album's tracks share a cohesive theme of interpersonal connections in life, centered on the subjects of love and living the moment.
Meaning of Life received a generally positive response from music critics, who commended Clarkson's newfound confidence and the cohesiveness of the album. Commercially, the record became her eighth consecutive studio album to debut in the top three of the Billboard 200 chart. Three singles were released to promote the album: "Love So Soft", "I Don't Think About You", and "Heat", the first and last of which topped the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart. Meaning of Life received two Grammy Award nominations for Best Pop Vocal Album and Best Pop Solo Performance for "Love So Soft" at the 60th and 61st ceremony. Its supporting concert tour of the same name visited various arenas throughout the United States between January and March 2019.
== Background ==
After releasing her seventh studio album, Piece by Piece (2015), along with its companion remix album in 2016, Kelly Clarkson had completed the terms of her recording contract with RCA Records and 19 Recordings which she had signed as a prize after winning the inaugural season of American Idol in 2002. As opposed to the previous contract structure where 19 held the phonographic rights to the master recordings, RCA executives Peter Edge and Tom Corson revealed their intentions to sign Clarkson directly to the label without 19's involvement. Their renewal offer would include a three-album deal with a US$1 million advance per album, in contrast to the six-album limit from the previous contract with a US$500,000 incentive per record. Corson also admitted that her relationship with Sony Music executive Clive Davis might prove to be a nuance to the offer.
Despite remarking that her relationship with Edge and Corson on the label had proved to be successful, Clarkson had second thoughts about renewing the contract, which she recalled as an "arranged marriage". As a result, her management met with Warner Music Nashville executive John Esposito, who brokered a meeting with Atlantic Records executives Craig Kallman and Julie Greenwald, who in turn offered her a long-term worldwide deal with a larger creative freedom. On June 24, 2016, Warner Music Group announced that Clarkson had signed a long-term worldwide recording contract with Atlantic and would immediately work on a soul and R&B album set to be released the following year. The move to Atlantic also reunited her with Pete Ganbarg, who had previously did A&R work for her fourth studio album All I Ever Wanted (2009). Later that year, Kallman and Ganbarg, who was producing A&R work on a mixtape inspired by the Broadway musical Hamilton, invited Clarkson to record the musical number "It's Quiet Uptown" for the mixtape, making it her debut appearance on an Atlantic record.
== Recording and production ==
Three of Clarkson's producers from Piece by Piece were confirmed to return for Meaning of Life: Greg Kurstin, Jason Halbert, and Jesse Shatkin, whereas first-time collaborators include The Monarch, Nick Ruth, and Mick Schultz. Deviating from the predominant pop rock sound of her previous releases, Clarkson wanted to approach a different genre—soul and R&B music. She revealed that she had previously wanted to record this type of songs but had never found an opportunity to do so, but has found out that Kallman was "dying to make this record" with her and has counted on his full support. She said the new material was reminiscent of the songs she had performed during her tenure on American Idol, and remarked that the album was a "new and fresh thing" for her and made her feel like a "brand new artist again". Recording sessions began after Clarkson's pregnancy in 2016 and continued until 2017.
To avoid making material similar to that of Stronger (2011), Clarkson met with various songwriters and showcased several soulful tracks to them to demonstrate the album's direction. She remarked that her meeting with various writing camps, discussing what kind of songs she wanted from them and rejecting songs that didn't fit the direction of the album was a "different process" for her. Clarkson said that she "wrote a bit", finding inspiration for a song's lyrics in the novel Big Little Lies, but her family life had hindered opportunities for her to contribute more to the writing. Several songwriters such as Ali Tamposi, Mozella, Harlœ, Sebastian Kole, Diztortion, Warren "Oak" Felder have all confirmed to have submitted material to Clarkson in Nashville.
Clarkson and Kallman ultimately executive produced the entire album, with the latter handling the A&R himself. It marked the first time in ten years Clarkson was credited as an executive producer. She described him as "instrumental" in steering the record, but also allowed her to explore the soulful side of her voice that she once displayed on American Idol and in live concerts. She remarked that he helped her understand what an executive producer credit on an album really meant, saying that he would often push the producers who are used to working with other executives in making radio-friendly hits, but that it sometimes tears the spirit and soul out of it. Both invited several performers to play on the album—Kallman personally invited the soul band Earth, Wind & Fire to perform at the recording sessions for the album's two tracks, while Clarkson requested her touring backup singers—Jessi Collins, Nicole Hurst, and Bridget Sarai, to be given a more prominent feature by accompanying her lead vocals, deviating from the usual practice of recording her own background vocals in her previous albums.
== Composition ==
=== Theme and influences ===
Meaning of Life has a cohesive theme—connection. Lyrical contents of each of the album's tracks center on "love and living, rooted in the past and living in the moment". When asked about what is the "meaning of life" to her, Clarkson remarked that "life is about connection." Clarkson also illustrated the album's logo as a circle to emphasize on life's connection and to indicate that no one is in the middle of it. She added, "This album is not great because of Kelly Clarkson," Kelly admits. "It's great because of all the musicians, all of the singers that are highlighted, all of the engineers, the producers. There are a lot of people that make up an album, and we really wanted to highlight those people." Musically, Clarkson was mainly inspired by the music of the 1990s, along with the early works of vocalists Aretha Franklin, Mariah Carey, Whitney Houston, En Vogue and Bonnie Raitt, whose soulful catalogs have inspired a young Clarkson to sing in high school and later embark on a music career. Franklin became the starting point for inspiration, with Clarkson asking, "What if Aretha was born now and made a record today?" as a guiding principle. In turn, Kallman made sure that the record wouldn't sound old, saying that "it's just not nostalgic and a retro experience" but described it as a "modern experience infused with the best of those records we call standards". Critics described Meaning of Life as a mixture of soulful R&B pop; While some designated it as a "soulful pop"/"pop-soul" album, others illustrated it as a soul and R&B record. Raissa Bruner of Time saw its tracks as "soulful anthems mixed with rollicking empowerment pop", while Josh Bell of the Washington Blade characterized it as "more soulful and R&B-influenced than Clarkson's prior work, although it's still very much a pop album."
Meaning of Life is promulgated by Atlantic as the album she was destined to make with the label, a "sensual" pop record and her first documented soul and R&B album; while Clarkson personally described it as the album she had wanted to make since junior high but also a "grown-ass woman's record", explaining that the lyrical content found on the album may not be suitable for her younger self to make. She remarked, "This is a record you make when you've lived (sic)." Unlike her previous releases where she had co-written much of the material, she felt compelled to only pen a few, saying that taking an active role in writing the songs would have taken an expense on her family life. Clarkson then commissioned material that showcases her current state of mind—such as dealing with the rewards and complications that come with connecting with someone emotionally, mentally, physically in a marriage; as well as a mature woman feeling completely comfortable in her own skin after years of withering sexist criticism about her appearance. To discuss these concepts, she invited several collaborators, including Harlœ, whose conversations with Clarkson were used to create some of the album's lyrical content.
=== Song analysis ===
The album opens with "A Minute (Intro)" as the introductory track. Written and produced by The Monarch with writing input from Jim McCormick and Katie Pearlman, the song is a minute-long anthem for self-care, and was primarily made for Clarkson, whose hectic family and work life have made it hard for her to take a break for a minute for herself. Shatkin, Mozella and Priscilla Renea co-wrote and co-produced the second track "Love So Soft", which is dubbed as a tribute to classic R&B while still sounding contemporary. The Monarch and Mick Schultz produced the third song "Heat", and co-wrote it with Harlœ and Michael Pollack. Clarkson described the song as discussing on giving 100% commitment to one another and as reminiscent of her relationship with her husband. The fourth song and the titular track, "Meaning of Life", was written by British singer James Morrison with Ilsey Juber and Shatkin, who handled its production. Morrison and Shatkin originally presented the song to Clarkson for Piece by Piece, but she felt its theme was unsuitable for the album at the time. She later took a hold on the song and used it as a base point for the other producers in making material for the follow-up album. The fifth, "Move You", was written by Nick Ruth, Amy Kuney, and Molly Kate Kestner. Produced by Ruth, Kuney built the song's framework to bridge the gap between religious and secular music. Clarkson co-wrote the sixth track "Whole Lotta Woman" with Jussifer, Novawav duo Denisia Andrews & Brittany Coney, Fade Majah, and Shatkin. Produced by the latter four, the song is an empowerment anthem for women using metaphors from American Southern culture, primarily with Texan women, whom Clarkson is considered one of. Select members of Earth, Wind & Fire, led by Verdine White, prominently played throughout the number.
Schultz and Harlœ co-wrote and produced the seventh track "Medicine" as a tribute to the '90s with inspiration from Carey's song "Emotions" (1991). The follow-up track "Cruel" was written by The Monarch, Harlœ and Pat Linehan, and was produced by Jason Halbert, which sings of commanding respect from a partner. The Monarch and Shatkin produced the ninth song "Didn't I", which was written by the Davidsons, Audra Mae, and Pearlman. In the song, she bellows at a man for forsaking her after committing herself to him. Based on her experience in witnessing failed relationships of some of her loved ones and asking about a retrospective about it, Clarkson co-wrote the succeeding track "Would You Call that Love" with Greg Kurstin, who produced it. The eleventh song "I Don't Think About You" was written by Harlœ, Michael Pollack, and The Monarch, who handled its production. Requested by Clarkson to write a ballad that showcases her vocals, Harlœ based the song from her past relationship. Ruth, Kuney, and Kestner wrote the twelfth track "Slow Dance", a sultry number which is about a woman demanding a man to take things slowly, instead of falling victim to his advances. Clarkson, Shatkin, and Mozella co-wrote both the album's final two tracks—the penultimate, "Don't You Pretend", is about demanding a man to be honest about his true feelings; and the concluding number "Go High", an anthem which was inspired by former U.S. First Lady Michelle Obama's speech at the 2016 Democratic National Convention.
== Release and promotion ==
Meaning of Life was released by Atlantic and its parent label Warner Music Group on October 27, 2017. Originally scheduled to be released in June 2017, the release date was pushed back to the year's fall season. Chris Ruff, Atlantic's senior marketing manager, remarked that the album's roll-out strategy would first be driven towards selling physical copies, which would be followed by a promotional campaign with streaming platforms in the following year. The album's lead single "Love So Soft" was released digitally alongside "Move You" on September 7, 2017. "Love So Soft" peaked within the top fifty of the Billboard Hot 100 chart and topped the Billboard Dance Club Songs ranking. A week before the album's release, its titular song "Meaning of Life" was issued as a promotional single on October 19, 2017. "I Don't Think About You" was released as the follow-up single on February 9, 2018, followed by "Heat" as the third single on July 27, 2018. Clarkson announced plans to do a worldwide tour to support the album following the conclusion of the fourteenth season of The Voice, where she was then currently participating as a coach. On September 14, 2018, she announced the Meaning of Life Tour, which visited selected U.S. cities from January to March 2019.
To promote the album, Clarkson embarked on several intimate concerts in North America. On September 6, 2017, Kallman, Greenwald and Warner Music CEO of Recorded Music Max Lousada jointly presented Clarkson's performance of the album's six selections at the Rainbow Room in New York City. She also filmed a "Nashville Sessions" series at the War Memorial Auditorium in Nashville, with selected performances being eventually released online. On September 28, 2017, she taped an iHeartRadio Secret Session in Toronto, which was broadcast as a radio special the following month. On its release date, Clarkson performed several songs from the album at an album release party hosted by iHeartRadio in Los Angeles. The event was also aired live in simulcast on various iHeartRadio radio stations. In November 2017, she performed on two album release events in New York City—one was hosted by astrophysicist Neil DeGrasse Tyson at YouTube Space and the other at the Gramercy Theatre hosted and tape-broadcast by Sirius XM. American chain store Cracker Barrel also sponsored a "Rocking and Stockings" content series to promote the album during the 2017 holiday season, featuring selected performances by Clarkson.
Clarkson performed numerous selections from Meaning of Life in various televised events. She premiered "Love So Soft" on The Today Show a day after its release date and has performed it on programs such as America's Got Talent, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, The Graham Norton Show, The Late Late Show with James Corden, The Voice of Germany, the 2017 We Day, the 2017 Invictus Games, and the 2017 American Music Awards. She also performed the titular track on Strictly Come Dancing; "I Don't Think About You" on The Ellen DeGeneres Show; "Move You", "I Don't Think About You", and "Didn't I" on The Today Show; "Heat" on The Today Show and the Opening Ceremony of the 2018 US Open; "Whole Lotta Woman" on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, The Late Late Show with James Corden (during Carpool Karaoke), and the 2018 Billboard Music Awards; "I Don't Think About You" and "Didn't I" on Late Night with Seth Meyers; and, "Medicine" and "I Don't Think About You" on The Voice.
== Critical reception ==
Meaning of Life received a generally positive response from music critics. Consensus from reviews compiled by Gold Derby reveal that the "intimate, R&B-drenched album is full of confidence," describing its emphasis on soul as "euphorically liberated". On the review aggregator site Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 73, based on eight reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". AllMusic's senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album a four-star rating, calling it one of her most satisfying albums and commending Clarkson for sounding "assured here in a way that differs from her earliest records". Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave it a "B+" rating. Deeming the album as feeling cohesive and self-assured, she considered that it doesn't seem especially interested in reaching the heights of Clarkson's early hit records but "swings low and sweet — a refreshingly real dispatch from an artist expressing exactly what she feels in this moment." Writing for Time, Bruner wrote that the album "finds her as fans prefer: a confident artist with a sense of humor and sass to spare." Shaun Kitchener of the Daily Express rated the album five stars, writing that Clarkson was "in her absolute element" on it, and the album was a "peppier, more playful alternative to Adele's 25".
Glenn Gamboa of Newsday gave Meaning of Life a four-star rating. Praising it as the best album of Clarkson's career, he wrote that it presented a "chance to declare her ambitions and deliver on them" for her "most cohesive album yet". The Boston Globe correspondent Isaac Feldberg commented that Clarkson "has perhaps never sounded as confident or comfortable as she does" on the album, and that she "channels her delight at [her] newfound freedom into songs that, while signaling a new stage in her career, appear to flow directly from both her heart and soul." Mike Nied of Idolator shared a similar sentiment, saying that "returning to her roots had truly opened a wealth of opportunities" for Clarkson. Craig Jenkins of Vulture described the album as "a simmering pot of warm grooves and powerful vocals, a career pivot to the music that Clarkson ought to have been allowed to make right out of the gate." Reviewing for The Observer, Michael Cragg rated the album four stars, comparing its sound to Meghan Trainor and Mariah Carey and crediting its "big, syrupy" ballads for "accentuating Clarkson's undeniably powerful voice, creating a comfort zone that feels genuine."
Some of the critics were also ambivalent on the album: The Guardian's Hannah Davis gave the record a three-star rating, writing that the album had "lots of filler" and notably evoked the records of Christina Aguilera and Trainor, but its "strong, '90s diva-ish mood suits Clarkson's belting vocal style, as she ushers in a more soulful phase with class." Reviewing the album for Spin, Katherine St. Asaph noted that much of it feels "dated, studiously attempting to recreate an era Clarkson's long since transcended", and despite praising her vocal showcase, she was puzzled that after "to hear an album that sounds so much like contractual winner's filler" almost 15 years after winning the competition.
=== Accolades and honors ===
Meaning of Life has received nominations for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 61st Grammy Awards and Best Pop Solo Performance for "Love So Soft" at the 60th ceremony. Both nominations earned Clarkson the distinction of being the most-nominated artist in both categories' history, sharing the Best Pop Vocal Album record with Justin Timberlake. In the midst of promoting the album, Clarkson was also honored at various award-giving programs, including the Powerhouse Award at the 2017 Billboard Women in Music event, Icon Award at the 2018 Radio Disney Music Awards, and a Hall of Fame induction at the 2017 Nickelodeon HALO Awards.
=== Year-end lists ===
Meaning of Life was included on several publications' year-end lists:
== Commercial performance ==
Meaning of Life debuted on the Billboard 200 chart in the United States at number two with 79,000 album-equivalent units, which account 68,000 copies in traditional album sales. The album's chart debut on the Billboard 200 earned Clarkson her eighth consecutive top three studio album as well her third record to debut at the second spot. Meaning of Life also debuted at the top of the Billboard Digital Albums chart and became her first entry on the Billboard Vinyl Albums chart. Overseas, the album entered the top ten of the Billboard Canadian Albums chart and the Australian ARIA Albums Chart. It also attained a top twenty debut on the Official UK Albums Chart, the Irish IRMA Artist Albums Chart, and the Swiss Hitparade chart; and a top forty entry on the national charts of Austria, Germany, and the Netherlands. The album received a RIAA Gold certification in 2021, selling 500,000 equivalent units in the US.
== Track listing ==
Notes
^[a] signifies a vocal producer
^[b] signifies an additional producer
== Personnel ==
Credits adapted from the album's liner notes.
Recorded, engineered, mixed and mastered at
Personnel
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== Release history ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Kornhaber, Spencer (October 27, 2017). "Kelly Clarkson's Retro, Uplifting Dream of Unity". The Atlantic. Emerson Collective. Retrieved March 3, 2018.
Berk, Nancy (November 30, 2017). "Kelly Clarkson Does't Sugarcoat Struggle and Says Meaning of Life Is Her Best Album to Date". Parade. AMG. Retrieved March 3, 2018.
Marine, Brooke (January 28, 2018). "How Kelly Clarkson Finally Released the Album She's Wanted to Make Since Junior High". W. Condé Nast. Retrieved March 3, 2018.
Ikeler, Jason (March 1, 2018). "Kelly Clarkson on How a Stranger's Advice Inspired Her Career in Music". Cosmopolitan. Hearst. Retrieved March 3, 2018.
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_seeding | Cloud seeding | Cloud seeding is a type of weather modification that aims to change the amount or type of precipitation, mitigate hail, or disperse fog. The usual objective is to increase rain or snow, either for its own sake or to prevent precipitation from occurring in days afterward.
Cloud seeding is undertaken by dispersing substances into the air that serve as cloud condensation or ice nuclei. Common agents include silver iodide, potassium iodide, and dry ice, with hygroscopic materials like table salt gaining popularity due to their ability to attract moisture. Techniques vary from static seeding, which encourages ice particle formation in supercooled clouds to increase precipitation, to dynamic seeding, designed to enhance convective cloud development through the release of latent heat.
Methods of dispersion include aircraft and ground-based generators, with newer approaches involving drones delivering electric charges to stimulate rainfall, or infrared laser pulses aimed at inducing particle formation. Despite decades of research and application, cloud seeding's effectiveness remains a subject of debate among scientists, with studies offering mixed results on its impact on precipitation enhancement.
Environmental and health impacts are considered minimal due to the low concentrations of substances used, but concerns persist over the potential accumulation of seeding agents in sensitive ecosystems. The practice has a long history, with initial experiments dating back to the 1940s, and has been used for various purposes, including agricultural benefits, water supply augmentation, and event planning. Legal frameworks primarily focus on prohibiting the military or hostile use of weather modification techniques, leaving the ownership and regulation of cloud-seeding activities to national discretion. Despite skepticism and debate over its efficacy and environmental impact, cloud seeding continues to be explored and applied in regions worldwide as a tool for weather modification.
== Methods ==
=== Salts ===
The most common chemicals used for cloud seeding include silver iodide, potassium iodide and dry ice (solid carbon dioxide). Liquid propane, which expands into a gas, has also been used. It can produce ice crystals at higher temperatures than silver iodide. After promising research, the use of hygroscopic materials, such as table salt, is becoming more popular.
When cloud seeding, increased snowfall takes place when temperatures within the clouds are between −20 and −7 °C (-4 °F and 20 °F). Freezing nucleation is induced by the introduction of substances similar to silver iodide, which has a crystalline structure like ice.
=== Electric charges ===
Since 2021, the United Arab Emirates have been using drones equipped with a payload of electric-charge emission instruments and customized sensors that fly at low altitudes and deliver an electric charge to air molecules. This method may have contributed to a significant rainstorm in July 2021. For instance, in Al Ain it rained 6.9 millimeters (¼ inch) on 20–21 July.
=== Infrared laser pulses ===
An electronic mechanism was tested in 2010, when infrared laser pulses were directed to the air above Berlin by researchers from the University of Geneva. The experimenters posited that the pulses would encourage atmospheric sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide to form particles that would then act as seeds.
== Effectiveness ==
Despite decades of research and application, cloud seeding's effectiveness remains a subject of debate among scientists, with studies offering mixed results on its impact on precipitation enhancement, according to a report issued by the US Government Accountability Office in December 2024. Whether cloud seeding is effective in producing a statistically significant increase in precipitation has been a matter of academic debate, with contrasting results depending on the study in question and contrasting opinion among experts.
A study conducted by the United States National Academy of Sciences failed to find statistically significant support for cloud seeding's effectiveness. Based on its findings, Stanford University ecologist Jerry Bradley said: "I think you can squeeze out a little more snow or rain in some places under some conditions, but that's quite different from a program claiming to reliably increase precipitation." Data similar to that of the NAS study was acquired in a separate study conducted by the Wyoming Weather Modification Pilot Project, but whereas the NAS study concluded that "it is difficult to show clearly that cloud seeding has a very large effect", the WWMPP study concluded that "seeding could augment the snowpack by a maximum of 3% over an entire season."
In 2003, the US National Research Council (NRC) released a report stating, "science is unable to say with assurance which, if any, seeding techniques produce positive effects. In the 55 years following the first cloud-seeding demonstrations, substantial progress has been made in understanding the natural processes that account for our daily weather. Yet scientifically acceptable proof for significant seeding effects has not been achieved".
A 2010 Tel Aviv University study claimed that the common practice of cloud seeding to improve rainfall, with materials such as silver iodide and frozen carbon dioxide, seems to have little if any impact on the amount of precipitation. A 2011 study suggested that airplanes may produce ice particles by freezing cloud droplets that cool as they flow around the tips of propellers, over wings or over jet aircraft, and thereby unintentionally seed clouds. This could have potentially serious consequences for particular hail stone formation.
In 2016, Jeff Tilley, director of weather modification at the Desert Research Institute in Reno, claimed that new technology and research has produced reliable results that make cloud seeding a dependable and affordable water supply practice for many regions. Moreover, in 1998 the American Meteorological Society held that "precipitation from supercooled orographic clouds (clouds that develop over mountains) has been seasonally increased by about 10%."
Despite the mixed scientific results, cloud seeding was attempted during the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing to coax rain showers out of clouds before they reached the city in order to prevent rain during the opening and closing ceremonies. Whether this attempt was successful is a matter of dispute, with Roelof Bruintjes, who leads the National Center for Atmospheric Research's weather-modification group, remarking, "we cannot make clouds or chase clouds away".
== Impact on environment and health ==
With an NFPA 704 health hazard rating of 2, silver iodide can cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury to humans and other mammals with intense or chronic exposure. But several detailed ecological studies have shown negligible environmental and health impacts. The toxicity of silver and silver compounds (from silver iodide) was shown to be of low order in some studies. These findings likely result from the minute amounts of silver generated by cloud seeding, which are about one percent of industry emissions into the atmosphere in many parts of the world, or individual exposure from tooth fillings.
Accumulations in the soil, vegetation, and surface runoff have not been large enough to measure above natural background. A 1995 environmental assessment in the Sierra Nevada of California and a 2004 independent panel of experts in Australia confirmed these earlier findings.
"In 1978, an estimated 3,000 tonnes of silver were released into the US environment. This led the US Health Services and EPA to conduct studies regarding the potential for environmental and human health hazards related to silver. These agencies and other state agencies applied the Clean Water Act of 1977 and 1987 to establish regulations on this type of pollution."
Cloud seeding over Kosciuszko National Park – a biosphere reserve – is problematic in that several rapid changes of environmental legislation were made to enable the trial. Environmentalists are concerned about the uptake of elemental silver in a highly sensitive environment affecting the pygmy possum, among other species, as well as recent high-level algal blooms in once pristine glacial lakes. Research 50 years ago and analysis by the former Snowy Mountains Authority led to the cessation of the cloud seeding program in the 1950s with non-definitive results. Formerly, cloud seeding was rejected in Australia on environmental grounds because of concerns about the pygmy possum. The claims of negative environmental impact are disputed by peer-reviewed research, as summarized by the International Weather Modification Association.
== History ==
In 1891, Louis Gathmann suggested shooting liquid carbon dioxide into rain clouds to cause them to rain. During the 1930s, the Bergeron–Findeisen process theorized that supercooled water droplets present, while ice crystals are released into rain clouds, would cause rain. While researching aircraft icing, General Electric (GE)'s Vincent Schaefer and Irving Langmuir confirmed the theory. Schaefer discovered the principle of cloud seeding in July 1946 through a series of serendipitous events. Following ideas he and Langmuir generated while climbing Mt. Washington in New Hampshire, Schaefer, Langmuir's research associate, created a way of experimenting with supercooled clouds using a deep freeze unit of potential agents to stimulate ice crystal growth, i.e., table salt, talcum powder, soils, dust, and various chemical agents with minor effect. Then, on July 14, 1946, he wanted to try a few experiments at GE's Schenectady Research Lab.
He was dismayed to find that the deep freezer was not cold enough to produce a "cloud" using breath air. He decided to move the process along by adding a chunk of dry ice just to lower the temperature of his experimental chamber. To his astonishment, as soon as he breathed into the deep freezer, he noted a bluish haze, followed by an eye-popping display of millions of microscopic ice crystals, reflecting the strong light rays from the lamp illuminating a cross-section of the chamber. He instantly realized that he had discovered a way to change super-cooled water into ice crystals. The experiment was easily replicated, and he explored the temperature gradient to establish the −40 °C (−40 °F) limit for liquid water.
Within the month, Schaefer's colleague, the atmospheric scientist Bernard Vonnegut, was credited with discovering another method for "seeding" super-cooled cloud water. Vonnegut accomplished his discovery at the desk, looking up information in a basic chemistry text and then tinkering with silver and iodide chemicals to produce silver iodide. Together with Professor Henry Chessin, of SUNY Albany, a crystallographer, he co-authored a publication in Science and received a patent in 1975. Both methods were adopted for use in cloud seeding during 1946 while working for GE in the state of New York.
Schaefer's method altered a cloud's heat budget; Vonnegut's altered formative crystal structure, an ingenious property related to a good match in lattice constant between the two types of crystal. (The crystallography of ice later played a role in Vonnegut's brother Kurt Vonnegut's novel Cat's Cradle). The first attempt to modify natural clouds in the field through "cloud seeding" began during a flight that began in upstate New York on 13 November 1946. Schaefer was able to cause snow to fall near Mount Greylock in western Massachusetts after he dumped six pounds (2.5 kg) of dry ice into the target cloud from a plane after a 60-mile (100 km) easterly chase from the Schenectady County Airport.
Dry ice and silver iodide agents are effective in changing super-cooled clouds' physical chemistry, and thus useful in augmenting winter snowfall over mountains and, under certain conditions, in lightning and hail suppression. While not a new technique, hygroscopic seeding for enhancement of rainfall in warm clouds is enjoying a revival, based on positive indications from research in South Africa, Mexico, and elsewhere. The hygroscopic material most commonly used is table salt. It is postulated that hygroscopic seeding causes the droplet size spectrum in clouds to become more maritime (bigger drops) and less continental, stimulating rainfall through coalescence. From 1967 to 1972, the U.S. military's Operation Popeye cloud-seeded silver iodide to extend the monsoon season over North Vietnam, specifically the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The operation extended the monsoon period an average of 30 to 45 days in the targeted areas. The 54th Weather Reconnaissance Squadron carried out the operation to "make mud, not war".
An attempt by the U.S. military to modify hurricanes in the Atlantic basin using cloud seeding in the 1960s was called Project STORMFURY. Scientists tested four hurricanes across eight days and observed decreased wind speeds of 10% to 30% on four of these days. They originally attributed the lack of results to faulty execution, but the results came into question because of the lack of supercooled water in the hurricane and the inability to determine if the effects were due to human intervention or the natural processes of hurricanes.
Two federal agencies have supported various weather modification research projects, which began in the early 1960s: The United States Bureau of Reclamation (Reclamation; Department of the Interior) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA; Department of Commerce). Reclamation sponsored several cloud-seeding research projects under the umbrella of Project Skywater from 1964 to 1988, and NOAA conducted the Atmospheric Modification Program from 1979 to 1993. The sponsored projects were carried out in several states and two countries (Thailand and Morocco), studying both winter and summer cloud seeding. From 1962 to 1988 Reclamation developed cloud seeding applied research to augment water supplies in the western U.S. The research focused on winter orographic seeding to enhance snowfall in the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, and precipitation in coast ranges of southern California. In California Reclamation partnered with the California Department of Water Resources (CDWR) to sponsor the Serra Cooperative Pilot Project (SCPP), based in Auburn, to conduct seeding experiments in the central Sierra. The University of Nevada and Desert Research Institute provided cloud physics, physical chemistry, and other field support. The High Plains Cooperative Pilot Project (HIPLEX) focused on convective cloud seeding to increase rainfall during the growing season in Montana, Kansas, and Texas from 1974 to 1979.
In 1979, the World Meteorological Organization and other member-states led by the Government of Spain conducted a Precipitation Enhancement Project (PEP) in Spain, with inconclusive results due probably to location selection issues.
Reclamation sponsored research at several universities, including Colorado State University, the Universities of Wyoming, Washington, UCLA, Utah, Chicago, NYU, Montana, and Colorado, and research teams at Stanford, Meteorology Research Inc., and Penn State University, and the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, North Dakota, Texas A&M, Texas Tech, and Oklahoma. Cooperative efforts with state water resources agencies in California, Colorado, Montana, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and Arizona assured that the applied research met state water management needs. HIPLEX also partnered with NASA, Environment Canada, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR). From 2002 to 2006, in cooperation with six western states, Reclamation sponsored a small cooperative research program called the Weather Damage Modification Program.
In the U.S., funding for research has declined in the last two decades. But the Bureau of Reclamation sponsored a six-state research program from 2002 to 2006 called the "Weather Damage Modification Program". A 2003 study by the United States National Academy of Sciences urges a national research program to clear up remaining questions about weather modification's efficacy and practice.
In Australia, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) conducted major trials between 1947 and the early-1960s:
1947–1952: CSIRO scientists dropped dry ice into the tops of cumulus clouds. The method worked reliably with clouds that were very cold, producing rain that would not have otherwise fallen.
1953–1956: CSIRO carried out similar trials in South Australia, Queensland and other states. Experiments used both ground-based and airborne silver iodide generators.
Late 1950s and early 1960s: Cloud seeding in the Snowy Mountains, on the Cape York Peninsula in Queensland, in the New England District of New South Wales, and in the Warragamba catchment area west of Sydney.
Only the trial conducted in the Snowy Mountains produced statistically significant rainfall increases over the entire experiment.
Hydro Tasmania (at the time still known as the Hydro Electric Commission) began experimenting with cloud-seeding over lake catchments in central Tasmania in the early 1960s in order to determine if their electricity-producing dams could be kept at high water levels through cloud seeding. Tasmania proved to be one place where cloud seeding was highly effective. Various trials were undertaken between 1964 and 2005, and again between 2009 and 2016, but none have taken place since then. Hydro Tasmania also undertook soil and water survey samples and found negligible trace elements of the materials used for cloud seeding (such as silver iodine), and determined it did not have a detrimental effect on the environment.
An Austrian study to use silver iodide seeding for hail prevention ran during 1981–2000, and the technique is still actively deployed there.
=== Asia ===
==== China ====
The largest cloud seeding system is in the People's Republic of China. They believe that it increases the amount of rain over several increasingly arid regions, including its capital city, Beijing, by firing silver iodide rockets into the sky where rain is desired. There is even political strife caused by neighboring regions that accuse each other of "stealing rain" using cloud seeding. China used cloud seeding in Beijing just before the 2008 Olympic Games in order to have a dry Olympic season. In February 2009, China also blasted iodide sticks over Beijing to artificially induce snowfall after four months of drought, and blasted iodide sticks over other areas of northern China to increase snowfall. The snowfall in Beijing lasted for approximately three days and led to the closure of 12 main roads around Beijing. At the end of October 2009 Beijing claimed it had its earliest snowfall since 1987 due to cloud seeding. According to "research paper from Tsinghua University, the Chinese weather authorities used weather modification to ensure the sky was clear and lower air pollution" on July 1, 2021. The Chinese Communist party celebrated its centenary on July 1 with a major celebration. The celebration took place in Tiananmen Square. The paper was published on November 26, 2021 in a peer-review journal called Environment Science (via South China Morning Post). The research shows that the Chinese government used cloud-seeding techniques to force rainfall the evening before the celebration event. This rainfall lowered the amount of PM2.5 pollution by more than two-thirds. That helped improve the air quality at the time from "moderate" to "good".
==== India ====
In India, cloud seeding operations were conducted during the years 1983, 1984–87, and 1993–94 by the Tamil Nadu Government due to severe drought. In the years 1999 to 2004, 2006 and 2010 Karnataka government attempted cloud seeding without much success. Cloud seeding operations were also conducted in 2003 and 2004 through in the state of Maharashtra with inconclusive results.
In October 2025, cloud seeding was conducted to improve the air quality over Delhi but the experiment yielded no significant results.
==== Iran ====
In 1946, the Iranian government tried to fertilize Iran's clouds with the help of Americans, but it was unsuccessful. Then in 1947, in Article 19 of the Law on Water and its Nationalization, the then Ministry of Water and Electricity was obliged to provide the water needed by the country in various ways, including cloud fertilization. Accordingly, the Ministry of Energy between 1953 and 1957, in cooperation with a Canadian company and using aircraft and silver iodide compound fertilized the clouds that were over the Karaj and Jajrud dam area.
After the revolution of 1978, in the years 1989 to 1995, cloud fertilization was carried out in a scattered manner using ground generators in the heights of Shirkuh, Yazd. Then, with the announcement of the Minister of Energy in February 1996, the National Center for Cloud Fertility Research and Studies was established in Yazd and officially started working in 1997.
==== Israel ====
Israel conducted experimental cloud seeding for seven years from 2014 to 2021. The practice involved emitting silver iodide from airplanes and ground stations and took place only in the northern parts of the country. Israel stopped the rain enhancement project in 2021 due to the experiment data showing that the practice was largely ineffective and expensive, and because there had been some recent years of unrelated significant rainfall.
==== Kuwait ====
To counter drought and a growing population in a desert region, Kuwait is embarking on its own cloud seeding program, with the local Environment Public Authority conducting a study to gauge its viability locally.
==== North Korea ====
Cloud seeding projects have been carried out in North Korea since the 1960s. Their initial purpose was to ensure a steady supply of water for the hydroelectric power stations located in the South Hamgyong Province. In the following decades, however, while research on utilising cloud resources was carried out, seeding operations themselves were almost nonexistent. Cloud seeding operations were prioritised again in the twenty-first century due to socio-economic requirements, and to mitigate natural disasters such as droughts and hailstorms. More recently, between 2017 and 2020, the Chungsan region was selected to carry out cloud seeding experiments over, which were seen to have enhanced precipitation in the region.
==== Pakistan ====
Pakistan has undergone its first-ever artificial rain experiment using cloud seeding, in a move carried out with the help of the United Arab Emirates.there was drizzle in 'at least 10 areas' of Lahore, consistently ranked the most polluted city in the world.
On Friday, November 15, 2024, Pakistan successfully conducted a cloud seeding operation using locally developed technology, resulting in artificial rainfall to tackle the region’s smog crisis. The Meteorological Department confirmed rainfall in Jhelum, Gujar Khan, Chakwal, and Talagang, attributing it to the cloud seeding effort. Cloud seeding was conducted around 14:00, with subsequent rainfall observed within hours in Jhelum and Gujar Khan.
==== Sri Lanka ====
In January 2019, the Sri Lanka Air Force (SLAF) and Ministry of Power, Energy and Business Development signed an agreement for a cloud seeding project, created in response to lower water levels for hydroelectric power due to dry weather. In February of that year, a group of officials from the SLAF, Ceylon Electricity Board, and meteorology and irrigation departments were sent to Thailand to study rainmaking projects carried out by the Department of Royal Rainmaking and Agricultural Aviation. On March 22, a Harbin Y-12 flew over the Maskeliya Reservoir at 2,400 m (7,900 ft), dispersing cloud seeding chemicals. Rain arrived the next day on March 23, though project members had expected it to appear earlier on the 22nd. News First proclaimed that the pilot project had "proven to be a success", while Mongabay described it as a "failed attempt" that had "fallen short" and highlighted various climate experts who recommended that the government conduct more research into the project's potential environmental effects before proceeding further.
==== United Arab Emirates ====
=== Southeast Asia ===
In Southeast Asia, open-burning haze pollutes the regional environment. Cloud seeding has been used to improve the air quality by encouraging rainfall. On 20 June 2013, Indonesia said it will begin cloud-seeding operations following reports from Singapore and Malaysia that smog caused by forest and bush fires in Sumatra have disrupted daily activities in the neighboring countries. On 25 June 2013, hailstones were reported to have fallen over some parts of Singapore. Despite NEA denials, some believe that the hailstones are the result of cloud seeding in Indonesia.
==== Indonesia ====
In Jakarta, cloud seeding was tested in 2013 to minimize flood risk in anticipation of heavy floods, according to the Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology. The practice has continued up to March 2025, national and provincial disaster agencies used cloud seeding over the sea north of Jakarta, with the aim of shifting rainfall away from land and toward the sea, costing about 200 million rupiahs (US$12,292) for each flyover.
==== Malaysia ====
In Malaysia, cloud seeding was first used in 1988 for three purposes: filling up dams, lessening the effects of haze, and fighting forest fires. In 2015, cloud seeding was done daily in Malaysia since the haze began in early-August. Johor Water Regulatory Body focused to produce rain over dams with critically low water levels. They used Cessna 340 with tubes of ioidised salt, flying from their operation base at Senai International Airport.
==== Thailand ====
The Thailand Royal Rainmaking Project (Thai: โครงการฝนหลวง, RTGS: khrongkan fon luang) was initiated in November 1955 by King Bhumibol Adulyadej. Thai farmers repeatedly suffered the effects of drought. The king resolved to do something about it and proposed a solution to the dearth of rain: artificial rainmaking, or cloud seeding. The program is run by the Department of Royal Rainmaking and Agricultural Aviation. Thailand started a rain-making project in the late-1950s, known today as the Royal Rainmaking Project. Its first efforts scattered sea salt in the air to catch the humidity and dry ice to condense the humidity to form clouds. The project took about ten years of experiments and refinement. The first field operations began in 1969 above Khao Yai National Park. Since then the Thai government claims that rainmaking has been successfully applied throughout Thailand and neighboring countries. The king received recognition for the Royal Rainmaking Project from the Eureka organization in 2001 for an invention that is beneficial to the world. In 2009, Jordan received permission from Thailand to use the technique. On 12 October 2005 the European Patent Office granted to King Bhumibol Adulyadej the patent EP 1 491 088 Weather modification by royal rainmaking technology. The budget of the Department of Royal Rainmaking and Agricultural Aviation in FY2019 was 2,224 million baht.
==== Vietnam ====
In Vietnam, during the leadup to and initial stages of the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ in 1954, the French Far East Expeditionary Corps looked into the possibility of using cloud seeding to impede Việt Minh flow of supplies through Route Provinciale 41, a dirt road leading into Điện Biên Phủ that would become more difficult to navigate during the rainy season. General Henri Navarre authorized research into using cloud seeding this way on March 16, just before the outbreak of the battle, and a test commenced the following month. Results were disappointing; while it did not take long for the rain clouds to form and release precipitation, they often drifted away from Route Provinciale 41 in the process, reducing their ability to hinder Việt Minh logistics.
=== North America ===
==== United States ====
In the United States, cloud seeding is used to increase precipitation in areas experiencing drought, to reduce the size of hailstones that form in thunderstorms, and to reduce the amount of fog in and around airports. In the summer of 1948, the usually humid city of Alexandria, Louisiana, under Mayor Carl B. Close, seeded a cloud with dry ice at the municipal airport during a drought; quickly 0.85 inches (22 mm) of rain fell.
Major ski resorts occasionally use cloud seeding to induce snowfall. Eleven western states and one Canadian province (Alberta) had ongoing weather modification operational programs in 2012. In 2006, an $8.8 million project began in Wyoming to examine cloud seeding's effects on snowfall over Wyoming's Medicine Bow, Sierra Madre, and Wind River mountain ranges.
In Oregon, Portland General Electric used Hood River seeding to produce snow for hydro power in 1974-1975. The results were substantial, but caused an undue burden on the locals, who experienced overpowering rainfall, causing street collapses and mudslides. PGE discontinued its seeding practices the next year.
In 1978, the U.S. signed the Environmental Modification Convention, which bans the use of weather modification for hostile purposes.
As of 2022, seven agencies in California are conducting cloud seeding operations using silver iodide, including the Sacramento Municipal Utility District, which began employing the technique in 1969 to increase the water supply to its hydroelectric power plants, and reported that it results in "an average of 3 to 10% increase in [Sierra Nevada] snowpack".
==== Canada ====
During the sixties, Irving P. Krick & Associates operated a successful cloud seeding operation in the area around Calgary, Alberta. This utilized both aircraft and ground-based generators that pumped silver iodide into the atmosphere in an attempt to reduce the threat of hail damage. Ralph Langeman, Lynn Garrison, and Stan McLeod, all ex-members of the RCAF's 403 Squadron, attending the University of Alberta, spent their summers flying hail suppression. The Alberta Hail Suppression Project is continuing with C$3 million a year in funding from insurance companies to reduce hail damage in southern Alberta.
=== Europe ===
==== Bulgaria ====
Bulgaria operates a national network of hail protection, silver iodide rocket sites, strategically located in agricultural areas such as the rose valley. Each site protects an area of 10 sq. km (4 sq. mi.), the density of the site clusters is such that at least 2 sites will be able to target a single hail cloud, initial detection of hail cloud formation to firing of the rockets is typically 7–10 minutes in its entire process with a view to seed the formation of much smaller hailstones, high in the atmosphere that will melt before reaching ground level.
Data collated since the 1960s suggests huge agricultural sector losses are avoided yearly with the protection system, unseeded the hail will flatten entire regions, with seeding this can be reduced to minor leaf damage from the smaller hailstones that failed to melt.
==== France and Spain ====
Cloud seeding began in France during the 1950s with the intent of reducing hail damage to crops. The ANELFA ([1]) project consists of local agencies acting within a non-profit organization. A similar project in Spain is managed by the Consorcio por la Lucha Antigranizo de Aragon. The success of the French program was supported by analysis made by Jean Dessens based on insurance data; that of the Spanish program in studies conducted by the Spanish Agricultural Ministry. However, Jean Dessens's results were heavily criticized and doubt was cast on the effectiveness of ground generator seeding. ([2])
==== Russia ====
The Soviet Union created a specifically designed version of the Antonov An-30 aerial survey aircraft, the An-30M Sky Cleaner, with eight containers of solid carbon dioxide in the cargo area plus external pods containing meteorological cartridges that could be fired into clouds. Russian government spends millions on 'cloud seeding' technology to ensure it doesn't rain on May Day public holiday. A single contractor was hired to employ a technique which involves dispersing clouds and forcing them to rain before the time they naturally would – dropping the rain on other places and at other times, so they don’t affect specific events. In 2020, Russia used cloud seeding to help fight Siberian forest fires. The Russian government has also used cloud seeding technology in Crimea to alleviate drought which was caused as a result of Ukraine blocking the Crimean Canal.
Russia published a review of the weather electromagnetic correction technology in 2015, which was developed in the 1980s in the USSR and shares technology with India.
==== Germany ====
In Germany civic engagement societies organize cloud seeding on a region level. A registered society maintains aircraft for cloud seeding to protect agricultural areas from hail in the district Rosenheim, the district Miesbach, the district Traunstein (all located in southern Bavaria, Germany) and the district Kufstein (located in Tyrol, Austria).
Cloud seeding is also used in Baden-Württemberg, a federal state particularly known for its winegrowing culture. The districts of Ludwigsburg, Heilbronn, Schwarzwald-Baar and Rems-Murr, as well as the cities Stuttgart and Esslingen participate in a program to prevent the formation of hailstones. Reports from a local insurance agency suggest that the cloud seeding activities in the Stuttgart area have prevented about 5 million euro in damages in 2015 while the project's annual upkeep is priced at only 325.000 euro. Another society for cloud seeding operates in the district of Villingen-Schwenningen.
==== Austria ====
Austria has two hail defense organizations: Steirische Hagel Abwehr, with four aircraft: Cessna 182 and Südflug with three aircraft: Cessna 150L, Cessna 182P, Partenavia P.68 at Graz Airport.
==== Slovenia ====
Slovenia's oldest aeroclub Letalski center Maribor carries air defense against hail as a specialized EASA operation. The Cessna TU206G Turbo Stationair 6 II is equipped with external aggregates and flares for flying. Three crew members work in the operation. Two are the pilots in the plane and the third is the radar operator on the ground. The purpose of the defense is to prevent damage to farmland and cities in the areas of Styria and Prekmurje - aircraft hail suppression. They have been carrying out defense since 1983. Silver iodide is used as a reagent. The base is at Maribor Edvard Rusjan Airport. The activity is financed by local communities and the Ministry of Agriculture, it has great support among people and farmers from all over the countryside.
==== United Kingdom ====
Project Cumulus was a UK government initiative to investigate weather manipulation, in particular through cloud seeding experiments, operational between 1949 and 1952. A conspiracy theory has circulated that the Lynmouth flood of 1952 was caused by secret cloud seeding experiments carried out by the Royal Air Force. However, meteorologist Philip Eden has given several reasons why "it is preposterous to blame the Lynmouth flood on such experiments".
=== Australia ===
In Australia, summer activities of CSIRO and Hydro Tasmania over central and western Tasmania between the 1960s and the present day appear to have been successful. Seeding over the Hydro-Electricity Commission catchment area on the Central Plateau achieved rainfall increases as high as 30 percent in autumn. The Tasmanian experiments were so successful that the Commission has regularly undertaken seeding ever since in mountainous parts of the State.
In 2004, Snowy Hydro Limited began a trial of cloud seeding to assess the feasibility of increasing snow precipitation in the Snowy Mountains in Australia. The test period, originally scheduled to end in 2009, was later extended to 2014. The New South Wales (NSW) Natural Resources Commission, responsible for supervising the cloud seeding operations, believes that the trial may have difficulty establishing statistically whether cloud seeding operations are increasing snowfall. This project was discussed at a summit in Narrabri, NSW on 1 December 2006. The summit met with the intention of outlining a proposal for a 5-year trial, focusing on Northern NSW.
The various implications of such a widespread trial were discussed, drawing on the combined knowledge of several worldwide experts, including representatives from the Tasmanian Hydro Cloud Seeding Project however does not make reference to former cloud seeding experiments by the then-Snowy Mountains Authority, which rejected weather modification. The trial required changes to NSW environmental legislation in order to facilitate placement of the cloud seeding apparatus. The modern experiment is not supported for the Australian Alps.
In December 2006, the Queensland government of Australia announced a $7.6 million in funding for "warm cloud" seeding research to be conducted jointly by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and the United States National Center for Atmospheric Research. Outcomes of the study are hoped to ease continuing drought conditions in the states South East region.
In March 2020, scientists from the Sydney Institute of Marine Science and Southern Cross University trialled marine cloud seeding off the coast of Queensland, Australia, with the aim to protect Great Barrier Reef from coral bleaching and dieoff during marine heatwaves. Using two high-pressure turbines, the team sprayed microscopic droplets of saltwater into the air. These then evaporate leaving behind very small salt crystals, which water vapour clings to, creating clouds that reflect the sun more effectively.
=== Africa ===
In Mali and Niger, cloud seeding is also used on a national scale. In 1985 the Moroccan Government started with a Cloud seeding program called 'Al-Ghait'. The system was first used in Morocco in 1999; it has also been used between 1999 and 2002 in Burkina Faso and from 2005 in Senegal. Cloud seeding experiments and operations were also conducted in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) between 1968 and 1980.
== Legal frameworks and implications ==
=== Existing international legislation ===
The Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (ENMOD) is the only international framework related to the regulation of weather and climate modification technologies. Developed after cloud-seeding operations were conducted during the Vietnam War and the Cold War, the convention's scope of application solely encompasses military or any other hostile uses of weather modification technologies. Indeed, the use of weather modification programs for peaceful purposes is not prohibited by the treaty. ENMOD has been criticised for its many weaknesses, notably regarding the vagueness and ambiguity of notions leaving room for various interpretations.
=== Ownership of clouds ===
Given the growing attractiveness of weather modification programs, the legal framework offered by ENMOD is arguably insufficient, as the question of "ownership" is not answered. A 1948 article in the Stanford Law Review stated that attributing a "legal title to a cloud would be ridiculous" due to the distinct nature of clouds, their perpetual change of form and location, their emergence, disappearance and renewal. Similarly, Brooks considers private ownership of clouds as "nonsense" as control is limited to the short moment of the cloud being above somebody's land. Quilleré-Majzoub (2004) dismisses the concept of ownership of clouds altogether, given their specific nature, rendering the idea of a cloud ever belonging to somebody unsubstantiated. Indeed, clouds are beyond occupancy – similar to air, running water, the sea and animals ferae naturae – and should thus be considered as common property. Based on this assumption, according to Quilleré-Majzoub it follows that a distinction between res communis, belonging to everybody and thus necessitating international regulation, and res nullius, belonging to nobody with states serving themselves as they please, is more suitable. Although water is generally considered as res nullius in international law, there is strong pressure to acknowledging it as res communis, but cloud moisture does currently not have a clearly defined status. She thus suggests that international law should elaborate a jurisdictional regime that takes into account both the particular nature of clouds and the implications of new technologies.
According to Brooks (1948) the picture changes once the moisture in the clouds is made accessible through artificial rainmaking technologies, as the rainwater can now be occupied. Typically, regarding naturally occurring precipitation, the first to reduce it to possession, normally the landowner, will gain rights in it as long as no existing rights are violated. Given that this benefit is accorded by nature, these natural rights should not allow the landowner to claim artificially induced rain. California legislation binds water generated through seeding to existing surface water rights and groundwater regulations, considering the produced water "natural supply". Yet courts could decide that the induced rain should be designated as "additional precipitation", permitting the cloud-seeding entity to claim a portion of this generated water. This approach would also face challenges, given the difficulty of determining the fraction of extra water procured by cloud seeding.
== Conspiracy theories ==
Cloud seeding has been the focus of many theories based on the belief that governments manipulate the weather in order to control various conditions, including global warming, populations, military weapons testing, public health, and flooding. This speculation has been fueled in part by government interventions and programs like Operation Popeye.
A 2016 classified ad placed by Los Angeles County's Department of Public Works in the Pasadena Star News sparked claims that widespread weather modification was being confirmed. The department followed up with a clarification that it was only describing cloud seeding, used as an anti-drought measure intermittently for more than half a century in Los Angeles.
== See also ==
Hail cannon
2015 Southeast Asian haze
Anthropogenic cloud
Atmospheric moisture extraction
Bioprecipitation
Cloudbuster – a pseudoscientific device claimed to create clouds and rain via energy manipulation
Fog collection
Marine cloud brightening
The Avengers – A Surfeit of H2O
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Schaefer, Vincent J. Serendipity in Science: My Twenty Years at Langmuir University 2013 Compiled and Edited by Don Rittner. Square Circle Press, Voorheesville, NY ISBN 978-0985692636
Note: Chapter Six "The War Ends as I Discover Cloud Seeding" Schaefer discusses the conversations with Langmuir while climbing Mount Washington (pp. 118–119) and then describes the event "My Discovery of Dry Ice Seeding" on pp. 128–129. References by his son, James M Schaefer, Ph.D.
== External links ==
Rainmaking in China
Nevada State Cloud Seeding Program
European patent EP 1 491 088 Weather modification by royal rainmaking technology
Dunning, Brian (14 January 2025). "Skeptoid #971: Cloud Seeding". Skeptoid. Retrieved 14 January 2025. |
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