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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunming_Metro	Kunming Metro	Kunming Metro, or Kunming Rail Transit, is a rapid transit system in Kunming, the capital of China's Yunnan Province. The system currently consists of 6 lines with 2 extensions to existing lines under construction and 3 more lines planned, with a total track length of 164.3 kilometers. == Background == The streets of Kunming have long been congested, and as such there have been talks of a subway system since the late 1990s. With a rapidly growing population of just over 3 million people at the time of the network's construction (And over 5 million people living in the built-up urban area as of 2020), Kunming was one of the largest cities in China without a metro system before its construction. A 2006 proposal would have seen construction start in 2008 with a north-south line and an east-west line. The current rapid transit system was first announced in 2009, with construction scheduled to start later that year. The proposed routes would not only serve commuters in Kunming's city centre, but would help encourage development to the city's southeast. Chenggong District has been the site of a recent construction boom, although most new developments were still unoccupied without adequate transit connections. Thus, the Kunming Metro served the dual purpose of alleviating traffic problems in the city's core and encouraging growth in the southeast. Construction on Lines 1 and 2 officially began in May 2010, after months of delays. An elevated test section had been under construction since 2009. Lines 1 (34 km) and 2 (22 km) were scheduled to open in 2012, but with delays, weren't opened until early 2013. Construction on Line 3 began in August 2010 and was opened on 29 August 2017. Construction of Line 1 was expected to cost as much as 32 billion yuan (US$4.5 billion), with each kilometer of elevated metro costing around 250 million yuan and each kilometer of underground subway expected to cost between 400 million and 800 million yuan. The primary contractor is China Railway Construction Corporation (CRCC). == Rolling stock == The trains of Line 6 were manufactured by China South Locomotive & Rolling Stock Corporation Ltd (CSR, now CRRC) in Zhuzhou. 6-car sets operate at 120 km/h. CSR met journalists in October 2011 to discuss the safety concerns arising from operating trains at such speeds. Changes have been made to the rolling stock over time. Line 1, 2, and 6 trains feature a physical route map made with LED lights, although some Line 1 and 2 trains have been updated with new digital UIs. Line 3 trains feature a digital route map with a basic UI. Line 4 trains have darker flooring, a new UI on the info boards inside the train cars, and a remade route map UI. Line 5 trains reverted the flooring color back to white, remade the info board UI again, modified the route map UI, and feature projectors on the outside of the train that project advertisements onto the tunnel walls. == Lines == === Operational === ==== Line 1 ==== Line 1 is currently 33.3 km long with 22 stations, running from South Ring Road to University Town (South) and Kunming South railway station. Lines 1 and 2 currently have through service, which will end when Line 1 Northwest Extension and Line 2 Phase 2 are completed, turning South Ring Road into an interchange station. After the Northwest Extension opens, Line 1 will run from Jiaochang North Road to University Town (South) and Kunming South Railway Station. The first phase of Line 1 came into operation on May 20, 2013. The second phase of Line 1 came into operation on April 30, 2014. A 5.3 km long branch line to Kunming South railway station was opened on 26 December 2016. Line 1's route currently consists of an elevated section connecting Kunming to Chenggong and an underground section below Caiyun Road within Chenggong. The northwest extension will be dug underground along the west side of Kunming's city center. It is Kunming's main rail link to Chenggong. Line 1's color is red. ==== Line 2 ==== Line 2 is currently 12.4 km long with 14 stations, running from North Coach Station to South Ring Road. Lines 1 and 2 currently have through service, which will end when Line 1 Northwest Extension and Line 2 Phase 2 are completed, turning South Ring Road into an interchange station. After Phase 2 opens, Line 2 will run from North Coach Station to Haidong Park. The first phase of Line 2 came into operation on April 30, 2014. Line 2's route currently consists of a short elevated section from North Coach Station to Longtou Street and an underground section beneath Beijing Road until the line's current terminus at South Ring Road. Phase 2 will be dug beneath Guannan Avenue and Fubao Road towards Haidong Park. It is Kunming's main north-south line. Line 2's color is blue. ==== Line 3 ==== Line 3 started operation on 29 Aug 2017, consisting of 19.16 km of line with 20 stations running from Western Hills Park to East Coach Station. It is Kunming's main east-west line. Line 3's color is magenta. ==== Line 4 ==== Line 4 started operation on 23 September 2020, consisting of 43.4 km of line with 29 stations running from Jinchuan Road to Kunming South Railway Station. It connects Northwest Kunming and Eastern Kunming to the metro while serving as a second link to Chenggong. Line 4 has cartoon mascots exclusive to the line known as the "K4 Cats" that promote ridership of the line. Line 4's color is orange. ==== Line 5 ==== Line 5 started operation on 29 June 2022, consisting of 26.5 km of line with 22 stations running from World Horti-Expo Garden to Baofeng. Line 5 serves as a tourism line, linking tourist destinations such as World Horti-Expo Garden, Haigeng Great Dam, and Haigeng Park. Line 5's color is green. ==== Line 6 ==== Line 6 consists of 25.3 km of line with 8 stations running from Kunming Airport to Tangzixiang. Phase 1 opened on 28 June 2012. Phase 2 opened on 23 September 2020, extending the line to Tangzixiang station just south of Kunming's city center. It is an airport express line connecting the city center with the new Kunming Changshui International Airport. Its original terminus at East Coach Station was not connected to any other line until the opening of Line 3 in 2017. The two intermediate stations between East Coach Station and Kunming Airport were built as infill stations. Line 6 temporary ceased operation on 5 March 2016 to complete the two infill stations and reentered operation on 29 August 2017 with a total of four stations. Line 6's color is teal. === Planned & under construction === The extensions of Lines 1 & 2 are under construction, but have faced several delays from their original opening date in 2022 and are now projected to open in December 2026. Line 9, the Songming Line, and the Anning Line are planned. All station names that are included in phase 1 of Line 9 have been confirmed. Construction of the planned new lines are currently on hold. This is due to a lack of funding and unstable leadership. == See also == Kunming List of rapid transit systems High-speed rail in China Urban rail transit in China == Notes == == References == == Sources == news.kunming.cn Archived 2012-07-01 at the Wayback Machine yn.xinhuanet.com == External links == Kunming Metro Official Website Archived 2011-01-29 at the Wayback Machine UrbanRail page on Kunming Metro
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patiala_and_East_Punjab_States_Union#:~:text=The%20Patiala%20and%20East%20Punjab,area%20of%2026%2C208%20km2.	Patiala and East Punjab States Union	The Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU) was a State of India, uniting eight princely states between 1948 and 1956. The capital and principal city was Patiala. The state covered an area of 26,208 km2. Kasauli, Kandaghat and Chail was also part of PEPSU. == History == === Princely states union === It was created by combining eight princely states (7 Punjab States & 1 Punjab Hill State), which maintained their native rulers : Six Salute states Patiala, title Maharaja, Hereditary salute of 17 guns (19-guns local) Jind, title Maharaja, Hereditary salute of 13 guns (15-guns personal and local) Kapurthala, title Maharaja, Hereditary salute of 13 guns (15-guns personal and local) Nabha, title Maharaja, Hereditary salute of 13 guns (15-guns local): Faridkot, title Raja, Hereditary salutes of 11 guns Malerkotla, title Nawab, Hereditary salute of 11 guns and two Non-salute states Kalsia, title Raja (till 1916 Sardar) Nalagarh, title Raja. The state was inaugurated on 15 July 1948 and formally became a state of India in 1950. === Successor states === On 1 November 1956, PEPSU was merged mostly into Punjab State under the States Reorganisation Act. A part of the former state of PEPSU, including the present day Jind district (Jind & Narwana), area of Pinjore in north Haryana, as well as the Charkhi Dadri, Bawal and Mahendragarh Narnaul in south-west Haryana, presently lie within the state of Haryana, which was separated from Punjab on 1 November 1966. Some other areas that belonged to PEPSU, notably (Kandaghat etc.) Solan and Nalagarh, now lie in the state of Himachal Pradesh. == Rajpramukh and Uparajpramukh == == Chief Ministers == Color key Other keys d Died in Office pd Position Dissolved R Resigned == Institutions == === Heads of state and government === When the state was formed, the then-Maharaja of Patiala, Yadavindra Singh, was appointed its Rajpramukh (equivalent to Governor). He remained in office during the entire length of the state's short existence. The then Maharaja of Kapurthala, Jagatjit Singh, served as Uparajpramukh (lieutenant-governor). Gian Singh Rarewala was sworn in on 13 January 1949 as the first Chief Minister of PEPSU. Col. Raghbir Singh became the next Chief Minister on 23 May 1951, and Brish Bhan the Deputy Chief Minister. The state elected a 60-member state legislative assembly on 6 January 1952. The Congress Party won 26 seats and the Akali Dal won 19 seats. On 22 April 1952, Gian Singh Rarewala again became Chief Minister, this time an elected one. He led a coalition government, called the "United Front", formed by the Akali Dal and various independents. On 5 March 1953 his government was dismissed and President's rule was imposed on the state. In the mid-term poll that followed, the Congress party secured a majority and Raghbir Singh became Chief Minister on 8 March 1954. Upon his death, Brish Bhan became the Chief Minister on 12 January 1955 and remained in office as last incumbent. == Administration == Initially, in 1948, the state was divided into the following 8 districts & 25 sub-districts (tehsils): Patiala - Patiala, Nabha, Rajpura Kapurthala - Kapurthala, Phagwara Bathinda - Bathinda, Mansa, Faridkot Fatehgarh Sahib - Sirhand, Payal, Amloh Barnala - Barnala, Phul, Dhuri, Malerkotla Sangrur - Sangrur, Sunam, Narwana, Jind Kohistan - Kandaghat, Nalagarth, Dera Bassi Mohindergarh - Mohindergarh, Narnaul, Dadri In 1953, the number of districts in PEPSU was reduced from eight to five. Fatehgarh Sahib and Kohistan districts were dissolved and merged with Patiala district. Amloh and Payal tehsils of Fatehgarh Sahib were merged with Sirhind tehsil, while Dera Bassi tehsil of Kohistan district was merged with Rajpura tehsil. Barnala district was also abolished. It had four tehsils: Phul, Dhuri, Malerkotla, and Barnala. Dhuri, Malerkotla, Barnala, and part of Phul tehsil were transferred to Sangrur district, while the remaining portion of Phul tehsil was merged with Bhatinda district. There were four Lok Sabha constituencies in this state. Three of them were single-seat constituency: Mohindergarh, Sangrur and Patiala. The Kapurthala-Bhatinda Lok Sabha constituency was a double-seat constituency. == Demography == The state had a population of 3,493,685 (1951 census), of which 19% was urban. The population density was 133/km2. The state had 64 towns and 5,708 villages. == Notes == == References == == Further reading == Singh, Gursharan (1991). History of PEPSU, India: Patiala and East Punjab States Union, 1948-1956, Delhi: Konark Publishers, ISBN 81-220-0244-7.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequoia_National_Park	Sequoia National Park	Sequoia National Park is a national park of the United States in the southern Sierra Nevada east of Visalia, California. The park was established on September 25, 1890, and today protects 404,064 acres (631 sq mi; 163,519 ha; 1,635 km2) of forested mountainous terrain. Encompassing a vertical relief of nearly 13,000 feet (4,000 m), the park contains the highest point in the contiguous United States, Mount Whitney, at 14,505 feet (4,421 m) above sea level. The park is south of, and contiguous with, Kings Canyon National Park; both parks are administered by the National Park Service together as Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. UNESCO designated the areas as Sequoia-Kings Canyon Biosphere Reserve in 1976. The park is notable for its giant sequoia trees, including the General Sherman Tree, the largest tree on Earth by volume. The General Sherman Tree grows in the Giant Forest, which contains five of the ten largest trees in the world. The Giant Forest is connected by the Generals Highway to Kings Canyon National Park's General Grant Grove, home of the General Grant tree among other giant sequoias. The park's giant sequoia forests are part of 202,430 acres (316 sq mi; 81,921 ha; 819 km2) of old-growth forests shared by Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. The parks preserve a landscape that was first cultivated by the Monache tribe, the southern Sierra Nevada before Euro-American settlement. == Front country == Many park visitors enter Sequoia National Park through its southern entrance near the town of Three Rivers at Ash Mountain at 1,700 ft (520 m) elevation. The lower elevations around Ash Mountain contain the only National Park Service-protected California Foothills ecosystem, consisting of blue oak woodlands, foothills chaparral, grasslands, yucca plants, and steep, mild river valleys. Seasonal weather results in a changing landscape throughout the foothills with hot summer yielding an arid landscape while spring and winter rains result in blossoming wildflowers and lush greens. The region is also home to abundant wildlife: bobcats, foxes, ground squirrels, rattlesnakes, and mule deer are commonly seen in this area, and more rarely, reclusive mountain lions and the Pacific fisher are seen as well. The last California grizzly was killed in this park in 1922 (at Horse Corral Meadow). The California Black Oak is a key transition species between the chaparral and higher elevation conifer forest. At higher elevations in the front country, between 5,500 and 9,000 feet (1,700 and 2,700 m) in elevation, the landscape becomes montane forest-dominated coniferous belt. Found here are Ponderosa, Jeffrey, sugar, and lodgepole pine trees, as well as abundant white and red fir. Found here too are the giant sequoia trees, the most massive living single-stem trees on Earth. Between the trees, spring and summer snowmelts sometimes fan out to form lush, though delicate, meadows. In this region, visitors often see mule deer, Douglas squirrels, and American black bears, which sometimes break into unattended cars to eat food left by careless visitors. There are plans to reintroduce the bighorn sheep to this park. == Back country == The vast majority of the park is road-less wilderness; no road crosses the Sierra Nevada within the park's boundaries. 84 percent of Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks is designated wilderness and is accessible only by foot or by horseback. The majority was designated Sequoia-Kings Canyon Wilderness in 1984 and the southwest portion was protected as John Krebs Wilderness in 2009. == History == The area which now is Sequoia National Park shows evidence of Native American settlement as early as AD 1000. The area was first home to "Monachee" (Western Mono) Native Americans, who resided mainly in the Kaweah River drainage in the Foothills region of what is now the park, though evidence of seasonal habitation exists as high as the Giant Forest. Members of this tribe were permanent residents of the park, with a population estimate of around 2,000. In the summer the Tubatulabal Native Americans used the eastern part of the area (the Kern River drainage) as their summer hunting grounds. During this time, the Western Mono tribe would travel over the high mountain passes to trade with tribes to the East. To this day, pictographs can be found at several sites within the park, notably at Hospital Rock and Potwisha, as well as bedrock mortars used to process acorns, a staple food for the Monachee people. === European settlement === The first European settler to homestead in the area was Hale Tharp, who built a home out of a hollowed-out fallen giant sequoia log in the Giant Forest next to Log Meadow. Tharp arrived in 1858 to the region and encountered several groups of Native Americans, the largest being around 600 with several other smaller groups found at higher elevations. After becoming friendly with the Western Mono tribe, Tharp was shown the Giant Forest Sequoia Grove. After his settlement, more settlers came around 1860. Shortly thereafter - between 1860 and 1863, epidemics of smallpox, measles, and scarlet fever killed the majority of the Native Americans living in the area. After this, the rest of the Native Americans left with the largest campsite (Hospital Rock) abandoned by 1865. During their time in the area, the Monachee used periodic fire burning to aid in hunting and agriculture. This technique played an important role in the ecology of the region and allowed for a "natural" vegetation cover development. After they left, Tharp and other settlers allowed sheep and cattle to graze the meadow, while at the same time maintaining a respect for the grandeur of the forest and led early battles against logging in the area. From time to time, Tharp received visits from John Muir, who would stay at Tharp's log cabin. Tharp's Log can still be visited today in its original location in the Giant Forest. Tharp's attempts to conserve the giant sequoias were at first met with only limited success. In the 1880s, white settlers seeking to create a utopian society founded the Kaweah Colony, which sought economic success in trading Sequoia timber. Giant Sequoia trees, unlike their coast redwood relatives, were later discovered to splinter easily and therefore were ill-suited to timber harvesting, though thousands of trees were felled before logging operations finally ceased. === Park status === President Benjamin Harrison ultimately signed legislation that established the Sequoia National Park on 25 September 1890, becoming the second national park established in the United States, and ending logging in the area. === Buffalo Soldiers === Another consequence of the Giant Forest becoming Sequoia National Park was the shift in park employment. Prior to the incorporation by the National Park Service, the park was managed by US army troops of the 24th Regiment of Infantry and the 9th Regiment of Cavalry, better known as the Buffalo Soldiers. These segregated troops, founded in 1866, were African-American men from the South, an invaluable demographic to the military with the lowest rates of desertion. The Buffalo Soldiers completed park infrastructure projects as well as park management duties, helping to shape the role of the modern-day park ranger. The Buffalo Soldiers rose to this position due to a lack of funding for the park which led to an inability to hire civilians. The third African American West Point graduate, Captain Charles Young led the cavalries of Buffalo Soldiers in the Sequoia and General Grant Parks. Young landed this post as a result of the segregation rampant throughout the Army: as a black man, he was not permitted to head any combat units. He did demonstrate his leadership capability through his initiatives in the national park delegating park infrastructure projects, hosting tourists and politicians, and setting a standard of a strong work ethic into his men. Young was also a prominent figure regarding the early conservation of Sequoia National Park. He greenlighted the dedication of trees in honor of prominent figures as a means of promoting their preservation. One such example is the Redwood dedicated to the escaped slave and activist, Booker T Washington. Young also argued to the Secretary of the Interior that the lack of enforcement of forest protection laws allowed the detrimental practices of logging and the popular tourist hobby of carving names into the redwoods to continue. === Sierra Club === An expansions occurred in 1978, when grassroots efforts, spearheaded by the Sierra Club, fought off attempts by the Walt Disney Company to purchase a high-alpine former mining site south of the park for use as a ski resort. This site known as Mineral King was annexed to the park. Its name dates back to early 1873 when the miners in the area formed the Mineral King Mining District. Mineral King is the highest-elevation developed site within the park and a popular destination for backpackers. The national park was partially closed in September 2020 due to the SQF Complex Fire, and fully closed in mid-September through mid-December 2021 due to the KNP Complex Fire. == Climate == According to the Köppen climate classification system, Sequoia National Park encompasses five climate types listed here from highest to lowest elevation; Tundra (ET), Mediterranean-influenced Subarctic climate (Dsc), Mediterranean-influenced warm-summer Humid continental climate (Dsb), Warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Csb), and Hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa). Precipitation also decreases with elevation. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the Plant Hardiness zone at Giant Forest Visitor Center (6,444 ft (1,964 m)) is 8a with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of 12.0 °F (−11.1 °C). == Geology == Sequoia National Park contains a significant portion of the Sierra Nevada. The park's mountainous landscape includes the tallest mountain in the contiguous United States, Mount Whitney, which rises to 14,505 feet (4,421 m) above sea level. The Great Western Divide parallels the Sierran crest and is visible at various places in the park, for example, Mineral King, Moro Rock, and the Giant Forest. Peaks in the Great Western Divide rise to more than 12,000 feet (3,700 m). Deep canyons lie between the mountains, including Tokopah Valley above Lodgepole, Deep Canyon on the Marble Fork of the Kaweah River, and Kern Canyon in the park's backcountry, which is more than 5,000 feet (1,500 m) deep for 30 miles (50 km). Most of the mountains and canyons in the Sierra Nevada are composed of granitic rocks. These rocks, such as granite, diorite and monzonite, formed when molten rock cooled far beneath the surface of the earth. The molten rock was the result of a geologic process known as subduction. Powerful forces in the earth forced the landmass under the waters of the Pacific Ocean beneath and below an advancing North American Continent. Super-hot water driven from the subducting ocean floor migrated upward and melted rock as it proceeded. This process took place during the Cretaceous Period, 100 million years ago. Granitic rocks have a speckled salt-and-pepper appearance because they contain various minerals including quartz, feldspars and micas. Valhalla, or the Angel Wings, are prominent granitic cliffs that rise above the headwaters of the Middle Fork of the Kaweah River. The Sierra Nevada is a young mountain range, probably not more than 10 million years old. Forces in the earth, probably associated with the development of the Great Basin, forced the mountains to rise. During the last 10 million years, at least four ice ages have coated the mountains in a thick mantle of ice. Glaciers form and develop during long periods of cool and wet weather. Glaciers move very slowly through the mountains, carving deep valleys and craggy peaks. The extensive history of glaciation within the range and the erosion-resistant nature of the granitic rocks that make up most of the Sierra Nevada have together created a landscape of hanging valleys, waterfalls, craggy peaks, alpine lakes (such as Tulainyo Lake) and glacial canyons. Park caves, like most caves in the Sierra Nevada of California, are mostly solutional caves dissolved from marble. Marble rock is essentially limestone that was metamorphosed by the heat and pressure of the formation and uplift of the Sierra Nevada Batholith. The batholith's rapid uplift over the past 10 million years led to a rapid erosion of the metamorphic rocks in the higher elevations, exposing the granite beneath; therefore, most Sierra Nevada caves are found in the middle and lower elevations (below 7,000 ft or 2,100 m), though some caves are found in the park at elevations as high as 10,000 ft (3,000 m) such as the White Chief cave and Cirque Cave in Mineral King. These caves are carved out of the rock by the abundant seasonal streams in the park. Most of the larger park caves have, or have had, sinking streams running through them. The park contains more than 270 known caves, including Lilburn Cave which is California's longest cave with nearly 17 miles (27 km) of surveyed passages. The only commercial cave open to park visitors is Crystal Cave, the park's second-longest cave at over 3.4 miles (5.5 km). Crystal Cave was discovered on April 28, 1918, by Alex Medley and Cassius Webster. The cave is a constant 48 °F (9 °C), and is only accessible by guided tour. Caves are discovered frequently in the park with the most recently discovered major cave being Ursa Minor in August 2006. == Flora and fauna == Sequoia National Park encompasses many classifications of ecological zones, with the highest zone consisting of alpine tundra vegetation, then followed by California conifer forests, with chaparral at the lower elevations of the park. In the early 2000s, lumber company, Sierra Pacific Industries, began creating a living gene bank of trees using seeds harvested from the park. Animals that inhabit this park are coyote, badger, black bear, bighorn sheep, deer, fox, cougar, eleven species of woodpecker, various species of turtle, three species of owl, opossum, various species of snake, wolverine, beaver, various species of frog, and muskrat. == Park attractions == In addition to hiking, camping, fishing, and backpacking, the following attractions are highlights with many park visitors: Sherman Tree Trail An 0.8-mile roundtrip paved trail that descends from the parking lot to the base of the General Sherman Tree and meanders through a grove of giant sequoia trees. Tunnel Log is a fallen giant sequoia tree in Sequoia National Park. The tree, which measured 275 feet (84 m) tall and 21 feet (6.4 m) in diameter, fell across a park road in 1937 due to natural causes. The following year, a crew cut an 8-foot (2.4 m) tall, 17-foot (5.2 m) wide tunnel through the trunk, making the road passable again. Tokopah Falls The trail to Tokopah Falls starts just beyond the Marble Fork Bridge in Lodgepole Campground. It is an easy 1.7 mile (one way) walk along the Marble Fork of the Kaweah River to the impressive granite cliffs and waterfall of Tokopah Canyon. Tokopah Falls is 1,200 feet (370 meters) high, and is most impressive in early summer. Crescent Meadow is a small, sequoia-rimmed meadow in the Giant Forest region of Sequoia National Park. This sierran montane meadow marks the western terminus of the High Sierra Trail, which stretches from the meadow across the Great Western Divide to Mount Whitney. Pioneer Hale Tharp homesteaded in this and nearby Log Meadow. Conservationist John Muir visited this meadow many times and called it the "Gem of the Sierra". The meadow lies at the end of a three-mile paved road which leaves the Generals Highway near the Giant Forest Museum. Moro Rock is a granite dome located in the center of the park, at the head of Moro Creek, between Giant Forest and Crescent Meadow. A 351-step stairway, built in the 1930s by the Civilian Conservation Corps, is cut into and poured onto the rock, so that visitors can hike to the top. The stairway is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The view from the rock encompasses much of the park, including the Great Western Divide. It has an elevation of 6,725 feet (2,050 m). Campgrounds in the park include three in the foothills area: Potwisha (42 sites), Buckeye Flat (28 sites), and South Fork (10 sites). Four campgrounds are at higher, conifer-dominated elevations, ranging from 6,650 to 7,500 feet (2,000 to 2,300 m): Atwell Mill (21 sites), Cold Springs (40 sites), Lodgepole (214 sites), and Dorst Creek (204 sites). Giant Forest Museum offers information about giant sequoias and human history in the forest. The historic museum was built in 1928 by architect Gilbert Stanley Underwood. == In popular culture == Apple's macOS Sequoia was named after Sequoia National Park. == See also == == References == == External links == Official website of the National Park Service Geologic Map of Southwestern Sequoia National Park – United States Geological Survey Virtual reality scenes in Sequoia National Park Lary M. Dilsaver and William C. Tweed, Challenge of the Big Trees – natural and human history of the park The short film Giant Sequoia (1979) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Nepal	List of universities in Nepal	Formal higher learning in Nepal began with the establishment of Tri-Chandra College in 1918, Nepal's first college. Until 1985,Tribhuvan University was its first and only university. The second university to be founded was Nepal Sanskrit University, which was soon followed by Kathmandu University in 1990, and Purbanchal and Pokhara Universities in 1995 and 1996, respectively. == Federal Universities == == Provincial universities == === Autonomous Medical Institute === == Universities by state and type == The table below is correct as of 20 February 2025. == See also == Education in Nepal List of schools in Nepal List of colleges in Nepal List of forestry colleges in Nepal List of engineering colleges in Nepal List of medical colleges in Nepal University Grants Commission == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern%C3%A1ndez_Anchorena_Palace	Fernández Anchorena Palace	The Fernández Anchorena Palace is an architecturally significant former residence in the Recoleta section of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Today, it serves as the Apostolic Nunciature in Argentina. == Overview == The mansion was commissioned by Juan Antonio Fernández and his wife, Rosa de Anchorena, to Eduardo Le Monnier (1873 – 1931), a French Argentine architect. Designed in 1907 in the Second Empire style favored among Argentine high society at the time, the palace was completed in 1909, though the couple never inhabited the Alvear Avenue landmark. The family made the mansion available for social occasions and public ceremonies in subsequent years; from 1922 to 1928, most notably, it served as the official residence to the President of Argentina, Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear, and his wife, the opera chanteuse Regina Pacini de Alvear. The mansion was sold to Adelia María Harilaos de Olmos, the widow of prominent Córdoba Province landowner Ambrosio Harilaos de Olmos, in 1940. The founder of the Catholic Ladies' League and financier of a working women's assistance fund, a number of churches and a hospital pavilion bequeathed the residence to the Holy See, in 1947. Upon her death in 1949, it became the Apostolic Nunciature in Argentina; the Pope at the time, Pius XII, had been a guest of hers (as Cardinal Pacelli) for his stay in Buenos Aires on occasion of the Eucharistic Congress held in 1934. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ida_Mntwana#:~:text=Her%20bronze%20statue%20was%20created,Service%20in%20silver%20in%202003.	Ida Mntwana	Ida Fiyo Mntwana (1903 – March 1960) was a South African anti-apartheid and women's right activist. == Biography == Mntwana worked as a dressmaker and became active in politics in the 1950s. After Madie Hall Xuma resigned as national president of African National Congress Women's League (ANCWL) in 1949, Mntwana was her replacement. Mntwana was more radical than her predecessor, organizing women in demonstrations, strikes and other acts of civil disobedience. She was also elected to become one of ANC (Africa National Congress) executive committee In 1954, Mntwana became the first president of the Federation of South African Women (FEDSAW). She helped organize the Congress of the People. At the second day of the congress, police invaded the congress and incited a conflict between the people and the police. It was Mntwana who calmed the people by singing freedom song from the platform to keep the congress going well. On 26 August 1952, she led the Germiston march. The group were consist of 29 women: 11 Indian, one Coloured (Susan Naude), and 17 African women. She and the group was detained and sentenced to fourteen days in Boksburg prison. She was also a leader of the FEDSAW march to the Union Buildings in Pretoria on 27 October 1955. Around 2,000 women participated in that march to protest pass laws for women. Mntwana was one of the defendants in the 1956 Treason Trial. Mntwana died in March 1960 during the treason trial. == Legacy == Mntwana is represented in one of 100 bronze statues that is part of the National Heritage Monument's project which was called The Long March to Freedom. Her bronze statue was created by Sarah Lovejoy. In August 2000, Mntwana was cited as "torchbearer" during Thabo Mbeki's speech in the unveiling of South Africa's Women's Monument She earned a posthumous Order for Meritorious Service in silver in 2003. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1	Bogotá	Bogotá (, also UK: , US: , Spanish pronunciation: [boɣoˈta] ), officially Bogotá, Distrito Capital, abbreviated Bogotá, D.C., and formerly known as Santa Fe de Bogotá (Spanish: [ˌsanta ˈfe ðe βoɣoˈta]; lit. 'Holy Faith of Bogotá') during the Spanish Imperial period and between 1991 and 2000, is the capital and largest city of Colombia. The city is administered as the Capital District, as well as the capital of, though not politically part of, the surrounding department of Cundinamarca. Bogotá is a territorial entity of the first order, with the same administrative status as the departments of Colombia. It is the main political, economic, administrative, industrial, cultural, aeronautical, technological, scientific, medical and educational center of the country and northern South America. Bogotá was founded as the capital of the New Kingdom of Granada on 6 August 1538 by Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada after a harsh expedition into the Andes conquering the Muisca, the indigenous inhabitants of the Altiplano. Santafé (its name after 1540) became the seat of the government of the Spanish Royal Audiencia of the New Kingdom of Granada (created in 1550), and then after 1717 it was the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. After the Battle of Boyacá on 7 August 1819, Bogotá became the capital of the independent nation of Gran Colombia. It was Simón Bolívar who rebaptized the city with the name of Bogotá, as a way of honoring the Muisca people and as an emancipation act towards the Spanish crown. Hence, since the Viceroyalty of New Granada's independence from the Spanish Empire and during the formation of present-day Colombia, Bogotá has remained the capital of this territory. The city is located in the center of Colombia, on a high plateau known as the Bogotá savanna, part of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense located in the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes. Its altitude averages 2,640 meters (8,660 ft) above sea level, making it the third highest capital city in the world. Subdivided into 20 localities, Bogotá covers an area of 1,587 square kilometers (613 square miles) and enjoys a consistently cool climate throughout the year. The city is home to central offices of the executive branch (Office of the President), the legislative branch (Congress of Colombia) and the judicial branch (Supreme Court of Justice, Constitutional Court, Council of State and the Superior Council of Judicature) of the Colombian government. Bogotá stands out for its economic strength and associated financial maturity, its attractiveness to global companies and the quality of human capital. It is the financial and commercial heart of Colombia, with the most business activity of any city in the country. The capital hosts the main financial market in Colombia and the Andean natural region, and is the leading destination for new foreign direct investment projects coming into Latin America and Colombia. It has the highest nominal GDP in the country, responsible for almost a quarter of the nation's total (24.7%). The city's airport, El Dorado International Airport, named after the mythical El Dorado, handles the largest cargo volume in Latin America, and is third in number of passengers. Bogotá is home to the largest number of universities and research centers in the country, and is an important cultural center, with many theaters, libraries (Virgilio Barco, Tintal, and Tunal of BibloRed, BLAA, National Library, among more than 1000) and museums. Bogotá ranks 52nd on the Global Cities Index 2014, and is considered a global city type "Alpha-" by GaWC. == Toponymy == The name of Bogotá corresponds to the Spanish pronunciation of the Chibcha Bacatá (or Muyquytá) which was the name of a neighboring settlement located between the modern towns of Funza and Cota. There are different opinions about the meaning of the word Muyquytá, the most accepted being that it means "walling of the farmland" in the Chibcha language. Another popular translation argues that it means "The Lady of the Andes". Others suggest that Bacatá was the name of the Muisca cacique who governed the land before the Spaniards arrived. Jiménez de Quesada gave the settlement the name of "Our Lady of Hope" but the Spanish crown gave it the name of Santafé (Holy Faith) in 1540 when it was appointed as a city. The Muisca, the indigenous inhabitants of the region, called the place on which the city was founded "Thybzaca" or "Old Town". == History == The area of modern Bogotá was first populated by groups of indigenous people who migrated south based on the relation with the other Chibcha languages; the Bogotá savanna was the southernmost Chibcha-speaking group that exists from Nicaragua to the Andes in Colombia. The civilization built by the Muisca, who settled in the valleys and fertile highlands of and surrounding the Altiplano Cundiboyacense (modern-day departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá and small parts of Santander), was one of the great civilizations in the Americas. The name Muisca Confederation has been given to a loose egalitarian society of various chiefs (caciques) who lived in small settlements of maximum 100 bohíos. The agriculture and salt-based society of the people was rich in goldworking, trade and mummification. The religion of the Muisca consisted of various gods, mostly related to natural phenomena as the Sun (Sué) and his wife, the Moon; Chía, rain Chibchacum, rainbow Cuchavira and with building and feasting (Nencatacoa) and wisdom (Bochica). Their complex luni-solar calendar, deciphered by Manuel Izquierdo based on work by Duquesne, followed three different sets of years, where the sidereal and synodic months were represented. Their astronomical knowledge is represented in one of the few extant landmarks of the architecture of the Muisca in El Infiernito outside Villa de Leyva to the north of Bogotá. === Pre-Columbian era === The first populations inhabiting the present-day Metropolitan Area of Bogotá were hunter-gatherers in the late Pleistocene. Dating to around 12,500 BP, the oldest evidence of human activity was discovered in El Abra, north of Zipaquirá. Other excavations in a rock shelter southwest of the city in Soacha provided ages of ~11,000 BP; Tequendama. Since roughly 0 AD, the local Muisca people domesticated guinea pigs as a source of dietary meat. The people inhabiting the Bogotá savanna in the late 15th century were the Muisca, speaking Muysccubun, a member of the Chibcha language family. Muisca means "people" or "person", making "Muisca people", how they are called, a tautology. At the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores, the Muisca population was estimated to be half a million indigenous people on the Bogotá savanna, and up to two million in the Muisca Confederation. They occupied the highland and mild climate flanks between the Sumapaz Mountains to the southwest and Cocuy's snowy peak to the northeast, covering an approximate area of 25,000 km2 (9,653 sq mi), comprising Bogotá's high plain, a large portion of the modern-day department of Boyacá department portion and a small area in the Santander region. Trade was the most important activity of the Muisca with other Chibcha-speaking neighbours, such as the Guane, Lache and U'wa and with Cariban-speaking groups such as the Muzo or "Emerald People". Their knowledge of salt production from brines, a task devoted exclusively to Muisca women, gave them the name of "Salt People". Tropical fruits that did not grow on the cool highlands, as well as coca, cotton and gold were all traded at markets that took place every Muisca week; every four days. At these frequent markets, the Muisca obtained various luxury goods that appear worthless in a modern sense, as well as precious metals and gemstones that seem valuable to us and which became abundant and were used for various purposes. The Muisca warrior elite were allowed to wear feathered crowns, from parrots and macaws whose habitat was to the east of the Andes; the Arawakan-speaking Guayupe, Tegua and Achagua. The Muisca cuisine consisted of a stable and varied diet of tubers, potatoes and fruits. Maize was the main ingredient of the Muisca, cultivated on elevated and irrigated terraces. Many words exist in Muysccubun for maize, corn and the various types and forms of it. The product was also the base for chicha; the alcoholic beverage of the people, still sold in central Bogotá today. It was the beverage used to celebrate the construction of houses, harvests and sowing, ritual practices around the various sacred sites of the Altiplano, music and dances, trade at special fairs with farther away trading indigenous groups of Colombia and to inaugurate the new highest regarded member of the community; zipas, zaques, caciques and the religious ruler iraca from Sacred City of the Sun Sugamuxi. === Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada expedition and Spanish conquest === From 1533, a belief persisted that the Río Grande de la Magdalena was the trail to the South Sea, to Peru, legendary El Dorado. Such was the target of Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, the Granadanian conquistador who left Santa Marta on 6 April 1536 with 800 soldiers, heading towards the interior of current Colombia. The expedition divided into two groups, one under Quesada's command to move on land, and the other commanded by Diego de Urbino would go upriver in four brigantine ships to eventually meet Quesada's troops at the site named Tora de las Barrancas Bermejas. When they arrived, they heard news about Indians inhabiting the south and making large salt cakes used to trade for wild cotton and fish. Jiménez de Quesada decided to abandon the route to Peru and cross the mountain in search of salt villages. They saw crops, trails, white salt cakes and then huts where they found corn, yucca and beans. From Tora, the expedition went up the Opón River and found indigenous people wearing very finely painted cotton mantles. When they arrived in Muisca territories in the Andean Plateau, on 9 March 1537, of the expedition leaving Santa Marta, only 162 men were left. The zipa at the moment of Spanish conquest was Tisquesusa. His main bohío was in a small village called Bacatá with others in Funza and Cajicá, giving name to the present day capital of Colombia. Bacatá was actually located near to the modern location of the city of Funza. A prophecy in his life came true; he would be dying, bathing in his own blood. Defending Funza with a reduced army of guecha warriors against the heavily exhausted but heavily armed strangers, his reign fell in the hands of Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada and his younger brother Hernán Pérez on 20 April 1537. Upon his death, his brother Sagipa became the last zipa, against the inheritance tradition of the Muisca. Sagipa used to be a main captain for Tisquesusa but quickly submitted to the Spanish rulers. The first encomenderos asked high prices in valuable products and agricultural production from the indigenous people. On top of that epidemics of European viruses razed through the population, of which in current Boyacá 65–85 % of the Muisca were killed within 100 years. Jiménez de Quesada decided to establish a military campament in the area in 1538, in the site today known as the Chorro de Quevedo square. The foundation was performed by the construction of 12 houses of reed, referring to the Twelve Apostles, and the construction of a preliminary church, also of reed. With the celebration of the first mass in the campament, celebrated by Dominican friar Domingo de las Casas the city was founded with the name of Nuestra Señora de la Esperanza (Our Lady of Hope) on 6 August 1538. Quesada placed his right foot on the bare earth and said simply, "I take possession of this land in the name of the most sovereign emperor, Charles V." This founding, however, was irregular as no town council was formed nor were town officials appointed, as well as lacking some other juridical requirements for an official founding. As a consequence, the official founding only occurred about eight months later, on 27 April 1539, in a site close to one of the recreational lands of the zipa, called Theusa or Theusaquillo. This official founding involved an official ceremony appointing a council and officials, and the demarcation of streets and lands, and in it fellow conquistadores Sebastián de Belalcázar and Nikolaus Federmann were present. While this was the official date of founding, traditionally it is the 6 August 1538 that is considered the date of the actual foundation. The village obtained the title of City by way of a decree from Charles V on 27 July 1540, which changed the name of the city from Our Lady of Hope to Santa Fe (Holy Faith), after the name of a town nearby Granada where Jiménez de Quesada grew up. Jiménez de Quesada and conquerors De Belalcázar and Federmann left for Spain in April 1539, founding Guataquí together on 6 April 1539. The rule over the newly created New Kingdom of Granada was left to Jiménez de Quesada's brother, Hernán Pérez de Quesada. The first mayors of the city were captains Pedro de Arévalo and Jerónimo de Inzar. The city obtained the Title of Muy Noble y Muy Leal (Very Noble and Loyal) on 17 August 1575 by a decree from Phillip II. Bogotá, then called Santa Fe, later became the capital of the later Viceroyalty of New Granada. === Spanish colonization === The city mayor and the chapter formed by two councilmen, assisted by the constable and the police chief, governed the city. For better administration of these domains, in April 1550, the Audiencia of Santafé was organized. Santa Fe (or Santafé) became the seat of the government of the New Kingdom of Granada . Fourteen years later in 1564, the Spanish Crown designated the first Royal Audiencia chairman, Andrés Díaz Venero de Leyva. The Chapter and the Royal Audience were located on the other side of what is today the Plaza de Bolívar (then called, Plaza Mayor or Major Square). The street connecting the Major Square and the Square of Herbs— now Santander Park— was named Calle Real (Royal Street), now Carrera Séptima (or "Seventh Street"; counted from the mountains to the east of the city). After 1717 Santafé became the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. Formed by Europeans, mestizos, indigenous people, and slaves, from the second half of the 16th century, the population began to grow rapidly. The 1789 census recorded 18,161 inhabitants, and by 1819 the city population reached 30,000 inhabitants distributed in 195 blocks. Importance grew when the diocese was established. === Nineteenth century === Political unease over the Spanish monarchy and the rights of citizens born in the Americas had been felt throughout the Spanish colonies in America, and it was expressed in New Granada in many different ways, accelerating the movement to independence. One of the most transcendent was the Insurrection of the Comuneros, a riot by the locals that started in Villa del Socorro —current Department of Santander—in March 1781. Spanish authorities suppressed the riot, and José Antonio Galán, the leader, was executed. He left an imprint, though. One of the soldiers witnessing his execution was an intellectually curious, noble teenager named Antonio Nariño, who was deeply impressed by both the insurrection and the execution. Nariño went on to become a politician in Santafé, and he became acquainted with the liberal ideas in vogue in Europe. He started organizing clandestine meetings with other intellectuals and politicians to discuss and promote the independence of the American colonies from the Spanish crown. In 1794, Nariño clandestinely translated and published in Santa Fe the Declaration of the Rights of Men and of the Citizen, and copies of his translation were distributed all over the continent and started creating a stirring in the political mentalities of the time. The Spanish government had banned the distribution of the pamphlet and soon discovered the material and burned any copy that they could find. Nariño was arrested on 29 August 1794, and sentenced to ten years of imprisonment and to have all of his properties confiscated, and was sent to exile the year after. Those suspected of being part of Nariño's intellectual circle were also persecuted, but his ideas had become widespread. In 1807, following the French invasion of Spain and the subsequent abdication of the House of Bourbon in Spain, pressed by Napoleon to give the crown to his brother Joseph, resulting in the destruction of the Spanish administration, many in Spain and in the American colonies created local resistance governments called Juntas. The dissolution of the Supreme Central Junta, following a series of military defeats in the Spanish troops, promoted the creation of local juntas all throughout Latin America, which very soon consolidated the independentist ideas already in vogue. After the establishment of a junta in Cartagena de Indias on 22 May 1810, and in many other cities throughout the Viceroyalty, the Junta de Santa Fe was established on 20 July 1810, in what is often called the Colombian Declaration of Independence. The Junta adopted the name of "Supreme Junta of the New Kingdom of Granada", and first swore allegiance to Viceroy Antonio José Amar y Borbón, and appointed him as president, but then he was deposed and arrested five days later. After declaring independence from Spain the different juntas attempted to establish a congress of provinces, but they were unable to do so and military conflicts soon emerged. The period between 1810 and 1816 was marked by intense conflict between federalist and centralist factions over the nature of the new government of the recently emancipated juntas, a period that has become known as la Patria Boba. The Province of Santafé became the Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca, which soon became embroiled in a civil war against other local juntas which banded together to form the United Provinces of New Granada and advocated for a federalist government system. Following a failed military campaign against Quito, General Simón Bolívar of the United Provinces led a campaign that led to the surrender of the Cundinamarca province in December 1814. In Spain, the war had ended and the Spanish monarchy was restored on 11 December 1813. King Ferdinand VII declared the uprisings in the colonies illegal and sent a large army to quell the rebellions and reconquer the lost colonies, for which he appointed General Pablo Morillo. Morillo led a successful military campaign that culminated in the capture of Santafé on 6 May 1816. In 1819, Bolívar initiated his campaign to liberate New Granada. Following a series of battles, the last of which was the Battle of Boyacá, the republican army led by Bolívar cleared its way to Santafé, where he arrived victorious on 10 August 1819. It was Simón Bolívar who rebaptized the city with the name of Bogotá, to honor the Muisca people and to emphasize the emancipation from Spain. Bogotá then became the capital of the Gran Colombia. Between 1819 and 1849, there were no fundamental structural changes from the colonial period. By the mid-19th century, a series of fundamental reforms were enacted, some of the most important being slavery abolition and religious, teaching, print and speech industry and trade freedom, among others. During the decade of the 70s, radicalism accelerated reforms and state and social institutions were substantially modified. However, during the second half of the century, the country faced permanent pronouncements, declarations of rebellions between states, and factions which resulted in civil wars: the last and bloodiest was the Thousand Days' War from 1899 to 1902. In 1823, a few years after the formation of Gran Colombia, the Public Library, now the National Library, was enlarged and modernized with new volumes and better facilities. The National Museum was founded. Those institutions were of great importance to the new republic's cultural development. The Central University was the first State school, precursor of the current National University, founded in 1867 and domiciled in Bogotá. === Regeneration === President Rafael Núñez declared the end of Federalism, and in 1886 the country became a centralist republic ruled by the constitution in force – save some amendments – up to 1991. In the middle of political and administration avatars, Bogotá continued as the capital and principal political center of the country. From a base of only 20,000 people in 1793, the city grew to approximately 117,000 people in 1912. Population growth was rapid after 1870, largely because of emigration from the eastern highlands. === Twentieth century === Early in the 20th century, Colombia had to face devastating consequences from the Thousand Days' War, which lasted from 1899 to 1902, and the loss of Panama. Between 1904 and 1909, the lawfulness of the liberal party was re-established and President Rafael Reyes endeavored to implement a national government. Peace and state reorganization generated the increase of economic activities. Bogotá started deep architectural and urban transformation with significant industrial and artisan production increases. In 1910, the Industrial Exposition of the Century took place at Park of Independence. Stands built evidenced industrial, artisan work, beaux arts, electricity and machinery progress achieved. The period from 1910 to 1930 is designated conservative hegemony. Between 1924 and 1928, hard union struggles began, with oil fields and banana zone workers' strikes, leaving numerous people dead. Bogotá had practically no industry. Production was basically artisan work grouped in specific places, similar to commercial sectors. Plaza de Bolívar and surroundings lodged hat stores, at Calle del Comercio –current Carrera Seventh– and Calle Florián –now Carrera Eight– luxurious stores selling imported products opened their doors; at Pasaje Hernández, tailor's shops provided their services, and between 1870 and 1883, four main banks opened their doors: Bogotá, Colombia, Popular and Mortgage Credit banks. Following the 1928 Banana Massacre of fruit pickers and conservative party division, Enrique Olaya Herrera took office in 1930. The liberal party reformed during 16 years of the so-called Liberal Republic, agricultural, social, political, labor, educational, economic and administrative sectors. Unionism strengthened and education coverage expanded. The celebration produced a large number of infrastructure works, new construction and work sources. In 1948 liberal leader Jorge Eliécer Gaitán was assassinated, and subsequent riots in an event called El Bogotazo resulted in Bogotá's downtown being virtually destroyed. From then, Bogotá's urban, architectural and population sectors were substantially reorganized. The violence sparked civil conflict, La Violencia, that lasted ten years. === Twenty-first century === The city began the 21st century with important changes in its urban space and public transport, looking to plan demographic and economic growth, that would position it as a strategic hub for international business in Latin America. Some of the main interventions initiated looked to develop projects contained in the Plan of Territorial Ordering (POT), which aims to guide the development of the city for the next two centuries. One of the most important interventions in the city was in its transportation system. In 1967, there were 2,679 urban buses in Bogotá that transported, on average, 1,630,000 passengers per day. The city had about 1 million inhabitants and 80 km2 of area, the service was relatively reasonable. But as the city grew and reached more than five million and an area greater than 300 km2, not only did the car fleet increase substantially to more than 20,000 vehicles, but traffic complexity increased, as well as pollution and the inefficiency of the only existing transportation system. By the end of the 20th century, the situation was difficult. There was no real urban public transport system that would serve as an alternative to the private vehicle – which further incentivized its use – and the city had low levels of competitiveness in Latin America, as well as an unsatisfactory quality of life for the vast majority of its inhabitants. The administrations of mayors Andrés Pastrana (1988–90) and Jaime Castro (1992–94), in addition to the first of Antanas Mockus (1995–97), formulated proposals to solve the problem of public transport, with limited results. It was during the mayoralty of the latter when there was talk about the possibility of establishing a mass transportation system that would help remedy the problem of mobility. Under the second administration of Antanas Mockus, Bogotá opened a 'zone of tolerancia' which legalized prostitution in a large swath of the center of the city in the Santa Fe neighborhood. Mayor Enrique Peñalosa (whose first term was 1998–2000) included in his program as a priority a solution to public transport. Consequently, in the execution of the development plan "For the Bogotá we Want" in terms of mobility and in a mass transportation system project, the construction of special infrastructure exclusively for its operation was determined. This system would include specialized bus corridors, equipped with single-use lanes, stations, bridges, bike paths and special pedestrian access platforms, designed to facilitate the user's experience in the system. However, Peñalosa became infamous for his campaign against the poor, saying he would rather see robbers on the streets, than people selling candies. Peñalosa served a second term (2016–19). After being elected in 2011, Mayor Gustavo Petro clashed with the conservative political establishment after remunicipalization of the city's garbage collection system. The inspector general Alejandro Ordoñez deposed Petro for alleged constitutional overreach when he tried to replace the city's private trash collectors. Petro was reinstated weeks later after a Bogotá court ruled that Ordoñez had overstepped his authority. The TransMilenio system of articulated buses opened its first phase in 2000 and has since grown to 12 lines. As the city's population increased, the buses are often crowded, leading to the development of Bogotá Metro, construction on which began in 2021. For its part, the cultural equipment plan of Bogotá has yielded significant results, including the construction of three large public libraries in different sectors. These libraries have not only expanded access to existing library resources but also serve as some of the 150 hubs for BibloRed - Bogotá's Public Libraries Network, including the Bogota Digital Library The new libraries were located in sectors that allow a wide coverage, have easy access by public transport and bike paths; and their projects were commissioned to distinguished architects of the city. They are those of El Tunal, in the south, projected by the architect Suely Vargas; of El Tintal, in the west, the work of the architect Daniel Bermúdez; and the Virgilio Barco Vargas library, located in the Simón Bolívar park in the central area, work of the architect Rogelio Salmona. Out of the city's 150 libraries, these three, with their outstanding architecture, provide public and open-access spaces for the educational and cultural development of the citizens of Bogotá. As for 2019, the city's distribution is composed of nine main business centers (Av. El Dorado Business Corridor, Centro Internacional, Parque de la 93, El Lago, North Point, Calle 100, Santa Barbara Business Center, Zona Industrial Montevideo & Parque Industrial Zona Franca). Grittier sides sit south and southwest, where working-class barrios continue to battle their reputations for drugs and crime. In the ritzier north there are boutique hotels, corporate offices and well-heeled locals piling into chic entertainment districts such as the Zona Rosa and Zona G. Protests against police brutality started in Bogotá following the death of Javier Ordóñez while in police custody on 9 September 2020. The National Police killed 13 people and injured over 400 in their response to the protests. == Geography == Bogotá is located in the southeastern part of the Bogotá savanna (Sabana de Bogotá) at an average altitude of 2,640 meters (8,660 ft) above sea level. The Bogotá savanna is popularly called "savannah" (sabana), but constitutes actually a high plateau in the Andes mountains, part of an extended region known as the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, which literally means "high plateau of Cundinamarca and Boyacá". Bogotá is the largest city in the world at its elevation; there is no urban area that is both higher and more populous than Bogotá. In the extreme south of Bogotá's District, the world's largest continuous paramo ecosystem can be found; Sumapaz Páramo in the locality Sumapaz. The Bogotá River running NE-SW crosses the sabana, forming Tequendama Falls (Salto del Tequendama) to the south. Tributary rivers form valleys with villages, whose economy is based on agriculture, livestock raising and artisanal production. The sabana is bordered to the east by the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes mountain range. The Eastern Hills, which limit city growth, run from south to north, forming east of the downtown the Guadalupe and Monserrate mountains. The western city limit is Bogotá River. The Sumapaz Paramo (moorland) borders the south and to the north Bogotá extends over the plateau up to the towns of Chía and Sopó. Most of the wetlands in the Bogotá region have disappeared. They covered nearly 50,000 hectares in the 1960s, compared to only 727 in 2019, for a disappearance rate of 98%. === Climate === Bogotá features a subtropical highland climate with uniform precipitation (Köppen: Cfb, Trewartha: Cfll). The average temperature is 14.5 °C (58 °F), varying from 6 to 19 °C (43 to 66 °F) on sunny days to 10 to 18 °C (50 to 64 °F) on rainy days. Dry and rainy seasons alternate throughout the year. The driest months are December, January, July and August. The warmest month is March, bringing a maximum of 19.7 °C (67.5 °F). The coolest nights occur in January, with an average of 7.6 °C (45.7 °F) in the city; fog is very usual in early morning, 220 days per year, whilst clear sky sunny full days are quite unusual. The official highest temperature recorded within the city limits is 30.0 °C (86 °F), and the lowest temperature recorded is −7.1 °C (19 °F), both at the Guaymaral Airport. The rainiest months are April, May, September, October, and November, in which typical days are mostly overcast, with low clouds and some winds, bringing maximum temperatures of 18 °C (64 °F) and lows of 7 °C (45 °F). === Urban layout and nomenclature === The colonial city, from 1539 to 1810, barely changed its urban layout and culture. Santafe was slowly leaving behind the colonialism after the independence revolution from 1810 to 1819. Entering the 19th century, the city of Bogotá was still the political and demographic core of Nueva Granada but remained a small city as compared with similar cities, such as Lima and Buenos Aires. At the year of 1801, the city had 173 blocks and 21,394 inhabitants marking a slow population growth during the 18th century. In the beginning of the 19th century, city life was marked by the lack of cultural activity and public services as well as by the excessive Catholic religiosity in its inhabitants, which almost controlled the whole life of people, as a journalist traveler wrote in 1822 (Biblioteca Luis Angel Arango, 1990,2 ). The city's urban shape remained the same in the 19th century as the 1557 urban landscape as a checkerboard with the Plaza as its core. In other words, the city grew in area adding new square blocks but kept the same urban fabric. Buildings were low rise, as a traveler wrote in 1830 (Bibliotheca Luis Angel Arango, 1990,2), where most city buildings had one floor, and a few had no more than two. One special characteristic of those houses with two floors, which were the houses of the wealthiest families of Bogotá, were their balconies. The building facades of Bogotá were very simplistic without ornaments, meaning no more than a wall with windows and the entry door. However, due to the poor street conditions because of the potholes and waste, in addition to the lack of cultural and social activity at night, the ornaments were reserved to indoors where Bogotanos spent most of their time. One of the few outdoor activities of the people of Bogotá during the first half of the 19th century was going to the Plaza or the "altozano" as the locals called it. The Plaza was the social core of the city, where fresh fruits were sold and where inhabitants from all socioeconomic backgrounds converged (Bibliotheca Luis Angel Arango, 1990,2). The landscape of Bogotá was very similar from the 16th century to 19th century. Nonetheless, after the milestone fact of the independence from the Spanish, which was a process that lasted at least ten years from 1810 to 1819, some changes started to happen. Those changes were happening slowly while the new republican order was getting power. Trying to make a difference from the colonial ages, the new Republic began changing the name of the plazas, streets and even the name of the city, from Santafe to Bogotá. The names of colonial streets were changed to numbers and the name of plazas were changed to the founding fathers of Colombia. Thereafter, the empty plazas of the colonial ages turned into ornamented plazas with plenty of trees and civic statues. For instance, the first civil statue placed in a plaza in Colombia was the figure of Bolivar, the main founding father of Colombia. The statue of Bolivar was unveiled on July 20, 1846, which is the Independence Day of Colombia, trying to strengthen the patriotism of the new republic in people of Bogotá and Colombia. The last quarter of the 19th century, from 1870 to 1900, more clearly marked a new urban landscape of Bogotá. The constant rural migration to Bogotá had been one of the most important factors that allowed the city to maintain its influential power in the region both during the colonial ages and during the republic. In 1847, the city governor and the council tried to expand the urban area of Bogotá beyond the colonial limits, whereas, only until the 1860s was that expansion encouraged by the president of Colombia Tomas Cipriano de Mosquera. The Mosquera plan included lotting the western part of Bogotá, building bridges and wider roads and plazas, but that plan was only partially implemented. In the following decade, other urban initiatives emerged but this time from the private sector. A group of businessmen, tired of the city's slow growth and development, proposed the construction of sewars, theaters, electric systems and new roads in order to hasten the development of Bogotá. Because of the 1876 civil war, the plan could not be implemented, but from that initiative, the council adopted the first urban code of Bogotá in 1875. These initiatives tried to update the undeveloped city to the new technologies of the 1800s; however, the pace remained slow, and only after 1882, when the train and the trolley came to Bogotá, some urban development projects progressed more quickly. Today Bogotá has 20 localities, or districts, forming an extensive network of neighborhoods. Areas of higher economic status tend to be located in the north, close to the Eastern Hills in the districts of Chapinero, Usaquén and the east of Suba. The lower middle class inhabit the central, western and northwestern parts of the city.. The working-class neighborhoods are located in the south, some of them squatter areas. The urban layout in the center of the city is based on the focal point of a square or plaza, typical of Spanish-founded settlements, but the layout gradually becomes more modern in outlying neighborhoods. The types of roads are classified as Calles (streets), which run from west to east horizontally, with street numbers increasing towards the north, and also towards the south (with the suffix "Sur") from Calle 0 down south. Carreras (roads) run from north to south vertically, with numbering increasing from east to west. (with the suffix "Este" for roads east of Carrera 0). At the southeast of the city, the addresses are logically sur-este. Other types of roads more common in newer parts of the city may be termed Eje (Axis), Diagonal or Transversal. The numbering system for street addresses recently changed, and numbers are assigned according to street rank from main avenues to smaller avenues and local streets. Some of Bogotá's main roads, which also go by a proper name in addition to a number, are: Norte-Quito-Sur or NQS (North Quito South Avenue, from 9th Rd at north following railway to 30th Rd, or Quito City Avenue, and Southern Highway) Autopista Norte-Avenida Caracas (Northern Highway, or 45th Rd, joined to Caracas Avenue, or 14th Rd) Avenida Circunvalar (or 1st Rd) Avenida Suba (60th transversal from 100th St the Suba Hills; 145th St from Suba Hills westward) Avenida El Dorado (El Dorado Avenue, or 26th St) Avenida de las Américas (Avenue of the Americas, from 34th street at east to 6th street at west) Avenida Primero de Mayo (May First Avenue, or 22nd St South) Avenida Ciudad de Cali (Cali City Avenue, or 86th Rd) Avenida Boyacá (Boyacá Avenue, or 72nd Rd) Autopista Sur (Southern Highway) === Localities (districts) === === Surrounding towns === == Demographics == The largest and most populous city in Colombia, Bogotá had 7,412,566 inhabitants within the city's limits (2018 census), with a population density of approximately 4,310 inhabitants per square kilometer. 25,166 people are located in rural areas of Capital District. 47.8% of the population are male and 52.2% women. In Bogotá, as in the rest of the country, urbanization has accelerated due to industrialization as well as complex political and social reasons such as poverty and violence, which led to migration from rural to urban areas throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. A dramatic example of this is the number of displaced people who have arrived in Bogotá due to the internal armed conflict. Some estimates show that Bogotá's floating population may be as high as 4 million people, most of them being migrant workers from other departments and displaced people. The majority of the displaced population lives in the Ciudad Bolívar, Kennedy, Usme, and Bosa sections. Colombia has experienced steady improvements in life expectancy over the past several years, reflecting broader gains in public health, medical access, and socioeconomic development. National data show that life expectancy rose to 78.21 years in 2025, following 78.04 years in 2024. This continued an upward trend from 77.73 years in 2023 and 76.51 years in 2022, the latter representing a notable rebound from pandemic-related mortality increases in 2021 === Vital statistics === In 2022 13,28% of births were to foreign mothers. === Total fertility rate (TFR) by locality === === Ethnic groups === The ethnic composition of the city's population includes a minority of Afro-Colombian people (0.9%) and Indigenous people (0.3%); 98.8% of the population lists no ethnic affiliation, being mostly Whites and Mestizos. In Bogotá, the accelerated urbanization process is not exclusively due to industrialization, as there are complex political and social reasons such as poverty and violence, which have motivated migration from the countryside to the city throughout the 20th century, determining an exponential growth of the population in Bogotá and the establishment of misery belts in its surroundings. According to the Consultancy for Human Rights, Codhes, in the period 1999–2005 more than 260,000 displaced people arrived in Bogotá, approximately 3.8% of the total population of Bogotá. The locations where the majority of the displaced population is concentrated are Ciudad Bolivar, Kennedy, Bosa and Usme. === Crime === Bogotá has gone to great lengths to change its formerly notorious crime rate and its image with increasing success after being considered in the 1990s to be one of the most violent cities in the world. In 1993 there were 4,352 murders at a rate of 81 per 100,000 people; in 2007, Bogotá suffered 1,401 murders at a rate of 20 per 100,000 inhabitants, and had a further reduction to 14 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2017 (the lowest since 1979). This success was mainly the result of a participatory and integrated security policy, "Comunidad Segura", that was first adopted in 1995 and continues to be enforced. 1.2 percent of street addresses account for 99 percent of homicides. == Government == Bogotá is the capital of the Republic of Colombia, and houses the Congress, Supreme Court of Justice and the center of the executive administration as well as the residence of the President (Casa de Nariño). These buildings, along with the Office of the Mayor, the Lievano Palace (Palacio Liévano), are located within a few meters from each other on the Plaza de Bolívar. The square is located in the city's historical center, La Candelaria, which features architecture in Spanish Colonial and Spanish Baroque styles. The Mayor of Bogotá and the City Council – both elected by popular vote – are responsible for city administration. In 2023 Carlos Fernando Galán was elected Mayor; his term runs from 2024 to 2027. === Localities === The city is divided into 20 localities: Usaquén, Chapinero, Santa Fe, San Cristóbal, Usme, Tunjuelito, Bosa, Kennedy, Fontibón, Engativá, Suba, Barrios Unidos, Teusaquillo, Los Mártires, Antonio Nariño, Puente Aranda, La Candelaria, Rafael Uribe Uribe, Ciudad Bolívar and Sumapaz. Each of the 20 localities is governed by an administrative board elected by popular vote, made up of no fewer than seven members. The Mayor designates local mayors from candidates nominated by the respective administrative board. === Neighbourhoods === Normandía Quiroga Ciudad Bolívar == Economy == Bogotá is the main economic and industrial center of Colombia. The Colombian government fosters the import of capital goods, Bogotá being one of the main destinations of these imports. === Tourism === The metro contributes to 38% of Colombia's GDP. (150 billion dollars in 2024) Travel and tourism's share of the city's overall GDP stands at 2.5%. Bogotá is responsible for 56% of the tourism that arrives to Colombia and is home to 1,423 multinational companies. Bogotá also ranks highly as a global city for doing business and holding meetings. Bogotá is a growing destination for international meetings. In 2016, Bogotá has won 50 major international events, with 12 more world-class events in progress. The 16th World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates took place from 2 to 5 February 2017 in Bogotá, Colombia. One Young World is the preeminent global forum for young leaders, aged 18–30. Bogotá, Colombia is the host city for Summit 2017. The hotels in the historical center of La Candelaria and its surrounding areas cater to lovers of culture and the arts. This area also has the bulk of hostels in the city as well. In La Candelaria, there are many museums, including the Botero Museum and the Gold Museum. Close to La Candelaria is the Cerro Monserrate, which you can reach by cable car or funicular. The hotels located near Ciudad Salitre are intended for visitors who make short stops in Bogotá and near El Dorado International Airport. Important landmarks and tourist stops in Bogotá include the botanical garden José Celestino Mutis, the Quinta de Bolívar, the national observatory, the planetarium, Maloka, the Colpatria observation point, the observation point of La Calera, the monument of the American flags, and La Candelaria (the historical district of the city). There is also Usaquen, a colonial landmark where brunch and a flea market on Sundays is a traditional activity. The city has numerous green parks and amusement parks like Salitre Magico or Mundo Aventura. Green areas surrounding Bogotá are perfect locations for eco-tourism and hiking activities. In the eastern mountains of the city, just a few minutes walking from main roads, there are Quebrada La vieja and Chapinero Waterfalls, two of many green spots for sightseeing and tourism with clean air. There are also several areas of the city where fine restaurants can be found. The G Zone, the T Zone, and La Macarena are well known for their gastronomic offerings. Since the 2000s, major hotel chains have established themselves in the city. Bogotá has a great cultural diversity, coming from different regions of the country, which allows tourists to know the multiculturalism of the country without the need to travel to other cities, this includes gastronomy and different festivals. === Shopping malls === Bogotá's economy has been significantly boosted due to new shopping malls built within the last few years. As of December 2011, over 160 new malls are planned in addition to the existing 100 malls. Notable malls include: Centro Andino Centro Mayor Santafé Gran Estación Portal de la 80 Titán Plaza Calima Atlantis Plaza Unicentro Hayuelos Pasadena Iserra 100 Colina Hacienda Santa Barbara Metropolis == Media == Bogotá is home to several television stations like Canal Capital and Citytv which are local stations, Canal 13 is a regional station, and is home to the national channels Caracol TV, RCN TV, Canal Uno, Canal Institucional, and Señal Colombia. It has multiple satellite television services like Telefónica, Claro and DirecTV and several satellite dishes which offer hundreds of international channels, plus several exclusive channels for Bogotá. In Bogotá, all the major radio networks in the country are available, in both AM and FM; 70% of the FM stations offer RDS service. There are several newspapers, including El Tiempo, El Espectador and El Nuevo Siglo, plus economical dailies La República and Portafolio, tabloids El Espacio, Q'Hubo, and Extra. Bogotá also offers three free newspapers, two Spanish, ADN and Publimetro, and one English, The Bogotá Post. == Infrastructure == Energy and sewer bills are stratified based on the location of owner's residence, The system is the classification of the residential properties that should receive public services. Although the system does not consider the income per person and the rules say that the residential real estate should stratify and not households. All mayors should do the stratification of residential properties of their municipality or district. Bogotá's social strata have been divided as follows and have been extensively used by the government as a reference to develop social welfare programs, statistical information and to some degree for the assignment of lands. Estrato 1 (lowest) Estrato 2 (low) Estrato 3 (mid-low) Estrato 4 (mid-high) Estrato 5 (high) Estrato 6 (highest) == Transport == In addition to TransMilenio, the Peñalosa administration and voter-approved referendums helped to establish travel restrictions on cars with certain license plate numbers during peak hours called Pico y placa (peak, as in hour, and plate, as in license plate); 121 kilometers (75 miles) of Ciclovía on Sundays and major holidays; a massive system (376 km (234 mi) as of 2013) of bicycle paths and segregated lanes called ciclorrutas; and the removal of thousands of parking spots in an attempt to make roads more pedestrian-friendly and discourage car use. Ciclorrutas is one of the most extensive dedicated bike path networks of any city in the world, with a total extension of 376 kilometers (234 miles). It extends from the north of the city, 170th Street, to the south, 27th Street, and from Monserrate on the east to the Bogotá River on the west. The ciclorruta was started by the 1995–1998 Antanas Mockus administration with a few kilometers, and considerably extended afterwards with the development of a Bicycle Master Plan and the addition of paths hundreds of kilometers in extent. Since the construction of the ciclorruta bicycle use in the city has increased, and a car free week was introduced in 2014. === Roads === In addition to this, the metropolis currently has over 650 kilometers of urban bicycle paths divided among its 20 boroughs, making it the city with the largest bicycle lane system on the planet. Bogotá massive urban growth during the 20th and 21st centuries due to immigration and rapid urbanization of neighboring cities has placed a strain on the city's downtown avenues and highways, but since the creation of the Bogota Metropolitan area in 1990 significant efforts to upgrade the city's infrastructure have been undertaken, including the construction of several new avenues and boulevards, as well as the construction of the first two lines of the Bogota Metro. In recent years, the capital district has embarked on several city building projects including the expansion of the Avenida Boyaca and Autopista Norte, as well as the construction of the brand new Avenida Guayacanes, a 13-kilometer 8-lane avenue currently being constructed from scratch in the boroughs of Bosa and Kennedy, as well as the excavations for the city's second metro line. Private car ownership forms a major part of the congestion, in addition to taxis, buses, and commercial vehicles. === Buses === Buses remain the main means of mass transit. There are two bus systems: the traditional system and the TransMilenio BRT system. The city's administration is currently in the process of replacing and updating the entire fleet for the TransMilenio BRT system, adopting Euro VI-standard CNG-powered buses as well as electric buses. Once completed, Bogotá will have the largest electric bus fleet in the world outside China. The traditional system runs a variety of bus types, operated by several companies on normal streets and avenues: Bus (large buses), Buseta (medium size buses) and Colectivo (vans or minivans). The bigger buses were divided into two categories: Ejecutivo, which was originally to be a deluxe service and was not to carry standing passengers, and corriente or normal service. Since May 2008, all buses run as corriente services. Bogotá is a hub for domestic and international bus routes. The Bogotá terminal serves routes to most cities and towns in Colombia and is the largest in the country. There is international service to Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela. The TransMilenio system was created during Enrique Peñalosa's mayoral term, and is a form of bus rapid transit that has been deployed as a measure to compensate for the lack of a subway or rail system. TransMilenio combines articulated buses that operate on dedicated bus roads (busways) and smaller buses (feeders) that operate in residential areas, bringing passengers to the main grid. TransMilenio's main routes are: Caracas Avenue, Northern Highway (Autopista Norte), 80th Street, Americas Avenue, Jiménez Avenue, and 30th Avenue (also referred to as Norte Quito Sur or N.Q.S. for short). Routes for Suba Avenue and Southern Highway (Autopista Sur), the southern leg of the 30th Avenue, were opened in April 2006. The third phase of the system will cover 7th Avenue, 10th Avenue, and 26th Street (or Avenida El Dorado). The system is planned to cover the entire city by 2030. Although the Transmilenio carries commuters to numerous corners of the city, it is more expensive (US$0.80 or 2300 COP) than any public transport, except taxis. === Air === Bogotá's main airport is El Dorado International Airport, with an approximate area of 6.9 km2 (2.7 sq mi) located west of the city's downtown in the Fontibón Locality. Globally known as The Hub of the Americas, it is the busiest airport in Latin America and Colombia. Construction of the airport was ordered by Gustavo Rojas Pinilla (19th President of Colombia) in 1955 to replace the Techo Airport. Due to its central location in Colombia and in Latin America, it is a hub for Colombia's Flagship Carrier Avianca, Copa Airlines Colombia and LATAM Colombia. It is also serviced by a number of international airlines including American, Delta, United, Air France, KLM, Turkish Airlines, Edelweiss, Lufthansa, Emirates, Iberia and Air Canada. The national airport has begun to take more responsibility due to the congestion at the international airport. In response to the high demand of approximately 27 Million passengers per year, A secondary airport, CATAM, serves as a base for Military and Police Aviation. This airport, which uses the runways of El Dorado will eventually move to Madrid, a nearby town in the region of Cundinamarca, leaving further space to expand El Dorado. Guaymaral Airport is another small airport located in the northern boundaries of Bogotá. It is used mainly for private aviation activities. === Water === In 2024, the City Council approved a megaproject that would be carried out in three phases: the first phase would be implemented in the first year, with a main port, docks and vessels all along the Bogotá River, at a cost of 250 billion pesos and would contemplate the transport of up to 120,000 passengers per day, with seven possible routes that would cover distances such as from the boroughs of Suba to Bosa (with the El Dorado International Airport station in between) in a time no longer than 40 minutes. The next two phases, which would also require an investment of nearly 250 billion pesos, would be aimed at strengthening the system and increasing passenger capacity. With this measure, the Bogotá River is expected to become a vital artery for transport and regional connectivity, improving citizens' quality of life and fostering more balanced and sustainable urban development. === Rail === ==== Urban rail ==== Bogotá has little railway transit infrastructure, following the collapse of the tram network, although a number of plans hope to change that. The Bogotá Metro has been pushed forward by two successive governments, and construction began in 2020 with opening planned for 2028. ==== Suburban rail ==== Plans to construct railways in and out of the city, replacing defunct routes, have been delayed due to the pressing need for transport within the city. A tram train line using right-of-way from the defunct Bogotá Savannah Railway, known as RegioTram is being constructed. ==== History ==== On 25 December 1884, the first tramway pulled by mules was inaugurated and covered the route from Plaza de Bolívar to Chapinero, and in 1892, the line connecting Plaza de Bolívar and La Sabana Station started operating. The tramway ran over wooden rails and was easily derailed, so steel rails imported from Britain were eventually installed. In 1894, a tramway car ran the Bogotá–Chapinero line every 20 minutes. The tram system eventually grew to cover most of the city and its surrounding suburbs. But during the Bogotazo riots of 1948, the system suffered heavy damage and was forced to close. The economic effects of the subsequent civil war that followed prevented the damage from being repaired. Parts of the system continued to operate in a reduced state until 1951, when they were replaced by buses. Most of the streetcar tracks were eventually paved over, but exposed tracks can still be seen on many of the older roads of the city, especially downtown and in the La Candelaria area, although it has been about 70 years since any vehicles have run on them. === Cycling === Bogotá has most extensive and comprehensive network of bike paths in Colombia. Bogotá's bike paths network or Ciclorrutas de Bogotá in Spanish, designed and built during the administration of Mayors Antanas Mockus and Enrique Peñalosa, is also one of the most extensive in the world and the most extensive in Latin America. The network is integrated with the TransMilenio bus system which has bicycle parking facilities, therefore rendering it feasible to cross the entire metropolitan area while riding a bike. Bogotá implemented a healthy lifestyle program called "Ciclovía", through which principal highways are closed from 7:00 a.m. until 2:00 pm on Sundays and public holidays. Thanks to the "Ciclovía", the general population rides its bikes enjoying the city as well as exercising. In addition, cars do not circulate as heavily, so there is less pollution. Along the same lines, just during the month of December, the same activity is carried out at night; there are some special amenities and activities, such as fireworks, street theater performances, and street food vendors. Since 4 April 2016 the carrera 11 has been reduced from four to three car lanes and a new bike lane (ciclorruta) has been inaugurated. === Public transport statistics === The average time spent commuting via public transit in Bogotá on a weekday (for example, to and from work) is 97 minutes total. 32% of riders spend more than 2 hours each day riding on public transportation. The average time spent waiting at a stop or station for public transit to arrive is 20 minutes, while 40% of riders wait for over 20 minutes every day. The average distance traveled via public transit is 8 kilometers, with 16% of trips being over 12 kilometers in a single direction. == Education == Known as the Athens of South America, Bogotá has an extensive educational system of both primary and secondary schools and colleges. Due to the constant migration of people into the nation's capital, the availability of quotas for access to education offered by the State free of charge is often insufficient. The city also has a diverse system of colleges and private schools. There are a number of universities, both public and private. In 2002, there were a total of 113 higher education institutions; in Bogotá there are several universities, most partially or fully accredited by the NAC (National Accreditation Council): National University of Colombia, University of the Andes, Colombia, District University of Bogotá, La Salle University, Colombia, University of La Sabana, Pontifical Xavierian University, Our Lady of the Rosary University, Universidad Externado de Colombia, Nueva Granada Military University, Central University, Colombia, El Bosque University, University of America, Sergio Arboleda University, Jorge Tadeo Lozano University, Pilot University of Colombia, Catholic University of Colombia, Saint Thomas Aquinas University and Universidad Pedagógica Nacional. The city has a University City at the National University of Colombia campus located in the traditional sector Teusaquillo. It is the largest campus in Colombia and one of the largest in Latin America. A private school, Chapinero's English Royal School (Colegio Inglaterra Real de Chapinero), existed from 2008 until 2021, when it closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. == Culture == Bogotá has many cultural venues including 58 museums, 62 art galleries, 150 libraries (of different types), 45 stage theaters, 75 sports and attraction parks, and over 150 national monuments. Many of these are renowned globally such as: BibloRed, Bogotá's Public Libraries Network, the Luis Ángel Arango Library, the most important in the region which receives well over 6 million visitors a year; the Colombian National Museum, one of the oldest in the Americas, dating back to 1823; the Ibero-American Theater Festival, largest of its kind in the world, receives 2 million attendees enjoying over 450 performances across theaters and off the street; the Bogotá Philharmonic is the most important symphony orchestra in Colombia, with over 100 musicians and 140 performances a year. The city has been a member of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the category of music since March 2012. In 2007, Bogotá was named World Book Capital by UNESCO. The Cristóbal Colón Theater, the country's oldest Opera House, opened in 1892. It is home to the National Symphony Association's major act, the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia. Rock al Parque or Rock at the Park is an open air rock music festival. Recurring annually, it gathers over 320,000 music fans who can enjoy over 60 band performances for free during three days a year. The series have been so successful during its 15 years of operation that the city has replicated the initiative for other music genres, resulting in other recent festivals like Salsa at the Park, Hip Hop at the Park, Ballet at the Park, Opera at the Park, and Jazz at the Park. Kids' Choice Awards Colombia, are the awards given in the city by Nickelodeon and the first ceremony was given in 2014 by the singer Maluma and in Corferias the ceremony has been the home of shows given by artists like Austin Mahone, Carlos Peña, Don Tetto and Riva among others. Bogotá has worked in recent years to position itself as leader in cultural offerings in South America, and it is increasingly being recognized worldwide as a hub in the region for the development of the arts. In 2007, Bogotá was awarded the title of Cultural Capital of Ibero-America by the UCCI (Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities), and it became the only city to have received the recognition twice, after being awarded for the first time in 1991. === Cultural history === Bogotá gave the Spanish-speaking world José Asunción Silva (1865–1896), Modernism pioneer. His poetic work in the novel De sobremesa has a place in outstanding American literature. Rafael Pombo (1833–1912) was an American romanticism poet who left a collection of fables essential part of children imagination and Colombian tradition. === Architecture === The urban morphology and typology of colonial buildings in Bogotá have been maintained since the late nineteenth century, long after the independence of Colombia (1810). This persistence of the colonial setting is still visible, particularly in La Candelaria, the historical center of Bogotá. Also kept up are the colonial houses of two stories, with courtyards, gabled roofs, ceramic tiles and balconies. In some cases, these balconies were enclosed with glass windows during the Republican period, a distinguishing feature of the architecture of the sector (for example, the House of Rafael Pombo). "Republican Architecture" was the style that prevailed between 1830 and 1930. Although there were attempts to consolidate a modern architectural language, the only examples seen are University City and White City at the National University of Colombia (constructed 1936–39). This work was developed by German architect Leopold Rother, although architects of rationalist trends participated in the design of campus buildings. There are also architecture trends such as art deco, expressionism and organic architecture. This last trend was typified by Bogotan architects in the second half of the twentieth century such as Rogelio Salmona. In 2015 BD Bacatá was inaugurated, surpassing the Colpatria Tower to become the tallest building of the city and of Colombia. The building its expected to be the beginning of the city's downtown renovation. === Libraries and archives === In 2007, Bogotá was named World Book Capital by UNESCO. Bogotá is the first Latin American city to receive this recognition, and the second one in the Americas after Montreal. It stood out in programs, the library network and the presence of organizations that, in a coordinated manner, are working to promote books and reading in the city. Several specific initiatives for the World Book Capital program have been undertaken with the commitment of groups, both public and private, engaged in the book sector. The city is home to the Biblored, a network which administers 146 small and four large public libraries (Biblioteca Virgilio Barco, Biblioteca El Tintal, Biblioteca El Tunal and Biblioteca Julio Mario Santodomingo). It also has six branches of the Library Network of the Family Compensation Fund Colsubsidio and libraries and documentation centers attached to institutions like the Museo Nacional de Colombia (specializing in old books, catalogs and art), Bogotá Museum of Modern Art, the Alliance Française, and the Centro Colombo Americano. Another set of libraries are the new collaborative initiatives between the state, city and international agencies. Examples are the Cultural Center Gabriel García Marquez, custom designed by the Fondo de Cultura Economica in Mexico, and the Spanish Cultural Center, which will begin construction with public funds and of the Spanish government in downtown Bogotá. The National Library of Colombia (1777), a dependence of the Ministry of Culture and the Biblioteca Luis Angel Arango (1958), a dependence of the Bank of the Republic are the two largest public libraries in the city. The first is the repository of more than two million volumes, with an important collection of ancient books. The latter has almost two million volumes, and with 45,000 m2 (480,000 sq ft) in size, it hosts 10,000 visitors a day; the Library Alfonso Palacio Rudas is also a dependence of the Bank of the Republic, and is located at the north of the city, with about 50,000 volumes. Other large public libraries are the Library of Congress in Colombia (with 100,000 volumes), of the Instituto Caro y Cuervo (with nearly 200,000 volumes, the largest Latin American library in Philology and Linguistics), the Library of the Academy of History The Library of the Academy of Language, the Library of the Colombian Institute of Anthropology and History ICANH, and many university libraries. Bogotá is home to historical records housed in the General National Archive, a collection of about 60 million documents, one of the largest repositories of primary historical sources in Latin America. Bogotá is also home to the Musical Archive of the Cathedral of Bogotá (with thousands of books and choral song-colonial period), the Archdiocesan Archive, the Archive of the Conciliar Seminary of Bogotá, the Archive History National University of Colombia and the Archive of the Mint in Bogotá, under the Bank of the Republic. === Museums and galleries === As of 2009, the city had 58 museums and 62 art galleries. The National Museum of Colombia has acquisitions divided into four collections: art, history, archeology and ethnography. The Gold Museum, with 35,000 pieces of tumbaga gold, along with 30,000 objects in ceramic, stone and textiles, represents the largest collection of pre-Columbian gold in the world. The Museo Botero has 123 works of Fernando Botero and 87 works by international artists. The Bogotá Museum of Modern Art has a collection of graphic arts, industrial design and photography. The Museum of Colonial Art is home to an important collection of colonial art from Colombia. Fundación Gilberto Alzate Avendaño hosts activities related to the performing arts and shows temporary exhibits of art in its halls and galleries. Among the scientific museums are the Archeological Museum – Casa del Marqués de San Jorge, which has about 30 thousand pieces of pre-Columbian art, Instituto de Ciencias Naturales (UN), one of the four largest museums of natural sciences in Latin America, and the Geological Museum, which has a collection specializing in Geology and Paleontology. Bogotá has historical museums like the Jorge Eliecer Gaitan Museum, the Museum of Independence (Museo de la Independencia), the Quinta de Bolívar and the Casa Museo Francisco José de Caldas, as well as the headquarters of Maloka and the Children's Museum of Bogotá. New museums include the Art Deco and the Museum of Bogotá. === Theater and arts === Besides the Ibero-American Theater Festival, the largest theater festival in the world, the city has forty-five theaters; the principal ones are the Colon Theater, the newly built Teatro Mayor Julio Mario Santo Domingo, the National Theater with its two venues, the traditional TPB Hall, the Theater of La Candelaria, the Camarin del Carmen (over 400 years old, formerly a convent), the Colsubsidio, and a symbol of the city, the renovated Teatro Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, León de Greiff Auditorium (home of the Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra), and the Open Air Theater "La Media Torta", where musical events are also held. The Ibero-American Theater Festival, is not the only acclaimed festival. There are many other regional and local theater festivals that are celebrated and maintain the city active year-round . Amongst these is the "Alternative Theater Festival". Bogotá has its own film festival, the Bogotá Film Festival, and many theaters, showing both contemporary films and art cinema. Bogotá's international art fair, ArtBo, takes place in October of every year and showcases thousands of works covering arts across all formats, movements, and concepts. The main cultural center of the city is the La Candelaria, historic center of the city, with a concentration of universities and museums. In 2007 Bogotá was designated the Ibero-American cultural Capital of Iberoamerica. === Religion === Before the Spanish conquest, the beliefs of the inhabitants of Bogotá formed part of the Muisca religion. From the colonial period onwards, the city has been predominantly Roman Catholic. Proof of this religious tradition is the number of churches built in the historic city center. The city has been seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bogotá since 22 March 1564. The seat of the Archbishop is the Primatial Cathedral of Bogotá; the archdiocese itself is located in new buildings in the north of the city. As of 2023, Bogotá had six mosques, including Abou Bakr Al-Siddiq Mosque on Calle 80 and Carrera 30, Estambul mosque in Chapinero, and Centro de Estudios Al-Qurtubi on Calle 60. There are a total of four synagogues in Bogotá, the main Ashkenazi Jewish synagogue is located on 94th street. An Eastern Orthodox church and the San Pablo Anglican Cathedral, the mother church of the Episcopal Church in Colombia, are both located in Chapinero. The Bogotá Colombia Temple of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is located in the Niza neighborhood. There are four Buddhist centers located in the north of the city. There is also a wide variety of Protestant churches in different parts of the city, including the Bogotá Baptist Chapel, the non-denominational Union Church, and the St. Matthaus Evangelical Lutheran Church which holds services in German as well as Spanish for the German-Colombian community. === Cuisine === There is a broad array of restaurants in Bogotá that serve typical and international food. Parque de la 93, Usaquén, Zona T, The G Zone, La Macarena, La Candelaria, The parkway and the International Center are some of the main sectors where a number of international restaurants are found, ranging from Argentinian, Peruvian, Venezuelan, Brazilian, Mexican, American establishments to Arabic, Asian, French, Italian, Russian and British bistros, rotisseries, steakhouses and pubs, just to name a few. Typical dishes of Bogotá include the ajiaco, a soup prepared with chicken, a variety of potatoes, corn on the cob, and guascas (an herb), usually served with sour cream and capers, and accompanied by avocado and rice. Tamales is a very traditional Bogotá dish. Colombian tamal is a paste made with rice, beef, pork and/or chicken (depending on the region), chickpea, carrot, and spices, wrapped in plantain leaves and steam-cooked. Figs with arequipe, strawberries with cream, postre de natas and cuajada con melao are some of the main desserts offered in the city. Canelazo is a hot drink from the Altiplano prepared with aguapanela, cinnamon and aguardiente. Another hot beverage is the carajillo, made with coffee (tinto as it is known in Colombia) and aguardiente. === Parks and recreation === There are numerous parks in Bogotá, with facilities for concerts, plays, movies, storytellers, and other activities. Simón Bolívar Park is a large park regularly used to stage free concerts (such as the annual Rock al Parque festival). The public Parque Nacional (National Park) has green spaces, ponds, games for children, foot and bicycle paths, and venues for entertainment such as public screenings of movies and concerts and events organized by the Council of Bogotá The Bogotá Botanical Garden (Jardín Botánico de Bogotá) Mundo Aventura is an amusement park, with an entry charge and charges for the different attractions. It has rides for adults and children, a petting zoo, and even a small track for animal races. Salitre Mágico is another amusement park with rides and attractions. The park is near the Simón Bolívar park, where concerts are held throughout the year. Parque del Chicó has trees, gardens, artificial creeks and ponds, and a colonial-style house converted into a museum; Museo del Chicó To the north of Bogotá, in the municipality of Tocancipá; Jaime Duque Park has rides, a giant map of Colombia, various exhibits, a zoo, and a big hand holding the world, symbolizing God. There is a reproduction of the Taj Mahal in the park with a collection of reproductions of famous paintings. The park is also used for large concerts, mainly electronic music. Maloka is an interactive science museum, in the style of similar venues around the world. Tourist train is a sightseeing train, popular with Bogotá residents, which runs to outlying towns Zipaquirá, Cajicá and Nemocón along the lines of the former Bogotá Savannah Railway on weekends. The route to Zipaquirá (known for its salt cathedral) is 53 kilometers (33 miles) long. Another line goes towards the north for 47 km (29 mi) and ends at Briceño. The Usaquén Park is another of the most important parks in the city several of the best restaurants in this city are located there, is recognized to have street performers such as storytellers, magicians, jugglers, etc., and also for being one of the most decorated parks in the city during Christmas time. == Sports == The District Institute for Recreation and Sport promotes recreation, sports and use of the parks in Bogotá. Football has been declared a symbol of Bogotá, and is widely played in the city. There are three professional clubs in the city, Santa Fe, Millonarios, and La Equidad. The main stadium in the city is The Campín Stadium (Estadio Nemesio Camacho El Campín) home of the local teams Santa Fe and Millonarios, In 2001 The Campín Stadium was the place for the 2001 Copa América final between the Colombia national football and the Mexico national football, with a final score 1–0 in favor of the home team, which finally obtained its first continental cup. The other soccer venue is the multi-use Techo Metropolitan Stadium which is the home of La Equidad. Other major sporting venues are the covered Coliseum El Campín, the Simón Bolívar Aquatic Complex, the Sports Palace, the El Salitre Sports Venue which includes the Luis Carlos Galán Velodrome (which hosted the 1995 UCI Track Cycling World Championships), the El Salitre Diamond Ballpark and the BMX track "Mario Andrés Soto". Bogotá hosted the first Bolivarian Games held in 1938. The city hosted the National Games in 2004, winning the championship. It was a sub-venue Bolivarian Pan American Games. In addition, the city on the route of the Tour of Colombia. After being a major venue city for the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup that was held in Colombia, Bogotá was one of the venue cities hosting the 2016 FIFA Futsal World Cup. === Sports teams === == Symbols == The flag originated with the insurgency movement against the colonial authorities which began on 20 July 1810, during which the rebels wore armbands with yellow and red bands, as these colors were those of the Spanish flag used as the flag for the New Kingdom of Granada. On 9 October 1952, exactly 142 years after these events, decree 555 of 1952 officially adopted the patriotic armband as the flag of Bogotá. The flag of Cundinamarca follows the same pattern, plus a light blue tile which represents the Virgin Mary's cape. The flag itself is a yellow band above a red one. The yellow denotes the gold from the earth, as well as the virtues of justice, clemency, benevolence, the so-called "mundane qualities" (defined as nobility, excellence, richness, generosity, splendor, health, steadfastness, joy and prosperity), long life, eternity, power and constancy. The red denotes the virtue of charity, as well as the qualities of bravery, nobility, values, audacity, victory, honor and furor, Colombians call it the blood of their people. The coat of arms of the city was granted by emperor Charles V (Charles I of Spain) to the New Kingdom of Granada, by royal decree given in Valladolid, Spain on 3 December 1548. It contains a black eagle in the center, which symbolizes steadfastness. The eagle is also a symbol of the Habsburgs, which was the ruling family of the Spanish empire at the time. The eagle is crowned with gold and holds a red pomegranate inside a golden background. The border contains olive branches with nine golden pomegranates on a blue background. The two red pomegranates symbolize audacity, and the nine golden ones represent the nine states which constituted the New Kingdom of Granada at the time. In 1932 the coat of arms was officially recognized and adopted as the symbol of Bogotá. Bogotá's anthem lyrics were written by Pedro Medina Avendaño; the melody was composed by Roberto Pineda Duque. The song was officially declared the anthem by decree 1000 31 July 1974, by then Mayor of Bogotá, Aníbal Fernandez de Soto. == International relations == === Twin towns – sister cities === Bogotá is twinned with: === Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities === Bogotá is part of the Union of Ibero-American Capital Cities established on 12 October 1982. === Partnerships and cooperations === In addition, Bogotá cooperates with: New York City, United States == Panoramas == == See also == Carnival of Bogotá List of largest cities Transport in Colombia == References == == Further reading == Bhadra-Heintz, John I. B. (2022). A Tyranny Against Itself: Intimate Partner Violence on the Margins of Bogota. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-9806-2. == External links == Official website (in Spanish) Bogota official tourism site
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_We_Do_in_the_Shadows_(TV_series)#:~:text=Natasia%20Demetriou%20as%20Nadja%20of,vampire%20and%20later%20married%20him.	What We Do in the Shadows (TV series)	What We Do in the Shadows is an American comedy horror mockumentary fantasy television series created by Jemaine Clement, first broadcast on FX on March 27, 2019, until concluding its run with the end of its sixth season on December 16, 2024. Based on the 2014 New Zealand film written and directed by Clement and Taika Waititi, both of whom act as executive producers, the series follows four vampire roommates on Staten Island, and stars Kayvan Novak, Matt Berry, Natasia Demetriou, Harvey Guillén, Mark Proksch, and Kristen Schaal. What We Do in the Shadows is the second television series in the franchise after the spin-off Wellington Paranormal (2018–2022). Both shows share the same canon as the original film, with several characters from the film making appearances, including Clement's and Waititi's. The show received critical acclaim, particularly for its cast and writing, and 35 Emmy Award nominations, including four for Outstanding Comedy Series in 2020, 2022, 2024, and 2025, for its second, third, fifth and sixth season, respectively. == Premise == Traditional vampires Nandor, Laszlo, and Nadja, together with energy vampire Colin Robinson, share a Staten Island residence, maintained by Nandor's familiar Guillermo. The vampires routinely clash with the modern world, other supernatural beings, and each other, while Guillermo earnestly endeavors to balance his loyalty to Nandor with his desire to become a vampire, complicated by his ancestry as a descendant of vampire hunter Van Helsing. == Cast and characters == === Main === Kayvan Novak as Nandor the Relentless – Once the bloodthirsty leader of the fictional kingdom of Al-Quolanudar in southern Iran and a warrior serving the Ottoman Empire. At age 760, he is the oldest of the group and their self-proclaimed leader, though it is obvious he has little to no authority. Although he genuinely cares for his human familiar Guillermo, he has difficulty expressing it. Nandor is also quite naïve to the ways of modern society and humans, which often results in Guillermo becoming frustrated with him. Matt Berry as Leslie "Laszlo" Cravensworth – A 310-year-old vampire from British nobility who was turned by Nadja and is now married to her. A pansexual and former porn actor who is often preoccupied with sexual thoughts, he enjoys sexual encounters with both Nadja and Nandor. His interests are more varied and intellectual than the other characters. He frequently performs scientific experiments on the humans killed by him and the other vampires. According to Nadja, he once forgot to eat for an extended period of time because he was "writing poetry and wanking". He and Nadja were at one time prolific songwriters, and, it seems, wrote what eventually became "Row, Row, Row Your Boat", "Come on Eileen" and "Kokomo". Laszlo also enjoys making topiary sculptures of vulvas in the yard, including those of his wife, and mother. Natasia Demetriou as Nadja of Antipaxos – A 500-year-old Greek Romani vampire who turned Laszlo into a vampire and later married him. Abrasive and aggressive, she is frequently frustrated with her male housemates and nostalgic about her human life. The only character she shows any affection for is Laszlo, often wrathfully lashing out at Guillermo. She has entertained an affair with a reincarnated knight named Gregor for hundreds of years, only for him to be decapitated in every reincarnation. She later becomes manager of her own vampire nightclub. Demetriou also plays Nadja's human ghost, split from its corporeal form when Nadja was turned into a vampire, who inhabits a doll which has appeared since the second season. Harvey Guillén as Guillermo de la Cruz – Nandor's long-suffering Latino familiar. Despite his frustration with his unreasonable workload and Nandor's disregard for his mortality, he has served his master for more than a decade in the hope of being made a vampire. Guillermo discovers that he is a descendant of the famous vampire hunter Abraham Van Helsing and proves to be very skilled at killing vampires, giving him conflicting feelings about his desire to become a vampire. Guillermo's skill as a vampire slayer leads to him becoming a bodyguard for Nandor, Nadja, and Laszlo. He comes out as gay to his family but reveals his desire to become a vampire at the same time, prompting Nadja to erase their memories of his confession. Mark Proksch as Colin Robinson (and Baby Colin / "The Boy") – An energy vampire who lives in the basement. He sustains himself by draining humans and fellow vampires of their life force by being extremely boring or frustrating. As a "day walker", he is not harmed by sunlight or entry into churches, and thus holds a regular job in an office where he feeds on his coworkers' frustrations. This also means that he financially supports the group. Unlike the others, he shows no outward signs of vampirism and appears as a regular human, with the only hints being his glowing irises and demonic facial expression when he feeds on energy, and his reflection showing a pale and decrepit version of himself. Following his 100th birthday, he dies and his infant offspring bursts out of his chest. Having rapidly grown to adulthood, Colin Robinson's son discovers a hidden room filled with Colin Robinson's diaries and regains Colin Robinson's memories as a result, forgetting his time as a child and essentially becoming a reincarnation of Colin Robinson. Kristen Schaal as The Guide (also known as the "Floating Woman") – An envoy of the Vampiric Council who is able to teleport short distances and sometimes speaks in a demonic voice. She frequently expresses her desire to be socially accepted by the other vampires, yet is almost always rejected. She later works for Nadja as the latter turns the Vampiric Council's headquarters into a nightclub. (seasons 5–6; guest season 1; recurring seasons 3–4) === Recurring === Doug Jones as Baron Afanas – An ancient vampire from the Old Country who believes vampires should rule the world. Both Nadja and Laszlo had secret affairs with the Baron despite his lack of genitals. Later it is disclosed that he is not actually a Baron, but simply "barren" because he was unable to have children. In the first season, Guillermo inadvertently kills the Baron by opening a door and exposing him to sunlight. In the third season, however, it is revealed that he barely survived, albeit reduced to his head, torso and left arm. In later seasons, The Baron chooses to live a quaint, suburban lifestyle with The Sire, another legendary vampire. (seasons 1, 3–6) Anthony Atamanuik as Sean Rinaldi – The human next-door neighbor. He sometimes witnesses Laszlo doing something vampiric but is easily hypnotized into forgetting everything. The vampires spare him because he brings their trash cans in when they forget, and Laszlo considers Sean his best friend. In season 5, it's implied that Sean is slowly, yet consistently, becoming dumber due to experiencing a constant stream of hypnosis and his rampant alcoholism. Beanie Feldstein as Jenna – a LARPer and virgin whom Guillermo lured for the vampires to feast on. She was later transformed into a vampire by Nadja who witnessed her being treated poorly by her peers. During her vampire training with Nadja, she discovers she has the rare ability to turn invisible, which fits the tendency of people to ignore her, yet she struggles with turning into a bat. (season 1) Veronika Slowikowska as Shanice – Jenna's college roommate who witnesses her transformation into a vampire. Shanice later joins the Mosquito Collectors of the Tri-State Area, a secret team of amateur vampire hunters. (seasons 1–2) Nick Kroll as Simon the Devious – A vampire who rules over the Manhattan vampires and owns the Sassy Cat nightclub. He was initially a close friend to the Staten Island vampires when they first arrived in America, but he quickly became their shared enemy thanks to his willingness to trick and betray the trio. He is obsessed with Laszlo's cursed hat made out of witch skin and is often surrounded by a posse of vampires called "The Leatherskins". (guest seasons 1–2, 4) Jake McDorman as Jeff Suckler – A reincarnation of Nadja's former human lover, Gregor, a knight who has been killed by decapitation in each of his lives. Nadja eventually restores Jeff's memories of his previous lives so that he can be more like his former self, leading to him falling into insanity and being committed to a mental institution. It is later revealed to Nadja and Gregor that Laszlo had been causing each of his deaths throughout history, which he does again. (season 1; guest season 2) Vanessa Bayer as Evie Russell – Colin Robinson's co-worker. He discovers that she is an advanced form of energy vampire — an emotional vampire — who feeds off of the pity and sadness generated by her outlandish stories of suffering and misfortune. She and Colin Robinson date for a short time, feeding together on bored and pitying humans until he begins to feel the relationship is unhealthy. In season 5, she becomes Staten Island's City Comptroller, taking over for Colin Robinson's campaign after he intentionally exposed his penis in a video meeting. Her first name is a homophone of "E.V.", for Emotional Vampire. (guest seasons 1, 5) Marceline Hugot as Barbara Lazarro – The president of the Staten Island Council. She was going to be the vampires' way of taking over Staten Island until Laszlo left a pile of dead raccoons on her doorstep in an attempt to win her trust, resulting in her believing it was a form of terrorist threat. She later appears running against Colin Robinson in the comptroller election. (guest seasons 1, 5) Chris Sandiford as Derek – A vampire hunter turned vampire and convenience store clerk. (seasons 2–5, guest season 6) Myrna Cabello as Silvia de la Cruz – Guillermo's mother (seasons 2, 4–5) Haley Joel Osment as Topher – Nadja and Laszlo's familiar who is accidentally killed and revived as a zombie. Unlike Guillermo, Topher has no interest in becoming a vampire. He is energetic, fun-loving, and charismatic, and he is well-liked by all other members of the household, except Guillermo. (guest seasons 2, 5) Benedict Wong as Wallace – A necromancer and tchotchke salesman whom Lazlo views as a fraud and con artist and often feuds with him. (guest seasons 2, 5) Marissa Jaret Winokur as Charmaine Rinaldi – Sean's wife. (guest seasons 2–6) Anoop Desai as Djinn – Nandor's magical genie, who is indebted to grant him a large number of wishes. (season 4; guest season 5) Parisa Fakhri as Marwa – Nandor's resurrected ex-wife, now fiancée (season 4, guest season 6) Frankie Quiñones as Miguel – Guillermo's cousin (guest seasons 4–6) Mike O'Brien as Jerry the Vampire – The house's fifth roommate who has been in a "super slumber" since 1976, and intended to be awoken on New Year's Eve, 1996. (season 6) Tim Heidecker as Jordan – Senior partner at Cannon Capital Strategies, the private equity firm where Guillermo, Nadja, and Nandor have been hired. (season 6) Andy Assaf as Cravensworth's Monster – A Frankenstein-like creature assembled and animated by Laszlo. (season 6) === Guests === ==== Season 1 ==== Arj Barker as Arjan – The pack leader of the Staten Island Werewolf Support Group. He entered into a truce between his kind and the vampires (which was created in 1993). Dave Bautista and Alexandra Henrikson as Garrett and Vasillika the Defiler – A duo of vampires imprisoned by the council after Garrett was framed by Laszlo for turning a baby into a vampire (which is very illegal), and Vasillika for too much defiling. Mary Gillis as June – Nadja and Laszlo's familiar. She appears to be an ill old woman who communicates through grunts. She is killed when the Baron sucks all her blood when he arrives on Staten Island. Jeremy O. Harris as Colby – A human familiar to Dantos the Cruel and Radinka the Brutal, two 400-year-old vampires who appear to be children while Colby portrays as their father. Gloria Laino as The Baron's Familiar – The Baron's familiar, who maintains a silent, watchful eye on the vampires of Staten Island as her master awakes. Guillermo says that she pops out of nowhere and hears "everything". Paul Reubens as Paul – A member of the council. Tilda Swinton as a fictionalized version of herself who is the leader of the Vampiric Council. Wesley Snipes as Wesley the Daywalker / Wesley Sykes – A half-vampire member of the Council who could not participate in person but only video chat through Skype. Danny despises him, claiming he is a vampire hunter, which he denies. Hayden Szeto as Jonathan – A LARPer college student that Guillermo lured for the vampires to feast on. However, Colin Robinson beat them to it by draining his energy instead. Danny Trejo as Danny – A Hispanic tattooed member of the council. He has an open dislike towards Wesley. Taika Waititi, Jonathan Brugh, and Jemaine Clement reprise their roles as Viago von Dorna Schmarten Scheden Heimburg, Deacon Brucke, and Vladislav the Poker from the original film. Three vampires arrived from New Zealand to participate in the Vampiric Council. Bobby Wilson as Marcus – The actual Native American member of the Werewolf Pack. He is Native American, and a werewolf but, as he explains, "Not a werewolf because" he is Native American. "It's not an ethnic thing." Evan Rachel Wood as Evan the Immortal Princess of the Undead – A member of the Council who just goes by her first name. Hannan Younis as Ange – An African American werewolf and part of Arjan's group. She undermines Arjan's rules and is openly hostile towards Nadja due to Nadja's insulting the werewolves by assuming they are all "Indian" (as in, Native Americans). ==== Season 2 ==== James Frain as the voice of Black Peter – A goat and witch's familiar Mark Hamill as Jim the Vampire – A vampire who claims that Laszlo owes him rent money from the 1800s and demands retribution. Greta Lee as Celeste – A familiar who pretends to be a vampire Lucy Punch as Lilith – A witch and rival of Nadja Craig Robinson as Claude – The leader of the Mosquito Collectors of the Tri-State Area, a secret team of amateur vampire hunters. ==== Season 3 ==== Julie Klausner and Cole Escola as The Gargoyles – A duo of gargoyles who gossip and give tips to The Guide. Lauren Collins as Meg – A gym receptionist on whom Nandor has a crush. Tyler Alvarez as Wes Blankenship – The leader of a group of rebellious young vampires that refuse to follow the council's orders. Aida Turturro as Gail – Nandor's on-again, off-again werewolf-turned-vampire girlfriend. Catherine Cohen as Sheila – The siren Scott Bakula as himself Cree Summer as Jan – A vampire scam artist who is head of the Post-Chiropteran Wellness Center cult Donal Logue as a fictionalized vampire version of himself Khandi Alexander as Contessa Carmilla De Mornay David Cross as Dominykas the Dreadful ==== Season 4 ==== Affion Crockett as Richie Suck, superstar vampire rapper Fred Armisen as Doctor DJ Tom Schmidt, Richie Suck's familiar who is manipulating him for financial gain. Sal Vulcano as himself Sklar Brothers as Toby and Bran Al Roberts as Freddie, Guillermo's boyfriend Sofia Coppola as herself Thomas Mars as himself Jim Jarmusch as himself Michael McDonald as Gustave Leroy ==== Season 5 ==== Robert Smigel as Alexander, a man Nandor befriends at the gym Hannibal Buress as a member of the energy vampire council Aparna Nancherla as a member of the energy vampire council Martha Kelly as the chair of the energy vampire council Gregg Turkington as a member of the energy vampire council Jo Firestone as a member of the energy vampire council John Slattery as himself Wayne Federman as a vampire urgent care doctor Kerri Kenney-Silver as Helen "The Magic Woman" Johnson Patton Oswalt as himself ==== Season 6 ==== Steve Coogan as Lord Roderick Cravensworth, Laszlo's father Jon Glaser as a demon Kevin Pollak as Cal Bodian, the lead actor of the TV series P.I. Undercover: New York Zach Woods as Joel, an old office work friend of Colin Robinson Alexander Skarsgård as Eric Northman, reprising his role from the TV series True Blood == Episodes == === Season 1 (2019) === === Season 2 (2020) === === Season 3 (2021) === === Season 4 (2022) === === Season 5 (2023) === === Season 6 (2024) === == Production == === Development === On January 22, 2018, it was announced that FX had given the production a pilot order. The pilot was written by Jemaine Clement and directed by Taika Waititi, both of whom are also executive producers alongside Scott Rudin, Paul Simms, Garrett Basch, and Eli Bush. On May 3, 2018, it was announced that FX had given the production a series order for a first season consisting of ten episodes, which premiered on March 27, 2019. According to Clement: "We stay pretty basic '70s/'80s vampire rules, with a little bit of '30s. They can turn into bats. They can't go in the sunlight; they don't sparkle in the sun, they die. They have to be invited in; in a lot of literature vampires have to be invited into private buildings, but this is a documentary so it's the real rules which means they have to be invited into any building." Clement has also stated that the part of Laszlo was written specifically for Berry. The main influences on the series are Fright Night, Martin, The Lost Boys, Nosferatu, Interview with the Vampire, Vampire's Kiss, and Bram Stoker's Dracula. The character Nadja was named after the 1994 film of the same name. The song used in the opening credits is "You're Dead" by Norma Tanega (1966), which was used during the opening credits sequence in the original film. The second season premiered on April 15, 2020. On May 22, 2020, FX renewed the series for a third season, which premiered on September 2, 2021. On August 13, 2021, FX renewed the series for a fourth season, ahead of the third-season premiere. Upon the fourth season's renewal, it was reported that Rudin would no longer be an executive producer, beginning with the third season, due to allegations of abusive behavior. On June 6, 2022, FX renewed the series for a fifth and sixth season, ahead of the fourth season premiere. On December 19, 2023, it was announced that the sixth season would be its last. === Filming === Principal photography for the first season took place from October 22 to December 18, 2018, in Toronto, Ontario. Filming for the third season began on February 8, 2021, and finished on May 3, 2021. The writer/producer Paul Simms said that series does not use CGI effects: "There's no fully digital characters or anything like that. One of the movies we really talked about a lot when we were conceiving the show was Francis Ford Coppola's Dracula where he went back to really doing as many effects as possible in camera and figuring out ways to do that. One of my favorite supernatural moments is completely in camera. It's where Beanie Feldstein's character is walking along in the park and Nadja appears walking next to her. That was all just done completely the old fashioned way where Natasia was hiding behind a tree and the camera was tracking along and at the right moment, she walked out from behind a tree. I think there's something about that old fashioned way that makes things more interesting than when you can tell it's digital and rubbery and fake looking". Among the cinematographers D.J. Stipsen and Christian Sprenger's influences for the series was the work of Michael Ballhaus and production designer Thomas E. Sanders on the Coppola-directed Bram Stoker's Dracula: "We referenced that film for the general sumptuousness of the vampires' mansion, which was our main set. Our take, however, was that the Staten Island vampires have let their place go. The former glory is evident but now exists in a worn, faded and distressed state. Production designer Kate Bunch and I had a lot of conversations about striking the right balance between sumptuousness and neglect. There are strong reds, but also yellow that has faded to the point of being a warm brown." Filming for the sixth and final season concluded in May 2024. == Release == === Marketing === On October 31, 2018, a series of teaser trailers for the series were released. On January 10, 2019, another teaser trailer was released. On February 4, 2019, the official trailer for the series was released. === Premiere === On October 7, 2018, the series held a panel at the annual New York Comic Con moderated by Rolling Stone's Alan Sepinwall and featuring co-creators Taika Waititi and Jemaine Clement, along with fellow executive producer Paul Simms. Before the panel began, the first episode of the series was screened for the audience. The world premiere for the series was screened during the 2019 South by Southwest film festival in Austin, Texas as a part of the festival's "Episodic Premieres" series. == Reception == === Critical response === All six seasons of What We Do in the Shadows received critical acclaim. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the overall series holds a 96% approval rating. On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the overall series has received a score of 83 out of 100. ==== Season 1 ==== The first season received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season has an approval rating of 94%, based on 72 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Delightfully absurd and ridiculously fun, What We Do in the Shadows expands on the film's vampiric lore and finds fresh perspective in its charming, off-kilter cast to create a mockumentary series worth sinking your teeth into." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 80 out of 100, based on 30 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews. ==== Season 2 ==== The second season also received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 98%, based on 44 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Bat! What We Do In the Shadows loses no steam in a smashing second season that savvily expands its supernatural horizons while doubling down on the fast flying fun." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 79 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews. ==== Season 3 ==== The third season was also praised. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 100%, based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 9/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Carried on the wings of its cast's incredible chemistry and the strongest writing of the series so far, What We Do in the Shadows' third season is scary good." On Metacritic, the third season has an average score of 96 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". ==== Season 4 ==== The fourth season also received acclaim from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 100%, based on 29 reviews, with an average rating of 8.6/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Aside from turning this demonic household into Three Vampires and a Baby, What We Do in the Shadows doubles down on what it does best without drastically changing the formula – and remains fang-tastic all the same." On Metacritic, the fourth season has an average score of 84 out of 100, based on eight critics, indicating "universal acclaim". However, some critics complained of the reductive treatment of Nandor's wife, Marwa, in season 4. Comic Book Resources complained of the show "stripping a woman of her identity – physically and mentally – for laughs" and The Mary Sue stated that "What We Do in the Shadows missed hard with its treatment of Marwa." ==== Season 5 ==== The fifth season also received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 95%, based on 35 reviews, with an average rating of 7.65/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Displaying a comedic longevity that'd make even a vampire blush, What We Do in the Shadows enters its fifth season showing no signs of getting long in the fang." On Metacritic, the fifth season has an average score of 85 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". ==== Season 6 ==== The sixth season also received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 91%, based on 23 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "What We Do in the Shadows wisely chooses to stick a stake in it before the Staten Island shenanigans become stale, preserving its integrity as one of television's best sitcoms." On Metacritic, the sixth season has an average score of 79 out of 100, based on 8 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". === Ratings === Nielsen Media Research, which records streaming viewership on U.S. television screens, reported that from June 1, 2024, to May 31, 2025, What We Do in the Shadows was streamed for a total of 55.6 million hours. ==== Season 1 ==== ==== Season 2 ==== ==== Season 3 ==== === Accolades === == Notes == == References == == External links == Official website What We Do in the Shadows at IMDb What We Do in the Shadows at epguides.com
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_(operating_system)#:~:text=As%20of%20January%202023%2C%20Apple,relating%20to%20macOS%20and%20iOS.	Darwin (operating system)	Darwin is the core Unix-like operating system of macOS, iOS, watchOS, tvOS, iPadOS, audioOS, visionOS, and bridgeOS. It previously existed as an independent open-source operating system, first released by Apple in 2000. It is composed of code derived from NeXTSTEP, FreeBSD and other BSD operating systems, Mach, and other free software projects' code, as well as code developed by Apple. Darwin's unofficial mascot is Hexley the Platypus. Darwin is mostly POSIX-compatible, but has never, by itself, been certified as compatible with any version of POSIX. Starting with Leopard, macOS has been certified as compatible with the Single UNIX Specification version 3 (SUSv3). == History == The heritage of Darwin began with Unix derivatives supplemented by aspects of NeXT's NeXTSTEP operating system (later, since version 4.0, known as OPENSTEP), first released in 1989. After Apple bought NeXT in 1996, it announced it would base its next operating system on OPENSTEP. This was developed into Rhapsody in 1997, Mac OS X Server 1.0 in 1999, Mac OS X Public Beta in 2000, and Mac OS X 10.0 in 2001. In 1999, Apple announced it would release the source code for the Mach 2.5 microkernel, BSD Unix 4.4 OS, and the Apache Web server components of Mac OS X Server. At the time, interim CEO Steve Jobs alluded to British naturalist Charles Darwin by announcing "because it's about evolution". In 2000, the core operating system components of Mac OS X were released as open-source software under the Apple Public Source License (APSL) as Darwin; the higher-level components, such as the Cocoa and Carbon frameworks, remained closed-source. Up to Darwin 8.0.1, released in April 2005, Apple released a binary installer (as an ISO image) after each major Mac OS X release that allowed one to install Darwin on PowerPC and Intel x86 systems as a standalone operating system. Minor updates were released as packages that were installed separately. Darwin is now only available as source code. As of January 2023, Apple no longer mentions Darwin by name on its Open Source website and only publishes an incomplete collection of open-source projects relating to macOS and iOS. == Design == === Kernel === The kernel of Darwin is XNU, a hybrid kernel which uses Open Software Foundation Mach Kernel (OSFMK) 7.3 from the OSF, various elements of FreeBSD (including the process model, network stack, and virtual file system), and an object-oriented device driver API called IOKit. The hybrid kernel design provides the flexibility of a microkernel and the performance of a monolithic kernel. === Hardware and software support === The last bootable full release of Darwin supported 32-bit and 64-bit Apple PowerPC systems and 32-bit Intel PCs. Darwin currently includes support for the 64-bit x86-64 variant of the Intel x86 processors used in Intel-based Macs and the 64-bit ARM processors used in the iPhone 5S and later, the 6th generation iPod Touch, the 5th generation iPad and later, the iPad Air family, the iPad Mini 2 and later, the iPad Pro family, the fourth generation and later Apple TVs, the HomePod family, and Macs with Apple silicon such as the 2020 Apple M1 Macs, as well as the Raspberry Pi 3B. An open-source port of the XNU kernel exists that supports Darwin on Intel and AMD x86 platforms not officially supported by Apple, though it does not appear to have been updated since 2009. An open-source port of the XNU kernel also exists for ARM platforms, though it has not been updated since 2016. Older versions supported some or all of 32-bit PowerPC, 64-bit PowerPC, 32-bit x86, and 32-bit ARM. It supports the POSIX API by way of its BSD lineage (largely FreeBSD userland), so a large number of programs written for various other UNIX-like systems can be compiled on Darwin with no changes to the source code. Darwin does not include many of the defining elements of macOS, such as the Carbon and Cocoa APIs or the Quartz Compositor and Aqua user interface, and thus cannot run Mac applications. It does, however, support a number of lesser-known features of macOS, such as mDNSResponder, which is the multicast DNS responder and a core component of the Bonjour networking technology, and launchd, an advanced service management framework. == License == In July 2003, Apple released Darwin under version 2.0 of the Apple Public Source License (APSL), which the Free Software Foundation (FSF) qualifies as a free software license. The APSL is similar to AGPL, including in being incompatible with the GNU General Public License. Previous versions of the APSL license did not meet the FSF definition of free software, although they did meet the requirements of the Open Source Definition. == Release history == The following is a table of major Darwin releases with their dates of release and their derivative operating system releases. Note that the corresponding releases may have been released on a different date. === Darwin 0–8 and corresponding Mac OS X releases === The jump in version numbers from Darwin 1.4.1 to 5.1 with the release of Mac OS X v10.1.1 was designed to tie Darwin to the Mac OS X version and build numbering system, which in turn is inherited from NeXTSTEP. In the build numbering system of macOS, every version has a unique beginning build number, which identifies what whole version of macOS it is part of. Mac OS X v10.0 had build numbers starting with 4, 10.1 had build numbers starting with 5, and so forth (earlier build numbers represented developer releases). === Darwin 9; iPhone OS introduced === === Darwin 10-11; iPhone OS rebranded to iOS === === Darwin 12–15; Mac OS X rebranded into OS X === === Darwin 16–19; OS X rebranded into macOS === === Darwin 20 onwards === Note: the tables above contain the release dates of the corresponding OS releases. Build dates for Darwin versions are not publicly available; the commands below only give the build date for the XNU kernel. The command uname -r in Terminal will show the Darwin version number ("20.3.0"), and the command uname -v will show the XNU build version string, which includes the Darwin version number. The command sw_vers will show the corresponding ProductName ("macOS"), the ProductVersion number ("11.2.3") and the BuildVersion string ("20D91"). == Derived projects == Due to the free software nature of Darwin, there have been projects that aim to modify the operating system or take Darwin’s parts for their own purpose. Among these, DarwinBSD, OpenDarwin, and PureDarwin can be termed "alternative Darwin distributions" in a sense analogous to Linux distributions. === OpenDarwin === OpenDarwin was a community-led operating system based on the Darwin system. It was founded in April 2002 by Apple and Internet Systems Consortium. Its goal was to increase collaboration between Apple developers and the free software community. Apple benefited from the project because improvements to OpenDarwin would be incorporated into Darwin releases; and the free/open-source community benefited from being given complete control over its own operating system, which could then be used in free software distributions such as GNU-Darwin. On July 25, 2006, the OpenDarwin team announced that the project was shutting down, as they felt OpenDarwin had "become a mere hosting facility for Mac OS X related projects", and that the efforts to create a standalone Darwin operating system had failed. They also state: "Availability of sources, interaction with Apple representatives, difficulty building and tracking sources, and a lack of interest from the community have all contributed to this." The last stable release was version 7.2.1, released on July 16, 2004. === PureDarwin === PureDarwin is a project to create a bootable operating system image from Apple's released source code for Darwin. Since the halt of OpenDarwin and the release of bootable images since Darwin 8.x, it has been increasingly difficult to create a full operating system as many components became closed source. In 2015 the project created a preview release based on Darwin 9 with an X11 GUI, followed by a command-line only 17.4 Beta based on Darwin 17 in 2019. === Other derived projects === "Darwin distributions" (see also the other package managers below): GNU-Darwin was a project that ports packages of free software to Darwin. They package OS images in a way similar to a Linux distribution. DarwinBSD Project was a Darwin distribution using FreeBSD's pkgsrc package management. Other types of derivatives: The Darbat project was an experimental port of Darwin to the L4 microkernel family. It aims to be binary compatible with existing Darwin binaries. The Darling project is a compatibility layer for running macOS binaries on Linux systems. It uses some Darwin source code. == Related open-source projects == === Projects intended to work with Darwin === The following are not Darwin derivatives, at least not beyond the extent that any program written for an operating system is partly derived from its application programming interface and other constraints. XQuartz is a component of the X Window System that runs on macOS (Darwin). XDarwin, before the introduction of Apple's X11.app. WebKit is a browser engine primarily used in Apple's Safari web browser, as well as all web browsers on iOS and iPadOS. MacPorts (formerly DarwinPorts), Fink, and Homebrew are projects to port UNIX programs to the Darwin operating system and provide package management. In addition, several standard UNIX package managers—such as RPM, pkgsrc, and Portage—have Darwin ports. Some of these operate in their own namespace so as not to interfere with the base system. The Darwine project was a port of Wine that allows one to run Microsoft Windows software on Darwin. SEDarwin was a port of TrustedBSD mandatory access control framework and portions of the SELinux framework to Darwin. It was incorporated into Mac OS X 10.5. There are various projects that focus on driver support: e.g., wireless drivers, wired NIC drivers modem drivers, card readers, and the ext2 and ext3 file systems. === Neither substantially based on Darwin nor mainly intended to work on it === The following projects re-implements parts of macOS API that are above the level of Darwin. GNUstep is a free software implementation of the Cocoa (formerly OpenStep) Objective-C frameworks, widget toolkit, and application development tools for Unix-like operating systems. Window Maker, a window manager designed to emulate the NeXT GUI as part of the wider GNUstep project. == See also == A/UX mkLinux OSF/1 == References == == External links == Darwin Releases at Apple Developer Connection source code of individual packages Hexley, the Darwin mascot PureDarwin.org The Apple Museum "MacOS X Build Numbers" at the Wayback Machine (archived December 25, 2011)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WhatsApp	WhatsApp	WhatsApp (officially WhatsApp Messenger), owned by Meta Platforms, is an American social media, instant messaging (IM), and Voice over IP (VoIP) service accessible via desktop and mobile app. It allows users to send text messages, voice messages, and video messages, make voice and video calls, and share images, documents, user locations, and other content. The service requires a cellular mobile telephone number to register. WhatsApp was launched in May 2009. In January 2018, WhatsApp released a standalone business app called WhatsApp Business which can communicate with the standard WhatsApp client. As of May 2025, the service had 3 billion monthly active users, making it the most used messenger app. The name of the app is meant to sound like "what's up". The service was created by WhatsApp Inc. of Mountain View, California, which was acquired by Facebook in February 2014 for approximately US$19.3 billion. It became the world's most popular messaging application in 2015, with 900 million users, and had more than 2 billion active users worldwide in February 2020. WhatsApp Business had approximately 200 million monthly users in 2023. By 2016, it had become the primary means of Internet communication in regions including the Americas, the Indian subcontinent, and large parts of Europe and Africa. == History == === 2009–2014 === WhatsApp was founded by Brian Acton and Jan Koum, former employees of Yahoo! Koum incorporated WhatsApp Inc. in California on February 24, 2009. A month earlier, after Koum purchased an iPhone, he and Acton decided to create an app for the App Store. The idea started off as an app that would display statuses in a phone's Contacts menu, showing if a person was at work or on a call. Their discussions often took place at the home of Koum's Russian friend Alex Fishman in West San Jose. They realized that to take the idea further, they would need an iPhone developer. Fishman visited RentACoder.com, found Russian developer Igor Solomennikov, and introduced him to Koum. Koum named the app WhatsApp to sound like "what's up" and it was published on the Apple App Store and BlackBerry App World in May and June 2009 respectively. However, when early versions of WhatsApp kept crashing, Koum considered giving up and looking for a new job. Acton encouraged him to wait for a "few more months". In June 2009, when the app had been downloaded by only a handful of Fishman's Russian-speaking friends, Apple launched push technology, allowing users to be pinged even when not using the app. Koum updated WhatsApp so that everyone in the user's network would be notified when a user's status changed. This new facility, to Koum's surprise, was used by users to ping "each other with jokey custom statuses like, 'I woke up late' or 'I'm on my way.'" Fishman said, "At some point it sort of became instant messaging". WhatsApp 2.0, released for iPhone in August 2009, featured a purpose-designed messaging component; the number of active users suddenly increased to 250,000. Although Acton was working on another startup idea, he decided to join the company. In October 2009, Acton persuaded five former friends at Yahoo! to invest $250,000 in seed funding, and Acton became a co-founder and was given a stake. He officially joined WhatsApp on November 1. Koum then hired a friend in Los Angeles, Chris Peiffer, to develop a BlackBerry version, which arrived two months later. Subsequently, WhatsApp for Symbian OS was added in May 2010, and for Android OS in August 2010. In 2010 Google made multiple acquisition offers for WhatsApp, which were all declined. To cover the cost of sending verification texts to users, WhatsApp was changed from a free service to a paid one. In December 2009, the ability to send photos was added to the iOS version. By early 2011, WhatsApp was one of the top 20 apps in the U.S. Apple App Store. In April 2011, Sequoia Capital invested about $8 million for more than 15% of the company, after months of negotiation by Sequoia partner Jim Goetz. By February 2013, WhatsApp had about 200 million active users and 50 staff members. Sequoia invested another $50 million at a $1.5 billion valuation. Some time in 2013 WhatsApp acquired Santa Clara–based startup SkyMobius, the developers of Vtok, a video and voice calling app. As of December 2013, the service had 400 million monthly active users. That year, the company had $148 million in expenses and a net loss of $138 million. === 2014–2015 === On February 19, 2014, one year after the venture capital financing round at a $1.5 billion valuation, Facebook, Inc. (now Meta Platforms) agreed to acquire the company for US$19 billion, its largest acquisition to date. At the time, it was the largest acquisition of a venture-capital-backed company in history. Sequoia Capital received an approximate 5,000% return on its initial investment. Facebook paid $4 billion in cash, $12 billion in Facebook shares, and an additional $3 billion in restricted stock units granted to WhatsApp's founders Koum and Acton. Employee stock was scheduled to vest over four years subsequent to closing. Days after the announcement, WhatsApp users experienced a loss of service, leading to anger across social media. The acquisition was influenced by the data provided by Onavo, Facebook's research app for monitoring competitors and trending usage of social activities on mobile phones, as well as startups that were performing "unusually well". The acquisition caused many users to try, or move to, other message services. Telegram claimed that it acquired 8 million new users, and Line, 2 million. At a keynote presentation at the Mobile World Congress in Barcelona in February 2014, Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg said that Facebook's acquisition of WhatsApp was closely related to the Internet.org vision. A TechCrunch article said about Zuckerberg's vision:The idea, he said, is to develop a group of basic internet services that would be free of charge to use – "a 911 for the internet". These could be a social networking service like Facebook, a messaging service, maybe search and other things like weather. Providing a bundle of these free of charge to users will work like a gateway drug of sorts – users who may be able to afford data services and phones these days just don't see the point of why they would pay for those data services. This would give them some context for why they are important, and that will lead them to pay for more services like this – or so the hope goes. Three days after announcing the Facebook purchase, Koum said they were working to introduce voice calls. He also said that new mobile phones would be sold in Germany with the WhatsApp brand, and that their ultimate goal was to be on all smartphones. In August 2014, WhatsApp was the most popular messaging app in the world, with more than 600 million users. By early January 2015, WhatsApp had 700 million monthly users and over 30 billion messages every day. In April 2015, Forbes predicted that between 2012 and 2018, the telecommunications industry would lose $386 billion because of "over-the-top" services like WhatsApp and Skype. That month, WhatsApp had over 800 million users. By September 2015, it had grown to 900 million; and by February 2016, one billion. On November 30, 2015, the Android WhatsApp client made links to Telegram unclickable and not copyable. Multiple sources confirmed that it was intentional, not a bug, and that it had been implemented when the Android source code that recognized Telegram URLs had been identified. (The word "telegram" appeared in WhatsApp's code.) Some considered it an anti-competitive measure; WhatsApp offered no explanation. === 2016–2019 === On January 18, 2016, WhatsApp's co-founder Jan Koum announced that it would no longer charge users a $1 annual subscription fee, in an effort to remove a barrier faced by users without payment cards. He also said that the app would not display any third-party ads, and that it would have new features such as the ability to communicate with businesses. On May 18, 2017, the European Commission announced that it was fining Facebook €110 million for "providing misleading information about WhatsApp takeover" in 2014. The Commission said that in 2014 when Facebook acquired the messaging app, it "falsely claimed it was technically impossible to automatically combine user information from Facebook and WhatsApp." However, in the summer of 2016, WhatsApp had begun sharing user information with its parent company, allowing information such as phone numbers to be used for targeted Facebook advertisements. Facebook acknowledged the breach, but said the errors in their 2014 filings were "not intentional". In September 2017, WhatsApp's co-founder Brian Acton left the company to start a nonprofit group, later revealed as the Signal Foundation, which developed the WhatsApp competitor Signal. He explained his reasons for leaving in an interview with Forbes a year later. WhatsApp also announced a forthcoming business platform to enable companies to provide customer service at scale, and airlines KLM and Aeroméxico announced their participation in the testing. Both airlines had previously launched customer services on the Facebook Messenger platform. In January 2018, WhatsApp launched WhatsApp Business for small business use. In April 2018, WhatsApp co-founder and CEO Jan Koum announced he would be leaving the company. By leaving before November 2018, due to concerns about privacy, advertising, and monetization by Facebook, Acton and Koum were initially believed to have given up $1.3 billion in unvested stock options, however, it was later reported that Koum retained $450M worth of options via a "rest and vest" program. Facebook later announced that Koum's replacement would be Chris Daniels. On November 25, 2019, WhatsApp announced an investment of $250,000 through a partnership with Startup India to provide 500 startups with Facebook ad credits of $500 each. In December 2019, WhatsApp announced that a new update would lock out any Apple users who had not updated to iOS 9 or higher and Samsung, Huawei, Sony and Google users who had not updated to version 4.0 by February 1, 2020. The company also reported that Windows Phone operating systems would no longer be supported after December 31, 2019. WhatsApp was announced to be the 3rd most downloaded mobile phone app of the decade 2010–2019. === Since 2020 === In March 2020, WhatsApp partnered with the World Health Organization and UNICEF to provide messaging hotlines for people to get information on the COVID-19 pandemic. In the same month, WhatsApp began testing a feature to help users find out more information and context about information they receive to help combat misinformation. In January 2021, WhatsApp announced a controversial new privacy policy allowing WhatsApp to share data with its parent company, Facebook. This led many users to delete WhatsApp and instead use services such as Signal and Telegram. However, the WhatsApp privacy policy does not apply in the EU, since it violates the principles of GDPR. Facing criticism, WhatsApp postponed the update to May 15, 2021, and had no plans to limit functionality of users, nor nag users who did not approve the new terms. The 2021 Facebook outage affected other platforms owned by Facebook, such as Instagram and WhatsApp. In May 2022, WhatsApp launched its Cloud API services (now known as WhatsApp Business Platform) for larger businesses requiring features beyond the WhatsApp Business App. The Cloud API enables businesses to integrate WhatsApp with other software, have a central WhatsApp account for multiple users and implement advanced automation. In August 2022, WhatsApp launched an integration with JioMart, available only to users in India. Local users can text special numbers in the app to launch an in-app shopping process, where they can order groceries. In March 2024, Meta announced that WhatsApp would let third-party messaging services enable interoperability with WhatsApp, a requirement of the EU's Digital Markets Act (DMA). This allows users to send messages between other messaging apps and WhatsApp while maintaining end-to-end encryption. == Features == === Presence === On February 24, 2017, WhatsApp launched a new Status feature similar to Snapchat and Facebook stories. WhatsApp has rolled out a feature called 'Voice Status Updates', which allows users to record voice notes and share them as their status on the app. WhatsApp has the facility to hide users' online status ("Last Seen"). In December 2021, WhatsApp changed the default setting from "everyone" to only people in the user's contacts or who have been conversed with ("nobody" is also an option). In 2022, WhatsApp added the ability for users to turn off their online status. === General texting === In October 2018, the "Swipe to Reply" option was added to the Android beta version, 16 months after it was introduced for iOS. In early 2020, WhatsApp launched its "dark mode" for iPhone and Android devices – a new design consisting of a darker palette. In October 2020, WhatsApp rolled out a feature allowing users to mute both individuals and group chats forever. The mute options are "8 hours", "1 week", and "Always". The "Always" option replaced the "1 year" option that was originally part of the settings. In May 2023, WhatsApp allowed users to edit messages, aligning itself with competitors such as Telegram and Signal which already offered this feature. According to the company, messages could be edited within a 15-minute window after being sent. Edited messages were tagged as "edited" to inform recipients that the content had been modified. Text formatting options like code blocks, quote blocks, and bulleted lists also became available for the first time. In October 2024, WhatsApp expanded their chat filter feature, adding the ability for users to create custom lists that contain specific chats of their choice. === Voice and video calling and notes === In August 2013, WhatsApp added voice messages to their apps, giving users a way to send short audio recordings directly in their chats. Voice calls between two accounts were added to the app in March and April 2015. By June 2016, the company's blog reported more than 100 million voice calls per day were being placed on WhatsApp. In November 2016, video calls between two accounts were introduced. Later in September 2018, WhatsApp introduced group audio and video call features. In July 2023, video messages were added to WhatsApp. Similar to voice messages, this feature allows users to record and send short videos directly in a chat. This lets users share videos of themselves more quickly, and without adding anything to their device's gallery. Currently, video messages are limited to 60 seconds. In November 2023, WhatsApp added a "voice chat" feature for groups with more than 32 members. Unlike their 32-person group calls, starting a voice chat does not call all group members directly; they instead receive a notification to join the voice chat. In December 2023, WhatsApp's "View Once" feature expanded to include voice messages. Voice messages sent this way are deleted after the recipient listens to them the first time. In June 2024, improvements were made to voice and video calls, allowing up to 32 participants in video calls, adding audio to screen sharing, and introducing a new codec to increase call reliability. In November 2024, the ability to transcribe voice messages was added, allowing users to read out what was said in a voice message, rather than listening to the audio. In December 2024, WhatsApp introduced several new video calling features, including the ability to select specific participants from a group to make a call, rather than calling all group members. Visual effects also became available, adding visual filters to a user's video feed. === File sharing === In November 2010, a slate of improvements for the iOS version of WhatsApp were released, including the ability to search for messages in your chat history, trimming long videos to a sendable size, the ability to cancel media messages as they upload or download, and previewing photos before sending them. In March 2012, WhatsApp improved its location-sharing function, allowing users to share not only their location, but also the location of places, such as restaurants or hotels. In July 2017, WhatsApp added support for file uploads of all file types, with a limit of 100 MB. Previously between March 2016 and May 2017, only limited file types categorised as images (JPG, PNG, GIF), videos (MP4, AVI), and documents (CSV, DOC/DOCX, PDF, PPT/PPTX, RTF, TXT, XLS/XLSX), were allowed to be shared for file attachments. In July 2021, WhatsApp announced forthcoming support for sending uncompressed images and videos in 3 options: Auto, Best Quality and Data Saver. In May 2022, the file upload limit was raised from 100 MB to 2 GB, and the maximum group size increased to 512 members. === Security and encryption === On November 10, 2016, WhatsApp launched a beta version of two-factor authentication for Android users, which allowed them to use their email addresses for further protection. Also in November 2016, Facebook ceased collecting WhatsApp data for advertising in Europe. In October 2019, WhatsApp officially launched a new fingerprint app-locking feature for Android users. In July 2021, WhatsApp announced forthcoming support for end-to-end encryption for backups stored in Facebook's cloud. In August 2021, WhatsApp launched a feature that allows chat history to be transferred between mobile operating systems. This was implemented only on Samsung phones, with plans to expand to Android and iOS "soon". In October 2023 they also introduced passkey support, where a user can verify their login with on-device biometrics, rather than SMS. In November 2023, WhatsApp also began rolling out support for sending login codes to a linked email address, rather than via SMS. In a later update on November 30, WhatsApp added a Secret Code feature, which allows those who use locked chats to enter a unique password that hides those chats from view when unlocking the app. === Linked and multi-device support === In January 2015, WhatsApp launched a web client that allowed users to scan a QR code with their mobile app, mirroring their chats to their browser. The web client was not standalone, and required the user's phone to stay on and connected to the internet. It was also not available for iOS users on launch, due to limitations from Apple. Since then, linked devices support has expanded and more information is written in the Platform Support part of this article. In July 2021 the company was also testing multi-device support, allowing computer users to run WhatsApp without an active phone session. In April 2023, the app rolled out a feature that would allow account access across multiple phones, in a shift that would make it more like competitors. Messages would still be end-to-end encrypted. WhatsApp officially rolled out the Companion mode for Android users, allowing linking up to five Android phones to a single account. Now, the feature is also made available to iOS users, allowing them to link up to four iPhones. In October 2023, support for logging in to multiple (meaning two) accounts was added, allowing users to switch between different WhatsApp accounts in the same app. === Stickers and avatars === On October 25, 2018, WhatsApp announced support for Stickers. Unlike other platforms, WhatsApp requires third-party apps to add Stickers to WhatsApp. In March 2021, WhatsApp started rolling out support for third-party animated stickers, initially in Iran, Brazil and Indonesia, then worldwide. In December 2022, WhatsApp launched 3D digital avatars. Users are able to use an avatar as their profile picture or use it for stickers during instant messaging, similar to those offered by Bitmoji or Memoji. === Communities and Channels === In April 2022, WhatsApp announced undated plans to roll out a Communities feature allowing several group chats to exist in a shared space, getting unified notifications and opening up smaller discussion groups. The company also announced plans to implement reactions, the ability for administrators to delete messages in groups and voice calls up to 32 participants. In June 2023, a feature called WhatsApp Channels was launched which allows content creators, public figures and organizations to send newsletter-like broadcasts to large numbers of users. Unlike messages in groups or private chats, channels are not end-to-end encrypted. Channels were initially only available to users in Colombia and Singapore, then later Egypt, Chile, Malaysia, Morocco, Ukraine, Kenya and Peru before becoming widely available in September 2023. === Artificial intelligence === In April 2024, an AI-powered "Smart Assistant" became widely available in WhatsApp, allowing users to ask it questions or have it complete tasks such as generating images. The assistant is based on the LLaMa 3 model, and is also available on other Meta platforms like Facebook and Instagram. WhatsApp also introduced chat filters, allowing users to sort their chats by All, Unread or Groups. In September 2024, WhatsApp expanded support for Meta AI, allowing users to send text and photos to Meta AI to ask questions, identify objects, translate text or edit pictures. In December 2024, WhatsApp introduced a reverse image search feature, allowing users to verify image authenticity directly within the app using Google Search. === About === In November 2025, WhatsApp announced that they would update their About feature, which allows users to add a short message to explain what they are doing. By default, it is set to disappear in 24 hours, but it can be set for a longer amount of time and can be restricted for viewing by other contacts in the Settings menu. According to WhatsApp, this update was made for the incoming Christmas period for users to inform their contacts on their activities during the holidays. Prior to the update, the feature was "largely hidden within the apps menus" and difficult to find, with the reason for updating being that WhatsApp wanted the feature to be used more often. Engadget called the revamped feature "WhatsApp’s version of an AIM away message" and likened it to Instagram's and Facebook's Notes. == Platform support == Currently, WhatsApp's principal platforms, which are fully supported, are devices supporting mobile telephony running Android, and iPhones. As of 2025, the software requires at least Android version 5.0 or iOS version 15.1 respectively. This table details platform support history. === Linked devices === Linked devices are secondary devices running the WhatsApp messenger software. They link to and sync with WhatsApp actively running on a supported primary phone. Up to four linked devices can be added per user account. Linked devices automatically log out after 14 days of inactivity on the primary phone. Linked devices allow the service to be used on multiple other platforms like desktop computers and smartwatches (e.g. WhatsApp Web, Facebook Portal), but also on other smartphones (called companions). Originally it was required for the primary phone to keep an online connection to WhatsApp for linked devices to work, but now WhatsApp can run on linked devices without such requirement. This ability (named multi-device support) began testing in July 2021 and rolled out to all users in April 2023. ==== WhatsApp Web ==== WhatsApp was officially made available for PCs through a web client, under the name WhatsApp Web, released on January 21, 2015. WhatsApp Web is accessed through web.whatsapp.com and access is granted after the user scans their personal QR code through their mobile WhatsApp client. The desktop version was first only available to Android, BlackBerry, and Windows Phone users. Later on, it also added support for iOS, Nokia Series 40, and Nokia S60 (Symbian). Previously the WhatsApp user's handset had to be connected to the Internet for the browser application to function but as of an update in October 2021 (and integrated by default in WhatsApp as of April 2022) that is no longer the case. When this multi-device feature was first introduced to Android and iOS users, it could only show messages for the last three months on the Web version, because the Web version was syncing with the phone. Since the complete roll out of this feature, users cannot check old messages before this period on the Web version anymore. There are similar unofficial WhatsApp solutions for macOS, such as the open-source ChitChat, previously known as WhatsMac. ==== Windows and Mac ==== On May 10, 2016, the messenger was introduced for both Microsoft Windows and macOS operating systems. Support for video and voice calls from desktop clients was later added. Similar to the WhatsApp Web format, the app, which synchronises with a user's mobile device, is available for download on the website. It supported operating systems Windows 8 and OS X 10.10 and higher. In 2023, WhatsApp replaced the Electron-based apps with native versions for their respective platforms. The Windows version is based on UWP while the Mac version is a port of the iOS version using Catalyst technology. In July 2025, WhatsApp stopped developing the Windows UWP-based app due to poor support and deprecation of the UWP framework by Microsoft. WhatsApp for Windows transitioned over to the Microsoft Edge WebView2 framework, marking a return to utilising a web-based framework (just like Electron previously) instead of a native framework. The WebView2-based app has been criticised for its sluggish performance, high RAM usage, and requirement to keep the app running in the background to receive push notifications, compared to the previous native version. ==== iPad ==== WhatsApp has been officially supported for iPads and its iPadOS since May 27, 2025. Similarly to WhatsApp for web, Windows, Mac, and smartwatches, the iPad is a type of linked device that connects and syncs to WhatsApp running on a smartphone. ==== Smartwatches ==== WhatsApp added support for Android Wear (now called Wear OS) in 2014. == Technical == WhatsApp uses a customized version of the open standard Extensible messaging and presence protocol (XMPP). A 2019 document released by the DOJ confirms this by naming "FunXMPP" as the protocol used by WhatsApp. The document was part of a lawsuit by WhatsApp and Meta against the NSO Group for their Pegasus malware. Upon installation, it creates a user account using the user's phone number as the username (Jabber ID: [phone number]@s.whatsapp.net). WhatsApp automatically compares all the phone numbers from the device's address book with its central database of WhatsApp users to automatically add contacts to the user's WhatsApp contact list. Previously the Android and Nokia Series 40 versions used an MD5-hashed, reversed-version of the phone's IMEI as a password, while the iOS version used the phone's Wi-Fi MAC address instead of the IMEI. A 2012 update implemented generation of a random password on the server side. Alternatively a user can also contact any other WhatsApp user through the URL https://api.whatsapp.com/send/?phone=[phone number] where [phone number] is the number of the contact including the country code. Some devices using dual SIMs may not be compatible with WhatsApp, though there are unofficial workarounds to install the app. In February 2015, WhatsApp implemented voice calling, which helped WhatsApp to attract a different segment of the user population. WhatsApp's voice codec is Opus, which uses the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) and linear predictive coding (LPC) audio compression algorithms. WhatsApp uses Opus at 8–16 kHz sampling rates. On November 14, 2016, WhatsApp added video calling for users using Android, iPhone, and Windows Phone devices. In November 2017, WhatsApp implemented a feature giving users seven minutes to delete messages sent by mistake. Multimedia messages are sent by uploading the image, audio or video to be sent to an HTTP server and then sending a link to the content along with its Base64 encoded thumbnail, if applicable. WhatsApp uses a "store and forward" mechanism for exchanging messages between two users. When a user sends a message, it is stored on a WhatsApp server, which tries to forward it to the addressee, and repeatedly requests acknowledgement of receipt. When the message is acknowledged, the server deletes it; if undelivered after 30 days, it is also deleted. === End-to-end encryption === On November 18, 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced a partnership with WhatsApp to provide end-to-end encryption by incorporating the encryption protocol used in Signal into each WhatsApp client platform. Open Whisper Systems said that they had already incorporated the protocol into the latest WhatsApp client for Android, and that support for other clients, group/media messages, and key verification would be coming soon after. WhatsApp confirmed the partnership to reporters, but there was no announcement or documentation about the encryption feature on the official website, and further requests for comment were declined. In April 2015, German magazine Heise security used ARP spoofing to confirm that the protocol had been implemented for Android-to-Android messages, and that WhatsApp messages from or to iPhones running iOS were still not end-to-end encrypted. They expressed the concern that regular WhatsApp users still could not tell the difference between end-to-end encrypted messages and regular messages. On April 5, 2016, WhatsApp and Open Whisper Systems announced that they had finished adding end-to-end encryption to "every form of communication" on WhatsApp, and that users could now verify each other's keys. Users were also given the option to enable a trust on first use mechanism to be notified if a correspondent's key changes. According to a white paper that was released along with the announcement, WhatsApp messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol. WhatsApp calls are encrypted with SRTP, and all client-server communications are "layered within a separate encrypted channel". On October 14, 2021, WhatsApp rolled out end-to-end encryption for backups on Android and iOS. The feature has to be turned on by the user and provides the option to encrypt the backup either with a password or a 64-digit encryption key. The application can store encrypted copies of the chat messages onto the SD card, but chat messages are also stored unencrypted in the SQLite database file "msgstore.db". WhatsApp uses the Sender Keys protocol. === WhatsApp Payments === WhatsApp Payments (marketed as WhatsApp Pay) is a peer-to-peer money transfer feature. The service became generally available in India and Brazil, and in Singapore for WhatsApp Business transactions only. ==== India ==== In July 2017, WhatsApp received permission from the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) to enter into partnership with multiple Indian banks, for transactions over Unified Payments Interface (UPI), which relies on mobile phone numbers to make account-to-account transfers. In November 2020, UPI payments via WhatsApp were initially restricted to 20 million users, and to 100 million users in April 2022, and became generally available to everyone in August 2022. === Facebook/WhatsApp cryptocurrency project, 2019–2022 === On February 28, 2019, The New York Times reported that Facebook was "hoping to succeed where Bitcoin failed" by developing an in-house cryptocurrency that would be incorporated into WhatsApp. The project reportedly involved more than 50 engineers under the direction of former PayPal president David A. Marcus. This "Facebook coin" would reportedly be a stablecoin pegged to the value of a basket of different foreign currencies. In June 2019, Facebook said that the project would be named Libra, and that a digital wallet named "Calibra" was to be integrated into Facebook and WhatsApp. After financial regulators in many regions raised concerns, Facebook stated that the currency, renamed Diem since December 2020, would require a government-issued ID for verification, and the wallet app would have fraud protection. Calibra was rebranded to Novi in May 2020. Meta (formerly Facebook) ended its Novi project on September 1, 2022. == Controversies and criticism == === Misinformation === WhatsApp has repeatedly imposed limits on message forwarding in response to the spread of misinformation in countries including India and Australia. The measure, first introduced in 2018 to combat spam, was expanded and remained active in 2021. WhatsApp stated that the forwarding limits had helped to curb the spread of misinformation regarding COVID-19. ==== Murders in India ==== In India, WhatsApp encouraged people to report messages that were fraudulent or incited violence after lynch mobs in India murdered innocent people because of malicious WhatsApp messages falsely accusing the victims of intending to abduct children. There were a series of incidents between 2017 and 2020, after which WhatsApp announced changes for Indian users of the platform that labels forwarded messages as such. ==== 2018 elections in Brazil ==== In an investigation on the use of social media in politics, it was found that WhatsApp was being abused for the spread of fake news in the 2018 presidential elections in Brazil. It was reported that US$3 million was spent in illegal concealed contributions related to this practice. Researchers and journalists called on WhatsApp's parent company, Facebook, to adopt measures similar to those adopted in India and restrict the spread of hoaxes and fake news. === Security and privacy === WhatsApp was initially criticized for its lack of encryption, sending information as plaintext. Encryption was first added in May 2012. End-to-end encryption was only fully implemented in April 2016 after a two-year process. As of September 2021, it is known that WhatsApp makes extensive use of outside contractors and artificial intelligence systems to examine certain user messages, images and videos (those that have been flagged by users as possibly abusive); and turns over to law enforcement metadata including critical account and location information. In 2016, WhatsApp was widely praised for the addition of end-to-end encryption and earned a 6 out of 7 points on the Electronic Frontier Foundation's "Secure Messaging Scorecard". WhatsApp was criticized by security researchers and the Electronic Frontier Foundation for using backups that are not covered by end-to-end encryption and allow messages to be accessed by third-parties. In May 2019, a security vulnerability in WhatsApp was found and fixed that allowed a remote person to install spyware by making a call which did not need to be answered. In September 2019, WhatsApp was criticized for its implementation of a 'delete for everyone' feature. iOS users can elect to save media to their camera roll automatically. When a user deletes media for everyone, WhatsApp does not delete images saved in the iOS camera roll and so those users are able to keep the images. WhatsApp released a statement saying that "the feature is working properly", and that images stored in the camera roll cannot be deleted due to Apple's security layers. In November 2019, WhatsApp released a new privacy feature that let users decide who can add them to groups. In December 2019, WhatsApp confirmed a security flaw that would allow hackers to use a malicious GIF image file to gain access to the recipient's data. When the recipient opened the gallery within WhatsApp, even if not sending the malicious image, the hack is triggered and the device and its contents become vulnerable. The flaw was patched and users were encouraged to update WhatsApp. On December 17, 2019, WhatsApp fixed a security flaw that allowed cyber attackers to repeatedly crash the messaging application for all members of group chat, which could only be fixed by forcing the complete uninstall and reinstall of the app. The bug was discovered by Check Point in August 2019 and reported to WhatsApp. It was fixed in version 2.19.246 onwards. For security purposes, since February 1, 2020, WhatsApp has been made unavailable on smartphones using legacy operating systems like Android 2.3.7 or older and iPhone iOS 8 or older that are no longer updated by their providers. In April 2020, the NSO Group held its governmental clients accountable for the allegation of human rights abuses by WhatsApp. In its revelation via documents received from court, the group claimed that the lawsuit brought against the company by WhatsApp threatened to infringe on its clients' "national security and foreign policy concerns". However, the company did not reveal names of the end users, which according to a research by Citizen Lab include, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kazakhstan, Morocco, Mexico and the United Arab Emirates. On December 16, 2020, a claim that WhatsApp gave Google access to private messages was included in the anti-trust case against the latter. As the complaint was heavily redacted due to being an ongoing case, it did not disclose whether this was alleged tampering with the app's end-to-end encryption, or Google accessing user backups. In January 2021, WhatsApp announced an updated privacy policy which stated that WhatsApp would share user data with Facebook and its "family of companies" beginning February 2021. Previously, users could opt-out of such data sharing, but the new policy removed this option. The new privacy policy would not apply within the EU, as it is illegal under the GDPR. Facebook and WhatsApp were widely criticized for this move. The enforcement of the privacy policy was postponed from February 8 to May 15, 2021, WhatsApp announced they had no plans to limit the functionality of the app for those who did not approve the new terms. On October 15, 2021, WhatsApp announced that it would begin offering an end-to-end encryption service for chat backups, meaning no third party (including both WhatsApp and the cloud storage vendor) would have access to a user's information. This new encryption feature added an additional layer of protection to chat backups stored either on Apple iCloud or Google Drive. On November 29, 2021, an FBI document was uncovered by Rolling Stone, revealing that WhatsApp responds to warrants and subpoenas from law enforcement within minutes, providing user metadata to the authorities. The metadata includes the user's contact information and address book. In January 2022, an unsealed surveillance application revealed that WhatsApp started tracking seven users from China and Macau in November 2021, based on a request from US DEA investigators. The app collected data on who the users contacted and how often, and when and how they were using the app. This is reportedly not an isolated occurrence, as federal agencies can use the Electronic Communications Privacy Act to covertly track users without submitting any probable cause or linking a user's number to their identity. At the beginning of 2022, it was revealed that San Diego–based startup Boldend had developed tools to hack WhatsApp's encryption, gaining access to user data, at some point since the startup's inception in 2017. The vulnerability was reportedly patched in January 2021. Boldend is financed, in part, by Peter Thiel, a notable investor in Facebook. In September 2022, a critical security issue in WhatsApp's Android video call feature was reported. An integer overflow bug allowed a malicious user to take full control of the victim's application once a video call between two WhatsApp users was established. The issue was patched on the day it was officially reported. In 2025, WhatsApp alerted 90 journalists and other members of civil society that they had been targeted by spyware used by the Israeli technology company Paragon Solutions.In April 2025, a group of Austrian researchers were able to extract 3.5 billion users' phone numbers by being able to make a hundred million contact discovery requests an hour, a flaw that exposed previous warnings from researchers in 2017 were not addressed. The researchers notified, Meta (who updated the enumeration problem in October), and deleted their copy of the phone numbers. ==== UK institutions ==== As of 2023, WhatsApp is widely used by government institutions in the UK, although such use is viewed as problematical since it hinders the public, including journalists, from obtaining accurate government records when making freedom of information requests. The information commissioner has said that the use of WhatsApp posed risks to transparency since members of Parliament, government ministers, and officials who wished to avoid scrutiny might use WhatsApp despite there being official channels. Transparency campaigners have challenged the practice in court. Notably, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the UK government routinely used WhatsApp to make decisions on managing the crisis, including on personal rather than government-issued devices. When the official inquiry into the pandemic began seeking evidence in May 2023, this presented issues for its ability to gather the material it sought. A personal device of the former Prime Minister, Boris Johnson, had been compromised by a security breach, and it was claimed that it could not be switched on to recover messages. Further, the Cabinet Office had claimed that since many messages were not relevant to the inquiry, it only needed to hand over material it had selected as being relevant. The High Court, in a judicial review sought by the Cabinet Office, declared that all documents sought by the inquiry were to be handed over unredacted. In 2018, it was reported that around 500,000 National Health Service (NHS) staff used WhatsApp and other instant messaging systems at work and around 29,000 had faced disciplinary action for doing so. Higher usage was reported by frontline clinical staff to keep up with care needs, even though NHS trust policies do not permit their use. ==== Mods and fake versions ==== In March 2019, WhatsApp released a guide for users who had installed unofficial modified versions of WhatsApp and warned that it may ban those using unofficial clients. ==== WhatsApp snooping scandal ==== In May 2019, WhatsApp was attacked by hackers who installed spyware on a number of victims' smartphones. The hack, allegedly developed by Israeli surveillance technology firm NSO Group, injected malware onto WhatsApp users' phones via a remote-exploit bug in the app's Voice over IP calling functions. A Wired report noted the attack was able to inject malware via calls to the targeted phone, even if the user did not answer the call. In October 2019, WhatsApp filed a lawsuit against NSO Group in a San Francisco court, claiming that the alleged cyberattack violated US laws including the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA). According to WhatsApp, the exploit "targeted at least 100 human-rights defenders, journalists and other members of civil society" among a total of 1,400 users in 20 countries. In April 2020, the NSO Group held its governmental clients accountable for the allegation of human rights abuses by WhatsApp. In its revelation via documents received via court, the group claimed that the lawsuit brought against the company by WhatsApp threatened to infringe on its clients' "national security and foreign policy concerns". However, the company did not reveal the names of the end users, which according to research by Citizen Lab include, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kazakhstan, Morocco, Mexico and the United Arab Emirates. In July 2020, a US federal judge ruled that the lawsuit against NSO group could proceed. NSO Group filed a motion to have the lawsuit dismissed, but the judge denied all of its arguments. ==== Jeff Bezos phone hack ==== In January 2020, a digital forensic analysis revealed that the Amazon founder Jeff Bezos received an encrypted message on WhatsApp from the official account of Saudi Arabia's Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. The message reportedly contained a malicious file, the receipt of which resulted in Bezos' phone being hacked. The United Nations' special rapporteur David Kaye and Agnes Callamard later confirmed that Jeff Bezos' phone was hacked through WhatsApp, as he was one of the targets of Saudi's hit list of individuals close to The Washington Post journalist Jamal Khashoggi. ==== FBI ==== In 2021, an FBI document obtained through a Freedom of Information request by Property of the People, Inc., a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, revealed that WhatsApp and iMessage are vulnerable to law-enforcement real-time searches. ==== Tek Fog ==== In January 2022, an investigation by The Wire claimed that BJP, an Indian political party, allegedly used an app called Tek Fog which was capable of hacking inactive WhatsApp accounts en masse to mass message their contacts with propaganda. According to the report, a whistleblower with app access was able to hack a test WhatsApp account controlled by reporters "within minutes." It was later determined that staff of their Meta investigative team had been duped by false information; The Wire fired the staff member involved and issued a formal apology to its readers. === Terrorism === In December 2015, it was reported that terrorist organization ISIS had been using WhatsApp to plot the November 2015 Paris attacks. According to The Independent, ISIS also uses WhatsApp to traffic sex slaves. In March 2017, British Home Secretary Amber Rudd said encryption capabilities of messaging tools like WhatsApp are unacceptable, as news reported that Khalid Masood used the application several minutes before perpetrating the 2017 Westminster attack. Rudd publicly called for police and intelligence agencies to be given access to WhatsApp and other encrypted messaging services to prevent future terror attacks. In April 2017, the perpetrator of the Stockholm truck attack reportedly used WhatsApp to exchange messages with an ISIS supporter shortly before and after the incident. The messages involved discussing how to make an explosive device and a confession to the attack. In April 2017, nearly 300 WhatsApp groups with about 250 members each were reportedly being used to mobilize stone-pelters in Jammu and Kashmir to disrupt security forces' operations at encounter sites. According to police, 90% of these groups were closed down after police contacted their admins. Further, after a six-month probe which involved the infiltration of 79 WhatsApp groups, the National Investigation Agency reported that out of about 6386 members and admins of these groups, about 1000 were residents of Pakistan and gulf nations. Further, for their help in negating anti-terror operations, the Indian stone pelters were getting funded through barter trade from Pakistan and other indirect means. In May 2022, the FBI stated that an ISIS sympathizer, who was plotting to assassinate George W. Bush, was arrested based on his WhatsApp data. According to the arrest warrant for the suspect, his WhatsApp account was placed under surveillance. === Scams and malware === There are numerous ongoing scams on WhatsApp that let hackers spread viruses or malware. In May 2016, some WhatsApp users were reported to have been tricked into downloading a third-party application called WhatsApp Gold, which was part of a scam that infected the users' phones with malware. A message that promises to allow access to their WhatsApp friends' conversations, or their contact lists, has become the most popular hit against anyone who uses the application in Brazil. Clicking on the message actually sends paid text messages. Since December 2016, more than 1.5 million people have clicked and lost money. Another application called GB WhatsApp is considered malicious by cybersecurity firm Symantec because it usually performs some unauthorized operations on end-user devices. === Bans === ==== China ==== WhatsApp is owned by Meta, whose main social media service Facebook has been blocked in China since 2009. In September 2017, security researchers reported to The New York Times that the WhatsApp service had been completely blocked in China. On April 19, 2024, Apple removed WhatsApp from the App Store in China, citing government orders that stemmed from national security concerns. ==== Iran ==== On May 9, 2014, the government of Iran announced that it had proposed to block the access to WhatsApp service to Iranian residents. "The reason for this is the assumption of WhatsApp by the Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg, who is an American Zionist", said Abdolsamad Khorramabadi, head of the country's Committee on Internet Crimes. Subsequently, Iranian president Hassan Rouhani issued an order to the Ministry of ICT to stop filtering WhatsApp. It was blocked permanently until Meta answers September 2022. ==== Turkey ==== Turkey temporarily banned WhatsApp in 2016, following the assassination of the Russian ambassador to Turkey. ==== Brazil ==== On March 1, 2016, Diego Dzodan, Facebook's vice-president for Latin America was arrested in Brazil for not cooperating with an investigation in which WhatsApp conversations were requested. On March 2, 2016, at dawn the next day, Dzodan was released because the Court of Appeal held that the arrest was disproportionate and unreasonable. On May 2, 2016, mobile providers in Brazil were ordered to block WhatsApp for 72 hours for the service's second failure to cooperate with criminal court orders. Once again, the block was lifted following an appeal, after less than 24 hours. Brazil's Central Bank issued an order to payment card companies Visa and Mastercard on June 23, 2020, to stop working with WhatsApp on its new electronic payment system. A statement from the Bank asserted the decision to block the Facebook-owned company's latest offering was taken to "preserve an adequate competitive environment" in the mobile payments space and to ensure "functioning of a payment system that's interchangeable, fast, secure, transparent, open and cheap." ==== Uganda ==== The government of Uganda banned WhatsApp and Facebook, along with other social media platforms, to enforce a tax on the use of social media. Users are to be charged USh.200/= per day to access these services according to the new law set by parliament. ==== United Arab Emirates (UAE) ==== The United Arab Emirates banned WhatsApp video chat and VoIP call applications in as early as 2013 due to what is often reported as an effort to protect the commercial interests of their home grown nationally owned telecom providers (du and Etisalat). Their app ToTok has received press suggesting it is able to spy on users. ==== Cuba ==== In July 2021, the Cuban government blocked access to several social media platforms, including WhatsApp, to curb the spread of information during the anti-government protests. ==== Switzerland ==== In December 2021, the Swiss army banned the use of WhatsApp and several other non-Swiss encrypted messaging services by army personnel. The ban was prompted by concerns of US authorities potentially accessing user data for such apps because of the CLOUD Act. The army recommended that all army personnel use Threema instead, as the service is based in Switzerland. ==== Zambia ==== In August 2021, the digital rights organization Access Now reported that WhatsApp along with several other social media apps was being blocked in Zambia for the duration of the general election. The organization reported a massive drop-off in traffic for the blocked services, though the country's government made no official statements about the block. ==== Saudi Arabia ==== The Saudi Central Bank (SAMA) has prohibited local banks from using instant messaging applications like WhatsApp for customer communication. This decision aims to enhance data security and protect customer information. ==== Russia ==== 28 November 2025 Russia threatens full ban on WhatsApp. ==== Third-party clients ==== In mid-2013, WhatsApp Inc. filed for the DMCA takedown of the discussion thread on the XDA Developers forums about the then popular third-party client "WhatsApp Plus". In 2015, some third-party WhatsApp clients that were reverse-engineering the WhatsApp mobile app, received a cease and desist to stop activities that were violating WhatsApp legal terms. As a result, users of third-party WhatsApp clients were also banned. == WhatsApp Business == WhatsApp launched two business-oriented apps in January 2018, separated by the intended userbase: A WhatsApp Business app for small companies An Enterprise Solution known as WhatsApp Business Platform for bigger companies with global customer bases, such as airlines, e-commerce retailers and banks, who would be able to offer customer service and conversational commerce (e-commerce) via WhatsApp chat, using live agents or chatbots (as far back as 2015, companies like Meteordesk had provided unofficial solutions for enterprises to attend to large numbers of users, but these were shut down by WhatsApp) This solution was originally available as on-premise only, but in 2022, WhatsApp Cloud API became available. The on-premise API has been deprecated and will be fully sunset on October 23, 2025. As WhatsApp API does not have a frontend interface, businesses need to subscribe through one of Meta's approved Business Solution Providers. Examples of these include respond.io, Gupshup, Trengo, Wati and Manychat. In October 2020, Facebook announced the introduction of pricing tiers for services offered via the WhatsApp Business API, charged on a per-conversation basis. On July 1, 2025, a new pricing tier system came into effect which charges per-message rather than per-conversation. == User statistics == WhatsApp handled ten billion messages per day in August 2012, growing from two billion in April 2012, and one billion the previous October. On June 13, 2013, WhatsApp announced that they had reached their new daily record by processing 27 billion messages. According to the Financial Times, WhatsApp "has done to SMS on mobile phones what Skype did to international calling on landlines". By April 22, 2014, WhatsApp had over 500 million monthly active users, 700 million photos and 100 million videos were being shared daily, and the messaging system was handling more than 10 billion messages each day. On August 24, 2014, Koum announced on his Twitter account that WhatsApp had over 600 million active users worldwide. At that point WhatsApp was adding about 25 million new users every month, or 833,000 active users per day. In May 2017, it was reported that WhatsApp users spend over 340 million minutes on video calls each day on the app. This is the equivalent of roughly 646 years of video calls per day. By February 2017, WhatsApp had over 1.2 billion users globally, reaching 1.5 billion monthly active users by the end of 2017. In January 2020, WhatsApp reached over 5 billion installs on Google Play Store making it only the second non-Google app to achieve this milestone. In February 2020, WhatsApp had over 2 billion users globally. In May 2025, Meta reported WhatsApp had over 3 billion monthly active users globally. === Specific markets === India is by far WhatsApp's largest market in terms of total number of users. In May 2014, WhatsApp crossed 50 million monthly active users in India, which is also its largest country by the number of monthly active users, then 70 million in October 2014, making users in India 10% of WhatsApp's total user base. In February 2017, WhatsApp reached 200 million monthly active users in India. Israel is one of WhatsApp's strongest markets in terms of ubiquitous usage. According to Globes, already by 2013 the application was installed on 92% of all smartphones, with 86% of users reporting daily use. In July 2024, WhatsApp reached 100 million users in the United States. === Competition === WhatsApp competes with messaging services including iMessage (estimated 1.3 billion active users), WeChat (1.26 billion active users), Telegram (900 million users), Viber (260 million active users), LINE (217 million active users), KakaoTalk (57 million active users), and Signal (70 million active users). Both Telegram and Signal in particular were reported to get registration spikes during WhatsApp outages and controversies. WhatsApp has increasingly drawn its innovation from competing services, such as a Telegram-inspired web version and features for groups. In 2016, WhatsApp was accused of copying features from a then-unreleased version of iMessage. == See also == Comparison of cross-platform instant messaging clients Comparison of user features of messaging platforms Comparison of VoIP software – Voice over IP software comparison Criticism of Facebook Instagram – Social media platform owned by Meta List of most-downloaded Google Play applications == References == == External links == Official website Media related to WhatsApp at Wikimedia Commons
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Furtick	Steven Furtick	Larry Stevens Furtick Jr. (born February 19, 1980), known professionally as Steven Furtick, is an American pastor, author, singer, and composer of Elevation Worship. He is the founder and general overseer of Elevation Church, based in Charlotte, North Carolina. == Early life and education == Furtick was born and raised in Moncks Corner, South Carolina, and attended Berkeley High School. At the age of 16, after reading the book Fresh Wind, Fresh Fire by Jim Cymbala, he felt called to pastor a church in a major city. He studied at North Greenville University in communication and earned a Bachelor of Arts, then he studied at Southern Baptist Theological Seminary and earned a Master of Divinity. == Ministry == In 2004, Furtick served as worship leader at Christ Covenant Church in Shelby, North Carolina, a Baptist Church. In 2006, he moved to Charlotte, North Carolina and founded Elevation Church with seven families and his own. The church had their first service on February 5, 2006. In 2007, he helped found the music group Elevation Worship as a songwriter and since has been nominated for GMA Dove and Grammy Awards, winning a Grammy for their album, Old Church Basement. In 2007, he made headlines when his church gave $40,000 to members in envelopes with $5, $20, and even $1,000, telling them to spend it kindly on others. Furtick speaks at events all over the world including the 2011 Global Leadership Summit hosted by Bill Hybels, the C3 Conference 2012 hosted by Ed Young Jr., the Hillsong Conference 2012 hosted by Brian Houston, and the Presence Conference in 2012 and 2013 hosted by Phil Pringle. Furtick also participated in The Elephant Room 1 and The Elephant Room 2 hosted by James MacDonald. Furtick was named to Oprah's SuperSoul100 list of visionaries and influential leaders in 2016. In 2012, in response to a need of mentorship for 1,000 students in area schools, Furtick launched an outreach program at Elevation Church called the M1 Initiative. Furtick said, "We have always said we want to be a blessing to our city and support our leaders with a volunteer force they can count on." More than 1,600 members responded and committed to mentoring a child for the 2012–2013 school year. Furtick has committed to donating 12 percent of Elevation Church's giving to support outreach efforts nationally and globally. == Public life and media == Furtick is a New York Times best selling author. He has also participated in various philanthropic campaigns, donating clothes and furniture to families in need. In 2013, Furtick declined to answer questions regarding his salary, his tax-free housing allowance, how much he makes from books and speaking fees, and how the church is governed. Elevation has stated that Furtick is generous to the church with the money he receives from writing books—that he arranges for the church to purchase his books directly from the publisher, allowing Elevation to receive the author's discount and keep the money from sales. They have also reported that the publisher pays the church to produce marketing materials to promote Furtick's books. Elevation has confirmed that Furtick's salary is set by a Board of Overseers composed of other megachurch pastors, who vote on his salary based on a compensation study conducted by an outside firm, and that Furtick does not vote on his own salary. On October 2, 2020, Trinity Broadcasting Network began airing programming from Furtick, replacing the Kenneth Copeland ministries program "Believer's Voice of Victory". == Bibliography == Furtick, Steven (2010). Sun Stand Still: What Happens When You Dare to Ask God for the Impossible. Multnomah Books. ISBN 978-1-60142-322-1. Furtick, Steven (2012). Greater: Dream Bigger. Start Smaller. Ignite God's Vision for Your Life. Multnomah Books. ISBN 978-1-60142-325-2. Furtick, Steven (2014). Crash The Chatterbox: Hearing God's Voice Above All Others. Multnomah Books. ISBN 978-1-60142-456-3. Furtick, Steven (2016). (Un)Qualified: How God Uses Broken People to Do Big Things. Multnomah Books. ISBN 978-1601424594. Furtick, Steven (2017). Seven-Mile Miracle: Journey Into the Presence of God Through the Last Words of Jesus. Multnomah Books. ISBN 978-160142-922-3. Furtick, Steven (2024). Do the New You: 6 Mindsets to Become Who You Were Created to Be. Multnomah Books. ISBN 978-154600-682-4. == Awards and nominations == === GMA Dove Awards === === Grammy Awards === == References == == External links == StevenFurtick.com
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eremiaphila_arabica	Eremiaphila arabica	Eremiaphila arabica, common name Arabian mantis, is a species of praying mantis native to the Middle East and has been found in Egypt, Bahrain, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia. == See also == List of mantis genera and species == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOS-04	EOS-04	EOS-04 or Earth Observation Satellite - 04 (formerly known as RISAT-1A) is an Indian Space Research Organisation Radar Imaging Satellite designed to provide high-quality images under all weather conditions for applications such as Agriculture, Forestry & Plantations, Soil Moisture & Hydrology and Flood mapping. It is a follow on to RISAT-1 satellite with similar configuration. The satellite is developed by the ISRO and it is the sixth in a series of RISAT satellites. == Satellite description == Synthetic aperture radar can be used for Earth observation irrespective of the light and weather conditions of the area being imaged. It complements/supplements data from Resourcesat, Cartosat and RISAT-2B Series. The satellite carries a C-band synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) and has a liftoff mass of 1,710 kg (3,770 lb). The EOS-04 orbit is polar and Sun-synchronous at 06:00 AM LTDN, at approximate altitude of 529 km. Assembly Integration and Testing of spacecraft was done by a consortium led by Alpha Design Technologies Ltd. Approximate cost of EOS-04 is ₹490 crore (equivalent to ₹550 crore or US$65 million in 2023). == Launch == EOS-04 was launched on the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C52) from First Launch Pad(FLP), SDSC, SHAR, Sriharikota at 05:59 hrs IST (00:29 hrs UTC) on 14 February 2022. It was launched along with two ridesharing satellites, INS-2TD a technology demonstrator by ISRO and INSPIREsat-1 a university satellite. EOS-04 captured first images on 25 February 2022 after launch. == See also == RISAT PSLV == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habba_Khatoon	Habba Khatoon	Habba Khatoon (Kashmiri pronunciation: [habɨ xoːt̪uːn]; born Zoon Rather (Kashmiri pronunciation: [zuːn]) ; sometimes spelt Khatun), also known by the honorary title The Nightingale of Kashmir, was a Kashmiri Muslim poet and ascetic in the 16th century. She was the consort of King Yousuf Shah Chak, but attained immortality as the queen of song. Habba Khatoon's music pushed her poetry gradually into learned circles and those who had fled on the works of immortals like Firdausi, Omar and Hafez were bound to raise their eyebrows at first. This wobbling of Habba Khatoon under her peculiar compulsions and with her own limitations created the symphony of romantic words running side by side with mystic poetry till it over stripped and outshone it. == Early life == Habba Khatoon as a figure has been introduced to generations of Kashmiris through folklore and oral traditions. She is said to have been born in the village of Chandur, (Kashmiri: Tsandhor) in the Pampore town of the Pulwama district in Kashmir. Her birth name was Zoon Rather or Zuni (Kashmiri: زوٗن, romanized: zūn, lit. 'Moon'). According to the oral tradition, she was called Zoon because of her immense beauty. Although a peasant, she learnt how to read and write from the village Alimah. Some circles who have disputed this fact associate her birth with the small glen of Gurez to the north of the valley of the Jhelum. Tradition links a spot near Tsoorawan in Gurez with the poet and it is known even now as the 'hillock of Habba Khatoon'. They take their stand on a legend that Habba Khatoon was born to a petty chieftain in Gurez who passed her on to a Kashmiri trader Hayaband in lieu of the liquidation of his debts. Hayaband married her to his son Habalal, hence the name— Habba Khatoon. Yet, It is held that the 'hillock' of Habba Khatoon came to be associated with her because of her later contacts when she visited Gurez as the consort of Yusuf Shah Chak. Abdi Rathar of Chandhur, her father, was a well-to-do farmer and was a man gifted with unusual courage and foresight. Notwithstanding the expected back-talk and open criticism, he made arrangements for the education of his daughter at the hands of a village maulvi. Habba Khatoon received instruction in the study of the Quran and, of course, the Persian classics which, owing to the patronage at the court had become the rage of the times. No further details of this period of her life are available. Perhaps she read Gulistan and Bostan which was the usual fare of pupils in Persian in Kashmir till recently. However, her name spread well beyond the village boundaries and Abdi Rathar's Zoon was referred to as an extraordinary child in hamlets other than Chandhur. In the course of time, her parents thought of marrying Zoon. Few girls could be better endowed for a happy married life. She came from a well-to-do family and was educated and accomplished. She was highly beautiful and could sing in a sweet, enchanting voice. She could work at home and on the farm to bring prosperity to her family. Her parents selected a peasant boy, Aziz Lone, as her husband. His tastes and interests had nothing in common with Zoon's and there is hardly any doubt that he was a dull-witted, matter-of-fact a boorish young peasant. Nature tricked her into song and glory through Aziz Lone who was stolid to her charm and apathetic to her love. Despite this Habba Khatoon was fondly devoted to him in love and fidelity and left no stone unturned in trying to evoke a suitable response from her husband. With all her beauty of form and mellifluous voice she worked like a slave at her husband's home and their lands. She would so to the stream to fetch water for the household, go to the uplands in search of firewood and wild edible roots, ply the spinning-wheel and do other chores in the tradition of the old times. But there was no appreciation for all this. Instead, her mother in-law and perhaps her husband too were always on the look out for a slip on her part-of course, innocent and unwitting to give them a handle to taunt her, abuse her and perhaps be labour her. If she broke an earthenware water-pot by accident she was asked to replace it or pay for a new one. The situation was pretty bad for her and she realized that life in such an atmosphere was worse than death. She could not make out how her death would profit him. In her song— 'Tche Kyoho Vaatiyo Myaeni Marnai' (What do you stand to gain by my death?) contemplates such an act but concludes on a note of self-introspection but neither the display of emotion in abandon not admonition brought any relief to Zoon in her predicament and Aziz continued to be indifferent to her. Translation: In such circumstances women approach saintly people credited with mystic powers for help. Zoon also must have sought the help of such men, among them one Khwaja Masud. He is said to have given her consolation and predicted a better future for her. He, it is said, also coined for her the name Habba Khatoon which Zoon adopted. But nothing brought even a streak of conjugal delight in the life of Habba Khatoon and she continued to address her laments to her husband. One of her most famous songs Wolo Myaeni Poshay Madano (Come, my flowery Cupid) graphically representing the state of her mind at the time is surcharged with melancholy, bitterness against the wild talk of the people and vexation at the indifference of her husband. Her complaint is: Translation: == Later life == According to legend, one day Yousuf Shah Chak, the last independent emperor of Kashmir, was out hunting on horseback. He heard Zoon singing under the shade of a chinar tree, and the couple met and fell in love. The oral tradition describes Zoon as Yousuf Shah Chak's queen consort, although there is scholarly debate about whether she was in fact a lower status mistress or member of his harem. She entered the palace in about 1570, and at some point changed her name to become Habba Khatoon (Kashmiri: حَبہٕ خوتوٗن). Here was the young peasant woman slaving for her loaf, neglected and loathed by her husband, abhorred by his mother and a victim of people's gossip, being entreated by the heir-apparent to take her exalted place in his palace. She had sought love from Aziz Lone which he denied her: she was in need of affection from his mother which she did not give; she expected normal regard and courtesy from society which treated her with disdain. And now she was being offered all this and more. Need less to say that she accepted the offer and entered the palace in circa 1570 Habba Khatoon was of an age when Kashmir suffered much political, social and economic distress. The dynasty of the Sultans distinguished by rulers like the mighty Shahab-ud-Din and the illustrious Zain-ul-Abdin had grown feeble and power passed into the hands of feudal barons who keenly competed with one another in the bid to exercise power in the name of a puppet here or a pretender there. Habib Shah, the last of the Sultans, was so weak and naive that in 1554 he was deprived of his crown while in full court and nobody raised even a little finger in his support. The throne was next occupied by Ali Khan, a member of the powerful Chak clan. Who are the Chaks? Whatever their origin, in course time, they seem to have settled in the Gilgit Hunza region as conquerors or refugees. Since then the region is known as Dardistan. But these Chaks entered Kashmir as refugees from Dardistan (Gilgit-Hunza region) in the reign of Sahadev (1305-34 A.D.) in the wake of their ruthless chief. Though energetic, Ali Khan Chak was intrepid and was occupied all the time in meeting revolts and confrontations. The Chaks were Shias and the brunt of their proselytising zeal fell on both the Hindus and the Sunni-Muslims. What was worse, the Sunni-Shia rivalry took an ugly turn and distressing form, leading to an extensive cleavage between the two sections of the population, and sympathies of the masses were alienated. A more serious development was the allurement felt by the hawk-eyed Mughal, Akbar, for the beautiful valley of Kashmir. Because of their mutual bickerings and quarrels, disgruntled Kashmiri leaders often sought assistance from the emperor, or his satraps, who encouraged defections and destabilisation. Habba Khatoon reached the palace when dark clouds of apathy and disdain were rolling against Kashmiri language and art. Another princess with a less forceful character would have found her sensibility smothered and perhaps fallen in line with the average literati in upholding Persian at the cost of Kashmiri. But Haba Khatoon's devotion to her own language and culture proved stronger. Yousuf Shah Chak had gained an invaluable treasure in Habba Khatoon, a paragon of beauty, and was deeply attached to her. He spent most of his time in her company, absorbed in her music and poetry. He brought about the fulfilment of her frozen love and became the focus of her life, her gratitude and her devotion. Towns and villages were no longer enough to satisfy the craving of the royal couple and they sought the company of nature in its naked beauty, matchless grandeur and unparalleled sublimity. The credit for the discovery of the far-famed queen of the hills, Gulmarg, is given to Yusuf Shah and his consort who spent much of their leisure in its sylvan glades. They patronised such pleasure spots as Aharabal, Achabal and Sonamarg. They sought enjoyment of hature as far away as the Gurais valley where a hillock has been named after Habba Khatoon. Some of these pleasure spots, especially Ahrabal and Achabal of the Pir Panjal region, attained celebrity in the reign of Jehangir subsequently. == The fall of Chaks == Ghazi Chak, the first Chak Sultan of Kashmir had a fiery temper which made him excessively unbearable and obnoxious to his subjects. The Emperor Akbar despatched Mirza Qara Bahadur, at the head of a large body of troops to invade the country in order to deliver its inhabitants from the yoke of the tyrant. The army of Qara Bahadur was defeated. The fact remains that this defeat demoralised the Mughals to such an extent that for another 25 years Akbar made no serious attempt to capture Kashmir. In spite of annex the valley continued unabated. Ghazi Shah's body was leprous and after his campaign in Ladakh it became worse and he abdicated in favour of his brother Hussain Khan Shah whom he found master of the situation. Hussain Shah was a poet and, it was said, a man of liberal and secular views but Akbar was watching the condition in Kashmir and his agents sent reports to him. Many selfish and disgruntled leaders, often at loggerheads with each other, sought help from the Emperor. The Mughals were consolidating their hold on the Indian sub-continent during the second half of the sixteenth century and their eyes now turned to Kashmir. Yusuf Shah Chak who ascended the throne in 1579 A.D. did not display the leadership that was the need of the hour and internal feuds took such a serious turn that he lost the throne in 1580 when he had been king for only a year and two months. With his overthrow the wheel of Habba Khatoon's fortunes changed. Yusuf made several attempts to regain the throne but could make no progress. Within six months there was another occupant on the throne and Yusuf continued to be confined to the wings. At last, he approached the emperor Akbar for armed assistance. Akbar who was watching the developments with no unconcern gave asylum to the fugitive prince and attached him to the grand army. Thereafter he practically slept over Yusuf's plea for assistance to recover his lost kingdom. It was an unexpected trial of Yusuf's diplomacy and perseverance. At home Habba Khatoon was forlorn. Yusuf had left Kashmir with high hopes of returning in a few weeks with Mughal troops and funds to fight the enemies and recover his throne. But weeks slipped by, months, and yet Habba Khatoon had no indication that of him coming back. The absence of her husband once a again raised in her mind the spectre of her beloved being snatched from her. Her intense love would not let her rest in peace while Yusuf was away. Then Akbar helped Yusuf Shah Chak who gave his escort Raja Man Singh a slip and recovered the kingdom of Kashmir after a series of manoeuvres at Sopore in 1581 A.D. Though later in the year 1586 A.D the Mughals marched into Kashmir and finally annexed it. She lived after Yusuf's exit from Kashmir for nearly twenty years, or such is the tradition, moving from place to place with no attachments or possessions. Probably, she composed lyrics also but the hankering in her heart has been stilled. There is sorrow in her wail, there is regret and there is bitterness, but there is also resignation. In her wailing song for her lost husband— Harmukh Bartal she recites: Translation: == Poetic tradition == Although Persian influences had infiltrated the Kashmiri language long before Habba Khatoon, her lyrics offer few examples of her wholeheartedly embracing them. Words of Persian origin are used sparingly in her poetry. Most of the Persian and Arabic words found in her work, such as 'shamaa' (candle), 'ishq' (love) and 'burqa' (veil), had entered the vernacular long before she was born. Using the language spoken by most men and women does not detract from her poetry. In fact, her poetry gains power, appeal and sincerity, impressing readers and listeners alike with its sweet, musical quality. This gives readers an impression of authenticity, as they recognise the strength and variety of their own language in her lyrics, unaided by outside influences. Habba Khatoon deliberately used Persian to revive Kashmiri music, which had been neglected due to a lack of patronage. As Yousuf Shah was a patron of the arts, Habba Khatoon received training from renowned practitioners in the performance of ghazals and songs in the Iranian style. With her remarkable intelligence and rare melodious voice, she became a notable musician in her own right, even among Persian masters. Kashmiri music, cultivated by Harshdev in the 12th century and others, had become heavily influenced by Persian and Central Asian music, incorporating a variety of exotic instruments. As Habba Khatoon was adept in both styles, it was only natural that she would make her own contribution, which she did in the form of a new musical composition known as Raasti-Kashmiri, modelled on Raasti-Farsi, which is sung in the last quarter of the night. She also earned renown for her mastery of a Persian raga known as Muqaami-Iran. Her poems Harmukh Bartal, Char kar myon maalinyo, Vaervain saeth vaar chas no and many others are wailings known as Yadhaaq in Kashmiri. == Legacy == The taqleqkar (pioneer) of loal poetry has been praised by Kalhana in his book- Rajtarangini: The hillock in Gurez Valley, Kashmir is named after Habba Khatoon. An underpass in Mughalpura, Lahore has been named after Habba Khatoon. The Indian Coast Guard named the ship CGS Habba Khatoon after her. === In film === Habba Khatoon (1978) is an Indian Kashmiri-language television film directed by Bashir Badgami for Doordarshan. It starred Rita Razdan in the titular role of the queen. Doordarshan also aired Habba Khatoon, another television show in Hindi on DD National about the poet. Mrinal Kulkarni portrayed her role in the Indian television series Noorjahan, which aired on DD National from 2000-2001. Zooni is an unreleased Indian Hindi-language film by Muzaffar Ali that was supposed to release in 1990 but was eventually shelved. Earlier unsuccessful attempts in Indian cinema to portray her life on screen included one by Mehboob Khan in the 1960s and in the 80s by B. R. Chopra. == See also == Kashmiri literature == References == == Further reading == Habba Khatoon by Muhammad Yousuf Taing, J&K Academy of Languages, Art & Culture (JAACL) Zoon by J.N Wali Habba Khatoon (1909) by Muhammad Amin Kamil Haba Khatoon (1968) by Shyam Lal Sadhu Habba Khatoon: The Nightingale of Kashmir (1994) by S.N Wakhlu Feminism Across Cultures: A Comparative Study of Habba Khatoon and Emily Brontë (2019) by Asma Shaw Wakhlu, S. N. (1994). Habba Khatoon: the nightingale of Kashmir. South Asia Publications. ISBN 8174330054.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/61_Dana%C3%AB	61 Danaë	61 Danaë () is a stony (S-type) asteroid in the outer asteroid belt's background population, approximately 84 kilometer in diameter. It was discovered by French astronomer Hermann Goldschmidt on 9 September 1860, from his balcony in Paris, France. Goldschmidt was ill when asked to name the asteroid, and requested his fellow asteroid-hunter Robert Luther to name it instead. Luther chose to name it after Danaë, the mother of Perseus in Greek mythology. Danaë was the first asteroid to have a diacritical character in its official name. The asteroid is orbiting the Sun with a period of 5.15 years and is rotating on its axis once every 11.45 hours. In 1985, a study of lightcurve data suggested that Danaë may have a moon. If so, the main body would be an ellipsoid measuring 85 km × 80 km × 75 km (53 mi × 50 mi × 47 mi), and the moon would orbit 101 kilometres (63 mi) away, measuring 55 km × 30 km × 30 km (34 mi × 19 mi × 19 mi). The density of both would be 1.1 g/cm3. == References == == External links == Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info Archived 16 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine) Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center 61 Danaë at AstDyS-2, Asteroids—Dynamic Site Ephemeris · Observation prediction · Orbital info · Proper elements · Observational info 61 Danaë at the JPL Small-Body Database
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Civic_Union#Leaders	Radical Civic Union	The Radical Civic Union (Spanish: Unión Cívica Radical, UCR) is a major political party in Argentina. It has reached the national government on ten occasions, making it one of the most historically important parties in the country. Ideologically, the party has stood for radicalism, secularism and universal suffrage. Especially during the 1970s and 1980s, it was perceived as a strong advocate for human rights. Its factions however, have been more heterogeneous, ranging from conservative liberalism to social democracy. Founded in 1891 by Leandro N. Alem, it is the second oldest political party active in Argentina. The party's main support has long come from the middle class. On many occasions, the UCR was in opposition to Peronist governments and declared illegal during military rule. Since 1995 it has been a member of the Socialist International (an international organisation of social democrat political parties). The UCR had different fractures, conformations, incarnations and factions, through which the party ruled the country seven times with the presidencies of Hipólito Yrigoyen (1916-1922 and 1928-1930), Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear (1922-1928), Arturo Frondizi (1958-1962), Arturo Illia (1963-1966), Raúl Alfonsín (1983-1989) and Fernando de la Rúa (1999-2001). After 2001, the party has been particularly fragmented. As the Justicialist Party led by Nestor and Cristina Kirchner moved to the left, the UCR aligned itself with anti-Peronist centre-right parties. From 2015 to 2023, the UCR was a member of the centre-right Cambiemos / Juntos por el Cambio coalition, along with Republican Proposal and Civic Coalition ARI, and supported Mauricio Macri in the 2015 and 2019 presidential elections. For the 2023 elections, the party supported the candidacy of Patricia Bullrich. The party is not currently in any coalition since Juntos por el Cambio's dissolution in 2023. == History == The party was a breakaway from the Civic Union, which was led by Bartolomé Mitre and Leandro Alem. The term 'radical' in the party's name referred to its demand for universal male suffrage, which was considered radical at the time, when Argentina was ruled by an exclusive oligarchy and government power was allocated behind closed doors. The Civic Union led an attempt to force the early departure of President Miguel Juárez Celman in the Revolution of the Park (Revolución del Parque). Eventually a compromise was reached with Juárez Celman's government. Hardliners who opposed this agreement founded the current UCR, led by Alem's nephew Hipólito Yrigoyen. In 1893 and 1905, the party led further attempts to overthrow the government. With the introduction of free, fair and confidential voting in elections based on universal adult male suffrage in 1912, the Party managed to win the general elections of 1916, when Hipólito Yrigoyen became president. As well as backing more popular participation, UCR's platform included promises to tackle the country's social problems and eradicate poverty. Yrigoyen's presidency however turned out to be rather dictatorial; he refused to cooperate with the Congress and UCR in government fell short of the democratic expectations it had raised when in opposition. The UCR remained in power during the next 14 years: Yrigoyen was succeeded by Marcelo T. de Alvear in 1922 and again by himself in 1928. The first coup in Argentina's modern history occurred on September 6, 1930, and ousted an aging Yrigoyen amid an economic crisis resulting from the United States' Great Depression. From 1930 to 1958, the UCR was confined to be the main opposition party, either to the Conservatives and the military during the 1930s and the early 1940s or to the Peronists during the late 1940s and early 1950s. It was only in 1958 that a faction of the party allied with banned Peronists (in the Intransigent Radical Civic Union founded in 1956, splitting from what then called itself the People's Radical Civil Union) came back to power, led by Arturo Frondizi. The growing tolerance of Frondizi towards his Peronist allies provoked unrest in the army, which ousted the president in March 1962. After a brief military government, presidential elections took place in 1963 with the Peronist Party banned (as in 1958). The outcome saw the candidate of the People's Radical Civic Union (the other party's faction) Arturo Illia coming first but with only 25% of the votes (approximately 19% of the votes were blank ballots returned by Peronists owing to their party being banned). Although Argentina experienced during Illia's presidency one of the most successful periods of history in terms of economic performance, the president was ousted by the army in June 1966. Illia's peaceful and ordered style of governing — sometimes considered too "slow" and "boring" - was heavily criticized at the time. During the 1970s, Peronist government (1973–1976), the UCR was the second-most supported party, but this didn't actually grant the party the role of being the political opposition. In fact, the Peronist government's most important criticisms came from the same Peronist Party (now called Justicialist Party). The UCR's leader in those times, Ricardo Balbín, saluted Peron's coffin (Perón had died on July 1, 1974, during his third mandate as president) with the famous sentence "This old adversary salutes a great friend", thus marking the end of the Peronist-radical rivalry that had marked the pace of the Argentine political scene until then. The growing fight between left-wing and right-wing Peronists took the country into chaos and many UCR members were targeted by both factions. The subsequent coup in 1976 ended Peronist rule. During the military regime, many members of the UCR were "disappeared", as were members of other parties. Between 1983 and 1989, its leader, Raúl Ricardo Alfonsín, was the first democratically elected president after the military dictatorship headed by generals such as Jorge Videla, Leopoldo Galtieri and Reynaldo Bignone. Alfonsín was succeeded by Carlos Saúl Menem of the Peronist Justicialist Party (PJ). The election of Mr. Alfonsin, who campaigned hard for clean government and civil rights, represented a fundamental change toward genuine democracy in Argentina. In 1997, the UCR participated in elections in coalition with Front for a Country in Solidarity (FREPASO), itself an alliance of many smaller parties. This strategy brought Fernando de la Rúa to the presidency in the 1999 elections. During major riots triggered by economic reforms implemented by the UCR government (with the advice of the International Monetary Fund), President de la Rúa resigned and fled the country to prevent further turmoil. After three consecutive acting presidents assumed and resigned their duties in the following weeks, Eduardo Duhalde of the PJ took office until new elections could be held. After the 2001 legislative elections, the party lost and became the second-largest party in the federal Chamber of Deputies, winning 71 of 257 seats. It campaigned in an alliance with the smaller, more leftist FREPASO. The party has subsequently declined markedly and its candidate for president in 2003, Leopoldo Moreau, gained just 2.34% of the vote, beaten by three Peronists and more seriously, by two former radicals, Ricardo López Murphy of Recrear and Elisa Carrió of ARI, who have leached members, support and profile from the UCR. Since Nestor Kirchner's led peronist PJ switched into political left, the UCR start to alliance with center-right anti-peronists. In the 2005 legislative elections, the UCR was reduced to 35 deputies and 13 senators, but remains the second force in Argentine politics. Ahead of the 2007 election, the remaining Radicals divided, between those who wanted to find an internal candidate and those who wanted to back a candidate from another movement, mostly former economy minister Roberto Lavagna, supported by former president Raúl Alfonsín. In May 2005, the National Committee of the UCR, then led by Ángel Rozas, intervened (suspended of authorities of) the Provincial Committee of the UCR in Tierra del Fuego Province after Radical governor Jorge Colazo spoke in favour of Kirchner's reelection. The intervention was rejected by the Provincial Committee. A party convention held in Rosario in August 2006 officially rejected the possibility of alliances with Kirchner's faction of Justicialism and granted former Party President Roberto Iglesias the permission to negotiate with other political forces. This led to several months of talks with Lavagna. The continued dissidence of the Radicales K prompted the intervention of the UCR Provincial Committee of Mendoza on 1 November 2006, due to the public support of President Kirchner by Mendoza's governor, the Radical Julio Cobos. The measure was short-lived, as the Mendoza Province Electoral Justice overturned it three days later. Deputy and UCR National Committee Secretary General Margarita Stolbizer stated that the party is virtually "broken due to the stance of the leaders who support the alliance [with Kirchner]". Roberto Iglesias eventually resigned the presidency of the party in November 2006 due to differences with Lavagna, having reached the conclusion that an alliance with him would be a mistake, and joined Stolbizer's camp, maintaining that the party should look for its own candidate (the so-called Radicales R). On 1 December 2006 the National Committee appointed Jujuy Province Senator Gerardo Morales as its new president. Morales stated that he wanted to follow the mandate of the Rosario convention (that is, looking for a possible alliance with Roberto Lavagna). Morales went on to become Lavagna's running mate in the presidential election of October 2007, coming third. Although this campaign represented the mainstream of the national UCR leadership, substantial elements backed other candidates, notably the Radicales K. Cobos was elected vice president as the running mate of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner through the Plural Consensus alliance, and several Radicals were elected to Congress as part of the Kirchners' Front for Victory faction. The official UCR ranks in Congress were reduced to 30 in the Argentine Chamber of Deputies and 10 in the Argentine Senate. In recent years, the UCR has been riven by an internal dispute between those who oppose and those who support the left-wing policies of Peronist President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner and her husband and predecessor Néstor Kirchner. However, most Radicales K support for the Kirchners ended by mid 2008, when Vice President Julio Cobos opposed the Government bill on agricultural export taxes. He later rejoined UCR, becoming a prominent figure in the opposition, despite being still the Vice President. The UCR joined the Civic and Social Agreement to run for the 2009 elections. The loose coalition obtained 29% of the national votes and came a close second to the Front for Victory and allies national outcomes. The Party's reorganization, as well as the 2009 elections, resulted in a gain of party representatives in the National Congress. In 2015, the UCR formed a coalition with Republican Proposal, a center-right political party, to form Cambiemos. Cambiemos won the presidential election, which ended its 12 years of opposition. The alliance with Republican Proposal was criticized by the Socialist International and the Young Radicals were suspended from the International Union of Socialist Youth. Since 2023 the UCR has been mostly in opposition to the Milei administration, while agreeing to negotiate individual reform bills. == Ideology and factions == The UCR is generally classified as a centrist, or liberal. Due to its heterogeneity, the UCR has also been described as a big tent or catch-all party and social-liberal party, but it is also occasionally classified as a social-democratic. Radicals call themselves the party of civil liberties, democracy and the Constitution. In their history, they resisted authoritarian regimes, won universal suffrage and starred in the struggle for the causes of the popular majorities. Raúl Alfonsín thought that radicalism advocated social democracy. He wanted to form a "broad popular, democratic, reformist and national movement"; to end privilege, authoritarianism and demagoguery and consolidate an authentic social democracy in the country. He also explained that Radicals do not define themselves, as European political parties usually do, on the left–right political spectrum, as radicalism is an ethic before being an ideology. However, according to Alfonsín, Radicals felt very comfortable as "observers" of all the tendencies that make up European social democracy. Moreover, in 1995 Raúl Alfonsín brought radicalism into the world organization of center-left parties, the Socialist International. Another former leader, Angel Rozas, defined the political-ideological identity of the party as humanist and center-left. He and his faction gave a progressive look to the party. On the conservative side of the party sat Ricardo Balbín. The party was particularly divided since the 1960s and again since the end of the 1990s. After Balbín's death, Fernando de la Rúa who gave a neoliberal and conservative tint to the party and who famously said that "we are radicals, not socialists", kept UCR conservatives active until he became president in 1999. During the 1989 general election, Eduardo Angeloz promised a "red pencil" to cut public deficit spending and mentioned the possible privatization of state companies, which would later be carried out by his rival, the Peronist Carlos Menem. Since de la Rúa's demise in 2001, the UCR has become more and more fragmented politically and geographically. Besides the interventions in Tierra del Fuego and Mendoza, in September 2006, the party leaders had admitted that they reviewing requests of intervention against the provincial committees of Río Negro and Santiago del Estero. In Santa Fe, the UCR had teamed up with the Socialist Party to support Socialist candidate for governor Hermes Binner, in exchange for the vice-governorship, taken by the former governor Aldo Tessio's daughter, the fiscal federal Griselda Tessio, winning the 2007 elections. The Unión Cívica Radical (UCR) has gradually shifted toward center-right positions since the 2005 legislative elections, due to internal divisions and the exclusion of the Alfonsinismo from its ranks. This political process has led the UCR to adopt a more conservative orientation in its focus and ideological alignment. According to the president of the party, now within the organization we can find a centrist sector and another linked to right-wing values. == Leaders == The UCR is headed by a National Committee; its president is the de facto leader of the party. A national convention brings together representatives of the provincial parties and affiliated organisations such as Franja Morada and Radical Youth, and is itself represented on the National Committee. Presidents of the National Committee (1891-1896) Leandro N. Alem (1896-1897) Bernardo de Irigoyen (1897-1930) Hipólito Yrigoyen (1930-1942) Marcelo T. de Alvear (1942-1946) Gabriel A. Oddone (1946-1948) Eduardo Laurencena (1948-1949) Roberto J. Parry (1949-1954) Santiago H. del Castillo (1954-1957) Arturo Frondizi (1971-1981) Ricardo Balbín (1981-1983) Carlos Contín (1983-1991) Raúl Alfonsín (1991-1993) Mario Losada (1993-1995) Raúl Alfonsín (1995-1997) Rodolfo Terragno (1997-1999) Fernando de la Rúa (1999-2001) Raúl Alfonsín (2001-2005) Ángel Rozas (2005-2006) Roberto Iglesias (2006-2009) Gerardo Morales (2009-2011) Ernesto Sanz (2011) Ángel Rozas (2011) Ernesto Sanz (2011-2013) Mario Barletta (2013-2015) Ernesto Sanz (2015-2017) Jose Manuel Corral (2017-2021) Alfredo Cornejo (2021-2023) Gerardo Morales (2023-present) Martín Lousteau == Splits == Antipersonalist Radical Civic Union (1924) Radical Civic Union - Board Renewal (1945) Intransigent Radical Civic Union (1957) Civic Coalition ARI (2001) Recreate for Growth (2002) FORJA Concertation Party (2007) Generation for a National Encounter (2007) == Focus: Yrigoyen presidency == In 1903, Hipólito Yrigoyen began to reorganize the UCR for a new revolution. Two years after he led the armed uprising known as the Revolution of 1905, which although it failed to put sufficient pressure on the official party, it was able to cause a party breakdown. The more progressive leaders of the autonomists, such as Carlos Pellegrini and Roque Sáenz Peña, began to support that it was necessary to make institutional changes to hold back the growth of social and political conflict. When Roque Sáenz Peña was elected president in 1910, the UCR already was not in the position to carry out new assembled uprisings, but the general belief that existed was that a revolution was imminent. Saénz Peña y Yrigoyen, who had been maintaining a personal friendship from childhood, they then had a private meeting in which they agreed to sanction a law of free suffrage. Two years later, in 1912, they approved the law of universal secret, and obligatory voting for men, known as The Sáenz Peña Law. On the other hand, it was also the first Argentinian political party to present a legal project for women to vote in 1919, that eventually did not pass given the conservative majority in Congress. Gabino Ezeiza was a great Payador, and he musically described the popular culture in favor of Yrigoyen. The UCR put an end to their electoral political abstention, and went to the parliamentary elections, without forming electoral alliances. For the first time in Argentina, they voted in a voting booth to guarantee a secret ballot.The predictable vote, the secret vote, and democracy. Before 1912, Argentina was using an electoral system in which votes were expressed verbally, or by ticket, in public place, and in a voluntary way, called the "predictable vote", which broke the electoral system. The struggle for democracy in Argentina, not related initially as much with universal suffrage but with the secret vote, in a voting booth, which made independent the wish of the voter from all external pressures. The Sáenz Peña Law of 1912 established the secret and obligatory vote, but due to the fact that it did not recognize the right of women to vote or to be voters, it is incorrect to say that Argentina had a truly universal voting system until 1947.The UCR first won the elections to governor in Santa Fe (Manuel Menchaca), from which followed a trail of triumphs in the rest of the country. Among the radical leaders at this time were: José Camilo Crotto (CF), Leopoldo Melo (CF), Vicente Gallo (CF), Fernando Saguier (CF), Marcelo T. de Alvear (CF), José L. Cantilo (CF), Delfor del Valle (PBA), Horacio Oyhanarte (PBA), Rogelio Araya (SF), Rodolfo Lehmann (SF), Enrique Mosca (SF), Elpidio González (CBA), Pelagio Luna (LR), Miguel Laurencena (ER), José Néstor Lencinas (Mza), Federico Cantoni (SJ). The electoral triumphs of radicalism caused the collapse of the parties from the prior political system to the Sáenz Peña Law. The UCR auto-dispersed due to an initiative of Honorio Pueyrredón and its members massively joined radicalism. The National Autonomist Party dissolved. On 2 April 1916, for the first time in Argentinian history, they carried out the presidential elections by means of a secret ballot. The UCR obtained 370,000 votes, against the 340,000 votes of all the other parties and in the Electoral College their way was put to a vote. Due to this, a long cycle of 14 consecutive years of radical government ensued. The Radical UCR won the presidential elections on three successive occasions: Hipólito Yrigoyen (1916-1922), Marcelo T. de Alvear (1922-1928), and Hipólito Yrigoyen once again (1928-1930). The series of radical governments would be violently interrupted by means of a military coup on December 6, 1930. The secret vote opened a new chapter in Argentinian History. The government of the UCR indicated the arrival of the government and the direction of the state organization of members of the medial sects that until this moment were indeed excluded from these functions. The first presidency of Hipólito Yrigoyen promoted a series of politics of a new type, which in conjunction was signaling a transformative nationalist tendency, between that which emphasized the creation of the state-owned oil business YPF, the new rural laws, the fortification of the public railways, the Reform University, and a strongly autonomous political exterior for the greatest improvements. On the matter of labor, he propelled several laws for workers such as the law of the 8 hour work day and the law of Sunday rest, and he intervened as a neutral mediator in the conflicts between labor unions and big companies. However, during his time in government, several large worker massacres such as the Tragic Week, La Forestral massacre, and the Firing Squad Executions of Patagonia occurred, with thousands of workers killed. The historian Halperín Donghi explains that the radical governments resolved the problem of regional equality in Argentina, but as a consequence of this, they brought social inequalities to a higher level at the same time. This is because radicalism was lacking solutions for the people on the bottom of the social hierarchy, through systematically neglecting class differences. Radicalism, during the first government of Yrigoyen, was in the minority in Congress: In the Deputy Chamber 45 members were radicals and 70 opposers, while amongst the 30 members of the Senate 4 were radicals. Nonetheless, Yrigoyen kept up an anti-accord force and a slightly inflammatory conversation and negotiation, not only with the traditional conservative parties that were controlling the senate, but also with the new popular parties that had gained leadership from the secret ballot: the Socialist Party and the Democratic Progressive party. Also, Yrigoyen took forward a political system of interventions to the provinces and a style of personal and direct management, that would be severely critical for his opposition both inside and outside of the UCR, calling it "personalism". == Electoral performance == == Further reading == Alonso, Paula (2000). Between Revolution and the Ballot Box: The Origins of the Argentine Radical Party. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77185-4. == References == == External links == Radical Civic Union official site
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinide_concept	Actinide concept	In nuclear chemistry, the actinide concept (also known as the actinide hypothesis) proposed that the actinides form a second inner transition series homologous to the lanthanides. Its origins stem from observation of lanthanide-like properties in transuranic elements in contrast to the distinct complex chemistry of previously known actinides. Glenn Theodore Seaborg, one of the researchers who synthesized transuranic elements, proposed the actinide concept in 1944 as an explanation for observed deviations and a hypothesis to guide future experiments. It was accepted shortly thereafter, resulting in the placement of a new actinide series comprising elements 89 (actinium) to 103 (lawrencium) below the lanthanides in Dmitri Mendeleev's periodic table of the elements. == Origin == In the late 1930s, the first four actinides (actinium, thorium, protactinium, and uranium) were known. They were believed to form a fourth series of transition metals, characterized by the filling of 6d orbitals, in which thorium, protactinium, and uranium were respective homologs of hafnium, tantalum, and tungsten. This view was widely accepted as chemical investigations of these elements revealed various high oxidation states and characteristics that closely resembled the 5d transition metals. Nevertheless, research into quantum theory by Niels Bohr and subsequent publications proposed that these elements should constitute a 5f series analogous to the lanthanides, with calculations that the first 5f electron should appear in the range from atomic number 90 (thorium) to 99 (einsteinium). Inconsistencies between theoretical models and known chemical properties thus made it difficult to place these elements in the periodic table. The first appearance of the actinide concept may have been in a 32-column periodic table constructed by Alfred Werner in 1905. Upon determining the arrangement of the lanthanides in the periodic table, he placed thorium as a heavier homolog of cerium, and left spaces for hypothetical radioelements in the seventh period, though he did not establish the correct order of the known actinides. Following the discoveries of transuranic elements neptunium and plutonium in 1940 and preliminary investigations of their chemistry, their placement as a fourth transition metal series was challenged. These new elements exhibited various properties that suggested a close chemical similarity to uranium rather than their supposed transition metal homologs (rhenium and osmium), such as most saliently not exhibiting stable +7 or +8 oxidation states. Subsequent experiments targeting the then-unknown elements americium and curium raised further questions. Seaborg et al. failed to identify these elements under the premise that they were transition metals, but they were successfully separated and discovered in 1944, following the assumption that they would be chemically similar to the lanthanides. Further experiments corroborated the hypothesis of an actinide (then referred to as "thorides" or "uranides") series. A spectroscopic study at the Los Alamos National Laboratory by McMillan, Wahl, and Zachariasen indicated that 5f orbitals, rather than 6d orbitals, were being filled. However, these studies could not unambiguously determine the first element with 5f electrons and therefore the first element in the actinide series. == Acceptance == The discoveries of americium and curium under the hypothesis that they resembled the lanthanides prompted Seaborg to propose the concept of an actinide series to his colleagues in 1944 – with the central premise being similarity to the lanthanides and filling of f orbitals. Despite its apparent correctness, they did not recommend Seaborg to submit a communication to Chemical and Engineering News, fearing that it was a radical idea that would ruin his reputation. He nevertheless submitted it and it gained widespread acceptance; new periodic tables thus placed the actinides below the lanthanides. Following its acceptance, the actinide concept proved pivotal in the groundwork for discoveries of heavier elements, such as berkelium in 1949. The actinide concept explained some of the observed properties of the first few actinides, namely the presence of +4 to +6 oxidation states, and proposed hybridization of the 5f and 6d orbitals, whose electrons were shown to be loosely bound in these elements. It also supported experimental results for a trend towards +3 oxidation states in the elements beyond americium. Further elaborations on the actinide concept led Seaborg to propose two more series of elements continuing the established periodicity. He proposed a transactinide series from atomic number 104 to 121 and a superactinide series from atomic number 122 to 153. == See also == Actinide History of the periodic table Mendeleev's predicted elements == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saba_Valadkhan	Saba Valadkhan	Saba Valadkhan (Persian: صبا ولدخان) is an Iranian American biomedical scientist, and an Assistant Professor and RNA researcher at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio. In 2005, she was awarded the GE / Science Young Scientist Award for her breakthrough in understanding the mechanism of spliceosomes - "akin to finding the Holy Grail of the splicing catalysis field" - a critical area of research, given that "20 percent or 30 percent of all human genetic diseases are caused by mistakes that the spliceosome makes". == Education == Valadkhan qualified as a medical doctor at Tehran University of Medial Sciences in Iran in 1996. She moved to America to pursue her Ph.D. at Columbia University, New York. In 2004, she joined as an Assistant Professor Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio. == Doctoral research == Valadkhan studied the role of small nuclear RNAs in the human spliceosome under the supervision of Prof. James Manley. The main focus of her research is elucidating the structure and function of the catalytic core of the spliceosome by taking advantage of a novel, minimal spliceosome she recently developed. This minimal system, which consists of only two spliceosomal snRNAs, catalyzes a reaction identical to the splicing reaction. In addition to providing direct evidence for RNA catalysis in the spliceosome, and thus, settling the longstanding and central question of the identity of the catalytic domain, the minimal system provides a novel and powerful tool for studying the structure and function of the spliceosome. == Awards and honours == Valadkhan was presented with the Harold Weintraub award from the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle for her doctoral thesis. She was named a Searle Scholar in 2004. She was also awarded the American Association for Advancement of Science (AAAS) Young Scientist Grand Prize in the same year. In 2006, she became a founding member of the Rosalind Franklin Society. She was also honoured with the Nsoroma Award from Cleveland Chapter of the National Technical Association in 2006. == See also == List of famous Iranian women == References == == External links == Interview Saba Valadkhan publications indexed by Google Scholar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulation_%28journal%29	Circulation (journal)	Circulation is a scientific journal published by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins for the American Heart Association. The journal publishes articles related to research in and the practice of cardiovascular diseases, including observational studies, clinical trials, epidemiology, health services and outcomes studies, and advances in applied (translational) and basic research. Its 2021 impact factor is 39.918, ranking it first among journals in the Cardiac and Cardiovascular Systems category and first in the Peripheral Vascular Disease category. Articles become open access after a 12-month embargo period. 2008 saw the appearance of six subspecialty journals. The first edition of Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology appeared in April 2008, followed by an edition dedicated to heart failure in May titled Circulation: Heart Failure. The remaining four journals launched once per month from July through October 2008. In order of release they were, Circulation: Cardiovascular Imaging, Circulation: Cardiovascular Interventions, Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes, and Circulation: Cardiovascular Genetics (now published as Circulation: Genomic and Precision Medicine since January 2018). == Journal ranking summary == The following table presents the latest available journal ranking indicators for Circulation according to Scopus and Web of Science metrics. Journal ranking summary (2023) == See also == Journal of the American College of Cardiology European Heart Journal == References == == External links == Circulation home page Circulation: Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology home page Circulation: Heart Failure home page Circulation: Cardiovascular Imaging home page Circulation: Cardiovascular Interventions home page Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes home page Circulation: Genomic and Precision Medicine home page American Heart Association home page
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nivolumab	Nivolumab	Nivolumab, sold under the brand name Opdivo, is an anti-cancer medication in the class of immune checkpoint inhibitors. It selectively binds and blocks the programmed death-1 (PD-1) receptor on T cells, thereby facilitating their activation. It is used to treat certain types of cancer including melanoma, lung cancer, malignant pleural mesothelioma, renal cell carcinoma, Hodgkin lymphoma, head and neck cancer, urothelial carcinoma, colon cancer, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma, liver cancer, gastric cancer, and esophageal or gastroesophageal junction cancer. It is administered intravenously. The most common side effects include fatigue, rash, musculoskeletal pain, pruritus (itching), diarrhea, nausea, asthenia (weakness), cough, dyspnea (shortness of breath), constipation, decreased appetite, back pain, arthralgia (joint pain), upper respiratory tract infection, pyrexia (fever), headache, abdominal pain, and vomiting. Use during pregnancy may harm the baby. Nivolumab is a human IgG4 monoclonal antibody that blocks PD-1. It is a type of immunotherapy and works as a checkpoint inhibitor, blocking a signal that prevents activation of T cells from attacking the cancer. The most common side effects when used in combination with chemotherapy include peripheral neuropathy (damage to the nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord), nausea, fatigue, diarrhea, vomiting, decreased appetite, abdominal pain, constipation and musculoskeletal pain. Nivolumab was approved for medical use in the United States in 2014. Nivolumab is a therapeutic alternative on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is made using Chinese hamster ovary cells. Nivolumab is the second FDA-approved systemic therapy for mesothelioma and is the first FDA-approved immunotherapy for the first-line treatment of gastric cancer. == Medical uses == In the US, nivolumab is indicated to treat: Nivolumab is used as a first-line treatment for inoperable or metastatic melanoma in combination with ipilimumab if the cancer does not have a mutation in BRAF. It is also used as a second-line treatment for inoperable or metastatic melanoma following treatment with ipilimumab and, if the cancer has a BRAF mutation, a BRAF inhibitor. It is also used to treat metastatic squamous non-small cell lung cancer with progression with or after platinum-based drugs, and for treatment of small cell lung cancer. It is also used as a second-line treatment for renal cell carcinoma after anti-angiogenic treatment has failed. Nivolumab is used for primary or metastatic urothelial carcinoma, the most common form of bladder cancer. It can be used for locally advanced or metastatic disease that progresses during or following platinum-based chemotherapy or progresses within 12 months of neoadjuvant or adjuvant treatment with platinum-based chemotherapy. Nivolumab is indicated for the adjuvant treatment of melanoma with lymph node involvement as well as in metastatic disease with previous complete resection. The combination of nivolumab with ipilimumab is used for the first-line treatment of adults with inoperable malignant pleural mesothelioma. In April 2021, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved nivolumab, in combination with certain types of chemotherapy, for the initial treatment of advanced or metastatic gastric cancer, gastroesophageal junction cancer, and esophageal adenocarcinoma. In May 2021, the FDA approved nivolumab for the treatment of completely resected esophageal or gastroesophageal junction cancer with residual pathologic disease after neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy. In August 2021, the FDA approved nivolumab for the adjuvant treatment of urothelial carcinoma who are at high risk of recurrence after undergoing radical resection. In May 2022, the FDA expanded the indication to include the first-line treatment of people with advanced or metastatic esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. In the same year, the FDA approved a combination therapy consisting of relatlimab and nivolumab for the treatment of some cases of advanced melanoma. In March 2024, the FDA approved nivolumab, in combination with cisplatin and gemcitabine, as a first-line treatment for adults with unresectable or metastatic urothelial carcinoma. In October 2024, the FDA approved nivolumab with platinum-doublet chemotherapy as neoadjuvant treatment, followed by single-agent nivolumab after surgery as adjuvant treatment, for adults with resectable (tumors ≥ 4 cm and/or node positive) non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and no known epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations or anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) rearrangements. In April 2025, the FDA approved Nivolumab with Ipilimumab (Yervoy, Bristol Myers Squibb) for the treatment of adults and children aged 12 years and older with certain types of colorectal cancer. == Side effects == The US FDA prescription label contains warnings regarding increased risk for severe immune-mediated inflammation of the lungs, colon, liver, and kidneys (with accompanying kidney dysfunction), as well as immune-mediated hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism may affect 8.5% and 3.7% of patients, respectively. Autoimmune diabetes similar to diabetes mellitus type 1 may occur in approximately 2% of people treated with nivolumab. In trials for melanoma, the following side effects occurred in more than 10% of subjects and more often than with chemotherapy alone: rash and itchy skin, cough, upper respiratory tract infections, and peripheral edema. Other clinically important side effects with less than 10% frequency were ventricular arrhythmia, inflammation of parts of the eye (iridocyclitis), infusion-related reactions, dizziness, peripheral and sensory neuropathy, peeling skin, erythema multiforme, vitiligo, and psoriasis. In trials for lung cancer, the following side effects occurred in more than 10% of subjects and more often than with chemotherapy alone: fatigue, weakness, edema, fever, chest pain, generalized pain, shortness of breath, cough, muscle and joint pain, decreased appetite, abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting, constipation, weight loss, rash, and itchy skin. Levels of electrolytes and blood cells counts were also disrupted. === Pregnancy and breastfeeding === Use during pregnancy may harm the baby. == Pharmacokinetics == Based on data from 909 patients, the terminal half-life of nivolumab is 26.7 days and steady-state concentrations were reached by 12 weeks when administered at 3 mg/kg every two weeks. Age, gender, race, baseline LDH, PD-L1 expression, tumor type, tumor size, renal impairment, and mild hepatic impairment do not affect clearance of the drug. == Mechanism of action == Nivolumab's mechanism of action is based on its role as a monoclonal antibody that selectively binds to the programmed death-1 (PD-1) receptor on the surface of T cells, a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune system's ability to combat malignancies. Normally, certain cancer cells exploit the PD-1 pathway to shield themselves from the immune response by expressing programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), which interacts with the PD-1 receptor and inhibits T-cell activation and proliferation. Nivolumab interrupts this interaction by binding to the PD-1 receptor, thereby blocking tumor cells from evading immune detection. This blockade enhances T-cell response, boosts the immune system's anti-tumor activity, and ultimately contributes to the destruction of cancer cells. PD-1 is a protein located on the surface of T cells that have been activated in the body's immune response. Normally, the immune system is controlled in part by certain molecules, such as PD-L1 or PD-L2, which can bind to PD-1. By binding, they prevent the T cell from taking action and so prevent an excessive immune reaction. However, many cancer cells take advantage of this system by producing PD-L1 themselves, effectively shutting down T cells and protecting the tumor from an immune attack. Nivolumab interferes with this process—it attaches to PD-1 and prevents PD-L1 from binding to it, which frees the T cells to target and destroy the tumor. Approximately 40–50% of melanoma cells express PD-L1. Aside from this, PD-L1 is not commonly found in the body, though it is present in certain areas such as the lining of the respiratory tract and in placental tissue. == Physical properties == Nivolumab is a fully human monoclonal immunoglobulin G4 antibody to PD-1. The gamma 1 heavy chain is 91.8% unmodified human design while the kappa light chain is 98.9%. == History == It was invented at Medarex through a research collaboration with Ono Pharmaceutical . Under the agreement between the companies in 2005, Medarex held an exclusive right of nivolumab in North America, and Ono Pharmaceutical retained the right in all other countries except North America. Bristol-Myers Squibb acquired Medarex in 2009, for $2.4B. Ono received approval from Japanese regulatory authorities to use nivolumab to treat unresectable melanoma in July 2014, which was the first regulatory approval of a PD-1 inhibitor. Nivolumab received US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for the treatment of melanoma in December 2014. In April 2015, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) recommended approval of nivolumab for metastatic melanoma as a monotherapy. In March 2015, the FDA approved it for the treatment of squamous cell lung cancer. In June 2015, the EMA granted a marketing authorization valid throughout the European Union. In November 2015, the FDA approved nivolumab as a second-line treatment for renal cell carcinoma after having granted the application breakthrough therapy designation, fast track designation, and priority review status. In May 2016, the FDA approved nivolumab for the treatment of people with classical Hodgkin lymphoma who have relapsed or progressed after autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and post-transplantation brentuximab vedotin. In December 2017, the FDA granted approval to nivolumab for adjuvant treatment of melanoma with involvement of lymph nodes or for metastatic disease with complete resection. In April 2018, the FDA granted approval to nivolumab in combination with ipilimumab for the first-line treatment of people with intermediate and poor risk advanced renal cell carcinoma. In June 2018, China's Drug Administration approved nivolumab, the country's first immuno-oncology and the first PD-1 therapy. In October 2020, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the combination of nivolumab with ipilimumab for the first-line treatment of adults with malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) that cannot be removed by surgery. In April 2021, the FDA approved nivolumab, in combination with certain types of chemotherapy, for the initial treatment of people with advanced or metastatic gastric cancer, gastroesophageal junction cancer and esophageal adenocarcinoma. In March 2024, the FDA approved nivolumab, in combination with cisplatin and gemcitabine, for first-line treatment of adults with unresectable or metastatic urothelial carcinoma. Efficacy was evaluated in CHECKMATE-901 (NCT03036098), a randomized, open-label trial enrolling 608 participants with previously untreated unresectable or metastatic urothelial carcinoma. Participants were randomized (1:1) to receive either nivolumab in combination with cisplatin and gemcitabine (up to six cycles) followed by nivolumab alone for up to two years or cisplatin and gemcitabine (up to six cycles). On both arms, participants discontinuing cisplatin were permitted to receive carboplatin. Randomization was stratified by tumor PD-L1 expression and presence of liver metastasis. == Research == Nivolumab, and other PD-1 inhibitors, appear to be effective in people with brain metastases and for cancer in people with autoimmune diseases. === Hodgkin's lymphoma === In Hodgkin's lymphoma, Reed–Sternberg cells harbor amplification of chromosome 9p24.1, which encodes PD-L1 and PD-L2, and leads to their constitutive expression. In a small clinical study published in 2015, nivolumab elicited an objective response in 87% of a cohort of 20 patients. The evidence for a favorable effect of nivolumab on overall survival, quality of life, progression-free survival, and complete response among individuals with Hodgkin's lymphoma is uncertain. === Biomarkers === Amplification of chromosome 9p24 may serve as a predictive biomarker in Hodgkin's lymphoma. Every manufacturer pursuing drug development using monoclonal antibodies against PD-1 has developed assays to measure PD-L1 level as a potential biomarker using the antibody as the analyte-specific reagent. Bristol Myers Squibb partnered with Dako on a nivolumab-based assay. However, as of 2015 the complexity of the immune response had hindered efforts to identify people who would be likely to respond well to PD-1 inhibitors. PD-L1 levels appeared to be dynamic and modulated by several factors, and efforts to correlate PD-L1 levels before or during treatment with treatment response or duration of response had failed to reveal any useful correlations as of 2015. === Lung cancer === In 2016, Bristol Myers Squibb announced the results of a clinical trial in which nivolumab failed to achieve its endpoint and was no better than traditional chemotherapy at treating newly diagnosed lung cancer. Bristol Myers Squibb went on to attempt to gain approval for a combination therapy for lung cancer that included nivolumab and the company's older drug ipilimumab. The application was withdrawn in early 2019 following disappointing results. Infusion durations of 60 minutes and 30 minutes appear to have similar pharmacokinetics (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination). Nivolumab is indicated for the treatment of people with metastatic squamous non-small cell lung cancer with progression on or after platinum-based chemotherapy. CHECKMATE-227 tested the combination of nivolumab and ipilimumab in participants with stage IV or recurrent non-small cell lung cancer without previous treatment. Participants with a PD-L1 expression level of 1% or more were randomized in a 1:1:1 ratio to receive nivolumab plus ipilimumab, nivolumab alone, or standard chemotherapy. The chemotherapeutics used were cisplatin or carboplatin combined with gemcitabine for people with squamous-cell non-small cell lung cancer, or pemetrexed for those with nonsquamous disease. The overall survival was 17.1, 15.7, and 14.9 months, respectively. The participants who had a PD-L1 expression level of less than 1% were randomly assigned in a 1:1:1 ratio to receive nivolumab plus ipilimumab, nivolumab plus chemotherapy, or chemotherapy. The overall survival among that group was 17.2, 15.2 and 12.2 months, respectively. In June 2023, Bristol Myers Squibb provided positive four-year follow-up results from a phase III study (CheckMate-9LA) of a combination of nivolumab and ipilimumab along with chemotherapy, compared to chemotherapy alone, as first-line treatment in people with metastatic non-small cell lung cancer. The trial found an overall survival of 21% at a median follow-up of 47.9 months among those treated with the dual immunotherapy-based combination compared to 16% of participants treated with chemotherapy alone. === Melanoma === PD-L1 is expressed in 40–50% of melanomas. Phase I and II clinical trials have shown nivolumab as a promising and durable treatment option in melanoma as a single agent and in combination with ipilimumab. Phase III trials are ongoing. In October 2022, the results of a phase III trial, CheckMate -76K, showed that Opdivo reduced the risk of death by 58% as an adjuvant therapy in participants with completely resected stage two melanoma, the most serious type of skin cancer. === Urothelial carcinoma === In February 2023, Bristol Myers Squibb reported that the three-year follow-up results from its phase III (CheckMate-274) trial of nivolumab showed significant sustained clinical benefits with nivolumab for the adjuvant treatment of participants with muscle-invasive urothelial carcinoma at a high risk of recurrence after radical resection. == See also == Nivolumab/relatlimab == References == == External links == "Nivolumab". NCI Drug Dictionary. National Cancer Institute. "Nivolumab". National Cancer Institute. 7 January 2015. Clinical trial number NCT01721746 for "A Study to Compare BMS-936558 to the Physician's Choice of Either Dacarbazine or Carboplatin and Paclitaxel in Advanced Melanoma Patients That Have Progressed Following Anti-CTLA-4 Therapy (CheckMate 037)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT01721772 for "Study of Nivolumab (BMS-936558) Compared With Dacarbazine in Untreated, Unresectable, or Metastatic Melanoma (CheckMate 066)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT01844505 for "Phase 3 Study of Nivolumab or Nivolumab Plus Ipilimumab Versus Ipilimumab Alone in Previously Untreated Advanced Melanoma (CheckMate 067)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT02388906 for "Efficacy Study of Nivolumab Compared to Ipilimumab in Prevention of Recurrence of Melanoma After Complete Resection of Stage IIIb/c or Stage IV Melanoma (CheckMate 238)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT02477826 for "An Investigational Immuno-therapy Trial of Nivolumab, or Nivolumab Plus Ipilimumab, or Nivolumab Plus Platinum-doublet Chemotherapy, Compared to Platinum Doublet Chemotherapy in Patients With Stage IV Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) (CheckMate 227)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT03215706 for "A Study of Nivolumab and Ipilimumab Combined With Chemotherapy Compared to Chemotherapy Alone in First Line NSCLC (CheckMate 9LA)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT01642004 for "Study of BMS-936558 (Nivolumab) Compared to Docetaxel in Previously Treated Advanced or Metastatic Squamous Cell Non-small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC) (CheckMate 017)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT01673867 for "Study of BMS-936558 (Nivolumab) Compared to Docetaxel in Previously Treated Metastatic Non-squamous NSCLC (CheckMate057)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT02899299 for "Study of Nivolumab Combined With Ipilimumab Versus Pemetrexed and Cisplatin or Carboplatin as First Line Therapy in Unresectable Pleural Mesothelioma Patients (CheckMate743)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT02231749 for "Nivolumab Combined With Ipilimumab Versus Sunitinib in Previously Untreated Advanced or Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma (CheckMate 214)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT03141177 for "A Study of Nivolumab Combined With Cabozantinib Compared to Sunitinib in Previously Untreated Advanced or Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma (CheckMate 9ER)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT01668784 for "Study of Nivolumab (BMS-936558) vs. Everolimus in Pre-Treated Advanced or Metastatic Clear-cell Renal Cell Carcinoma (CheckMate 025)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT02181738 for "Study of Nivolumab in Patients With Classical Hodgkin's Lymphoma (Registrational) (CheckMate 205)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT01592370 for "An Investigational Immuno-Therapy Study to Determine the Safety and Effectiveness of Nivolumab and Daratumumab in Patients With Multiple Myeloma" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT02105636 for "Trial of Nivolumab vs Therapy of Investigator's Choice in Recurrent or Metastatic Head and Neck Carcinoma (CheckMate 141)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT02387996 for "A Study of Nivolumab in Participants With Metastatic or Unresectable Bladder Cancer" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT02060188 for "An Investigational Immuno-therapy Study of Nivolumab, and Nivolumab in Combination With Other Anti-cancer Drugs, in Colon Cancer That Has Come Back or Has Spread (CheckMate142)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT01658878 for "An Immuno-therapy Study to Evaluate the Effectiveness, Safety and Tolerability of Nivolumab or Nivolumab in Combination With Other Agents in Patients With Advanced Liver Cancer (CheckMate040)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT02743494 for "An Investigational Immuno-therapy Study of Nivolumab or Placebo in Participants With Resected Esophageal or Gastroesophageal Junction Cancer (CheckMate 577)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT02569242 for "Study of Nivolumab in Unresectable Advanced or Recurrent Esophageal Cancer" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT02872116 for "Efficacy Study of Nivolumab Plus Ipilimumab or Nivolumab Plus Chemotherapy Against Chemotherapy in Stomach Cancer or Stomach/Esophagus Junction Cancer (CheckMate649)" at ClinicalTrials.gov Clinical trial number NCT02632409 for "An Investigational Immuno-therapy Study of Nivolumab, Compared to Placebo, in Patients With Bladder or Upper Urinary Tract Cancer, Following Surgery to Remove the Cancer (CheckMate 274)" at ClinicalTrials.gov
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penny_Crane_Award_for_Distinguished_Service#:~:text=It%20was%20established%20in%202000,to%20computing%20in%20higher%20education.	Penny Crane Award for Distinguished Service	The Penny Crane Award for Distinguished Service is an award issued by the Association for Computing Machinery's Special Interest Group on University and College Computing Services. It was established in 2000 to recognise individuals who have made significant contributions to the Special Interest Group, and to computing in higher education. == Recipients == Source: ACM 2000 – Jane Caviness 2001 – John H. (Jack) Esbin 2002 – John Bucher 2003 – Russell Vaught 2004 – Linda Hutchison 2005 – J. Michael Yohe 2006 – Jennifer Fajman 2007 – Dennis Mar 2008 – Jerry Smith 2009 – Robert Paterson 2010 – Lida Larsen 2011 – Leila Lyons 2012 – no recipient 2013 – Terris Wolff 2014 – Cynthia Dooling 2015 – Bob Haring-Smith 2016 – Phil Isensee 2017 – Tim Foley 2018 – Nancy Bauer 2019 – Kelly Wainwright 2022 – Melissa Bauer 2023 – Beth Rugg == See also == See Qualifications and Nominations page, at the ACM SIGUCCS Web Page. Penny Crane Award Web Page at ACM/SIGUCCS Penny Crane memory book List of computer science awards == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valkyrae	Valkyrae	Rachell Marie Hofstetter (born January 8, 1992), also known as her pseudonym Valkyrae, is an American online streamer, YouTuber, and podcaster. She is a co-owner of the gaming organization 100 Thieves and founder and CEO of the media company Hihi Studios. Hofstetter began streaming on Twitch in 2015. She had her breakthrough by playing the competitive online game Fortnite in 2018 and joined 100 Thieves as their first female content creator. In 2020, she switched streaming platforms by signing an exclusive contract with YouTube. Later that year, she saw significant follower growth and reached her peak viewership when playing the online social deduction game Among Us, which led to her winning the Game Award for "Content Creator of the Year" and the Streamy Award for best live streamer. She was also named "Gaming Creator of the Year" by Adweek in 2021 and was included on Forbes' 30 Under 30 list in 2022. == Early life == Rachell Marie Hofstetter was born on January 8, 1992, and grew up in Moses Lake, Washington. She is of Filipino and German descent and has three brothers and one younger sister. She cites her mother as the reason she became interested in video games, who encouraged her to pursue it as a hobby from a young age. She attended community college and worked a job at GameStop to support herself, later graduating with an associate degree in arts and science. == Career == === 2015–2019: Early career, initial popularity, and joining 100 Thieves === While working at GameStop, Hofstetter began sharing her gaming hobby on Instagram, gaining a following. After being encouraged by her followers, she started live streaming on Twitch in 2015. She later began uploading her gaming content to YouTube and had her breakthrough by playing the competitive online game Fortnite in 2018. That October, she became the first female content creator for the gaming organization 100 Thieves. In May 2019, she was nominated for the Gaming award at the 11th Shorty Awards. === 2020–2024: Move to YouTube === On January 13, 2020, Hofstetter left Twitch for an exclusive streaming contract on YouTube. In her first three months on YouTube, she averaged around 1,500 concurrent viewers. Her stream then experienced significant growth and, in late 2020, regularly peaked at concurrent viewer counts exceeding 100,000. This was driven by her playing the online multiplayer social deduction game Among Us and collaborating with popular streamers like Disguised Toast, Sykkuno, Pokimane, PewDiePie, and Cr1TiKaL, in addition to public figures like politician Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, musician Lil Nas X, and television personality Jimmy Fallon. Hofstetter became the fastest-growing female streamer of 2020 and surpassed Pokimane as the year's most-viewed female streamer. In December 2020, she won Content Creator of the Year award at the 2020 Game Awards. On April 7, 2021, Hofstetter and CouRageJD joined the ownership group of 100 Thieves, alongside Dan Gilbert, Scooter Braun, Drake, and its founder, Nadeshot. As co-owners, they received equity in the company, which Forbes valued at $190 million at the time. In May 2021, she won Gaming Creator of the Year award at the 2021 Adweek Creator Visionary Awards. In December 2021, she won the Livestreamer award at the 11th Streamy Awards. In 2022, she was named to Forbes' 30 Under 30 list in the games category. In March 2022, she was nominated for Best Variety Streamer at the 2022 Streamer Awards. In December 2022, she was nominated for Streamer of the Year and Variety Streamer at the 12th Streamy Awards. On March 11, 2023, she co-hosted the second annual Streamer Awards alongside the event's creator, QTCinderella; the ceremony averaged 425,000 live concurrent viewers. Later in August 2023, she was nominated for Streamer of the Year and Variety Streamer at the 13th Streamy Awards. In February 2024, she won The Sapphire Award at the third annual Streamer Awards. In May 2024, Hofstetter's streaming heavily involved playing a character on the modded Grand Theft Auto V roleplaying server NoPixel. Later that month, she was named among Gold House A100 honorees. In July 2024, she participated in the MrBeast video "50 YouTubers Fight for $1,000,000". In December 2024, she was nominated for The Sapphire Award at the fourth annual Streamer Awards. === 2025–present: Return to Twitch === By January 2025, Hofstetter's exclusive streaming contract with YouTube had expired. She returned to Twitch on January 8, while celebrating her 10th streaming anniversary and her 33rd birthday. During her first week, she was the most-watched female streamer on Twitch, based on hours watched. On February 24, 2025, Hofstetter began a week-long IRL streaming marathon in Los Angeles with fellow streamer Brittany "Cinna" Watts titled Sis-A-Thon. Hoffstetter and Watts had planned on holding the marathon in January, but it was postponed due to the January 2025 Southern California wildfires. On March 2, the final night of the marathon, Hoffstetter, Watts, and their guest Emily "Emiru" Schunk, were targeted by a stalker at Pacific Park on the Santa Monica Pier. A man, who introduced himself as "Russell", had approached the live streamers and asked Emiru for her phone number, who declined but offered to take a photo with him. The man would take his hoodie off and reapproach the women again over a half hour later, asking Emiru for her number after they got off the Ferris wheel. The man became aggressive after they told him no again, threatening to kill the streamers and requiring to be held back by Cinna's cameraman Rosii as they called for park security. The streamers ended the marathon early and contacted the police, Hofstetter tweeting the following morning: "We are all ok and have been with police. We decided we are done with the marathon and need time to process! Thank you for all the love and support this past week, we had so much fun and hope you all enjoyed. That end of marathon brunch stream we had planned tomorrow with friends will be rescheduled for sometime in the far future :’) Please send love to emiru, Cinna, Rosie [sic] and Emily! Everybody is in shock but I’m so glad were [sic] together". Later that day, Hofstetter and Watts went live to address the incident and officially conclude the marathon. On November 7, 2025, Hofstetter and Watts began their second week-long streaming marathon titled Sis-A-Thon 2. == Other activities == === Acting === In 2021, Hofstetter appeared in several music videos, including "DayWalker" by Machine Gun Kelly featuring Corpse Husband, as well as "Build a Bitch" and "Inferno" by Bella Poarch. In March 2022, she voiced acted as Hannya Squad member for the English dub TV series of Tribe Nine. In December 2022, she voiced Squad Commander Red in the animated TV series Sonic Prime. In 2023, she made a cameo appearance as herself in the action-comedy film The Family Plan. In January 2025, she voiced the lead character, "Ratchet", in the animated film Goldbeak. In April 2025, it was revealed that Hofstetter had filmed a 30-second cameo for A Minecraft Movie, but the scene was cut; in the final release, she only appears in the background of a shot. In 2025, Hofstetter was also featured in QTCinderella (Blaire)’s music video for "Forever." === Business ventures === In September 2022, Hofstetter became an ambassador for the fitness apparel brand Gymshark. In September 2024, she founded the media company Hihi Studios to "develop and produce IP for graphic novels, TV and film projects with a specific emphasis on anime-inspired content." In June 2025, Hihi Studios announced their first project, a webtoon called Bad Influence. === Charity works === On April 6, 2021, Hofstetter participated in an Among Us charity livestream held by The Tonight Show host Jimmy Fallon with several notable celebrities such as Gaten Matarazzo and Noah Schnapp of Stranger Things, American hip-hop band The Roots members Questlove, Black Thought, and Captain Kirk Douglas, and fellow streamers and YouTubers Sykkuno and Corpse Husband. The event raised over $25,000 for Feeding America. In June 2022, Hofstetter participated in a Minecraft charity tournament held by the MC Championship with several other creators to raise money for The Trevor Project. Hofstetter also donated $10,000 towards the charity. In late November 2022, Hofstetter donated $15,000 towards No Kid Hungry during Ludwig Ahgren's charity event. In December 2022, Hofstetter participated in "Thankmas", an annual charity livestream event hosted by YouTuber jacksepticeye, to raise money for World Central Kitchen. The event raised over $10 million in donations. Hofstetter donated $10,000 towards the victims of the earthquake in Turkey and Syria on February 6, 2023. === Podcasting === From October 2024 to April 2025, she had a podcast called Press Esc with artist Alyssa "Alythuh" Dios as her co-host. In April 2025, Press Esc concluded due to Dios moving to Hawaii and would be unable to film episodes. In July 2025, Hofstetter was announced as the new co-host to Wine About It with QTCinderella. === RFLCT and controversy === On October 19, 2021, Hofstetter announced the launch of her skincare brand, RFLCT. The brand, primarily geared towards gamers and those who put in heavy screen time, claimed that users are susceptible to skin damage caused by prolonged exposure to blue light and that their products protect against it. RFLCT received backlash due to insufficient evidence supporting the claim; according to Kathleen Suozzi, the director of the aesthetic dermatology program at Yale University, unless someone was already prone to melasma or hyperpigmentation, they were unlikely to suffer any consequence of sitting in front of a screen for long periods of time. Hofstetter responded by stating that "all of the hate, doubt, concerns, and criticisms are all warranted and valid" and that she was "very upset and confused" with the lack of information on its website, promising additional information supporting the products would be made available. She was later informed that the research conducted by RFLCT supporting the products—which she had been given access to during development—could not be released to the public. Hofstetter then expressed a desire to part ways with RFLCT but was contractually bound. On October 30, 2021, RFLCT ceased operation of its website and online store. A statement on the website read: "While we believe in the formulations created, after further reflection, have decided to move forward on new paths, effectively terminating the RFLCT brand." == Personal life == Hofstetter resides in Los Angeles. From 2016 to 2021, she was in a relationship with fellow streamer Michael "Sonii" Sherman. From April 2023 to July 2024, she lived with fellow streamers Leslie "Fuslie" Fu, Miyoung "Kkatamina" Kim, and Christina "TinaKitten" Kenyon, collectively known as "The Roomies". Hofstetter endorsed Kamala Harris in the 2024 United States presidential election. == Filmography == === Film === === Television === === Music videos === == Discography == == Awards and nominations == === Listicles === == See also == List of YouTubers == References == == External links == Valkyrae's channel on YouTube Valkyrae at IMDb
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_A.P._Bartlett	Charles A.P. Bartlett	Charles Allen Parker Bartlett was an American politician from Pennsylvania who served in the Pennsylvania State Senate, representing the 18th district from 1939 to 1942. During his tenure, the 18th district represented the Northampton County, Pennsylvania. == Biography == === Early life === Bartlett was born in Concord, Massachusetts, on November 17, 1880, to Charles H. Bartlett and Mary A. Née Hobson. As a child, his family moved to Easton, Pennsylvania, where he received a public high school education and didn't attend any college. He worked as a secretary, treasurer, and sales agent for local manufacturing firms from 1904 to 1933. === Military Service === Bartlett joined the Pennsylvania National Guard in 1904 and during World War I, achieved the rank of Captain commanding Rainbow Division's 149th Machine Gun Battalion's Company A, as part of the American Expeditionary Forces from 1917 to 1919. After the war, he also served as a Major of the Pennsylvania National Guard's coastal artillery until 1923. === Political career === After completing his service Bartlett was elected president of Wilson, Pennsylvania, for four years and was also elected the borough's Treasurer for nine years before being elected to the Pennsylvania State Senate from 1939 to 1942, during which he served as chairman of the welfare committee. Afterwards he was elected the Pennsylvania Senate Librarian from 1943 to 1948. === Later life === Bartlett married Mildred E. Née Richards. He died on March 18, 1948, in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, at the age of 67. He is buried in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in his native Concord. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Griffin#:~:text=From%20March%202001%20through%20June,Assistant%20Attorney%20General%20Michael%20Chertoff.	Tim Griffin	John Timothy Griffin (born August 21, 1968) is an American lawyer and politician serving as the 57th attorney general of Arkansas. He served as the 20th lieutenant governor of Arkansas from 2015 to 2023. A member of the Republican Party, he previously was the United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Arkansas between 2006 and 2007 and U.S. Representative for Arkansas's 2nd congressional district from 2011 to 2015. Griffin defeated Democrat John Burkhalter for lieutenant governor in 2014 and served under Governor Asa Hutchinson. In summer 2020, Griffin announced his candidacy for the 2022 Arkansas gubernatorial election but withdrew from the race in February 2021, then launching a successful run for Arkansas Attorney General. == Early life and education == Griffin was born in Charlotte, North Carolina, and reared in Magnolia in Columbia County in southern Arkansas. He graduated from Hendrix College, attended Pembroke College, Oxford, and earned his Juris Doctor degree from Tulane Law School. == Early political career == === Prior to 2004 === Griffin worked from September 1995 to January 1997 with Special Prosecutor David Barrett in the investigation of former Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, Henry Cisneros. For two years after that, he was the Senior Investigative Counsel for the House Committee on Government Reform. In September 1999, he became Deputy Research Director for the Republican National Committee (for George W. Bush's election campaign); while in that position, he was a legal advisor for the "Bush-Cheney 2000 Florida Recount Team" (see Bush v. Gore). From March 2001 through June 2002, he was a special assistant to the Assistant Attorney General Michael Chertoff. === 2004 presidential election === From June 2002 to December 2004, Griffin was Research Director and Deputy Communications Director for Bush's 2004 reelection campaign, a high-ranking position within the RNC. In June 2007, Senators Edward Kennedy of Massachusetts and Sheldon Whitehouse of Rhode Island asked the U.S. Justice Department to investigate whether Griffin led an RNC effort to suppress the African-American vote in Jacksonville, Florida, through caging during the 2004 election. Griffin called the allegations of voter suppression "absolutely, positively false," and there was no finding of any wrongdoing. === White House (2005–2006) === In April 2005, Griffin began working in the George W. Bush administration as Karl Rove's aide, with the title of Special Assistant to the President and Deputy Director in the Office of Political Affairs. === U.S. Attorney (2006–2007) === In September 2006, after ending a one-year military mobilization assignment, Griffin began working as a special assistant to U.S. Attorney Bud Cummins in the Eastern District of Arkansas. On December 15, 2006, the Justice Department announced that Griffin would be appointed interim U.S. Attorney for the Eastern District of Arkansas, effective December 20, 2006, the date when the resignation of Cummins took effect. Before a March 2006 revision to the Patriot Act, interim U.S. Attorneys had a 120-day term limit, pending confirmation by the Senate of a presidential nominee. The Attorney General makes interim appointments; after the revision, the Attorney General's interim appointees had no term limit, effectively bypassing the Senate confirmation process if the President declined to put forward a nomination. Griffin was among the first group of interim attorneys appointed by the Attorney General without a term limit. Gonzales's decision to bypass confirmation for Griffin particularly angered Arkansas's then Democratic senators, Blanche Lincoln and Mark Pryor, who both stated that Gonzales promised them Griffin would go before the Senate for confirmation. Gonzales's decision not to do so prompted Lincoln and Pryor to join many of their Democratic colleagues in demanding Gonzales's resignation or firing. On May 30, 2007, Griffin resigned from his position effective June 1, 2007, with a tearful speech declaring that public service "not worth it. I'm married now and have a kid. I'm sorry I put my wife through this and I'm trying to move on." Documents released by a subsequent congressional investigation showed that, in the summer of 2006, White House officials wanted a vacant slot in the U.S. Attorney's office in Little Rock so that Griffin could fill it. Before this, he was a top Republican researcher and aide to Rove. On February 16, 2007, ten days after McNulty testified that Cummins was dismissed and resigned under duress to create a vacancy for Griffin's appointment, Griffin announced he would not seek the presidential nomination to be U.S. attorney in Little Rock. In September 2008, the Office of the Inspector General in the Department of Justice issued a report concluding that Cummins had not been removed for any reasons related to his performance, but rather to make a place for Griffin. On August 11, 2009, The New York Times reported that previously classified White House emails showed that Karl Rove had lobbied for Griffin to be appointed Cummins's successor. === 2008 presidential election === On May 31, 2007, The Washington Post reported speculation that Griffin was in discussions with the then-nascent presidential campaign of Fred Thompson for a top-level post. Instead, Griffin set up an office in Little Rock for Mercury Public Affairs, a New York City-based firm, part of the Omnicom Group, at which Griffin had worked as general counsel and managing director. (The Thompson campaign paid Mercury Public Affairs to have Griffin as an advisor.) Then, after a short period with Mercury, he started Griffin Public Affairs and the Griffin Law Firm. In late May 2008, columnist Robert Novak reported that Griffin had been named as the RNC's director of research for the presidential campaign of Senator John McCain of Arizona. Griffin was assigned to direct opposition research, "although final arrangements have not been pinned down," Novak said. But Griffin said he was not going back to the Republican National Committee (RNC), and that he had not talked to anyone in the GOP's leadership structure or with the McCain campaign about that role. == U.S. House of Representatives == === Elections === 2010 On September 21, 2009, Griffin announced that he was running for Congress, to replace Democrat Vic Snyder who stepped down after fourteen years in Arkansas' 2nd congressional district. He defeated the Democratic nominee Joyce Elliott, then the outgoing Majority Leader of the Arkansas Senate. Elliott's campaign highlighted Griffin's past controversies such as the Bush campaign's voter caging efforts and his being named one of the "Crooked Candidates of 2010" by the liberal-leaning Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington. Griffin won with 58% of the vote. 2012 Griffin won re-election with 55% of the vote, over former state representative Herb Rule. === Tenure === In 2009, Griffin signed a pledge sponsored by Americans for Prosperity promising to vote against any Global warming legislation that would raise taxes. === Legislation sponsored === Authority for Mandate Delay Act (H.R. 2667; 113th Congress) (H.R. 2667) – Rep. Griffin introduced this bill on July 11, 2013 in response to a July 2, 2013 announcement from the Obama Administration that they would be delaying one of the key requirements of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (commonly known as "Obamacare"). Their decision was that the requirement that all companies which employed more than 50 workers must offer an employee health insurance plan or pay a fine, scheduled to begin January 1, 2014, would now be delayed until 2015. This decision was immediately criticized by Republicans for exceeding executive authority. In response to the Obama Administration's decision, then House Majority Leader Eric Cantor announced that Congress would need to approve any delay. When he explained why he had introduced the bill, Griffin argued that, although he believed the Obama Administration's unilateral decision to delay the mandate was illegal, he still believed delaying the mandate was a good way to save jobs and protect workers. Griffin, along with Rep. Ander Crenshaw and Rep. Candice Miller, introduced the Save Our Military Shopping Benefits Act in 2014. The bill would prohibit the military from closing or cutting commissary stores and exchanges on bases in the United States. === Committee assignments === Griffin served on the following committees and subcommittees: Committee on Ways and Means Subcommittee on Human Resources Subcommittee on Social Security Republican Study Committee On January 16, 2014, House Ways and Means Subcommittee on Social Security held a hearing with the head of Social Security and the Social Security inspector general. During the hearing, Griffin challenged statistics presented by Carolyn Colvin, the acting commissioner of the Social Security Administration. In her testimony, Colvin said that 99 percent of Social Security disability payments are correctly made without fraud. == Lieutenant governor == === 2014 election === Griffin was the Republican nominee for Lieutenant Governor of Arkansas in the 2014 elections. He defeated two Republican challengers in the primary election, both outgoing members of the Arkansas House of Representatives, Andy Mayberry and Debra Hobbs, taking 63 percent of the vote to Mayberry's 21 percent and Hobbs' 16 percent. In the general election on November 4, 2014, Griffin defeated Democrat John Burkhalter in the lieutenant governor's race. === 2018 election === Griffin won re-election in the 2018 general election. == Personal life == Griffin attended Immanuel Baptist Church, a Southern Baptist congregation in Little Rock. == Electoral history == == References == == External links == Attorney General Tim Griffin official government site Appearances on C-SPAN Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress Financial information (federal office) at the Federal Election Commission Legislation sponsored at the Library of Congress Profile at Vote Smart
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_II_of_France	John II of France	John II (French: Jean II; 26 April 1319 – 8 April 1364), called John the Good (French: Jean le Bon), was King of France from 1350 until his death in 1364. When he came to power, France faced several disasters: the Black Death, which killed between a third and a half of its population; popular revolts known as Jacqueries; free companies (Grandes Compagnies) of routiers who plundered the country; and English aggression that resulted in catastrophic military losses, including the Battle of Poitiers of 1356, in which John was captured. While John was a prisoner in London, his son Charles became regent and faced several rebellions, which he overcame. To liberate his father, he concluded the Treaty of Brétigny (1360), by which France lost many territories and paid an enormous ransom. In an exchange of hostages, which included his son Louis I, Duke of Anjou, John was released from captivity to raise funds for his ransom. Upon his return to France, he created the franc to stabilise the currency and tried to get rid of the free companies by sending them to a crusade, but Pope Innocent VI died shortly before their meeting in Avignon. When John was informed that Louis had escaped from captivity, he voluntarily returned to England, where he died in 1364. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Charles V. == Early life == John was nine years old when his father, Philip VI, was crowned king. Philip VI's ascent to the throne was unexpected: all three sons of Philip IV had died without sons and their daughters were passed over. Also passed over was King Edward III of England, Philip IV's grandson through his daughter, Isabella. Thus, as the new king of France, John's father Philip VI had to consolidate his power in order to protect his throne from rival claimants; therefore, he decided to marry off his son John quickly at the age of thirteen to form a strong matrimonial alliance. === Search for a wife and first marriage === Initially a marriage with Eleanor of Woodstock, sister of King Edward III of England, was considered, but instead Philip invited King John the Blind of Bohemia to Fontainebleau. Bohemia had aspirations to control Lombardy and needed French diplomatic support. A treaty was drawn up. The military clauses stipulated that, in the event of war, Bohemia would support the French army with four hundred infantrymen. The political clauses ensured that the Lombard crown would not be disputed if the king of Bohemia managed to obtain it. Philip selected Bonne of Bohemia as a wife for his son, as she was closer to child-bearing age (16 years), and the dowry was fixed at 120,000 florins. John reached the age of majority, 13 years and one day, on 27 April 1332, and received the Duchy of Normandy, as well as the counties of Anjou and Maine. The wedding was celebrated on 28 July at the church of Notre-Dame in Melun in the presence of six thousand guests. The festivities were prolonged by a further two months when the young groom was finally knighted at the cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris. As the new duke of Normandy, John was solemnly granted the arms of a knight in front of a prestigious assembly bringing together the kings of Bohemia and Navarre, and the dukes of Burgundy, Lorraine and Brabant. == Duke of Normandy == === Accession and rise of the English and the royalty === Upon his accession as Duke of Normandy in 1332, John had to deal with the reality that most of the Norman nobility was already allied with the English. Effectively, Normandy depended economically more on maritime trade across the English Channel than on river trade on the Seine. Although the duchy had not been in Angevin possession for 150 years, many landowners had holdings across the Channel. Consequently, to line up behind one or other sovereign risked confiscation. Therefore, Norman members of the nobility were governed as interdependent clans, which allowed them to obtain and maintain charters guaranteeing the duchy a measure of autonomy. It was split into two key camps, the counts of Tancarville and the counts of Harcourt, which had been in conflict for generations. Tension arose again in 1341. King Philip, worried about the richest area of the kingdom breaking into bloodshed, ordered the bailiffs of Bayeux and Cotentin to quell the dispute. Geoffroy d'Harcourt raised troops against the king, rallying a number of nobles protective of their autonomy and against royal interference. The rebels demanded that Geoffroy be made duke, thus guaranteeing the autonomy granted by the charter. Royal troops took the castle at Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte and Geoffroy was exiled to Brabant. Three of his companions were decapitated in Paris on 3 April 1344. === Meeting with the Avignon Papacy and the King of England === In 1342, John was in Avignon, then a part of the Papal States, at the coronation of Pope Clement VI, and in the latter part of 1343, he was a member of a peace parley with Edward III of England's chancery clerk. Clement VI was the fourth of seven Avignon Popes whose papacy was not contested, although the supreme pontiffs would ultimately return to Rome in 1378. === Relations with Normandy and rising tensions === By 1345, increasing numbers of Norman rebels had begun to pay homage to Edward III, constituting a major threat to the legitimacy of the Valois kings. The defeat at the Battle of Crécy on 26 August 1346, and the capitulation of Calais on 3 August 1347, after an eleven-month siege, further damaged royal prestige. Defections by the nobility, whose land fell within the broad economic influence of England, particularly in the north and west, increased. Consequently, King Philip VI decided to seek a truce. Duke John met Geoffroy d'Harcourt, to whom the king agreed to return all confiscated goods, even appointing him sovereign captain in Normandy. John then approached the Tancarville family, whose loyalty could ultimately ensure his authority in Normandy. The marriage of John, Viscount of Melun, to Jeanne, the only heiress of the county of Tancarville, ensured that the Melun-Tancarville party remained loyal to John, while Geoffroy d'Harcourt continued to act as defender for Norman freedoms and thus of the reforming party. === Black Death and second marriage === On 11 September 1349, John's wife, Bonne of Bohemia (Bonne de Luxembourg), died at the Maubuisson Abbey near Paris, of the Black Death, which was devastating Europe. To escape the pandemic, John, who was living in the Parisian royal residence, the Palais de la Cité, left Paris. On 9 February 1350, five months after the death of his first wife, John married Joan I, Countess of Auvergne, in the royal Château de Sainte-Gemme (which no longer exists), at Feucherolles, near Saint-Germain-en-Laye. === The Dauphiné acquisition === In 1343, negotiations were initiated between John's father – king Philip VI, and dauphin Humbert II of Viennois, regarding the future inheritance of the Dauphiné, a vast feudal domain within the Kingdom of Burgundy (Arles), under the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Empire. Since Humbert had no heirs, it was initially agreed that his domains will pass to Johns's younger brother Philip, Duke of Orléans. Already in 1344, those provisions were changed by the new agreement, designating John as Humbert's heir in the Dauphiné. By 1349, Humbert decided to relinquish his rule over Dauphiné in favor of the House of Valois, and the final agreement was made, designating John's oldest son Charles as Humbert's successor, on the condition that Dauphiné will remain a distinctive polity, not incorporated into the French kingdom. Thus in the summer of 1349, John's oldest son became the first Valois Dauphin de Viennois. In 1350, when John ascended to the French throne, his son Charles became the heir presumptive and thus for the first time both honors (Dauphin de Viennois, and heir to the French throne) were held by the same person. == King of France == === Coronation === Philip VI, John's father, died on 22 August 1350, and John's coronation as John II, king of France, took place in Reims the following 26 September. Joanna, his second wife, was crowned queen of France at the same time. In November 1350, King John had Raoul II of Brienne, Count of Eu seized and summarily executed, for reasons that remain unclear, although it was rumoured that he had pledged the English the County of Guînes for his release from captivity. === Historic Military Ordinances of 1351 === John inherited a French military weakened by disorganization and feudal fragmentation, and seven months after being crowned king, he issued the ordinances of 1351 which sought to address these issues. Enacted in response to military setbacks, such as the French defeat at the Battle of Crécy in 1346, these ordinances aimed to address issues of organization, discipline, and payment within the French military, and serve as proof that John as a chivalrous king had an exact grasp of the inadequacies of the feudal army. The military ordinances of 1351, issued by King John II the Good, are considered the first comprehensive military ordinances in French history due to their systematic approach to reforming the royal army during the Hundred Years' War. While earlier French monarchs, such as Philip Augustus, issued military-related decrees, none were as comprehensive or specifically focused on army-wide organization as John’s ordinances. Some of the aims of the provisions included: Centralizing command: Establishing royal authority over military operations to reduce noble autonomy. The ordinances established standardized rules for the recruitment, payment, and conduct of soldiers, marking a significant shift from the decentralized and often chaotic feudal levies to a more cohesive royal army under centralized control. These regulations included provisions for fixed wages and measures to curb indiscipline among troops. Institution of the "Montre" (Military Review System): To ensure accountability and proper equipping of troops. It mandated regular inspections, known as montres, to verify the number, equipment, and readiness of soldiers. Each combatant was required to be part of a company led by a captain, who was responsible for the unit’s discipline and preparedness. Horses were marked to prevent soldiers from presenting the same mounts in multiple units to inflate numbers and claim additional pay. Wages were paid only after the montre, ensuring soldiers were properly equipped and present. This system aimed to curb fraud, reduce desertion, and ensure that only well-equipped soldiers received payment, marking a shift toward a more professional army. Regulating pay and service: Introducing paid contracts (soldes) to ensure loyalty and standardize service terms. Formation of Royal Companies: To replace disorganized feudal levies with a structured royal army. The ordinance organized soldiers into companies under the command of appointed captains. These companies integrated barons, vassals, and sub-vassals, placing them under royal authority rather than feudal lords. Captains were accountable to the king’s representatives, such as the constable and marshals. This provision reduced the autonomy of feudal lords, centralizing military command under the crown. It laid the groundwork for the later compagnies d’ordonnance, a standing army formalized under Charles VII in 1445. Standardizing units: Organizing troops into smaller units (routes) led by appointed captains for better coordination. Limiting noble independence: Curtailing nobles’ ability to act independently or abandon campaigns. Improving logistics: Enhancing provisioning to sustain campaigns. Discipline and Accountability: Captains were made responsible for their units’ conduct, with strict oversight by the constable and marshals. The ordinance aimed to curb the lawlessness of troops, particularly when not engaged in active campaigns, as demobilized soldiers often turned to banditry. These reforms aimed to counter the cohesive, professional English armies, which relied on longbowmen and centralized leadership. ==== Failure to Implement the Ordinances ==== The French nobility’s resistance and internal divisions impeded the ordinances’ adoption. Nobles, such as Charles of Navarre, viewed the reforms as a threat to their Feudal autonomy and traditional rights to command personal forces. Rivalries among noble factions, including Charles of Navarre and the Duke of Orléans caused political instability and undermined royal authority. Nobles had a resistance to discipline and resented serving under royal oversight or alongside common soldiers, as this clashed with their privileged status. The incomplete implementation of the ordinences by the nobility meant that their enforcement was inconsistent, with some captains adopting the structure while others ignored it. The crown’s financial difficulties didn't help either, which forced reliance on feudal levies, limiting consistent payments to soldiers. ==== Impact on the Battle of Poitiers ==== The Battle of Poitiers saw the English, led by Edward, the Black Prince, defeat a larger French army under John. The failure to integrate the ordinances contributed to the French defeat in several ways: Lack of unified command: The French army (12,000–15,000) suffered from divisions among commanders, including John, the Dauphin Charles, and the Duke of Orléans, preventing coordination. Some contingents, like Orléans’, fled or failed to engage. Poor tactical discipline: French knights reverted to impetuous charges, ignoring the ordinances’ emphasis on disciplined tactics. Disorganized assaults failed against English defensive positions with longbowmen. Fragmented army structure: The French army, a mix of feudal levies and semi-professional units, lacked cohesion. The vanguard’s impulsive attack under the Marshals of Clermont and Audrehem disrupted strategy. Logistical and morale issues: Supply problems, unaddressed due to incomplete logistical reforms, weakened morale. The English, better provisioned, maintained their defensive stance. Contrast with English effectiveness: The English army’s cohesion, professional soldiers, and unified command exploited French disarray, using longbowmen and terrain effectively. The French defeat at Poitiers had severe repercussions. The king’s capture led to the Treaty of Brétigny (1360) which ceded territories to England (most of which were later recovered by Charles V), and thousands of French casualties, including nobles, further weakened the feudal structure. The battle exposed military weaknesses and highlighted the failure to overcome noble resistance, delaying military recovery until further reforms were enacted under Charles V. ==== Legacy ==== While John’s military ordinances were ambitious, their effectiveness was limited by the structural and economic constraints of the time. Although the ordinances were not entirely successful due to challenges in enforcement and the ongoing pressures of war, they represented the foundational step toward modernizing the French military, setting an historical precedent for later military developments. Their emphasis on centralized control and discipline influenced subsequent reforms, notably Charles V's tactical and administrative reforms, and Charles VII's creation of a standing army and permanent taxation which solidified royal control. As a result, the feudal system evolved from a decentralized military structure to one where nobles were integrated into a royal framework, with the crown gaining significant power over the fragmented nobility. These changes enabled France to recover from defeats like Poitiers and ultimately win the Hundred Years’ War by 1453. === Creation of the Order of the Star === On November 16, 1351, 3 months after creating the military reform ordinances of 1351, John established the Order of the Star, a chivalric order, to unify the French nobility under royal leadership and counter Edward III’s Order of the Garter. Unlike earlier religious military orders (like the Templars and the Knights Hospitaller, etc.) the Order of the Star was a distinctly French, royal initiative. It was the first organized, state-sponsored group of knights in France with a clear military purpose tied to national defense, setting it apart from feudal levies or informal knightly groups. The order aimed to foster loyalty among knights and prevent defections to foreign powers, as many nobles held lands across multiple kingdoms due to marriage alliances. By binding the nobility to the crown through chivalric ideals, John sought to strengthen the loyalty and cohesion of his military elite, complementing the structural reforms of the April military ordinances. === Negotiations and falling out with Navarre === In 1354, John's son-in-law and cousin, Charles II of Navarre, who, in addition to his Kingdom of Navarre in the Pyrenees mountains, bordering between France and Spain, also held extensive lands in Normandy, was implicated in the assassination of the Constable of France, Charles de la Cerda, who was the favorite of King John. Nevertheless, in order to have a strategic ally against the English in Gascony, John signed the Treaty of Mantes with Charles on 22 February 1354. The peace did not last between the two, and Charles eventually struck up an alliance with Henry of Grosmont, the first Duke of Lancaster. The following year, on 10 September 1355 John and Charles signed the Treaty of Valognes, but this second peace lasted hardly any longer than the first culminating in a highly dramatic event where, during a banquet on 5 April 1356 at the Royal Castle in Rouen attended by the King's son Charles, Charles II of Navarre and a number of Norman magnates and notables, John II burst through the door in full armor, swords in hand, along with his entourage, which included the king's brother Phillip, younger son Louis and cousins as well as over a hundred fully armed knights waiting outside. John lunged over and grabbed Charles of Navarre shouting, "let no one move if he does not want to be dead with this sword." With John's son, Dauphin Charles, the banquet host, on his knees pleading for him to stop, the King grabbed Navarre by the throat and pulled him out of his chair yelling in his face, "Traitor, you are not worthy to sit at my son's table!" He then ordered the arrests of all the guests including Navarre and, in what many considered to be a rash move as well as a political mistake, he had John, the Count of Harcourt and several other Norman lords and notables summarily executed later that night in a yard nearby while he stood watching. This act, which was largely driven by revenge for Charles of Navarre's and John of Harcourt's pre-meditated plot that killed John's favorite, Charles de La Cerda, would push much of what remaining support the King had from the lords in Normandy away to King Edward and the English camp, setting the stage for the English invasion and the resulting Battle of Poitiers in the months to come. === Battle of Poitiers === In 1355, the Hundred Years' War had flared up again, and in July 1356, Edward, the Black Prince, son of Edward III of England, took an army on a great chevauchée through France. John pursued him with an army of his own. In September the two forces met a few miles southeast of Poitiers. John was confident of victory—his army was probably twice the size of his opponent's—but he did not immediately attack. While he waited, the papal legate went back and forth, trying to negotiate a truce between the leaders. There is some debate over whether the Black Prince wanted to fight at all. He offered his wagon train, which was heavily loaded with loot. He also promised not to fight against France for seven years. Some sources claim that he even offered to return Calais to the French crown. John countered by demanding that 100 of the Prince's best knights surrender themselves to him as hostages, along with the Prince himself. No agreement could be reached. Negotiations broke down, and both sides prepared for combat. On the day of the battle, John and 17 knights from his personal guard dressed identically. This was done to confuse the enemy, who would do everything possible to capture the sovereign on the field. In spite of this precaution, following the destruction and routing of the massive force of French knights at the hands of the ceaseless English longbow volleys, John was captured as the English force charged to finish their victory. Though he fought with valour, wielding a large battle-axe, his helmet was knocked off. Surrounded, he fought on until Denis de Morbecque, a French exile who fought for England, approached him. "Sire," Morbecque said. "I am a knight of Artois. Yield yourself to me and I will lead you to the Prince of Wales." === Surrender and capture === King John surrendered by handing him his glove. That night King John dined in the red silk tent of his enemy. The Black Prince attended to him personally. He was then taken to Bordeaux, and from there to England. The Battle of Poitiers would be one of the major military disasters not just for France, but at any time during the Middle Ages. While negotiating a peace accord, John was at first held in the Savoy Palace, then at a variety of locations, including Windsor, Hertford, Somerton Castle in Lincolnshire, Berkhamsted Castle in Hertfordshire, and briefly at King John's Lodge, formerly known as Shortridges, in East Sussex. Eventually, John was taken to the Tower of London. In France, what struck the people was not so much the defeat at Poitiers as the captivity of King John. When the French people learned of the frantic flight of the French lords from battle, they believed it was due to treason. And if not for English gold, then it was out of cowardice—and so, what did the once-revered words of 'honor' and 'nobility' mean? People began to hate the treacherous and cowardly knights. Some of them, returning to their estates, narrowly escaped being torn apart by furious villeins, even those who, as prisoners on parole, came back to gather their ransoms. === Prisoner of the English === As a prisoner of the English, John was granted royal privileges that permitted him to travel about and enjoy a regal lifestyle. At a time when law and order was breaking down in France and the government was having a hard time raising money for the defence of the realm, his account books during his captivity show that he was purchasing horses, pets, and clothes while maintaining an astrologer and a court band. === Treaty of Brétigny === The Treaty of Brétigny (drafted in May 1360) set his ransom at an astounding 3 million crowns, roughly two or three years worth of revenue for the French Crown, which was the largest national budget in Europe during that period. On 30 June 1360 John left the Tower of London and proceeded to Eltham Palace where Queen Philippa had prepared a great farewell entertainment. Passing the night at Dartford, he continued towards Dover, stopping at the Maison Dieu of St Mary at Ospringe, and paying homage at the shrine of St Thomas Becket at Canterbury on 4 July. He dined with the Black Prince—who had negotiated the Treaty of Brétigny—at Dover Castle, and reached English-held Calais on 8 July. Leaving his son Louis of Anjou in Calais as a replacement hostage to guarantee payment, John was allowed to return to France to raise the funds. The Treaty of Brétigny was ratified in October 1360. === Louis' escape and return to England === On 1 July 1363, King John was informed that Louis had broken his parole and escaped from Calais. Troubled by the dishonour of this action, and the arrears in his ransom, John gathered his royal council to announce that he would voluntarily return to captivity in England and negotiate with Edward in person. When faced with the opposition of his advisors, the king famously replied that "if good faith were banned from the Earth, she ought to find asylum in the hearts of kings". Immediately after he appointed his son Charles the Duke of Normandy to be regent and governor of France until his return. === Death === John landed in England in January 1364 where he was met by Sir Alan Buxhull, Sir Richard Pembridge and Lord Burghersh at Dover, to be conducted to Eltham and the Savoy Palace and was warmly welcomed in London in January 1364. He was received with great honour, and was a frequent guest of Edward at Westminster. A few months after his arrival, however, he fell ill with an unknown malady. He died at the Savoy Palace in April 1364. His body was returned to France, where he was interred in the royal chambers at Saint Denis Basilica. John's death in 1364 at age 44 was not unusually young for the period, especially given the Black Death’s impact and the stresses of captivity. The lack of specific health complaints in chronicles suggests that a health condition was not a prominent issue during his reign. The "unknown malady" causing John's death could range from an acute illness (e.g., infection) to a chronic condition exacerbated by captivity. The Black Death, recurrent in the 1360s, or other infectious diseases are plausible causes, but no primary source confirms this. Speculation about arsenic poisoning, mentioned in relation to his son Charles V’s illness, is not supported for John himself. John II was succeeded as King of France by his eldest son, Charles, who reigned as Charles V, known as The Wise. == Unsubstantiated Claims of Poor Health == The claim that King John II suffered from ill health often appears in discussions of his physical condition, lack of martial vigor (primarily referring to jousting rather than war), and the circumstances of his death. However, medieval sources rarely provide detailed medical diagnoses, and health descriptions are often vague or tied to political narratives. The claim appears to be a modern historiographical construct, as primary source evidence directly addressing his health is sparse and ambiguous. === Primary Sources for Poor Health Claims === Jean Froissart describes John’s courage at Poitiers but does not explicitly mention chronic ill health during his reign or captivity. Regarding John’s death in 1364, Froissart notes that he “fell ill and died” at the Savoy Palace in London, without specifying the nature of the illness. This lack of detail is typical of medieval chronicles, which often prioritize narrative over medical specificity. Froissart’s focus on John’s lavish lifestyle in captivity (e.g., purchasing horses, clothes, and maintaining a court band) suggests that John was physically capable of engaging in courtly activities, which may argue against severe, debilitating illness during this period. However, this could also reflect a public facade to maintain royal dignity. Froissart’s portrayal of John as a less martial king compared to Edward III or the Black Prince may have led modern historians to infer physical weakness. His preference for hunting over jousting and his reliance on advisors like Charles de la Cerda could be interpreted as signs of frail health, but they could equally reflect personal temperament or political strategy. John II forbade his knights from jousting during the Hundred Years’ War, prioritizing warfare over tournaments, which often distracted from military needs, setting an example as king and knight. The Grandes Chroniques de France provides little direct evidence of his health. It mentions his death in 1364 at the Savoy Palace but does not elaborate on the cause, referring only to an unspecified illness. It does not describe him as frail or chronically unwell. English sources, such as those by Thomas Walsingham, describe John’s warm reception in England and his participation in festivities, suggesting he was not visibly incapacitated during his final months. The reference to an “unknown malady” aligns with Froissart’s account but lacks specificity. John’s account books from his captivity in England, referenced in secondary sources, indicate that he maintained an active lifestyle, purchasing luxury items and maintaining a retinue. These records do not mention medical expenses or treatments that would suggest chronic illness. Documents surrounding the Treaty of Brétigny, which secured John’s release from captivity, do not mention his health as a factor in negotiations or his ability to rule. His voluntary return to England in 1364, prompted by his son Louis’s escape, is framed in terms of honor rather than health, suggesting that he was physically capable of travel and political decision-making. === Secondary Sources for Poor Health Claims === Secondary sources often cite John’s “fragile health” or lack of physical vigor, but these claims are typically based on inferences rather than direct primary evidence. Françoise Autrand and Jean Deviosse suggest John’s health was not robust, citing his limited participation in physical activities and his death from an unspecified illness. However, these works rely heavily on chronicles like Froissart’s that lack detailed medical information. == Personality == Contemporaries report that he was quick to get angry and resort to violence, leading to frequent political and diplomatic confrontations. He enjoyed literature and was patron to painters and musicians. == Image == The image of a "warrior king" probably emerged from the courage he displayed at the Battle of Poitiers, where he dismounted to fight in the forefront of his surrounded men with a poleaxe in his hands, as well as the creation of the Order of the Star. This was guided by political need, as John was determined to prove the legitimacy of his crown, particularly as his reign, like that of his father, was marked by continuing disputes over the Valois claim from both Charles II of Navarre and Edward III of England. From a young age, John was called to resist the decentralising forces affecting the cities and the nobility, each attracted either by English economic influence or the reforming party. He grew up among intrigue and treason, and in consequence he governed in secrecy only with a close circle of trusted advisers. == Personal relationships == He took as his wife Bonne of Bohemia and fathered 11 children in eleven years. Due to his close relationship with his favourite Charles de la Cerda, partisans of Charles II of Navarre derided the king for "having no other God than him". La Cerda was given various honours and appointed to the high position of connetable when John became king; he accompanied the king on all his official journeys to the provinces. La Cerda's rise at court excited the jealousy of the French barons, several of whom stabbed him to death in 1354. La Cerda's fate paralleled that of Edward II of England's Piers Gaveston and John II of Castile's Álvaro de Luna; the position of a royal favourite was a dangerous one. John's grief on La Cerda's death was overt and public. == Titles Held by John II during his Lifetime == John acquired the titles of Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, and Duke of Normandy in 1332 when he came of age, as part of his father, King Philip VI of France, granting him overlordship of several territories. Upon becoming King of France in 1350, most of his titles returned to the royal domain, as his new status as king absorbed his regional titles. Count of Anjou (1332–1350): The County of Anjou had returned to the French royal domain in 1328 upon Philip VI’s ascension, and he bestowed it upon his eldest son, John, to strengthen his position as heir and to manage these key territories. This was a common practice to provide heirs with administrative experience and revenue. The County of Anjou later became a duchy in 1360, granted to John's son Louis. Count of Maine (1332–1350): Maine, closely tied to Anjou, was part of the same administrative package to prepare John for governance and to secure Valois control over these regions, which were strategically important due to their proximity to English-held territories. Maine was later integrated into the Duchy of Anjou. Duke of Normandy (1332–1350): Normandy was a critical region due to its economic importance and its vulnerability to English claims during the Hundred Years’ War. John’s appointment as Duke was intended to secure loyalty in a region with strong economic ties to England. He later granted it to his son, Charles (the future Charles V), in 1355, to ensure effective governance during his own captivity after the Battle of Poitiers. Count of Poitiers (1344–1350): He was created Count of Poitiers in 1344 by his father, Philip VI, as part of consolidating Valois control over southwestern France. Poitiers was strategically significant during the early stages of the Hundred Years’ War, and granting it to John strengthened royal authority in the region against English claims. Duke of Guyenne (1345–1350): Guienne was a medieval name for a region in southwestern France that largely overlapped with the historical Duchy of Aquitaine. The name "Guienne" derives from an Old French rendering of "Aquitaine," and by the 14th century, it was often used interchangeably with or as a subset of Aquitaine. John held this title as part of the French crown's control over the region, which had been a contested area between France and England for centuries (notably during the Hundred Years' War). At that time, the Duchy of Guienne/Aquitaine included areas like Bordeaux and parts of Gascony, though its borders fluctuated due to political and military changes. Count of Auvergne (1350–1360): He became Count of Auvergne in 1350 through his marriage to Joan I, Countess of Auvergne and Boulogne, on February 19, 1350, at Nanterre. As Joan’s husband, he held the title jure uxoris (by right of his wife), as was customary for husbands of titled heiresses in medieval France. John relinquished the title in 1360 when she died. Upon her death, the title reverted to Joan’s heirs, as John’s rights were tied to her lifetime. Count of Boulogne (1350–1360): He acquired the title of Count of Boulogne jure uxoris in 1350 through his marriage to Joan I, on February 19, 1350. Boulogne was a significant coastal county, and John’s control reinforced Valois influence in northern France. The title was relinquished upon Joan’s death in 1360, with the title passing to Joan’s heirs. Duke of Burgundy (as John I) (1361–1363): Upon the death of Philip I, Duke of Burgundy (Philip of Rouvres) in 1361, the senior line of the House of Burgundy, descended from Robert I, became extinct. Philip I died without heirs. John was the son of Joan of Burgundy, the second daughter of Duke Robert II of Burgundy, making him a first cousin to Philip I’s father. Charles II of Navarre, another claimant, was the grandson of Margaret of Burgundy, the elder daughter of Robert II, giving him a claim through primogeniture. However, the principle of proximity of blood favored John, as he was closer in degree of kinship to the deceased duke. Additionally, John’s position as king and his role as stepfather to Philip I (through his marriage to Joan I, Countess of Auvergne) strengthened his claim, and on 28 December 1361, John successfully claimed the duchy. The duchy did not merge into the royal domain; it remained a distinct feudal entity, with the Burgundian estates firmly opposing annexation. In January 1362, John appointed John of Melun, Count of Tancarville as govenor of Burgundy before finally passing the duchy on to his youngest son Philip as an apanage in 1363. == Creation of Counties, Duchies and Apanages == John II created several duchies and counties – seven in total, the most out of any French monarch (with Charles IX and Francis I being second and third respectively). Most of them lasted until the French Revolution abolished the monarchy. During his reign he also expanded French territory and influence by acquiring the Duchy of Burgundy, creating the Duchy of Auvergne, and by placing his sons in strategic positions of power to insure the protection of French territory. === County of Tancarville (1352 to 1844) === John elevated the Barony of Tancarville to a county and created Jean, Viscount of Melun the new Count of Tancarville. He was already a close friend of John when the latter was still Duke of Normandy, before succeeding his father Philip VI in 1350. The Count then held a number of high-ranking offices, serving simultaneously as Chamberlain of France, Hereditary Constable of Normandy, Sovereign Master of the Waters and Forests of France, and perhaps, at one point, Sovereign Master of the King's Household. He also had solid military experience, having served in the King's armies since 1337; he had taken part in the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 and was captured there by the English. Upon his return from captivity, he was entrusted by the King with important missions of both a political and military nature. The Count of Tancarville played a significant role in the attempt to pacificate the kingdom. To combat the Free Companies, John the Good entrusted him, on April 24, 1361, with a lieutenancy general, under which he could exercise all the king's powers in the Duchy of Berry, the County of Nevers, the Duchies of Bourbon and Auvergne, regions particularly threatened by the Routiers. === The Duchy of Bar (1354 to 1766) === The County of Bar, located between France and the Holy Roman Empire, was strategically vital due to its position near Lorraine and Luxembourg. Part of Bar (the Barrois mouvant) had become a French fief in 1301, but its proximity to imperial territories made it a contested area. Elevating Bar to a duchy allowed John to reinforce French authority in this borderland, especially during the Hundred Years’ War, when English influence threatened nearby regions like Normandy. John made efforts to secure loyalty from frontier nobles to counter external threats, suggesting the elevation was a strategic move to bind Bar more closely to the French crown. The first Duke of Bar, Robert I’s later actions, such as supporting the coronations of Charles V and Charles VI, reflect his role as a loyal vassal. The ducal title enhanced Bar’s status, giving Robert greater influence in both French and imperial contexts, as Bar also gained recognition from Emperor Charles IV. === The County of Castres (1356 to 1789) === John elevated Castres to a county in 1356 and created John VI of Vendôme as Count of Castres, alongside his existing title as Count of Vendôme, as part of a strategic effort to strengthen royal authority, reward loyal vassals, and stabilize the French crown’s influence during a period of crisis marked by the Hundred Years’ War, the Black Death, and internal political turmoil. John VI of Vendôme, a member of the House of Montoire, was a loyal vassal who fought for the French crown, notably at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356, where he was captured by the English. Elevating Castres to a county and granting John VI the title was likely a reward for his service and a means to secure his continued loyalty, especially during a time when noble defections to the English were a significant threat. John frequently used titles and land grants to bind nobles to the crown, particularly in regions vulnerable to English influence, such as the south and west of France where Castres was located. The elevation enhanced John VI’s status, aligning his interests with the crown and reinforcing his role as a regional power. Such appointments were critical during John's reign, as he sought to counter English aggression and internal rebellions like the Jacquerie. John VI’s role as count also positioned him to manage local governance, particularly after his wife, Jeanne de Ponthieu, acted as regent for their granddaughter Jeanne, Countess of Vendôme and Castres, from 1371 to 1372. Castres, located in Languedoc, was a dependency of the Viscount of Albi and had been granted a city charter during the Albigensian Crusade, indicating its regional significance. By elevating Castres to a county, John aimed to integrate it more firmly into the French feudal structure, countering local autonomy and potential English economic influence in the south, and to assert control over southern territories, where English campaigns and local unrest threatened royal authority. Granting the county to John VI, a trusted noble, ensured a loyal administrator in a region critical for maintaining French dominance. === The Duchy of Anjou (1360 to 1795) === In 1360, the Duchy of Anjou, was created and granted to Louis I of Anjou, John's second son, elevating the county of Anjou to a duchy. This apanage included the counties of Anjou and Maine, centered in western France, a region critical for its proximity to English-held Aquitaine and Brittany, both contested during the Hundred Years’ War. The grant coincided with the Treaty of Brétigny, which temporarily ended hostilities with England but required John to cede significant territories. By establishing Louis in Anjou, John aimed to secure a loyal royal presence in a region vulnerable to English influence and Breton autonomy. Louis was also given a role as a hostage in England under the treaty’s terms, reflecting John’s strategy to tie apanages to diplomatic obligations. The elevation of Anjou to a duchy increased its prestige, ensuring Louis’s status matched his responsibilities. Anjou’s strategic location made it a bulwark against English expansion from Aquitaine and a counterweight to the semi-independent Duchy of Brittany. Louis I of Anjou became a powerful figure, later pursuing claims to Naples and Sicily, expanding the Angevin dynasty’s influence beyond France. His apanage laid the foundation for the Valois-Anjou branch, which played a significant role in French and European politics. The Duchy of Anjou remained a key royal stronghold, though its autonomy under Louis’s successors sometimes challenged crown authority. === The Duchy of Touraine (1360 to 1584) === Created as an initial apanage for his youngest son, Philip II the Bold. However, when the Duchy of Burgundy became available in 1363, Philip received Burgundy instead, partly as a reward for his courage at the battle of Poitiers, and Touraine was reassigned or reverted to the crown temporarily. Touraine, located in western France, was a smaller but strategically important duchy due to its proximity to Anjou and Poitou. The initial grant of Touraine to Philip in 1360 was part of John’s effort to provide for all his sons following the Treaty of Brétigny. Touraine’s strategic location near Anjou and Brittany made it valuable for maintaining royal influence in western France. The reassignment of Touraine after 1363 reflects John’s flexibility in reallocating apanages to maximize strategic outcomes. When Burgundy, a more prestigious and critical duchy, became available, Philip was given the larger prize, and Touraine was reserved for other uses or returned to the crown. Touraine’s temporary status as an apanage indicates its role as a flexible tool in John’s feudal strategy, used to balance familial and political needs. Touraine’s brief tenure as an apanage for Philip had limited long-term impact, as it was overshadowed by the grant of Burgundy. However, its initial creation reflects John’s intent to ensure all his sons had significant holdings to support their status and loyalty. Touraine later became an apanage for other royal relatives under John’s successors, reinforcing its role as a “floating” apanage for royal cadets. === The Duchy of Auvergne (1360 to 1723) === The Duchy of Auvergne was created from the Terre royale d’Auvergne (royal lands of Auvergne) while the County of Auvergne continued to exist in parallel. John granted it to his third son John alongside the Duchy of Berry. Auvergne, in south-central France, had been part of the royal domain since its confiscation by Philip II Augustus in 1209 and partial restoration to local counts. The elevation of Auvergne to a duchy was a strategic move to strengthen royal control in a region with a history of autonomy and pro-English sympathies among some local lords (e.g., the Counts of Auvergne). By granting it to John, King John aimed to secure Auvergne’s loyalty during the Hundred Years’ War. John’s role as king’s lieutenant in Auvergne (since 1358) made him a logical choice for the apanage. The grant formalized his authority, countering local resistance and English influence in the region. The creation of the duchy alongside Berry reflects John’s intent to consolidate central and southern France under a trusted son, especially after the territorial losses of the Treaty of Brétigny. John of Berry held Auvergne until his death in 1416, when it reverted to the crown. His daughter Marie inherited the title of Duchess of Auvergne, and it later passed to her husband, John I, Duke of Bourbon, in 1426, integrating Auvergne into the Bourbon domains. The apanage reinforced royal authority in Auvergne, though John’s heavy taxation to fund war efforts sparked revolts, such as the Tuchin Revolt, highlighting the challenges of governing the region. === The Duchy of Berry (1360 to 14 February 1820) === John created the Duchy of Berry for his third son John, encompassing the County of Berry and parts of Poitou. Centered in central France, Berry was a relatively stable region, strategically important for connecting northern and southern royal domains. The creation of the Duchy was part of John’s 1360 reorganization of apanages following the Treaty of Brétigny. Berry’s central location made it a hub for royal administration and a buffer against internal dissent, such as the Jacquerie revolt (1358). John of Berry, appointed king’s lieutenant in 1358 for regions including Auvergne and Languedoc, was a key figure in John’s government. The apanage provided him with the resources to govern effectively and support royal policies. Unlike Anjou or Burgundy, Berry was less exposed to immediate external threats, making it a stable base for John’s administrative and artistic patronage. John of Berry became a renowned patron of the arts, commissioning works like the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. His governance strengthened royal influence in central France, with Berry remaining closely tied to the crown. The apanage’s stability contrasted with the autonomy of Burgundy and Anjou, reflecting John’s loyalty and the region’s integration into the royal domain. == Historiography: The Trend of Negative Portrayal by Historians == King John II faced extraordinary challenges: the Black Death, which killed a third to half of France’s population, the Hundred Years’ War with England, internal revolts like the Jacquerie, and plundering by free companies. His capture at the Battle of Poitiers (1356) and the subsequent Treaty of Brétigny (1360), which ceded significant territories and demanded a massive ransom, have often been focal points for criticism. However, applying modern standards of leadership to a medieval monarch risks oversimplifying the political, economic, and social constraints of the era. The trend of criticizing John II began with Jean Froissart’s influential but biased chronicle, which provided a narrative of bravery undercut by recklessness. Jules Michelet’s 19th-century reinterpretation transformed this into a nationalist critique, portraying John as a weak ruler who failed France. Subsequent historians—François Guizot, Charles Petit-Dutaillis, Edouard Perroy, Jean Deviosse, and Maurice Keen—built on Michelet’s framework, citing each other and Froissart to reinforce a narrative of incompetence. This historiographical chain reflects a tendency to judge John II by modern standards of statecraft, often ignoring the medieval emphasis on chivalric honor and the external pressures of war, plague, and noble factionalism. The reliance on citations created an echo chamber, where each historian reinforced the previous one’s conclusions without fully reevaluating primary sources like Jean de Venette or considering the broader context. Modern scholars like Françoise Autrand have begun to break this cycle by highlighting John II’s adherence to chivalric ideals and the impossible circumstances he faced, suggesting that the trend of criticism may be waning as historians adopt a more contextual approach. === Portrayal by Jean Froissart and Contemporary Chroniclers: The Start of the Critique === The earliest significant criticism of John II likely stems from contemporary or near-contemporary chroniclers, particularly Jean Froissart (c. 1337–c. 1405), a Hainaut-born chronicler whose Chronicles are a primary source for the Hundred Years’ War. Froissart’s account, while vivid and detailed, often reflects a chivalric bias and the perspective of his patrons, who included figures aligned with the English or Burgundian factions. His portrayal of John II at Poitiers emphasizes the king’s bravery but also his tactical errors, such as ignoring advice against engaging the English due to their superior longbow tactics. Froissart writes of John’s decision to fight on foot with a poleaxe, portraying it as courageous but implying it was reckless given the French defeat. This narrative sets a tone of personal valor undermined by poor judgment, a theme later historians amplified. Froissart’s account was influential because it was widely circulated in medieval Europe and became a foundational source for later historians. His depiction of John II’s capture and lavish lifestyle in English captivity—engaging in feasts, hunting, and pilgrimages—contributed to perceptions of a king more concerned with personal honor than governance. While Froissart does not explicitly condemn John, his focus on the king’s extravagance and military failure provided raw material for subsequent criticism. Another contemporary source, Jean de Venette (c. 1307–c. 1370), a Carmelite friar, offers a more sympathetic view, emphasizing the external pressures John faced, such as the Black Death and economic collapse. However, Venette’s chronicle was less widely read than Froissart’s, so it had less impact on shaping the critical narrative. === Portrayal by Early Modern Historians: Amplifying the Critique === The critical trend solidified in the early modern period, particularly with Jules Michelet (1798–1874), a 19th-century French historian whose Histoire de France (1833–1867) is a landmark in French historiography. Michelet, a romantic nationalist, viewed the Valois monarchy, including John II’s reign, through the lens of France’s struggle for national unity. He criticized John II for his "weakness" and "extravagance," particularly highlighting the Poitiers defeat and the Treaty of Brétigny as catastrophic for French sovereignty. Michelet’s portrayal of John as a well-meaning but ineffectual ruler, overly reliant on favorites like Charles de la Cerda, set a precedent for later historians. His vivid prose and emphasis on national decline made his work highly influential, and he is a likely candidate for initiating the modern trend of criticizing John II. Michelet’s interpretation influenced a chain of historians who cited his work, either directly or indirectly, as they built the critical narrative around John II. Key figures include: 1. François Guizot (1787–1874): A prominent historian and statesman, Guizot’s History of France (1829–1830) drew on Michelet’s framework and Froissart’s chronicles. Guizot emphasized John II’s military failures and the economic devastation caused by the ransom payments, portraying the king as a symbol of feudal incompetence. 2. Charles Petit-Dutaillis (1868–1947): In his The Feudal Monarchy in France and England (1933), Petit-Dutaillis cited Michelet and Guizot, focusing on John II’s inability to centralize royal authority amidst noble defections and English aggression. He described John’s reign as a low point in Valois legitimacy. 3. Edouard Perroy (1901–1974): Perroy’s The Hundred Years War (1945) built on Petit-Dutaillis and Michelet, explicitly citing their works. He criticized John II for his strategic blunders at Poitiers and his failure to manage noble factions, particularly Charles II of Navarre. 4. Jean Deviosse (1920–1992): In Jean le Bon (1985), Deviosse offered a more nuanced view, acknowledging John’s courage and chivalric ideals but still framing his reign as a failure due to the Poitiers debacle and financial mismanagement. Deviosse cited Froissart, Michelet, and Perroy. 5. Maurice Keen (1933–2012): In The Pelican History of Medieval Europe (1969), Keen cited Perroy and Michelet, describing John II as a king overwhelmed by circumstances, with his capture at Poitiers symbolizing the collapse of French royal authority. === Modern Historian Reassessments and Defenders === Recent historians have begun to challenge the critical trend, arguing that John II’s reign must be understood within its medieval context. Françoise Autrand in Charles V: Le Sage (1994) contrasts John’s failures with his son Charles V’s successes but acknowledges John’s efforts to maintain Valois legitimacy amidst unprecedented crises. Autrand cites Deviosse and Froissart but emphasizes the structural challenges—such as the decentralized feudal system and the economic impact of the Black Death—over personal failings. D'Arcy Boulton highlights John II’s establishment of the Order of the Star in 1351 as a bold attempt to strengthen royal authority and unify the French nobility, though he notes its limited success due to political fragmentation and military defeats. Similarly, Georges Bordonove argues that John’s personal bravery, notably in battles such as Poitiers in 1356, and his commitment to chivalric ideals reflect his dedication to royal prestige and the reputation of the Valois. Bordonove further notes that, during his captivity in England, John upheld the dignity of the French crown through his steadfast adherence to honorable conduct despite political and personal adversity. == Ancestry == == Issue == On 28 July 1332, at the age of 13, John was married to Bonne of Luxembourg (d. 1349), daughter of John, King of Bohemia. Their children were: Charles V of France (21 January 1338 – 16 September 1380) Catherine (1338–1338) died young Louis I, Duke of Anjou (23 July 1339 – 20 September 1384), married Marie of Blois John, Duke of Berry (30 November 1340 – 15 June 1416), married Jeanne of Auvergne Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (17 January 1342 – 27 April 1404), married Margaret of Flanders Joan (24 June 1343 – 3 November 1373), married Charles II (the Bad) of Navarre Marie (12 September 1344 – October 1404), married Robert I, Duke of Bar Agnes (9 December 1345 – April 1350) Margaret (20 September 1347 – 25 April 1352) Isabelle (1 October 1348 – 11 September 1372), married Gian Galeazzo I, Duke of Milan On 19 February 1350, at the royal Château de Sainte-Gemme, John married Joanna I of Auvergne (d. 1361), Countess of Auvergne and Boulogne. Joanna was the widow of Philip of Burgundy, the deceased heir of that duchy, and the mother of the young Philip I, Duke of Burgundy (1344–61) who became John's stepson and ward. John and Joanna had three children, all of whom died shortly after birth: Blanche (b. November 1350) Catherine (b. early 1352) a son (b. early 1353) == See also == Treasure of rue Vieille-du-Temple == References == == Sources ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Vasnetsov#:~:text=The%20Snow%20Maiden.-,Later%20Years%20(1890%E2%80%931926),Rimsky%2DKorsakov%20premiere%2C%20Sadko.	Viktor Vasnetsov	Viktor Mikhaylovich Vasnetsov (Russian: Ви́ктор Миха́йлович Васнецо́в; 15 May [O.S. 3 May] 1848 – 23 July 1926) was a Russian painter and draughtsman who specialised in mythological and historical subjects. He is considered a co-founder of Russian folklorist and romantic nationalistic painting, and a key figure in the Russian Revivalist movement. == Biography == === Childhood (1848–1858) === Viktor Vasnetsov was born in the remote village of Lopyal in Vyatka Governorate in 1848, the second of the seven children (his only sister died 4 months after her birth). His father Mikhail Vasilievich Vasnetsov (1823–1870), known to be philosophically inclined, was a member of the priesthood, and a scholar of the natural sciences and astronomy. His grandfather was an icon painter. Two of Mikhail Vasnetsov's six sons, Viktor and Apollinary, became remarkable painters, three becoming schoolteachers and one a Russian folklorist. It was in Lopyal that Viktor started to paint, mostly landscapes and scenes of village life. Recalling his childhood in a letter to Vladimir Stasov, Vasnetsov remarked that he "had lived with peasant children and liked them not as a narodnik but as a friend". === Vyatka (1858–1867) === From the age of ten, Viktor studied in a seminary in Vyatka, each summer moving with his family to a rich merchant village of Ryabovo. During his seminary years, he worked for a local icon shopkeeper. He also helped an exiled Polish artist, Michał Elwiro Andriolli, to execute frescoes for Vyatka's Alexander Nevsky cathedral. Having graduated from the seminary, Viktor decided to move to Saint Petersburg to study art. He auctioned his paintings of Woman Harvester and Milk-maid (both 1867) to raise the money required for the trip to the Russian capital. === Saint Petersburg (1867–1876) === In August 1867 Viktor tried to enter the Imperial Academy of Arts, but failed. He succeeded one year later in August 1868. Already in 1863 a group of fourteen students left the Academy, finding its rules too constraining. This led to the Peredvizhniki movement of realist painters rebelling against Academism. Vasnetsov befriended their leader Ivan Kramskoi during his drawing classes before entering the Academy, referring to him as his teacher. He also became very close to fellow student, Ilya Repin. Viktor, whose name would subsequently be associated with historical and mythological paintings, initially avoided these subjects at all costs. For his graphic composition of Christ and Pontius Pilate Before the People, the Academy awarded a small silver medal to him. In the early 1870s he completed a large number of engravings depicting contemporary life. Two of them (Provincial Bookseller from 1870 and A Boy with a Bottle of Vodka from 1872) won him a bronze medal at the World Fair in London (1874). During this period he also started producing genre paintings in oil. Such pieces as Peasant Singers (1873) and Moving House (1876) were warmly welcomed by democratic circles of Russian society. === Paris (1876–1877) === In 1876 Repin invited Vasnetsov to join the Peredvizhniki colony in Paris. While living in France, Viktor studied classical and contemporary paintings, academist and Impressionist alike. During that period, he painted Acrobats (1877), produced prints, and exhibited some of his works at the Salon. It was in Paris that he became fascinated with fairy-tale subjects, starting to work on Ivan Tsarevich Riding a Grey Wolf and The Firebird. Vasnetsov was a model for Sadko in Repin's celebrated painting Sadko. In 1877 he returned to Moscow. === Moscow (1877–1884) === In the late 1870s Vasnetsov concentrated on illustrating Russian fairy tales and the epic narrative poem Bylinas, executing some of his best known pieces: The Knight at the Crossroads (1878), Prince Igor's Battlefield (1878), Three princesses of the Underground Kingdom (completed 1884 ), The Flying Carpet (1880), and Alionushka (1881). These works were not appreciated at the time they appeared. Many radical critics dismissed them as undermining the realist principles of the Peredvizhniki. Even such prominent connoisseurs as Pavel Mikhailovich Tretyakov refused to buy them. The vogue for Vasnetsov's paintings would spread in the 1880s, when he turned to religious subjects and executed a series of icons for Abramtsevo estate of his patron Savva Mamontov. === Kiev (1884–1889) === In 1884–1889 Vasnetsov was commissioned to paint frescoes in St Vladimir's Cathedral in Kiev. This was a challenging work which ran contrary to both Russian and Western traditions of religious paintings. The influential art critic Vladimir Stasov labelled them a sacrilegious play with religious feelings of the Russian people. Another popular critic, Dmitry Filosofov, referred to these frescoes as "the first bridge over 200 years-old gulf separating different classes of Russian society". While living in Kiev, Vasnetsov made friends with Mikhail Vrubel, who was also involved in the cathedral's decoration. While they worked together, Vasnetsov taught the younger artist a great deal. It was in Kiev that Vasnetsov finally finished Ivan Tsarevich Riding a Grey Wolf and started his most famous painting, the Bogatyrs. In 1885 the painter travelled to Italy. The same year he worked on stage designs and costumes for Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's opera The Snow Maiden. === Later Years (1890–1926) === The following two decades were productive for Vasnetsov. He increasingly turned to other media during this period. In 1897 he collaborated with his brother Apollinary on the theatrical design of another Rimsky-Korsakov premiere, Sadko. At the turn of the century, Vasnetsov elaborated his hallmark "fairy-tale" style of Russian Revivalist architecture. His first acclaimed design was a church in Abramtsevo (1882), executed jointly with Vasily Polenov. In 1894, he designed his own mansion in Moscow. The Russian pavilion of the World Fair in Paris followed in 1898. Finally, in 1904, Vasnetsov designed the best known of his "fairy-tale" buildings – the façade of the Tretyakov Gallery. Between 1906 and 1911, Vasnetsov worked on the design of the mosaics for Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Warsaw; he was also involved in the design of Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Moscow. In 1912, he was given a noble title by Czar Nicholas II. In 1914, he designed a revenue stamp intended for voluntary collection for victims of World War I. Even prior to the Russian Revolution, Vasnetsov became active as a regent of the Tretyakov Gallery. He allocated a significant portion of his income to the State Historical Museum, so that a large part of the museum's collection was acquired on Vasnetsov's money. After the October Revolution he advocated removing some of the religious paintings from churches to the Tretyakov Gallery. In 1915, Vasnetsov participated in the designing of a military uniform for the Victory parade of the Russian army in Berlin and Constantinopole. Vasnetsov is credited with the creation of the budenovka (initially named bogatyrka), a military hat reproducing the style of Kievan Rus' cone-shaped helmets. Vasnetsov died in Moscow in 1926, he was 78. == Legacy == A minor planet, 3586 Vasnetsov, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Zhuravlyova in 1978, is named after Viktor Vasnetsov and Apollinary Vasnetsov. In the film Elizabeth: The Golden Age, Vasnetsov's painting of Ivan the Terrible is anachronistically presented as if it already existed in that Tsar's lifetime, and as being sent by Ivan to England when he offers to marry Queen Elizabeth I. Vasnetsov's grandson, Andrei Vladimirovich Vasnetsov (1924–2009), was People's Artist of the USSR. == Works == == References == === Bibliography === A. K. Lazuko Victor Vasnetsov, Leningrad: Khudozhnik RSFSR, 1990, ISBN 5-7370-0107-5 Vasnetsov Gallery Poem of Seven Fairy Tales Archived 22 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Victor Vasnetsov at Tanais Gallery == External links == Vasnetsov's tomb St. Vladimir Cathedral interior 360 panorama
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manny_Diaz_%28Florida_politician%29	Manny Diaz (Florida politician)	Manuel Alberto Diaz (born November 5, 1954) is a Cuban-American politician who served as the chair of the Florida Democratic Party from 2021 to 2023. From 2001 to 2009, he served as the mayor of Miami, Florida. == Early life and career == Diaz and his mother, Elisa, left Cuba in 1961. He graduated from Belen Jesuit Preparatory School in 1973. He scored the first touchdown in his high school's football history, and was named "Mr. Belén" in his graduating class. In 1977, Díaz received his bachelor's degree in political science from Florida International University. In 1980, he earned his Juris Doctor degree from the University of Miami School of Law. Diaz's law firm was hired to represent Lázaro Gonzalez in the custody case over his grand-nephew Elián González. Diaz's participation in the trial and presence at the González household during the April 22, 2000, raid propelled him to national prominence. == Mayoralty == Diaz ran in the 2001 Miami mayoral election as an Independent. He and Maurice Ferré were the top candidates in the first round, locking out incumbent mayor Joe Carollo. Diaz won the runoff election, and was re-elected in 2005. As mayor, Díaz remained a partner in the law firm, but stated he would not be able to take new cases. When he first took office, Miami city government was bankrupt, held junk bond status, and was under a state financial oversight board. Mayor Diaz pursued a vast administrative overhaul that brought with it financial stability, healthy level of financial reserves, continued tax cuts, lowered millage rates, and an A+ bond rating on Wall Street. Diaz was awarded the "Urban Innovator of the Year" award by the Manhattan Institute in 2004. In 2007, Diaz served on the selection committee for the Rudy Bruner Award for Urban Excellence. In 2008, Diaz became president of the U.S. Conference of Mayors. As an Independent, and a former registered Democrat, Diaz spoke at the 2008 Democratic National Convention and endorsed Obama's presidential bid. Following Obama's election, Diaz was considered for HHS Secretary; the position would ultimately go to Kathleen Sebelius. During his mayoralty work was undertaken on major public and private projects, many receiving Diaz's backing. Such projects included new highrises in Downtown Miami and the new Marlins Stadium. Diaz also championed a full overhaul of the city's zoning code that was adopted. == Later career == Díaz left office in 2009 because of term limits. In the spring of 2010, Díaz was an IOP Fellow at the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard. Today Díaz is a partner at Lydecker Díaz, LLP in Miami. On January 22, 2014, Diaz and four other attorneys from his law firm, Lydecker Diaz, filed papers to represent Walmart in its battle to build in Midtown Miami. On November 23, 2020, Diaz declared his campaign for chair of the Florida Democratic party. He has been endorsed by Mike Bloomberg, whom he supported when Bloomberg ran for president. He was elected as Chair of the Florida Democratic Party; he resigned within two years in a letter "replete with excuses" after the "Florida Democrats suffer[ed] some of their worst losses ever" in the 2022 midterm elections. == Personal life == Diaz is married to Robin Smith and has four children and three grandchildren. His son, Manny, is the head coach of the football team at Duke University, the former defensive coordinator for the Penn State Nittany Lions football team and is the former head coach for the Miami Hurricanes football team. His daughter, Natalie, recently received her master's degree in public health with honors from Florida International University. His son, Robert, is pursuing a political science degree. His daughter, Elisa, received her Juris Doctor in June of 2021 from the Florida International University College of Law. His grandchildren are Colin, Gavin, and Manny Jr. == See also == List of mayors of Miami Government of Miami == References == == External links == Manny Díaz profile at CityMayors.com. Díaz, O'Naghten & Borgognoni, L.L.P.. Lesley Clark, The Miami Herald. Appearances on C-SPAN
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Newman	Victor Newman	Victor Newman is a fictional character from the American CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless. He has been portrayed by Eric Braeden since 1980. Initially a guest character who was to last for eight to twelve weeks, Victor has evolved into the soap opera's leading male figure. Created by William J. Bell as a "despicable, contemptible, unfaithful wife abuser", the character was planned to be killed off and never heard of again. However, after Bell saw Braeden's performance, he decided to sign the actor onto a contract. Braeden was hesitant to work on a soap opera, but eventually signed a contract, and has remained on the series as a regular cast member for over 45 years. The character is widely described as a ruthless villain, while loving to those he holds dear. Over the years, he has also been the center of several controversial plots and relationships. Victor arrived in Genoa City, Wisconsin for business, and he eventually formed his own worldwide conglomerate, Newman Enterprises. After his first marriage to Julia Newman (Meg Bennett), he formed a romance with stripper Nikki Reed (Melody Thomas Scott). Their union developed into a supercouple pairing, which has lasted over three decades. He shares two children with Nikki, Victoria (Amelia Heinle) and Nicholas Newman (Joshua Morrow). During his first marriage to her, he cheated with Ashley Abbott (Eileen Davidson). He has also had a long-standing romantic history with Ashley, and they share a child together, Abby Newman (Melissa Ordway). He was briefly married to a woman named Hope Wilson (Signy Coleman) and they had a son together, Adam Newman (Mark Grossman), who grew up without knowledge of Victor being his father. He is also known for his long-standing business rivalry with Jack Abbott (Peter Bergman). Victor has had several other romantic relationships, including one with his former daughter-in-law Sharon Newman (Sharon Case), which was poorly received by the actors and public. Considered an icon and leading man of the soap opera genre, Braeden's distinct performance of Victor has garnered widespread praise from critics, who have described him as legendary and "enthralling". Victor is famously characterized for his power-hungry ways and low-toned voice. Because of the character's popularity, he was made a spokesperson for the Canadian discount store Zellers. Apart from popularity and critical praise, Braeden has also garnered numerous accolades for his performance; most notably a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, presented to him in 2007. He has been nominated at the Daytime Emmy Awards eight times for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, having won the award in 1998. He has been pre-nominated three times in this category. Additionally, he was the recipient of the "Favorite Male Performer in a Daytime Serial" award at the 18th Annual People's Choice Awards in 1992. == Casting and creation == William J. Bell created Victor as a short-term non-contractual role, debuting on February 8, 1980. Bell stated in 1997, "[Victor] would last between eight to twelve weeks, at which time he was to be shot by his wife." However, once he saw Braeden's performance, he thought "the voice, the power, the inner strength", and knew he didn't want to lose the actor; "The first thing was to get Eric under contract, but he didn't want to go under contract", he said. However, Braeden was uneasy about the daytime soap opera genre, admitting years later he thought it was "too confining"; although soon signed a six-month contract. Bell immediately changed Victor's storyline to salvage, redeem and develop the character. In January 1999, Braeden’s character appeared on The Bold and the Beautiful in a crossover event. Braeden’s appearances on the show were January 25-28, 1999. == Development == === Characterization === William J. Bell created Victor as a "despicable, contemptible, unfaithful wife abuser". The soap opera's official website notes: "Victor is loving and protective toward family and loved ones, but if crossed, or if Victor feels that one is not living up to one's full potential; then he can more than live up to the adjective that many have used to describe him ruthless." The Los Angeles Times characterizes him as "charming but complicated", while others publications have described him as a villain, as well as an evil, powerful and ruthless character. Sara Bibel of Xfinity wrote that Victor is a male chauvinist. Although he is often considered malicious, Braeden stated that "Bill Bell was a very wise man" and that "he created someone in Victor who is a very lonely man yet also a man who can be affectionate and loving and forgiving". Shelly Fralic of the Winnipeg Free Press described Victor in 2009, stating: The blackest of blackguards. If these are the adjectives that pad the resume of a first-class villain, then there has never been a better candidate for the job, at least of the fictional variety, than Victor Newman. As the revered scion and Machiavellian manipulator of the Newman dynasty on the daytime soap The Young and the Restless, Victor Newman, right down to the Snidely Whiplash moustache, is so bad that he's good; good at business if not relationships, good at skulduggery if not morality, good at keeping a daily story line addictively interesting for nearly three decades. Fralic also described the character as being "quixotic", who is "deeply layered with arrogance and angst, imbued with all the failings and bravado that a true villain possesses, his dastardly deeds leaving him most recently responsible not only for the death of his own heart donor, but for the near-death of his granddaughter Summer from peanut poisoning". She also noted that he's been jailed, thrown in a psychiatric ward and shot, had amnesia, epilepsy among other events, but "like all villains worth their salt, he's survived it all and inspired respect, if not adoration". Braeden describes the character as "the villain" and as "defensive and always self-protective", stating that he's "not here to win a popularity contest". He stated that he enjoys portraying Victor "more than anything", also describing him as "very complex". Braeden said that "he fought himself to the position he arrived at a number of years ago", and that "he obviously doesn't suffer fools easily, doesn't suffer enemies easily. He wants relationships badly, but doesn't quite trust them. It's a tragic flaw in him because of his childhood." The actor, comparing himself to the character, noted that he is nothing like Victor, stating: "Money makes a lot of things happen for Victor. My God almighty, that's something else that I, Eric Braeden, would never do. I always confront things directly. But when that doesn't work for Victor, he gets out his wallet [...] If you are abusive to him, he will be abusive to you. No one gets away with that. I will not allow anyone to cross that line with the character." In June 2011, Michael Logan of TV Guide felt that Victor was "pushing it with the fans", stating: "The megalomaniacal patriarch earned considerable viewer backlash last month when he threw his ex-wife [Diane] from the back of an ambulance and left her bruised and bloodied." In an interview with Logan, Braeden stated that Victor "doesn't give a shit" and "he doesn't take any shit", saying that is "the whole point of the character". The actor also stated he does not like women defeating Victor, admitting that he wasn't pleased in a 2003 scene where his daughter Victoria (portrayed by Heather Tom) slaps him. When asked which storyline he felt affinity for or strongly about in his thirty years during an interview with AOL TV, Braeden stated it was the scenes in which he met his dying mother, Cora Miller (Dorothy McGuire), for the first time since he was seven years old. The actor credited it as the turning point of his career on the show, describing it as "a deeply-felt scene" and something he would never forget. He said: Victor met his mother for the first time, because she had left him at the doors of an orphanage when he was 7 years old. The very first time I told that story to Nikki was at Christmastime, and she never knew about my background. I revealed to her my story, and something in that storyline just got to me [...] The scene was just full of anger and sadness, all at once. It touched me because, when you grow up during the war as I did, you never forget such massive destruction around you. Such tragedy. All of this horror is indelibly imprinted on your brain. What insanity that war was, and all because of a man with a huge superiority complex. === Relationships === For over three decades, Victor has been romantically linked with Nikki Reed (Melody Thomas Scott). Nikki was originally from the lower walks of life, having been a stripper. After multiple failed relationships, she began a romance with Victor, who taught her about society. They fall in love and have a child, Victoria Newman (Amelia Heinle), and later a son, Nicholas Newman (Joshua Morrow). The couple are widely considered a supercouple within the soap opera media. The writers of The Young and the Restless detailed their characters to marry and divorce or depart from each other in some form or fashion in a continuous cycle, which is a take on the original supercouple formula. Soap Opera Digest relayed the beginning of the pairing's creation and their impact, described as an "inspired decision", led to Victor and Nikki becoming the series' most successful supercouple. In an interview with Dose magazine, Scott said that the couple always has to get back together, but not without a challenge. Victor and Nikki are recognized as one of daytime television's most prominent couples. They have also garnered a large fan following, dubbed "Niktor" by viewers. In addition, the couple's weddings have been reported by mainstream media. Scott has said: "Let's face facts: Victor and Nikki will always be a huge dynamic, they've been in a circular cycle for over 30 years! Finding a new leading man that you have chemistry with is like finding gold." In a 1994 interview with The Los Angeles Times, the newspaper reported that Victor's relationship with Nikki had "registered an enduring appeal among viewers", with Braeden replying that, "Arguably, it's the idea of this incredibly powerful, wealthy man taking a woman who comes from the wrong side of the tracks into his life, and shaping her and forming her more to his liking. But, of course, no one can shape or form anyone, she remains who she is, has retained her strength, and that causes conflict." In other interviews, Braeden stated that he loves working with Scott and that he "always thought it was an honestly felt love story with great material for conflict with Nikki". He also stated in an interview that he considers Victor's storylines with Nikki to be some of his favorites. Discussing Victor and Nikki's union, former As the World Turns actress Martha Byrne stated: "Young and Restless' Victor and Nikki are the perfect example of a couple who they can tear apart and put back together how many times? And [the writers] do it really well because they're so stable as characters that you can basically do anything with them now, and the audience will go on the journey with them." The Museum of Television and Radio wrote: "Combined with a series of social-issue storylines covering everything from AIDS to date rape to the plight of the elderly, as well as featuring a group of popular young African-American characters, and several long-term romantic and professional relationships, Victor and Nikki's love story has kept viewers enthralled for many years." They also described their relationship as being a "dominant force" in the soap opera. Daytime journalist Michael Fairman stated: "Victor and Nikki just can't, we mean can't, ever get it together long enough to find any happiness with each other. So, many would say that they deserve each other and the baggage and betrayals that come along with their co-dependent relationship." Aside from Nikki, Victor is known for his relationship with Ashley Abbott (Eileen Davidson). While Ashley was at a low point in her life, he had an affair with her. This led to Ashley's pregnancy, and Victor left Nikki. However, Nikki was diagnosed with cancer and he returned to her, and Ashley aborted her baby; a move she regretted for many years. Ashley stole his sperm many years later, and had a child, Abby Carlton. Abby was believed to be Brad Carlton's (Don Diamont) daughter until she was five years old. Victor was married to Ashley from 1990 to 1993. In 2008, Victor married Sabrina Costelana (Raya Meddine), which was short-lived following her accidental death. Afterward, he left town and Ashley tracked him down when nobody else could. They reconnected their romantic relationship, later remarried and Ashley became pregnant. Davidson stated she was surprised by Ashley's pregnancy, but decided she liked the storyline as it was unexpected. Victor and Ashley's second marriage ended after she miscarried the child. Victor was noted for his controversial relationship with both of his sons' ex-wife, Sharon Newman (Sharon Case), with whom he initially had a father-daughter relationship. In 2003, Victor and Sharon shared a kiss, causing issues in her marriage to Nicholas; she left town to "find herself". Victor supported Sharon throughout her legal problems, and paid her bail at first when she was wrongly convicted of murder in 2011. Case stated that she thinks Sharon thinks of Victor "in a way like a father figure, but not quite. When she was younger she saw him as that, and then when she grew up she saw him less as a father and more like a hero", also stating that Victor is Sharon's "security blanket". The dynamic of their relationship changed when Victor proposed a platonic marriage to Sharon in December 2011, and while they end up marrying, it is annulled shortly after. However, months after the annulment, they begin a genuine romance. Joshua Morrow, who portrays Nicholas, told Soaps in Depth that he was "always kind of surprised that Nick just accepted this from his dad", and that "there were never any scenes showing legitimate anger". Braeden didn't agree with the pairing either, stating that, "We all have gone through periods of playing something we didn't really like to play so much, but you do it." Michael Fairman of On-Air On-Soaps said that the relationship "hasn't worked out or caught fire through the writing, or with the fans watching on-screen!" In August 2012, Victor and Sharon married a second time, and when he disappeared shortly after, she thought he was abandoning her. Sharon later burned their prenuptial agreement, and took over this company. Talking about the situation, Case stated that the writers could have done this storyline "a million other ways" without "marrying him [Victor]". In another interview, she characterized the relationship as incestuous: "Sometimes controversial storylines can work because you're bringing attention to a controversial issue that the nation is trying to decide on. But this was not one of those things. Everybody is universally against incest! It was just so upsetting to the audience. Whenever the actors went to do [personal appearances], the fans would bring it up. Literally, every actor in the building was coming up to me, giving me feedback that they were getting about it!" When asked if the marriage was about "daddy issues", Case said: "That's usually the case in a story like that, but I don't think it's one most people want to watch!" Victor later returned home and annulled their second marriage. During an interview with The Province, Michael Muhney, who portrays Victor's son Adam, said that Victor and Sharon's marriage was "almost like an inside joke". === Departure and return === In 2009, Braeden experienced multiple contract negotiation issues, leading to former executive producer and head writer Maria Arena Bell writing both Victor and Nikki (Melody Thomas Scott) out of the series. Their departures were reportedly due to sudden salary cuts in the middle of already negotiated contracts. During his onscreen absence, contract negotiations ensued with unknown predictions from the series. On the situation of the soap cutting his contract, Braeden stated during an interview: "When I sign a three-year deal, I'm obligated to fulfill that deal. The producers, however, can come to me after a half-year and say, 'We've changed our minds.' Where in the world of business does this kind of contract exist? Do I blame the people for wanting to squeeze as much out of us as they can? I do not. The question is, when do you squeeze too much?" In another interview with Soap Opera Digest, the actor said of his departure: "It's not that one hadn't agreed to a reduction, but they hit you with a sledgehammer. It's done in such an insulting fashion. It could have been dealt with in a far more gracious way. It is cold and hard-nosed... The whole thing was so calculated it was unbelievable... It's not even about the money." Despite this, during contract negotiations, Braeden refused to say that he had departed fully, but did not know when a return would occur. However, within weeks, news broke that the actor and the series had managed a new contract. In a statement issued by CBS Daytime, they said: "We're very happy that Eric will be remaining with The Young and the Restless. Victor Newman has been an important part of the Genoa City canvas for nearly 30 years, and we know our audience will be tuning in to see what his plans are next." Onscreen, Braeden exited November 2, 2009, and made his return on January 15, 2010. That same year, the actor celebrated thirty years on the soap opera. In 2012, Braeden experienced further contract negotiations and speculation arose again that he would be leaving. Published reports said that Victor would be absent from the canvas for two weeks and that his contract expired that November. Two months later, it was announced that the actor had signed a new contract with The Young and the Restless, furthering his portrayal of Victor for an unspecified period of time. Braeden stated that he was "very glad we got the negotiations successfully behind us". == Storylines == === Backstory === Victor Newman was born Christian Miller on March 7, 1947, in Buffalo, New York. He was put in an orphanage by his mother, Cora Miller (Dorothy McGuire), when he was seven years old. His father was Albert Miller. By the time he was a teenager, he left the orphanage and started to work his way through to becoming one of the world's wealthiest tycoons. He changed his name to "Victor Christian Newman," Victor standing for "victorious" and Newman standing for "new man," as he was a completely new man. In 1970, Victor married Julia Newman (Meg Bennet) as he began to develop a strong business reputation. === 1980–present === In 1980, Victor and his wife Julia move to Genoa City to help Katherine Chancellor (Jeanne Cooper) run her company, Chancellor Industries. Julia felt neglected by Victor and sleeps with her photographer, a man named Michael Scott (Nick Benedict). Victor created his own company, Newman Enterprises, and ended up cheating on Julia as well, with Eve Howard (Margaret Mason) and later Lorie Brooks (Jaime Lyn Bauer). Julia became pregnant and it is assumed that it was Michael's child; Victor attacks him and Julia loses the child, revealed to actually have been Victor's. Eve later has a child, Cole Howard (J. Eddie Peck), believed to be Victor's son. Julia and Victor divorce and she leaves town with Michael, just as Victor begins a romance with stripper Nikki Reed (Melody Thomas Scott). Having been from the lower walks of life, Victor teaches Nikki about society. He later takes over the Prentiss family company, Prentiss Industries, and they scheme to get it back by using Lorie to seduce Victor into a marriage. On their wedding day, Victor signs the company back over to them and Lorie stands him up. Victor then tries to return to Nikki, who recently married Kevin Bancroft. Nikki ended up pregnant with Victor's child, but she ended up being manipulated into a marriage to Tony DiSalvo to save her relationship with Kevin. Nikki later gives birth to a daughter named Victoria Newman (Ashley Nicole Millan). Nikki also later got involved with a man named Rick Daros, who nearly killed her before being saved by Victor. Eve Howard returns with her boyfriend, demanding that money be allocated to Cole in Victor's will, and later takes a job as his assistant, which prompts Julia to return to protect Victor. He planned to marry Eve but faked his death on the day of their wedding, and ends up marrying Nikki in April 1984. The following year, while Victor and Nikki are vacationing, Eve reappears with Rick, and they end up stealing money from them and escaping. Nikki facilitates Victor's reunion with his mother, Cora Miller, before her death. Despite loving Nikki, Victor begins to fall for Ashley Abbott (Brenda Epperson) and they have an affair, enraging Nikki to sleep with Jack Abbott (Peter Bergman), Ashley's brother and Victor's business rival. Ashley becomes pregnant and Victor leaves Nikki, but when Nikki is diagnosed with cancer, Victor returns to her and Ashley aborts the child. When Nikki goes into remission, Victor wanted to be with Ashley, who had moved on with her psychiatrist Steven Lassiter (Rod Arrants); Steven later dies, and while Ashley wanted Victor back, he had returned to Nikki in an attempt to salvage their marriage, resulting in the birth of their son Nicholas Newman (Joshua Morrow). Victor and Jack later hire Leanna Love (Barbara Crampton) to write a biography on Victor, when in reality, Jack wanted the book to be a tell-all exposé on Victor. Leanna later writes a chapter about Victor's affair with Ashley and Nikki's illness, causing Victor to believe Nikki was behind the publication. He divorces her and marries Leanna to prove to the press that he didn't want to be with Ashley; their marriage was invalid, as the divorce wasn't finalized. Victor later takes over Jack's family company, Jabot Cosmetics, replacing him with Brad Carlton (Don Diamont). As a result, Jack spitefully marries Nikki, causing her relationship with Victor to become bitter. Victor marries Ashley, and years later; he tells Jack that he will give him back Jabot Cosmetics if he divorces Nikki. He agrees to do so, but Jack wasn't given full control of the company due to a legal loophole. Victor has a heart attack during a confrontation with Jack, and while he leaves him for dead, Victor recovers. As Jack and Nikki's marriage strained to due her alcoholism and pain killer addiction, she reconnected with Victor, who had decided to divorce Ashley Eve later returned to town again with her now-grown son Cole, who romanced Victor's daughter Victoria, unaware he was believed to be Victor's son. Victor later left Genoa City and traveled to Kansas, letting Nikki and the rest of the Newman family believe he had died. He meets Hope Adams (Signy Coleman). They returned to Genoa City and married. While Victor was in Kansas, Cole and Victoria had eloped, and when Victor revealed their sibling relation, the marriage was annulled. However, when Eve died, it was revealed that Cole was never Victor's son; Victoria and Cole remarry. Victor and Hope later have a son, Victor Adam Newman Jr. Hope wanted to return to Kansas and Victor was not interested; he divorced her and Victor Jr. was raised without knowing Victor was his father. Nikki had been engaged to Brad, much to Victor's dismay. On their wedding night, Victor was shot and Nikki returned to him; the mentally unstable Mari Jo Mason (Diana Barton) was revealed as the gunwoman. Victor and Nikki briefly reunite before he returns to Kansas after Hope's new husband, Cliff Wilson, had died. In 1997, Victor marries Diane Jenkins (Alex Donnelley), Jack's ex-girlfriend. Nikki had Victor have a vasectomy, but had frozen sperm for a future possibility. Nikki later marries Joshua Landers (Heath Kizzier), and in 1998, she is shot by Joshua's ex-wife, Veronica Landers (Candice Daly); Victor divorces Diane to marry Nikki on her deathbed, promising to remarry Diane after Nikki's death. When Nikki survived, their second marriage was invalidated, as Victor and Diane's divorce was never processed. Victor and Diane begin a bitter divorce over many months, during which Nikki reunites with Brad, and he and Jack take control of Newman Enterprises. Diane remained in love with Victor, and stole his frozen sperm to artificially inseminate herself. Unbeknownst to her, Ashley had also stolen Victor's sperm to inseminate herself. Diane gave birth to Christian Victor Newman, but was shocked to discover the sperm she'd stolen was that of Jack. Ashley had received Victor's actual sperm sample and gives birth to Abby Carlton, whom she decides to pass off as Brad's child. Victor and Nikki later reunite, and in 2002, Maxwell Hollister (Sam Behrens) attempts to destroy Victor, using his estranged wife, revealed to be Lorie Brooks, in his plot. Originally, Max attempted to lead a hostile takeover of Julia Newman Martin's design firm, which Victor prevented. Now, Max used Lorie to keep Victor and Nikki apart, but Lorie could not follow through, and a ruined Max ends up leaving town. Months after, Victor and Nikki remarry in front of all of their loved ones. Ashley reveals that Abby is in fact Victor's daughter as she was diagnosed with cancer, and he welcomes her with open arms. After rescuing Nikki from a carjacker, Victor is diagnosed with temporal lobe epilepsy. Victor and Nikki's marriage slowly strained as he was caught up in taking Jabot Cosmetics away from Jack, dealing with NVP Retreats, and Nikki's campaign for State Senator, which resulted in an affair with her campaign manager David Chow. Victor and Nikki eventually divorce after six years in 2008. Soon after, Hope dies and Victor's estranged son, now known as Adam Newman (Michael Muhney), comes to Genoa City and works at Newman Enterprises. Victor later falls in love with Sabrina Costelana (Raya Meddine), but she dies in a car accident with Nikki's devious husband, David Chow. Victor travels to Mexico and nearly dies, and Ashley is able to find him; they end up rekindling their romance. They remarried when Ashley became pregnant, but she miscarries when Adam gaslights her into having a hysterical pregnancy, but convinced her that she was still pregnant. Despite Adam stealing Nicholas' daughter, Faith, and passing her off as Ashley's, she and Victor divorce as he reunites with Nikki again. Victor was later shot by Patty Williams (Stacy Haiduk) and needed a heart transplant, receiving Colleen Carlton's (Tammin Sursok) heart. Victor and Nikki left for treatment in Europe, and upon their return, Adam's scheme was revealed and he faked his death. Victor went searching for him in Canada and met Meggie McClaine (Sean Young); he brings her to Genoa City and she works as Nikki's assistant, but causes her to relapse into alcoholism. In reality, Meggie was trying to foil Victor and Nikki's union to marry him for his money. Victor marries her, but has her arrested soon after; Nikki moves on with Deacon Sharpe (Sean Kanan). Afterward, Victor's children file a lawsuit against him over a cosmetics line, which they win. Diane (Maura West), who had returned to Genoa City, reconnects with Victor and they remarry, however, it is annulled shortly after she finds him sleeping with Nikki and Victor learns of her affair with Tucker McCall (Stephen Nichols) and Jack. Afterward, Victor sends Nikki to a rehabilitation center for her alcoholism. Diane is murdered in August 2011, with Victor as a suspect. Nikki in fact murdered Diane in self-defense, causing Victor to falsely confess to murdering her to protect Nikki. While in jail, Victor marries his former daughter-in-law, Sharon Newman (Sharon Case), to push Nikki away, however when the entire murder plot is revealed, Nikki is not charged and Victor is freed. Victor and Sharon's marriage is annulled and he reunites with Nikki, however, she leaves him when some of his past schemes involving Victoria's marriage are exposed. To gain control of the cosmetics line Beauty of Nature, Victor slept with Genevieve Atkinson (Genie Francis). When Nikki reunites with Jack, Victor develops a genuine romance with Sharon to spite her. They marry a second time, however he disappears from town shortly after and Sharon believed he was abandoning her. She burned their prenuptial agreement and took over Newman Enterprises, while Jack and Tucker were buying up its stocks. While away, Victor had lost his memory and was working as a dock worker in Los Angeles; he was demanding better working conditions and the other workers planned to have him killed in an explosion, as a result, Genoa City believed Victor had died, but he returned shortly after. Upon his return, he annuls his marriage to Sharon and reunites with Nikki, just before Jack announces he is taking over Newman Enterprises, firing all of the Newman family and instating Adam. However, due to his addiction to pain killers, Jack gave up control of the company, leaving it to Adam. Victor and Nikki finally remarry in March 2013 just before she is diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. At their wedding, an assassin attempts to shoot Victor, but Adam takes the bullet and nearly dies for his father. As a result, he offers Victor the position of co-CEO at Newman, and they begin working together. However, their partnership ends several months later when Victor discovers that Adam's silent partner used to take Newman private again was Jack. Victor fears that Adam and Jack have been scheming to take back the company for themselves without Victor. In retaliating, Victor, who now owns Chancellor Industries according to Katherine Chancellor's will, has all major Newman clients sign to Chancellor, as Victor leaves Newman worthless so he could build up Chancellor. Adam signs over his shares in Newman over to Victor, who plans to merge Chancellor Industries with Newman. Nikki then reveals she gave birth to another son decades earlier before she was with Victor, revealed to be Dylan McAvoy (Steve Burton). A subsidiary of the newly merged conglomerate, named Bonaventure Industries, later produced an illegal speed drug that Summer Newman (Hunter King) ended up overdosing on. Jack reported Victor to the FDA and he and his company were put under investigation. Dylan's supposed father and Nikki's former lover Ian Ward (Ray Wise) then arrives in town and causes pandemonium, to which Victor tries to get him out of town. It was later revealed that Victor had hired a lookalike to his granddaughter Cassie, named Mariah Copeland (Camryn Grimes), to haunt Sharon and learn a supposed secret she has. When his scheme is revealed, Nick and Sharon shun him and Nikki decides to move out for a while, but she and Victor later reunite. Victor and Nikki later learn that Ian is incapable of fathering children, leading to confusion. It is later revealed that Paul Williams (Doug Davidson), Nikki's ex-lover and longtime friend, is in fact Dylan's father, causing tension in Victor and Nikki's marriage, which continues when Victor goes to extensive lengths to awaken Phyllis (Gina Tognoni) from a coma to find out more information on Sharon's supposed secret. Nikki falls off the wagon and begins drinking again; she leaves Victor and refuses to take him back. Victor also sells Chancellor Industries back to Jill (Jess Walton), leaving the rest of the Newman family confused as to why he gave Chancellor up so easily. In 2015, Victor has Jack kidnapped and replaced by a lookalike, who turns out to be a Peruvian drug lord named Marco Annicelli, all for him to take over Jabot Cosmetics and merge it with Newman, becoming Newman Abbott Enterprises. Meanwhile, Victor and his children discover that Nikki has fallen off the wagon; they convince her to quit drinking again and she and Victor end up reuniting. Jack makes his way back to Genoa City just as Victor learns that Marco is dangerous; he plans on shooting Marco dead in the park, but it is actually Jack who he ends up shooting, who had finally returned to confront him. Jack ends up falling comatose while Victor frantically tries to get rid of Marco, who continues to masquerade around town. When Jack awakens, he reluctantly agrees to help Victor get Marco out of town and back in prison, which they end up doing successfully. With the real Jack back in Genoa City, the Newman Abbott merger comes to an end and both companies return to their separate states. Meanwhile, Adam, who had returned to town under the false identity of Gabriel Bingham, had teamed up with Ian (who had escaped prison) to create a computer virus to destroy Newman Enterprises for separate revenge on both their parts; the virus was known as the Paragon project, which later led to the revelation that "Gabriel" is in fact Adam. He agrees to stop Paragon, but Ian makes no such promise; on Halloween, when a party was being thrown in the Newman Enterprises ballroom, Ian is responsible for the building catching fire and a great panic ensuing. As a result, Ashley and Billy (Burgess Jenkins) offer to share office space at Jabot with Newman while the Newman building is being repaired, but Victor refuses to trust them. It is later revealed that Billy revived Paragon as an act of revenge against Victor, leading to Jack firing him and Victor filing a lawsuit against Jabot. == Reception and legacy == Chris Jancelewicz of The Huffington Post described Victor as "the very definition of daytime TV icon" and noted that, "Even people who have never seen an episode in their lives know his name, his face, and his powerful low voice." In the early 1990s, he was described as a heartthrob. He is credited as being one of the soap opera world's leading stars. Jamey Giddens of Zap2it considers Braeden the soap opera's leading male. Tommy Garrett of Highlight Hollywood stated that Braeden "is known in the industry as the biggest daytime leading man of all time". In 1993, Nancy Reichardt of The Los Angeles Times stated: "Victor Newman is one of those characters. When Eric Braeden first came on the show in the role, Victor was a villain, and what a villain! His portrayal proved so dynamic that this "minor" plot point has been ignored over the years. Today, Braeden is one of the show's leading men. The character has never lost his edge, but his knife-wielding days are long forgotten." In 1997, The Museum of Television and Radio wrote that with the arrival of the character, who was an "enigmatic stranger popular with women", "the show's revived tableau was complete", saying it was an "amazingly seamless transition" and praised William J. Bell for the character's introduction. Deanna Barnert of MSN Entertainment wrote of Braeden's tenure: "Eric Braeden first signed onto The Young and the Restless in 1980 for a mini-stint as a baddy, but stayed on to change the game in Genoa City forever, becoming one of daytime's most recognizable forces on and off screen." In 2010, Global News wrote that, "From the early days of The Young and the Restless, Victor Newman has been a symbol of power in Genoa City." Braeden's biography at Yahoo! notes that upon his casting as the ruthless businessman Victor, he "clicked with both the audience and the creative powers, and has been one of the series leading men for close to two decades". Kim Muraro of LimeLife stated that instead of his originally planned three-month stay at the series, he "has become one of the most iconic characters in daytime TV". Garrett, writing from Canyon News, wrote: "[Braeden] plays the mastermind mogul with real gusto. His innate acting skills are as legendary as his distinguished career. This week, we saw Braeden play ruthless, conniving and ultimately a loving father." Good News Weekly wrote: "There are some men that are larger than life. There are some men that transcend the TV screen. There are some men that touch the lives of millions of viewers. Victor Newman is one of those men." In 2005, Lynette Rice of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Braeden has transformed the character into a "global phenom". BuddyTV noted the storyline where Victor locked his wife Julia's lover in a bomb shelter as "the turning point" in the character's life, making him a villain. The character of Victor has been used as a spokesperson for the Canadian discount store Zellers and appeared in an advert for it. The commercials aired in November 1998. In the adverts, Victor breaks the proverbial fourth wall, and begins speaking to the Zellers shopper on the other side of the television screen, praising her admirable combination of style and thrift. He steps closer and squashes his nose against the camera lens. According to the website StrategyOnline, the promotional ad campaign for Zellers featuring Victor proved to be the most popular installment to date as of May 1999; the staff of StrategyOnline wrote that the campaign "has garnered considerable praise in the marketing community – and small wonder. Not only does it perform the considerable task of balancing an affordability message with strong branding, it does so in a category seldom noted for the quality of strategic thinking that goes into its advertising." Victor's pairing with Nikki has received positive reviews from critics throughout the years; The News & Advance cited Victor and Nikki with other romances considered "epic" of the early supercouple era. Global News wrote of their long-standing relationship, "Victor is the consummate womanizer and has been a part of many relationships over the years. Nonetheless, his heart belongs to one woman alone, the stunning Nikki Reed. Despite true love and good intention, the relationship between Victor and Nikki has always been troubled by poor timing and miscommunication." In 1990, The Washington Times wrote that, "Victor Newman's sudden marriage to Ashley Abbott fooled us all." In 1995, Sports Illustrated wrote of Victor's marriage to Hope, saying a "man with that much power could have married anyone, but he fell in love with a blind woman. Not for what she is, but who she's about." In 2002, Entertainment Weekly wrote that the soap opera was "keeping it real" with Victor and Nikki's third wedding. Upon their fourth wedding in 2013, the magazine stated: "Say what you will about Victor (and we've all said a lot), but the ol' boy definitely knows who is best for him — Nikki." On Victor's rivalry with Jack Abbott (Peter Bergman), Allison Waldman of AOL TV said: "After all, their characters' on screen feud has been the stuff of soap legend. Victor and Jack have shared wives, corporations, but mostly, unabashed hatred. They despise each other." Additionally, Waldman wrote: "Braeden's contribution to the show these past three decades really cannot be understated. He's been a driving force as Victor primarily because he's a villain who's not quite pure evil. He has a heart and on occasion shows a vulnerability that makes him likable and even sympathetic" but "like a big jungle cat, he is not one to be tamed. That's why at any point, Victor can turn on someone he once professed to love [...] See, that's Victor. He makes viewers crazy with his actions, but he's so dynamic and interesting, that you can't stop watching him. Thank you, Eric Braeden. You are Victor and you have made him completely compelling for 30 years." In another article, Waldman called Braeden one of the biggest stars in the soap opera business. Victor has adopted several nicknames on the show that have carried into the media. This includes "The Mustache" and "The Dark Night". When asked during the same interview why he believed Victor had so much commercial appeal, Braeden responded: "I really don't know. I've always been a very emotional actor, in other words, the only criterion I go by when I film scenes is to make them as believable and real as possible. Maybe it's that. Maybe – and I'm not sure if there's any truth to this – but people can perhaps sense that I've seen a lot in my life. I've been through a lot, and maybe for that reason I can feel empathy." Tommy Garrett of Highlight Hollywood also compared his performance to his portrayal of John Jacob Astor IV in the 1997 film Titanic, stating that the performances are "equally enthralling". A writer from The Age describes Victor's voice as "gravel". Toby Goldstein of The Orlando Sentinel stated that Victor is one of the characters contributing to the soap opera's longtime popularity. Shelley Fralic of the Winnipeg Free Press named Braeden along with Susan Lucci (who portrayed Erica Kane on All My Children) to be the soap opera genre's biggest icons. Fralic stated that he is the "eye of the Genoa City hurricane" and that "the thought of Y&R without Victor Newman – his character is recovering from a heart transplant and was going to "disappear" to Belgium for rehabilitation – is hard to imagine, rather like Dallas without J.R. Ewing, or The Sopranos without Tony." In 2022, Charlie Mason from Soaps She Knows placed Victor second on his list of the best 25 characters from The Young and the Restless, commenting "You know you've reached the status of icon when your mustache has a space reserved for it at the Smithsonian. Then again, you also have a pretty good hunch that you're the stuff of legend when, as Eric Braeden's womanizing character has (well, should have), you have a former-wives wing at the American Museum of Natural History that rivals Henry VIII's." == Notes == == See also == Victor and Nikki Newman List of soap opera villains == References == == External links == soapcentral.com\|Y&R Online Website that covers UK screening of Y&R New York Times
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISCB_Senior_Scientist_Award	ISCB Senior Scientist Award	The ISCB Accomplishment by a Senior Scientist Award is an annual prize awarded by the International Society for Computational Biology for contributions to the field of computational biology. == Laureates == 2025 - Amos Bairoch 2024 - Tandy Warnow 2023 - Mark Gerstein 2022 - Ron Shamir 2021 - Peer Bork 2020 - Steven Salzberg 2019 - Bonnie Berger 2018 - Ruth Nussinov 2017 - Pavel Pevzner 2016 - Søren Brunak 2015 - Cyrus Chothia 2014 - Gene Myers 2013 - David Eisenberg 2012 - Gunnar von Heijne 2011 - Michael Ashburner 2010 - Chris Sander 2009 - Webb Miller 2008 - David Haussler 2007 - Temple F. Smith 2006 - Michael Waterman 2005 - Janet Thornton 2004 - David J. Lipman 2003 - David Sankoff == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Moore_Davis	William Moore Davis	William Moore Davis (May 22, 1829 – March 26, 1920) was an American painter best known for his landscapes. A native of Long Island, he spent most of his life near Port Jefferson and has been praised as the greatest painter of that village. A contemporary of the Hudson River School, he was greatly influenced by fellow local painter William Sidney Mount. == Biography == William Moore Davis was born in Setauket, Long Island, New York, on May 22, 1829. As a boy, Davis worked in the shipbuilding industry of Port Jefferson before turning to painting full-time. Aside from a handful of years living in New York City, Moore spent his entire life in the Northwestern Brookhaven area of Long Island. He was strongly influenced by his friend and fellow painter William Sidney Mount, also of Setauket origins. Moore died on March 26, 1920, and was buried in the Sea View Cemetery in Mount Sinai, NY. Davis had few exhibitions during his life but was rediscovered for a 1973 display in Port Jefferson and a 2002 exhibition at the Long Island Museum in Stony Brook == Gallery == == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homa_Shaibany	Homa Shaibany	Homa Shaibany (born in Tehran, Iran circa 1913), was Iran's first female surgeon. In 1930, she received a scholarship to study medicine at London University and received a bachelor's degree in anatomy and morphology. She received her M.B.B.S. in 1939. She was licensed by the Royal College of Physicians. She worked in England until 1948, when she returned to Iran. She established a hospital for the Red Cross. == References == == External links == Homa Shaibany, M.B.B.S.; first woman surgeon of Iran Women as Human Rights Defenders at Risk - A Present Case Example
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kara_Walker#Recognition	Kara Walker	Kara Elizabeth Walker (born November 26, 1969) is an American contemporary painter, silhouettist, printmaker, installation artist, filmmaker, and professor who explores race, gender, sexuality, violence, and identity in her work. She is best known for her room-size tableaux of black cut-paper silhouettes. Walker was awarded a MacArthur fellowship in 1997, at the age of 28, becoming one of the youngest ever recipients of the award. She has been the Tepper Chair in Visual Arts at the Mason Gross School of the Arts, Rutgers University since 2015. Walker is regarded as among the most prominent and acclaimed Black American artists working today. == Early life and education == Walker was born in 1969 in Stockton, California. Her father, Larry Walker, was a painter and professor. Her mother Gwendolyn was an administrative assistant. A 2007 review in New York Times described her early life as calm, noting that "nothing about [Walker's] very early life would seem to have predestined her for this task. Born in 1969, she grew up in an integrated California suburb, part of a generation for whom the uplift and fervor of the civil rights movement and the want-it-now anger of Black Power were yesterday's news." When Walker was 13, her father accepted a position at Georgia State University. They settled in the city of Stone Mountain. The move was a culture shock for the young artist. In sharp contrast with the multi-cultural environment of Central California, Stone Mountain still held Ku Klux Klan rallies. At her new high school, Walker recalls, "I was called a 'nigger,' told I looked like a monkey, accused (I didn't know it was an accusation) of being a 'Yankee.'" Walker received her BFA from the Atlanta College of Art in 1991 and her MFA in painting from the Rhode Island School of Design in 1994. Walker found herself uncomfortable and afraid to address race within her art during her early college years, worrying it would be received as "typical" or "obvious"; however, she began introducing race into her art while attending Rhode Island School of Design for her Master's. Walker recalls reflecting on her father's influence: "One of my earliest memories involves sitting on my dad's lap in his studio in the garage of our house and watching him draw. I remember thinking: 'I want to do that, too,' and I pretty much decided then and there at age 2½ or 3 that I was an artist just like Dad." == Work and career == Walker is best known for her panoramic friezes of cut-paper silhouettes, usually black figures against a white wall, which address the history of American slavery and racism through violent and unsettling imagery. She has also produced works in gouache, watercolor, video animation, shadow puppets, magic lantern projections, as well as large-scale sculptural installations like her ambitious public exhibition with Creative Time called "A Subtlety, or the Marvelous Sugar Baby, an Homage to the unpaid and overworked Artisans who have refined our Sweet tastes from the cane fields to the Kitchens of the New World on the Occasion of the demolition of the Domino Sugar Refining Plant" (2014). The black-and-white silhouettes confront the realities of history while also using the stereotypes from the era of slavery to relate to persistent modern-day concerns. Drawings also constitute a significant portion of Walker's body of work. The artist reserves a special meaning to this medium in her artistic practice as a space to confront the western canon and find freedom from its historical criteria dominating painting: “I gravitated towards [drawing] pretty early on in graduate school […] partly as a way to escape the chains of western painting. […] Drawing transforms a blank page into a site of reflection.” A major retrospective dedicated to Walker’s drawings and archival materials was held at Kustmuseum Basel in 2021. She first came to the art world's attention in 1994 with her mural "Gone, An Historical Romance of a Civil War as It Occurred Between the Dusky Thighs of One Young Negress and Her Heart." This cut-paper silhouette mural, presenting an Antebellum south filled with sex and slavery, was an instant hit. The artwork's title references the popular novel Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell, and the individual figures in the tableau index the fairy-tale universe of Walt Disney in the 1930s. At the age of 28, she became the second youngest recipient of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation's "genius" grant, second only to renowned Mayanist David Stuart. In 2007, the Walker Art Center exhibition "Kara Walker: My Complement, My Oppressor, My Enemy, My Love" was the artist's first full-scale US museum survey. Her influences include Andy Warhol, whose art Walker says she admired as a child, Adrian Piper, and Robert Colescott. Walker's silhouette images work to bridge unfinished folklore in the Antebellum South, raising identity and gender issues for African-American women in particular. Walker uses images from historical textbooks to show how enslaved African Americans were depicted during Antebellum South. The silhouette was typically a genteel tradition in American art history; it was often used for family portraits and book illustrations. Walker carried on this portrait tradition but used them to create characters in a nightmarish world, a world that reveals the brutality of American racism and inequality. Walker incorporates ominous, sharp fragments of the South's landscape, such as Spanish moss trees and a giant moon obscured by dramatic clouds. These images surround the viewer and create a circular, claustrophobic space. This circular format paid homage to another art form, the 360-degree historical painting known as the cyclorama. Some of her images are grotesque; for example, in "The Battle of Atlanta," a white man, presumably a Southern soldier, is raping a black girl while her brother watches in shock; and a male black slave rains tears all over an adolescent white boy. The use of physical stereotypes such as flatter profiles, bigger lips, straighter nose, and longer hair helps the viewer immediately distinguish the black subjects from the white subjects. Walker depicts the inequalities and mistreatment of African Americans by their white counterparts. Viewers at the Studio Museum in Harlem looked sickly, shocked, and appalled upon seeing her exhibition. Thelma Golden, the museum's chief curator, said that "throughout her career, Walker has challenged and changed the way we look at and understand American history. Her work is provocative, emotionally wrenching, yet overwhelmingly beautiful and intellectually compelling." Walker has said that her work addresses the way Americans look at racism with a "soft focus," avoiding "the confluence of disgust and desire and voluptuousness that are all wrapped up in [...] racism." In an interview with New York's Museum of Modern Art, Walker stated: "I guess there was a little bit of a slight rebellion, maybe a little bit of a renegade desire that made me realize at some point in my adolescence that I really liked pictures that told stories of things– genre paintings, historical paintings– the sort of derivatives we get in contemporary society." == Process: Silhouette Installations == Walker is most widely known for her immersive site-specific installations. Walker plays and almost blurs the lines between types of art forms. Her installations could be fluid between visual art and performance art. Elements of her installations like the theatrical staging or the life-size cut figurines contribute to and somewhat evoke this performative behavior. As Walker has mentioned before, she focuses more on the ideas and concepts behind the artwork rather than focusing on the initial aesthetic and visual aspect of the artwork, creating more of a conceptual outlook. Shelly Jarenski discusses Walker's art in the context of panoramas. Panoramas were very popular in the nineteenth century and were used as a form of entertainment. They usually depicted historical scenes or vast landscapes. Walker's work demonstrates that the aesthetic experiences embedded in the panorama (though those experiences are rooted in the particular contexts of the nineteenth century) persist as a concern in African American art, just as the social consequences of slavery and the racial narratives that structured it persist in shaping our contemporary cultural narratives of race and space. Walker's work also provides a second visual example of the way panoramas can affect spectators, since it is a continual struggle for contemporary scholars to apprehend the visuality of panoramas, given that written sources are often all that survive in the historical archive. When viewing Walker's panoramas, they are illustrative of past events or depictions of the enslavement of African Americans. Her ability to combine devices that were used in the past and recontextualize with the sinful scenes she creates in her large-scale installations deconstructs the aesthetic of these installations. As Jarenski mentioned in her article, Walker's panoramas provide a visual example of how her panoramas affect the viewers which is different from 19th-century panoramas which were limited to written sources. Walker's installations are able to create a contemporary visual interpretation and reinforce one of the themes of panoramas; depict historical events. Thus, further shedding light and interconnectedness on the artistic process and the final artistic output. Kara Walker once explained her artistic process as “two parts research and one part paranoid hysteria,” a description that captures the entanglement of history and fantasy that pervades her work. In that sense, through the process of Walker creating her art, 2/3 of it has to do with logical analysis, research, and other rational minded resources. While on the other hand, she suggests a component of rational fear or paranoia. Even despite the rational aspect, there's a sense of uneasiness and complexity that ties and illustrates itself through her work. === Notable works === In her piece created in 2000, "Insurrection! (Our Tools Were Rudimentary, Yet We Pressed On)", the silhouetted characters are against a background of colored light projections. This gives the piece a transparent quality, evocative of the production cels from the animated films of the 1930s. It also references the plantation story " Gone With the Wind" and the Technicolor film based on it. Also, the light projectors were set up so that the shadows of the viewers were cast on the wall, making them characters and encouraging them to assess the work's tough themes. In 2005, she created the exhibit "8 Possible Beginnings" or: "The Creation of African-America, a Moving Picture," which introduced moving images and sound. This helped further immerse the viewers into her dark worlds. In this exhibit, the silhouettes are used as shadow puppets. Additionally, she uses the voice of herself and her daughter to suggest how the heritage of early American slavery has affected her image as an artist and woman of color. In response to Hurricane Katrina, Walker created "After the Deluge" since the hurricane had devastated many poor and black areas of New Orleans. Walker was bombarded with news images of "black corporeality." She likened these casualties to enslaved Africans piled onto ships for the Middle Passage, the Atlantic crossing to America. I was seeing images that were all too familiar. It was black people in a state of life-or-death desperation, and everything corporeal was coming to the surface: water, excrement, sewage. It was a re-inscription of all the stereotypes about the black body. Walker took part in the 2009 inaugural exhibition at Scaramouche Gallery in New York City with a group exhibit called "The Practice of Joy Before Death; It Just Wouldn't Be a Party Without You." Recent works by Kara Walker include Fall Frum Grace, Miss Pipi's Blue Tale (April–June 2011) at Lehmann Maupin, in collaboration with Sikkema Jenkins & Co. A concurrent exhibition, "Dust Jackets for the Niggerati- and Supporting Dissertations, Drawings submitted ruefully by Dr. Kara E. Walker," opened at Sikkema Jenkins on the same day. Walker created "Katastwóf Karavan" for the 2018 art festival "Prospect.4: The Lotus in Spite of the Swamp" in New Orleans. This sculpture was an old-timey wagon, with Walker's signature silhouettes portraying slaveholders and enslaved people making up the sides and a custom-built steam-powered calliope playing songs off "black protest and celebration." It was displayed at the National Gallery of Art's Sculpture Garden May 12-19, 2022. Although Walker is known for her serious exhibitions with an overall deep meaning behind her work, she admits relying on "humor and viewer interaction." Walker has stated, "I didn't want a completely passive viewer" and "I wanted to make work where the viewer wouldn't walk away; he would either giggle nervously, get pulled into history, into fiction, into something totally demeaning and possibly very beautiful." === Commissions === In 2002, Walker created a site-specific installation, "An Abbreviated Emancipation (from a larger work: The Emancipation Approximation)," which was commissioned by The University of Michigan Museum of Art, Ann Arbor. The work represented motifs and themes of race relations and their roots in the system of slavery before the Civil War. Several years later, in 2005, The New School unveiled Walker's first public art installation, a site-specific mural titled "Event Horizon," and placed along a grand stairway leading from the main lobby to a major public program space. Walker's most well-known commission debuted in May 2014. Her first sculpture, this work was a monumental public artwork entitled "A Subtlety, or the Marvelous Sugar Baby, an Homage to the unpaid and overworked Artisans who have refined our Sweet tastes from the cane fields to the Kitchens of the New World on the Occasion of the demolition of the Domino Sugar Refining Plant." The massive work was installed in the derelict Domino Sugar Refinery in Brooklyn and commissioned by Creative Time. The installation consisted of a female sphinx figure, measuring approximately 75 feet long by 35 feet high, preceded by an arrangement of fifteen life-size young male figures, dubbed attendants. The sphinx, which bore the head and features of the Mammy archetype, was made by covering a core of machine-cut blocks of polystyrene with 80 tons of white sugar donated by Domino Foods. The fifteen male attendants were modeled after racist figurines that Walker purchased online. Five were made from solid sugar, and the other ten were resin sculptures coated in molasses. The fifteen attendants stood 60 inches tall and weighed 300-500 pounds each. The factory and the artwork were demolished after the exhibition closed in July 2014, as had been previously planned. Walker has hinted that the whiteness of the sugar references its "aesthetic, clean, and pure quality." The slave trade is highlighted in the sculpture as well. Remarking on the overwhelmingly white audience at the exhibition in tandem with the political and historical content of the installation, art critic Jamilah King argued that "the exhibit itself is a striking and incredibly well-executed commentary on the historical relationship between race and capital, namely the money made off the backs of black slaves on sugar plantations throughout the Western Hemisphere. So the presence of so many white people -- and my presence as a black woman who's a descendant of slaves -- seemed to also be part of the show." The work attracted over 130,000 visitors in its eight-weekend run. In his commentary on the sculpture, art historian Richard J. Powell wrote, "No matter how noble or celebratory in tone Walker's title for this work seemed, in this post-modern moment of moral skepticism and collective distrust, a work of art in a public arena—especially a visually perplexing nude—would be subjected to not just serious criticism, but Internet trolling and mockery." In 2016, Walker revealed "Slaughter of the Innocents (They Might be Guilty of Something)." In the painting, Walker depicts an African American woman slicing a baby with a small scythe. The influence for this detail was that of Margaret Garner, an enslaved person who killed her daughter to prevent her child from returning to slavery. In 2019, Walker created Fons Americanus, the fifth annual Hyundai Commission at Tate Modern 's Turbine Hall. The fountain, measuring up to 13 feet (4.0 m), contains allegorical motifs referencing the histories of Africa, America, and Europe, particularly pertaining to the Atlantic slave trade. In her review of Walker's Fons Americanus for Artnet News, Naomi Rea noted that "the piece is so loaded with art-historical and cultural references that you could teach an entire college history course without leaving Turbine Hall." For example, Walker quotes specific artworks including The Slave Ship from 1840 by the British painter J.M.W. Turner and The Gulf Stream from 1899 by the American painter Winslow Homer. She also observed that – owing to the fountain's running water – the great work of art could be both seen and heard in the Turbine Hall. The artwork is, at the same time, a sort of public monument inspired in part by the Victoria Memorial in front of Buckingham Palace. In 2019, acclaimed writer Zadie Smith observed something about public monuments that Walker interrogates in Fons Americanus: "Monuments are complacent; they put a seal upon the past, they release us from dread. For Walker, dread is an engine: it prompts us to remember and rightly fear the ruins we shouldn't want to return to and don't wish to re-create—if we're wise." In 2023, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA) commissioned Walker to create the first site-specific installation for its Roberts Family Gallery. In 2025, Walker was one of the artists commissioned to create a work for MONUMENTS, an exhibition at The Geffen Contemporary at MOCA and The Brick; the other artists were Bethany Collins, Julie Dash, Karon Davis, Abigail DeVille, Stan Douglas, Kevin Jerome Everson, Kahlil Robert Irving, Monument Lab, Walter Price, Cauleen Smith, and Davóne Tines. The works were all newly created for this exhibit and “marks the recent wave of monument removals as a historic moment.” Walker co-curated the exhibit with Hamza Walker, Director of The Brick and Bennett Simpson, Senior Curator at MOCA. === Other projects === For the season 1998/1999 in the Vienna State Opera, Walker designed a large-scale picture (176 m2) as part of the exhibition series "Safety Curtain," conceived by museum in progress. In 2009, Walker curated volume 11 of Merge Records', Score!. Invited by fellow artist Mark Bradford in 2010 to develop a set of free lesson plans for K-12 teachers at the J. Paul Getty Museum, Walker offered a lesson that had students collaborating on a story by exchanging text messages. In March 2012, artist Clifford Owens performed a score by Walker at MoMA PS1. In 2013, Walker produced 16 lithographs for a limited edition, fine art printing of the libretto Porgy & Bess, by DuBose Heyward and Ira Gershwin, published by the Arion Press. === Concerns and criticism === The Detroit Institute of Art removed her "The Means to an End: A Shadow Drama in Five Acts" (1995) from a 1999 exhibition "Where the Girls Are: Prints by Women from the DIA's Collection" when African-American artists and collectors protested its presence. The five-panel silhouette of an antebellum plantation scene was in the permanent collection and was to be re-exhibited at some point according to a DIA spokesperson. A Walker piece entitled "The moral arc of history ideally bends towards justice but just as soon as not curves back around toward barbarism, sadism, and unrestrained chaos" at the Newark Public Library was questioned by employees regarding its appropriateness for the reading room where it was hung. The artwork included depictions of the Ku Klux Klan accompanied by a burning cross, a naked black woman fellating a white man, and Barack Obama. The piece was covered but not removed in December 2012. After discussion among employees and trustees the work was again uncovered. In March 2013, Walker visited the New Jersey Newark Public Library to discuss the work. Walker discussed the content of the work, including racism, identity, and her use of "heroic" figures such as Obama. Walker asked, "[d]o these archetypes collapse history? They're supposed to expand the conversation, but they often collapse it." Walker described the overwhelming subject matter of her works as a "too-muchness". In the 1999 PBS documentary "I'll Make Me a World," African-American artist Betye Saar criticized Walker's work for its "revolting and negative" depiction of black stereotypes and enslaved people. Saar accused the art of pandering to the enjoyment of "the white art establishment." In 1997 Saar emailed 200 fellow artists and politicians to voice her concerns about Walker's use of racist and sexist imagery and its positive reception in the art world. This attention to Walker's practice led to a 1998 symposium at Harvard University, Change a Joke and Slip the Yoke: A Harvard University Conference on Racist Imagery, which discussed her work. == Exhibitions == Walker's first museum survey, in 2007, was organized by Philippe Vergne for the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis and traveled to the Whitney Museum in New York, the Hammer Museum in Los Angeles, and the ARC/Musee d'Art Moderne de la ville de Paris. === Solo exhibitions === 2006: "Kara Walker at the Met: After the Deluge" Metropolitan Museum of Art 2007: "Kara Walker: My Complement, My Enemy, My Oppressor, My Love" Walker Art Center; traveled to Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth (2008) 2013: "Kara Walker, Rise Up Ye Mighty Race!" The Art Institute of Chicago 2013: "We at the Camden Arts Centre are Exceedingly Proud to present an Exhibition of Capable Artworks by the Notable Hand of the Celebrated American, Kara Elizabeth Walker, Negress", Camden Art Centre, London (toured to the MAC, Belfast in 2014) 2014: "A Subtlety, or the Marvelous Sugar Baby, an Homage to the unpaid and overworked Artisans who have refined our Sweet tastes from the cane fields to the Kitchens of the New World on the Occasion of the demolition of the Domino Sugar Refining Plant," Creative Time, Brooklyn, NY 2016: "The Ecstasy of St. Kara," Cleveland Museum of Art 2017: "Sikkema Jenkins and Co. is Compelled to Present the Most Astounding And Important Painting Show of the Fall Art Show Viewing Season!", Sikkema Jenkins & Co., New York, NY 2019: Untitled – Hyundai Commission, Tate Modern, London 2021: "A Black Hole is Everything a Star Longs to Be," Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland 2021: "Kara Walker: Cut to the Quick from the Collections of Jordan D. Schnitzer and His Family Foundation", Frist Art Museum, Nashville, TN 2021-22: "Kara Walker: Cut to the Quick", Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, OH 2023: "Kara Walker: Harper's Pictorial History of the Civil War (Annotated)", New York Historical Society Museum and Library, New York, NY == Collections == Among the public collections holding work by Walker are the Minneapolis Institute of Art and the Weisman Art Museum (Minneapolis, Minnesota); the Metropolitan Museum of Art; the Tate Collection, London; the Pérez Art Museum Miami; the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles; the Madison Museum of Contemporary Art (Madison, Wisconsin); the Menil Collection, Houston; and the Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, Virginia. Early large-scale cut-paper works have been collected by, among others, Jeffrey Deitch and Dakis Joannou. == Recognition == In 1997, Walker, who was 28 at the time, was one of the youngest people to receive a MacArthur fellowship. Walker's work received criticism from older generations of African-American artists who accused her work of being pornographic and of pandering to racism, while being targeted at a white audience who these critics felt covertly enjoyed the racist imagery which her work repurposed. She was the United States representative for the 25th International São Paulo Biennial in Brazil in 2002. Walker received the 2004 Deutsche Bank Prize and the 2005 Larry Aldrich Award. In 2007, she was listed among Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People in The World, Artists and Entertainers, in an essay written by artist Barbara Kruger. In 2012, she was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters and won the International Artist Award from Anderson Ranch Arts Center in Colorado. In 2016, she was an artist-in-residence at the American Academy in Rome. Walker has been featured on the PBS series Art21: Art in the Twenty-First Century. Her work appears on the cover of musician Arto Lindsay's recording, "Salt" (2004). In addition, she co-wrote the song "Suicide Demo for Kara Walker" on the Destroyer album "Kaputt." Her name appears in the lyrics of the Le Tigre song "Hot Topic." In 2017, a large scale mural portrait of Kara Walker done by artist Chuck Close was installed in a New York City subway station (Q line, 86th Street), part of a MTA public arts program. She was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2018. In 2019, Walker was elected to the Royal Academy of Arts in London, as an Honorary Royal Academician (HonRA). == Personal life == Early in her career, Walker lived in Providence, Rhode Island with her husband, German-born jewelry professor Klaus Bürgel, whom she married in 1996. In 1997, she gave birth to a daughter. The couple separated, and their divorce was finalized in 2010. As of 2017, Walker is in a relationship with photographer and filmmaker Ari Marcopoulos. They married in 2025. Walker moved to Fort Greene, Brooklyn in 2003 and has been a professor of visual arts in the MFA program at Columbia University since then. She maintained a studio in the Garment District, Manhattan from 2010 until 2017. In May 2017, she moved her art practice to a studio in Industry City. She also owns a country home in rural Massachusetts. In addition to her own practice, Walker served on the board of directors of the Foundation for Contemporary Arts (FCA) between 2011 and 2016. == Further reading == === Articles === D'Arcy, David. "Kara Walker Kicks Up a Storm," "Modern Painters" (April 2006). Garrett, Shawn-Marie. "Return of the Repressed," "Theater" 32, no. 2 (Summer 2002). Kazanjian, Dodie. "Cut it Out," "Vogue" (May 2005). Szabo, Julia. "Kara Walker's Shock Art," "New York Times Magazine" 146, no. 50740 (March 1997). Walker, Hamza. "Kara Walker: Cut it Out," "Nka: Journal of Contemporary African Art" no. 11/12 (Fall/Winter 2000). Als, Hilton. "The Shadow Act," "The New Yorker", October 8, 2007 Als, Hilton. "The Sugar Sphinx," "The New Yorker", May 8, 2014 Scott, Andrea K. "Kara Walker's Ghosts of Future Evil", the "New Yorker", September 9, 2017 Wall, David (2010). "Transgression, Excess, and the Violence of Looking in the Art of Kara Walker". Oxford Art Journal. 33 (3). Oxford University Press: 277–299. doi:10.1093/oxartj/kcq035. ISSN 0142-6540. JSTOR 40983288. === Non-fiction books and catalogues === Barrett, Terry. "Interpreting Art: Reflecting, Wondering, and Responding", New York: McGraw Hill (2002). Berry, Ian, Darby English, Vivian Patterson, Mark Reinhardt, eds. Narratives of a Negress, Boston: MIT Press (2003). Carpenter, Elizabeth and Joan Rothfuss. "Bits & Pieces Put Together to Present a Semblance of A Whole: Walker Art Center Collections". Minneapolis: Walker Art Center, 2005. Géré, Vanina. "Kara Walker", October Files series, The MIT Press (2022). https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262544474/kara-walker/ Jacobs, Harriet. "Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl" (1858). Shaw, Gwendolyn Dubois. "Seeing the Unspeakable: The Art of Kara Walker", Durham and London: Duke University Press (2004). http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55008318 Vergne, Philippe, et al. "Kara Walker: My Complement, My Enemy, My Oppressor, My Love". Minneapolis: Walker Art Center, 2007. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/602217956 Walker, Kara E. "Kara Walker: After the Deluge". New York: Rizzoli, 2007. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/144225309 Walker, Kara E., Olga Gambari, and Richard Flood. Kara Walker: A Negress of Noteworthy Talent. Torino: Fondazione Merz, 2011. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/768397358 === Web sources === The Art Story: Kara Walker, Modern Art Insight. 2016 == Notes == == References == Hans Werner Holzwarth, ed. (2008). Art Now, Vol. 3: A cutting-edge selection of today's most exciting artists. Taschen. p. 488. ISBN 978-3-8365-0511-6. Goldbaum, Karen, ed. "Kara Walker: Pictures From Another Time." Seattle: Marquand Books, Inc. ISBN 1-891024-50-7 Smith, Zadie. "What Do We Want History to Do to Us?" "The New York Review of Books", February 27, 2020. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2020/02/27/kara-walker-what-do-we-want-history-to-do-to-us/ Vergne, Phillppe. "Kara Walker: My Complement, My Enemy, My Oppressor, My Love." Minneapolis: Walker Art Center. ISBN 978-0-935640-86-1 == External links == Kara Walker website The "Time" 100: "Time" magazine's profile of Walker Biography, interviews, essays, artwork images and video clips from PBS series Art:21 -- Art in the Twenty-First Century - Season 2 (2003) Kara E. Walker's Song of the South Archived January 10, 2016, at the Wayback Machine at REDCAT Kara Walker at Ocula Kara Walker at Smithsonian American Art Museum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shai_(band)	Shai (band)	Shai (pronounced "shy") is an American vocal R&B/soul quartet that rose to prominence in the 1990s. The group met and formed on the campus of Howard University, influenced by the vocal stylings of Boyz II Men, Jodeci, and Color Me Badd, among others. The group remains best known for their 1992 debut single "If I Ever Fall in Love," which peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100. == History == === Early beginnings and formation === Shai (a Swahili word meaning "personification of destiny") was formed on the campus of Howard University. In 1990, Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity brothers, Marc Gay, Carl Martin, and Darnell Van Rensalier invited fellow Howard University student Garfield Bright to join their a capella group after two other founding members departed. None of the members had professional singing experience and mostly performed in and around campus for fun, according to Gay. The group came together seriously after winning a Howard University talent show.[1] From there, they decided to pursue a record deal in New York City but did not receive any offers. Martin later gave Paco Lopez, a local deejay at WPGC radio in DC metro, a demo cassette copy of "If I Ever Fall in Love," and he began promoting the single on the air. In September 1992, the group signed with Gasoline Alley/MCA Records and released their debut album later that year. === 1992-1993: If I Ever Fall In Love and Right Back at Cha === Shai released "If I Ever Fall in Love" as the first single from the debut album of the same title, which peaked at No. 2 in the U.S. and sold over two million copies. The next two releases from the platinum album, "Comforter" and "Baby I'm Yours", each peaked at No. 10 in the U.S. At the insistence of the group members, the video for "Baby I'm Yours" was shot on the Howard University campus.[2] The female love interests, including future television host and model Ananda Lewis, and many of the extras were actual Howard students. The group's next album release was Right Back at Cha, a remix album that largely consisted of new versions of their previous hits and a couple of new songs. A completely reworked version of their previous hit, "Baby I'm Yours," simply titled "Yours," was released as a single (US No. 63). In 1993, the group won an NAACP Image Award (Outstanding New Artist), and they performed at Bill Clinton's inauguration along with Michael Jackson, Quincy Jones, Ray Charles, and Diana Ross, among others. Additionally, Shai appeared on The Arsenio Hall Show and The Tonight Show. === 1994-2001 === At the beginning of 1994, Shai made a guest appearance on the sitcom "Family Matters" in the episode, "Good Cop, Bad Cop", in a dream sequence. The group released "The Place Where You Belong," from the Beverly Hills Cop III soundtrack. It was the group's final Top 40 single (No. 32 R&B). In late 1995, their follow-up album Blackface was released (No. 42 Pop & No. 15 R&B). It featured their final R&B Top 20 single "Come with Me" (US No. 43). The 1996 remix, "I Don't Wanna Be Alone" (featuring Jay-Z), peaked at No. 89 in the U.S. It was inspired by Belinda Carlisle's "Heaven Is a Place on Earth." "Song For You" by Rick Braun, featuring Shai, peaked at No. 39 on the R&B chart in 2001. As of 2025, Shai still performs with each other in various concerts and shows. == Discography == === Albums === === Compilations === 20th Century Masters – The Millennium Collection: The Best of Shai (2001) If I Ever Fall in Love: The Best Of (3 re-recorded tracks from the original album) (2011) If I Ever Fall in Love: Greatest Hits (same 3 tracks re-recorded with new members Dwayne Jones & George Spencer III) (2011) In Concert (2018) === Singles === == Filmography == Video Personification: Vol. 1 (1993) == Awards and nominations == NAACP Image Awards (1993), Outstanding new artist - winner Soul Train Music Awards (1993), Best New R&B/Soul Artist - nominee == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asha_Rani	Asha Rani	Asha Rani is an Indian politician affiliated to the Bharatiya Janata Party. She was a member of the Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly in India until her conviction on charges of abduction a woman who worked as her family's maid and abetment in her death by burning. She was elected from Bijawar of Madhya Pradesh seat in the 2008 state assembly elections. == Tijji Bai abduction and death == Her husband Ashok Veer Vikram Singh, a former Samajwadi Party member of the state assembly and a strongarm politician, had abducted Tijji and brought her to Bhopal where she became a bonded labourer. In 2007, Tijji Bai set herself aflame. The incident became well known when neighbours saw her in flames, but instead of running around she was sitting quietly. Though a charge was registered, it was not followed up. In May 2013, her husband was convicted in a murder case. Subsequently, the Tijji-Bai case was investigated, and Asha Rani was charged. She then went into hiding for several months. When she was about to lose her state assembly seat for missing sessions for 60 days, she emerged to attend the assembly and was arrested. She was convicted in 2013 and sentenced to ten years in jail. She was disqualified as a member of the legislative assembly under the provisions of the Representation of the People Act which disqualifies those who has been convicted under certain laws. She was the first legislator from the state and the first female legislator in the country to be disqualified under the law. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakshi_Ghulam_Mohammad#:~:text=In%20the%20opposition%20(1964%E2%80%931965),-In%201964%20Bakshi&text=Bakshi%20Ghulam%20Mohammad%20was%20released,decided%20to%20retire%20from%20politics.	Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad	Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad (20 July 1907 – 15 July 1972) was an Indian politician who served as the prime minister of Jammu and Kashmir from 1953 to 1964. Bakshi was a founding member of the National Conference and rose to be the second in command to the principal leader Sheikh Abdullah. He served as the deputy prime minister of the State of Jammu and Kashmir between 1947 and 1953, but disagreed with Abdullah's advocacy of independence for the state in 1953. He staged a 'coup' with the help of the head of state Karan Singh, resulting in the dismissal and imprisonment of Sheikh Abdullah. Bakshi was the longest serving prime minister, whose rule saw the formulation of the constitution of Jammu and Kashmir and a normalisation of relations of Jammu and Kashmir with the Indian government. == Early life == Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad was born in 1907 in a lower middle class family in the Safakadal area of Srinagar (in the then princely state of Jammu and Kashmir). His father, Abdul Ghaffar Bakshi, was said to have been unemployed. Bakshi had six siblings, four brothers and two sisters. He was educated at C.M.S Tyndale Biscoe School upto eighth grade, which was considered a reasonable qualification at that time. He started his career as a school teacher in Christian missionary schools in Skardu and Leh. Due to family pressure, he returned to Srinagar and got married. In 1925, he served in the Kashmir branch of the All India Spinners’ Association and worked as a karyakarta at Gandhi Ashram in Srinagar, which was founded and based on Mahatma Gandhi’s principles for appropriate technology to tackle rural poverty. He was exposed to the ideas of Indian National Congress and Mahatma Gandhi during this time. He earned the epithet of "Kashmiri Gandhi" for his calls to boycott British goods. == Politics in the princely state == In 1927 Bakshi joined Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah in the agitation for securing civic and political rights for the state's Muslim population, which culminated in the formation of the Muslim Conference. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad displayed talent for organisation during this period. He organised the students and workers and set up their unions. He was arrested several times during the freedom struggle including a sixteen-month term in Reasi sub-jail. Within the Muslim Conference party he earned the sobriquet "Khalid-e-Kashmir" after Khalid bin Walid, the great Muslim general. By 1938, people of all communities had joined the demand for responsible government, which had spread all over the state and the Muslim Conference's name was altered to National Conference. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad worked underground during this period, keeping a step ahead of the state police. In 1946, during the "Quit Kashmir" movement, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad escaped to British India when a warrant was issued for his arrest. He visited many places, mobilizing public opinion in favour of the Kashmir agitation. After Mahatma Gandhi's visit to Kashmir in August 1947 the warrant against him was withdrawn and he returned home after seventeen months. == Politics == On 30 October 1947, Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah was appointed as the Head of Emergency Administration, while Kashmir was under attack from Pakistani raiders. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad became his deputy head. In March 1948, the administration was upgraded to a popular interim government. Bakshi was entrusted with the Home portfolio. After the constituency assembly election in 1951, Abdullah was elected prime minister of the state and Bakshi appointed as the deputy prime minister. === Prime minister (1953–1964) === In August 1953, Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah was dismissed and arrested, and Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad became prime minister of the state, winning unanimous a vote of confidence at the beginning of October, and also president of the National Conference by majority vote of the State Cabinet. The famous Kashmir Conspiracy Case against Abdullah and others was started during his tenure. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad proved to be an able administrator and is remembered as the "Architect of Modern Kashmir" because of his constructive work in the state. He set Kashmir on the road to progress, gave a practical shape to the ideal of "Naya Kashmir", and earned fame and goodwill at home and outside Kashmir. He had a unique knack of establishing a direct rapport with people at grass-root level land gained tremendous popularity among people of all regions. On the political front, Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad had to face a stiff challenge from the Plebiscite Front which was formed by the loyalists of Sheikh Abdullah in 1955. In May 1963, after the loss of three Parliamentary by-elections, the Congress party, under the Kamaraj plan, decided that some ministers should resign and give all their time to party work. The final selection was left to Jawaharlal Nehru. Many central ministers resigned in Delhi and Nehru also suggested that Bakshi resign in Jammu and Kashmir. Upon Bakshi's recommendation, Khwaja Shamsuddin, a Bakshi loyalist, was appointed to succeed him. But Shamsuddin headed the state only for a very brief period. The eleven years of the Bakshi's tenure have been the longest continuous stint by any prime minister or chief minister and are generally acknowledged as a period of stability in the state's post-independence history. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad had steadfastly resisted any attempt to undermine Jammu and Kashmir's special status within the Union of India. === In the opposition (1964–1965) === In 1964 Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad headed the opposition to the government of Chief Minister Ghulam Mohammed Sadiq. In the late summer of the same year the majority of the legislators compelled him to move a vote of no-confidence against the government but he was arrested and detained under the Defence of India Rules despite the support of the majority of MLA's in the State Assembly which was prorogued by the governor. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad was released on health grounds in December. In June 1965 he made an announcement that he had decided to retire from politics. === Indian Parliament (1967–1971) === In 1967 Indian general election Bakshi was elected to the Lok Sabha from Srinagar Lok Sabha constituency on a National Conference ticket defeating the ruling Congress nominee, Ali Mohammed Tariq, by a large margin. He remained a member of the Lok Sabha till 1971. == Death == Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad died on 9 July 1972. == References == == Bibliography == Das Gupta, Jyoti Bhusan (1968), Jammu and Kashmir, Springer, ISBN 978-94-011-9231-6 Kanjwal, Hafsa (2017), Building a New Kashmir: Bakshi Ghulam Muhammad and the Politics of State-Formation in a Disputed Territory (1953-1963) (Thesis), The University of Michigan, hdl:2027.42/138699 Hussain, Shahla (2021), Kashmir in the Aftermath of the Partition, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9781108901130 Puri, Balraj (2015), "Jammu and Kashmir", in Myron Wiener (ed.), State Politics in India, Princeton University Press, pp. 215–246, ISBN 978-1-4008-7914-4 Wani, Aijaz Ashraf (2019), What Happened to Governance in Kashmir?, Oxford University Press India, ISBN 978-0-19-909715-9 == External links == "Bakshi Ghulam Mohammed- A Life Sketch". www.kashmirnetwork.com. Retrieved 1 April 2019. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammed: Biography, Kashmirnetwork.com, retrieved 26 March 2019.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paola_Massarenghi	Paola Massarenghi	Paola Massarenghi (born August 5, 1565) was an Italian composer. Only one of her works survives, Quando spiega l'insegn'al sommo padre, a spiritual madrigal. It was printed in Arcangelo Gherardini's Primo libro de madrigali a cinque voci. The publication, from Ferrara in 1585, is dedicated to Alfonso Fontanelli, and while other contributors are listed in the dedication, Massarenghi was left out. Massarenghi probably came from a wealthy family, since they were able to get Duke Ranuccio I Farnese to help get a musical education for Massarenghi's younger brother, Giovanni Battista Massarenghi, also a composer. == References == Thomas W. Bridges. "Paola Massarenghi", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed October 22, 2006), grovemusic.com (subscription access). Thomas W. Bridges, "Paola Massarenghi" The Norton/Grove Dictionary of Women Composers. Edited by Julie Anne Sadie and Rhian Samuel. W.W. Norton and Company, New York, 1995. ISBN 0-393-03487-9 Iain Fenlon. "Arcangelo Gherardini", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (accessed October 22, 2006), grovemusic.com (subscription access). == Notes ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Flanders	Ralph Flanders	Ralph Edward Flanders (September 28, 1880 – February 19, 1970) was an American mechanical engineer, industrialist and politician who served as a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Vermont. He grew up on subsistence farms in Vermont and Rhode Island and was an apprentice machinist and draftsman before training as a mechanical engineer. He spent five years in New York City as an editor for a machine tool magazine. After moving back to Vermont, he managed and then became president of a successful machine tool company. Flanders used his experience as an industrialist to advise state and national commissions in Vermont, New England and Washington, D.C., on industrial and economic policy. He was president of the Boston Federal Reserve Bank for two years before being elected U.S. Senator from Vermont. Flanders was noted for introducing a 1954 motion in the Senate to censure Senator Joseph McCarthy. McCarthy had made sensational claims that there were large numbers of Communists and Soviet spies and sympathizers inside the federal government and elsewhere. He used his Senate committee as a nationally televised forum for attacks on individuals whom he accused. Flanders felt that McCarthy's attacks distracted the nation from a much greater threat of Communist successes elsewhere in the world and that they created division and confusion within the United States, to the advantage of its enemies. Ultimately, McCarthy's tactics and his inability to substantiate his claims led to his being discredited and censured by the United States Senate. == Early life and education == Flanders was born in Barnet, Vermont, on September 28, 1880, the oldest of the nine children of Albert W. Flanders and Mary (Gilfillan) Flanders. When Flanders was six, his family moved to Lincoln, Rhode Island, where his father farmed while overseeing the manufacture and sales in Pawtucket of a bookrack he designed. Flanders attended school in Providence and Central Falls, and was an 1896 graduate of Central Falls High School. == Career == In his first years as a machinist and draftsman, he spent his vacations traveling by bicycle over country roads between Rhode Island and Vermont and New Hampshire. Later, he lived for a time in New York City where he edited a machine tool magazine, but after five years decided to move back to Vermont. Flanders's career began with an apprenticeship, progressed into engineering, journalism, management, policy consulting, banking, finance, and finally politics when he was elected U.S. Senator from Vermont. === Apprenticeship and continued education === During his education in Rhode Island, Flanders received a solid grounding in mathematics, literature, Latin and Classical Greek. In addition, he acquired a working knowledge of German and French. According to Senator John Sparkman, when Flanders was in the Senate, Sparkman and he used to converse in Latin during committee meetings. Unable to afford college tuition after his high school graduation, in 1896 Flanders's father bought him a two-year apprenticeship at the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company, a leading machine tool builder. In addition to learning machining and drafting during his apprenticeship, Flanders also supplemented his training through courses at the International Correspondence Schools and the Rhode Island School of Design. Following his apprenticeship, he worked for various machine tool companies in New England. Despite his lack of a formal university education, he was a self-taught scholar, who read extensively in the literatures of science, engineering and the liberal arts. === Technical journalism === Flanders began writing early in his career, and his published articles on machine tool technology led to a job as an editor of Machine magazine in New York City. This job, which he held between 1905 and 1910, required him to cover developments in the machine tool industry. He traveled widely to visit the companies that he wrote about, which provided him many valuable contacts with leaders in the industry. As editor, he wrote articles on gear tooth systems, gear cutting machinery, hobs, and the manufacture of cans and automobiles, including Machine's reference series on the subject. In 1909, while working long hours on his definitive book on gear cutting machinery, his energy gave out and he suffered a "nervous breakdown". He took time off to recover, and in 1910 he accepted an offer to work at a machine tool company in Vermont. He continued to write on technical and other matters throughout his life and developed a broad philosophy of the role of industry in society. In 1938, he received a Worcester Reed Warner Medal in recognition of his technical writing. === Engineering === Flanders's first major experience in machine design came when he helped an entrepreneur in Nashua, New Hampshire, develop a box-folding machine. After that, he worked as a draftsman for General Electric in Lynn, Massachusetts until 1905, when he moved to New York City to work for Machine. In 1910, he moved to Springfield, Vermont to work as a mechanical engineer for the Fellows Gear Shaper Company. He was already friendly with James Hartness, the president of the Jones & Lamson Machine Company (J&L), another company in town. In 1911, Flanders married Hartness' daughter, Helen. Shortly afterwards, Hartness hired Flanders as a manager of the department at J&L that built the Fay automatic lathe. Flanders redesigned that lathe to achieve higher productivity and accuracy. He became a director in 1912 and president of the company in 1933 after Hartness retired. As president of J&L, Flanders implemented a continuous production line to manufacture the Hartness Turret Lathe instead of building each machine individually, attempting to bring some of the efficiencies of mass production to machine tool building. By 1923, he had acquired and assigned more than twenty patents to J&L. Flanders and his brother, Ernest, were instrumental in developing screw thread grinding machines. These incorporated advances in thread technology (furthered by the Hartness optical comparator) and Flanders's engineering calculations for gear-cutting machinery. In 1942, the two brothers received the Edward Longstreth Medal of the Franklin Institute as recognition of this accomplishment, which improved the accurate manufacture of die-cut screws in soft metal and solved the problem of thread-grinding on hardened work. The award also recognized their development of a precision grinding machine that enabled rapid production of turbine blades at the start of jet aircraft age, which made it possible for companies including General Electric to manufacture jet engines far more quickly than they could previously. === Professional societies === Flanders became president of the National Machine-Tool Builders Association in 1923. He served as president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) from 1934 to 1936. He was vice president of the American Engineering Council in 1937. Throughout the 1930s, Flanders served as chairman of the Screw-Thread Committee of the American Standards Association. In 1944 the ASME awarded him the Hoover Medal for his "public service in the field of social, civic and humanitarian effort[s]". The British Institution of Mechanical Engineers made him an honorary member. === Public life === In 1917, Flanders served in the Machine-Tool Section of the War Industries Board. During the Great Depression Flanders began to write about social policy. His major concern was human development in a technological era. He addressed employing spiritual guidance with a "program of human values" to achieve a good life. Nevertheless, his underlying goal was to achieve "full employment". So, he kept himself grounded in economic principles, as understood and debated during that era. In 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt's Secretary of Commerce, Daniel Roper, appointed Flanders to the Business Advisory Council, which was created to provide input to the administration on matters affecting business. The Council then made Flanders chairman of the Committee on Unemployment. This committee recommended addressing the problem both geographically and by industry. Flanders reported, however, that when the committee made its recommendations President Roosevelt was preoccupied with augmenting the Supreme Court and ultimately chose the undistributed profits tax instead—a choice that Flanders felt discouraged capital investment. In 1933, the National Industrial Recovery Act created the National Recovery Administration (NRA). The NRA allowed industries to create "codes of fair competition," intended to reduce destructive competition and to help workers by setting minimum wages and maximum weekly hours. Flanders was appointed to the industrial advisory board of the NRA. In a speech before a 1934 conference of the code authority members, attended by President Roosevelt, Flanders opposed a proposal by the Roosevelt administration to require that businesses cut worker hours by 10 percent and raise wages by 10 percent in order to spread employment more widely. Ultimately, economic policy moved away from the codes system. In 1937, Vermont Governor George Aiken appointed Flanders to two commissions: first, the Special Milk Investigative Committee to study ways to modernize dairying in Vermont; and second, the Flood Control Commission, which chose Flanders as its chairman. This commission was to negotiate with other New England states a means of sharing costs in a system of flood-control dams as part of recovering from the massive floods of 1927 and attempting to prevent a reoccurrence. In 1940, the New England Council elected Flanders president. The governors of the New England states had established this council to study industry and commerce in their states. Flanders's role increased his awareness of the labor and business assets in New England. He also tried to alert his peers to the prospect of U.S. involvement in the expanding Second World War. In 1942, Flanders became involved in the Committee for Economic Development (CED), an offshoot of the Business Advisory Council, whose purpose was to help re-align the nation to a peacetime economy after the war. Flanders reported helping to shape the CED's recommendations to Congress on roles for the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. === Banking and investment === Starting in the 1930s, Flanders held positions on the board of directors of the Shawmut Bank (1938–41), Federal Reserve Bank of Boston (1941–44) Boston and Maine Railroad, National Life Insurance Company, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Norwich University. In 1944, he was elected to a two-year term as president of the Federal Reserve Bank in Boston. During this period, the bank helped establish the Boston Port Authority to revitalize New England's capacity for sending and receiving goods by cargo ship. In 1946, Georges Doriot, Flanders, Karl Compton and others organized American Research & Development (AR&D). This was the first venture capital company to invest—according to a set of investment rules and goals—in a pool of fledgling companies. Flanders served as a director of AR&D. == Politics == In 1940, Ralph Flanders ran an unsuccessful campaign for the United States Senate. His Republican primary opponent was George Aiken, the popular two-term Governor of Vermont. Although Flanders admired and liked Aiken, he felt that Aiken's "liberal" ideas would not help the nation's economic recovery. In 1990, one of Vermont's major newspapers, The Rutland Herald described the 1940 Republican primary campaign as dirty and mean. Aiken's side accused Flanders of selling arms to the Nazis, and Flanders's side suggested that "Aiken was unduly influenced by his administrative assistant, a pretty 24-year-old with a fondness for power". In retrospect, Flanders felt that he had allowed his campaign advisers to make too many of the decisions. For example, a campaign brochure showed the candidate wearing a three-piece suit and holding a piglet in his arms. Although he had grown up on a subsistence farm and had an active interest in Vermont agriculture—especially in the type of hog shown in the picture—this made him appear to be a phony. The Rutland Herald observed that, "In Vermont in 1940, pigs were common to many households. But so was common sense. There were many people, most in fact, who did not want as their representative someone who would wear his best clothes if he intended to be handling pigs." Aiken won by 7,000 votes, having spent $3,219.50 to Flanders's $18,698.45. This campaign taught Flanders that "I had to be myself." In August 1946, incumbent Senator Warren Austin resigned to accept U.S. President Harry S. Truman's appointment as Ambassador to the United Nations. The contest for the Republican nomination in the ensuing special election was between Flanders and Sterry R. Waterman. Flanders won the August 13 primary, which was then tantamount to election in Vermont. On November 1, Governor Mortimer R. Proctor appointed Flanders to complete the remainder of Austin's term. With Flanders certain to win the November 5 election for the term that started in January 1947, his appointment to complete the two months left in Austin's term gave him seniority over the freshman Senators who were elected on the same day. Vermont had not elected a Democrat to any statewide office since the founding of the Republican Party in 1854, and as expected, Flanders easily won his contest, receiving 75 percent to Democratic nominee Charles P. McDevitt's 25. Flanders was overwhelmingly reelected in 1952, taking 72 percent to Democratic nominee Allan R. Johnston's 28. He declined to seek a third term in 1958. === Senate record and committee assignments === Flanders's voting record in the Senate was more conservative than his senior colleague, George Aiken, and reflected Flanders's business orientation. In his second term, a Republican majority allowed Flanders to obtain seats on the Joint Economic Committee—this committee acted in an investigatory and advisory capacity to both Houses of the Congress—the Finance Committee and the Committee on Armed Services. === Political philosophy === Flanders, although himself a conservative, espoused a constructive competition between conservatism and liberalism. He felt that liberalism represented the welfare of individual people, as opposed to organizations—governments, businesses, etc.—preserving freedom of thought and action. For him, conservatism was concerned with preserving institutions that serve the interests of people, collectively. Conservatives, according to Flanders, could find themselves offering "reasoned objections to foolish proposals" by emotionally motivated liberals. He observed that, "Even in the established democracies, ... the voters are easily seduced into leaving politics to skillful politicians who are themselves without a sense of general, social responsibility." ==== On moral law in policy formulation ==== Flanders had a strict Congregationalist religious beginning, which evolved with his experience into a belief in "moral law". He felt that "recognition of moral law is as much a necessary requirement of social achievement as physical law is of material advancement." In Flanders's view, moral law required honesty, compassion, responsibility, cooperation, humility, and wisdom—values that all cultures hold in common. For him it was an absolute standard. He spoke of a "Presence" or "daimon" that "renewed his courage" and "indicated direction" in everything he did. Flanders referred to the Marshall Plan as an important application of moral law to public policy. He said that the plan's true purpose was to fend off Communism through the economic restoration of Europe—not to provide relief to Europe (something beyond the powers of the U.S.), nor to enhance gratitude towards the U.S., its prestige or power. ==== On labor and business ==== In testifying on the Employment Act (of 1946) before the Banking and Currency Committee of the Senate in 1945, Flanders defined the "right to a job," as implying a responsibility shared among individuals, organized labor, businesses, and governments, as follows: Each individual should be "productive, self-reliant and energetically in search of employment, when out of a job." Organized Labor should avoid wage demands that upset costs of production in a manner that decreases the total volume of employment. Business should operate efficiently to allow for expansion of production and employment. State and local governments can help preserve human rights and property rights that foster investment, while the Federal Government should "encourage business to expand and investors to undertake new ventures." Flanders felt that, to quell inflation, wage increases should be tied to productivity increases, rather than the cost of living. He recommended splitting gains in productivity three ways: to the worker for higher wages, to the company for higher profits and to the consumer for lower prices. He felt that with this approach everyone would benefit at the company level and in the national economy. Such an approach would require mutual respect and understanding between labor and management. Flanders's relations with organized labor were amicable. He welcomed the United Electrical Workers Union into Jones & Lamson Machine Company. J&L became the first company in Springfield, Vermont to be unionized. ==== On Franklin D. Roosevelt ==== Flanders met with President Roosevelt on several occasions. He felt that Roosevelt and his advisors did not heed Secretary of the Navy, Frank Knox's warning that it was "easily possible that hostilities would be initiated by a surprise attack upon the fleet or the Naval Base at Pearl Harbor." He further faulted the president for failing to recognize the growing threat of Communism in China. In Flanders's opinion, he sold out on Mongolia, Nationalist China and Central Europe to Communist powers at the 1943 Tehran Conference. Flanders recognized the president's political genius and leadership skills, but deplored his advocacy of raising taxes. He characterized the Roosevelt philosophy as one where re-employment "must come from Government—not private—action." Flanders felt that large social programs were an ineffective approach to solve national problems. ==== On social policy ==== In his autobiography, Flanders reported exploring opportunities for government funding of public housing and higher education. He voted in favor of the Civil Rights Act of 1957. === Cold War policies === National policy relating to the Cold War interested Flanders greatly. He was concerned about the worldwide encroachment of Communism even without force of arms. He felt that President Truman was generally a good president, but was hampered by the Roosevelt legacy of appeasing the Soviets. He also felt that Truman's commitment to bringing the Nationalist and Communist Chinese factions together into an alliance was mistaken. He endorsed the Marshall Plan as a way to avoid Communist influence in Western Europe. However, he was critical of John Foster Dulles, Secretary of State, for mishandling opportunities to create friendly alignment with Egypt and India, countries which instead sided with the Soviet Union. Flanders felt that spending 62% of federal income on defense was irrational, when the Soviet government claimed it wished to avoid nuclear conflict. He advocated that the development of "A[tomic]- and H[ydrogen]-bombs be paralleled with equally intense negotiations towards disarmament." For him, "gaining the co-operation of the Soviet government on an effective armament control," was most important. === The censure of Joseph McCarthy === Flanders was an early and strong critic of fellow Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy's "misdirection of our efforts at fighting communism" and his role in "the loss of respect for us in the world at large". He felt that rather than looking inward for communists within U.S. borders, the nation should look outward at the "alarming world-wide advance of Communist power" that would leave the United States and Canada as "the last remnants of the free world". On March 9, 1954 he addressed Senator McCarthy on the Senate floor, expressing these concerns. (McCarthy had been advised of the speech, but was absent at the time.) Apart from a brief note of encouragement after this speech, Flanders was grateful that President Eisenhower stayed out of the McCarthy controversy. Members of President Eisenhower's cabinet passed along the message that Flanders should "lay off." The Barre Montpelier Times Argus reported: The speech was a sensation, and the next day Vonda Bergman reported to the Herald that Flanders was unable to appear on the Senate floor because of the flood of telephone calls and telegrams, said to run 6-1 in his support. One message called his speech 'a fine example of Vermont courage, humor and decency,' while another told him, 'Your remarks brought a breath of fresh clean air from the Green Mountains.' Two Senate colleagues, John Sherman Cooper, R-Kentucky, and Herbert Lehman, D-New York, were among those who heaped praise on the Vermont senator. The editor of a national publication said: 'It was one of the few recent indications that the Republican Party on Capitol Hill is not wholly devoid of courageous moral leadership.' And an editorial in the Rutland Herald stated, 'The effect of the speech was to hearten that vast majority of Americans who hate communism but who also revere the Constitution.' Other reactions were not so favorable. People who wrote the Rutland Herald "hinted at retribution for McCarthy's foes" and called McCarthy "a demigod above the law of the U.S.A. ... If you disagree, you are RED." William Loeb, owner of the Burlington Daily News, wrote, "It would take somebody as stupid as Senator Flanders to finally swallow the Democratic bait on the subject of Senator McCarthy." In a speech that Flanders did not mention in his autobiography, the Times Argus article reported that on June 1, 1954 Flanders ... addressed the Senate on 'the colossal innocence of the junior Senator from Wisconsin.' Comparing McCarthy to 'Dennis the Menace' of cartoon fame, the Vermonter delivered a scathing address in which he lambasted the Wisconsin man for dividing the nation. 'In every country in which communism has taken over,' he reminded the Senate, 'the beginning has been a successful campaign of division and confusion.' He marveled at the way the Soviet Union was winning military successes in Asia without risking its own resources or men, and said this nation was witnessing 'another example of economy of effort ... in the conquest of this country for communism.' He added, 'One of the characteristic elements of communist and fascist tyranny is at hand as citizens are set to spy upon each other.' 'Were the junior Senator from Wisconsin in the pay of the communists, he could not have done a better job for them.' 'This is a colossal innocence, indeed.' On June 11, 1954, Flanders introduced a resolution charging McCarthy "with unbecoming conduct and calling for his removal from his committee membership." Upon the advice of Senators Cooper and Fulbright and legal assistance from the Committee for a More Effective Congress he modified his resolution to "bring it in line with previous actions of censure." The text of the resolution of censure condemns the senator for "obstructing the constitutional processes of the Senate" when he "failed to cooperate with the Subcommittee on Privileges and Elections of the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration and acting "contrary to senatorial ethics" when he described the Select Committee to Study Censure Charges and its chairman in slanderous terms. Time reported that a "group of 23 top businessmen, labor leaders and educators ... wired every U.S. Senator (except McCarthy himself) urging a favorable vote 'to curb the flagrant abuse of power by Senator McCarthy.'" The Senate censured McCarthy on December 2, 1954 by a vote of 65 to 22. The Senate Republicans were split 22 to 22. For a further treatment of this episode, refer to Joseph McCarthy – Censure and the Watkins Committee. A 1990 article in the Rutland Herald characterized the reaction in Vermont to Flanders's role in the McCarthy censure as "sour". It concludes that Flanders's convictions did not necessarily reflect the priorities of his constituency, which regarded the issue as "not our problem". == Personal life == In 1911, Flanders married Helen Edith Hartness, the daughter of inventor and industrialist James Hartness. They made their home in Springfield, Vermont, when Flanders became president of Jones & Lamson. Flanders and his wife had three children: Elizabeth (born 1912), Anna (also known as Nancy—born 1918), and James (born 1923). == Legacy == Flanders was the author or coauthor of eight books, including his autobiography, Senator from Vermont. He wrote about many issues: the problems of unemployment, inflation, ways for achieving a cooperative relationship between management and labor, and his belief that "moral law is natural law" and should be an integral part of everyone's education. His papers are located at the Special Collections Research Center at Syracuse University Library and at the Special Collections of the University of Vermont's Bailey-Howe Library. During his lifetime, Flanders received more than sixteen honorary degrees from institutions that included Stevens Institute of Technology (M.E.), Dartmouth College (M.S., LL.D.), Harvard University (LL.D.), Middlebury College (D. Sc.) and the University of Vermont (D. Eng.). His wife, Helen Hartness Flanders, was a folk song collector and author of several books on New England ballads. Flanders died in Springfield on February 19, 1970. He was buried at Summer Hill Cemetery in Springfield alongside his wife and members of the Hartness family. === Vermont politics === Flanders's Senate legacy has continued to inspire Vermont politicians. In his May 24, 2001 speech announcing his departure from the Republican Party, Vermont Senator Jim Jeffords cited Flanders three times and spoke of him as one of five Vermont politicians who, "spoke their minds, often to the dismay of their party leaders, and did their best to guide the party in the direction of those fundamental principles they believed in." In speeches to Georgetown University Law Center and Johnson State College, Senator Patrick Leahy cited Flanders as one of three Vermont politicians who showed, "the importance of standing firm in your beliefs," "that conflict need not be hostile or adversarial" and who "rose up against abuses, against infringements upon Americans' rights when doing that was not popular." In 2016 Vermont Congressman, Peter Welch, cited Flanders as someone to emulate when resisting those policies of the Donald Trump Administration with which he disagreed, saying of Flanders, "He stood up and said no, this has got to end." == Notes == == See also == Margaret Chase Smith, senator from Maine who spoke against McCarthy in 1950. == References == == Bibliography == === Flanders === Flanders, Ralph E. (February 1909a), "Interchangeable Involute Gear Tooth Systems", Journal of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (2410 F). Flanders, Ralph E. (February 1909b), "Recent developments in gear-cutting machinery", Machinery (2242 C). Flanders, Ralph E. (January 1909c), "How many gashes should a hob have?", Machinery (1550 C). Flanders, Ralph E. (1909d), "Making solderless cans for food products", Machinery (7500 C). Flanders, Ralph E. (October 1909e), "The design and manufacture of a high-grade motor car – Illustrated detailed description of the factory, methods and products of the Stevens-Duryea Co.", Machinery (8279 C). Flanders, Ralph E. (1909f), Gear-cutting machinery, comprising a complete review of contemporary American and European practice, together with a logical classification and explanation of the principles involved, New York: J. Wiley & Sons. Flanders, Ralph E. (1910), Construction and Manufacture of Automobiles, Machinery's Reference Series. No. 60, New York: The Industrial Press Flanders, Ralph E. (1911). Locomotive Building: The Construction of a Steam Engine for Railway Use. The Industrial Press. ISBN 978-1-935327-55-4. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Flanders, Ralph E. (1925), Design manufacture and production control of a standard machine, vol. 46, New York: ASME Transactions. Flanders, Ralph E. (1930), "The new age and the new man", in Beard, Charles A. (ed.), Toward Civilization, New York: Longmans, Green & Co.. Flanders, Ralph E. (1931), Taming Our Machines; The Attainment of Human Values in a Mechanized Society, New York: R.R. Smith, Inc. Flanders, Ralph E. (1932), "Limitations and possibilities of economic planning", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 162, no. 16z (published July 1932), p. 27, doi:10.1177/000271623216200106, S2CID 143644084. Flanders, Ralph E. (1935), New pioneers on a new frontier, vol. 46, New York: ASME Transactions, pp. R1–77. Flanders, Ralph E. (1936a), "New pioneers on a new frontier", Mechanical Engineering Magazine, p. 3. Flanders, Ralph E. (1936b), Platform for America, New York: Whittlesy House, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Dennison, Henry S.; Filene, L.; Flanders, R.; Leeds, M. (1938), Toward full employment, New York: McGraw-Hill Book. Flanders, Ralph E. (1949a), The Function of Management in American Life, Palo Alto, California: Graduate School of Business, Stanford University. Flanders, Ralph E. (1949b), Limitations of national policy: speech of Hon. Ralph E. Flanders of Vermont in the Senate of the United States August 11, 1949, Special Collections, University of Vermont Library. Flanders, Ralph E. (1954), "Activities of Senator Mcarthy – The World Crisis", Congressional Record – Proceedings and Debates of the 83rd Congress, Second Session, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office (published March 9, 1954). Flanders, Ralph E. (1956), Letter to a generation, Boston: Beacon Press. Flanders, Ralph E. (1961), Senator from Vermont, Boston: Little, Brown. Flanders, Ralph E. (1963), A Search for Meaning, Springfield, Vermont: Hurd's Offset Printing. === Others === ASME (1921), A.S.M.E. mechanical catalog and directory, Volume 11, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. ASME (1944), Hoover Medal awardees, Asme.org, retrieved 2013-05-04 Crozier, Barney (September 29, 1979), "Vermont Senator's Speech Heralded McCarthy's End", Times-Argus (Randolph, Vermont). "Scientific Notes and News", Science, 95 (2468): 403–406, 1942, Bibcode:1942Sci....95..403., doi:10.1126/science.95.2468.403, JSTOR 1668339. "In our opinion—Sen. Flanders of Vermont", Burlington Free Press, p. 18, February 21, 1970. "Leahy takes lead on Judiciary Committee", Burlington Free Press, December 17, 2006, archived from the original on March 4, 2007, retrieved January 4, 2010. Fortune (August 1945), "Flanders of New England", Fortune Magazine, vol. 32, no. 2. Herman, Arthur (2012), Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II, New York, NY: Random House, ISBN 978-1-4000-6964-4. Hill, Tom (December 3, 1989), "Vt.'s Senator Ralph Flanders took on McCarthy, and won", Sunday Rutland Herald and Sunday Times Argus (Vermont), pp. E1, E4. Jeffords, James (May 24, 2001), Transcript: Jeffords statement, CNN InsidePolitics, archived from the original on February 19, 2008, retrieved January 4, 2010. Johnson, Mark (November 27, 2016), "Digger Dialogue: Welch weighs role with Trump, GOP in charge", VTDigger, retrieved 2018-05-25. Klingaman, William (1996), The Encyclopedia of the McCarthy Era, Facts on File, ISBN 0-8160-3097-9. Leahy, Patrick (May 17, 2008), Senator Patrick Leahy Delivers 2008 Commencement Address, Johnson State College, archived from the original on August 4, 2008, retrieved January 4, 2010. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (March 6, 1970), "Ralph Edward Flanders 1880-1970", Resolutions of the Corporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology on the Death of Ralph Edward Flanders Life Member Emeritus. Porter, Bill; Terry, Stephen C. (September 9, 1990), "Down & Dirty—The Aiken-Flanders Primary of 1940", Vermont Sunday Magazine, Rutland Herald and Barre-Montpelier Times Argus. Roe, Joseph Wickham (1937), James Hartness: A Representative of the Machine Age at Its Best, New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers, LCCN 37016470, OCLC 3456642. link from HathiTrust. Senate Historical Office (1995), United States Senate Historical Office: "The Censure Case of Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin (1954)", Senate.gov, retrieved 2013-05-04. "Ralph E. Flanders \| Federal Reserve History", www.federalreservehistory.org, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, 2018, retrieved 2018-05-26. Strickland, Ron (1998), Vermonters: Oral Histories from Down Country to the Northeast Kingdom, Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, ISBN 9780874518672. "Sen. Flanders to Discuss Welfare" (PDF), The Tech (MIT Newspaper): 4, November 15, 1949, archived from the original (PDF) on October 28, 2008, retrieved January 8, 2009. "The Dispensable Man", Time Magazine, August 2, 1954, archived from the original on July 14, 2007. Duffy, John J.; Hand, Samuel B.; Orth, Ralph H., eds. (2003), "Flanders, Ralph E.", The Vermont Encyclopedia, Lebanon, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, ISBN 1-58465-086-9. WGBH, Public Broadcasting Service (2004-06-30), Who made America – George Doriot, Pbs.org, retrieved 2013-05-04. "Republicans Nominate Flanders for US Senator". Burlington Free Press. Burlington, VT. Associated Press. August 14, 1946 – via Newspapers.com. "Ralph E. Flanders of Springfield, Vt. was appointed US Senator". Poughkeepsie Journal. Poughkeepsie, NY. November 1, 1946 – via Newspapers.com. "Gibson Leads State Ticket". Burlington Free Press. Burlington, VT. Associated Press. November 6, 1946 – via Newspapers.com. "Tech Professor Wins Medal for Aeronautics Research". The Boston Globe. April 16, 1942. p. 16. == External links == Works by or about Ralph Flanders at the Internet Archive United States Congress Biography Times-Argus Article on the Flanders's Censure of McCarthy. Vermont Public Radio commentary commemorating the 50th anniversary of Flanders's senate speech on McCarthy. A collection of works by Ralph Flanders == Further reading == Margolis, Jon (July 11, 2004), "A mighty fall—How an obscure Vermont senator brought down Joseph McCarthy 50 years ago.", Sunday Rutland Herald & Sunday Times-Argus, pp. 8–11 Meltzer, Allan H. (2003). A History of the Federal Reserve – Volume 1: 1913–1951. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 685–694. ISBN 978-0226520001. Shannon, William V. (March 14, 1954), "An old-timer says a mouthful", New York Post, pp. 2M
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aloha_Township,_Michigan	Aloha Township, Michigan	Aloha Township is a civil township of Cheboygan County in the U.S. state of Michigan. The population was 937 at the 2020 census. == Communities == Aloha is an unincorporated community on the east shore of Mullett Lake at 45°31′35″N 84°28′00″W. It is on M-212, which is a short spur off M-33, about 8 miles (13 km) south of Cheboygan. Aloha State Park is just to the south. The settlement formed around the James B. Patterson sawmill and the F. Hout general store. It was a station on the Detroit and Mackinac Railway, now the North Eastern State Trail. The name was selected by mill owner Patterson, who had made a trip to Hawaii. A post office opened on December 17, 1903, with Lillian Hout as the first postmaster. The post office closed on October 12, 1942. == Geography == According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the township has a total area of 32.38 square miles (83.86 km2), of which 29.50 square miles (76.40 km2) is land and 2.88 square miles (7.46 km2) (8.89%) is water. == Demographics == As of the census of 2000, there were 1,041 people, 423 households, and 321 families residing in the township. The population density was 35.4 inhabitants per square mile (13.7/km2). There were 670 housing units at an average density of 22.8 per square mile (8.8/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 95.29% White, 2.50% Native American, 0.38% Asian, 0.10% from other races, and 1.73% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.38% of the population. There were 423 households, out of which 27.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70.0% were married couples living together, 3.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.9% were non-families. 19.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 2.80. In the township the population was spread out, with 23.8% under the age of 18, 3.8% from 18 to 24, 23.0% from 25 to 44, 30.7% from 45 to 64, and 18.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 45 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 106.5 males. The median income for a household in the township was $34,853, and the median income for a family was $41,406. Males had a median income of $32,955 versus $22,206 for females. The per capita income for the township was $18,656. About 9.6% of families and 13.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.1% of those under age 18 and 8.9% of those age 65 or over. == References == == External links == Aloha Township official website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grumman_F4F_Wildcat	Grumman F4F Wildcat	The Grumman F4F Wildcat is an American carrier-based fighter aircraft that entered service in 1940 with the United States Navy, and the British Royal Navy where it was initially known as the Martlet. First used by the British in the North Atlantic, the Wildcat was the only effective fighter available to the United States Navy and Marine Corps in the Pacific Theater during the early part of the Second World War. The disappointing Brewster Buffalo was withdrawn in favor of the Wildcat and replaced as aircraft became available. With a top speed of 318 mph (512 km/h), the Wildcat was outperformed by the faster [331 mph (533 km/h)], more maneuverable, and longer-ranged Mitsubishi A6M Zero. US Navy pilots, including John "Jimmy" Thach, a pioneer of fighter tactics to deal with the A6M Zero, were greatly dissatisfied with the Wildcat's inferior performance against the Zero in the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway. Still, the Wildcat has a claimed air combat kill-to-loss ratio of 5.9:1 in 1942 and 6.9:1 for the war. Lessons learned from the Wildcat were later applied to the faster F6F Hellcat. While the Wildcat had better range and maneuverability at low speed, the Hellcat could rely on superior power and high speed performance to outperform the Zero. Wildcat production continued throughout the remainder of the war, with Wildcats serving on escort carriers, where the larger and much heavier Hellcat could not be used. From 1942 on, production of the Wildcat (in fact nearly three quarters of its the total production) was subcontracted to a purposely established division of General Motors: the Eastern Aircraft Division. == Design and development == Grumman fighter development began with the two-seat Grumman FF biplane. The FF was the first U.S. naval fighter with a retractable landing gear. The wheels retracted into the fuselage, leaving the tires visibly exposed, flush with the sides of the fuselage. Two single-seat biplane designs followed, the F2F and F3F, which established the general fuselage outlines of what would become the F4F Wildcat. In 1935, while the F3F was still undergoing flight testing, Grumman started work on its next biplane fighter, the G-16. At the time, the U.S. Navy favored a monoplane design, the Brewster F2A-1, ordering production early in 1936. However, an order was also placed for Grumman's G-16 (given the navy designation XF4F-1) as a backup in case the Brewster monoplane proved to be unsatisfactory. It was clear to Grumman that the XF4F-1 would be inferior to the Brewster monoplane, so Grumman abandoned the XF4F-1, designing instead a new monoplane fighter, the XF4F-2. The XF4F-2 would retain the same, fuselage-mounted, hand-cranked main landing gear as the F3F, with its relatively narrow track. The unusual manually-retractable main landing gear design for all of Grumman's U.S. Navy fighters up to and through the F4F, as well as for the amphibious Grumman J2F utility biplane, was originally created in the 1920s by Leroy Grumman for Grover Loening. Landing accidents caused by failure of the main gear to fully lock into place were distressingly common. The overall performance of Grumman's new monoplane was felt to be inferior to that of the Brewster Buffalo. The XF4F-2 was marginally faster, but the Buffalo was more maneuverable. The Buffalo was judged superior and was chosen for production. After losing out to Brewster, Grumman completely rebuilt the prototype as the XF4F-3 with new wings and tail and a supercharged version of the Pratt & Whitney R-1830 "Twin Wasp" radial engine. Testing of the new XF4F-3 led to an order for F4F-3 production models, the first of which was completed in February 1940. France also ordered the type, powered by a Wright R-1820 "Cyclone 9" radial engine, but France fell to the Axis powers before they could be delivered and the aircraft went instead to the British Royal Navy, who christened the new fighter the Martlet. The U.S. Navy officially adopted the aircraft type on 1 October 1941 as the Wildcat. The Royal Navy's and U.S. Navy's F4F-3s, armed with four .50 in (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns, joined active units in 1940. On 16 December 1940, the XF4F-3 prototype, BuNo 0383, c/n 356, modified from XF4F-2, was lost under circumstances that suggested that the pilot may have been confused by the poor layout of fuel valves and flap controls and inadvertently turned the fuel valve to "off" immediately after takeoff rather than selecting flaps "up". This was the first fatality in the type. == Operational history == Even before the Wildcat had been purchased by the U.S. Navy, the French Navy Aeronavale and the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm (FAA) had ordered the Wildcat, with their own configurations, via the Anglo-French Purchasing Board. === Royal Navy === The F4F, initially known in British service as the Martlet, was taken on by the FAA as an interim replacement for the Fairey Fulmar. The Fulmar was a two-seat fighter with good range but operated at a performance disadvantage against single-seater fighters. Navalised Supermarine Spitfires were not available because of the greater need of the Royal Air Force. In the European theater, its first combat victory was on Christmas Day 1940, when a land-based Martlet destroyed a Junkers Ju 88 bomber over the Scapa Flow naval base. This was the first combat victory by a US-built fighter in British service in World War II. The type also pioneered combat operations from the smaller escort carriers. Six Martlets went to sea aboard the converted former German merchant vessel HMS Audacity in September 1941 and shot down several Luftwaffe Fw 200 Condor bombers during highly effective convoy escort operations. These were the first of many Wildcats to engage in aerial combat at sea, including Convoy HG 76 to Gibraltar, in December 1941. The British received 300 Eastern Aircraft FM-1s giving them the designation Martlet V in 1942–43 and 340 FM-2s, (having changed to using the same name as the US) as the Wildcat VI. Nearly 1,200 Wildcats were flown by the FAA and by January 1944, the Martlet name was dropped and the type was identified as the Wildcat. In March 1945, Wildcats shot down four Messerschmitt Bf 109s over Norway, the FAA's last Wildcat victories. I would still assess the Wildcat as the outstanding naval fighter of the early years of World War II ... I can vouch as a matter of personal experience, this Grumman fighter was one of the finest shipboard aeroplanes ever created. The last air raid of the war in Europe was carried out by Fleet Air Arm aircraft in Operation Judgement on 5 May 1945. Twenty-eight Wildcat VI aircraft from 846, 853 and 882 Naval Air Squadron, flying from escort carriers, took part in an attack on a U-boat depot near Harstad, Norway. Two ships and a U-boat were sunk with the loss of one Wildcat and one Grumman Avenger torpedo bomber. === US Navy and Marine Corps === ==== Pacific ==== The Wildcat was generally outperformed by the Mitsubishi Zero, its major opponent in the early part of the Pacific Theater but held its own partly because, with relatively heavy armor and self-sealing fuel tanks, the Grumman airframe could survive far more damage than its lightweight, unarmored Japanese rival. Many U.S. Navy fighter pilots were saved by the Wildcat's ZB homing device, which allowed them to find their carriers in poor visibility, provided they could get within the 30 mi (48 km) range of the homing beacon. (However, the Zed Baker was wildly inconsistent in practice, especially during the battle of Midway, when an entire squadron of Wildcats crashed in the sea after failing to locate their carriers). In the hands of an expert pilot with a tactical advantage, the Wildcat could prove a difficult opponent even against the formidable Zero. After analyzing Fleet Air Tactical Unit Intelligence Bureau reports describing the new carrier fighter, USN Commander "Jimmy" Thach devised a defensive tactic that allowed Wildcat formations to act in a coordinated maneuver to counter a diving attack, called the "Thach Weave". The most widely employed tactic during the Guadalcanal campaign was high-altitude ambush, where hit-and-run maneuvers were executed using altitude advantage. This was possible due to an early warning system composed of coastwatchers and radar. On rare occasions, when Wildcats were unable to gain altitude in time, they would suffer many losses. On 2 October 1942, a Japanese air raid from Rabaul was not detected in time and the Cactus Air Force lost six Wildcats to only one Zero destroyed. On the very first day of the campaign, before the establishment of Henderson Field, Wildcat fighters of TF16 (USS Enterprise) lost 10 fighters and an SBD performing CAP duty to Rabaul-based Tainan Kōkūtai Zero fighters, in exchange for one Zero that was forced to crash-land later. These losses included US Fighter Ace James 'Pug' Southerland who was shot down by IJNAS ace Saburō Sakai (but survived). During the most intense initial phase of the Guadalcanal campaign, between 1 August and 15 November, combat records indicate that US lost 115 Wildcats and Japanese lost 106 Zeros to all causes; the Japanese lost many more pilots compared to the US. Thach was greatly dissatisfied and a vocal critic of the Wildcat's performance during the war (as were many US carrier pilots), stating in his Midway action report; It is indeed surprising that any of our pilots returned alive. Any success our fighter pilots may have had against the Japanese Zero fighter is not due to the performance of the airplane we fly but is the result of the comparatively poor marksmanship of the Japanese, stupid mistakes made by a few of their pilots and superior marksmanship and team work of some of our pilots. The F4F airplane is pitifully inferior in climb, maneuverability and speed. Four U.S. Marine Corps Wildcats played a prominent role in the defense of Wake Island in December 1941. USN and USMC Wildcats formed the fleet's primary air defense during the Battle of Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway and land-based Wildcats played a major role during the Guadalcanal campaign of 1942–43. It was not until 1943 that more advanced naval fighters capable of taking on the Zero on more even terms, the Grumman F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair, reached the South Pacific theater. The Japanese ace Saburō Sakai described the Wildcat's capacity to absorb damage: I had full confidence in my ability to destroy the Grumman and decided to finish off the enemy fighter with only my 7.7 mm machine guns. I turned the 20 mm cannon switch to the "off" position, and closed in. For some strange reason, even after I had poured about five or six hundred rounds of ammunition directly into the Grumman, the airplane did not fall, but kept on flying. I thought this very odd—it had never happened before—and closed the distance between the two airplanes until I could almost reach out and touch the Grumman. To my surprise, the Grumman's rudder and tail were torn to shreds, looking like an old torn piece of rag. With his plane in such condition, no wonder the pilot was unable to continue fighting! A Zero which had taken that many bullets would have been a ball of fire by now. Grumman's Wildcat production ceased in early 1943 to make way for the newer F6F Hellcat but General Motors continued producing Wildcats for U.S. Navy and Fleet Air Arm use. At first, GM produced the FM-1 (identical to the F4F-4 but with four guns). Production later switched to the improved FM-2 (based on Grumman's XF4F-8 prototype, informally known as the "Wilder Wildcat") optimized for small-carrier operations, with a more powerful engine and a taller tail to cope with the increased torque. From 1943, Wildcats equipped with bomb racks were primarily assigned to escort carriers for use against submarines and ground targets, though they also continued to score kills against Japanese fighters, bombers, and kamikaze aircraft. Larger fighters such as the Hellcat and the Corsair and dive bombers were needed aboard fleet carriers and the Wildcat's slower landing speed made it more suitable for shorter flight decks. In the Battle off Samar on 25 October 1944, escort carriers of Task Unit 77.4.3 ("Taffy 3") and their escort of destroyers and destroyer escorts found themselves as the sole force standing between vulnerable troop transport and supply ships engaged in landings on the Philippine island of Leyte and a powerful Japanese surface fleet of battleships and cruisers. In desperation, lightly armed Avengers and FM-2 Wildcats from Taffys 1, 2 and 3 resorted to tactics such as strafing ships, including the bridge of the Japanese battleship Yamato, while the destroyers and destroyer escorts attacked the Japanese surface force. This action contributed to buying enough time for Taffy 3's escort carriers to escape into a rain squall. ==== Atlantic ==== U.S. Navy Wildcats participated in Operation Torch. USN escort carriers in the Atlantic used Wildcats until the end of the war. In October 1943 F4Fs participated in Operation Leader, an anti-shipping strike on Norway. === Totals === In all, 7,860 Wildcats were built.. Nearly three quarters of this total were built by the Eastern Aircraft Division of General Motors, which took over production in 1942. During the course of the war, Navy and Marine F4Fs and FMs flew 15,553 combat sorties (14,027 of these from aircraft carriers), destroying a claimed figure of 1,327 enemy aircraft at a cost of 178 aerial losses, 24 to ground/shipboard fire, and 49 to operational causes (an overall claimed kill-to-loss ratio of 6.9:1). True to their escort fighter role, Wildcats dropped only 154 tons of bombs during the war. == Variants == === U.S. Navy Wildcats === ==== F4F-1/-2 ==== The original Grumman F4F-1 design was a biplane, which proved inferior to rival designs, necessitating a complete redesign as a monoplane named the F4F-2. This design was still not competitive with the Brewster F2A Buffalo which won initial U.S. Navy orders, but when the F4F-3 development was fitted with a more powerful version of the engine, a Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp R-1830-76, featuring a two-stage supercharger, it showed its true potential. ==== F4F-3 ==== U.S. Navy orders followed as did some (with Wright Cyclone engines) from France; these ended up with the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm after the fall of France and entered service on 8 September 1940. These aircraft, designated by Grumman as G-36A, had a different cowling from other earlier F4Fs and fixed wings, and were intended to be fitted with French armament and instruments following delivery. In British service initially, the aircraft were known as the Martlet I, but not all Martlets would be to exactly the same specifications as U.S. Navy aircraft. All Martlet Is featured the four .50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns of the F4F-3 with 450 rpg. The British directly ordered and received a version with the original Twin Wasp, but again with a modified cowling, under the manufacturer designation G-36B. These aircraft were given the designation Martlet II by the British. The first 10 G-36Bs were fitted with non-folding wings and were given the designation Martlet III. These were followed by 30 folding wing aircraft (F4F-3As) which were originally destined for the Hellenic Air Force, which were also designated Martlet IIIs. On paper, the designation changed to Martlet III(A) when the second series of Martlet III was introduced. Poor design of the armament installation on early F4Fs caused these otherwise reliable machine guns to frequently jam, a problem common to wing-mounted weapons of many U.S. fighters early in the war. An F4F-3 flown by Lieutenant Edward O'Hare shot down, within a few minutes, five Mitsubishi twin-engine bombers attacking Lexington off Bougainville on 20 February 1942. But contrasting with O'Hare's performance, his wingman was unable to participate because his guns would not function. A shortage of two-stage superchargers led to the development of the F4F-3A, which was basically the F4F-3 but with a 1,200 hp (890 kW) Pratt & Whitney R-1830-90 radial engine with a more primitive single-stage two-speed supercharger. The F4F-3A, which was capable of 312 mph (502 km/h) at 16,000 ft (4,900 m), was used side by side with the F4F-3, but its poorer performance made it unpopular with U.S. Navy fighter pilots. The F4F-3A would enter service as the Martlet III(B). At the time of Pearl Harbor, only Enterprise had a fully equipped Wildcat squadron, VF-6 with F4F-3As. Enterprise was then transferring a detachment of VMF-211, also equipped with F4F-3s, to Wake. Saratoga was in San Diego, working up for operations of the F4F-3s of VF-3. 11 F4F-3s of VMF-211 were at the Ewa Marine Air Corps Station on Oahu; nine of these were damaged or destroyed during the Japanese attack. The detachment of VMF-211 on Wake lost seven Wildcats to Japanese attacks on 8 December, but the remaining five put up a fierce defense, making the first bomber kill on 9 December. The destroyer Kisaragi was sunk by the Wildcats, and the Japanese invasion force retreated. In May 1942, the F4F-3s of VF-2 and VF-42, aboard Yorktown and Lexington, participated in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Lexington and Yorktown fought against the fleet carriers Zuikaku and Shōkaku and the light carrier Shōhō in this battle, in an attempt to halt a Japanese invasion of Port Moresby on Papua. During these battles, it became clear that attacks without fighter escort amounted to suicide, but that the fighter component on the carriers was completely insufficient to provide both fighter cover for the carrier and an escort for an attack force. Most U.S. carriers carried fewer than 20 fighters. ==== F4F-3P ==== In June 1942, 17 F4F-3s and one F4F-3A (18 total) were converted into F4F-3P photoreconnaissance planes. The F4F-3Ps were for short-range tactical reconnaissance, as their reserve fuel tanks were removed and replaced with Fairchild F-56 cameras. The F4F-3Ps retained their machine guns and were mainly flown by VMO-251 on air defense missions from Espiritu Santo in the South Pacific, arriving in July 1942. In October 1942, long-ranged and unarmed F4F-7s began replacing the F4F-3Ps, but a detachment of three F4F-3P from VMO-155 operated from the Bogue-class escort carrier USS Nassau (CVE-16) during the amphibious invasion of Attu Island in May 1943. Boston, MA, USA: Little, Brown and Co./Atlantic Monthly Press ==== F4F-3S "Wildcatfish" ==== This floatplane version of the F4F-3 was developed for use at forward island bases in the Pacific, before the construction of airfields. It was inspired by appearance of the A6M2-N "Rufe", a modification of the Mitsubishi A6M2 "Zeke". BuNo 4038 was modified to become the F4F-3S "Wildcatfish". Twin floats, manufactured by Edo Aircraft Corporation, were fitted. To restore the stability, small auxiliary fins were added to the tailplane. Because this was still insufficient, a ventral fin was added later. The F4F-3S was first flown 28 February 1943. The weight and drag of the floats reduced the maximum speed to 241 mph (388 km/h). As the performance of the basic F4F-3 was already below that of the Zero, the F4F-3S was clearly of limited usefulness. In any case, the construction of the airfields at forward bases by the "Seabees" was surprisingly quick. Only one was converted. ==== F4F-4 ==== A new version, the F4F-4, entered service in 1941 with six machine guns and the Grumman-patented Sto-Wing folding wing system, which allowed more aircraft to be stored on an aircraft carrier, increasing the number of fighters that could be parked on a surface by more than a factor of 2. The F4F-4 was the definitive version that saw the most combat service in the early war years, including the Battle of Midway. Navy F4F-3s were replaced by F4F-4s in June 1942. During the Battle of Midway, only VMF-221 still used F4F-3s. VF-42 of the Yorktown was the last carrier group converted to the F4F-4, and that was done as it left Pearl Harbor on the way to the Battle of Midway as VF-3 flew in new F4F-4s with Commander Thach. The F4F-4 version was less popular with American pilots because the amount of ammunition was spread over two additional guns, decreasing firing time. With the F4F-3's four .50 in (12.7 mm) guns and 450 rpg, pilots had 34 seconds of firing time; six guns decreased ammunition to 240 rpg, which could be expended in less than 20 seconds. The increase to six guns was attributed to the Royal Navy, who wanted greater firepower to deal with German and Italian foes. Jimmy Thach is quoted as saying, "A pilot who cannot hit with four guns will miss with eight." Extra guns and folding wings meant extra weight and reduced performance: the F4F-4 was capable of only about 318 mph (512 km/h) at 19,400 ft (5,900 m). Rate of climb was noticeably worse in the F4F-4; while Grumman optimistically claimed the F4F-4 could climb at a modest 1,950 ft (590 m) per minute, in combat conditions, pilots found their F4F-4s capable of ascending at only 500 to 1,000 ft (150 to 300 m) per minute. Moreover, the F4F-4's folding wing was intended to allow five F4F-4s to be stowed in the space required by two F4F-3s. In practice, the folding wings allowed an increase of about 50% in the number of Wildcats carried aboard U.S. fleet aircraft carriers. A variant of the F4F-4, designated F4F-4B for contractual purposes, was supplied to the British with a modified cowling and Wright Cyclone engine. These aircraft received the designation of Martlet IV. ==== F4F-5 Wildcat ==== Two F4F-3s (the 3rd and 4th production aircraft, BuNo 1846/1847) were fitted with a Wright R-1820-40 engine and designated XF4F-5. ==== FM-1/-2 Wildcat ==== General Motors' Eastern Aircraft Division produced 5,280 FM variants of the Wildcat. Grumman's Wildcat production ceased in early 1943 to make way for the newer F6F Hellcat, but General Motors continued producing Wildcats for both U.S. Navy and Fleet Air Arm use. Late in the war, the Wildcat was obsolescent as a front line fighter compared to the faster (380 mph/610 km/h) F6F Hellcat or much faster (446 mph/718 km/h) F4U Corsair. However, they were adequate for small escort carriers against submarine and shore threats. These relatively modest ships only carried two types of aircraft, the Wildcats and GM-built TBM Avengers. The Wildcat's lower landing speed and ability to take off without a catapult made it more suitable for shorter flight decks. At first, GM produced the FM-1, identical to the F4F-4, but reduced the number of guns to four, and added wing racks for two 250 lb (110 kg) bombs or six rockets. Production later switched to the improved FM-2 (based on Grumman's XF4F-8 prototype) optimized for small-carrier operations, with a more powerful engine (the 1,350 hp (1,010 kW) Wright R-1820-56), and a taller tail to cope with the torque. ==== F4F-7 ==== The F4F-7 was a photoreconnaissance variant, with armor and armament removed. It had non-folding "wet" wings that carried an additional 555 gal (2,101 L) of fuel for a total of about 700 gal (2,650 L), increasing its range to 3,700 mi (5,955 km). A total of 21 were built. ==== F2M Wildcat ==== The F2M-1 was a planned development of the FM-1 by General Motors / Eastern Aircraft to be powered by the improved XR-1820-70 engine, but the project was canceled before any aircraft were built. === Royal Navy Martlets === ==== Martlet Mk I ==== At the end of 1939, Grumman received a French order for 81 aircraft of model G-36A, to equip their new Joffre-class aircraft carriers Joffre and Painlevé. The main difference from the basic model G-36 was due to the unavailability for export of the two-stage supercharged engine of the F4F-3. The G-36A was powered by the nine-cylinder, single-row Wright R-1820-G205A radial engine, of 1,200 hp (890 kW) and with a single-stage two-speed supercharger. The G-36A also had French instruments (with metric calibration), radio and gunsight. The throttle was modified to conform to French pre-war practice: the throttle lever was moved towards the pilot (i.e. backward) to increase engine power. The armament which was to be fitted in France was four 7.5 mm (.296 in) Darne machine guns (two in the fuselage and two in the wings). The first G-36A was flown on 11 May 1940. After France's defeat in the Battle of France, all contracts were taken over by Britain. The throttle was modified again, four 0.50 in (12.7 mm) guns were installed in the wings and most traces of the original ownership removed. The Martlets were modified for British use by Blackburn, which continued to do this for all later marks. British gunsights, catapult spools and other items were installed. After attempts to fit British radio sets, it was decided to use the superior American equipment. The first Martlets entered British service in August 1940, with 804 Naval Air Squadron, stationed at Hatston in the Orkney Islands. The Martlet Mk I did not have a wing folding mechanism and was therefore used primarily from land bases, with the notable exception of six aircraft of 882 Sqn aboard Illustrious from March 1942. In April 1942 Illustrious transferred two Martlet I aircraft to HMS Archer while in port at Freetown. One of her four retained Martlet I aircraft were subsequently fitted with folding wings by ship's staff during passage to Durban. In 1940, Belgium also placed an order for at least 10 G-36A's. These were to be modified with the same changes to the French aircraft, plus the removal of the tailhook as they were to be landbased. Belgium surrendered before any aircraft were delivered and by 10 May 1940, the aircraft order was transferred to the Royal Navy. ==== Martlet Mk II ==== Before the Fleet Air Arm took on charge the Martlet Mk Is, it had already ordered 100 G-36B fighters. The British chose the Pratt & Whitney R-1830-S3C4-G engine to power this aircraft; this too had a single-stage, two-speed supercharger. The FAA decided to accept a delay in delivery to get Martlets fitted out with the Grumman-designed and patented Sto-Wing folding wing system first fitted onto U.S. Navy F4F-4 Wildcats, which were vitally important if the Martlet was to be used from the first 3 Illustrious class carriers which had elevators that were too narrow to accommodate non-folding wing aircraft. Nevertheless, the first 10 received had fixed wings. The first Martlet with folding wings was not delivered until August 1941. In contrast to the USN F4F-3, the British aircraft were fitted with armor and self-sealing fuel tanks. The Mk II also had a larger tailwheel. For carrier operations, the "sting" tail hook and attachment point for the American single-point catapult launch system were considered important advantages. Nevertheless, the Martlets were modified to have British-style catapult spools. Deliveries of the folding-wing G-36Bs began in August 1941, with 36 shipped to the UK and 54 shipped to the Far East; they were designated "Martlet Mark II". Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) testing of the Martlet II at a mean weight of approximately 7,350 lb (3,330 kg) showed a maximum speed of 293 mph (472 km/h) at 5,400 ft (1,600 m) and 13,800 ft (4,200 m), a maximum climb rate of 1,940 ft/min (9.9 m/s) at 7,600 ft (2,300 m) at 7,790 lb (3,530 kg) weight, and a time to climb to 20,000 ft (6,100 m) of 12.5 minutes. The service ceiling at 7,790 lb (3,530 kg) was 31,000 ft (9,400 m). The Martlet was the second single-seat, monoplane fighter to operate from Royal Navy aircraft carriers following the introduction of the Sea Hurricane IB on HMS Furious in July 1941. The majority of the Martlet Mk IIs were sent to the Far East. The first shipboard operations of the type in British service were in September 1941, aboard HMS Audacity, a very small escort carrier with a carrier deck of 420 ft (130 m) by 59 ft (18 m), no elevators and no hangar deck. The six Wildcats were parked on the deck at all times. On its first voyage, it served as escort carrier for a convoy to Gibraltar. On 20 September, a German Fw 200 was shot down. On the next voyage, four Fw 200 Condors fell to the guns of the Martlets, and of the combined total, two of these five Condors were shot down by Eric "Winkle" Brown during his time aboard. Operations from Audacity also demonstrated that the fighter cover was useful against U-boats. Audacity was sunk by a U-boat on 21 December 1941, and of the pilots only Brown and one other survived, but it had already proved the usefulness of escort carriers. In May 1942, 881 and 882 squadrons on HMS Illustrious participated in operations against Madagascar. In August 1942, 806 NAS on HMS Indomitable provided fighter cover for a convoy to Malta. Later in that year they participated in the landings in French North Africa. ==== Martlet Mk III ==== The first 30 F4F-3As were released for sale to Greece, after the Italian invasion in November 1940. However, at the defeat of Greece in April 1941 the aircraft had only reached Gibraltar. They were taken over by the FAA as Martlet Mk III(B). As these aircraft did not have folding wings, they were only used from land bases. They served in a shore-based role in the Western Desert. Ten fixed-wing G-36Bs were used by the FAA as Martlet III(A). ==== Martlet Mk IV ==== The Royal Navy purchased 220 F4F-4s adapted to British requirements. The main difference was the use of a Wright R-1820-40B Cyclone in a distinctly more rounded and compact cowling, with a single double-wide flap on each side of the rear and no lip intake. These machines were named Martlet Mk IV. Boscombe Down testing of the Martlet IV at 7,350 lb (3,330 kg) weight showed a maximum speed of 278 mph (447 km/h) at 3,400 ft (1,000 m) and 298 mph (480 km/h) at 14,600 ft (4,500 m), a maximum climb rate of 1,580 ft/min (8.0 m/s) at 6,200 ft (1,900 m) at 7,740 lb (3,510 kg) weight, and a time to climb to 20,000 ft (6,100 m) of 14.6 minutes. The service ceiling at 7,740 lb (3,510 kg) was 30,100 ft (9,200 m). ==== Martlet Mk V ==== The Fleet Air Arm purchased 312 FM-1s, originally with the designation of Martlet V. In January 1944, a decision was made to retain the American names for US-supplied aircraft, redesignating the batch as the Wildcat V. ==== Wildcat Mk VI ==== The Wildcat VI was the Air Ministry name for the FM-2 Wildcat in FAA service. == Operators == Belgium Belgian Air Force: at least 10 G-36A's ordered, never delivered, transferred to France (who then transferred them to the Royal Navy) after surrender. France Aeronavale: 81 aircraft ordered, never delivered, transferred to Royal Navy after French defeat. Greece Hellenic Air Force: 30 Martlet Mk III's ordered, delivered to Gibraltar, transferred to Royal Navy after defeat. Canada Royal Canadian Navy: RCN personnel assigned to the Royal Navy HMS Puncher, were to provide the RCN with experience in aircraft carrier operations. The RCN flew 14 Martlets as part of 881 (RN) Squadron from February–July 1945. United Kingdom Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm United States United States Navy United States Marine Corps == Surviving aircraft == == Specifications (F4F-3) == Data from The American Fighter General characteristics Crew: 1 Length: 28 ft 9 in (8.76 m) Wingspan: 38 ft 0 in (11.58 m) Height: 11 ft 10 in (3.61 m) Wing area: 260 sq ft (24 m2) Airfoil: root: NACA 23015; tip: NACA 23009 Empty weight: 4,907 lb (2,226 kg) Gross weight: 7,423 lb (3,367 kg) Powerplant: 1 × Pratt & Whitney R-1830-76 14-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engine, 1,200 hp (890 kW) Propellers: 3-bladed constant-speed propeller Performance Maximum speed: 331 mph (533 km/h, 288 kn) Range: 845 mi (1,360 km, 734 nmi) Service ceiling: 39,500 ft (12,000 m) Rate of climb: 2,303 ft/min (11.70 m/s) Wing loading: 28.5 lb/sq ft (139 kg/m2) Power/mass: 0.282 kW/kg (0.172 hp/lb) Armament Guns: 4 × 0.50 in (12.7 mm) AN/M2 Browning machine guns with 450 rounds per gun Bombs: 2 × 100 lb (45.4 kg) bombs and/or 2 × 58 US gal (48 imp gal; 220 L) drop tanks == See also == Joe Foss, the top scoring Wildcat ace with 26 victories, flying with VMF-121 during World War II and a recipient of the Medal of Honor. John Lucian Smith, second scoring Wildcat ace with 19 victories while flying with VMF-223 and also a recipient of the Medal of Honor. Marion Eugene Carl, the third scoring Wildcat ace with 16.5 victories while flying Wildcats, plus an additional two flying Vought F4U Corsairs while in service with VMF-221 and VMF-223. Related development Grumman F3F Grumman F6F Hellcat Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Brewster F2A Buffalo Hawker Sea Hurricane Mitsubishi A6M Zero Nakajima Ki-43 Supermarine Seafire Related lists List of aircraft of the Fleet Air Arm List of fighter aircraft List of United States Navy aircraft designations (pre-1962) List of aircraft of the United States during World War II List of aircraft of World War II == References == === Notes === === Citations === === Bibliography === Angelucci, Enzo. The American Fighter. Sparkford, Somerset, UK: Haynes Publishing Group, 1987. ISBN 0-85429-635-2. Barber, S.B. Naval Aviation Combat Statistics— World War II (OPNAV-P-23V No. A129). Washington, D.C.: Air Branch, Office of Naval Intelligence, 1946. Brown, Eric, CBE, DCS, AFC, RN.; William Green and Gordon Swanborough. "Grumman Wildcat". Wings of the Navy, Flying Allied Carrier Aircraft of World War Two. London: Jane's Publishing Company, 1980, pp. 40–52. ISBN 0-7106-0002-X. Buttler, Tony. British Secret Projects 3: Fighters and Bombers 1935–1950. Hersham, Surrey, UK: Midland Publishing, 2004. ISBN 978-1-85780-179-8. Dann, Richard S. F4F Wildcat in action, Aircraft Number 191. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 2004. ISBN 0-89747-469-4. Dann, Richard S. F4F Wildcat Walkaround. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 1995. ISBN 0-89747-347-7. Donald, David, ed. American Warplanes of World War II. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1995. ISBN 1-874023-72-7. Drendel, Lou. U.S. Navy Carrier Fighters of World War II. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1987. ISBN 0-89747-194-6. Ehrman, Vlastimil. Grumman Wildcat (in Czech). Prague, Czech Republic: Modelpres, 1995. ISBN 978-8-0901-3287-0. Ewing, Steve. Thach Weave: The Life of Jimmie Thach. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2004. ISBN 1-59114-248-2. Ewing, Steve. Reaper Leader: The Life of Jimmy Flatley. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2002. ISBN 1-55750-205-6. "F4F-3 Airplane Characteristics & Performance, 1942." Archived 2011-07-07 at the Wayback Machine Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Ordnance, Navy Department, 1942. "F4F-4 Airplane Characteristics & Performance, 1943." Archived 2011-07-07 at the Wayback Machine Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Ordnance, Navy Department, 1943. Green, William. Warplanes of the Second World War, Volume Four: Fighters. London: Macdonald & Co.(Publishers) Ltd., 1961 (6th impression 1969). ISBN 0-356-01448-7. Green, William. War Planes of the Second World War, Volume Six: Floatplanes. London: Macdonald, 1962. Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. WW2 Fact Files: US Navy and Marine Corps Fighters. London: Macdonald and Jane's Publishers Ltd., 1976. ISBN 0-356-08222-9. Green, William, Gordon Swanborough and Eric Brown. "Grumman's Willing Wildcat". Air Enthusiast Quarterly, Number Three, 1977, pp. 49–69. ISSN 0143-5450 Greene, Frank L. The Grumman F4F-3 Wildcat. Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications, 1972 (reprint from 1966). Jackson, A.J. Blackburn Aircraft since 1909. London: Putnam, 1968. ISBN 0-370-00053-6. Jones Ben, (ed). The Fleet Air Arm in the Second World War volume II, 1942–1943, the Fleet Air Arm in Transition: the Mediterranean, Battle of the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean. London: Routledge, 2018. ISBN 978-0-8153-5507-6. Jarski, Adam. F4F Wildcat, Monografie Lotnicze 20 (in Polish). Gdańsk, Poland: AJ-Press, 1995. ISBN 83-86208-29-5. Kinzey, Bert. F4F Wildcat in detail. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 2000. ISBN 1-888974-18-4. Kinzey, Bert. F4F Wildcat in detail & scale. Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: TAB Books Inc., 1988. ISBN 0-8306-8040-3. Kit, Mister and Jean-Pierre de Cock. Grumman F4F Wildcat (in French). Paris: Éditions Atlas s.a., 1981. no ISBN. Lawrence, Joseph (1945). The Observer's Book Of Airplanes. London and New York: Frederick Warne & Co. Linn, Don. F4F Wildcat in action, Aircraft Number 84. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, Inc., 1988. ISBN 0-89747-200-4. Lundstrom, John B. The First Team and the Guadalcanal Campaign. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1994. ISBN 1-55750-526-8. Lundstrom, John B. The First Team: Pacific Naval Air Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1984. ISBN 0-87021-189-7. March, Daniel J. (ed). British Warplanes of World War II. London: Aerospace Publishing. 1998. ISBN 1-874023-92-1. Mason, Tim. The Secret Years: Flight Testing at Boscombe Down 1939–1945. Manchester, UK: Hikoki, 1998. ISBN 0-9519899-9-5. Mendenhall, Charles A. Wildcats & Hellcats: Gallant Grummans in World War II. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1984. ISBN 0-87938-177-9. O'Leary, Michael. Grumman Cats. London: Osprey Publishing Ltd., 1992. ISBN 1-85532-247-1. O'Leary, Michael. United States Naval Fighters of World War II in Action. Poole, Dorset, UK: Blandford Press, 1980. ISBN 0-7137-0956-1. Philips, Glen. Grumman F4F Wildcat, including Grumman Martlet Mks. I-VI, Warpaint series no.9. Church End Farm, Bedfordshire, UK: Hall Park Books, 1997. No ISBN. Polmar, Norman. Historic Naval Aircraft. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books, 2004. ISBN 978-1-57488-572-9. Stille, Mark. Guadalcanal 1942–43: Japan's bid to knock out Henderson Field and the Cactus Air Force (Air Campaign). Osprey Publishing, 2019. ISBN 1472835514. Swanborough, Gordon and Peter M. Bowers. United States Navy Aircraft since 1912. London: Putnam, Second edition, 1976. ISBN 0-370-10054-9. Thetford, Owen. British Naval Aircraft Since 1912, Fourth Edition. London: Putnam, 1978. ISBN 0-85177-861-5. Thruelsen, Richard. The Grumman Story. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Press, 1976. ISBN 0-275-54260-2. Tillman, Barrett. Hellcat, The F6F in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1979. ISBN 1-55750-991-3. Tillman, Barrett. Wildcat Aces of World War 2. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1995. ISBN 1-85532-486-5. Tillman, Barrett. Wildcat: The F4F in World War II. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval & Aviation Publishing, 1990, First edition 1983. ISBN 1-55750-819-4. Winchester, Jim. Fighter - The World's Finest Combat Aircraft - 1913 to the Present Day. Bath, UK: Parragon Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-4054-3843-6. Wixey, Ken. "Corpulent Feline: Grumman's F4F Wildcat: Part One". Air Enthusiast, No. 68, March–April 1997, pp. 16–24. ISSN 0143-5450. Wixey, Ken. "Corpulent Feline: Grumman's F4F Wildcat: Part Two". Air Enthusiast, No. 70, July–August 1997, pp. 51–59. ISSN 0143-5450. Wixey, Ken (March–April 1997). "'Wild Catfish': The 'Sea-booted' F4F-3S Wildcat". Air Enthusiast. No. 68. p. 25. ISSN 0143-5450. Young, Edward M. "F4F Wildcat vs A6M Zero-Sen - Pacific Theater 1942 (Osprey Duel; 54)". Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2013. ISBN 978-1-78096-322-8 Zbiegniewski, Andre R. and Krzysztof Janowicz. Grumman F4F Wildcat (Bilingual Polish/English). Lublin, Poland: Kagero, 2004. ISBN 83-89088-53-3. == External links == (1945) AN 01-190FB-1 Pilots Handbook of Flight Operating Instructions Navy Model FM-2 British Model Wildcat VI Airplanes Naval History and Heritage Command Wildcat Naval History and Heritage Command - F4F VectorSite Wildcat Entry How Leroy Grumman and Jake Swirbul built a high-flying company from the ground up Grumman Wildcat Retrieved From Lake Michigan Newsreel footage of FAA pilots being introduced to the Grumman Martlet Popular Science, February 1941 color cover of early F4F model Pictures from the Grumman Archive The Grumman Wildcat in FAA Service by Bruce Archer Aviation-History.com's XF4F-1 3-view drawing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo_Seagar#:~:text=Seagar%20ran%20%22Seagars%20at%20Oxford,the%20reason%20for%20its%20closure.	Jo Seagar	Joanna Mary Seagar (born 1955), generally known as Jo Seagar, is a New Zealand writer, TV personality and celebrity cook. == Biography == Seagar lives in the small town of Oxford in North Canterbury, with her husband Ross. She initially trained as a nurse, and attended Le Cordon Bleu cookery school in London while working at the Royal Free Hospital. Back in New Zealand, Seagar opened Harley's Restaurant in Auckland with fellow nurse Helen Brabazon. Seagar ran "Seagars at Oxford" cooking school, café and kitchenware store for about ten years, but it closed in 2015. Seager cited the decrease in tourism following the Canterbury earthquakes as the reason for its closure. The company's collapse left thousands of dollars unpaid to employees and creditors. Seagar was the first food writer for North & South, has written for New Zealand Woman's Weekly and Cuisine magazine, and writes a regular column for the Australian Women's Weekly. Seagar is patron and ambassador for Hospice, and raises money for the charity through cooking classes. In the 2015 New Year Honours, Seagar was appointed a Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to the community. == Books == Jo Seagar's New Zealand Country Cookbook (1993) Pearls from Jo Seagar's Kitchen (1999) Easy Peasy Lemon Squeezy (2001) Sugar and Spice: A Taste of Chelsea (2002) Lip Smackin' Fast Cookin' Hunger Bustin' Gr8 Tastin' Cookbook (2003) Easy Peasy Very Cheesy (2004) The Chelsea Cafe: The Simple, Tasty Cafe Food at Home (2005) You Shouldn't Have Gone to So Much Trouble, Darling (2007) All Things Nice (2002) Jo Seagar Cooks (2006) The Cook School Recipes (2008) Everyday Cooking: Easy, Simple Recipes for Everyone (2010) Italia: Simple Recipes from the Italian Cook School (2011) Great Baking Recipes (2013) A Bit of What You Fancy (2013) Easy Finger Food Recipes (2014) Jo Seagar Bakes (2014) Elbows off the Table, Please (2016) Better than a Bought One: Clever Recipes and Ideas for Home-Grown Celebrations (2018) == References == == External links == First episode of Real Food for Real People with Jo Seagar, 1998, via NZ Onscreen
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusumbai_Motichand_Planetarium#:~:text=Kusumbai%20Motichand%20Planetarium%2C%20the%20first,Pune%20on%2018%20September%201954.	Kusumbai Motichand Planetarium	Kusumbai Motichand Planetarium, the first projection planetarium in Asia, became operational at the New English School in Pune on 18 September 1954. It was named after the mother of Seth Motichand Shah, son-in-law of Seth Walchand Hirachand(1882–1953), the founder of the Walchand group of Industries. The venture of a planetarium building was possible because of the generous donation of Rs.50000 from Walchand Group in the early 1950s. The planetarium movement in India had started with the opening of a simple planetarium in the New English School in Pune in 1954. The New English School building has a unique Y-shaped architecture with three linear wings that are connected to the central hub at 120-degree angle. The topmost point of the hub, a concrete hemispherical dome of about 9 metres (30 ft) inner diameter is a Kusumbai Motichand Planetarium. The floor area of the planetarium is 63 square meters. The planetarium can accommodate 100 people at a time. The planetarium was inaugurated by Girija Shankar Bajpai, the then Governor of Bombay Province. == History of Planetarium Projector == The idea of developing a device which can simulate planetary motions against the background of artificially created night sky dates back to 1913. Max Wolf, a German scientist and astronomer had suggested this idea to Oskar von Miller, another German engineer and also the founder President of the Deutsches Museum in Munich. Planetarium Jena, the oldest continuously operating planetarium in the world used this idea of projector for the first time in 1926. After the first modern planetarium, for the next twenty years many planetariums were established in Europe, Japan and America, however not in India. During the late 1930s, Armand Spitz, a part-time lecturer at The Fels Planetarium of the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, had started developing his own projector for the planetarium. However, while designing an inexpensive planetarium projector, Spitz realized the difficulties involving the icosahedron shaped projector globe. He approached Albert Einstein for a solution. Following Einstein's suggestion, Spitz used a dodecahedron and managed to produce an inexpensive planetarium projector. This planetarium is believed to be the only planetarium in the world that is running its shows with this projector for more than sixty years. == Suspension and later resumption of operation == The projector installed in Kusumbai Motichand Planetarium is Spitz A1 instrument imported from Philadelphia. It is the oldest planetarium instrument in India that was still operational. Since 2004, the projector remained out of order resulting suspension of planetarium shows. However, efforts were made to revive the planetarium in 2012 by the staff of New English School, by replacing some defective components such as transformer, mercury switches, projector motor, electrical bulbs, etc. Along with the repairs, some modifications were also made to the projection system to show zodiacs in the planetarium. After seven years of non-operation, the planetarium was reopened for the general public on the occasion of National Science Day on 28 February 2012. It is believed to be the oldest functional school planetarium in Asia. == See also == Astrotourism in India Swami Vivekananda Planetarium, Mangalore List of planetariums == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amrita_Sher-Gil#:~:text=Sher%2DGil%20was%20the%20elder,the%20contemporary%20artist%20Vivan%20Sundaram.	Amrita Sher-Gil	Amrita Sher-Gil (30 January 1913 – 5 December 1941) was a Hungarian–Indian painter. She has been called "one of the greatest avant-garde women artists of the early 20th century" and a pioneer in modern Indian art. Drawn to painting from an early age, Sher-Gil started formal lessons at the age of eight. She first gained recognition at the age of 19, for her 1932 oil painting Young Girls. Sher-Gil depicted everyday life of the people in her paintings. Sher-Gil traveled throughout her life to various countries including Turkey, France, and India, deriving heavily from precolonial Indian art styles as well as contemporary culture. Sher-Gil is considered an important painter of 20th-century India, whose legacy stands on a level with that of the pioneers from the Bengal Renaissance. She was also an avid reader and a pianist. Sher-Gil's paintings are among the most expensive by Indian women painters today, although few acknowledged her work when she was alive. == Early life and education == Amrita Sher-Gil was born Dalma-Amrita on 30 January 1913, at 4 Szilágyi Dezső square, Budapest, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Her father was Umrao Singh Sher-Gil Majithia, a Punjabi Indian Jat Sikh aristocrat from the Majithia family and a scholar in Sanskrit and Persian, and her mother was Marie Antoinette Gottesman, a Hungarian-Jewish opera singer who came from an affluent bourgeois family. Her parents first met in 1912, while Marie Antoinette was visiting Lahore. Her mother came to India as a companion of Princess Bamba Sutherland, the granddaughter of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Sher-Gil was the elder of two daughters; her younger sister was Indira Sundaram (née Sher-Gil; born in March 1914), mother of the contemporary artist Vivan Sundaram. The family were obliged to remain in Budapest until after the First World War. She was the niece of Indologist Ervin Baktay. Baktay noticed Sher-Gil's artistic talents during his visit to Shimla in 1926 and was an advocate of Sher-Gil pursuing art. He guided her by critiquing her work and gave her an academic foundation to grow on. When she was a young girl she would paint the servants in her house, and get them to model for her. The memories of these models would eventually lead to her return to India. Her family faced financial problems in Hungary. In 1921, her family moved to Summer Hill, Shimla, India, and Sher-Gil soon began learning piano and violin. By age nine she, along with her younger sister Indira, was giving concerts and acting in plays at Shimla's Gaiety Theatre at Mall Road, Shimla. Though she had already been painting since the age of five, she started studying painting formally at age eight. Sher-Gil received formal lessons in art from Major Whitmarsh, who was later replaced by Hal Bevan-Petman. In Shimla, Sher-Gil lived a relatively privileged lifestyle. As a child, she was expelled from her Catholic school Convent of Jesus and Mary for declaring herself an atheist. In 1923, Marie came to know an Italian sculptor, who was living in Shimla at the time. In 1924, when he returned to Italy, she too moved there, along with Amrita, and got her enrolled at Santa Annunziata, an art school in Florence. Though Amrita did not stay at this school for long and returned to India in 1924, it was here that she was exposed to works of Italian masters. At sixteen, Sher-Gil sailed to Europe with her mother to train as a painter in Paris, first at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière under Pierre Vaillent and Lucien Simon (where she met Boris Taslitzky) and later at the École des Beaux-Arts (1930–1934). She drew inspiration from European painters such as Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin and Amedeo Modigliani, while working under the influence of her teacher Lucien Simon and through the company of artist friends and lovers like Taslitzky. While in Paris, she is said to have painted with a conviction and maturity rarely seen in a 16-year old. In 1931, Sher-Gil was briefly engaged to Yusuf Ali Khan, but rumours spread that she was also having an affair with her first cousin and later husband Viktor Egan. Her letters reveal same-sex affairs. == 1932–1936: Early career, European and Western styles == Sher-Gil's early paintings display a significant influence of the Western modes of painting, more specifically, the Post-Impressionism style. She practiced a lot in the Bohemian circles of Paris in the early 1930s. Her 1932 oil painting, Young Girls, came as a breakthrough for her; the work won her accolades, including a gold medal and election as an Associate of the Grand Salon in Paris in 1933. She was the youngest ever member, and the only Asian to have received this recognition. Her work during this time include a number of self-portraits, as well as life in Paris, nude studies, still life studies, and portraits of friends and fellow students. The National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi describes the self-portraits she made while in Paris as "[capturing] the artist in her many moods – somber, pensive, and joyous – while revealing a narcissistic streak in her personality". When she was in Paris, one of her professors said that judging by the richness of her colouring Sher-Gil was not in her element in the west, and that her artistic personality would find its true atmosphere in the east. In 1933, Sher-Gil "began to be haunted by an intense longing to return to India feeling in some strange way that there lay her destiny as a painter". She returned to India at the end of 1934. In May 1935, Sher-Gil met the English journalist Malcolm Muggeridge, then working as assistant editor and leader writer for The Calcutta Statesman. Both Muggeridge and Sher-Gil stayed at the family home at Summer Hill, Shimla and a short intense affair took place during which she painted a casual portrait of her new lover, the painting now with the National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi. By September 1935 Amrita saw Muggeridge off as he traveled back to England for new employment. She left herself for travel in 1936 at the behest of art collector and critic Karl Khandalavala, who encouraged her to pursue her passion for discovering her Indian roots. In India, she began a quest for the rediscovery of the traditions of Indian art which was to continue till her death. She was greatly impressed and influenced by the Mughal and Pahari schools of painting and the cave paintings at Ajanta. == 1937–1941: Later career, influence of Indian art == Later in 1937, Sher-Gil toured South India and produced her South Indian trilogy of paintings Bride's Toilet, Brahmacharis, and South Indian Villagers Going to Market following her visit to the Ajanta Caves, when she made a conscious attempt to return to classical Indian art. These paintings reveal her passionate sense of colour and empathy for her Indian subjects, who are often depicted in their poverty and despair. By now the transformation in her work was complete and she had found her 'artistic mission' which was, according to her, to express the life of Indian people through her canvas. While in Saraya, Sher-Gil wrote to a friend: "I can only paint in India. Europe belongs to Picasso, Matisse, Braque.... India belongs only to me." Her stay in India marks the beginning of a new phase in her artistic development, one that was distinct from the European phase of the interwar years when her work showed an engagement with the works of Hungarian painters, especially the Nagybánya school of painting. Sher-Gil married her Hungarian first cousin, Viktor Egan when she was 25. He had helped Sher-Gil obtain abortions on at least two occasions prior to their marriage. She moved with him to India to stay at her paternal family's home in Saraya, Sardar nagar, Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh. Thus began her second phase of painting, whose impact on Indian art rivals that of Rabindranath Tagore and Jamini Roy of the Bengal school of art. The 'Calcutta Group' of artists, which transformed the Indian art scene, was to start only in 1943, and the 'Progressive Artist's Group', with Francis Newton Souza, Ara, Bakre, Gade, M. F. Husain and S. H. Raza among its founders, lay further ahead in 1948. Sher-Gil's art was strongly influenced by the paintings of the two Tagores, Rabindranath and Abanindranath who were pioneers of the Bengal School of painting. Her portraits of women resemble works by Rabindranath while the use of 'chiaroscuro' and bright colours reflect the influence of Abanindranath. During her stay at Saraya, Sher-Gil painted the Village Scene, In the Ladies' Enclosure, and Siesta, all of which portray the leisurely rhythms of life in rural India. Siesta and In the Ladies' Enclosure reflect her experimentation with the miniature school of painting while Village Scene reflects influences of the Pahari school of painting. Although acclaimed by art critics Karl Khandalavala in Bombay and Charles Fabri in Lahore as the greatest painter of the century, Sher-Gil's paintings found few buyers. She travelled across India with her paintings but the Nawab Salar Jung of Hyderabad returned them and the Maharaja of Mysore chose Raja Ravi Varma's paintings over hers. Although from a family that was closely tied to the British Raj, Sher-Gil was a Congress sympathiser. She was attracted to the poor, distressed and the deprived and her paintings of Indian villagers and women are a meditative reflection of their condition. She was also attracted by Gandhi's philosophy and lifestyle. Nehru was charmed by her beauty and talent and when he went to Gorakhpur in October 1940, he visited her at Saraya. Her paintings were at one stage even considered for use in the Congress propaganda for village reconstruction. Despite befriending Nehru, she never drew his portrait, supposedly because she thought he was "too good looking". Nehru attended her exhibition held in New Delhi in February 1937. Sher-Gil exchanged letters with Nehru for a time, but those letters were burned by her parents when she was away getting married in Budapest. In September 1941, Egan and Sher-Gil moved to Lahore, then in undivided India and a major cultural and artistic centre. She lived and painted at 23 Ganga Ram Mansions, The Mall, Lahore where her studio was on the top floor of the townhouse she inhabited. Sher-Gil was known for her many affairs with both men and women, and she also painted many of the latter. Her work Two Women is thought to be a painting of herself and her lover Marie Louise. Some of her later works include Tahitian (1937), Red Brick House (1938), Hill Scene (1938), and The Bride (1940) among others. Her last work was left unfinished just prior to her death in December 1941. == Illness and death == In 1941, at age 28, just days before the opening of her first major solo show in Lahore, Sher-Gil became seriously ill and slipped into a coma. She later died around midnight on 5 December 1941, leaving behind a large volume of work. The reason for her death has never been ascertained. A failed abortion and subsequent peritonitis have been suggested as possible causes for her death. Her mother accused her doctor husband Egan of having murdered her. The day after her death, Britain declared war on Hungary and Egan was interned as an enemy alien. Sher-Gil was cremated on 7 December 1941 in Lahore. == Artistic and cultural legacies == Sher-Gil's art has influenced generations of Indian artists from Sayed Haider Raza to Arpita Singh and her depiction of the plight of women has made her art a beacon for women at large both in India and abroad. The Government of India has declared her works as National Art Treasures, and most of them are housed in the National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi. Some of her paintings also hang at the Lahore Museum. A postage stamp depicting her painting Hill Women was released in 1978 by India Post, and the Amrita Shergil Marg is a road in Lutyens' Delhi named after her. Sher-Gil was able to prove to western societies that Indians were able to make fine art. Her work is deemed to be so important to Indian culture that when it is sold in India, the Indian government has stipulated that the art must stay in the country – fewer than ten of her works have been sold globally. In 2006, her painting Village Scene sold for ₹6.9 crores at an auction in New Delhi which was at the time the highest amount ever paid for a painting in India. The Indian cultural centre in Budapest is named the Amrita Sher-Gil Cultural Centre. Contemporary artists in India have recreated and reinterpreted her works. Amrita Sher-Gil (1969) is a documentary film about the artist, directed by Bhagwan Das Garga and produced by the Government of India's Films Division. It won the National Film Award for Best Non-Feature Film. Besides remaining an inspiration to many a contemporary Indian artists, in 1993, she also became the inspiration behind the Urdu play Tumhari Amrita. UNESCO announced 2013, the 100th anniversary of Sher-Gil's birth, to be the international year of Amrita Sher-Gil. Sher-Gil's work is a key theme in the contemporary Indian novel Faking It by Amrita Chowdhury. Aurora Zogoiby, a character in Salman Rushdie's 1995 novel The Moor's Last Sigh, was inspired by Sher-Gil. Claire Kohda refers repeatedly to Amrita Sher-Gil and to her painting the Three Girls in her 2022 novel Woman, Eating, which features a British main character of mixed Malaysian and Japanese origin. Struggling with alienation and with living between worlds as the vampire offspring of a vampire mother and human father, the protagonist, Lydia, identifies with the Three Girls and speculates that they were vampires: "I'm pretty sure that all of Sher-Gil's subjects were vampires and that maybe she was one, too..." Sher-Gil was sometimes known as India's Frida Kahlo because of the "revolutionary" way she blended Western and traditional art forms. On 30 January 2016, Google celebrated her 103rd birthday with a Google Doodle. In 2018, The New York Times published a belated obituary for her. That year, at a Sotheby's auction in Mumbai, her painting The Little Girl in Blue was sold at auction for a record-breaking 18.69 crores. It is a portrait of her cousin Babit, a resident of Shimla and was painted in 1934, when the subject was eight years old. In 2021, Sher-Gil's painting Portrait of Denyse was put up for auction by Christie's with an estimated value to be between $1.8-2.8 million. The 1932 portrait features Denyse Proutaux, a Parisian art critic, whom Sher-Gil met in 1931. Proutaux was featured in other Sher-Gil paintings, including Young Girls and Denise Proutaux, which were both included in the exhibition "Amrita Shergil: The Passionate Quest" at the National Gallery of Modern Art in New Delhi. On 18 September 2023, Sher-Gil's 1937 painting The Story Teller fetched $7.4 million (Rs 61.8 crore) at a recent auction, setting a record for the highest price achieved by an Indian artist. SaffronArt, the auction house, organised the sale on Saturday night. This came just 10 days after modernist Syed Haider Raza's painting, Gestation, fetched ₹ 51.7 crore at Pundole auction house. In a page dedicated to the artwork, SaffronArt said the legendary artist sought to explore the realm of domestic life in The Story Teller. == Gallery == == See also == List of paintings by Amrita Sher-Gil Amrita Sher-Gil's paintings at Lahore (1937) == Explanatory notes == == References == == Bibliography == Dalmia, Yashodhara (2013). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Life. Gurugram: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-342026-2. Sundaram, Vivan (2010). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Self-Portrait in Letters and Writings. Vol. 1. New Delhi: Tulika Books. pp. 1–417. ISBN 978-81-89487-59-1. Sundaram, Vivan (2010). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Self-Portrait in Letters and Writings. Vol. 2. New Delhi: Tulika Books. pp. 418–821. ISBN 978-81-89487-59-1. == Further reading == Ananth, Deepak (2007). Amrita Sher-Gil: An Indian Artist Family of the Twentieth Century. Munich: Schirmer/Mosel. ISBN 978-3-8296-0270-9. OCLC 166903259. Dalmia, Yashodhara (2013) [2006]. Amrita Sher-Gil: A Life. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-81-8475-921-1. OCLC 973928579 – via OverDrive. Doctor, Geeta (2002). Amrita Sher Gil: A Painted Life. New Delhi: Rupa & Co. ISBN 978-81-7167-688-0. OCLC 50728719. Khandalavala, Karl J. (1945). Amrita Sher-Gil. Bombay: New Book Co. OCLC 2605226. Gupta, Indra (2004) [2003]. India's 50 Most Illustrious Women (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Icon Publications. ISBN 978-81-88086-19-1. OCLC 858639936. JRF, Dileep (22 November 2019). "अमृता शेरगिल 1913-1941" [Amrita Shergill 1913-1941] (in Hindi). History of Fine Art. Retrieved 13 April 2022. NGMA. "Virtual Galleries - Amrita Sher-Gil". New Delhi: National Gallery of Modern Art. Retrieved 13 April 2022. Sharma, Mahima (15 March 2022). "Amrita Sher Gil: A Bisexual Artist Who Even Spellbound Nehru". Simplykalaa Homepage. Kapur, Geeta (2020) [2000]. When was Modernism: Essays on Contemporary Cultural Practice in India. New Delhi, India: Tulika Books. ISBN 978-81-89487-24-9. OCLC 1129791065. Nandan, Kanhaiyalal; Shergil, Amrita (1987). Amrita Shergil (in Hindi). Delhi: Parag. OCLC 59068198. Rahman, Maseeh (6 October 2014). "In the shadow of death". The Arts. India Today. 39 (40): 68–69. Salim, Ahmad (1987). Amrita Sher-Gil: a personal view. Karachi: Istaʹarah Publications. OCLC 21297600. Śarmā, Vishwamitra (2008). "Amirita Shergil, Maestro of Modern Art (1913–1941)". Famous Indians of the 20th Century. New Delhi: Pustak Mahal. pp. 153–154. ISBN 978-81-920796-8-4. OCLC 800734508 – via Internet Archive. Sen, Geeti (2002). "Chapter II: Woman Resting on a Charpoy". Feminine Fables: Imaging the Indian Woman in Painting, Photography and Cinema. Ahmedabad & Middletown, NJ: Mapin Pub. Grantha Corp. pp. 10, 14–16, 61–100, 136. ISBN 978-81-85822-88-4. OCLC 988874350 – via Internet Archive. Sher-Gil, Amrita (1943). The art of Amrita Sher-Gil (ten coloured plates). Roerich Centre of Art and Culture. Allahabad: Allahabad Block Works. OCLC 699310. Sher-Gil, Amrita; Appasamy, Jaya; Dhingra, Baldoon (1965). Sher-Gil. New Delhi: Lalit Kala Akademi. OCLC 837971308. Singh, Narayan Iqbal (1984). Amrita Sher-Gil: A Biography. New Delhi: Vikas. ISBN 978-0-7069-2474-9. OCLC 12810037. Sundaram, Vivan (1972). Amrita Sher-Gil; essays. Bombay: Marg Publications; sole distributors: India Book Centre, New Delhi. OCLC 643542124. Sundaram, Vivan; Sher-Gil, Umrao Singh (2001). Re-Take of Amrita : Digital Photomontages Based on Photographs by Umrao Singh Sher-Gil (1870-1954) and Photographs from the Sher-Gil Family Archive. New Delhi: Tulika. ISBN 978-81-85229-49-2. OCLC 50004509. Wojtilla, Gyula; Sher-Gil, Amrita (1981). Amrita Sher-Gil and Hungary. New Delhi: Allied Publishers. OCLC 793843789. == External links == Media related to Amrita Sher-Gil at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Amrita Sher-Gil at Wikiquote
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eger_V._Murphree#:~:text=Among%20his%20awards%20were%20the%20Perkin%20Medal%20in%201950%20and%20the%20Industrial%20Research%20Institute%20(IRI)%20Medal%20in%201953.	Eger V. Murphree	Eger Vaughan Murphree (November 3, 1898 – October 29, 1962) was an American chemist, best known for his co-invention of the process of fluid catalytic cracking. == Biography == Murphree was born on November 3, 1898, in Bayonne, New Jersey, moving as a child to Kentucky. He graduated from Kentucky University with degrees in chemistry and mathematics in 1920, and a master's degree in chemistry in 1921. Murphree played college football as Kentucky as a tackle and was captain of the 1920 Kentucky Wildcats football team. After teaching physics and math and coaching football for a year at Paris High School in Paris, Illinois, Murphree spent several years at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as a staff assistant and research associate in the Chemical Engineering Department. In 1930, he joined what was then Standard Oil of New Jersey. During the Second World War Murphree was a member of the committee that organized the Manhattan Project and was widely recognized as a leader in the fields of synthetic toluene, butadiene and hydrocarbon synthesis, fluid cat cracking, fluid hydroforming, and fluid coking. He was also involved in the early Manhattan Project as a member of the S-1 Section. Murphree was head of the centrifuge project (soon abandoned) and overall engineer for the Manhattan Project in June 1942. He struck Deputy District Engineer Kenneth Nichols as "more like the industrial engineers I was accustomed to dealing with. He was stable, conservative, thorough and precise". He was to have been on the Lewis Committee reviewing the entire project in November 1942, but was sick. He (and James Conant) disagreed with the committee recommendation to build only a small electromagnetic plant, and a full-size plant was built. In the 1950s he served in the Defense Department on scheduling missiles and coordinating the programs of the three services (as Nichols had done earlier). From 1947 to 1962 he served as Vice President of research and engineering Standard Oil of New Jersey, the company later known as Exxon. Among his awards were the Perkin Medal in 1950 and the Industrial Research Institute (IRI) Medal in 1953. The E. V. Murphree Award in Industrial and Engineering Chemistry awarded annually by the American Chemical Society is named in his honor. Murphree died on October 29, 1962, at Overlook Hospital in Summit, New Jersey of coronary thrombosis. == Legacy == Murphree was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1999. == References == == External links == Eger V. Murphree U.S. patent 2,451,804 Method of and Apparatus for Contacting Solids and Gases, October 19, 1948 Eger V. Murphree—Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_Norwegian_European_Union_membership_referendum	1994 Norwegian European Union membership referendum	A referendum on joining the European Union was held in Norway on 27 and 28 November 1994. After a long period of heated debate, the "no" side won with 52.2 per cent of the vote, on a turnout of 88.6 per cent. Membership of what was then the European Community had previously been rejected in a 1972 referendum, and by French veto in 1962. As of 2025, this was the most recent referendum in Norway. == Campaign == The "No" campaign was led by Anne Enger Lahnstein, leader of the Centre Party. The main themes of the "No" campaign were loss of sovereignty if Norway should join the Union, as well as the fundamental differences in economic structure between Norway and the EU, as Norway has an economy based heavily on natural resources (especially oil and fish), in contrast to the EU's more industrial economy. Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland led the "Yes" campaign. Her party, the Labour Party, was divided on the question of Norwegian membership of the Union. Unlike Trygve Bratteli in 1972, she refused to threaten to resign if the referendum failed to result in a "Yes" vote, on the grounds that more serious divisions could have arisen in the Labour Party. The main arguments of the "Yes" side were that as a European country, Norway belonged in the European Union, and that Norway's economy would benefit from membership. According to John Erik Fossum, a political science professor at ARENA, Centre for European Studies, University of Oslo, "the fact that Norway had already signed the EEA agreement made it easier for people to vote no because they knew that Norway had assured EU market access." === Debates === === Official party positions === == Results == === Countrywide === === By constituency === == See also == Norway–European Union relations == References == == External links == The European Movement in Norway No to the EU - Norwegian eurosceptics Norway. EU Referendum 1994, Electoral Geography 2.0 website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie_Milsap	Ronnie Milsap	Ronnie Lee Milsap (born Ronald Lee Millsaps; January 16, 1943) is an American country music singer and pianist. He was one of country music's most popular and influential performers of the 1970s and 1980s. Nearly completely blind from birth, he became one of the most successful and versatile country "crossover" singers of his time, appealing to both country and pop music markets with hit songs that incorporated pop, R&B, and rock and roll elements. His biggest crossover hits include "It Was Almost Like a Song", "Smoky Mountain Rain", "(There's) No Gettin' Over Me", "I Wouldn't Have Missed It for the World", "Any Day Now", "Is It Over" and "Stranger in My House". He is credited with six Grammy Awards and 35 number-one country hits, fourth to George Strait, Conway Twitty, and Merle Haggard. He was selected for induction into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 2014. == Career == === Early life (1943–1971) === Milsap was born January 16, 1943, in Robbinsville, North Carolina. A congenital disorder left him almost completely blind from birth. Abandoned by his mother as an infant, he was raised in poverty by his grandparents in the Smoky Mountains until he was sent to the North Carolina State School for the Blind and Deaf in Raleigh, North Carolina, at age five. During his childhood, Milsap developed a passion for music, particularly the late-night radio broadcasts of country music, gospel music, and rhythm and blues. When he was 7, his instructors noticed his musical talents. Soon afterward he began formal study of classical music at Governor Morehead School and learned several instruments, eventually mastering the piano. When he was 14, a slap from one of the school's houseparents caused him to lose what very limited vision he had in his left eye. With the national breakthrough of Elvis Presley in 1956, Milsap became interested in rock and roll music and formed a rock band called the Apparitions with fellow high-school students. In concert, Milsap has often paid tribute to the musicians of the 1950s who inspired him including Ray Charles, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Presley. Milsap was awarded a full college scholarship and briefly attended Young Harris College in Young Harris, Georgia, with plans to become a lawyer. During this time, Milsap joined a popular local R&B band called the Dimensions that played gigs in the Atlanta area, and became a regular attraction at the rough and rowdy Royal Peacock Club. In the fall of 1964, Milsap declined a scholarship to law school and left college to pursue a full-time career in music. He met Joyce Reeves one night at a dinner party during this period, after which the two were married in 1965. In 1963, Milsap met Atlanta disc jockey Pat Hughes, who became an early supporter of his music career. Milsap recorded his first single, "Total Disaster/It Went to Your Head", which enjoyed some local success in the Atlanta area. The single sold 15,000 copies with the help of Hughes, who played the record on his radio show. Around this same time, Milsap auditioned for a job as a keyboardist for musician J. J. Cale. In 1965, Milsap signed with New York–based Scepter Records, recording several obscure singles for the label over the next few years, and working briefly with other soul musicians like Ray Charles and Stevie Wonder. Also in 1965, Milsap scored his first hit with the Ashford & Simpson–penned single, "Never Had It So Good", which peaked at No. 19 on the R&B chart in November of that year. It would be his only successful single during his time with Scepter. Milsap cut another Ashford & Simpson tune, "Let's Go Get Stoned", that was relegated to a B-side. In the late 1960s, after moving to Memphis, Tennessee, Milsap worked for producer Chips Moman and became a popular weekly attraction at the Memphis nightclub T.J.'s. During this time, Moman helped Milsap land work as a session musician on numerous projects including several recordings with Elvis Presley such as "Don't Cry Daddy" in 1969 and "Kentucky Rain" in 1970. That same year, Milsap made the lower reaches of the pop charts with the single "Loving You Is a Natural Thing". He recorded and released his debut album, Ronnie Milsap, on Warner Brothers in 1971. === Breakthrough success (1973–1975) === In December 1972, Milsap relocated to Nashville after a chance meeting with country music star Charley Pride who was in the audience for a Milsap gig at the nightclub Whiskey A-Go-Go on Sunset Blvd. in Los Angeles. Pride was impressed with Milsap's singing and encouraged him to change course and focus on country music. Milsap began working with Pride's manager, Jack D. Johnson, and was signed to RCA Records in 1973. He released his first single for RCA that year, "I Hate You", which became his first country music success, peaking at No. 10 on the country chart. In 1974, Milsap toured with Pride as an opening act and had two No. 1 singles: "Pure Love" (written by Eddie Rabbitt) and the Kris Kristofferson composition "Please Don't Tell Me How the Story Ends" which won Milsap his first Grammy. In 1975, he revived the Don Gibson song "(I'd Be) A Legend in My Time" and scored another No. 1 hit with "Daydreams About Night Things". === "It Was Almost Like a Song" (1976–1978) === From 1976 to 1978, Milsap became one of country music's biggest stars. He scored seven No. 1 singles in a row, including the Grammy-winning "(I'm a) Stand by My Woman Man" and "What a Difference You've Made in My Life". The most significant of this series was "It Was Almost Like a Song" in 1977, a piano-based ballad, which became his most successful single of the 1970s. In addition to topping the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, the song was his first entry on the Billboard Hot 100 pop music chart since "Please Don't Tell Me How the Story Ends" reached No. 95; "It Was Almost Like a Song," reached No. 16. It was also his first song to make the Adult Contemporary Chart, stopping at No. 7. While the song was Milsap's only crossover success of the 1970s, he continued to achieve hits on the country music charts for the remainder of the decade. === Crossover success (1979–1992) === Milsap's sound shifted toward string-laden pop ballads during the late 1970s which resulted in crossover success on the pop charts beginning in the early 1980s. From 1980 until 1983, he scored a series of eleven No. 1 singles. Milsap's Greatest Hits album, released in 1980, included a new single, "Smoky Mountain Rain", which became a No. 1 smash on the country charts. The single peaked in the Top 20 on the pop music chart and also became the first of two Milsap songs to score No. 1 on the Adult Contemporary chart. Other crossover successes included the Top 5 pop single, "(There's) No Gettin' Over Me", and two Top 20 songs in "I Wouldn't Have Missed It For the World" and "Any Day Now", the latter which lasted five weeks at No. 1 on Billboard's Adult Contemporary chart. He also had some success with "He Got You". All four songs reached No. 1 on the country music charts. Although the series of No. 1 hits ended in 1983, the last song of the series, "Stranger in My House", was still successful on all three charts, peaking at No. 5 on the country music chart, No. 23 on the pop music chart, and No. 8 on the Adult Contemporary chart. Just a few months later, "Don't You Know How Much I Love You" was released, becoming Milsap's last significant entry on the pop music chart, stopping at No. 58. However it, along with others, still became major successes on the Adult Contemporary chart. These successful singles include "Show Her", "Still Losing You", and finally, the Grammy-winning song "Lost in the Fifties Tonight" (his last pop crossover success) in 1985. Between 1985 and 1987, Milsap enjoyed a series of uninterrupted No. 1 country singles, enjoying great success at this time with "She Keeps the Home Fires Burning", "In Love", "Snap Your Fingers", "Where Do the Nights Go", and the Grammy-winning duet with Kenny Rogers, "Make No Mistake, She's Mine". In 1987, Milsap contributed the theme song to the short-lived NBC television series J.J. Starbuck. In 1989, Milsap had his last No. 1 song with "A Woman in Love", although he still remained successful on the charts. Other Top 10 singles between 1989 and 1991 include "Houston Solution", "Stranger Things Have Happened", "Turn That Radio On", a remake of the 1950s hit "Since I Don't Have You" (his last adult contemporary hit) and "Are You Loving Me Like I'm loving You". With the help of writer Tom Carter, Milsap wrote and released his autobiography, titled Almost like a Song, in 1990. In 1992, he had a major success with "All Is Fair in Love and War". The song featured rock guitarist Mark Knopfler on lead guitar and peaked at No. 11; his last top-40 country hit, "True Believer," peaked in 1993 at No. 30. By that time, however, Milsap's chart success began to decline. === Since 1993: Life today === Milsap has remained one of country music's most beloved performers despite a decline in radio airplay after the mid-1990s. In 1993, he released True Believer on Liberty Records and even as his contemporaries were no longer played on country radio, scored a Top 30 hit on the country chart with the title track. In 2000, he resurfaced with 40 No. 1 Hits, a two-disc retrospective which hit the Country Top 20 and earned gold certification. That same year, his life and career were profiled in an episode of Biography, reflecting on his musical legacy and crossover success. In 2004, Milsap recorded Just for a Thrill, a collection of pop and jazz standards. The album marked a stylistic departure and earned a Grammy nomination. He returned to RCA Records in 2006 and a mainstream country sound with My Life. His two-disc gospel set Then Sings My Soul (2009) reached the Southern gospel charts, and Country Again (2011) reflected a more traditional country style. In 2014, Rolling Stone included "Smoky Mountain Rain" among its 100 greatest country songs. That year, Milsap released Summer #17, an album of nostalgic pop and R&B covers. He was among 30 artists featured on "Forever Country" in 2016, a mash-up honoring the 50th CMA Awards. In 2019, he returned to the charts with Ronnie Milsap: The Duets, featuring collaborations with Dolly Parton, Willie Nelson, George Strait, and others. A duet version of "Smoky Mountain Rain" with Parton reached the Adult Contemporary top 30. By 2020, Milsap had installed a new home studio and continued to record. His album A Better Word for Love followed in 2021. In 2022, he contributed “Oh, Lady Be Good!” to Michael Feinstein’s Gershwin Country, a tribute to George and Ira Gershwin and launched a podcast, Music and Milsap. That same year, he inducted Ray Charles into the Country Music Hall of Fame and was later inducted into the Memphis Music Hall of Fame. Milsap’s final concert, for which he was joined by longtime collaborators and other country stars, took place October 3, 2023, at Bridgestone Arena in Nashville. The event marked the end of his touring career, several months after celebrating his 80th birthday on stage at the Grand Ole Opry. Though retired from the road, he continues to record. === Amateur radio operator === Milsap is an Advanced-class amateur radio operator. His call sign is WB4KCG. == Personal life == In 1965, Milsap married Joyce Reeves. They had one son, Ronald "Todd" Milsap, who was found dead on his houseboat at the age of 49 on February 23, 2019, from an apparent medical condition. Todd's son, who had not heard from his father for the previous two days, found the body. Joyce, who had been battling leukemia since 2014, died on September 6, 2021, at the age of 81. == Discography == == Industry awards and honors == Academy of Country Music 1982 Top Male Vocalist 1985 Song of the Year – "Lost in the Fifties Tonight" 1988 Instrumentalist of the Year, Keyboards 2002 Pioneer Award Billboard 1980 No. 1 Country Song of the Year – "My Heart" 1985 No. 1 Country Song of the Year – "Lost in the Fifties Tonight" Country Music Association 1974 Male Vocalist of the Year 1975 Album of the Year – A Legend in My Time 1976 Male Vocalist of the Year 1977 Album of the Year – Ronnie Milsap Live 1977 Entertainer of the Year 1977 Male Vocalist of the Year 1978 Album of the Year – It Was Almost Like a Song 1986 Album of the Year – Lost in the Fifties Tonight Country Music Hall of Fame 2014 Inductee Grammy Awards 1975 Best Male Country Vocal Performance – "Please Don't Tell Me How The Story Ends" 1977 Best Male Country Vocal Performance – "(I'm a) Stand by My Woman Man" 1982 Best Male Country Vocal Performance – "(There's) No Gettin' Over Me" 1986 Best Male Country Vocal Performance – "Lost in the Fifties Tonight" 1987 Best Male Country Vocal Performance – "Lost in the Fifties Tonight" 1988 Best Country Collaboration with Vocals – "Make No Mistake, She's Mine" (w/ Kenny Rogers) Music City News Country 1975 Most Promising Male Artist Miscellaneous achievements 40 No. 1 hits, 35 of which reached the top spot on the Billboard chart; the remaining 5 topped other trade charts, including Cashbox Over 35 million albums sold Inducted into the Grand Ole Opry in 1976 Inducted into the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame in 2002 Awarded the Career Achievement Award by Country Radio Seminar in 2006 Awarded the 2007 Rocketown Legend Award Other honors On December 2, 2020, six miles of U.S. 129 in Graham County, North Carolina, from Yellow Creek near Robbinsville to the Swain County line, was designated Ronnie Milsap Highway. == Bibliography == Milsap, Ronnie; Carter, Tom (1990). Almost Like a Song. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0070423749. == See also == List of best selling music artists == References == == External links == Official website Ronnie Milsap at AllMusic Ronnie Milsap discography at Discogs Ronnie Milsap at IMDb
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibson-Fawcett_Award#:~:text=2018,Silvia%20Vignolini	Gibson-Fawcett Award	The Gibson–Fawcett Award is awarded by the Royal Society of Chemistry every two years to recognise outstanding work in the field of materials chemistry. In particular, the emphasis is on the originality and independence of the work carried out. The prize was established in 2008 and is awarded by the Materials Chemistry Division Awards Committee. It can only be given to researchers under age 40. The award was discontinued in 2020. == History == The award is named after Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett, eminent chemists who worked together with Anton Michels on the study of the role of high pressure in chemical reactions. This led to the discovery of polyethylene. == Winners == == See also == List of chemistry awards == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillsong_Church#Political_influence	Hillsong Church	Hillsong Church, commonly known as Hillsong, is a charismatic Christian megachurch and a Christian association of churches based in Australia. The original church was established in Baulkham Hills, New South Wales, as Hills Christian Life Centre by Brian Houston and his wife, Bobbie Houston, in 1983. Hillsong was a member of the Australian Christian Churches – the Australian branch of the US-based Assemblies of God – until 2018, when it separated to form a new denomination. The church is known for its contemporary worship music, with groups such as Hillsong Worship, Hillsong United and Hillsong Young & Free with many musical credits and hits charting all over the world. Hillsong and its music have been highly successful globally, with its presence described as a global corporate brand. However, a series of scandals and criticisms have negatively affected its image in recent years. In March 2022, Houston stepped down as global senior pastor after an internal investigation found that he had breached the church's moral code of conduct for pastors by engaging in inappropriate behaviour with women on two occasions in the 2010s. In February 2023, Phil and Lucinda Dooley, who had been acting in the position since January 2022, took over as global senior pastors. == History == === Beginnings: 1977–1999 === In 1977, six years before the establishment of what would become Hillsong Church, Brian Houston's father Frank founded the Sydney Christian Life Centre (Sydney CLC) in Waterloo, New South Wales, in inner-city Sydney, in what was described by scholar Sam Hey as "a neo-Pentecostal megachurch". Brian Houston and his wife, Bobbie, started holding services at a school hall in Baulkham Hills, establishing Hills Christian Life Centre (Hills CLC) in 1983. Both Sydney CLC and Hills CLC were affiliated with the Australian Christian Churches (ACC), the Australian branch of the US-based Assemblies of God. Hills CLC's growth into a megachurch through the 1980s and 1990s was largely driven by young people attracted by its contemporary worship music, and by its practice of planting churches internationally. In 1992, Hills CLC planted London Christian Life Centre as an independent church, with Gerard and Sue Keehan as pastors; it was renamed Hillsong London in 2000 and gradually grew to twelve locations across the United Kingdom. Kyiv Christian Life Centre, now Hillsong Kyiv, was also planted in newly independent Ukraine in 1992. In 1997, Hills CLC moved into a new building at Baulkham Hills' Norwest Business Park. The church merged with Sydney CLC in May 1999, after Frank Houston had been exposed as a paedophile. Brian Houston became senior pastor of both churches for eighteen months. The multi-campus church was renamed Hillsong Church in 2001. === 21st century === Between 2008 and 2018, Hillsong Church planted more churches in Russia, South Africa, Sweden, Israel, Canada and Mexico. Hillsong also branched out into the United States, establishing sixteen locations by 2022. In September 2018, Hillsong left the Australian Christian Churches—of which Brian Houston had been national superintendent/president from 1997 to 2009—to become an autonomous denomination, identifying itself more as a global and charismatic church. According to both Hillsong and ACC, the parting was amicable. Of the decision to spin itself off into its own denomination, Houston wrote, "We do not intend to function as a denomination in the traditional sense of the word... We are a denomination purely for practical reasons related to having the ability to ordain our pastors in Australia to legally conduct weddings as marriage celebrants operating under the rites of Hillsong Church". Houston added that they had not shifted doctrinally and that the ACC was still their "tribe". In 2018, it had 80 churches. In October 2020, Hillsong purchased the Festival Hall venue in Melbourne to become the home of Hillsong Church Melbourne City's weekly church services after undergoing renovations to better suit the new uses. In October 2021, Hillsong bought the Golders Green Hippodrome in London, England, with the intention of holding Sunday services there. Houston resigned his chairmanship of the Hillsong board in September 2021, owing to the pressures of a court case relating to his alleged failure to report sexual abuse of a child by his father, of which he became aware in the 1990s. In January 2022, Houston announced that he was temporarily stepping down from church leadership for this reason and introduced new leaders Phil and Lucinda Dooley. Then in March 2022, following revelations of misconduct complaints by two women, he permanently stepped down from church leadership. Two weeks after this scandal, 9 of the 16 Hillsong Churches in the United States announced their decisions to leave the Hillsong global network. In August 2022, Hillsong was sued by an Australian whistleblower in federal court there, alleging that the megachurch had moved millions of dollars overseas to avoid the charities regulator, the Australian Charities and Not-for-profits Commission (ACNC). The whistleblower alleged that Hillsong made "large cash gifts" to Houston and his family using tax-free money. In August 2023, Brian Houston was acquitted of covering up his father's crimes. == Statistics == According to a census published by the association in 2024, it would have 28 churches in Australia and in 27 countries. Hillsong had 100,000 people in 14 countries in September 2015,increasing to 130,000 people in 21 countries in 2019. and Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the church started measuring online attendees instead of regular attendees, which they stated average 444,000 per weekend. == Branding == Hillsong has been described as a "global corporate brand", and "Australia's most powerful brand", with its fast global growth assisted by the spectacle of its huge conferences, the popularity of its music releases, young people's attraction to the charismatic leaders, Hillsong Television, its messaging and language (described by critics as "health and wealth"), customer service, targeting of children, presence on social media, and merchandising. == Governance == The church is governed by the Hillsong Global Board and a group of elders known as the Hillsong Eldership, headed by Pastors Phil and Lucinda Dooley since 2022. The elders lead the church spiritually, whereas the board of directors manages the corporate administration appointed for one year, with renewable terms. The founders, Brian and Bobbie Houston, had been the global senior pastors of Hillsong Church. On 31 January 2022, it was announced that Phil and Lucinda Dooley, pastors of the South African church, would be acting global senior pastors in Houston's absence until the end of 2022, after Brian Houston stepped down owing to the pressures of a court case relating to his alleged failure to report sexual abuse by his father, of which he was later acquitted. Brian Houston was also chairman of the board, until his resignation from this position in January 2022. Since 2021, the chairman of the Hillsong Global board is Steve Crouch. He is the husband of long-term pastor Donna Crouch and former accountant to the church. George Aghajanian is general manager as well as a director of Hillsong Church Australia and its international entities. In March 2022, Brian Houston resigned from the board of Hillsong Church and from his role as global senior pastor as a result of breaching the moral code of the church in his behaviour with two women. == Locations and ministries == Hillsong has a global presence, with churches and ministries in Australia, Indonesia, Philippines and Japan, many European countries, Canada, US, South Africa, and, in Latin America, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, and Uruguay as of February 2022. Hillsong's various ministries include Hillsong Music, Hillsong Kids, Hillsong Youth, Hillsong Sisterhood, Hillsong Men, Hillsong Conference, Hillsong CityCare, Hillsong International Leadership College, TBN Inspire (branded as Hillsong Channel from June 2016 to 31 December 2021), TV & Film, Hillsong Performing Arts Academy and Hillsong Health Centre. Their total facilities are estimated to be worth around A$100 million. === Hillsong College === Two campuses of the Hillsong International Leadership College arose from the two churches that are now Hillsong Church, the Sydney Christian Life Centre and Hills Christian Life Centre. Both original colleges had similar goals of creating courses in ministry and leadership development based in a local church setting. With an emphasis on the creative arts, theological education was based on the ministry model. The Sydney college was originally founded in 1983 by David Johnston and located at Arncliffe as the "International Institute for Creative Ministries" (IICM), but in 1989 Johnston parted ways with IICM, bringing the college under the auspices of Wesley Mission. That college moved to the Wesley Centre in Pitt Street, Sydney, and after a few name changes became Wesley Institute (now Excelsia College). In 1988, Hills Christian Life Centre developed a training arm of IICM, under Ian Fuller. It was first known as Power Ministry School, then in 1992 Power Ministry College, under Steve Kelly. In 1993 the Hillsong School and a School of Music was established to train young musicians. In 1996, after Mark Hopkins took over as director, the Hillsong School and the School of Music were merged to form the Hills Leadership College. In 1990, Robert Fergusson became principal at the Sydney location and switched the focus to practical ministry training. Classes, at this time accommodating around 50-70 students, were moved back to the church site and the name changed to Aquila College of Ministries in 1993. After Hills CLC merged with Sydney CLC (referred to as its "parent church") in 1999, in early 2000 the Sydney college merged with the Hills Leadership College to become Hillsong International Leadership College, with Duncan Corby appointed principal of its "City campus". It was approved as a registered training organisation in December 2002, and by 2007 there were around 900 full-time students enrolled across the two campuses, the majority from overseas. In February 2016, Duncan Corby was dean of the college, while Catrina Henderson was principal. and it was still trading as Hillsong International Leadership College. In late 2016 it shortened its name to simply Hillsong College, and as of 2022 has campuses in Sydney and Phoenix, Arizona, and has an online curriculum. The official trading name of the city campus is Sydney Christian Life Centre Pty Ltd, and one of its tax-deductible charitable funds is called the International Institute for Creative Ministries Library Trust Fund. === Hillsong Sisterhood === Bobbie Houston has been especially influential in Hillsong's ministry for women, called Sisterhood. She is a mentor to many of Hillsong's women leaders. Although Hillsong generally supports the traditional roles of wife and mother for women, the church's position is that their ministries "empower" women. Riches found via interviews with attendees that the ministries increased women's choice regarding around sexuality and child rearing; encouraged women to start small businesses and to take on promotions at work; facilitated women's participation in cultural events, as well as promoted women's voices in religious teaching and public life. Church members have described Hillsong's leadership development as a process that supports women's movement from timid, supportive wife into leadership roles within the church. The Sisterhood is involved in issues such as HIV/AIDS, domestic violence and human trafficking. Their midweek gathering is primarily for women. It is attended by all female staff members and is the foundation of Hillsong's women's ministries. The Thursday meeting for mothers includes businesswomen, and special quarterly "Sisterhood United" night meetings include working women. Members of the church say that her authority as a leader comes from "a Pentecostal understanding of Spirit empowerment". === Australia === Hillsong has multiple campuses around Australia. As of February 2022, in New South Wales it has Baulkham Hills, two Sydney city campuses (one the location of the original Sydney CLC), several around various suburbs, and one each in Newcastle and Wollongong. There are also one or two churches in major cities in all of the other states except for South Australia. It also has churches in 30 countries across the world, and as of February 2022 reports 150,000 regular attendees globally. ==== Avalon Theatre ==== Hillsong purchased the heritage-listed Avalon Theatre in Hobart, Tasmania, for $2.55 million in 2020. The theatre underwent renovations in 2022. ==== Hillsong CityCare ==== In 1986, a social engagement program called CityCare was established in New South Wales, offering various community services including personal development programs, counselling services, a health centre and youth mentoring. CityCare's "street teams" worked within the community to care for, feed and clothe the homeless. In July 2008, concerns were raised by some teachers, parents, and experts about the Hillsong City Care Shine program for girls being run in New South Wales public schools, community groups and the juvenile justice system. The concerns include that the program is "inappropriate for troubled young women, that the under-qualified facilitators are reinforcing gender stereotypes and that some parents have not been properly informed" and that "the program encourages girls to be subservient by teaching them that they need to be attractive to men". Hillsong claimed that parents were supportive and that the program broke down barriers in a group situation. In a further response, Hillsong denied that the program had been used for evangelism, but a teacher's federation representative insisted that children had been exposed to religious content, such as people relating stories about finding religion and joining the Hillsong Church. == Beliefs == Hillsong was formerly affiliated with Australian Christian Churches (the Assemblies of God in Australia), part of Pentecostal Christianity. The church's beliefs are evangelical and charismatic. Hillsong's positions on non-central doctrines of the faith are diverse, although individuals have taken a public stand on many topical issues in contemporary Christianity in keeping with mainstream Pentecostalism; for example, the church's founder opposes abortion and supports teaching creationism in schools. Hillsong has also declared support for Creationism and Intelligent Design and believes this should be taught in schools. Hillsong's prosperity teachings have been criticised by Christian leaders Tim Costello and George Pell. Subsequent statements by Costello indicated that he was satisfied with changes made by Brian Houston to Hillsong's teaching in response to criticism. Costello also wrote a foreword to Hillsong's 2019 annual report. Hillsong's teachings have been commented on favourably by Peter Costello, Tim Costello's brother, also a Baptist and a former Treasurer of Australia, who has defended the church against accusations of unorthodoxy. == Media and events == === Music === Hillsong has been described by popular music scholar Tom Wagner as a "confluence of sophisticated marketing techniques and popular music". The music of Hillsong United and Hillsong Worship are credited with driving Hillsong's global popularity. Through the 1980s and 1990s, the congregation grew from 45 members to nearly 20,000 and emerged as a significant influence in the area of contemporary worship music. This was a result of strategic marketing that targeted younger generations and Hillsong's success at establishing itself as a global music standard. Hillsong Church has produced over 40 albums, which have sold over 11 million copies. Albums are produced for different target audiences including Hillsong Kids for children. Hillsong Chapel features acoustic arrangements, which are "quieter" than the electric guitar, keyboard and drums that are typical of Hillsong's music. Hillsong's albums are produced by Hillsong Music Australia. Hillsong's congregational music has been the dominant source of the church's influence in the Charismatic Christianity movement. Music is central to worship at the church. Hillsong's worship leaders have generally enjoyed a high-profile international position. Early worship leaders included Geoff Bullock and Darlene Zschech. Zschech was Hillsong's second worship leader, and Hillsong achieved international acclaim during her ministry. Zschech's "Shout to the Lord" was an early hit for Hillsong in the mid-1990s. In 2008, Reuben Morgan became Hillsong's third worship leader. Hillsong's worship music has been widely influential not only in Pentecostal churches, but more broadly in Evangelical churches. Many of Hillsong's "worship expressions" have been incorporated into Evangelical services including raised hands, vocal utterance and dance. Hillsong Music has released over 40 albums since 1992, many of them achieving gold status in Australia and one of them, People Just Like Us, achieving platinum status. The church's 2004 live praise and worship album For All You've Done reached No. 1 in the mainstream Australian album charts (ARIA). In September 2012, Hillsong produced The Global Project, a collection of their most popular songs released in nine different languages including Spanish, Portuguese, Korean, Mandarin, Indonesian, German, French, Swedish and Russian. ==== Hillsong Worship ==== The Hillsong Worship albums, formerly led by Darlene Zschech and Reuben Morgan and previously named Hillsong Live before 2014, all achieved gold status in Australia. The live album series was recorded at the Sydney campus(es) and then edited and produced by Hillsong Music Australia. The worship series began as a compilation of songs and developed into studio recorded albums. To help make Hillsong Music mainstream, an agreement with Warner Music Australia took place in 1999. In 2003, Sony Music Australia also signed with Hillsong Music to make the group even more mainstream. In 2018, Hillsong Worship won its first Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance/Song for "What a Beautiful Name". ==== Hillsong United ==== Hillsong United was conceived as the youth arm of the worship ministry, producing annual live albums similarly to Hillsong Live, with a focus on alternative rock. As the members grew older, United has since transitioned into a band with currently an eleven-member fixed lineup of Hillsong musicians as well as a focus on studio albums compared to the Worship and Young & Free ministries. Their song "Oceans (Where Feet May Fail)" was No. 1 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs list for a full year. It was the No. 1 song on the Billboard Christian Songs chart in 2014 and 2016, No. 2 for 2015, and the No. 1 song of the 2010s decade. The New York Times described their music as "ornate mainstream arena rock but with God-only lyrics that are vetted for adherence to theology". Joel Houston, Hillsong's creative director and former lead pastor of Hillsong New York, leads Hillsong United. ==== Hillsong Young & Free ==== Hillsong Young & Free was established in 2012 as a new youth branch of Hillsong's ministry. Hillsong Church has been successful at adjusting the musical style of their ministries to keep up with changing musical trends. Hillsong Young & Free was launched to attract postmillennial youth worshippers. The style of music in this particular ministry reflects features of musical genres that are popular with this target demographic, including electronic dance music. Laura Toggs and Peter Toganivalu were founders of the collective, while Toggs was also one of the vocalists of Young & Free prior to her resignation from Hillsong in 2023. ==== Hillsong Kids ==== Hillsong Kids is music designed for and by Hillsong's children's ministry. The albums Jesus Is My Superhero and Super Strong God were included on Natalie Gillespie's "Best Christian Children's Albums" lists for 2005 and 2006, respectively (published in Christianity Today). === Television === In late March 2022, Network 10 removed Hillsong-produced television programs from its schedules and video on demand service 10Play. The removal came amid controversies involving Brian Houston, who resigned from his position as senior pastor after being indicted in a misconduct investigation by the ministry. Since then, Brian Houston has announced through X, formerly known as Twitter, that he would be launching a new church in 2024. This would consist of weekly services through an online platform. === Hillsong Channel === On 9 March 2016, Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN), the American religious broadcaster, announced a partnership with Hillsong that saw TBN's digital terrestrial television (DTT) sub-channel, The Church Channel, rebranded as the broadcast version of Hillsong Channel on 1 June 2016. The American linear channel was rebranded as TBN Inspire on 1 January 2022, and the international versions followed suit in April 2022, though Hillsong remained a partner in the network. Due to the scandals associated with Brian Houston in relation to Hillsong Church, TBN removed Hillsong Channel from their network. It has since been replaced by similar Christian content. In substitute to the channel, they will be providing non-pulpit teachings, worship programs, documentary, and a one-hour flagship program. === Hillsong Conference === Hillsong Conference is a mid-year week long annual conference in Sydney, London and New York City each year. First started in 1986, it has grown to be the largest annual conference in Australia as of January 2022. The Australian conference is hosted by Hillsong Church and lead pastors Brian and Bobbie Houston and involves a variety of guests from across the globe. Baptist minister Michael Frost described the 2011 conference as having, "a kind of electric, almost carnival atmosphere ... the delegates were full of anticipation and excitement". In 2014, the New York event was held in Madison Square Garden, while the London conference was held in The O2 Arena over three days and has continued to be held at this venue until at least 2018. == Media appearances == On 16 September 2016, the documentary Hillsong: Let Hope Rise, directed by Michael John Warren, was released to cinemas across the United States. The film had gone through two other media companies, Warner Bros. and Relativity Media. It was set to be released the year prior in April, but had complications with the distribution rights. The film was picked up by Pure Flix Entertainment and released the following year. The documentary explores Hillsong's beginnings and its rise to prominence as an international church. The focus is on the band Hillsong United as they write songs for their upcoming album and work toward a performance at The Forum in Inglewood, California. In 2022–2023, various programs charting the rise and demise of Hillsong were aired on a number of media platforms. In March 2022, Discovery+ released a documentary series, Hillsong: A Megachurch Exposed, revealing the allegations related to child-sex crimes, marital affairs, and the mishandling of money given from the congregants to the church. In March 2023, satirical news outlet The Betoota Advocate partnered with Paramount to release a new satirical series on TV which would include an episode about Hillsong. The Herald Sun produced an investigative podcast called Faith on Trial. In June of that year, ex-Hillsong member Marc Fennell presented The Kingdom on SBS Television. === FX: The Secrets of Hillsong === On 19 May 2023, Hulu released a four-part documentary series, The Secrets of Hillsong, across the United States and Australia, in association to Vanity Fair. The series was directed by Stacy Lee and produced by Scout Productions and Vanity Fair Studios. The four episodes speak on a variety of topics regarding various scandals related to Hillsong Church, specifically in the United States and Australia. Throughout the series, there are conversations and interviews with former congregants, journalists, and former pastors Carl Lentz and Laura Lentz. The show begins with an introduction of the former pastor Carl Lentz and his process of creating a revival in the city of New York through their new location, Hillsong NYC, that opened on 17 October 2010. The church quickly evolved into a megachurch and started attracting various big-name celebrities like Justin Bieber, the Kardashian-Jenner family, Selena Gomez, Vanessa Hudgens, Kyrie Irving, and Jay-Z. In 2020, the church's reputation began declining, and people began speaking out about their experience in the Hillsong Church, along with Carl Lentz's Instagram post about being unfaithful to his wife of 17 years. Among the troubles at Hillsong, former congregants reported allegations of racism, sexual abuse, homophobia, and being taken advantage of when offering their services for free to help the church. Towards the end of the documentary series, viewers learn that Frank Houston, the man who founded Sydney Christian Life Centre, had been involved in a series of acts of pedophilia and his son, Pastor Brian Houston, was hiding the crimes of his father. This resulted in Brian Houston being charged with obscuring the truth about his father's past. Brian did not provide any comments regarding this topic to the Vanity Fair producers for the series. == Political influence == Hillsong Church has attracted support from high-profile politicians, especially from the Liberal Party of Australia. In 1998, Brian Houston met with the prime minister of Australia, John Howard, and most of his cabinet at Parliament House in Canberra before sharing prayers. In 2002, Howard opened the Hillsong Convention Centre at the Baulkham Hills location. In 2004 and 2005, the Treasurer of Australia, Peter Costello, spoke at its annual conferences. Mark Latham, the Leader of the Opposition, declined Hillsong's invitation to the 2004 conference, although Bob Carr, the Premier of New South Wales (from the New South Wales Labor Party), attended the 2005 conference. Liberal MP for Mitchell, Alan Cadman, and two Family First Party senate candidates, Joan Woods and Ivan Herald, who failed to win senate seats, were featured in a Hillsong circular during the election, with members being asked to pray for them. Hillsong's high-profile involvement with political leaders has been questioned in the media, and publicly, the church has distanced itself from advocating certain political groups and parties, including the fledgling Family First party. Brian Houston has replied to these criticisms by stating, "I think people need to understand the difference between the church being very involved in politics and individual Christians being involved in politics." In 2008, Sydney inner city publication Central Magazine stated that Hillsong had donated A$600 to a Member of the Legislative Council, Kristina Keneally (ALP), for the tickets of a fundraising dinner, featuring the New South Wales' planning minister, Frank Sartor (ALP), as a guest speaker one month before the 2007 state election, despite Hillsong's own statement of corporate governance declaring that "Hillsong Church does not make financial contributions to or align itself with any political party or candidate." A Hillsong staff member, Maria Ieroianni, said that no donation had been made and that the dinner was not a fundraiser. Hillsong also issued a statement on their website denying that the money was a donation. According to the Central Magazine article, Keneally has described the dinner as a fundraiser and the money from Hillsong as a donation. The article also states that these descriptions are confirmed by the records of the New South Wales Electoral Commission. Prime Minister Scott Morrison opened the 2019 Hillsong annual conference, shortly after the May 2019 federal election. He is not a member of Hillsong, being part of the Horizon Church's congregation. == Controversies == Hillsong has been criticised by politicians, media, community groups, Christian leaders and former members such as Tanya Levin. Criticisms have included Hillsong's finances, its ties to controversial organisations, its attitudes towards LGBTQ+ people and its treatment of critics as well as scandals involving Brian Houston and other prominent church leaders. === Finances === Criticisms have been levelled at Hillsong in regard to its finances, particularly its use of government grants when it reportedly made A$40 million in 2004, and A$50 million in 2010. In 2005, Hillsong was accused of spending most of the money it received through government grants for programs to assist the Riverstone Aboriginal Community Association (RACA) on their own staff salaries. The federal government acknowledged that A$80,000 from the grant money had been used to pay Hillsong Emerge CEO Leigh Coleman, who was only indirectly involved in the programs. One program, designed to give microloans to Indigenous Australians, paid A$315,000 to Hillsong staff over the course of a year, though only granted six loans averaging A$2,856 each during that time. Hillsong's application for the grant listed the RACA as a co-funder, though the RACA denied ever offering funding, saying they were never in a position to do so. In 2006, Hillsong were stripped of A$414,000 from the grant on the grounds they had faked the Indigenous endorsement that was required to obtain it. Hillsong were also accused of offering the RACA A$280,000 in order to silence their complaints regarding the matter, which they declined; a Hillsong spokesperson stated the offer of money was "not an attempt to silence RACA but amicably resolve the issue." Pushes for a charity commission in Australia have stemmed from claims that religious organisations like Hillsong avoid taxes by paying their staff in tax-exempt fringe benefits. In 2010, The Sunday Telegraph reported that the Houston family was enjoying a lavish lifestyle, almost entirely tax-free, including vehicles and expense accounts. In early 2023, it was announced that 153 staff members accepted voluntary redundancies in 2022, a cost-cutting method that reportedly will save the church close to $10 million. The moves were made following the accusations that the church had been extravagantly spending money and participating in fraud. The move comes alongside an independent review into the church's financial structure. === Sexual abuse by founder's father === Frank Houston, the father of Hillsong Church founder Brian Houston, was a pastor in New Zealand and Australia who sexually abused boys over the course of his ministry. One of the nine identified victims was routinely subjected to sexual abuse in the 1960s and 1970s when he was 7 to 12 years old. In 1999, his mother reported the abuse to the Assemblies of God denomination. Although Brian Houston, then national president of the Assemblies of God denomination in Australia, was legally obligated to report the crime, he allegedly did not do so. Brian Houston stated that he felt it reasonable not to report the crime when it came to light at the time that the victim was an adult, and when the victim did not want the crime reported (an assertion that was denied by the victim). The victim later testified to the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse that Frank Houston offered him AU$10,000 as compensation at a McDonald's in the presence of Nabi Saleh. During an internal church investigation, Frank Houston eventually confessed to the crime. The commission also heard that he was involved in the sexual abuse of other children in New Zealand. Frank Houston resigned from his church in 2000 which, then lacking a pastor, was merged into Hillsong Church. A further internal investigation by the Assemblies of God in Australia, in conjunction with the Assemblies of God in New Zealand, found six additional child sexual abuse allegations that were regarded as credible. On 5 August 2021, NSW Police issued a warrant for Brian Houston to attend the Downing Centre Local Court in Sydney on 5 October, alleging that Houston concealed child sexual abuse by his late father, Frank. Houston was in the United States at the time of being charged. He has denied the charges and his lawyer stated he intended to plead not guilty. Houston resigned his chairmanship of the Hillsong board in September 2021, as court proceedings were likely to be protracted. In January 2022, Houston announced that he was temporarily stepping down from church leadership for this reason and introduced new leaders Phil and Lucinda Dooley. In August 2023, Brian Houston was found not guilty of covering up his father's sex crimes. === Views on homosexuality === The church has been criticised for its stance on homosexuality issues. It considers homosexual practice sinful, and does not allow homosexuals to assume leadership roles. It issued a statement in February 2019 stating that it was inclusive; however, Houston had formerly said that Hillsong would accept those who did not follow a "homosexual lifestyle". In 2014, Brian Houston discussed being more understanding of homosexuals. Later, he clarified his position after being criticised by some Christians for allegedly supporting homosexuality. In a statement released on Hillsong's website, he stated: "Nowhere in my answer did I diminish biblical truth or suggest that I or Hillsong Church supported gay marriage." === Mercy Ministries === Hillsong has been criticised for its involvement with Mercy Ministries, an evangelical charity with an anti-abortion view and a conservative perspective on homosexuality. Hillsong responded by praising the work of Mercy Ministries and stating that they "are not involved in the operational aspects of the organisation". The church also said, "We have heard many wonderful testimonies about how the work of Mercy has helped the lives of young women facing often debilitating and life-controlling situations. Some would even say that Mercy Ministries has saved their life [sic]." Mercy Ministries in Australia was shut down on 31 October 2009, citing "extreme financial challenges and a steady drop in [their] support base". Hillsong had distanced itself from the organisation previously despite still funding it, and staffing elements of it. === Former members' criticisms === Hillsong's attitude towards criticism was portrayed negatively by former member Tanya Levin in her book People in Glass Houses: An Insider's Story of a Life In and Out of Hillsong. Specific criticisms covered authoritarian church governance, lack of financial accountability, resistance to free thought, strict fundamentalist teachings and lack of compassion. In an interview with Andrew Denton, Levin further discussed her experience of Hillsong, which she described as "toxic Christianity". Many former church members have accused the church of exploiting volunteers, due to overwork, lack of recognition and interference in privacy. === Guglielmucci cancer claim scandal === On 20 August 2008, Michael Guglielmucci, a then pastor of Planetshakers Church, composed "Healer", a song about his experience of cancer. He was invited by Hillsong to add his song to the album This Is Our God. Later, he confessed that he had lied about having cancer. Hillsong leadership told the press they were unaware of this situation and that the suspended pastor was seeking professional help. The Australian Christian Churches promised that all money donated by listeners inspired by the song would either be returned or donated to charity. "Healer" has since been removed from further releases of the album. === Mark Driscoll appearance === In 2015, American preacher Mark Driscoll was invited to attend the Hillsong annual conference. When it was revealed that Driscoll had made offensive comments about women, Brian Houston announced that Driscoll would no longer attend the conference. However, a pre-recorded interview with Driscoll was played during the conference. === Black Lives Matter movement === Gary Clarke, then pastor of Hillsong London, was criticised for refusing to comment on the murder of George Floyd in the US, having said on 30 May 2020, "For me to be railing as a pastor about something that's going on in another country, I'm not really sure that's going to help anyone." Both Clarke and Houston subsequently apologised for the comments and, in early 2021, Clarke and his wife Cathy were moved into an international leadership role. In early June 2020, Hillsong came out in support of Black Lives Matter in the US, with Brian Houston stating that they are "committed as a Church to playing our part in seeing racism eradicated ... until that becomes a reality, we will continue to say black lives matter". In response to the Black Lives Matter protests, Hillsong held a panel discussion, with members consisting of people of colour of diverse backgrounds who were involved with the church, such as Hillsong Darwin pastor and Aboriginal Australian academic Robyn Ober. === Carl Lentz affairs === Hillsong pastor Carl Lentz helped to lead Hillsong's first church in the United States, in New York City, in 2010. Lentz became friends with singer Justin Bieber and developed a celebrity following. Hillsong expanded on the East Coast under Lentz, but some members felt that it became unduly focused on fashion, and on servicing the desires of its pastors and its famous patrons. Church volunteers were allegedly expected to work long hours, and were reportedly treated as second-class citizens and gaslighted. Around 2017, two Hillsong volunteers who attempted to convey their concerns about Lentz to Hillsong leadership were allegedly intercepted and dismissed. In 2020, Hillsong fired Lentz after finding that he had engaged in "more than one extra-marital affair" and was currently involved in one. Lentz's lover stated that Hillsong is not "genuine. That's the truth. It's a money machine ... and I think it's wrong ... I think [Lentz] is a victim of his own church. He gave his life to this church, and that's how they played him." === Sexual assault reporting === In early 2021, Vanity Fair, the Christian Post and News.com.au reported that a female student at Hillsong Leadership College named Anna Crenshaw had been indecently assaulted by a married Hillsong administrator named Jason Mays, the son of the church's director of human resources. In January 2020, Mays had pleaded guilty to indecent assault and received two years probation and mandatory counselling. Though Mays received a 12-month ban from ministry, he was subsequently reinstated to his ministry role and volunteered with singing at worship services. Crenshaw criticised Hillsong's leadership for downplaying the incident and not holding Mays accountable for his actions. Brian Houston subsequently apologised for his Tweet questioning Crenshaw's version of events. That same month, several Hillsong Leadership College students penned a letter criticising the church leadership for allowing Mays to remain on staff despite his indecent assault conviction. In September 2021, 60 Minutes aired a segment called "Hillsong Hell" featuring Crenshaw and a second woman known as "Katherine", who alleged that she had been raped by a fellow church member on church premises in 2018. Both women alleged that Hillsong had ignored their complaints and tried to downplay the incidents. According to 60 Minutes, Hillsong sees itself as the victim when it is criticised and cares more about protecting itself than investigating accusations, noting that Mays had pleaded guilty to assaulting Crenshaw yet retained his job at Hillsong. Brian Houston subsequently posted a Twitter message questioning Crenshaw's version of events and also gave an interview with Eternity magazine portraying the church as the victim of allegations. Hillsong criticised the 60 Minutes report, saying it was "factually wrong, sensationalised, unbalanced and highly unethical". Hillsong stated that it had investigated both incidents and reported the assault on Crenshaw to police in May 2019. It defended its decision to retain Mays on the grounds that the magistrate had described the offence as "low-level", that Mays had expressed remorse for his actions, and that Crenshaw's account was contradicted by other witnesses. It also claimed that "Katherine" had been unwilling to provide details about the date and perpetrator of the alleged rape, and was unwilling to take the matter to the police. Nine News journalist Tom Steinfort criticised Hillsong's response as "tone-deaf" and accused the church leadership of victim blaming. === COVID-19 rule breaches === In January 2022, during the COVID-19 pandemic, participants at a Hillsong youth camp at the Glenrock scout camp near Newcastle, New South Wales, were filmed dancing and singing without masks. While the state government's public health order did not apply to religious gatherings, singing and dancing at most recreational and public venues and gatherings was prohibited. NSW Health ordered the organisers of the Hillsong youth camp to stop singing and dancing after public outcry and media coverage from a video of the youth camp. The Premier of New South Wales, Dominic Perrottet, stated that he was "completely shocked" by the video from the event. In response, Hillsong apologised for reinforcing the perception that they were not complying with the public health order and stated that they would comply with health authorities' instructions and maintained that the youth camp was not a music festival. While New South Wales Police personnel spoke with organisers of the youth camp, they declined to issue a fine. All attendees were tested before arriving at the camp. === Resignations of senior pastors === In March 2022, Brian Houston resigned his position as global senior pastor after an internal investigation into his misconduct began. It was reported that in both 2013 and 2019 he had engaged in inappropriate behaviour with women connected to the church. Hillsong Dallas pastor Reed Bogard resigned in January 2021, two weeks before an internal investigation found that he had been accused of raping a female junior colleague while serving at Hillsong New York City. According to the report, the married Bogard had been having an affair with the colleague between 2013 and 2014, and Hillsong Australia had been aware of the affair in the second half of 2014 but had declined to take action. Hillsong paused the Dallas campus in April 2021 following Bogard's resignation. On 24 March 2022, Sam Collier, the lead pastor of Hillsong Atlanta, established less than a year earlier, resigned, citing the ongoing scandals and allegations towards senior figures in Hillsong church. Collier was the first African-American pastor to lead a Hillsong church. He announced plans to establish his own church. In late March 2022, Hillsong Phoenix lead pastor, Terry Crist, announced that his church would be leaving the Hillsong global network, citing a loss of confidence in Hillsong's Global Board leadership in the wake of the resignation of founder Houston. As of 6 April 2022, nine Hillsong branches in the US had separated from the church since the revelations about Houston. On 10 May 2023, Houston's daughter Laura Toggs and her husband Peter Toganivalu, founders and global pastors of youth ministry group Hillsong Young & Free, announced to the church that they were leaving Hillsong, citing that they were called by God elsewhere. Several worship leaders from Hillsong have since departed the church, including Toggs, Brooke Ligertwood, Taya Gaukrodger, and Benjamin William Hastings. === Property acquisition === An investigative report on ABC TV's 7.30 program on 6 April 2022 revealed that Hillsong had acquired many properties that had been hidden behind a web of entities across the world. It had done this in part by assuming financial control over other churches, starting with Garden City Church in 2009, which later transferred over 12 properties in Brisbane to one of the Hillsong charities, with no transfer of money. It has also taken control of the finances of at least one church in Sydney, which has since broken away. It took over Hillsong Kyiv in 2014, coercing its then pastors to hand over assets and leave Hillsong. An investigator from the Trinity Foundation in Dallas found that Hillsong owned at least three condominiums in New York City, a US$3.5-million home in California and 31 properties in Arizona, expected to be worth a total of US$40 million by 2023. Its corporate and financial structures mean that the church is protected against litigation which demands large payouts to plaintiffs. === Criticism by Hillsong leadership === On 19 March 2022, John Mays, head of people and development in the church, wrote a letter to the global leadership recommending that the Houstons should be dismissed from the church, saying that they had contributed to "many unhealthy people practices... over many years". He alleged that Brian Houston had a "strong, immovable, leadership disposition together with a distinct lack of personal accountability", and that Bobbie was not a victim, but also shared the responsibility of maintaining accountability. He said that the motive behind his letter was "to support Hillsong employees" rather than personal malice, and that he joined in celebrating aspects of the Houstons' legacy. == See also == C3 Church Global Transformational Christianity – Modern evangelical movement == References == == Further reading == Blaine, Lech (May 2020). "Hillsong's strange tides". The Monthly. Hardy, Elle (18 March 2020). "The House That Brian Built: Inside The Global Empire That Is Hillsong". GQ. Hardy, Elle (2 October 2021). "In reckoning with its demons, Hillsong will be forced to move away from what made it powerful". The Guardian. == External links == Official website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ally_McBeal_season_1	Ally McBeal season 1	The first season of the television series Ally McBeal began airing in the United States on September 8, 1997, concluded on May 18, 1998, and consisted of 23 episodes. It tells the story of Ally McBeal, a young lawyer who found herself without a job after being sexually harassed by her boss, only to end up employed by her friend from college, Richard Fish, to work in the firm he created with his friend John Cage, named "Cage & Fish". The entire season aired Mondays at 9 pm. It was released on DVD as a six disc boxed set under the title of Ally McBeal: Season One on October 7, 2002. Due to music rights issues, several episodes of the first season of Ally McBeal were only available in the United States. The first season had an average rating of 11.4 million viewers in the United States and was ranked #59 on the complete ranking sheet of all the year's shows. A month after the conclusion of the first season, a debate sparked by the show was the cover story of Time magazine, which juxtaposed McBeal with three pioneering feminists and asked "Is Feminism Dead?". On the 50th Primetime Emmy Awards, the show won its first Emmy in the category of Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special for the episode "Boy to the World", and was nominated in nine other categories. On the 55th Golden Globe Awards, the show won in two categories, one for the Best Series, and one for the Best Actress, for Calista Flockhart's portrayal of Ally. == Crew == The season was produced by 20th Century Fox Television and David E. Kelley Productions. The sole executive producer was the creator David E. Kelley, who also wrote all 23 episodes, with the exception of co-writing with Nicole Yorkin and Dawn Prestwich on the episode "Body Language" and with Jeff Pinkner on the episode "Once in a Lifetime". Jonathan Pontell served as the supervising producer, while Jeffrey Kramer served as the co-executive producer. == Cast == The first season had seven major roles receive star billing. Calista Flockhart portrayed protagonist Ally McBeal, a lawyer employed by her friend Richard Fish, who was played by Greg Germann. Fish opened a firm with John Cage, played by Peter MacNicol, who was billed as a guest star during the first eleven episodes and promoted to series regular status in episode number 12. Jane Krakowski played Ally's secretary Elaine Vassal, while the role of Ally's friend Renée Raddick was played by Lisa Nicole Carson. Ally's love from childhood, Billy Thomas, was played by Gil Bellows, while Courtney Thorne-Smith played his wife Georgia, who works with her husband at the same law firm. Various supporting characters included Dyan Cannon as Whipper Cone, a judge who had a relationship with Richard Fish for a while; Albert Hall as Seymore Walsh, a stern judge with little sense of humor and a general dislike of the Cage and Fish law firm; Jennifer Holliday as Lisa Knowles, the lead choir singer at the local church who had a history with the reverend; Phil Leeds as Happy Boyle, a very old judge who was obsessed with dental hygiene; Jesse L. Martin as Ally's date, Dr. Greg Butters; Harrison Page as the reverend at the local church, who had a history with lead choir singer Lisa Knowles; Tracey Ullman as Ally's unconventional therapist; and Vonda Shepard as a musical performer at the bar where the lawyers used to hang out every night after finishing their daily jobs. Shepard performed in every episode of the entire season, and was upped to series regular status in the upcoming season. Renée Elise Goldsberry, Vatrena King and Sy Smith appeared at the bar as the Ikettes, the backup singers for Vonda and other performers. The first season also included a crossover episode from another David E. Kelley show, The Practice. The second part of the crossover was the episode titled "Axe Murderer" which began on the Ally McBeal episode titled "The Inmates", which aired April 27, 1998, and has several characters from The Practice. Calista Flockhart and Gil Bellows, in return, guest starred on The Practice episode "Axe Murderer". == Episodes == == References == == External links == Ally McBeal Episode List at IMDb
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women%27s_firsts#cite_note-alarabiya-37	List of women's firsts	This is a list of women's firsts noting the first time that a woman or women achieved a given historical feat. A shorthand phrase for this development is "breaking the gender barrier" or "breaking the glass ceiling." Other terms related to the glass ceiling can be used for specific fields related to those terms, such as "breaking the brass ceiling" for women in the military and "breaking the stained glass ceiling" for women clergy. Inclusion on the list is reserved for achievements by women that have significant historical impact. == Aviation and aerospace == == Bureaucrat == Asha Attri - First women bureaucrat in Punjab. == Computing == == Dentistry == == Education == == Exploration == == General business == 1500s: Philippine Welser, first European female billionaire. 1889: Anna Bissell, first female CEO in the United States of America. 1903: Maggie L. Walker, first African-American woman to charter a bank. 1908: Clara Hammerl, first woman to lead a Spanish financial institution. 1915: Helena Rubinstein, first woman to found a cosmetics company. 1945: Ruth Handler, first female president of a major toy company. 1961: Katherine Graham, first female to lead a Fortune 500 company. 1992: Alice Walton, first female decabillionaire. 1999: Andrea Jung, first female CEO of a MLM company. 1999: Carly Fiorina, first female head of a Fortune 20 company. 2000: Martha Stewart, first self-made female American billionaire. 2003: Oprah Winfrey, first female African-American billionaire. 2013: Mary Barra, first female CEO of a major car manufacturer. 2019: Kylie Jenner, first female billionaire under 30. 2020: Rania Llewellyn, first female bank CEO in Canada. 2021: Kathryn Farmer, first female CEO of a major railroad. == Healthcare == Gertrude Stanton - first woman licensed to practice optometry in the U.S. == History == 1st century AD: Ban Zhao and Pamphile of Epidaurus – first female historians in Han China and the Roman Empire respectively. María del Pilar Fernández Vega – first female museum curator in Spain, National Archaeological Museum (Madrid). == International bodies == 1950: Geronima Pecson – first Filipino and first woman elected to the executive board of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 1981: Jeane Kirkpatrick – First woman to serve as US Ambassador to the United Nations. 2021: Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala became the first female Director-General of the World Trade Organization. == Journalism == 1918: Minna Lewinson – first woman to win a Pulitzer Prize for journalism in any category. 1936: Anne O'Hare McCormick – first woman appointed to the editorial board of the Times. 1946: Katharine Graham – first female publisher of a major newspaper in the United States, The Washington Post. 1962: Ellene Mocria – first female radio newscaster and producer in Ethiopia. 1973: Linda Carter Brinson – first female assistant national editor at The Baltimore Sun. 2002: Linda Carter Brinson – first female editorial page editor at the Winston-Salem Journal. 2004: Catherine Pepinster – first woman to be editor of British newspaper The Tablet in its 175-year history. == Law == == Library science == == Mathematics == == Military == == Nobel Prizes == 1903: Marie Sklodowska-Curie, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Physics; she shared the prize with Antoine Henri Becquerel and Pierre Curie. First woman to win a Nobel Prize. 1905: Baroness Bertha Sophie Felicita von Suttner, first woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize. 1909: Selma Lagerlöf, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. 1911: Marie Sklodowska-Curie, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. First person (and only woman to date) to win two Nobel Prizes. Only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different sciences. 1947: Gerty Cori, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; she shared the prize with Carl Ferdinand Cori and Bernardo Alberto Houssay. Although born in Prague, Gerty Cori is considered the first American woman to win a Nobel Prize in medicine. She had become a U.S. citizen in 1928. 1983: Barbara McClintock, first woman to win an unshared Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. 2009: Elinor Ostrom, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Economics, and the first American woman to do so; she shared the prize with Oliver E. Williamson. == Politics == Historic firsts for women as heads of state or government: Yevgenia Bosch, Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1918), sometimes considered the first modern female leader of a national government. She held the position of Minister of Interior and Acting Leader of the People's Secretariat of Ukraine, one of a number of competing ruling bodies in the Ukrainian People's Republic, the predecessor of Soviet Ukraine. Khertek Anchimaa-Toka, Tuvan People's Republic (1940–1944): The first female head of state (Chairperson of the Presidium of the Little Khural) of a partially recognized country. Sukhbaataryn Yanjmaa, Mongolia (1953–1954): The first female acting head of state (Chairperson of the Presidium of the State Great Khural). Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Ceylon, now Sri Lanka (1960–1965): The first elected female prime minister (head of government) of a sovereign country. She served again 1970–77 and 1994–2000; in total she served for 17 years. Indira Gandhi, India (1966–1977): The first female prime minister of a present-day G20 country. She served again 1980–1984. Soong Ching-ling, China (1968–1972): The first female acting co-head of state (Co-Chairperson). She later served as Honorary President for 12 days in 1981. Golda Meir, Israel (1969–1974): The first female prime minister in the Middle East. Isabel Perón, Argentina (1974–1976): The first (appointed) female president, head of state and head of government. Elisabeth Domitien, Central African Republic (1975–1976): The first (appointed) female prime minister of an African country. Margaret Thatcher, United Kingdom (1979–1990): The first female prime minister of a G7/P5 country and the first female prime minister of a sovereign European country. Eugenia Charles, Dominica (1980–1995): The longest continuously serving female prime minister. Vigdís Finnbogadóttir, Iceland (1980–1996): The first democratically directly elected female president. With a presidency of exactly sixteen years, she also remains the longest-serving elected female head of state of any country to date. Jeanne Sauvé, Canada (1984–1990): The first female head of state in North America. Corazon Aquino, Philippines (1986–1992): The first female president in Southeast Asia. Benazir Bhutto, Pakistan (1988–1990): The first female prime minister of any Muslim majority country. She served again 1993–96. Kim Campbell, Canada (1993): The first female head of government in North America. Tansu Çiller, Turkey (1993–1996): The first elected Muslim female prime minister in Europe. Chandrika Kumaratunga, Sri Lanka (1994–2000): The first time that a nation possessed a female president (Chandrika Kumaratunga) and a female prime minister (Sirimavo Bandaranaike) simultaneously. This also marked the first time that a female prime minister (Sirimavo Bandaranaike) directly succeeded another female prime minister (Chandrika Kumaratunga). Ruth Perry, Liberia (1996–1997): The first (appointed) female head of state in Africa. Carmen Pereira of Guinea-Bissau and Sylvie Kinigi of Burundi had previously acted as head of state for 2 days and 101 days respectively. Mary McAleese, Ireland (1997–2011): The first time that a female president directly succeeded another female president, Mary Robinson. Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Liberia (2006–2018): Africa's first elected female head of state. Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir, Iceland (2009–2013): As prime minister, she was the world's first openly lesbian world leader, first female world leader to wed a same-sex partner while in office. Elizabeth II, United Kingdom (1952–2022): In 2015, she became the longest-reigning queen regnant and female head of state in world history. In 2016, she became the longest currently serving head of state and longest currently reigning monarch. Ursula von der Leyen, European Union (2019–present): The first woman to be appointed President of the European Commission. Kamala Harris, United States (2021–2025): The first woman to be inaugurated as Vice President of the United States in American history. Sandra Mason, Barbados (2021–present): The first time that a country's first president was female (Barbados has not had a male president to date). Giorgia Meloni, Italy (2022–present): The first woman to be elected in Italy as head of government. Claudia Sheinbaum, Mexico (2024–present): The first woman to be elected president. Sanae Takaichi became the first female president of the LDP on 4 October 2025 (and is therefore likely to become Japan's first woman prime minister). Sanae Takaichi (2025–present) elected Prime Minister of Japan. == Racing == 1949: Sara Christian became the first woman to race in NASCAR. 1976: Janet Guthrie became the first woman to qualify and compete in the Indianapolis 500 1977: Janet Guthrie became the first woman to qualify and compete in the Daytona 500 1989: Shawna Robinson became the first woman to win a NASCAR-sanctioned stock car race, winning in the Charlotte/Daytona Dash Series at New Asheville Speedway. 2005: Danica Patrick became the first woman to lead the Indianapolis 500 2008: Danica Patrick became the first woman to win an Indy Car Series race. 2013: Danica Patrick became the first woman to race a complete full-time NASCAR Monster Energy Cup Series schedule. 2013: Danica Patrick became the first woman to win a pole position for NASCAR Monster Energy Cup Series in the 2013 Daytona 500. 2013: Danica Patrick became the first woman to lead the Daytona 500. == Religion == 1935: Regina Jonas first woman to be ordained as a rabbi. 1980: Marjorie Matthews, first woman to become a bishop of the United Methodist Church. 1989: Barbara Harris, first woman ordained a bishop in the Anglican Communion. 1992: First women ordained as priests in the Anglican Church of Australia. March 12, 1994: The first women were ordained as Church of England priests; 32 women were ordained together. 1996: On 21 December 1996 Gloria Shipp was the first Aboriginal woman ordained as priest in the Anglican Church of Australia 2000: Denise Wyss, first woman to be ordained as a priest in the Old Catholic Church. 2003: Alison Elliot was elected the first female moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. She chaired the General Assembly the following year. 2006: Katharine Jefferts Schori, first female presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church in the United States. 2008: Kay Goldsworthy, first female consecrated bishop in Australia; she was made a bishop of the Anglican Church of Australia. 2014: Libby Lane, first female consecrated bishop in the Church of England. 2021: Sister Nathalie Becquart, first woman appointed as undersecretary to the Synod of Bishops. 2023: Maria Kubin, first female consecrated bishop in the Old Catholic Church in Austria. 2025: Sarah Mullally named the 106th Archbishop of Canterbury, the first woman to become the spiritual leader of the Church of England. 2025: Katrina Foster, first woman bishop of the Metropolitan New York Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America == Science and Technology == == Sports == August 6, 1926: Gertrude Ederle, first woman to swim across the English Channel. 1937: Grace Hudowalski was the ninth person and first woman to climb all 46 of the Adirondack High Peaks. 1940s: Lois Fegan Farrell became the first female reporter to cover a professional hockey team in America. 1960: Mary McGee becomes the first official female motorcycle racer in the United States by earning a license from the Federation Internationale de Motocyclisme. She is also the first woman to compete in the Baja 500 off-road race. 1960: Wilma Rudolph, track and field champion, became the first American woman to win three gold medals in the Rome Olympics. She elevated women's track to a major presence in the United States. As a member of the black community, she is also regarded as a civil rights and women's rights pioneer. Along with other 1960 Olympic athletes such as Cassius Clay (who later became Muhammad Ali), Rudolph became an international star due to the first international television coverage of the Olympics that year. 1967: Drahşan Arda (born 1945) is a Turkish former association football referee. She was confirmed as the world's first female football referee by FIFA cockart. November 27, 1968: Penny Ann Early, first woman to play major professional basketball, in an ABA game (Kentucky Colonels vs. Los Angeles Stars). August 15, 1970: Patricia Palinkas, first woman to play professionally in an American football game. January 1, 1972 – Women were officially welcomed into the United States Polo Association with Sue Sally Hale becoming the first female member. May 16, 1975: Junko Tabei, first woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest. 1993: Lynn Hill does the first free ascent (FFA) of the 3,000-foot Nose Route on El Capitan (5.14a/b); one of the biggest prizes in big wall climbing. 1993: Halli Reid became the first woman to swim across Lake Erie, swimming from Long Point, Ontario, to North East, Pennsylvania, in 17 hours. 1994: Catherine Destivelle becomes the first woman to complete the winter free solo of the "north face trilogy of the Eiger, the Grandes Jorasses, and the Matterhorn. October 18, 1997: Liz Heaston, first female to play and score in a college football game, kicking two extra points in the 1997 Linfield vs. Willamette football game. December 26, 2008: Sarah Thomas, first woman to officiate an NCAA football bowl game. 2009: Kei Taniguchi becomes the first woman to win the Piolet d'Or (Golden Ice Axe), the "Oscar" of Mountaineering. September 4, 2009: Carolynn Sells became the first woman to win a solo motorcycle race on the Snaefell Mountain Course in the Isle of Man when she won the Ultra Lightweight race at the 2009 Manx Grand Prix. May 17, 2010, Edurne Pasaban became the first woman to climb all of the fourteen eight-thousander peaks in the World. May 4, 2012: Rosie Napravnik became the first woman jockey to win the Kentucky Oaks, riding Believe You Can. August 9, 2012: Shannon Eastin becomes the first woman to officiate a National Football League game in a pre-season matchup between the Green Bay Packers and the San Diego Chargers. 2012: Anna Wardley, from England, became the first person to complete a solo swim around Portsea Island recognized by the British Long Distance Swimming Association. May 31, 2013: Lydia Nsekera became the first female FIFA Executive Committee member. May 18, 2013: Rosie Napravnik places third in the Preakness Stakes on Mylute, making her the first woman to have ridden in all three Triple Crown races. On June 8, 2013, she rode the filly Unlimited Budget to a 6th-place finish in the 2013 Belmont, becoming the first woman to ride all three Triple Crown races in the same year. June 2013: Ashley Freiberg became the first woman to claim an overall GT3 Cup Challenge victory in North America, winning the Porsche IMSA GT3 Cup Challenge. September 23, 2013: Sarah Outen arrived in a small harbor on the Aleutian island of Adak, and thus became the first person to row solo from Japan to Alaska, as well as the first woman to complete a mid-Pacific row from West to East. 2013: Davie Jane Gilmour became the first woman to lead the board of directors for Little League. 2013: UFC 157, which took place in February, featured not only the first women's fight in UFC history but also the first UFC event to be headlined by two female fighters (Ronda Rousey and Liz Carmouche). 2013: On her fifth attempt and at the age of 64, Diana Nyad became the first person confirmed to swim from Cuba to Florida without the protection of a shark cage, swimming from Havana to Key West. 2013: Scotland's solicitor general, Lesley Thomson, became the first woman to be appointed to Scottish Rugby's board. 2013: Anna Wardley, from England, became the first woman to swim non-stop around the Isle of Wight. 2013: Peggy O'Neal, an American-born lawyer, became the first woman in the Australian Football League to hold the position of club president, being chosen as the president of the Richmond Football Club. 2013: Tracey Gaudry became the first woman appointed as vice president of the Union Cycliste Internationale. 2013: Adel Weir, former world number 53 from South Africa, became the first ever female squash coach hire at the Qatar Squash Federation. 2013: Maria Toor, a squash player from South Waziristan, became the winner of the first ever women's event in the Nash Cup in Canada by beating Milou van der Heijden of the Netherlands 13–11, 11–3, 11–9. 2013: Tatyana McFadden became the first athlete to win six gold medals at a championships during the 2013 IPC Athletics World Championships in Lyon. She claimed gold in every event from the 100 meters through to the 5,000 meters. 2013: Tatyana McFadden won the Boston, Chicago, London, and New York marathons in 2013. This makes her the first person – able-bodied or otherwise – to win the four major marathons in the same year. She also set a new course record for the Chicago Marathon (1 hour, 42 minutes, 35 seconds). 2013: Denise Fejtek became the first woman to complete the "Peak to Heat Double" – the combination of summiting Mount Everest and finishing the Ironman Triathlon World Championship in Kona, Hawaii. She reached the Everest Summit on May 23, 2010, and finished the Hawaii Ironman in October 2013. 2013: Sonya Baumstein became the first person to stand-up paddleboard across the Bering Strait. 2013: Meredith Novack became the fastest person, and first woman, to pull a double crossing of the Auau Channel in Hawaii. Her time was 11 hours and one minute. 2013: Rosie Napravnik won 17 races to become the first woman to capture the leading rider title at Keeneland. 2013: Olivia Prokopova became the first woman to win the World Crazy Golf Championship. 2013: Mia Hamm became the first woman inducted into the World Football Hall of Fame in Pachuca, Mexico. 2013: Emily Bell became the first woman to kayak the length of Britain. 2013: Casey Stoney became the first female member of the Professional Footballers' Association's management committee. 2013: Jodi Eller became the first woman to complete the 1,515-mile Florida Circumnavigational Saltwater Paddling Trail. 2013: On March 1, 2013, Privateers owner and president Nicole Kirnan served as the team's coach for the first time, making her the first woman to coach a professional hockey team in the United States. 2014: Torah Bright became the first woman to qualify for three snowboard disciplines at a Winter Olympics, specifically snowboard cross, halfpipe and slopestyle. 2014: Ashley Freiberg became the first woman to win an overall race in Continental Tire Challenge History when she won the Continental Tire SportsCar Challenge. Her co-driver was Shelby Blackstock. 2014: The first women competed in ski jumping at the Olympics. 2014: Jennifer Welter became the first female non-kicker or placekick-holder to play in a men's pro football game; she played running back for the Texas Revolution. 2014: Abbey Holmes became the first woman to kick 100 goals in one regular season of Australian Rules football. 2014: Annabel Anderson, from New Zealand, became the first woman to cross Cook Strait standing on a paddleboard. 2014: Peta Searle became the first woman appointed as a development coach in the Australian Football League when she was chosen by St Kilda as a development coach. 2014: 16-year-old Katie Ormerod, from Britain, became the first female snowboarder to land a backside double cork 1080. 2014: Shelby Osborne became the first female defensive back in American football when she was drafted by Campbellsville University in Kentucky. 2014: Amélie Mauresmo became the first woman to coach a top male tennis player (specifically, Andy Murray). 2014: Corinne Diacre became the first woman to coach a men's professional soccer team (Clermont Foot) in a competitive match in France on August 4, 2014, her 40th birthday. 2014: Cecilia Brækhus, from Norway, became the first Norwegian and the first woman to hold all major world championship titles in her weight division (welterweight) in boxing. 2014: On August 15, 2014, Mo'ne Davis was the first girl in Little League World Series history to pitch a winning game for the Taney Dragons and earned the win, and she was also the first girl to pitch a shutout in Little League postseason history. 2014: Amy Hughes, from England, ran 53 marathons in 53 days, thus setting the record for the most marathons run on consecutive days by any person, male or female. 2015: Jennifer Welter became the first woman hired to coach in men's pro football when the Texas Revolution of the Champions Indoor Football league announced that Welter was hired to coach linebackers and special teams. 2019: G. S. Lakshmi, former Indian cricketer, becomes the first female ICC match referee 2021: First African-American female full-time NFL coach (Washington Football Team); Jennifer King. == See also == (History Portal is a "main page" linking to broader history topics.) Aerial Nurse Corps of America - composed entirely of women pilots, ANCOA is regarded as the beginning of flight nurses and Air Ambulances. Early Australian female aviators List of American women's firsts - women's firsts specific to the U.S. List of inventions and discoveries by women - inventions and discoveries in which women played a primary role Timeline of women in photography - includes historic firsts for women in photography (as an art and in journalism) Women in India §Timeline of women's achievements in India - section includes historic firsts for women in India Women's history – Study of women's role in history First woman (disambiguation link?) == Further reading == Timeline of Women in World History, britannica.com, 2015 (archived January 18, 2015). Nine things you didn't know were invented by women BBC, 4 September 2017 == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hit_Parader	Hit Parader	Hit Parader is an American music magazine that operated originally between 1942 and 2008 before being relaunched in 2025. A monthly publication, it focused on rock and pop music in general until the 1970s, when its focus began turning to hard rock and heavy metal. By the early 1980s, Hit Parader focused exclusively on heavy metal and briefly produced a spinoff television program entitled Hit Parader's Heavy Metal Heroes. The magazine reached its circulation peak in the mid-to-late 1980s, selling a half-million copies every month, as heavy metal music achieved high levels of popularity and commercial success. The recent relaunch features Yungblud on the inaugural cover and focuses once again on rock and pop music and rock culture as a whole. == History == === Early years === Hit Parader was launched in 1942 by Charlton Publications, based in Derby, Connecticut. Publishing its first issue on September 16, 1942, the magazine's original mission statement read as follows: Hit Parader is designed to appeal to boys and girls in school, in colleges, and in the armed services... and the millions who listen to radio every day, the people who go to the movies and dances, the jukebox addicts, the people who buy phonograph records and sheet music for home use, and even the people who whistle while they work. Along with the likes of Billboard, DownBeat and Song Hits, Hit Parader was among the first and longest-lasting American music magazines. The magazine's title referenced the popular music "hit parade", a list of current hit singles determined either by sales or airplay. In its early years, the magazine largely consisted of lyrics to the hit songs of the day, a practice that remained until 1975 when licensing of the rights became too expensive. From that point onward it featured interviews, color photos, and feature articles on popular rock musicians. === Emergence of rock music === For much of the 1960s, Jim Delehant worked as a staff writer and editor for the magazine. According to his recollection, Hit Parader covered "an extremely boring music scene" in the early 60s prior to the emergence of hugely popular rock groups such as the Beatles and the Beach Boys in 1964. At that time, it was a common practice among music magazines to write fake articles pieced together from sources such as bios and publicity material distributed by the record companies. Hit Parader employed traveling rock journalists who spent time with the artists and wrote legitimate feature articles about them. In addition to Delehant's contributions, Hit Parader also published articles by music journalists Ellen Sander, Keith Altham and Derek Taylor. Over the following decade, its contributors included Nick Logan, Barbara Charone, Lenny Kaye, Jonh Ingham, and Alan Betrock. === Transition from rock to punk and new wave === During the 1970s, Hit Parader frequently covered rock acts such as Led Zeppelin, the Rolling Stones, Elton John, David Bowie, Blue Öyster Cult, the Kinks, Three Dog Night, the Who, Cheap Trick, Kiss, and Van Halen. As the decade progressed the magazine began covering punk and new wave artists as well. The magazine typically featured song lyrics, artist photos, feature articles, album reviews, interviews, reader mail, bits of trivia on popular rock acts, and readers' polls. === Secher era === Longtime editor Andy Secher joined the magazine as an assistant editor in 1979 when the staff consisted of essentially two people. Secher was hired on the strength of an interview he had done with AC/DC which appeared in the New York Daily News and has said that Hit Parader's mission at that time was to simply survive month to month. During this period, editor Lisa Robinson had begun taking the magazine in the direction of new wave music, traveling to England four times a year to interview the Clash and positioning Hit Parader to be on the cutting edge of what Secher would later refer to as "the whole Avant-Garde, New Wave movement". The magazine struggled, printing 200,000 monthly copies but only selling approximately 30% of them. In 1980 Secher replaced Robinson as the magazine's editor and Shelton Ivany came on board as editor-in-chief, and it was under their leadership that Hit Parader moved away from new wave music for good, becoming the first monthly publication to focus exclusively on hard rock and heavy metal. "...we were the first magazine in the world to focus exclusively on hard rock/heavy metal. We were a bit lucky in that the New Wave of British Heavy Metal was just kicking in, and the West Coast Metal Explosion was about to launch. Our timing was very good. We've stayed loyal to hard rock throughout the years because that's where my interest remains. Trends, bands and fans have come and gone, but hard rock has stayed strong." - Andy Secher in 2004 The move paid immediate dividends and Hit Parader began selling a half-million copies every month, a 450% increase in sales. Secher recognized the magazine's target demographic as the young suburban male, whom he referred to as "some 17-year-old kid in Iowa, not a socialite in Manhattan", and attributed Hit Parader's longevity and success to its ability to anticipate trends in music months in advance. By 1984, the magazine was focusing solely on heavy metal. The magazine's top-selling issue of all time was its June 1984 issue which was the first cover story devoted to a rising band from Los Angeles called Mötley Crüe. Upon arriving in Mexico in December 1983 to interview the band, Secher was met by lead vocalist Vince Neil and taken to the group's hotel where he found "this young woman, spread eagle on the bed, naked, and they're going at her with a wine bottle". Though he had to sanitize the story heavily before it could be published, the issue nonetheless created a firestorm of controversy which saw retailers such as 7-Eleven threaten to take the magazine off its shelves. Over the ensuing decade, Hit Parader became one of America's leading heavy metal publications, providing extensive coverage of the era's popular acts such as Mötley Crüe, Quiet Riot, Def Leppard, Ratt, and Ozzy Osbourne. During this period the magazine also published special bonus issues with titles such as Hit Parader's Heavy Metal Hot Shots and Hit Parader's Heavy Metal Heroes. Secher often went on the road to meet the artists personally. "Ozzy in Brazil, Dio in Japan, Bon Jovi in Canada, the Scorpions in Sweden...it goes on and on. There's no question that the times were bigger and brighter in the '70s and '80s," he has said of this era. Secher produced a spinoff television program entitled Hit Parader's Heavy Metal Heroes on USA Network which featured heavy metal music videos and short interviews with the artists who regularly appeared in the magazine. During its 1980s heyday, Hit Parader featured the work of rock journalists such as Charley Crespo, Jodi Summers, Wolfgang Schnapp, Adrianne Stone, Rob Andrews, Winston Cummings, and Rick Evans. === Post-1980s decline === Hit Parader fell into decline in the 1990s, with a handful of factors contributing to this. Facing financial troubles in 1991, Charlton sold off Hit Parader to raise money. Later that year, Guns N' Roses' hugely successful Use Your Illusion II album included a track entitled "Get in the Ring", the lyrics of which accused Secher and Hit Parader of "printin' lies instead of the things we said" and "rippin' off the fuckin' kids … [and] startin' controversy". The song was written in response to a March 1991 Hit Parader cover piece written by Secher in which the band's vocalist Axl Rose and Sebastian Bach of Skid Row were ostensibly interviewed together for the first time. However, it soon came to light that rather than the exclusive it claimed to be, the interview was instead merely a transcript of a telephone conversation between the two musicians and Howard Stern that had earlier been broadcast on Stern's popular radio-show. The pair, along with Rose's then-wife Erin Everly, had talked to Stern during a party at Rose's home, and some observers questioned whether it even constituted a true interview. Rose and Bach both claimed that Hit Parader editor Andy Secher was misleading his readers with such tactics. With the dramatic decline in the popularity of heavy metal in the 1990s, Hit Parader's monthly readership began a steady decline. Many observers have noted that everything changed almost overnight with the emergence of Nirvana and grunge music in 1991, and Secher agrees wholeheartedly with this conclusion. Of the magazine's 1970s and 1980s heyday, Secher has said "The stories are too many, and in some cases too wild, to be printed here." Speaking to the music website rockcritics.com in the early 2000s, Secher identified the magazine's target readership as "a young, male demographic … They want short, pithy interviews and features – along with BIG color photos. The formula is fairly basic." He also defended Hit Parader's championing of heavy metal, despite the disapproval the genre attracted from some music critics, saying: "I always sensed that people like Christgau had to justify their existence by promoting the artistic aesthetics of the rock form. I've never taken any of this that seriously. Hit Parader isn't the New York Times … it's a frikkin' fanzine, and proud to be exactly that." The magazine closed down following the publication of its December 2008 issue. During its years of operation, Hit Parader also published issues dedicated to "Top 100" lists, such as "Top 100 Metal Bands", "Top 100 Guitarists", "Top 100 Vocalists" and "Top 100 Bassists & Drummers". === Rebirth as a production studio === In 2020, entertainment industry veterans Matt Pinfield, Ash Avildsen, and Josh Bernstein purchased the rights to Hit Parader and resurrected it as a branded production company. The new Hit Parader was headquartered in the Panasonic building in Universal City with a mission statement to focus "on original content and immersive experiences." It announced plans for a new television series entitled Paradise City, which Avildsen described as "a mix of the young angst of Euphoria, the entertainment biz authenticity of Entourage and the supernatural fun of Sabrina", featuring Drea de Matteo and Bella Thorne. An eight-episode season airing on Amazon Prime was released in 2021. The use of the Hit Parader brand remained rather inactive other than its use sponsoring festivals such as 2024's relaunch of the Mayhem Festival. === Relaunch of print magazine === On October 2, 2025 the musician Yungblud announced that he would be the initial cover on the relaunch of Hit Parader. He went on to state "Honoured to be on the first cover of the revamped Hit Parader! I grew up with this magazine and the legends that were on the cover. Available in print now." The first edition of the magazine was released in October with monthly editions set to be released thereafter. Alongside this announcement, it was revealed that Yungblud played a surprise event at the private Hit Parader Club in Nashville, Tennessee for the final stop on his IDOLS Tour in the United States on September 25, 2025. == References == == External links == hitparader.com
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollinary_Vasnetsov	Apollinary Vasnetsov	Apollinary Mikhaylovich Vasnetsov (Russian: Аполлина́рий Миха́йлович Васнецо́в; 6 August [O.S. 25 July] 1856 – 23 January 1933) was a Russian painter and graphic artist. He specialised in scenes from the medieval history of Moscow. Vasnetsov did not receive a formal artistic education. He had studied under his older brother, Viktor, also a famous painter. From 1883, he along with his brother lived and worked in Abramtsevo where he fell under the influence of Vasily Polenov. In 1898–1899, he travelled across Europe. In addition to epic landscapes of Russian nature, Apollinary Vasnetsov created his own genre of historical landscape reconstruction on the basis of historical and archaeological data. His paintings present a visual picture of medieval Moscow. He was a member of the Association of Travelling Art Exhibitions (Peredvizhniki) from 1899, and an academician from 1900. He became one of the founders and supervisors of the Union of Russian Artists. == Early life == Vasnetsov had three elder and two younger brothers. His only sister died at the age of four months. Vasnetsov's father played an important role in the upbringing and education of his sons, teaching them to love nature and to become familiar with the life of birds and animals. Vasnetsov's father died in 1870, which came as a terrible blow for him. == The Caucasus and the Urals == In 1890, Vasnetsov made a journey across the North of the Russian Empire and was able to record beautiful views of Siberia and the Urals, including the paintings: Forest on the Slopes of Mount Blagodat, Mid-Urals (1890) Boreal forest in the Urals (1890) Mountain lake in the Urals (1892) The Steppes of Orenburg (1895) "Koma" (1895) In 1895, Vasnetsov visited the Caucasus. He was deeply impressed by the beauty of the rugged Caucasus mountains. While there, he climbed the glaciers of Mt. Elbrus, visited Tiflis and lived in the Darial Gorge. He created a great number of his sketches during this period, including: View of Elbrus from Bermomut (1895) Red Cliffs in Kislovodsk (1896) Elbrus before Sunrise (1897) Darial (1897) In 1890, Vasnetsov made a journey across Europe, visiting France and Italy, where he studied the works of famous masters. At the beginning of 1920, the Committee of Archaeology (the predecessor of the Community for the Saving of Art Monuments) invited Vasnetsov and several other painters (including Vikentii Trofimov) to draw the old places of Voronezh. A minor planet, 3586 Vasnetsov, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Zhuravlyova in 1978, is named after Viktor Vasnetsov and Apollinary Vasnetsov. == Gallery == == See also == List of Russian artists == References == === Sources === Apollinary Vasnetsov by Vasnetsova, Yekaterina & Schmidt, Igor (eds.), Izobrazitelnoye Iskusstvo, Moscow, 1980, (Russian/English), Book ID V 1121 31. Great painters by Gordeeva M., "Direct media", Kyiv, 2011, (Russian) == Further reading == Short biography 1 Short biography 2
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wacken_Open_Air	Wacken Open Air	Wacken Open Air (, abbreviated as W:O:A) is a heavy metal music festival, held yearly since 1990 on the first weekend of August in the village of Wacken in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. It is often called the world's biggest and most renowned metal festival, or the "Mecca of heavy metal". The four-day event involves around 200 bands, is attended by around 85,000 metalheads from more than 80 countries, and takes place on a 240-hectare site including campgrounds. Wacken has two main stages and several smaller stages, as well as areas with stalls, beer tents and entertainment; including a medieval-themed 'Wackinger' village and apocalyptic-themed 'Wasteland'. Wacken Open Air has long focused on traditional heavy metal and extreme metal genres such as power metal, speed metal, thrash metal, death metal, black metal, doom metal, industrial, symphonic and folk metal. Locals had always been involved with the festival. However, in recent years Wacken has included more mainstream and alt-metal bands as headliners, become more commercialized and attracted non-metalhead 'festival tourists', upsetting long-time attendees. Several documentaries have been made about Wacken, and many bands have recorded live albums at the festival. WOA also runs the Wacken Metal Battle, an international battle of the bands contest for unsigned bands. == History == === Background === The idea for Wacken Open Air was conceived in 1989 when Thomas Jensen and Holger Hübner visited a restaurant together. Both lived in Wacken and were friends, Jensen played the electric bass with rock cover band Skyline. From its beginnings until 1992, the band was composed of Ines Jeske from Vaale (vocals), Thomas Jensen from Wacken (bass), Peter Huhn from Wacken (electric guitar), Dennis Harman from Itzehoe (keyboard), and Andreas Göser from Wacken (drums). Skyline was one of the first regional Metal and Rock cover bands at that time. The band was regionally known, working its way from appearances in village pubs and gigs at biker meetings up to an appearance as supporting band of "Extrabreit". Hübner was a disc jockey with a focus on Rock music and Heavy Metal. Jensen and Hübner developed the idea to organise an open-air concert in a gravel pit in Wacken and persuaded Skyline drummer Andreas Göser and Jörg Jensen, Thomas Jensen's brother, to help make it happen. Until then, the pit had already served as a meeting venue for up to 3,000 members of biker club 'No Mercys', it was therefore perfectly suited for their plans and also presented an opportunity to attract motorcycle fans. From the beginning, it was clear that the focus of the event would be on Rock and Metal and that, in contrast to other single-day festivals such as Monsters of Rock or Super Rock in Mannheim, there would also be camping grounds. === Early years and growth === The first two-day festival took place in the gravel pit on 24 and 25 August 1990 and barely had 800 visitors. The performing bands all hailed from Germany, and apart from Skyline, bands like 5th Avenue, Motoslug, Sacred Season, Axe 'n Sex, and Wizzard played. The first festivals were organised privately, with the technology being built on a trailer borrowed from a local trucking company and the stage being a DIY construction. In subsequent years, too, most of the tasks were carried out by the small team. Until August 1994, for example, ticket orders were organised privately by Andy Göser's mother Regina Göser and security duties were performed by friendly motorcycle clubs up until 1996. In 1991, the number of visitors increased to 1,300, and with Skyline returning, Bon Scott, an AC/DC cover band from Hamburg, Gypsy Kyss, Kilgore, Life Artist, Ruby Red, and Shanghai'd Guts joined them on stage for an all-regional roster. That same year, the iconic skull logo was designed by Mark Ramsauer after the basic shape had been determined by Thomas Jensen and Holger Hübner. The cow skull refers to the venue, a meadow for cows, and to Jensen and Hübner as "boys from the village". In 1992, the programme changed to include internationally renowned bands such as Blind Guardian and Saxon for the first time, and the number of bands rose to 26, listing bands from Sweden, the US, Ireland, and Belgium. The organisers used a professional stage with lighting and PA for the first time and were able to win cigarette brand Prince Denmark as a sponsor. That year, the Party Stage was set up in the DJ tent next to the main stage, where cover bands and fun projects were to perform exclusively. The additional post-concert costs for garbage disposal on the campground, where 2,500 paying guests and many more were present and celebrated, as well as the significantly oversized security, among other things, meant that the organisers recorded a loss of around 25,000 D-Mark that year. With the reunion of the band Fates Warning at the festival in 1993, Wacken Open Air had a special feature and also made a name for itself in the following years with unusual band constellations and reunions. At the same time, Doro Pesch and other well-known bands made for interesting appearances, which resulted in a new record attendance of 3,500 paying customers. Simultaneously, the team tried their hand at concert organisation and, under the moniker Stoned Castle Promotion, held a Motörhead concert for 2,000 people in Flensburg, which could not cover its promotional costs. A show with Dio/Freak of Nature became a disaster with only 167 tickets sold, and together with the Open Air, which again recorded a minus, the organisers incurred debts of around 350,000 D-Mark. As a result, Jörg Jensen and Andreas Göser left the team; Holger Hübner and Thomas Jensen remained, as did Jörn-Ulf Goesmann for another two years, continuing to run the Wacken Open Air despite the debts for which their parents had provided guarantees. During the same year, Thomas Jensen's mother died and Holger Hübner had a serious accident – the year went down in Wacken history as the "year of the plague". On its fifth anniversary in 1994, the financial situation stabilised and the festival finally broke even. The line-up remained professional and featured many internationally known bands from the metal scene. A total of 4,500 tickets were sold; on top of that, due to the rising costs of garbage disposal, tickets for the camping grounds had to be purchased separately, and pre-orders were rewarded with a free T-shirt. Also in 1995, income and expenses evened out thanks to the commitment of bands such as Tiamat, D-A-D, the Pretty Maids, and Angra. But even with roughly 5,000 attendees, the festival did not turn a profit. However, for the first time, national media became aware of Wacken Open Air, especially Rock Hard magazine, as well as the newly founded TV station VIVA with its Heavy Metal programme Metalla. Ticket sales for the 1996 festival again started sluggishly, despite a headliner like Kreator and numerous internationally renowned bands such as The Exploited, Gorefest, and Crematory. Management tried to prevent another loss by securing more acts and finally managed to get Böhse Onkelz to perform. The engagement of the controversial band also led to criticism, and some bands cancelled their gig in Wacken that year. Cologne band Brings called off their gig on short notice and offered to refund their fans' ticket prices. As a result of many visitors flooding the village in 1996, the inhabitants of Wacken voiced their concern over an event of this size being held in the local gravel pit. Uwe Trede offered to relocate the festival site to his own property and the areas previously used as campgrounds and took care of the acquisition of additional land. The organisational team grew to include Thomas Hess as production manager, who had previously been active as tour manager for Die Böhsen Onkelz, as well as Sheree Hesse for catering to the artists and VIPs. With the W.E.T.-Stage, a third stage was set up in 1997. The "Wacken Evolution Tent" was to be made available primarily to newcomers and bands without record deals. That year, the number of visitors reached 10,000 for the first time, with Rockbitch's erotic stage show causing a scene. === Peak years === Over the years, the size of Wacken Open Air has grown continuously, and now dozens of bands and tens of thousands of visitors flock to the festival. Even though the organisers said in 2006 that 62,500 visitors were "the limit of what is possible", changes were made to the structure of the festival grounds the following year by allocating a larger area to the "Party Stage". In addition, tickets could no longer be purchased directly on the festival grounds to reduce the number of spontaneous or ticketless visitors. In 2007 and 2008, the festival had already sold out as a result of advance ticket sales; for W:O:A 2009, tickets had even sold out by the end of 2008. The tickets for 2010, too, sold out months in advance. While the festival originally only lasted two days, the performances have been lasting from Thursday to Saturday, i.e., three days, for some years. Thursday became a "Night to Remember", with mainly "classical" Heavy Metal bands appearing, such as the Scorpions in 2006. On the actual Party Stage, younger and more modern bands play as a contrast to the "Night to Remember". In addition, the event is accompanied by a rich complementary programme; in addition to a merchant area – obligatory for music festivals – a beer garden has been operating since 2000, in which the Wacken Firefighters' marching band opens the festival before its official start. On Thursday in 2007, the "Hellfest Stage" was initiated. Since 2009, there has been a "Medieval Stage", where mainly Medieval and Folk Metal bands play. The fact that many well-known bands, including the Scorpions, Saxon, Twisted Sister, Dimmu Borgir, Slayer, and Helloween, have recorded live DVDs at Wacken, shows how esteemed the Open Air has since become. Ahead of their farewell tour in 2004, Die Böhsen Onkelz also performed an extended set at W:O:A. Since 2002, the so-called "Metal Train" has been travelling from Munich to Wacken and back before and after the festival to bring fans to the Northern German village and provide a matching entertainment programme. Bus tours from Scandinavian countries, especially Zurich and Sweden, but also from Austria, are organised each year and used by several hundred fans. The "W:O:A Soccercup" has been taking place annually since 2002. This football tournament, which started with nine teams and takes place on Wednesdays, has grown over the years and has been held in World Cup mode with 32 teams since 2007 (a one-off event in 2011 featured 36 teams). The international teams register in advance and are composed of festival visitors. For the tournament's 15th anniversary in 2016, a band was featured and took part for the first time: Serum 114 formed a team with several fans and were able to win the tournament. Although it is meant to be a fun tournament, in which creative outfits and names take precedence over athletic performance, the award ceremony after the tournament has been held on one of the stages since 2013 and prizes can be won. The festival is one of the Metal scene's highlights of the year. Nowadays, about a third of the visitors, some of whom arrive quite some time before the official start of the festival, and the majority of the bands come from abroad. According to the organisers, 2018 saw visitors from more than 80 nations attending the festival. The number of participants increased to 75,000 in 2008 and included 65,000 paying guests. In 2008, the festival sold out twice (W:O:A 2008 in spring and W:O:A 2009 on 31 December 2008). As is common with festivals of this size, Wacken Open Air received criticism for its hygienic conditions, prices, security personnel, as well as for the overcrowding and commercial orientation of the event. These points of criticism were addressed by making further substantial investments in the festival's fixed and mobile infrastructure. In 2008, the organisers also contributed 1,000,000 Euros to the expansion of Wacken's local outdoor swimming pool in order to make the festival even more attractive to the residents and visitors of the town. Since 2006, the festival has been running an online radio station called Wacken Radio, which broadcasts Metal music around the clock. It is being produced in cooperation with RauteMusik as of February 2014. The event sold out ten times in a row between 2006 and 2015. For the 23rd edition of Wacken Open Air, the sale of an "X-Mas Package" started on Monday, 8 August 2011, shortly after the end of that year's festival, and was sold out within 45 minutes. Tickets for Wacken Open Air 2015 sold out after just 12 hours on 4 August 2014 – just a few hours after the end of W:O:A 2014. The X-Mas Tickets for W:O:A 2016, which cost 10 Euros less and whose buyers were entitled to a free T-shirt, were completely sold out only 20 minutes after the start of pre-sales. Booking office Metaltix' servers were highly busy. In the minutes before the start of the pre-sale, the pages were no longer accessible; after that, data traffic had to be limited by wait lists. In 2013, the "Full Metal Church" took place in Wacken for the first time. Marking the local church's 150th anniversary, the team, together with the parish, organised a concert by the band Faun, which was framed by two readings and sermons by "Volxbibel" author Martin Dreyer. Both the concert and the services were completely overcrowded by festival visitors. Prices for the festival have risen and are currently at a level similar to other major Rock festivals, such as Rock am Ring and Hurricane Festival. After several years of success in which the festival sold out within hours, the first 60,000 tickets for the 2017 festival were sold in mid-2016. 55,000 tickets were sold within the first hour. By the end of April 2017, the festival was almost sold out except for a few remaining tickets. The price for the festival ticket was 220 Euros, but there was no fee for early arrival campers, who often set up their elaborately designed accommodations before the festival begins – partly to get the best spots near the festival grounds. In addition, all toilets and showers were free in 2017. The festival sold out within a few days each in 2014–2016. However, the last tickets for the 2017 festival were sold after 309 days, a mere 2 months before the start of the festival, even though only 10,000 tickets remained after the first day of sales. This was a matter of speculation at first, and reasons such as the changed security situation or the price development were taken into account. Regardless of that, the festival sold out for the 13th time in a row in 2018. On 5 April 2018, Thomas Hess, the festival's longtime production (and former security) director, died. He had joined festival management in 1996 as a former tour manager of Böhse Onkelz and was considered one of the most important leading figures for the festival, along with the remaining founders and the Trede family, who organise the camping areas and the camping supervisors as subcontractors. He made a significant contribution to the W:O:A being so well organised, peaceful and successful. For W:O:A 2019, all 75,000 tickets were sold within the first four days of sales, making this the 14th time in a row that the festival completely sold out. === Since the Covid pandemic === On 16 April 2020, it was announced that the 2020 edition of the festival would be cancelled because of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The organisers created an event for that year called, "Wacken Worldwide", featuring well-known bands performing on a mixed-reality stage, along with interviews and other interactive features. It was the biggest livestream event of 2020. The first set of bands were announced on 1 August 2020 for the rescheduled festival for 2021. On 1 June 2021, the promoters of Wacken Open Air announced that the festival would not take place this year, again due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, and was scheduled to return in the summer of 2022, with more information and details to be announced in September 2021. 2022 was the first edition that was able to take place since the COVID-19 pandemic. Headliners were Powerwolf, Slipknot and Judas Priest. The 2023 edition was sold out in record time of 5 hours. Headliners were Iron Maiden, Heaven Shall Burn, Doro and Helloween. But for the first time in the festival's history, they had to announce a travel stop for motorized vehicles due to heavy rainfall and storm alerts. This announcement came Wednesday morning, the day before the festival was supposed to officially start. The police estimated 50,000 festival goers were able to reach the festival by the time the travel stop was announced. The people who were not able to reach the festival were offered a full refund. As per usual, the 2024 edition sold out, once again in a record time of 4.9 hours. Announced bands included Amon Amarth, KoЯn, Scorpions and Blind Guardian. == Overview by year == The following chart shows the development of prices and visitor numbers of past festivals as published by the organisers. Prices refer to the total amount per ticket (incl. parking and camping) in pre-sale (without additional fees). The price for the 4-day 2023 edition (299.00 EUR) has been adjusted accordingly. == Organisation == The organisers of Wacken Open Air founded Stone Castle Rockpromotions in 1990 in order to organise the first festival. The name is derived from the direct translation of "Steinburg" from the district of Steinburg, to which Wacken belongs. Stone Castle remained the company's name until 1996. Up until 2014, the headquarters were located in Dörpstedt (Schleswig-Flensburg district) and then moved to Wacken. The company's name has been ICS (International Concert Service) GmbH since 1999. The company owns the label Wacken Records and the mailorder Metaltix, among others. A daily festival newspaper has been available since 2007, reporting on what's happening on the festival grounds. The Thursday edition is also included free of charge with all newspapers published by Schleswig-Holsteinischer Zeitungsverlag. In 2014, the online radio station RauteMusik took over production of the official Wacken radio. Wacken Radio has its own container on the festival grounds every year, where it reports live. Up until a few years ago, Wacken's official town signs were either replaced by plastic signs spelling Heavy Metal Town during W:O:A or bolted more tightly because they were often stolen as souvenirs. Some shops are now selling black cotton bags with the Wacken town sign on one side and the words "This town sign I may keep" on the other. An action for exceeding the maximum noise limit, brought before the Administrative Court of Schleswig by residents of Wacken, ended in January 2013 with an out-of-court settlement. Now, if the average noise level of the festival exceeds 70 dB, the organisers pay 1,000 Euros to the community, which donates the money to charitable causes. In July 2022, it was announced that starting with W:O:A 2023 and onwards, the festival will be officially extended from three to four full days and that the Wednesday will be the new first full day. Up until 2022, while there was plenty of programme on Wednesdays, it was more of an unofficial afternoon introduction to the festival and Thursdays remained the official opening day. === Infrastructure === The site covers more than 240 hectares, which are divided by more than 45 kilometres of fence. The inner area, including the main stage, has a size of 43,000 square metres. More than 1,300 toilets and almost 500 showers are available for the 75,000 paying attendees. 2,200 trucks with equipment are needed for the entire festival. Stage construction and dismantling usually take 7 days and 5 days respectively. For this, 75 trucks of stage equipment (1,000 tons), 10 trucks of sound equipment and 27 trucks of lighting equipment are used. Since 2014, the electric output has amounted to 12 megawatts, roughly matching the needs of a small town counting 70,000 inhabitants. In addition, 40 diesel-fuelled emergency power generators are required. 25 electricians are responsible for the power supply. 600,000 Euros were spent on the construction of sewage systems and the improvement of power supply on the festival grounds. At the same time, 700,000 Euros worth of drains were installed in front of the stages in order to improve the drainage of water masses during heavy rains. The main paths were also paved with 10 km of mobile roads to facilitate access for rescue vehicles. A total of approximately 5,000 employees work for the festival, including 1,800 security staff members, 150 cleaners, 70 construction and dismantling assistants, as well as 400 police officers, 250 firefighters, 900 paramedics, and six emergency doctors. In 2017, a beer pipeline measuring one kilometer to supply ten dispensing systems was used for the first time. At full capacity, this construction allowed for 10,000 litres of beer to be tapped within the hour. === Stages === Wacken Open Air now boasts eight stages for musicians and accompanying entertainment. The most important ones are the Faster and the Harder Stage, which are designed as connected twin stages and have a shared sound and lighting system. Together with the slightly smaller Louder Stage, these two stages make up the Infield, or The Holy Ground. All three stages are also equipped with video walls to allow visibility of the performers even from remote positions. Up until 2016, these three stages were called Black Stage, True Metal Stage, and Party Stage. After Wacken 2016, visitors were encouraged to suggest new names. From these suggestions, the best ideas were to be put up to a vote in a survey. Instead, however, the slogan "Faster - Harder - Louder" became the inspiration for the names and the three stages were renamed accordingly. Two more twin stages, the W.E.T. Stage (Wacken Evolution Tent) and the Headbanger Stage, are located inside a big tent called Bullhead City Circus. The Metal Battle takes place on these stages on Wednesday and Thursday, followed by regular band appearances on the days after. While the large stages and tent stages are open to all genres, the remaining stages are dedicated to specific themes. The Wackinger Stage is located in the medieval area of the festival and is played primarily by bands from Folk, Pagan and Medieval genres, while the Wasteland Stage, which was established in 2014, is geared towards music with an apocalyptic touch. The Beergarden Stage is modelled after typical folk festival stages, but also accommodates permanent Wacken guests such as the Wacken Firefighters and Mambo Kurt. === Event area === Wacken Open Air's event area is divided into several structurally separated sections. Since 2014, only one major security check is performed upon entering the grounds, after that, only the festival wristbands are checked. Special features of the W:O:A include the Wackinger area, which resembles a medieval market and contains specialty food and beverage stalls as well as the Wackinger Stage, where matching music is played. Various walking acts also entertain the audience. This area borders on the Wasteland designed by the Wasteland Warriors, where a post-apocalyptic world and stage (Wastelandstage) styled in homage to the Mad Max franchise is set up. The area in front of the main stages comprises both the Bavarian beer garden and a large shopping mile called Metal Markt. There are also various food stalls, the Wacken Foundation Camp, ATMs, and the Movie Field, where Heavy Metal documentaries and feature films are screened. The most important stages, the focal point of the festival, are located in the so-called Infield, which can be reached only via the Center. In addition to these stages, it also hosts food and beverage stalls. === Camping grounds === As Wacken Open Air only sells 3-day tickets, the majority of visitors spend the entire festival on-site. As a result, most of the more than 240 hectares of the festival site are designated camping areas. Camping opens on Monday and has been included in the ticket price since 2017. However, in the years before, an extra fee was charged for arrival before Wednesday. The campsite is equipped with showers, flushing toilets, portable toilets, drinking fountains, small supermarkets, food stalls and information boards, and is continuously patrolled by the police, fire brigade and security services. A refuse collection service collects refuse bags on the premises. Since the large crowds lead to a bottleneck situation in terms of mobile service, some providers now set up portable base stations for GSM, UMTS, and LTE+ during the festival. === Medical services === A festival of this size needs capable medical services, which here are called the Wacken Rescue Squad. Every year, hundreds of helpers from various relief organisations from all over Germany arrive before the festival to prepare the medical camp and care for people in need during the event. The medical service is managed by the local DRK association in Kaltenkirchen. The visiting and local relief organisations provide vehicles and material during the course of the festival. These include ambulances and radios for communication in particular. Due to the road conditions, quads and foot patrols are often used in Wacken, especially in the vicinity of the medical centre. In addition to the medical service, which counts approx. 270 people at peak times, the rescue service cooperation Schleswig-Holstein has more than ten emergency vehicles (ambulances and mobile intensive care units) on site while coordinating the overall emergency management. In 2013, around 3,300 people received medical care from approximately 500 medics. === Crime and accidents === Despite the size of the festival, no serious security problems have been encountered so far. Disputes among visitors are rare, and in 2011, a total of 20 reports of bodily injury was filed. The main problem consists of several hundred reported thefts each year. In 2011, police were able to arrest three gangs of thieves. In comparison to other events of this scale, the festival is classified by police as secure. So far there have been four deaths and some serious injuries: In 2005, a heavily intoxicated 37-year-old crashed into an ambulance moving at walking pace and succumbed to his head injuries in the hospital. To support his family, organisers held a fundraising event; W:O:A 2006 honoured the deceased with a minute's silence. In 2011, a rioting fan was overwhelmed by security guards in the village and died of cardiovascular arrest. In 2012, a 22-year-old festival visitor went to sleep near a generator and breathed in its carbon monoxide fumes. He could not be revived. In 2013, a 52-year-old visitor from Poland died of natural causes in his tent. That same year, a fan was seriously injured when the cartridge of his camping stove exploded for unknown reasons. In 2016, two men were injured when one of them set fire to illegal firecrackers and the other tried to stop him. Reports that one of the men's ears had been torn off turned out to be false. In 2017, a 16-year-old was seriously injured while trying to refill a camping stove with denatured alcohol. == Commitment == === Metal Battle === W:O:A Metal Battle is an international band contest first held in 2004. During Metal Battle, newcomer bands compete against each other in national qualifiers and finals; the winner of each country then competes against the other finalists in the grand finale at Wacken Open Air. An international jury selects the competition's best bands. In earlier years, winners of the competition were offered a record deal, whereas nowadays, the five best bands receive cash or material prizes. === Wacken Foundation === The Wacken Foundation was founded in 2009 by the festival's organisers and serves as a charitable foundation. Its objective is to support young bands from the Heavy Metal genre. Sponsorship is granted to specific projects such as the production of a CD or the realisation of a tour. In addition, the Wacken Foundation provides information about its projects at many European festivals each summer. Since the 2017/2018 season, the Wacken Foundation's lettering can be found on the jerseys of German 3rd league club FC Carl Zeiss Jena. This was facilitated by jersey sponsors Heaven Shall Burn, whose logo has been moved to the jersey's sleeve for this cause. Part of the proceeds from the jersey's sale is donated to the foundation. === Wacken Music Camp === 2014 saw Wacken Music Camp take place for the first time. One week after the festival ended, young people from all over Germany were invited to write and play their own songs under the guidance of professional musicians. They were accommodated in the so-called Kuhle, the site of the first Wacken Open Air. === Blood donations === The organisers regularly call for blood donations with the whole festival team. Blood is donated at the Itzehoe Clinic and the entire wing is decorated in W:O:A style, while Heavy Metal is blasted through the speakers. === DKMS typing campaign === Since W:O:A 2014, visitors and musicians have been encouraged to have their bone marrow typed for donation by the German Bone Marrow Donor Database. In 2014, 2,700 visitors took this opportunity. === Stark gegen Krebs – Strong against cancer === The festival works with the organisers of the so-called Wattolümpiade ("mudflat Olympics") in Brunsbüttel to promote the slogan Stark gegen Krebs ("Strong against cancer"). The festival's team helps out with logistics for the event. == Related events == In addition to the festival itself, there are numerous other events planned and carried out by the organisers. === Hamburg Metal Dayz === The indoor festival Hamburg Metal Dayz takes place at the same time as the Reeperbahn-Festival and is considered a get-together for the scene. In addition to concerts, there are panels with musicians, managers, and other Metal experts, as well as workshops and a question and answer session with the W:O:A organisers. === Wacken Roadshow === For the Wacken Roadshow, several bands tour Europe under the banner of Wacken Open Air. These concerts are meant to complement the warm-up parties organised in many places. === Wacken Rocks === Several open-air festivals called Wacken Rocks were held in the past to transport the Wacken atmosphere to other places. === Wacken Winter Nights === Wacken Winter Nights (WWN), a three-day Folk and Medieval open-air festival, took place for the first time in February 2017 at temperatures of -2 to -6 degrees Celsius in Wacken. With over 3,500 attendees, the festival's first edition sold out several weeks in advance. Most of them spent the nights on the camping site. A second edition took place from 23 to 25 February 2018. Due to the construction on the previous year's campground, the overnight accommodations were relocated to the area that is also used for the regular Open Air. The walking distance, therefore, increased to about 15 minutes. With 4,000 visitors, the 2018 event also sold out. For the third event in 2019, the festival grounds were expanded considerably and 5,000 visitors attended. The fourth WWNs are planned for the 14th to 16 February 2020. === Zum Wackinger === The former country-style restaurant Zur Post in Wacken, built in 1919, has been the hub of the village and the surrounding communities for decades. It was here that bartenders Thomas Jensen and Holger Hübner conceived the idea for today's Wacken Open Air. Today, it is used to accommodate staff and to serve other business purposes. A series of events called "Zum Wackinger" sees artists from music, comedy, and entertainment perform regularly. Since 2016, a two-day medieval feast with jugglers and bards takes place here. === Metal Monday === In the summer of 1990, Metal Monday took place for the first time at Knust in Hamburg. For five years, regional, national and international Metal bands like De la Cruz, 5th Avenue, and King Køng played at Knust every Monday. After a break of almost 20 years, Metal Monday was revived by the Wacken Open Air organisers in 2014 in cooperation with the Knust, Seaside Touring, All Access, and Hamburg Konzerte. Metal, Rock, and Folkrock bands now perform once a month, following the motto "three bands - small entrance fee". In addition to regional bands, international newcomers are always invited. === Metal Church === The Evangelical Lutheran Village Church in Wacken belongs to the Lutheran congregation of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany. For Wacken Open Air and Wacken Winter Nights, it is turned into the Metal Church. During said festivals, the Metal Service is held here and bands from the Folk and Medieval scene perform in the church. === Full Metal Mountain === During the winters of 2016, 2017 and 2018, an annual ski trip to Nassfeld, Austria was organised for Metal fans under the name Full Metal Mountain. Numerous bands and artists were present. For 2019, the festival was cancelled entirely. === Full Metal Holiday === Planning and preparation are underway for a holiday trip to Mallorca with the title Full Metal Holiday - Destination Mallorca, which will offer Metal concerts on the beach from 12 to 19 October 2020. The event was originally planned for 2017 and said to head to Ibiza, then rescheduled for 2018 and changed to Mallorca. === Full Metal Cruise === Cruises with Heavy Metal bands on board under the name Full Metal Cruise have been organised within Europe since 2013. === StrongmanRun === The Fisherman's Friend StrongmanRun visited the Metal festival grounds of Wacken for the first time in April 2016. With their Wacken debut, the StrongmanRun season formally kicked off. About 3,000 participants, some in colourful costumes, took part in the run on the 20 km track with 40 obstacles. In 2017, the StrongmanRun took place on the festival grounds. == Merchandise == A wide range of merchandising has also been developed over the years. In addition to T-shirts and a comprehensive range of CDs and DVDs, the festival also has accompanying print media. The W:O:A History Book contains the open-air's history up until 2005. The book Die Wahrheit über Wacken ("The truth about Wacken", Oidium Verlag 2005, new edition published at Verlag Andreas Reiffer 2011) provides a more humorous account of the festival. It was written by satirist Till Burgwächter in collaboration with comic artist Jan Oidium and is also available as an audio book comprising three CDs. The publication of a Metal cookbook shows how far merchandising has come. However, the mounting range of merchandising has led to growing criticism, as some consider it to be purely profit-oriented. The increasing coverage of the festival, especially in the wake of the documentary Full Metal Village, is perceived by the traditional Metal scene as "selling out". In 2005, Wacken Premium Pilsner was offered as the festival's "own" beer for the first time. It was produced in the Bavarian brewery Maximiliansbrauerei in Chieming. At W:O:A 2006 and 2007, the beer was available as well, this time produced in 0.5-litre bottles by the Flensburger brewery. The large number of glass shards later forced the organisers to switch to 0.5-litre cans. As a motto, the phrase "See you in Wacken - Rain or Shine" has established itself alongside "Faster, Harder, Louder". Additionally, the festival features the sentence "Louder Than Hell" in its advertising. The organisers of Wacken Open Air have been releasing an official live DVD every year since 2003: Metal Overdrive: Wacken Overdrive, 2003 Armageddon Over Wacken 2003, 2003 Armageddon Over Wacken 2004, 2004 Armageddon Over Wacken 2005, 2005 Wacken 2006 – Live at W:O:A, 2006 Wacken 2007: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2007 Wacken 2008: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2008 Wacken 2009: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2009 Wacken 2010: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2010 Wacken 2011: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2011 Wacken 2012: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2012 Wacken 2013: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2014 Wacken – Der Film, 2014 25 Years of Wacken: Snapshots, Sraps, Thoughts & Sounds, 2015 Wacken 2014: Live at Wacken Open Air, 2015 Live At Wacken 2015 – 26 Years Louder Than Hell, 2016 Live at Wacken 2016 – 27 Years Louder Than Hell, 2017 Live at Wacken 2017 – 28 Years Louder Than Hell, 2018 Live at Wacken 2018 - 29 Years Louder Than Hell, 2019 Live at Wacken 2019 - 30 Years Birthday Harder Louder than hell, 2019 == Media == === Documentaries === German television has produced numerous Wacken Open-Air documentaries in recent years. The following list is therefore not complete: Metalheads, documentary on the 10th anniversary of Wacken Open Air (director: Thomas Greiner) Nordland, documentary on the 15th anniversary of Wacken Open Air (director: Thomas Greiner (author)) Full Metal Village, 2006 (Director: Cho Sung-Hyung) Ein Dorf im Ausnahmezustand - A village in a state of emergency / Three days of Wacken - Bauernschlau und Heavy-Metal, 2006 (film by Petra Petersen, NDR) Rockpalast (WDR), Festival Wacken-Open-Air, 2006, 2007 and 2009, each approx. 2 h documentary, can be downloaded free of charge in the media library of the public broadcaster (as of February 2016) Wahnsinn Wacken, 2007 (DMAX) approx. 1 h documentary Ein Dorf und 100.000 Rockfans, 2008 (ZDF) Metaller die auf Brüste starren, 2010 Road To Wacken - The Movie, 2011 Heavy Metal auf der Wiese, 2011 (NDR) (Director: Manfred Studer) Heavy Metal trifft Karniggels - Detlev Buck goes Wacken, 2012 (NDR) (Director: Nils Utzig) Heiter, harder, louder, 2013 (NDR) (Director: Nils Utzig) Alles auf Schwarz – Wacken!!! Sarnau und Hübner bei den Metalheads, 2013 (NDR) (Director: Nils Utzig) Wacken 3D, 2014 (Director: Norbert Heitker) - also in 2D. 25 Years Louder Than Hell - The W:O:A Documentary, Jun 2015, DVD and Blu-ray, 3 Eps. 45 min, 1 h 5 min, 42 min, original sound: German, English, and Spanish with subtitles in German, English. Road To Wacken, 2016 (DMAX) - two-part documentary (45 min each) about the band Blind Guardian, who plan, prepare and perform their set at W:O:A, as well as the festival itself, its visitors, the village of Wacken and its inhabitants. Welcome to Wacken - A Documentary Film in Virtual Reality, Jul 2017 (Director: Sam Dunn), °360 VR Film in English in five parts, with animations of the festival area.[87][88] Der Wacken-Wahnsinn, Wie geht das? NDR Television, August 2018 Legend of Wacken \| Making Of \| RTL+ RTL+ Television, July 2023 W:O:A - Wacken Open Air Festival: Schlammfest des Heavy Metal \| WELT HD DOKU August 2023 Since 1999, various documentaries about W:O:A have been made. The first documentary, Metalheads - The Official Documentary, was produced in 1999 on the occasion of the festival's 10th anniversary and was released on VHS by Rock Hard in 2000. The film team lived on the festival grounds for ten days prior to the actual start of the festival and documented the work of construction workers, farmers such as Uwe Trede, villagers, fans and organisers. Although the film shows excerpts from performances by some of the bands and interviews with the artists, it is more of a behind-the-scenes documentary. The film was produced with the simplest means, including a professional Hi8 and a Mini-DV camera and a team of three, and was regarded by the organisers as a trial run on the subject of film. According to the organisers, a total of 10,000 copies were made and sold. The film Nordland was shot for the 15th edition of W:O:A, but was only used for internal promotion. Both films were made by Thomas Greiner. The documentary Metal: A Headbanger's Journey by Sam Dunn (2005) features Wacken Open Air. The festival is described as a Mecca of Heavy Metal. The film Full Metal Village by director Cho Sung-Hyung, made in 2005 and 2006, portrays the people of Wacken dealing with the festival. In 2006, she was awarded the main award of the Hessischer Filmpreis and the Schleswig-Holstein Filmpreis for best documentary. Full Metal Village was the first documentary ever to win the Max Ophüls Award for young filmmakers in 2007. WDR-Rockpalast profiled the festival in 2006, 2007, and 2009 with two-hour documentaries. Broadcaster DMAX also sent a camera team and produced a one-hour documentary on the construction of W:O:A in 2007. ZDF television filmed the 30-minute feature Ein Dorf und 100.000 Rockfans about Wacken Open Air 2008. The aforementioned projects are almost identical in content; they invite visitors, organisers, and the citizens of Wacken to comment on the festival and generally present it in a positive way. However, there has been criticism of the fact that the Wacken Firefighters have been featured too prominently. The three Rockpalast documentaries focus on interviews with the musicians and the performances of the bands. Another perspective is offered by the low-budget production Metaller die auf Brüste starren ("The Metalheads Who Stare At Breasts", title based on The Men Who Stare At Goats), which five festival attendees shot during their stay at Wacken. "Offener Kanal Bad Offenbach" is listed as its official producer. The film shows the festival from the filmmakers' (subjective) point of view and comments on the events in the style of New Journalism. In contrast to other documentaries, this one focuses on the fans. Whether it's a documentary in the true sense of the word or whether the film is just entertainment remains controversial. The filmmakers themselves avoid this question and classify their work as a "trash documentary". The film premiered on 5 May 2011. Schleswig-Holstein's Prime Minister Peter Harry Carstensen (CDU) commented on the opening of W:O:A 2009: "I don't come here to listen to the music, but I do identify with the festival". === Live albums recorded at Wacken === Numerous bands have recorded their performances at Wacken Open Air and released them as audio CDs or DVDs. The following list contains only full live albums and no albums containing only individual live tracks from the festival: Hypocrisy – Hypocrisy Destroys Wacken, 1999 Rose Tattoo – 25 to Live, 2000 Tygers of Pan Tang – Live at Wacken, 2001 Grave Digger – Tunes of Wacken – Live, 2002 Twisted Sister – Live at Wacken: The Reunion, 2005 Bloodbath – The Wacken Carnage, 2005 Scorpions – Live at Wacken Open Air 2006 Emperor – Live at Wacken Open Air 2006 Dimmu Borgir – The Invaluable Darkness, 2007 Rage – Live in Wacken 2007 (bonus DVD for the album Carved in Stone), 2008 Mambo Kurt – The Orgel Has Landed: Live at Wacken, 2008 Lacuna Coil - Visual Karma (Body, Mind and Soul), 2008 Avantasia – The Flying Opera, 2008 Die Apokalyptischen Reiter – Tobsucht (Reitermania over Wacken & Party.San), 2008 Atheist – Unquestionable Presence: Live at Wacken, 2009 Heaven & Hell: Neon Nights: 30 Years of Heaven & Hell (CD & DVD format), 2009 Exodus – Shovel Headed Tour Machine – Live at Wacken, 2010 Grave Digger – The Clans Are Still Marching, 2010 Immortal – The Seventh Date of Blashyrkh, 2010 Rage – Live in Wacken 2009 (bonus DVD for the album Strings to a Web), 2010 At the Gates – Purgatory Unleashed – Live at Wacken, 2010 Running Wild – The Final Jolly Roger Motörhead – The Wörld Is Ours – Vol. 2: Anyplace Crazy as Anywhere Else, 2011 Saxon – Heavy Metal Thunder – Live – Eagles Over Wacken, 2012 Sacred Reich – Live At Wacken Open Air, 2012 Degradead – Live at Wacken And Beyond, 2012 Megaherz – Götterdämmerung: Live At Wacken 2012, 2012 Gorgoroth – Live at Wacken 2008, 2012 God Seed – Live at Wacken, 2012 Atrocity – Die Gottlosen Jahre – Live In Wacken, 2012 Ministry – Enjoy The Quiet: Live at Wacken 2012, 2013 Airbourne – Live at Wacken 2011, 2013 Nightwish – Showtime, Storytime, 2013 Alice Cooper – Raise The Dead : Live From Wacken, 2014 Circle II Circle – Live at Wacken (Official Bootleg), 2014 Deep Purple – From the Setting Sun … In Wacken (recorded in 2013), 2015 Sabaton – Heroes On Tour, 2015 Europe – War Of Kings Special Edition, DVD/BluRay 2 Live at Wacken, 2015 Danko Jones – Live at Wacken (recorded in 2015), 2016 Judas Priest – Battle Cry, 2016 Unisonic – Live in Wacken, 2017 Hansen & Friends – Thank You Wacken live, 2017 Arch Enemy – As The Stages Burn! (recorded in 2016), 2017 Status Quo – Down Down & Dirty at Wacken (recorded in 2017), 2018 Accept – Symphonic Terror - Live at Wacken 2017, 2018 Epica – Live in Wacken, 2018 Parkway Drive – Viva The Underdogs, 2020 Sabaton – 20th Anniversary Show (recorded in 2019), 2021 Dream Theater - Lost Not Forgotten Archives: Live at Wacken (2015) (recorded in 2015), 2022 Visions of Atlantis - Pirates over Wacken (record in 2022), 2023 Tarja Turunen - Rocking Heels: Live at Metal Church (recorded in 2016), 2023 === Other media === On 12 July 2023 the broadcaster RTL+ started airing the first season of six episodes of the mini series Legend of Wacken The plot is about the struggle of the founders to kick off their festival idea with comedy and satiric style. When Holger is nearly electrocuted by a live wire he (in a coma) and his co-organizer Thomas reflect on their creation, the Wacken Open Air Heavy Metal Festival that in 1990 had an audience of 800 and now attracts 100,000 fans per year. The cast of the founders: Sammy Scheuritzel as young Holger Hübner, Charly Hübner as older Holger Hübner, Sebastian Jakob Doppelbauer as young Thomas Jansen and Aurel Manthei as older Thomas Jansen. It is not an accurate documentary series and has a huge part of fiction. In her crime novels Tod in Wacken and Der Teufel von Wacken, author Heike Denzau places her storylines at Wacken Open Air, describing the location as well as the festival and its visitors. To mark its 30th anniversary, the Norddeutsche Rundschau published a special edition that offered insights into the organisation of the Wacken Open Air. In addition, there will be a special exhibition at the Prinzesshof Kreismuseum in Itzehoe to mark the anniversary. Selected concerts of Wacken Open Air 2014 were broadcast live in an online stream. Furthermore, the cooperation between Spiegel Online and Arte made some performances available as video on demand. == Awards == In 2008, W:O:A received the Live Entertainment Award (LEA) for best festival of 2007. Wacken Open Air 2018 was named the best major festival at the European Festival Awards 2018 and best festival at the Helga! Awards. == Further reading == Till Burgwächter: Zwischen Aasbüttel und Vahlenmoor. Die Wahrheit!!! – über Wacken. Oidium, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-9809697-5-4 → edition 2011; ISBN 978-3-934896-35-2. Andreas Schöwe: Wacken Roll – Das größte Heavy Metal-Festival der Welt. 2., updated and extended edition. Hannibal Verlag, Höfen 2012, ISBN 978-3-85445-376-5. == References == == External links == Official website Official Wacken Radio Website of ICS (organiser) Festival history with a list of the bands that have performed
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Kleinberg#:~:text=In%202011%2C%20he%20was%20elected,the%20Association%20for%20Computing%20Machinery.	Jon Kleinberg	Jon Michael Kleinberg (born 1971) is an American computer scientist and the Tisch University Professor of Computer Science and Information Science at Cornell University known for his work in algorithms and networks. He is a recipient of the Nevanlinna Prize by the International Mathematical Union. == Early life and education == Jon Kleinberg was born in 1971 in Boston, Massachusetts to Eugene Kleinberg, a mathematics professor at SUNY Buffalo, and Evelyn Kleinberg, a computer science researcher. His grandfather, Samuel Kleinberg, graduated from Cornell in 1934 and was a teacher of mathematics and physics at a high school in Brooklyn. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in computer science from Cornell University in 1993 and a PhD from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1996. He is the older brother of fellow Cornell computer scientist Robert Kleinberg. == Career == Since 1996 Kleinberg has been a professor in the Department of Computer Science at Cornell, as well as a visiting scientist at IBM's Almaden Research Center. His work has been supported by an NSF Career Award, an ONR Young Investigator Award, a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship, a Packard Foundation Fellowship, a Sloan Foundation Fellowship, and grants from Google, Yahoo!, and the NSF. He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2011, he was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences. In 2013 he became a fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery. == Research == Kleinberg is best known for his work on networks. One of his best-known contributions is the HITS algorithm, developed while he was at IBM. HITS is an algorithm for web search that builds on the eigenvector-based methods used in algorithms and served as the full-scale model for PageRank by recognizing that web pages or sites should be considered important not only if they are linked to by many others (as in PageRank), but also if they link to many others. Search engines themselves are examples of sites that are important because they link to many others. Kleinberg realized that this generalization implies two different classes of important web pages, which he called "hubs" and "authorities". The HITS algorithm is an algorithm for automatically identifying the leading hubs and authorities in a network of hyperlinked pages. Kleinberg is also known for his work on algorithmic aspects of the small world experiment. He was one of the first to realize that Stanley Milgram's famous "six degrees" letter-passing experiment implied not only that there are short paths between individuals in social networks but also that people seem to be good at finding those paths, an apparently simple observation that turns out to have profound implications for the structure of the networks in question. The formal model in which Kleinberg studied this question is a two dimensional grid, where each node has both short-range connections (edges) to neighbours in the grid and long-range connections to nodes further apart. For each node v, a long-range edge between v and another node w is added with a probability that decays as the second power of the distance between v and w. This is generalized to a d-dimensional grid, where the probability decays as the d-th power of the distance. Kleinberg has written numerous papers and articles as well as a textbook on computer algorithms, Algorithm Design, co-authored with Éva Tardos. Among other honors, he received a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship also known as the "genius grant" in 2005 and the Nevanlinna Prize in 2006, an award that is given out once every four years along with the Fields Medal as the premier distinction in Computational Mathematics. In 2010 he published his book "Networks, Crowds, and Markets: Reasoning About a Highly Connected World" at Cambridge University Press. Cornell's Association of Computer Science Undergraduates awarded him the "Faculty of the Year" award in 2002. == References == == External links == Still the Rebel King -Video Interview with Jon Kleinberg, ACM Infosys Foundation Award recipient by Stephen Ibaraki Yury Lifshits, Four Results of Jon Kleinberg: a talk for St. Petersburg Mathematical Society
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoido_Full_Gospel_Church#History	Yoido Full Gospel Church	Yoido Full Gospel Church (Korean: 여의도 순복음 교회) is a Pentecostal church affiliated with the Assemblies of God on Yeouido (Yoi Island) in Seoul, South Korea. With about 480,000 members, it is the largest Pentecostal Christian congregation in South Korea. Founded by David Yonggi Cho and Choi Ja-shil in 1958, the church is presently led by Young Hoon Lee. The church has several satellite locations throughout the city of Seoul. The current building, relocated in 1973, was constructed by Sampoong Construction Industries, the company that built the Sampoong Department Store. == History == The Yoido Full Gospel Church was founded in 1958 by Pastor David Yonggi Cho and his mother-in-law, Choi Ja-shil, both Assemblies of God pastors. On 15 May 1958, a worship service was held in the home of Choi Ja-shil. Apart from the two pastors, only Choi Ja-shil's three daughters (one of whom later married David Yungi Cho) and one elderly woman, who had come in to escape from the rain, attended the first service. The two pastors began a vigorous campaign of knocking on doors, providing spiritual and humanitarian help to the poor, and praying for the sick. Within months, the church had grown to fifty members, too many to accommodate in Choi Ja-shil's living room. Worship services were accordingly moved to a tent pitched in her backyard. As the church continued to grow over the following months and years, the church outgrew one tent after another. Pastor Cho began preaching on the Three-Fold Blessing (the blessing of the spirit, soul, and body), proclaiming that physical health and financial prosperity are as much a part of God's will for Christians as the salvation of the soul. Inspired by his message of hope and monetary wealth, many previously uncommitted people joined the church, and by the beginning of 1961, membership had grown to a thousand. Having grown too large for its tent, the church purchased its first plot of land, at Seodaemun. === The Seodaemun Church: 1961–1973 === The church's plans for expansion suffered a setback when Pastor Cho was called up for mandatory military service. Fortunately for the church, he was assigned to an American Army base near Seoul, allowing him to continue with his Sunday preaching, with the help of John Hurston, an American missionary. Cho's spell in the army was short, as ill-health required a major operation and a subsequent discharge from the army. Although ill, Cho continued to pastor the church, and on 15 October 1961, an inaugural service was held in the new auditorium that had been built on the plot of land the church had purchased at Seodaemun. It was named the Full Gospel Revival Center. Church membership continued to grow, reaching three thousand by 1964 and eight thousand by 1968. Cho continued to be plagued by ill health, and he suffered a physical collapse while leading a baptismal service one Sunday. In 1967, Cho decided to restructure the church. Cho divided the city of Seoul into zones, with church members in each zone comprising a "cell" that would meet on a weekday for worship and Bible study in the home of a "cell leader." Cell members were encouraged to invite their friends to attend cell meetings to learn about Jesus Christ. Each cell leader was instructed to train an assistant. When cell membership reached a certain number, it would be divided, with about half of its members joining the new cell led by the person who had been the assistant. Cho believed that women would make ideal cell leaders, having both the time and the desire to make home visits to other members, something that many men, for reasons pertaining to Korean culture as it was at that time, were unwilling to do. His decision to appoint women as cell leaders went against the grain of Korean culture, which at that time was not open to the idea of women leading groups that had male members. He persisted, and the cell concept turned out to be an outstanding success. From 125 cells in 1967, the church has grown to several thousand cells in 2015. Aside from restructuring as a cell-based church, a Women's Fellowship was started in 1960, followed by a Men's Fellowship in 1963, to enable lay members to serve the church in a wide range of volunteer capacities. Membership continued to grow rapidly, reaching ten thousand in the early 1970s. Having outgrown its Seodaemun premises, the church began looking for a new place to build. === The Yoido Church: 1973–present === Yeouido (Yoi Island), in the middle of the Han River which winds its way through the heart of Seoul, was at that time little more than sand dunes, without even a bridge to connect it to the city of Seoul. Believing that he had heard from God, Cho and the other leaders of the church decided to purchase a plot of land on Yoi Island, directly across from Korea's National Assembly. Economic problems, including the 1973 "oil shock," which led to spiraling inflation and the loss of jobs for many church members, delayed construction of the new auditorium. However, it was finally finished in 1973, and its inaugural worship service in the auditorium of 12,000 seats was held on 19 August of that year. A month later, Full Gospel Central Church, as it was now known, hosted the 10th Pentecostal World Conference at the Hyochang Stadium. Membership of Full Gospel Central Church reached fifty thousand by 1977, a figure that doubled in only two years. A special worship service was held to celebrate this milestone, with Demos Shakarian, President of the Full Gospel Businessmen's Fellowship International as the guest speaker. Beginning in the 1980s, Full Gospel Central Church decided to establish satellite churches throughout the city of Seoul and further afield, as it would not be able to keep on expanding indefinitely. Despite the expansion of the auditorium to seat 12,000 in 1983, seven Sunday services were insufficient to accommodate the entire membership. In 1993, with 700,000 members, the Yoido Full Gospel Church, was the world's largest congregation recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records. Despite the drain of members to the satellite churches, however, new recruits by the mother church – brought in through the vast cell network – have made up for the losses, and membership stood at 780,000 in 2003. The church was renamed Yoido Full Gospel Church in the 1990s. Its founder, Mr David Yonggi Cho, retired as head pastor several times, but the church ran into immediate infighting among the remaining ministers, causing him to come out of retirement, most recently late in 2006. As of 2007, membership stands at 830,000, with seven Sunday services translated into 16 languages. On 9 January 2009 a Sunday church service was featured in a BBC documentary Around the World in 80 Faiths. In 2008, Young Hoon Lee became senior pastor. In 2025, the Church had 480,000 people in Seoul. == Ministries of the church == Yoido Full Gospel Church has established many ministries as part of its outreach program, both locally and internationally. A representative sample of them follows: In March 1973, the Osanri Choi Ja-sil Memorial Fasting Prayer Mountain was founded. It has over 200 prayer grottoes in which people may lock themselves to fast and pray, Prayer Mountain now receives more than a million visitors a year, including some 50,000 foreigners. In November 1976, Church Growth International, an organization dedicated to teaching the principles of evangelism and church growth to pastors all over the world, was established. A ten-story World Evangelical Center, an educational institution attached to the church, was opened on 20 January 1977. A television studio, opened on 31 December 1981, was built to broadcast the worship services both nationally and internationally. The Full Gospel Educational Research Institute, now the International Theological Institute, was created to promote evangelism and theological training. In January 1986, Elim Welfare Town, a facility for the elderly, the young, the homeless, and the unemployed, was set up under the auspices of the church. The latter would be given training and a choice of four occupations. In March of the same year, the church established Hansei University. Since 2012, anticipating that the low birthrate issue would escalate into a national crisis, the church took immediate action by implementing measures to address it. As the first in the Korean church community, they began providing childbirth incentives to members who had children, distributing a total of 5.4 billion won up until last year. Starting in 2024, the church has increased the incentives, offering 2 million won for the first child, 3 million won for the second, 5 million won for the third, and 10 million won for the fourth child and beyond. In 2024, as Yoido Full Gospel Church celebrates its 66th anniversary, it has appointed its first six female elders. Following the church's ongoing efforts to strengthen the role of women, this comes after the appointment of female pastors in 2023. Now, women are being given the opportunity to participate in the church's leadership as elders, representing the laity in church administration. Yeouido Full Gospel Church has proclaimed special prayer meetings and early morning prayer gatherings during critical moments in South Korea's modern history, overcoming challenges through the collective prayers of its congregation. === Overseas mission work === Yoido Full Gospel Church has sent missionaries to countries worldwide, spreading the "Fivefold Gospel," "Triple Blessing," and the Holy Spirit movement. Overseas missions officially began in 1964 with Pastor Cho Yong-gi's mission work in the United States and have since expanded across continents. Today, the church has sent 657 missionaries to 63 countries, establishing 1,218 churches and guiding over 140,000 people in faith. == Controversies == === Buddhist temple vandalism === A pastor from Yoido Full Gospel Church named Seong vandalized the Dharma hall of Donghwasa Temple on 20 August 2012. The pastor was caught on CCTV urinating in the Dharma hall and vandalizing the Buddhist portraits with a permanent marker. === David Yonggi Cho's affair allegations === In November 2013, the Church Reform Prayer Meeting exposed allegations of an affair involving David Yonggi Cho, revealing that Cho had allegedly given 1.5 billion won to Jeong Gwi-sun, author of the novel Butterfly Lady of Paris, as hush money. Despite forming a 'Church Investigation Committee,' the inquiry did not address the affair allegations, leaving many questions unanswered. Jeong Gwi-sun, identified as the alleged mistress, supported David Yonggi Cho. In January 2014, Jeong Gwi-sun claimed that the controversial book was fictional and unrelated to Cho, and sued six elders from the prayer meeting. On February 14, Jeong Gwi-sun publicly apologized to the Korean church, Yoido Full Gospel Church, Rev. Cho, and its members for the controversy. === Embezzlement charges === On 20 February 2014 Pastor Cho and his son (Hee-jun) were convicted of embezzling US$12 million in church funds. The presiding judge once told Cho, "We know that this case is not your problem. You just need to blame it on your son, then you will have no responsibilities," Cho wrote, adding that Cho refused, "My son can be unrighteous to me, but I cannot be unrighteous to my son." In June 2016, this incident became a non-prosecution because there was "no suspicion." === Support for Pastor Jeon Kwang-hoon === Young Hoon Lee, who has served as the senior pastor of Yoido Full Gospel Church since 2008, sparked controversy on May 16, 2023, when he attended the opening ceremony of the Liberty Korea Party's headquarters in Yeongdeungpo-gu, Seoul. During the event, he urged attendees to support Jeon Kwang-hoon in his call to "eradicate communist reds," a phrase now regarded as outdated propaganda. The controversy is heightened by the fact that Jeon, whom Pastor Lee supported, has previously made statements like "God, Freeze!" which are seen as blasphemous by the Christian community. Additionally, Jeon has already been labeled a "heretic" by mainstream Protestant groups in South Korea. The incident has drawn criticism, as it appears that the leader of Korea's largest church is publicly endorsing a figure deemed heretical by many within the faith. == See also == Christianity in Korea – an overview of the history and social impact of Christianity in Korea List of the largest evangelical churches List of the largest evangelical church auditoriums Worship service (evangelicalism) == References == == External links == Yoido Full Gospel Church English Language website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Speiser	Andreas Speiser	Andreas Speiser (June 10, 1885 – October 12, 1970) was a Swiss mathematician and philosopher of science. == Life and work == Speiser studied in Göttingen, starting in 1904, notably with David Hilbert, Felix Klein, Hermann Minkowski. In 1917 he became full-time professor at the University of Zurich but later relocated in Basel. During 1924/25 he was president of the Swiss Mathematical Association. Speiser worked on number theory, group theory, and the theory of Riemann surfaces. He organized the translation of Leonard Dickson's seminal 1923 book Algebras and Their Arithmetics (Algebren und ihre Zahlentheorie, 1927), which was heavily influenced by the work on the theory of algebras done by the schools of Emmy Noether and Helmut Hasse. Speiser also added an appendix on ideal theory to Dickson's book. Speiser's book Theorie der Gruppen endlicher Ordnung is a classic, richly illustrated work on group theory. In this book, there are group theoretical applications in Galois theory, elementary number theory, and Platonic solids, as well as extensive studies of ornaments, such as those that Speiser studied on a 1928 trip to Egypt. Speiser also worked on the history of mathematics and was the chief editor for the Euler Commission's edition of Leonhard Euler's Opera Omnia and the editor of the works of Johann Heinrich Lambert. As a philosopher Speiser was chiefly concerned with Plato and wrote a commentary on the Parmenides Dialogue, but he was also an expert of the philosophies of Plotinus and Hegel. Speiser's doctoral students include J. J. Burckhardt. == Writings == Die Theorie der Gruppen von endlicher Ordnung – mit Anwendungen auf algebraische Zahlen und Gleichungen sowie auf die Kristallographie. Springer 1923 (1st edition), 1927 (2nd edition), 1937 (3rd edition); Birkhäuser 1956. Klassische Stücke der Mathematik. Orell Füssli 1925 (mit Abdruck von Quellen, u.a. auch Dante, Rousseau). Leonhard Euler und die Deutsche Philosophie. Orell Füssli 1934. Leonhard Euler. In: Große Schweizer. Atlantis Verlag, Zürich 1939, 1940, S.1-6. Die mathematische Denkweise. Rascher 1932, Birkhäuser 1945, 1952. Leonhard Euler. Vortrag gehalten an der Generalversammlung des S.I.A. in Basel am 11. September 1949. Schweizerische Bauzeitung, Jg.67, Nr.48. 26. November 1949, Zürich. Elemente der Philosophie und Mathematik. Birkhäuser 1952. Die Geistige Arbeit. Birkhäuser 1955 (Vorträge). Ein Parmenideskommentar – Studien zur Platonischen Dialektik. Koehler, Leipzig, Stuttgart, 1937, 1959. Ueber Riemannsche Flächen. Comm.Math.Helvetici (CMH), Bd.2, 1930, S.284-293. Zur Theorie der Substitutionsgruppen. Mathematische Annalen, Bd. 75, 1914, S.443-448. Zahlentheoretische Sätze aus der Gruppentheorie. Math.Zeitschrift Bd.5, 1919, S. 1-6. Naturphilosophische Untersuchungen von Euler und Riemann. Crelle Journal Bd. 157, 1927, S.105-114. Zahlentheorie in rationalen Algebren. CMH, Bd.8, 1936, S.391-406. Riemann'sche Flächen vom hyperbolischen Typus. CMH Bd.10, 1937, S.232-242. Geometrisches zur Riemannschen Zetafunktion. Mathematische Annalen Bd.110, 1934, S.514-521. Einteilung der sämtlichen Werke Leonhard Eulers. CMH Bd.20, 1947, S. 288-318. == See also == Hilbert–Speiser theorem Jordan–Schur theorem == References == Martin Eichler, Nachruf in den Verhandlungen der Schweizer Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Bd.150, 1970, S.325 J. J. Burckhardt, Nachruf in Vierteljahresschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft Bd.115, 1970, 471 J. J. Burckhardt: Die Mathematik an der Universität Zurich 1916-1950 unter den Professoren R. Fueter, A. Speiser und P. Finsler, Basel, 1980 == External links == Media related to Andreas Speiser (mathematician) at Wikimedia Commons
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Set_Radio#:~:text=The%20soundtrack%20CD%2C%20Jet%20Set,20%2C%202000%2C%20in%20Japan.	Jet Set Radio	Jet Set Radio (originally released in North America as Jet Grind Radio) is a 2000 action-platform video game developed by Smilebit and published by Sega for the Dreamcast. The player controls a member of the GG's, a youth gang that uses inline skates to traverse Tokyo while spraying graffiti, challenging rival gangs, and evading authorities. Development was headed by director Masayoshi Kikuchi, with art by Ryuta Ueda. The team drew influence from late 1990s Japanese pop culture, such as the rhythm game PaRappa the Rapper, the anti-establishment themes of the 1999 film Fight Club, and elements of 1980s American hip hop culture such as graffiti. The environments were based on Tokyo shopping districts in Shibuya and Shinjuku, with graffiti designed by artists including Eric Haze, who also designed the game's logo. Jet Set Radio was the first game to use a cel-shaded art style, which was developed in response to the team's disappointment with the abundance of sci-fi and fantasy Sega games. Upon its release, Jet Set Radio received universal acclaim for its graphics, soundtrack, and gameplay. The game won several awards while being nominated for many others, and is considered one of the greatest video games of the 2000s and of all time. In 2003, it was followed by a Game Boy Advance version developed by Vicarious Visions, as well as versions for Japanese mobile phones. In 2012, it was re-released for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, iOS, Windows, PlayStation Vita and Android. The game also launched a series of sequels, starting with Jet Set Radio Future for the Xbox in 2002, and another being announced by Sega in 2023. == Gameplay == The player controls a member of the GG's, a gang of graffiti-tagging inline skaters. The game consists of three types of levels: Street, Rival Showdown, and Trial. The Street levels come in two categories. The first is to tag every graffiti point in each area previously tagged by a rival gang before the timer runs out while evading the authorities. The second category serves as a boss battle by chasing the rival gang members and spraying graffiti on them. The more graffiti points are sprayed, the more deadly the authorities become. Graffiti points are marked by arrows and require paint to tag them. Players can spray graffiti by either pressing a single button or inputting commands using the analog stick depending on the size of the graffiti spot. Players are unable to spray graffiti if they run out of paint, which must be refilled by obtaining yellow and blue spray cans scattered across the stage. Yellow spray cans refill a single spray can, and blue spray cans refill five. Enemies will pursue players and attempt to deplete their health. Health can be replenished by obtaining red health spray cans. Performing tricks adds bonus points to the player's overall score and can help the player gain access to areas difficult to reach. In Rival Showdown levels, more playable characters can be unlocked after they are defeated by matching the rival's movements in technique sections or by spraying graffiti before the rival in race sections. Trial levels are unlocked after Street and Rival Showdown levels are cleared in a specific area. There are three kinds of trials: Jet Graffiti, Jet Tech, and Jet Crash. In Jet Graffiti, the objective is to spray all the graffiti points within the time limit. Jet Tech prioritizes in obtaining the top score within the time limit. In Jet Crash, the objective is to reach the goal and spray graffiti on it before the opponent. Players can customize their graffiti by choosing presets, or create their own using the Graffiti editor. By using a VMU, players can upload their graffiti to the official website for other players to use or download graffiti from other players. More Graffiti presets can be unlocked by collecting Graffiti Soul icons scattered throughout stages. == Plot == DJ Professor K broadcasts the pirate radio station Jet Set Radio to gangs of youths known as the Rudies, who roam Tokyo-to, skating and spraying graffiti as their means of expression. One gang, the GG's, competes for turf with the all-female jilted lovers the Love Shockers in the shopping districts of Shibuya-cho, the cyborg otaku Noise Tanks in the Benten-cho entertainment district, and the kaiju-loving Poison Jam in the Kogane-cho dockyard. The authorities, led by Captain Onishima, pursue the gangs with riot police and military armaments. After the GG's defeat Poison Jam, Noise Tanks, and Love Shockers in turf wars, they each drop a piece of a mysterious vinyl record. Professor K says that the record is the Devil's Contract and has the power to summon a demon. The GG's are joined by Combo and Cube, who explain that their hometown, Grind City, has been overtaken by the Rokkaku Group business conglomerate. They ask the GG's to help them to free their friend, Coin, who has been captured by the Rokkaku Group for his vinyl collection. The Rokkaku pursue the GG's and steal the Devil's Contract. Poison Jam explains that the Rokkaku CEO, Goji Rokkaku, plans to use it to make a contract with the demon and take over the world. The GG's defeat Goji on the roof of his headquarters by destroying his turntable, and freedom returns to the streets of Tokyo-to. Combo reveals that the Devil's Contract is an old record with no powers and that wealth had driven Goji to insanity. == Development == Jet Set Radio was developed by Smilebit, a Sega studio formed from members of Team Andromeda, the developers of the Panzer Dragoon games for the Sega Saturn. The development team consisted of fewer than 25 developers, with an average age of under 25. Programming began in mid-1999. The game was presented at the 1999 Tokyo Game Show and drew media attention for its cel-shaded style. During the early stages of development, director Masayoshi Kikuchi had difficulty leading the team without prior directing experience. The visual style was established prior to the gameplay; according to Kikuchi, it could have become an adventure game or role-playing game. His superiors were not satisfied with early concepts, and so Kikuchi used trial and error to develop a concept that he believed everyone would find interesting. Ueda wanted to create something "cool" that dealt with popular culture and was completely unlike the team's previous game, the 1998 role-playing game Panzer Dragoon Saga. Ueda's drawings of a punky character with headphones and rollerblades became the foundation of the game. Ueda had joined Sega after being impressed by the "freshness" and international appeal of Sonic the Hedgehog, but was disappointed with the excessive focused saturation of overtly fantastical manga and anime-style designs, and hoped to create something original. Smilebit drew inspiration from games outside the typical game genres of science fiction and fantasy. Ueda was particularly inspired by a demonstration of the PlayStation rhythm game PaRappa the Rapper at the 1996 Tokyo Game Show: "I think that's the first game with pop culture like that. They did it first. After that I decided to make a true game, not just a visual experience, that was actually for adults." The anti-establishment themes of the 1999 film Fight Club were another influence. Smilebit used thicker lines for stand-out objects. Smilebit developed a new cel-shading technique not used at the time as it would not have been possible on the Dreamcast or PlayStation 2. The game features graffiti by a variety of artists, including Eric Haze, who had designed album art for acts including the Beastie Boys and Public Enemy. Smilebit initially planned to make a skateboarding game, but this was changed due to the legs having to be fixed. Jet Set Radio was one of the earliest games to feature an open 3D world, which presented the team's biggest challenge. Kikuchi said: "Making an entire town in a game was quite the prospect. It's not hard with modern hi-spec hardware, but that wasn't the case back then... It was very difficult from a programming standpoint." Another Sega game developed in that period, Shenmue (1999), also featured an open world, but Kikuchi said the games posed different technical challenges, as Shenmue does not allow the player to jump or move at speed. The team implemented grinding to allow players to enjoy speed without worrying about colliding with obstacles. Smilebit chose to have a fixed camera as an attempt to reduce motion sickness. They attempted to make the game impossible to duplicate on PlayStation 2 by pushing the Dreamcast limitations using bright colors, realistic shadows, and more than sixteen NPCs on-screen without lag that would have been impossible on PS2 due to its smaller memory. The settings were inspired by Japanese locations such as the Tokyo shopping districts of Shibuya and Shinjuku, which Smilebit photographed to use as references. Sega feared that the game's style might alienate players outside Japan and requested changes for the international versions. The team added stages modeled after New York City: one based on Times Square, and another on Roosevelt Avenue along Queens and Brooklyn, and changed the nationality of two characters to American. The interactive credits sequence of the Japanese version was also cut, as localizing it would have meant rebuilding the stage with English names. Sega sold the international version in Japan as De La Jet Set Radio. Ueda was unhappy about the changes, which he said diminished the game's essential Japanese elements. === Promotion and release === Jet Set Radio was released in Japan on June 29, 2000. In North America, it was released on October 31 as Jet Grind Radio due to trademark problems for "Jet Set" in the United States at the time. The PAL version was released later on November 24 under the original name. The North American and PAL versions contained two new maps, new songs, and other in-game content designed to increase the game's appeal to Western audiences. To promote the North American release, Sega of America held a "Graffiti is Art" competition for contestants to enter their own graffiti art pieces to Sega. Sega chose five finalists and flew them into San Francisco, California on October 21, where they competed to make graffiti art pieces on a canvas within a 3 and a half-hour timeframe for a prize of $5000. Mayor of San Francisco, Willie Brown discovered the competition and attempted to revoke Sega of America's permit, but was unsuccessful due to obtaining the permit legally. === Soundtrack === The Jet Set Radio soundtrack includes original and licensed tracks with a variety of genres including J-pop, hip hop, funk, electronic dance, rock, acid jazz, and trip hop. The main theme of the game is called "Let Mom Sleep". The North American version and international rereleases add metal songs. The 2012 port omits "Yappie Feet" and "Many Styles" for licensing reasons. The music has been described as energetic, rhythm-heavy, defiant, and multicultural. Most of the soundtrack was composed by Hideki Naganuma, with additional tracks by Richard Jacques, Deavid Soul, Toronto, and B.B. Rights. Naganuma attempted to match the visual style, and experimented with voices, cutting, and rearranging samples to the point that they became nonsensical. In 2012, Naganuma said Jet Set Radio and its sequel had been his favorite projects. Smilebit worked with Sega of America and Sega of Europe to include as many street culture elements as possible, hoping to create music that was internationally acceptable. A soundtrack CD, Jet Grind Radio Music Sampler, was given to those who pre-ordered the game in the United States, featuring 10 tracks from the game, 4 of which do not appear in any version of Jet Set Radio. It was distributed by Interscope Records. The soundtrack CD, Jet Set Radio Original Soundtrack (UPCH-1048), featured 19 tracks including a data track from the game and was distributed by Polydor Records on December 20, 2000, in Japan. For the HD release, a new soundtrack CD titled Jet Set Radio: Original Soundtrack with Bonus Tracks from JSRF, was distributed by Sumthing Else on September 18, 2012, for North America and Europe, containing a total of 17 tracks, 10 from the game and 7 additional tracks from the sequel, Jet Set Radio Future. A second soundtrack for the HD version, Jet Set Radio Sega Original Tracks, was distributed by Sega, containing 15 tracks and was released on iTunes on October 3, 2012, alongside Jet Set Radio Future Sega Original Tracks. == Alternative versions == Sega re-released the game in Japan under the name De La Jet Set Radio. This version was released on October 18, 2001, in Japan via Dreamcast Direct (later renamed Sega Direct) and included a T-shirt featuring the protagonist Beat for those who pre-ordered. This version features content that was originally exclusive to PAL and North American versions, namely music from the PAL release, two playable characters, and two stages. === Mobile versions === Jet Set Radio was remade as two 2D mobile versions. The first, Typing Jet, a side-scrolling game in which players escape police, was released for Japanese mobile phones by Sega on June 22, 2001. It was followed by a remake for Game Boy Advance developed by Vicarious Visions and published by THQ in North America on June 26, 2003, and in Europe on February 20, 2004. The Game Boy Advance version uses the Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 2 engine and an isometric perspective, and it emulates the cel-shaded graphics of the Dreamcast game, with some original stages and shortened songs. === High-definition remaster === In 2012, high-definition ports developed by BlitWorks were released for PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Windows, PlayStation Vita, iOS, and Android. The ports add features, including widescreen HD graphics, online leaderboards, achievements, and a new camera system. It combines the North American, European, and Japanese versions' soundtracks and adds bonus tracks from Jet Set Radio Future, but it omits the PAL version's tracks "Yappie Feet" and "Many Styles". To promote the ports, Sega ran a contest to allow players to submit their own artwork to be used as graffiti within the game. The game was made backwards-compatible with the Xbox One in May 2016. In North America, the PS3 version was released on September 18, with PlayStation Plus members able to purchase it early on September 11. The PS3 version was released in Europe the following day alongside The Xbox Live Arcade and Windows version for both North America and Europe. The PlayStation Vita version was scheduled for release on October 16, but was delayed for development optimization reasons; it was released on November 20 in North America and in Europe the following day. The PS3, Xbox 360, and PlayStation Vita versions were released in Japan simultaneously on February 20, 2013. The iOS and Android versions were released in North America and Europe on November 29, 2012. Japan received the iOS version on December 20, 2012, and Android on January 30, 2013. The smartphone versions were delisted as of 2015 due to compatibility problems with iOS updates. The Xbox 360 version of Jet Set Radio was delisted off the Xbox Live Arcade store in February 2023, but is still available for download for those who own it. The Steam version of the game was similarly delisted on December 6, 2024; along with every other game that was featured in the Dreamcast Collection; except for Sonic Adventure and its sequel. == Reception == === Critical reception === Jet Set Radio received universal acclaim for its gameplay, visual style, and music. Gamers' Republic called it flawless. IGN praised the extra gameplay modes, saying they added replay value. Official Dreamcast Magazine (ODCM) found the exaggerated physics and interactivity of the levels immersive. DC-UK described the gameplay as a combination of Crazy Taxi and Tony Hawk and concluded that the gameplay was better than both. GameSpot praised the pacing, stating that the beginning of the game is simple and slowly becomes more challenging as the player progresses. GameFan was not impressed with the early stages, but their opinion changed as they progressed the game and were happy with the result. Next Generation found the story modifications of the English versions jarring, although, he complimented the new stages, calling them "impressive" and "a worthy addition to Japanese cityscapes of the original". The camera controls were commonly criticized, but most reviewers said the overall quality outweighed them. IGN said the visual style "looks like a moving cartoon, and every character, right down to the police dogs, is practically overflowing with personality ... It has the type of look that makes non-gamers can't help but be impressed". ODCM called it "gorgeous" and compared it to the move to color television. DC-UK also praised it for resembling a 2D cartoon in 3D space, and considered it ground-breaking. GamePro wrote that the visuals were unique and that the stylized design was convincing and fun. GamePro called Jet Set Radio one of the best-sounding games of the year for its soundtrack, and ODCM said it had "one of the best soundtracks ever". IGN also praised the soundtrack, but was critical of the tracks added to the North American release, in particular songs from Rob Zombie. Next Generation, however, did not consider the new tracks to make a difference, stating the soundtrack was incredible from the start. GameSpot said the soundtrack fit perfectly into the game's environment. When reviewing the HD remaster, the game received mixed reactions from critics. GamesRadar+ praised how it is a joy to play even 12 years after its release. Eurogamer also gave positive statements, calling the visual style "timeless", and complimented the HD remaster, stating "12 years on and this is a surprisingly rigorous game built of oddball delights, then, and the HD updating has only enhanced its charms. The skating's still great, the city's still a joy to explore, and the soundtrack's still one of the very best ever put together". Game Informer was more critical, opining that the gameplay was archaic and frustrating. Game Informer further elaborated that in retrospect, the originally released visual style blinded them from its faulty gameplay. Both TouchArcade and Pocket Gamer criticized smartphone versions for the touchscreen controls and unable to keep up with the tasks the game requires. Across all versions of the game combined, including the original and re-releases, sales of Jet Set Radio surpassed 1 million copies worldwide. === Accolades === Jet Set Radio won the Best Console Game at the E3 Game Critics Awards in 2000 and was the runner up for Best in Show at the same event. The game won the category of "Excellence in Visual Arts" award, received a "Game Spotlights Award" and was nominated for Game of the year at the 2001 Game Developers Choice Awards. Jet Set Radio received nominations for the "Game of the Year", "Console Game of the Year", "Console Innovation", "Art Direction", "Game Design", "Original Musical Composition", "Sound Design", and "Visual Engineering" categories at the 4th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards (the most nominated game at that ceremony). It won GameSpot's annual "Best Graphics, Artistic" award among console games, and was nominated in the "Best Game Music" and "Best Platform Game" categories. Gamers' Republic awarded it "Best 3D Game Design" in its 2000 Year in Review. The game was also featured in 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die. Jet Set Radio also holds a Guinness World Record for the first video game to use cel-shading. == Legacy == Jet Set Radio is recognized as one of the first games to feature cel-shaded graphics, with exaggerated shapes, thick lines, and flat, bright colors. Insomniac owner Ted Price credited it as an influence on their game Sunset Overdrive. Numerous indie developers have cited Jet Set Radio as a major influence on their games, the most notable being the successfully crowdfunded Hover: Revolt of Gamers, Lethal League, and Bomb Rush Cyberfunk, all of which draw heavy inspiration from Jet Set Radio's visuals and music and feature contributions from its composer, Hideki Naganuma. The game has also been speedrun at Games Done Quick multiple times. Other fan community-based Jet Set Radio projects include Jet Set Radio Live, a 24/7 browser-based radio station based on the fictional radio station in-game created in January 2016 and the albums Memories of Tokyo-To released on February 20, 2018, and Sounds of Tokyo-To Future by American musician 2 Mello on August 24, 2021. A sequel, Jet Set Radio Future, was released for the Xbox in 2002, early in the system's life cycle. Two main characters, Beat and Gum, are playable characters in Sega Superstars Tennis and Sonic & All-Stars Racing Transformed, and the former appears in Sonic Universe issue #45, an adaptation of the game along with Sonic & Sega All-Stars Racing. In 2009, an early antagonist in the game, Captain Onishima, was ranked 95th in IGN's "Top 100 Videogame Villains" list. Jet Set Radio and Jet Set Radio Future are highly requested games to be ported to the Xbox One, the Xbox Series X/S, and the Nintendo Switch. In 2021, Sega teased the possibility of a Jet Set Radio reboot, and announced Beat as a playable character for Super Monkey Ball Banana Mania. Sega announced a new Jet Set Radio game at the Game Awards 2023. == Notes == == References == == External links == Official Japanese Website at the Wayback Machine (archived 2001-04-20) Restoration of the original official American website (Archived June 6, 2020, at the Wayback Machine) Official Japanese website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Gennes_Prize	De Gennes Prize	The De Gennes Prize (formerly known as the Prize for Materials Chemistry) was established in 2008 and is awarded biennially by the Royal Society of Chemistry for outstanding and exceptional work in the field of materials chemistry. The de Gennes Prize honours the work of Pierre-Gilles de Gennes. The recipient of the de Gennes Prize receives £5000, a medal and certificate and completes a UK lecture tour. Pierre-Gilles de Gennes was born in Paris, France, in 1932. After graduating in 1955 from Ecole Normale, de Gennes was a research engineer at the Atomic Energy Centre (Saclay). After a brief time at University of California, Berkeley and 27 months in the French Navy, de Gennes became assistant professor at the University of Paris in Orsay. During his time at Orsay de Gennes worked on superconductors and liquid crystals. In 1991, Pierre-Gilles de Gennes was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for studying the boundary lines between order and disorder in materials like liquid crystals. After receiving the Nobel Prize, de Gennes visited roughly 200 high schools over a two-year period, from 1992 to 1994, in which he delivered talks on science, innovation and common sense to the students. Pierre-Gilles de Gennes died at the age of 74, on 18 May 2007. == Winners == Source: Royal Society of Chemistry 2009 (2009): Matthew Rosseinsky, University of Liverpool. 2011 (2011): Steve Mann, University of Bristol. 2013 (2013): Susumu Kitagawa, Kyoto University. 2015 (2015): Mercouri Kanatzidis, Northwestern University 2017 (2017): Ian Manners, University of Bristol 2019 (2019): Eugenia Kumacheva, University of Toronto 2021 (2021): Chad Mirkin, Northwestern University 2023: Thuc-Quyen Nguyen, University of California Santa Barbara. 2025 (2025): Samson Jenekhe, University of Washington == See also == List of chemistry awards == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Berkowitz	Joan Berkowitz	Joan B. Berkowitz (March 13, 1931 – January 22, 2020) was an American chemist. Her areas of research included materials for the space program, reusable molds for spacecraft construction built from molybdenum disilicides and tungsten disilicides, and the disposal and treatment of hazardous wastes. She was the first woman to serve as president of The Electrochemical Society. == Biography == Born in Brooklyn, New York on March 13, 1931, Berkowitz attended PS 42, John Marshall Junior High School, and Midwood High School. She created a science project analyzing weather maps from the New York Times to study the movement of weather patterns. She earned a scholarship to Swarthmore College and graduated Phi Beta Kappa with a BA in 1952. At Swarthmore she published her first paper, "The Preparation of trans 4-chlorocyclohexanol". Berkowitz wished to follow her high school boyfriend and fellow Swarthmore graduate Arthur Mattuck to Princeton University, but at the time Princeton did not accept women for graduate school in chemistry. Instead she attended the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, graduating with a PhD in physical chemistry in 1955. Her dissertation was "Studies on Electrolytes", which focused on the application of the Poisson–Boltzmann equation to polymeric electrolytes. She used ILLIAC I, an early computer, for the numerical solutions. From 1955 to 1957 she was a National Science Foundation postdoctoral fellow at Yale University studying polymeric electrolytes. In 1959, she married Arthur Mattuck, who at that point had become a professor of mathematics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. They divorced in 1977. In 1959 she joined the consulting firm of Arthur D. Little, where she would spend over two decades. Her early work at the firm concerned high-temperature oxidation and materials for the space program, focusing on the transition metals molybdenum, tungsten, and zirconium. She developed reusable molds from molybdenum disilicides and tungsten disilicides that were used in spacecraft construction. In the 1970s her work concerned environmental matters. She headed a team which created the two volume Physical, Chemical and Biological Treatment Techniques for Industrial Wastes (1976), a survey of manufactured goods and their potential for causing pollution. She examined limestone scrubbers that removed sulfur dioxide, demonstrated how to reduce hard deposits which hindered their effectiveness, and improved their design. She also studied the disposal of hazardous wastes in landfills and produced the first handbook on alternative disposal methods. In 1979 she became the first female president of The Electrochemical Society. By the 1980s she was a vice president and later head of the Environmental Business World Wide section at A.D. Little. In 1986 she left A.D. Little to become CEO of Risk Science International. In 1989 she co-founded with Allen Farkas the consulting firm Farkas Berkowitz & Company. In addition she has taught as an adjunct professor at the University of Maryland University College. == Personal life == In 1959, Berkowitz married Arthur Mattuck, a high school classmate who was by that time a mathematics professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Mattuck and Berkowitz divorced in 1977. They had one daughter, Rosemary, who is also a chemist. Berkowitz died on January 22, 2020, at the age of 88. == Awards and honors == 2005, Stanley J. Drazek award for excellence in teaching, University of Maryland University College (UMUC) Graduate School of Management and Technology 2002-2003, Sylvia M. Stoesser Lecturer in Chemistry 1983, Achievement Award, Society of Women Engineers == References == == External links == Farkas Berkowitz & Company
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fea%27s_petrel	Fea's petrel	Fea's petrel (Pterodroma feae) is a small seabird in the gadfly petrel genus, Pterodroma. It was previously considered to be a subspecies of the soft-plumaged petrel (P. mollis), but they are actually not closely related at all. However, P. feae is very closely related to Zino's petrel and Desertas petrel, two other species recently split from P. mollis. The gadfly petrels are named for their speedy weaving flight, as if evading horseflies. The flight action is also reflected in the genus name Pterodroma, from Ancient Greek pteron, "wing" and dromos, " runner". This species is named after the Italian zoologist Leonardo Fea (1852-1903). == Taxonomy and systematics == The first known recording of the "soft-plumaged petrel" appears to have been in October 1768 off the coast of West Africa during Captain Cook's first voyage. While no description was published at the time, a drawing of the specimen produced by Sydney Parkinson can be recognised as the form breeding on the Cape Verde Islands. This specimen was later described as a distinct species by the Italian zoologist Tommaso Salvadori in 1900 with the binomial name Oestrelata feae, named after the Italian ornithologist Leonardo Fea and was later reclassified again as Pterodroma feae. The gadfly petrels in the genus Pterodroma are seabirds of temperate and tropical oceans. Many are little-known and poorly studied, and their often similar appearance has meant that the taxonomy of the group has been rather fluid. The forms breeding in Macaronesia on Madeira, Bugio in the Desertas Islands, and in the Cape Verde archipelago were long considered to be subspecies of the southern hemisphere soft-plumaged petrel P. mollis, but differences in size, vocalisations, breeding behaviour and mitochondrial DNA analysis showed that the northern birds are not closely related to P. mollis, and that the Bermuda petrel or cahow may be the closest relative of the Macaronesian birds. Sangster recommended establishing Zino's petrel on Madeira and Fea's petrel on the Desertas and Cape Verde as full species, and the species split was accepted by the Association of European Rarities Committees (AERC) in 2003. More recently, some authorities have further split Fea's petrel, separating the Desertas Islands breeding birds from those in the Cape Verde archipelago. Sangster estimated that the two Macaronesian species diverged at the end of the Early Pleistocene, 850,000 years ago, although the methodology used to establish this time scale has subsequently been questioned. An analysis of feather lice from Fea's petrels Pterodroma feae deserti from Bugio Island and Zino's petrels from the Madeiran mainland showed that there were marked differences between the two seabirds in terms of the parasites they carried, suggesting that they have long been isolated, since lice can normally only be transferred through physical contact in the nest. The species on Zino's petrel are most similar to those of the Bermuda petrel, whereas Fea's petrel's lice are like those of Caribbean and Pacific Pterodromas. This suggests that despite the close physical proximity of the two species of gadfly petrel found in the Madeiran archipelago, they may have arisen from separate colonisations of mainland Madeira and, later, the Desertas Islands. == Description == This long-winged petrel is 33–36 cm in length with an 86–94 cm wingspan. It has a grey back and wings, with a dark "W" marking across the wings. The undersides of the wings are dark and the belly is white. It has a fast impetuous flight. It picks planktonic food items from the ocean surface. This species is very similar to the Zino's petrel, but is larger and has a thicker black bill. As all three species in the Pterodroma feae/madeira/desertae complex were once believed to be subspecies of a single species: Pterodroma mollis, the extreme difficulty in telling them apart is easily understood. A summary of data from a morphological study sheds light on the issue: In overall size feae is closer to deserta and both are bigger than madeira (wing length - f:262, d: 264, m: 248; tarsus - f:34.7, d: 35.2, m: 32.7). Bill length once again similar in feae and deserta and both larger than madeira (f:29.0, d: 28.6, m: 26.3). Bill depth by far biggest in deserta, lowest in madeira, and intermediate in feae (f:11.9, d: 12.9, m: 10.5). In terms of ratios: (Bill length/wing length) (f:11.1%, d: 10.8%, m: 10.6%) is rather similar in the three taxa. (Bill length/bill depth) (f: 2.44, d: 2.22, m: 2.53) is lowest in deserta, and highest in madeira. In feae it is intermediate, but more than twice closer to madeira than to deserta. == Distribution and habitat == It breeds on four islands of Cape Verde in the eastern Atlantic Ocean: Fogo, Santo Antão, São Nicolau and Santiago. == Behaviour and ecology == === Breeding === This seabird is strictly nocturnal at the breeding sites to avoid predation by gulls. Like most petrels, its walking ability is limited to a short shuffle to the burrow. This endangered species nests in colonies in burrows in spring and autumn. It lays a single white egg. == References == == External links == VIREO Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Six images Flicker Field Guide Birds of the World Photographs
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Microsoft_Windows_versions	List of Microsoft Windows versions	Microsoft Windows is a computer operating system developed by Microsoft. It was first launched in 1985 as a graphical operating system built on MS-DOS. The initial version was followed by several subsequent releases, and by the early 1990s, the Windows line had split into two separate lines of releases: Windows 9x for consumers and Windows NT for businesses and enterprises. In the following years, several further variants of Windows would be released: Windows CE in 1996 for embedded systems; Pocket PC in 2000 (renamed to Windows Mobile in 2003 and Windows Phone in 2010) for personal digital assistants and, later, smartphones; Windows Holographic in 2016 for AR/VR headsets; and several other editions. == Personal computer versions == A "personal computer" version of Windows is considered to be a version that end-users or OEMs can install on personal computers, including desktop computers, laptops, and workstations. The first five versions of Windows–Windows 1.0, Windows 2.0, Windows 2.1, Windows 3.0, and Windows 3.1–were all based on MS-DOS, and were aimed at both consumers and businesses. However, Windows 3.1 had two separate successors, splitting the Windows line in two: the consumer-focused "Windows 9x" line, consisting of Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows Me; and the professional Windows NT line, comprising Windows NT 3.1, Windows NT 3.5, Windows NT 3.51, Windows NT 4.0, and Windows 2000. These two lines were reunited into a single line with the NT-based Windows XP; this Windows release succeeded both Windows Me and Windows 2000 and had separate editions for consumer and professional use. Since Windows XP, multiple further versions of Windows have been released, the most recent of which is Windows 11. Since Windows 10, Microsoft has effectively turned to the "Windows as a service" servicing model, most likely to ensure it competes with mobile operating systems. == Mobile versions == Mobile versions refer to versions of Windows that can run on smartphones or personal digital assistants. == Server versions == === High-performance computing (HPC) servers === === Windows Essential Business Server === === Windows Home Server === === Windows MultiPoint Server === Windows MultiPoint Server was an operating system based on Windows Server. It was succeeded by the MultiPoint Services role in Windows Server 2016 and Windows Server version 1709. It was no longer being developed in Windows Server version 1803 and later versions. === Windows Small Business Server === == Device versions == === ARM-based tablets === In 2012 and 2013, Microsoft released versions of Windows specially designed to run on ARM-based tablets; these versions of Windows, named "Windows RT" and "Windows RT 8.1," were based on Windows 8 and Windows 8.1, respectively. Upon the release of Windows 10 in 2015, the ARM-specific version for large tablets was discontinued; large tablets (such as the Surface Pro 4) were only released with x86 processors and could run the full version of Windows 10. Windows 10 Mobile had the ability to be installed on smaller tablets (up to nine inches); however, very few such tablets were released, and Windows 10 Mobile primarily ended up only running on smartphones until its discontinuation. In 2017, the full version of Windows 10 gained the ability to run on ARM, thus rendering a specific version of Windows for ARM-based tablets unnecessary. === Mixed reality and virtual reality headsets === === Surface Hub === Microsoft originally announced the Surface Hub, an interactive whiteboard, in January 2015. The Surface Hub family of devices runs a custom variant of Windows 10 known as Windows 10 Team. === Windows XP-based tablets === Two versions of Windows XP were released that were optimized for tablets. Beginning with Windows Vista, all tablet-specific components were included in the main version of the operating system. == Embedded versions == === Windows Embedded Compact === === Windows Embedded Standard === === Other embedded versions === Windows Embedded Industry Windows Embedded Automotive == Cancelled versions == === Cancelled personal computer versions === === Cancelled mobile versions === === Cancelled server versions === == See also == List of Microsoft operating systems Microsoft Windows version history Windows 10 version history Windows 11 version history Comparison of Microsoft Windows versions List of Microsoft codenames == Notes == == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capcom	Capcom	Capcom Co., Ltd. (Japanese: 株式会社カプコン, Hepburn: Kabushiki-gaisha Kapukon) is a Japanese video game company. It has created a number of critically acclaimed and multi-million-selling game franchises, with its most commercially successful being Resident Evil, Monster Hunter, Street Fighter, Mega Man, Devil May Cry, Dead Rising, Ace Attorney, Dragon's Dogma, and Marvel vs. Capcom. Established in 1979, it has become an international enterprise with subsidiaries in East Asia (Hong Kong), Europe (London, England), and North America (San Francisco, California). == History == === 1979–1984: Founding and arcade games === Capcom's predecessor, I.R.M. Corporation, was founded on May 30, 1979 by Kenzo Tsujimoto, who was still president of Irem Corporation when he founded I.R.M. He worked at both companies at the same time until leaving Irem in 1983. The original companies that spawned Capcom's Japan branch were I.R.M. and its subsidiary Japan Capsule Computers Co., Ltd., both of which were devoted to the manufacture and distribution of electronic game machines. The two companies underwent a name change to Sanbi Co., Ltd. in September 1981. On June 11, 1983, Tsujimoto established Capcom Co., Ltd. to take over the internal sales department. In January 1989, Capcom Co., Ltd. merged with Sanbi Co., Ltd., resulting in the current Japan branch. The name Capcom is a clipped compound of "Capsule Computers", a term coined by the company for the arcade machines it solely manufactured in its early years, designed to set themselves apart from personal computers that were becoming widespread. "Capsule" alludes to how Capcom likened its game software to "a capsule packed to the brim with gaming fun", and to the company's desire to protect its intellectual property with a hard outer shell, preventing illegal copies and inferior imitations. Capcom's first product was the medal game Little League (July 1983) followed by Fever Chance (Oct 1983). In December 1983, the video arcade Acty 24 was opened under the direct management of Capcom. It released its first arcade video game, Vulgus (May 1984). Starting with the arcade hit 1942 (1984), they began designing games with international markets in mind. The successful 1985 arcade games Commando and Ghosts 'n Goblins have been credited as the products "that shot [Capcom] to 8-bit silicon stardom" in the mid-1980s. Starting with Commando (late 1985), Capcom began licensing their arcade games for release on home computers, notably to British software houses Elite Systems and U.S. Gold in the late 1980s. === 1985–1999: Console game development === Beginning with a Nintendo Entertainment System port of 1942 (published in Dec. 1985), the company ventured into the market of home console video games, which would eventually become its main business. The Capcom USA division had a brief stint in the late 1980s as a video game publisher for Commodore 64 and IBM PC DOS computers, development of these arcade ports was handled by other companies, however. Capcom created home video game franchises, including Resident Evil in 1996, while their highest-grossing title is the fighting game Street Fighter II (1991), driven largely by its success in arcades. In the late 1980s, Capcom was on the verge of bankruptcy when the development of a strip Mahjong game called Mahjong Gakuen started. It outsold Ghouls 'n Ghosts, the eighth highest-grossing arcade game of 1989 in Japan, and is credited with saving the company from financial crisis. Capcom has been noted as the last major publisher to be committed to 2D games, though it was not entirely by choice. The company's commitment to the Super Nintendo Entertainment System as its platform of choice caused them to lag behind other leading publishers in developing 3D-capable arcade boards. Also, the 2D animated cartoon-style graphics seen in games such as Darkstalkers: The Night Warriors and X-Men: Children of the Atom proved popular, leading Capcom to adopt them as a signature style and use them in more games. In 1990, Capcom entered the bowling industry with Bowlingo. It was a coin-operated, electro-mechanical, fully automated mini ten-pin bowling installation. It was smaller than a standard bowling alley, designed to be smaller and cheaper for amusement arcades. Bowlingo drew significant earnings in North America upon release in 1990. In 1994, Capcom adapted its Street Fighter series of fighting games into a film of the same name. While commercially successful, it was critically panned. A 2002 adaptation of its Resident Evil series faced similar criticism but was also successful in theaters. The company sees films as a way to build sales for its video games. === 2000–2009: Transition to modern gaming systems === In the early 2000s, Capcom focused many of its resources on bringing series from arcade and earlier consoles onto more modern hardware, bringing these games out from 2D to 3D space. One of the most successful titles during this period was Resident Evil 4 for the GameCube (2005), which received universal acclaim, was a financial success for Capcom, and led to ports to multiple systems. Other major successes include Street Fighter IV (2008). Capcom debunked rumors that it was leaving the arcade business in 2001. While it did remain in the business in Japan, it gradually left the American market in 2003 and closed its arcade subsidiary in March 2004. === 2009–2017: Struggling releases & Mismanagement === Despite its successes from the previous decade, Capcom released several titles that were considered misfires during the 2010s. Both Resident Evil 5 (2009) and Resident Evil 6 (2012) were seen to lean far too much into action-oriented gameplay while forgoing the balance with the survival horror elements of the earlier games in the series. Street Fighter V (2016) was released with minimal single-player content and poor online features. Street Fighter V failed to meet its sales target of 2 million in March 2016. Capcom outsourced the next Devil May Cry title to Ninja Theory, resulting in DmC: Devil May Cry (2013), a re-envisioning of the series that failed to resonate with players. Other newer IP like Lost Planet and Asura's Wrath also failed to gain significant audiences. Dragon's Dogma (2012), however, was one of the few newer titles during this period to be seen as a success. Capcom partnered with Nyu Media in 2011 to publish and distribute the Japanese independent (dōjin soft) games that Nyu localized into the English language. The company works with the Polish localization company QLOC to port Capcom's games to other platforms; notably, examples are DmC: Devil May Cry's PC version and its PlayStation 4 and Xbox One remasters, Dragon's Dogma's PC version, and Dead Rising's version on PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and PC. In 2012, Capcom came under criticism for controversial sales tactics, such as the implementation of disc-locked content, which requires players to pay for additional content that is already available within the game's files, most notably in Street Fighter X Tekken. The company defended the practice. It has also been criticized for other business decisions, such as not releasing certain games outside of Japan (most notably the Sengoku Basara series), abruptly cancelling anticipated projects (most notably Mega Man Legends 3), and shutting down Clover Studio. On August 27, 2014, Capcom filed a patent infringement lawsuit against Koei Tecmo Games at the Osaka District Court for 980 million yen in damage. Capcom claimed Koei Tecmo infringed a patent it obtained in 2002 regarding a play feature in video games. In 2015, the PlayStation 4 version of Ultra Street Fighter IV was pulled from the Capcom Pro Tour due to numerous technical issues and bugs. === 2017–present: Refocus on successful franchises === Following several years of unclear direction, management at Capcom changed in the mid-2010s to try to refocus the company on its successful properties. The company recognized that many of their titles during that period were attempts to bring Western game concepts into their titles but without failing to capture how these mechanics were implemented in Western games. To correct this, the company changed its approach to try to develop games that would be fun for players worldwide, rather than developing games that felt like they were niche Japanese titles. The main studios in Japan began reaching out to Capcom's other worldwide studios to collaborate on game design to appeal to a broader range of players. Additionally, Capcom began developing the RE Engine to replace the older MT Framework, helping their studios develop across a wider range of hardware including newer consoles. Resident Evil 7: Biohazard (2017) was the first game Capcom released under this new approach, which critics saw as a return to the series' roots. A similar approach was used to bring the Monster Hunter series, generally seen as a niche Japanese game due to its steep learning curve, to a broader market. Monster Hunter: World (2018) was developed to modernize the series' gameplay to simplify the learning curve. The game received critical praise and became Capcom's best-selling game as of 2025. On January 28, 2019, Capcom announced that Sega would take over technical services for its arcade games starting in April. On November 2, 2020, the company reported that its servers were affected by ransomware, scrambling its data, and the threat actors, the Ragnar Locker hacker group, had allegedly stolen 1TB of sensitive corporate data and were blackmailing Capcom to pay them to remove the ransomware. By mid-November, the group began putting information from the hack online, which included contact information for up to 350,000 of the company's employees and partners, as well as plans for upcoming games, indicating that Capcom opted to not pay the group. Capcom affirmed that no credit-card or other sensitive financial information was obtained in the hack. In 2021, Capcom removed appearances of the Rising Sun Flag from their rerelease of Street Fighter II. Although Capcom did not provide an official explanation for the flag's removal, due to the flag-related controversy, it is speculated that it was done so to avoid offending segments of the international gaming community. Artist and author Judy A. Juracek filed a lawsuit in June 2021 against Capcom for copyright infringement. In the court filings, she asserted Capcom had used images from her 1996 book Surfaces in their cover art and other assets for Resident Evil 4, Devil May Cry and other games. This was discovered due to the 2020 Capcom data breach, with several files and images matching those that were included within the book's companion CD-ROM. The court filings noted one image file of a metal surface, named ME0009 in Capcom's files, to have the same exact name on the book's CD-ROM. Juracek was seeking over $12 million in damages and $2,500 to $25,000 in false copyright management for each photograph Capcom used. Before a court date could be made, the matter was settled "amicably" in February 2022. It comes on the heels of Capcom being accused by Dutch movie director Richard Raaphorst of copying the monster design of his movie Frankenstein's Army into their game Resident Evil Village. In February 2022, it was reported by Bloomberg that Saudi Arabia's Public Investment Fund had purchased a 5% stake in Capcom for an approximate value of US$332 million. In July 2023, Capcom acquired Tokyo-based computer graphics studio Swordcanes Studio. In July 2024, Capcom acquired Taiwan-based computer graphics studio Minimum Studios. == Corporate structure == === Development divisions === In its beginning few years, Capcom's Japan branch had three development groups referred to as "Planning Rooms", led by Tokuro Fujiwara, Takashi Nishiyama and Yoshiki Okamoto. Later, games developed internally were created by several numbered "Production Studios", each assigned to different games. Starting in 2002, the development process was reformed to share technologies and expertise better, and the individual studios were gradually restructured into bigger departments responsible for different tasks. While there are self-contained departments for the creation of arcade, pachinko and pachislot, online, and mobile games, the Consumer Games R&D Division is an amalgamation of subsections in charge of game development stages. Capcom has two internal Consumer Games Development divisions: Division 1, headed by Jun Takeuchi, develops Resident Evil, Mega Man, Devil May Cry, Dead Rising, Ace Attorney, Dragon's Dogma, Ghosts 'n Goblins, Dino Crisis and other major franchises (usually targeting global audiences). Division 2, headed by Ryozo Tsujimoto, develops Onimusha, Ōkami, Sengoku Basara, Breath of Fire and other franchises with more traditional IP (usually targeting audiences in Asia) alongside online-focused franchises like Monster Hunter, Street Fighter, Marvel vs. Capcom, and Lost Planet. In addition to these teams, Capcom commissions outside development studios to ensure a steady output of titles. However, following poor sales of Dark Void and Bionic Commando, its management has decided to limit outsourcing to sequels and newer versions of installments in existing franchises, reserving the development of original titles for its in-house teams. The production of games, budgets, and platform support are decided on in development approval meetings, attended by the company management and the marketing, sales and quality control departments. Although the company often relies on existing franchises, it has also published and developed several titles for the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Wii based on original intellectual property: Lost Planet: Extreme Condition, Dead Rising, Dragon's Dogma, Asura's Wrath, and Zack and Wiki. During this period, Capcom also helped publish several original titles from up-and-coming Western developers, including Remember Me, Dark Void, and Spyborgs, titles other publishers were not willing to gamble on. Other games of note are the titles Ōkami, Ōkamiden, and Ghost Trick: Phantom Detective. === Branches and subsidiaries === Capcom Co., Ltd.'s head office building and R&D building are in Chūō-ku, Osaka. The parent company also has a branch office in the Shinjuku Mitsui Building in Nishi-Shinjuku, Shinjuku, Tokyo; and the Ueno Facility, a branch office in Iga, Mie Prefecture. The international Capcom Group encompasses 12 subsidiaries in Japan, rest of East Asia, North America, and Europe. === Game-related media === In addition to home, online, mobile, arcade, pachinko, and pachislot games, Capcom publishes strategy guides; maintains its own Plaza Capcom arcade centers in Japan; and licenses its franchise and character properties for tie-in products, movies, television series, and stage performances. Suleputer, an in-house marketing and music label established in cooperation with Sony Music Entertainment Intermedia in 1998, publishes CDs, DVDs, and other media based on Capcom's games. Captivate (renamed from Gamers Day in 2008), an annual private media summit, is traditionally used for new game and business announcements. == Creations == === Hardware === Capcom's first arcade board system was the CP System, released in 1988 with the game Forgotten Worlds. They later designed the CP System II and CP System III. In 2019, Capcom released the Capcom Home Arcade, containing a total of 16 built-in CPS-1 and CPS-2 emulated games. === Technology === MT Framework RE Engine == Game sales == Capcom started its Street Fighter franchise in 1987. The series of fighting games are among the most popular in their genre. Having sold over 50 million copies, it is one of Capcom's flagship franchises. The company also introduced its Mega Man series in 1987, which has sold over 40 million copies. The company released the first entry in its Resident Evil survival horror series in 1996, which became its most successful game series, selling over 170 million copies. After releasing the second entry in the Resident Evil series, Capcom began a Resident Evil game for PlayStation 2. As it was significantly different from the existing series' games, Capcom decided to spin it into its own series, Devil May Cry. The first three entries were exclusively for PlayStation 2; further entries were released for non-Sony consoles. The entire series has sold over 30 million copies. Capcom began its Monster Hunter series in 2004, which has sold over 120 million copies on a variety of consoles. Capcom compiles a "Platinum Titles" list, updated quarterly, of its games that have sold over one million copies. It contains over 100 video games. This table shows the top ten titles, by sold copies, as of September 30, 2025. == See also == === Articles === Capcom Cup Capcom Five DreamHack Evolution Championship Series === Companies founded by ex-Capcom employees === == References == == External links == Official website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson_Gicheru#Personal_life	Johnson Gicheru	Johnson Evan Gicheru (died 25 December 2020) was a Kenyan lawyer and the Chief Justice of Kenya. He was appointed by President Mwai Kibaki upon his election in 2003. He was the 12th Chief Justice of the Republic of Kenya and served the longest term by any African Chief Justice in Kenya's history, from 2003 and finally retiring on 27 February 2011. He died on 25 December 2020. == Early career == Early in his career, he worked as a Senior State Counsel in the Office of the Attorney General and as an administrative officer in the Office of the President. Justice Gicheru was appointed a Judge of the High Court in 1982 and on 8 June 1988, he was appointed to the Court of Appeal. During this time, he was appointed chairperson of a judicial inquiry into the death of Foreign Affairs Minister Robert Ouko. The commission was disbanded before publishing its findings. His tenure as Chief Justice began on February 21, 2003. == Personal life == Mr. Justice Gicheru was married to Mrs. Margaret Gicheru and they had 7 children. == See also == Chief Justice of Kenya Court of Appeal of Kenya High Court of Kenya == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Regional_Transport_Office_districts_in_India#LD%E2%80%94Lakshadweep	List of Regional Transport Office districts in India	This is a list of the Indian Regional Transport Offices and the assigned codes for vehicle registration. These are broken down to states or union territories and their districts. These RTO offices, governed by the respective state and union territory Transport Departments, are led by Regional Transport Officers (RTOs) and are tasked with enforcing the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, and its associated rules. == AP—Andhra Pradesh == The Andhra Pradesh state government has decided to issue uniform registration numbers for vehicles across Andhra Pradesh. Since February 2019, all new vehicles in Andhra Pradesh are registered with AP-39 code by default. Andhra Pradesh is the first state to implement the "one state-one code" policy. In 2023, the state government has launched new series, AP-40. == AR—Arunachal Pradesh == == AS—Assam == == BR—Bihar == == CG—Chhattisgarh == == CH—Chandigarh == == DD—Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu == == DL—Delhi == == GA—Goa == == GJ—Gujarat == == HP—Himachal Pradesh == == HR—Haryana == == JH—Jharkhand == == JK—Jammu and Kashmir == == KA—Karnataka == == KL—Kerala == == LA—Ladakh == == LD—Lakshadweep == == MH—Maharashtra == == ML—Meghalaya == == MN—Manipur == == MP—Madhya Pradesh == == MZ—Mizoram == == NL—Nagaland == == OD—Odisha == Due to the official respelling of the state name in English (from "Orissa" to "Odisha"), the Transport Department modified the state letter on the plates with OD substituting OR on 1 September 2012. == PB—Punjab == == PY—Puducherry == == RJ—Rajasthan == == SK—Sikkim == == TG—Telangana == Note * Part of GHMC Hyderabad but not part of Hyderabad Dist. The two-letter state code for Telangana Region in Andhra Pradesh was AP until the State Bifurcation and after the formation of Telangana State, the state was chosen as TS. It continued up to May 2024 before it was changed to TG. The AP and TS codes, however, remain valid. == TN—Tamil Nadu == In Tamil Nadu, specific series are exclusively used for certain type of vehicles All State Transport Corporation vehicles start the series with 'N' or 'AN' All Government owned vehicles start the series with 'G', 'AG', 'BG', 'CG' or 'DG', Etc., (all Combination of G) No RTO is assigned with number that would add up to '8'. There is no 08,17,26,35,44,53,62,71.80. == TR—Tripura == == UK—Uttarakhand == == UP—Uttar Pradesh == == WB—West Bengal == == References == "Our Divisions/Field Offices \| Transport \| Government of Assam, India". == Sources == for India as whole: Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (click on "List of RTO's in a State") for Andhra Pradesh: Government of Andhra Pradesh – Transport Department for Delhi: Department of Transport for Gujarat: Transport Department Gujarat for Himachal Pradesh: Transport Department for Karnataka: Government of Karnataka – Transport Department for Kerala: Motor Vehicles Department, Newspaper article in the Hindu: "New Registering Authority Codes from July 1" for Madhya Pradesh: RTO Offices in MP for Maharashtra: Motor Vehicle Department for Orissa: Orissa Commerce & Transport Department for Punjab: Government of Punjab – Department of Transport for Tamil Nadu: Department of Transport, State Transport Authority, GIS representation for Telangana: Telangana Transport Information Portal for Uttarakhand: Uttarakhand Transport Department. for India: Vehicle Owner Details.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Negri#:~:text=Negri%20married%20Paola%20Meo%20in,Negri%2C%20from%20a%20separate%20relationship.	Antonio Negri	Antonio Negri (; Italian: [ˈneːɡri]; 1 August 1933 – 16 December 2023) was an Italian political philosopher known as one of the most prominent theorists of autonomism, as well as for his co-authorship of Empire with Michael Hardt. Born in Padua, Italy, Negri became a professor of political philosophy at the University of Padua, where he taught state and constitutional theory. Negri founded the Potere Operaio (Worker Power) group in 1969 and was a leading member of Autonomia Operaia, and published highly influential books, including Empire and Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire. Negri was accused in the late 1970s of being the mastermind of the left-wing urban guerrilla organization Red Brigades (Brigate Rosse or BR), which was involved in the May 1978 kidnapping and murder of former Italian prime minister Aldo Moro. On 7 April 1979, Negri was arrested and charged with a number of crimes, including the Moro murder. Most charges were quickly dropped, but in 1984, having fled to France, he was sentenced in absentia to 30 years in prison. He was given an additional four years on the charge of being morally responsible for the violence of political activists in the 1960s and 1970s. The question of Negri's involvement with left-wing extremism is a controversial subject. He was indicted on a number of charges, including "association and insurrection against the state" (a charge which was later dropped), and sentenced for involvement in two murders. Negri fled to France where, protected by the Mitterrand doctrine, he taught at the Paris VIII (Vincennes) and the Collège international de philosophie, along with Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Gilles Deleuze. In 1997, after a plea-bargain that reduced his prison time from 30 to 13 years, he returned to Italy to serve the end of his sentence. Many of his most influential books were published while he was behind bars. After his release he lived in Venice and Paris with his partner, the French philosopher Judith Revel. He was the father of film director Anna Negri. == Early years == Antonio Negri was born in Padua, in the Northeastern Italian region of Veneto, in 1933. His father was an active communist militant from the city of Bologna (in the Northeastern Italian region of Emilia-Romagna), and although he died when Negri was two years old, his political engagement made Negri familiar with Marxism from an early age, while his mother was a teacher from the town of Poggio Rusco (in the province of Mantua, Lombardy). He began his career as a militant in the 1950s with the activist Roman Catholic youth organization Gioventù Italiana di Azione Cattolica (GIAC). Negri became a communist in 1955 when working at the Nahsonim kibbutz in central Israel. The kibbutz was organised according to ideas of Zionist socialism and its the members were Jewish communists. He joined the Italian Socialist Party in 1956 and remained a member until 1963, while at the same time becoming more and more engaged throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s in Marxist movements. Negri studied philosophy and was hired as a professor at the University of Padua, soon after receiving his doctorate in 1956. There, he taught dottrina dello Stato ("state doctrine"), an Italian field similar to the philosophy of law, covering state and constitutional theory. In the early 1960s, Negri joined the editorial group of Quaderni Rossi, a journal that represented the intellectual rebirth of Marxism in Italy outside the realm of the Communist party. In 1969, together with Oreste Scalzone and Franco Piperno, Negri was one of the founders of the group Potere Operaio (Workers' Power) and the operaismo (lit. 'workerism') movement. == Arrest and flight == On 16 March 1978, Aldo Moro, the party leader of Christian Democracy and the former Italian prime minister, was kidnapped in Rome by the Red Brigades. Forty-five days after the kidnapping and nine days before Moro's death, the Red Brigades called his family and informed Moro's wife of his impending death. The conversation was recorded and later broadcast. While a number of people who knew Negri at the time identified him as the probable author of the call, the caller was later revealed to be Valerio Morucci. On 7 April 1979, Negri and other activists were charged with kidnapping, assassination and insurrection. Padua's Public Prosecutor Pietro Calogero accused them of being involved in the political wing of the Red Brigades, and thus behind left-wing terrorism in Italy. Negri was charged with a number of offences, including leadership of the Red Brigades, masterminding the 1978 kidnapping and murder of the President of the Christian Democratic Party, Aldo Moro, and plotting to overthrow the government. At the time, Negri was a political science professor at the University of Padua and visiting lecturer at Paris' École Normale Supérieure. The Italian public was shocked that an academic could be involved in such events. A year later, a leader of the BR, having decided to cooperate with the prosecution, testified that Negri "had nothing to do with the Red Brigades." The charge of 'armed insurrection against the State' against Negri was dropped and he consequently did not receive the 30-year plus life sentence requested by the prosecutor, but did receive 30 years for being the instigator of political activist Carlo Saronio's murder and having 'morally concurred' with the murder of Andrea Lombardini, a carabiniere, during a failed bank robbery. Some of his peers found little fault with Negri's activities. Michel Foucault commented, "Isn't he in jail simply for being an intellectual?" French philosophers Félix Guattari and Gilles Deleuze also signed in November 1977 L'Appel des intellectuels français contre la répression en Italie (The Call of French Intellectuals Against Repression in Italy) in protest against Negri's imprisonment and Italian anti-terrorism legislation. On the other hand, in the late 1980s Italian President Francesco Cossiga described Antonio Negri as "a psychopath" who "poisoned the minds of an entire generation of Italy's youth." In 1983, four years after his arrest and while he was still in prison awaiting trial, Negri was elected to the Italian legislature as a member for the Radical Party. He was freed from prison claiming parliamentary immunity and was released, fleeing to France with the help of Félix Guattari and Amnesty International. His release was later revoked when the Chamber of Deputies voted to strip him of his immunity. Negri remained in exile in France for the next 14 years, where he was protected from extradition by the Mitterrand doctrine. In France, Negri began teaching at the Paris VIII (Vincennes), and also at the Collège international de philosophie founded by Jacques Derrida. Although the conditions of his residence in France prevented him from engaging in political activities, he wrote prolifically and was active in a broad coalition of left-wing intellectuals. In 1997, he returned to Italy to serve out his sentence, hoping to raise awareness of the status of hundreds of other political exiles from Italy. His sentence was commuted and he was released from prison in 2003, having written some of his most influential works while behind bars. == Political thought and writing == Negri was one of the central theorists of autonomist Marxism, and was a prominent philosopher within libertarian socialism, communism, and Marxism. He also wrote various works on imperialism, radical democracy, and political praxis. === Labor of Dionysus: A Critique of the State-Form (1994) === Written together with Michael Hardt, the authors ask themselves in this book, "How is it, then, that labour, with all its life-affirming potential, has become the means of capitalist discipline, exploitation, and domination in modern society?" The authors expose and pursue this paradox through a systematic analysis of the role of labour in the processes of capitalist production and in the establishment of capitalist legal and social institutions. Critiquing liberal and socialist notions of labour and institutional reform from a radical democratic perspective, Hardt and Negri challenge the state-form itself. === Insurgencies: Constituent Power and the Modern State (1999) === This book, written solely by Negri, "explores the drama of modern revolutions-from Machiavelli's Florence and Harrington's England to the American, French, and Russian revolutions-and puts forward a new notion of how power and action must be understood if we are to achieve a radically democratic future." === Empire (2000) === In general, the book theorises an ongoing transition from a "modern" phenomenon of imperialism, centred around individual nation-states, to an emergent postmodern construct created among ruling powers which the authors call "Empire", with different forms of warfare: According to Hardt and Negri's Empire, the rise of Empire is the end of national conflict, the "enemy" now, whoever he is, can no longer be ideological or national. The enemy now must be understood as a kind of criminal, as someone who represents a threat not to a political system or a nation but to the law. This is the enemy as a terrorist ... In the "new order that envelops the entire space of ... civilization", where conflict between nations has been made irrelevant, the "enemy" is simultaneously "banalized" (reduced to an object of routine police repression) and absolutized (like the Enemy, an absolute threat to the ethical order"). Empire elaborates a variety of ideas surrounding constitutions, global war, and class. Hence, the Empire is constituted by a monarchy (the United States and the G8, and international organizations such as NATO, the International Monetary Fund or the World Trade Organization), an oligarchy (the multinational corporations and other nation-states) and a democracy (the various non-government organizations and the United Nations). Part of the book's analysis deals with "imagin[ing] resistance", but "the point of Empire is that it, too, is "total" and that resistance to it can only take the form of negation – "the will to be against". The Empire is total, but economic inequality persists, and as all identities are wiped out and replaced with a universal one, the identity of the poor persists. === Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire (2004) === Multitude addresses these issues and picks up the thread where Empire leaves off. In order to do so, Hardt and Negri argue, one must first analyse the present configuration of war and its contradictions. This analysis is performed in the first chapter, after which chapters two and three focus on multitude and democracy, respectively. Multitude is not so much a sequel as it is a reiteration from a new point of view in a new, relatively accessible style that is distinct from the predominantly academic prose style of Empire. Multitude remains, the authors insist, despite its ubiquitous subject matter and its almost casual tone, a book of philosophy which aims to shape a conceptual ground for a political process of democratisation rather than present an answer to the question 'what to do?' or offer a programme for concrete action. === Commonwealth (2009) === In 2009 Negri completed the book Commonwealth, the final in a trilogy that began in 2000 with Empire and continued with Multitude in 2004, co-authored with Michael Hardt. In this book, the authors introduce the concept of "the republic of property": "What is central for our purposes here is that the concept of property and the defence of property remain the foundation of every modern political constitution. This is the sense in which the republic, from the great bourgeois revolutions to today, is a republic of property". Part 2 of the book deals with the relationship between modernity and anti-modernity and proposes altermodernity. Altermodernity "involves not only insertion in the long history of antimodern struggles but also rupture with any fixed dialectic between modern sovereignty and antimodern resistance. In the passage from antimodernity to altermodernity, just as tradition and identity are transformed, so too resistance takes on a new meaning, dedicated now to the constitution of alternatives. The freedom that forms the base of resistance, as we explained earlier, comes to the fore and constitutes an event to announce a new political project." For Alex Callinicos in a review "What is newest in Commonwealth is its take on the fashionable idea of the common. Hardt and Negri mean by this not merely the natural resources that capital seeks to appropriate, but also "the languages we create, the social practices we establish, the modes of sociality that define our relationships", which are both the means and the result of biopolitical production. Communism, they argue, is defined by the common, just as capitalism is by the private and socialism (which they identify in effect with statism) with the public." For David Harvey Negri and Hardt "in the search of an altermodernity – something that is outside the dialectical opposition between modernity and anti-modernity – they need a means of escape. The choice between capitalism and socialism, they suggest, is all wrong. We need to identify something entirely different, communism – working within a different set of dimensions." Harvey also notes that "Revolutionary thought, Hardt and Negri argue, must find a way to contest capitalism and 'the republic of property.' It 'should not shun identity politics but instead must work through it and learn from it,' because it is the 'primary vehicle for struggle within and against the republic of property since identity itself is based on property and sovereignty.'" In the same exchange in Artforum between Harvey and Micheal Hardt and Antonio Negri, Hardt and Negri attempt to correct Harvey in a concept that is important within the argument of Commonwealth. As such, they state that "We instead define the concept of singularity, contrasting it to the figure of the individual on the one hand and forms of identity on the other, by focusing on three aspects of its relationship to multiplicity: Singularity refers externally to a multiplicity of others; is internally divided or multiple; and constitutes a multiplicity over time – that is, a process of becoming." After Commonwealth, he wrote multiple notable articles on the Arab Spring and Occupy movements, along with other social issues. === Occupy movements of 2011–2012 and Declaration === In May 2012, Negri self-published (with Michael Hardt) an electronic pamphlet on the occupy and encampment movements of 2011–2012 called Declaration that argues the movement explores new forms of democracy. The introduction was published at Jacobin under the title "Take Up the Baton". He also published an article with Hardt in Foreign Affairs in October 2011 stating "The Encampment in Lower Manhattan Speaks to a Failure of Representation." === Assembly and essay collections (2013–2023) === In 2013, Negri published Spinoza: Politics and Postmodernity, a collections of essays on Spinoza and his contemporary relevance to philosophy and political theory, translated into English by William McCuaig. In 2017, Negri and Michael Hardt published Assembly. The book provides a series of reflections on the nature of contemporary capitalism and social movements, drawing together the concepts and ideas explored previously in their Empire 'trilogy' such as the common, the multitude, and globalisation. It also introduces a new political concept of 'assembly', which draws on Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari's concept of an 'assemblage' (French: agencements) as a way of thinking about mass movements and the role of constituent power. It also provides analyses of events that occurred in the years since Commonwealth was published in 2009, such as the rise of right-wing populism, Occupy Wall Street, the automation of work, and the digital economy. It continues their reflections on the character and goals of leaderless movements, and especially focuses on the ways in which these movements can seek to self-organise in radically democratic and egalitarian ways. They propose that instead of the usual model of leadership and movement in which leadership serves to articulate the long-term and 'large scale' programme of the multitude, this relationship should instead be inverted: leadership instead comes to serve specific, tactical, and short-term ends (such as the organisation of specific moblisations, protests, direct action, strikes, etc.), while the multitude (or collective) serves to "articulate the long-term goals and objectives" to which the leadership must submit and facilitate. The book received generally positive reviews. Writing for Critical Inquiry, Kyle Perry argues that the central claim of the book is that "advocates for a truly democratic world must no longer refuse the demands of leading, strategizing, decision making, and institution building that can otherwise remain variously secondary, absent, or anathema amid left, liberatory, and progressive causes." It also rejects as a false binary the idea that liberal-democratic institutions should either be occupied or destroyed; instead, "The better move is to get creative about inventing new, effective, and crucially 'nonsovereign' institutions. Such institutions are not meant to 'rule over us' but to 'foster continuity and organization" and to "help organize our practices, manage our relationships, and together make decisions'." Writing for the Los Angeles Review of Books, Terence Renaud argues that "Given how much the political terrain has changed since Empire appeared in 2000, much of Hardt and Negri's project appears dead. It has said all that it's going to say. Even so, the authors do an excellent job of highlighting the internal challenges that a resurgent left will face. Every new left risks degenerating into sectarian conflict, heavy-handed leadership, and complacency about its own righteousness. Hardt and Negri insist on a self-critical and internally democratic left that never ceases to call its own assumptions into question. In order to transform society, the left must first transform itself." Between 2016 and 2019, Negri published a three-volume collection of essays written in various years, but translated, collected and published together in English in these volumes. The first volume was titled Marx and Foucault, and published on 16 December 2016. In this first volume, Negri aims to show "how the thinking of Marx and Foucault were brought together to create an original theoretical synthesis – particularly in the context of Italy from May '68 onwards." The second volume was titled From the Factory to the Metropolis, and was published in February 2018. This second volume turns towards an analysis of the passage from the traditional proletarian 'mass worker' of industrial capitalism (especially as found in Marx's writing) to the contemporary 'socialised worker', as well as of the modern 'metropolis', which Negri describes as "a space of antagonisms between forms of life produced, on the one hand, by finance capital (the capital that operates around rents), and on the other by the 'cognitive proletariat'. The central question is then how 'the common' of the latter can be mobilised for the destruction of capitalism." The third and final volume of this 'trilogy' was titled Spinoza: Then and Now, which was published in February 2020. In this third volume, Negri "examines how Spinoza's thought constitutes a radical break with past ideas and an essential tool for envisaging a form of politics beyond capitalism." On 29 October 2021, Negri published the first volume of a new trilogy of books. This first volume is titled Marx in Movement: Operaismo in Context, and seeks to provide an account and examination of the history of Italian Autonomist (or 'Autonomist Marxist') thought, particularly in terms of Negri's theoretical development of the concept of the 'social worker' as an attempt to update Marxism in light of the changes since the factory-based industrial labour of Marx's time. == Personal life and death == Negri married Paola Meo in 1962. They had two children (Anna and Francesco) and later divorced. He has another daughter, Nina Negri, from a separate relationship. He met the philosopher Judith Revel in 1996; they married in 2016. Negri died in Paris on 16 December 2023, at the age of 90. == Bibliography == Listed in order of their first publication in English. Antonio Negri, Revolution Retrieved: Selected Writings on Marx, Keynes, Capitalist Crisis and New Social Subjects, 1967–83. Translated by Ed Emery and John Merrington. London: Red Notes, 1988. ISBN 0-906305-09-8 Antonio Negri, The Politics of Subversion: A Manifesto for the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989. Félix Guattari and Antonio Negri, Communists Like Us. Cambridge, Mass.: Semiotext(e) Press, 1990. ISBN 0936756217 Antonio Negri, The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza's Metaphysics and Politics. Translated by Michael Hardt. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991. ISBN 0816618771 Antonio Negri, Marx Beyond Marx: Lessons on the Grundrisse. New York: Autonomedia, 1991. ISBN 093675625X Antonio Negri, Insurgencies: Constituent Power and the Modern State. Translated by Maurizia Boscagli. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999. Reprint by University of Minnesota Press, 2009. Antonio Negri, Time for Revolution. Translated by Matteo Mandarini. New York: Continuum, 2003. ISBN 9780826473288 Antonio Negri, Negri on Negri: In Conversation with Anne Dufourmentelle. London: Routledge, 2004. Antonio Negri, Subversive Spinoza: (Un)Contemporary Variations. Edited by Timothy S. Murphy, translated by Timothy S. Murphy, Michael Hardt, Ted Stolze, and Charles T. Wolfe. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004. Antonio Negri, Books for Burning: Between Civil War and Democracy in 1970s Italy. Edited by Timothy S. Murphy, translated by Arianna Bove, Ed Emery, Timothy S. Murphy, and Francesca Novello. London and New York: Verso, 2005. Antonio Negri, Political Descartes: Reason, Ideology and the Bourgeois Project. Translated by Matteo Mandarini and Alberto Toscano. New York: Verso, 2007. Goodbye Mr. Socialism Antonio Negri in conversation with Raf Valvola Scelsi, Seven Stories Press, 2008. The Cell (DVD of 3 interviews on captivity with Negri) Angela Melitopoulos, Actar, 2008. Antonio Negri, The Porcelain Workshop: For a New Grammar of Politics Translated by Noura Wedell. California: Semiotext(e) 2008. Antonio Negri, Reflections on Empire. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2008. ISBN 9780745637051 Antonio Negri, Empire and Beyond. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2008. ISBN 9780745640488 Antonio Negri, The Labor of Job: The Biblical Text as a Parable of Human Labor. Translated by Matteo Mandarini. Durham: Duke University Press 2009 (begun 1983). Cesare Casarino and Antonio Negri, In Praise of the Common. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009. Antonio Negri, Diary of an Escape. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2009. ISBN 9780745644257 Antonio Negri, Art and Multitude. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2011. ISBN 9780745648996 Antonio Negri, The Winter is Over: Writings on Transformation Denied, 1989–1995. Edited by Giuseppe Caccia. Translated by Isabelli Bertoletti, James Cascaito, and Andrea Casson. Cambridge, Mass.: Semiotext(e), 2013. ISBN 1584351217 Antonio Negri, Pipeline: Letters from Prison. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2014. ISBN 0745655645 Antonio Negri, Factory of Strategy: 33 Lessons on Lenin. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014. ISBN 0231146833 Antonio Negri, Marx and Foucault. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2016. ISBN 9781509503407 Antonio Negri, From the Factory to the Metropolis. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2018. ISBN 9781509503452 Antonio Negri, Spinoza: Then and Now. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2020. ISBN 150950351X Antonio Negri, Marx in Movement: Operaismo in Context. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2021. ISBN 9781509544233 Antonio Negri, The End of Sovereignty. Translated by Ed Emery. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2022. ISBN 1509544305 Antonio Negri, Story of a communist: A memoir. Edited by Girolamo De Michele. Translated by Ed Emery. London: Erin, 2024. ISBN 9781912475377 === In collaboration with Michael Hardt === Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Labor of Dionysus: A Critique of the State-Form. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994. ISBN 0816620865 Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000. ISBN 0674006712 Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire, New York: Penguin Press, 2004. ISBN 0143035592 Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Commonwealth, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-674-03511-9 Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Declaration, 2012. Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Assembly. Translated by Ed Emery. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. ISBN 9780190677961 === Online articles === Multitudes quarterly journal (in French) Archives of the journal Futur Antérieur (in French) English translations of recent articles by Antonio Negri from Generation Online Hardt & Negri (2002), "Marx's Mole is Dead" in Eurozine Between "Historic Compromise" and Terrorism: Reviewing the experience of Italy in the 1970s Le Monde Diplomatique, August–September 1998 "Towards an Ontological Definition of Multitude" Article published in the French journal Multitudes. Extract from Negri and Hardt's Empire at Marxists.org "Take Up the Baton." === Interviews === Transcendence, Spirituality, Practices, Immanence: A Conversation with Antonio Negri by Judith Revel, Rethinking Marxism, 28(3–4), 470–478, (2016). doi:10.1080/08935696.2016.1243627 From Sociological to Ontological Inquiry: An Interview with Antonio Negri by Max Henninger, Italian Culture, Volume 23, 2005, pp. 153–166 (Article) Published by Michigan State University Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/itc.2006.0013 Workerist Marxism: Interview with Antonio Negri, Crisis and Critique, Vol2, Issue2. Antonio Negri and Danilo Zolo, Empire and the multitude: A dialogue on the new order of globalization, Radical Philosophy 120, Jul/Aug 2003. “The Revolution Will Not Be an Explosion Somewhere Down the Road”: An Interview with Antonio Negri, Grey Room (2010) (41): 6–23, MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.1162/GREY_a_00010 The Paris Commune: Antonio Negri, by Niccolò Cuppini, as part of the Planetary Commune project, Autonomies, 8 April 2021. == Films == Marx Reloaded, Arte, April 2011. Antonio Negri: A Revolt that Never Ends, ZDF/Arte, 52 min., 2004. == See also == Giorgio Agamben Étienne Balibar Paolo Virno == References == == Further reading == The Cell (DVD of 3 interviews on captivity with Negri) Angela Melitopoulos, Actar, 2008. Empire and Imperialism: A Critical Reading of Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri. Atilio Borón, London: Zed Books, 2005. (Publisher's announcement) Reading Capital Politically, Harry Cleaver. 1979, second ed. 2000. The Philosophy of Antonio Negri, vol. 1: Resistance in Practice, ed. Timothy S. Murphy and Abdul-Karim Mustapha. London: Pluto Press, 2005. The Philosophy of Antonio Negri, vol. 2: Revolution in Theory, ed. Timothy S. Murphy and Abdul-Karim Mustapha. London: Pluto Press, 2007. Dossier on Empire: a special issue of Rethinking Marxism, ed. Abdul-karim Mustapha. London: T&F/Routledge, 2002. Autonomia: Post-Political Politics, ed. Sylvere Lotringer & Christian Marazzi. New York: Semiotext(e), 1980, 2007. (Includes transcripts of Negri's exchanges with his accusers during his trial.) ISBN 1-58435-053-9, ISBN 978-1-58435-053-8. Available online at Semiotext(e) Antonio Negri Illustrated: Interview in Venice, Claudio Calia, Red Quill Books, 2011. ISBN 978-1-926958-13-2 (Publisher's announcement) == External links == Media related to Toni Negri at Wikimedia Commons Quotations related to Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri at Wikiquote
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokosing_River	Kokosing River	The Kokosing River (ko-KO-sing) is a tributary of the Walhonding River, 57.2 miles (92.1 km) long, in east-central Ohio in the United States. Via the Walhonding, Muskingum and Ohio Rivers, it is part of the watershed of the Mississippi River, draining an area of 482 square miles (1248 km2). Etymologically, "Kokosing" translates roughly to "River of Little Owls" in Lenape language. The Kokosing River rises in Morrow County, northeast of Mount Gilead, and initially flows southwardly. It turns eastwardly near Chesterville and flows through Knox and Coshocton Counties, passing the communities of Mount Vernon, Gambier and Howard. In western Coshocton County the Kokosing joins the Mohican River to form the Walhonding River, about 2 miles (3 km) northwest of Nellie. Upstream of Mount Vernon, the Kokosing collects its largest tributary, the North Branch Kokosing River, which rises in Morrow County and flows southeastwardly through Knox County, past Fredericktown. Between Mount Vernon and Howard, the river is roughly paralleled by a rail trail, the Kokosing Gap Trail which continues to the town of Danville. == Variant names == According to the Geographic Names Information System, the Kokosing River has also been known historically as: Kokoshing River Kokosing Stream Owl Creek Vernon Vernon River == See also == List of rivers of Ohio == References == == External links == Columbia Gazetteer of North America entry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rattlestar_Ricklactica	Rattlestar Ricklactica	"Rattlestar Ricklactica" is the fifth episode of the fourth season of the Adult Swim animated television series Rick and Morty. The 36th episode overall, it was written by James Siciliano and directed by Jacob Hair and was broadcast on December 15, 2019. == Plot == While setting up Christmas lights, Jerry falls off the roof. Before he hits the ground, Rick zaps Jerry with a ray that renders him lighter than air for 10 hours, then makes his shoes heavier than air, thus making Jerry neutrally buoyant and enabling him to jump higher than usual. Rick and Morty depart for an adventure, but their ship breaks down in space. While repairing it outside the ship, Morty is bitten by a snake astronaut which he then kills. Morty tries to atone for the snake's death by buying another snake from a pet store and sending her to the race war-ridden snake planet; however, the snakes quickly discover that she is not from their world. Soon, various snakes appear in growing numbers to alternately attack or protect the Smiths. Rick explains that Morty's actions caused the snakes to unite and invent time travel. Rick and Morty travel to the Snake Pentagon to resolve the war, but the snakes' time machine is incomplete. A future Rick and Morty (who sports a black eye) appear with a snake-language book full of instructions on time travel, while also insulting their past selves. Current Rick and Morty travel to 1985 and leave the book at Snake MIT. Meanwhile, Jerry loses one of his shoes, causing him to float away helplessly. Reasoning that he will either survive unassisted or have Rick blamed if he dies, he rejects Rick and Beth's attempts to help him. With minutes left on the ray as he is high above ground, Jerry prepares to fall to his death when a jet flies by, to which he attaches himself. The plane crashes after colliding with a flying snake, but Jerry survives. Back on present-day Earth, the large amount of time travel alerts the Time Cops from "A Rickle in Time". They travel back in time and kill the first primitive snake to use tools, thus preventing snake civilization and causing the snakes to disappear. Jerry reveals himself to be on the roof, claiming he was there the whole time, and turns on the Christmas lights before falling off and breaking his leg, which Rick heals to 50% capacity, leaving the rest of the healing up to Jerry. Rick and Morty are rudely reminded by their future selves to make the time travel notes. In the post-credits scene, while waiting for their past selves on the snake planet, Rick reminds Morty to stay in the car next time, then punches him in the eye. == Snake math trivia == Rick and Morty's travel to Snake MIT was set to a chalkboard containing mathematics appearing in quantum mechanics, called the snake equation. From the specific notation used, the board was inspired by a research paper by Christopher Wood, Jacob Biamonte, and David G. Cory which appeared in the journal Quantum Information & Computation and later in a book by Jacob Biamonte. == Broadcast and ratings == The episode was broadcast by Adult Swim on December 15, 2019. According to Nielsen Media Research, "Rattlestar Ricklactica" was seen by 1.32 million household viewers in the United States and received a 0.75 rating among the 18–49 adult demographic, making it the lowest rated episode of the series (excluding the unannounced season three premiere) since season one's "M. Night Shaym-Aliens!". == Reception == Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A grade, feeling that the episode was: ...the best episode of the season (so far), and a pure joy from start to finish. It doesn't do anything revolutionary, it doesn't change our understanding of the characters, there's no sudden shock of emotion. But it's funny as hell, taking a basic premise at once incredibly dumb and clever as fuck, and running it straight into the ground. Good main story, and a good Jerry story, and some minor Christmas theming. I don't know as I'd say it was worth the wait, exactly, but my faith in the show is largely restored. Joe Matar of Den of Geek gave the episode a 5 out of 5, feeling that "the first half of Rick and Morty's fourth season goes out strong with this not-so-festive Christmas episode". == References == == External links == "Rattlestar Ricklactica" at IMDb
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Hsu#Biography	Kenneth Hsu	Kenneth Jinghwa Hsu (simplified Chinese: 许靖华; traditional Chinese: 許靖華; pinyin: Xǔ Jìnghuá) Ph.D., M.A., born 28 June 1929, is a Chinese scientist, geologist, paleoclimatologist, oceanographer, government advisor, author, inventor and entrepreneur who was born in Nanjing, China. == Biography == Education Hsu (Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c.) studied at the Chinese National Central University (later renamed Nanjing University in mainland China and reinstated in Taiwan) (B.Sc. 1948), and came to the United States in 1948 where he studied at Ohio State University (M.A., 1950), and at University of California, Los Angeles, where he received his Ph.D. in 1953. Professional life Hsu initially worked as a petroleum geologist for the Shell Development Corporation, now called Shell Oil Company, in Houston, Texas, US, between 1954 and 1963. He was associate professor at two universities in the USA between 1963 and 1967, before becoming professor of geology at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zürich) between 1967 and 1994, where he promoted experimental geology and built up 5 leading international laboratories in the fields of rock mechanics (geophysics), mass-spectrometry (isotope geochemistry), Quaternary research (paleoclimatology), sedimentology and tectonics. It was after his retirement from University teaching that Hsu started to work in environmental engineering. Professorships & lectureships While Hsu was professor at the Institute of Geology, ETH Zurich between 1967 and 1994, he was invited as lecturer, guest or honorary professor in geology, climatology or oceanography to numerous renowned universities of the world, including Beijing, California (San Diego), Cambridge, Columbia, Florence, Harvard, London, Milan, M.I.T., Moscow, Nanjing, Naples, Ohio, Oxford, Paris, Princeton, Taipei, Tokyo, Toronto, Washington, Woods Hole, Yale etc. After retirement in 1994, he was guest professor at the National Taiwan University (1994–95), senior fellow at the Berlin Institute of Advanced Studies (1995–96), Keck Professor at Colorado School of Mines, guest professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, university professor at Nanjing University, and university professor at Beijing University of Geosciences. == Scientific contributions == Academic work Hsu participated in the Earth Science Revolution of the 1960s, consolidating Plate Tectonics Theory, and has throughout his life been active in so-called 'Process Oriented Geology', which is in conversation with the evolutionary biology (symbiogenesis) of Lynn Margulis, the Gaia hypothesis of James Lovelock, and others. Instead of being preoccupied with rocks and mirrors, Hsu treated geological problems as arising from physical, chemical and biological processes, and hence has been a stout promoter of an educational reform in geology, emphasizing the fundamental principles of earth physics, chemistry and biology. In geology, his work included sedimentation in isostatically driven tectonic basins, the active margins of continental plates, physical chemistry of evaporite and pelagic diagenesis, documentation of granulite formation, catastrophic consequences of meteorite impacts, extinction of life forms and the limnology of Lake Zurich. Scientific expeditions and explorations Hsu participated and led 5 deep-sea drilling cruises to the South Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Black Sea. He also led several international expeditions to Tibet, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, South China, California Coast Ranges and the Swiss Alps, travelling to 80 countries for Earth Science. Awards For his contributions to geology, Hsu received several medals and awards. Wollaston Medal from The Geological Society of London (considered the highest honor in Geology, or an equivalent to the Nobel Prize in Geology) in 1984 (formerly presented to Charles Lyell, Thomas Henry Huxley, Charles Darwin and James Lovelock). Penrose Medal from The Geological Society of America in 2001 (the highest honor by the Society). President's Special Award, American Association of Petroleum Geologists (resulting in Hsu being listed in Who's Who in Trade & Industry) Twenhofel Medal from the Society of Sedimentary Geology in 1984 (the highest award of the Society of Sedimentary Geology). Bownocker Medal (Orton Award), from the Geological Sciences Department of Ohio State University, 1984.[1] Honorary positions and achievements Hsu was elected a Member of the U. S. National Academy of Science in 1986, but in given circumstances, became a Foreign Associate. He was also an Associate of the Third-World Academy of Sciences, a Member of Academia Sinica (1988), the Mediterranean Academy of Sciences and several other academies of science. He was a founder of the European Geophysical Society and a founder of the science of paleoceanography. He convened the First International Conference of Paleoceanography and founded the journal Paleoceanography. Hsu also assisted in the founding of the Asian Association of Marine Geology. He also served for 11 years as President of the International Association of Sedimentologists. Hsu was the convener of the Third Workshop on Marine Geology of IUGS; the First Earth Science Colloquium of the European Science Foundation; several Dahlem Conferences of the Dahlem Foundation; and numerous symposia and workshops for IGP, ILP, IGCP, SCOR and JOIDE. Leadership positions in scientific organizations Hsu served in numerous scientific organizations: President and Past President of the International Association of Sedimentologists (IAS); General Secretary of the Alpine Mediterranean Working Group of the International Geodynamics Project (IGP); Chairman of the Paleoceaonography Working Group of the International Lithosphere Project (ILP); Leader of several projects of UNESCO's International Geological Correlation Project (IGCP); Chairman of the International Commission of Marine Geology (1980–1989); Chairman of the Committee on Sedimentology of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS); ex officio member of the executive committee of the Scientific Commission on Oceanographic Research (SCOR) (1980–1989); member of the Swiss Commission on UNESCO (1987–1990); International Union of the Geological Sciences (IUGS); Representative of the Geological Sciences at the IGBP/Global Change Program of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) (1989–1992); ICSU member of the United Nations Expert Panel on Seabed Disposal of Radioactive Waste (1987–1988); Chairman of the Mediterranean Panel, South Atlantic Panel and Tectonics Panel of the Joint Oceanographic Institutions Deep Earth Study Program (JOIDES), Member of the Paleoceanography Panel and the JOIDES Planning Committee of the Ocean-Drilling Program. Editorships Hsu was Editor and or Associate Editor of numerous journals including: Sedimentology: Journal of the International Association of Sedimentologists (Founding Editor & Editor-in-Chief 1972–1979). UK: Blackwell Science. Journal of Sedimentary Petrography. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Geophysical Research Letters. Bulletin of the Japanese Geological Society. Tethys. Geologie Mediterrane. Scientific affiliations Advisor, Chinese Natural Science Foundation. Alumni of the Century, Nanjing University (Gold Medal, University Centenary Celebration). Associate fellow, Third World Academy of Sciences. Chair, International Marine Geology Commission, 1980–89. Chairman, department of earth sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. Distinguished alumnus, Ohio State University. Emeritus professor, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. First distinguished alumni lecturer of geology, UCLA. Guest professor, National Taiwan University (1994–95). Guest professor, Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Honorary professor, University College London, April 2008. International Writer of the Year, International Book Club (Cambridge), 2003. Keck Professor, Colorado School of Mines. Member, National Academy of Sciences, Academy Sinica (Taiwan). Member, Mediterranean Academy of Sciences. Member and foreign associate, U.S. National Academy of Sciences, 1986. President, International Association of Sedimentologists, 1978–82. Senior fellow, Institute of Advanced Studies, Berlin, 1995–96. University professor, Nanjing University. University professor, Beijing University of Geosciences. Advisory work Hsu was a convener of numerous scientific conferences, founder of several scientific societies, and advisor to the governments of developing countries: UNDP Advisor to Maltese Government (1973); UNDP Advisor to Chinese Government (1989); Advisor to Brazil Government on petroleum geology; Advisor to Argentina and Taiwan governments on lake research and global change; Advisor to the Chinese Ministry of Geology (1979–87); Consultant to the Chinese Ministry of Chemical Industry (1992–1996); Consultant to the Chinese Ministry of Petroleum Geology (1992–94); Consultant to the Taiwan Museum of Natural History (1995); Technical Advisor to the Taiwan National Science Foundation (1996–2000); External Examiner to the University of Malaysia. Consultant to the Chinese Ministry of Petroleum; Consultant to the Chinese Ministry of Geology and Mining; Consultant to the Chinese Institute of Geotechnical Investigation (Ministry of Construction). Science politics His co-organized a consortium of 15 European member states to join the International Ocean Drilling Program. Contributions to the geology of China Hsu successfully lobbied for the admission of the Chinese Geological Union to replace the Chinese Geological Society in Taipei as a member of the International Union of Geological Sciences and was a member of the first IUGS delegation to China. He served the Chinese Ministry of Geology and Mining in giving training programs for Sedimentology (1979), Field Geology of Tibet (1980) and Plate Tectonics (1992). From 1983 to 1995, he assisted the Institute of Geology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences with the completion of a project on plate tectonics and to publish a new Geological Atlas of China. Appreciation Two Festschrift symposia books, Controversies in Geology, and Paradoxes in Geology, were published by Hsu's colleagues on his 60th and 70th birthdays. In September 2009, his contributions to China and to science were acknowledged at a conference in Beijing, attended by dignitaries from government, industry and academia. == Entrepreneurial activities == Enterprise After his retirement, Hsu made several inventions in mining, oil, water and energy technology, and founded various companies including Tarim Resource Recycling Limited (UK, 2003); Kenneth Hsu IHC Technology & Development Limited (China, 2005) and Lazarus Energy International Limited (UK, 2007). Inventions Hsu was awarded 16 patents in mining, petroleum, water, carbon, energy and environment management, including the Hydro-Transistor and Integrated Hydrologic Circuit (IHC). Hsu's technologies applied in China [2] included: 3-D Enhanced Oil Recovery of the world's residual oil reserves; Lithium Production from brine lakes and sea water to empower hybrid vehicles; Water Availability by waste water recycling and rainwater harvesting to eliminate shortages; Nitrite-Free Drinking Water scientifically demonstrated to reduce the cancer mortality rate by half; Nitrite-Free Sewage-Treatment Works to denitritize the drinking water supply; Lake Rehabilitation by eliminating algal pollution through sequestering of carbon dioxide; Biofuel Generation by utilizing carbon dioxide emissions to mitigate the burning of fossil fuels; Capillary Irrigation to conserve water whilst reclaiming land without utilizing surface irrigation; Land Reclamation and Desert Greening by sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide; Hydro-Electricity without building hydro-electric dams. Endorsements After extensive research and development, Hsu's water technologies were unanamiously endorsed by an expert panel called by the Chinese State Counsellors' Office (Civilian Chief of Staff) of the Chinese Prime Minister Wen Jiabao; and by Nobel Laureate Samuel Ting, and University of California Chancellor, Henry Yang, who both served on the Chinese Premiere's KHC Advisory Board.[3] In 2000, Hsu combined the newly developed enhanced oil recovery techniques of hydro-fracturing and horizontal drilling, with water flooding, to invent a totally new process of residual oil recovery (ROR), called 3-dimensional fluid injection, to exploit residual oil. The method utilized water rather than carbon dioxide, although carbon dioxide can also be used in the process. Hsu suggested the technique could increase the recoverable petroleum reserve of the world by a factor of 50% or more. [4] With the full support of the Chinese Prime Minister, Wen Jiabao, in February 2006, an Expert Panel called by former Petroleum Minister Dr Wang Tao, unanimously agreed Hsu's ROR invention was innovative, and should be tested and applied in China. In April 2006, PetroChina reported a successful test at the Changqing Oil Field (Northwest China), first discovered in 1907. Prior to the test, its annual production was about 10,000 tons. In 2006, this rose to 10 million tons, and in 2007, to 20 million tons. Ventures Hsu is active with institutions, organizations and corporations to apply the new technologies in China and internationally. Consultancy Hsu is president of the IHC Technology & Development Corporation (China), senior advisor and chief engineer to the Kenneth Hsu Institute for IHC Development (National Institute Of Earth Sciences, Beijing) and director of the Center for Environmental & Health Engineering (Henan University, Kaifeng). His work on the link between nitrite in drinking water and cancer was documented in The Ecologist journal. == Career timeline == 1944-48 Bachelor of Science in geology, Nanjing University, China. 1948-50 M.A. degree in geology, Ohio State University, USA. 1950-53 Doctorate in geology and geophysics, University of California at Los Angeles, USA. 1954-63 Research geologist and research associate, Shell Development Corporation, Houston, Texas, USA. 1963-64 Associate professor, State University of New York at Binhamton, USA. 1964-67 Associate professor, University of California at Riverside, USA. 1967-94 Professor, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETHZ), Zurich, Switzerland. 1994 Chief executive, Tarim Associates for Mineral & Oil Exploration AG, Switzerland. 1999 Chief executive, Fengshui Water Technology Limited, Lichtenstein. 2003 Chief executive and chairman of the board, Tarim Resource Recycling Limited, UK. 2005 President, Kenneth Hsu Corporation of Integrated Hydrologic Circuit Technology & Development, Beijing, China. 2007 Chief executive, Lazarus Oil International, UK. 2007 Director, Kenneth Hsu Consulting, UK. 2007 Chief engineer and senior advisor, Institute for IHC Development, National Institute Of Earth Sciences, Beijing, China. 2007 Director, Center for Environmental & Health Engineering, Henan University, Kaifeng, China. == Notable writings == Hsu authored or edited over 20 books, many in multiple languages, and was elected an International Writer of the Year by the International Book Club (Cambridge, UK) in 2003. The Mediterranean Was A Desert, 1982 The book concerned Hsu's work deciphering the Messinian Salinity Crisis and provided a first-hand account of one of the most significant deep-sea drilling cruises ever launched. The voyage, Leg 13 of the D/V Glomar Challenger, was undertaken in 1970 and led to the hypothesis that 5.5 million years ago, the Mediterranean was a desert. It documented the adventures of the oceanographic expedition and offered portraits of 'big' science and 'big' scientists at work, with human touches, as a memoir for historians of science. The book was selected by Philip Morrison of Scientific American as one of the 100 most significant and influential books of science in the 20th century. A film was also made by PBS, based on the book. Challenger At Sea, 1983 The book was an overview of the then current state of marine geology and a source book for the history of that science, and was used as a geology textbook for non-majors. The Great Dying, 1986 The book described the circumstances leading to the discovery that the dinosaur extinction was triggered by a cometary impact. An inquiry into the nature of survival and extinction, it was published in 6 languages, selling over 170,000 copies worldwide, selling 28,000 copies in the United States between 1986 and 1988; 100,000 copies in mainland China in 1989 and 40,000 copies in Taiwan. A popular newspaper in Taipei United Post featured The Great Dying in its weekly list of best-selling books list for more than a year, and it was chosen as a top non-fiction book of the year in August 1992. Originally intended to teach the public, the book was used as a textbook in the United States for its scientific method. A film was also made based on the book by ZDF. In the book, Hsu marshalled "some of the most gripping and controversial geological discoveries of our time to blast Darwin’s claim and to shake the foundations of his evolutionary theory," showing evidence indicating a meteor collided with the Earth, 66 million years ago, leaving much of it uninhabitable, and warning that a similar event may threaten humanity in the future. Hsu criticized Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. According to Hsu "If most extinctions are caused by catastrophes... then chance, not superiority, presides over who shall live and who shall die. Indeed, the whole course of evolution may be governed by chance, and not reflect at all the slow march from inferior to superior forms so beloved by Victorians, and so deeply embedded in Western thought." The book endorses catastrophism and non-Darwinian evolution. Klima Macht Geschichte, 2000 Klima Macht Geschichte presented a theory of climate and history, looking at future climate changes based on historical, archaeological and helio-biological evidence. It made the prediction of global cooling of the planet in the last decades of the 21st century, and the coming of a little ice age before 2500. The claim forecast was corroborated by scientists Khabibullo Abdusamatov, Yuk Yung, John Cassey, Nigel Calder, Henrik Svensmark, Alexander Chizhevsky and John D. Hamaker [5]. Orell Fussli Verlag [6] Archived 2005-10-01 at the Wayback Machine published the book after an article about Hsu appeared in Bilanz Magazine [7] in 1998. Earlier, in 1992, Hsu wrote in Geographical Magazine, "Perhaps our species was created by Gaia to prevent a catastrophic chill" in reference to his published paper 'Is Gaia Endothermic?, on which the book is also based. Amadeus & Magdalena, 2002 Published in Chinese, English and German, with a Chinese translation titled "莫扎特的愛與死"., the book presented Hsu's musicological theory about the death of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. == Works == A complete list of books by Kenneth Hsu is available at the Kenneth J. Hsu Official Site. === Amadeus & Magdalena === 2002, Amadeus & Magdalena: A Love Story. Distributed through Master Classics (UK). English. 2002, Amadeus & Magdalena: A Love Story. German. 2002, Amadeus & Magdalena: A Love Story. Taipei: Commonwealth Publishers, 218pp. Chinese. === Challenger At Sea === 1982, Ein Schiff revolutioniert die Wissenschaft. Hamburg,: Hoffmann & Campe Verlag, 304 pp. German. 1985, Ein Schiff revolutioniert die Wissenschaft, Beijing: Geology Publishing House, 175 pp. German. 1994, Challenger at Sea: A Ship that Revolutionized Earth Science, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 416 pp. Hardback. English. 1994, Challenger at Sea: A Ship that Revolutionized Earth Science, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 418 pp. Paperback edition. English. 1994, Challenger at Sea: A Ship that Revolutionized Earth Science, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 418 pp. Revised edition. English. 1999, Challenger at Sea: A Ship that Revolutionized Earth Science, Tokyo: Tokai University Press, Tokyo, 483 pp. Japanese. === Climate And Peoples === 2000, Climate And Peoples: A Theory Of Climate Changes & Their Impacts On Hominid Evolution, Language Dispersal & Demographic Migrations. English. 2000, Klima Macht Geschichte: Menschheitsgeschichte als Abbild der Klimaentwicklung, Zurich: Orell Füssli Verlag, 334 pp. ISBN 3-280-02406-4. German. (Climate Makes History: The History Of Mankind As A Reflection Of Climatic Evolution) 2002, Klima nacht Geschichte, Taiwan: Commonwealth Publishers. Chinese. === Gaia & The Cambrian Explosion === 1996, Gaia & The Cambrian Explosion: A Short History for Everyone of Life on Earth. Taichung: Chinese National Museum Of Natural History, Taiwan, 51pp. Chinese. 1996, Gaia & The Cambrian Explosion: A Short History for Everyone of Life on Earth. German. === Geologic Atlas Of China === 1998, Geologic Atlas of China, Amsterdam: Elsevier, 24 plates, 362 pp. English. 1998, Geologic Atlas of China. Chinese. === Geology Of Switzerland === 1991, Geologie der Schweiz, Basel: Birkhouser, 219pp. Hardback. German. 1995, Geology of Switzerland: An Introduction to Tectonic Facies. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 250 pp. English. === Tectonic Facies Of China === 1992, Tectonic Facies of China. China: Marine Geology Research Institute (Qingdao), 96 pp. Chinese. 1996, Tectonic Facies of China. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. English. 1996, Tectonic Facies of China. German. === The Great Dying === 1986, La Gran Extinción, Barcelona: Antoni Bosch Editorial, 268 pp. Spanish. 1986, The Great Dying: Cosmic Catastrophe, Dinosaurs & The Theory of Evolution, San Diego: Random House, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Hardback, 292pp. English. 1988, The Great Dying. Dutch. 1989, The Great Dying, China edition, Beijing: San-lien Publishers, 317 pp. Chinese. 1990, Die Letzten Jahre Der Dinosaurier, Germany: Birkhäuser, Basel, 270 pp. German. 1991, The Great Dying, Taiwan edition, Taipei: Commonwealth Publishers, 374 pp. Chinese. 1988, The Great Dying: Cosmic Catastrophe, Dinosaurs & The Theory of Evolution, USA: Random House, Ballantine, Pan. Paperback. English. 1993, La Grande Moria Dei Dinosauri, Milan: Adelphi Edizioni S.P.A., 374 pp. Italian. 1994, The Great Dying, Italian Book Club edition. Italian. === The Mediterranean Was A Desert === 1982, The Mediterranean Was a Desert: A Voyage of The Glomar Challenger, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, Hardback. 197pp. English. 1982, The Mediterranean Was a Desert: A Voyage of The Glomar Challenger. German. 1983, The Mediterranean Was a Desert: A Voyage of The Glomar Challenger. Italian. 1986, The Mediterranean Was a Desert: A Voyage of Discovery, Beijing: San-lien Publishers, 215 pp. Chinese. 1987, The Mediterranean Was a Desert: A Voyage of Discovery, China edition, Beijing: Geological Publishing House, 197pp. Chinese. 1987, The Mediterranean Was a Desert: A Voyage of The Glomar Challenger, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, Paperback. English. 1993, The Mediterranean Was a Desert: A Voyage of Discovery, Taiwan, Taipei: Commonwealth Publishers, 260 pp. Chinese. 1996, The Mediterranean Was a Desert: A Voyage of Discovery, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 197 pp. English. === The Search === 1997, The Search: The Younger Years of Kenneth J. Hsu (Aloneness & Search), Taipei: Commonwealth Publishers, 474pp. Chinese. 1997, The Search: The Younger Years of Kenneth J. Hsu (Aloneness & Search). German. 1997, The Search: The Younger Years of Kenneth J. Hsu (Aloneness & Search). Unpublished. English. === Physics of sedimentology: textbook and reference === == Selected articles == Hsu is the author or co-author of more than 400 scientific articles on Archaeology, Cancer, Chronon Physics, Climatology, Cosmology, Cytology, Epistemology, Evolution, Fractal Geometry, Gaia, Geology, Heliobiology, History, Hydro-Physics, Languages, Marine Biology, Mathematics, Marine Biology, Music, Oceanography, Palaeontology, Paleoclimatology, Philosophy, Politics, Religion and Symbiogenesis. A complete list of articles by Kenneth Hsu is available at the Kenneth J. Hsu Official Site [8] Archived 2009-04-06 at the Wayback Machine. === Climate articles === Climate for the 21st Century and Beyond from a Calibrated Solar-Output Model with Dr. Charles A. Perry (USGS), 2001, in West, G.J., and Buffaloe, L.D., eds., Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Pacific Climate Workshop, May 22–25, 2000, Two Harbors, Santa Catalina Island, California: Interagency Ecological Program for the San Francisco Estuary Technical Report 67, p. 120.[9] Geophysical, Archaeological & Historical Evidence Supports A Solar Model For Climate Change with Dr. Charles A. Perry (United States Geological Survey), Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA), 2000, Volume 97, pages 12433–438, 2000. English. PNAS Short versionPNAS Long versionPub Med ASCII version The Mortality Of The Planet in Is the World Ending?, Sean Freyne & Nicholas Lash (Editors), SCM Press (London), 1998. English. Available in English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, Dutch and German, from Concilium. [10] Un Planeta En Peligro De Muerte in Is the World Ending?, Sean Freyne & Nicholas Lash (Editors), SCM Press (London), 1998. English. Spanish translation in Concilium. "Sun, Climate, Famine & Great Ethnic Migrations", Science In China/Chinese Science Bulletin. 28 (4): 336–384, 1998. [11] "Could Global Warming Be A Blessing For Mankind?", Terrestrial Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences/TAUS, Chinese Academy of Science, Taipei, Taiwan, September 1996 [12] Is Gaia Endothermic?, Geological Magazine, 129 (2), pp. 129–141, XIV, March 1992. English. [13] Gaia Has A Strange Attractor: Interactions Of Geospheres & Biospheres During 4 Billion Years of Earth History, Unknown Has Global Warming Been A Blessing To Mankind?, Unknown. Early version of Could Global Warming Be A Blessing For Mankind?. Gaia & The Cambrian Explosion: A Short History For Everyone Of Life On Earth, Chinese National Museum of Natural History, Taiwan, September 1996. === Science articles === The Dark Side Of Science, Global View Monthly, Commonwealth Publishers, Taipei, Taiwan, 1998. In Search Of A Common Language, Transfigural Mathematics, [14], Volume 2, Number 1, 1996, pp41–59 In Search Of A Common Language, Arbeitsberichte, Wissenschaftskolleg, Jahbrbuch 1995–1996, pp87–95 In Search Of A Physical Theory Of Time, PNAS. [15] Are Chronons the Elementary Particles in Space and Time?, Terrestrial, Atmospheric & Oceanic Sciences, Volume 7, Number 239–255, June 1996. TAO, PO Box 23–59, Taipei, Taiwan, PRC. Why I Write, Transfigural Mathematics, Volume 1, Number 5, 1996, pp-11-18 Why Isaac Newton Was Not A Chinese, 24 June 1994, Abschiedsvorlesung von Prof. Dr. Kenneth J. Hsu, Auditorium Maximum der ETH Zurich Fractal Geometry Of A Career in Controversies in Modern Geology: Evolution of Geological Theories in Sedimentology, Earth History & Tectonics, edited by D.W. Müller, J.A. McKenzie, H. Weissert, Academic Press-Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, London, New York, Sydney, 1991. === Evolution articles === Is Darwinism Science? Taoists, Nazis and Gamblers Offer Different Views Of Evolution, Earthwatch Magazine, March 1989, pp15–17. Catastrophic Extinctions & The Inevitability Of The Improbable, Referat und Diskussion der 28. Sitzung der Studiengruppe Energieperspektiven Baden, 26. Marz 1987, Doukumentation Nr. 28, Studiengruppe Energieperspektiven. Evolution, Ideology, Darwinism and Science, Klin Wochenschr (1989), 67:923-928, Klinische Wochen-schrift, Springer-Verlag, 1989 Catastrophic Extinctions & The Inevitability Of The Improbable, Journal of the Geological Society, London, Volume 146, 1989, pp749–754, 5 figs. pp749–754 Darwin's Three Mistakes, Geology, Volume 14, p532-534, June, p532-534, June 1996 === Geology articles === Lost Secrets Of The Mediterranean: 2000 meters beneath the sea, grand canyons, death valleys and the pillars of Atlantis, The Sciences, USA: The New York Academy of Sciences, pp44–51. Undated. Environmental Changes in Times of Biotic Crisis, Processes in the History Of Life, Raup & Jablonski, Dahlem Conference 1986, Berlin, pp297–312 When The Mediterranean Dried Up: 6 million years ago, the Mediterranean basin was a desert 10,000 feet deep, Unknown, p25-37, 12 pages Sedimentary Geology & Biologic Evolution - Reply, Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, Volume 57, Number 4, July 1987, Society of Economic Paleontologists & Mineralogists Mountain-building, Elsevier Science, 1996, pp8–11 Acceptance Speech by K. J. Hsu to the Geological Society of America, on the Occasion of an Award of the Penrose Medal, [16] === Music articles === Fractal Geometry of Music: From Birdsong To Bach, with Andres Hsu, USA: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 87 (1990), 938–941. [17] Fractal Geometry Of Music: Physics Of Melody, with Andres Hsu, Proceedings National Academy Of Science, Volume 87, pp938–941, Feb 1990, Physics == Materials citing Hsu == Books Streit um heiße Luft: Die Kohlendioxid Debatte, Uwe Schulte, Hirzel, Stuttgart, 2003. ISBN 3-7776-1186-7. Paradoxes in Modern Geology, Editors: Briegel & Xiao, Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 2001. ISBN 0-444-50560-1 Controversies in Modern Geology: Evolution of Geological Theories in Sedimentology, Earth History & Tectonics, edited by D.W. Müller, J.A. McKenzie, H. Weissert, Academic Press-Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, London, New York, Sydney, 1991. Articles An Appreciation of Professor Kenneth Jinghwa Hsu on the Occasion of his 60th Birthday Celebration, Controversies in Modern Geology: Evolution of Geological Theories, in Sedimentology, Earth History & Tectonics, edited by D.W. Müller, J.A. McKenzie, H. Weissert, Academic Press-Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, London, New York, Sydney, 1991. Physics Chronon Challenge, Transfigural Mathematics (Berlin, Germany), Volume 2, Number 1, 1996. Interview by Lere O. Shakunle pp 67–73. Je Pense Que Je Suis Un Genie, P. Imper & M. Schlapfer, Bilanz Magazine, Switzerland (French edition), pp 44, 4 pages, 1998. Ich denke, ich bin ein Genie, Bilanz Magazine, Switzerland (German edition), pp 154, 5 pages, November 1997 Chance in a Collision with Darwinism, Lee Dembart, Los Angeles Times, 1980s Mediterranean desert, Christopher Wren, and industrial chemistry, Philip Morrison (MIT), Scientific American, 1987 The Mediterranean Was A Desert, International Oceanographic Foundation, 5 September 1987 Below the Bottom, C. Vita-Finzi, Times Literary Supplement, 27 April 1984 Homo sapiens: a temporary warming trend?, Ptolemy, Geographical Magazine, August 1992, pp58 Love that Pleistocene!, Ptolemy, Geographical Magazine, February 1993, pp50 The Mediterranean Was A Desert, Geology, September 1984 Films The Mediterranean Was A Desert, BBC. Producer: David Attenborough. The Mediterranean Was A Desert, PBS, 45 minutes. Producer: Madeline Peck. Director: Philip Morisson. The Mediterranean Was A Desert, ZDF, Producer: Hoimar Von Ditfurth. The Great Dying, PBS. Producer: Madeline Peck. Director: Philip Morisson. The Great Dying, ZDF, Producer: Hoimar Von Ditfurth. Landsliding: The Mountain, BBC Horizon. Landsliding: The Mountain Slide, BBC Horizon. Climate And Tibet, BBC Horizon. Producer: Walter Suche. == Other writings == 1970 Development of the Northern Apennines Geosyncline, ed. by G. Sestini, Palaoegeography, Palaeoclimatol, Palaeocol., 11, (1972), pp. 72–74, XIV 1973 Atlas of Palaeobiogeography, ed. by Anthony Hallam, Sedimentology (1973), v. 20, Aug. 1973, pp. 453–454, XIII 1974 Marine Evaporites, Origin, Diagenesis and Geochemistry, ed. by D.W. Kirkland, et al. Sedimentology, v. 21, no. 3, Aug. 1974, pp. 486–487, XIII. 1977 International Stratigraphic Guide, ed. by H.D. Hedberg, et al., Sedimentology (1977), v. 24, pp. 597–598, XIII. 1978 Sedimentary Rocks, by F.J. Petitjohn - Sedimentary Petrology, Part II, by H. Füchtbauer - Sediment Petrologie, Teil II, by H. Füchtbauer & G. Müller - Origin of Sedimentary Rocks, by H. Blatt, et al. Sedimentology (1978), 25, pp. 149–152, XIII 1978 The Evolution of North America, by Ph. B. King - Studies in Palaeo-Oceanography, by W.W. Hay - Palaeographic Provinces and Provinciality, by Ch. A. Ross - Tectonics and Sedimentation, by W.R. Dickinson Sedimentology, v. 25, no. 5, Oct. 1978, pp. 732–735, XIII. 1979 Sorby on Geology, ed. by Ch. Summerson, Sedimentology, v. 26, no. 6, Dec. 1979, pp. 873–875, XIII. 1981 The Geological Evolution of the River Nile, by R. Said, Springer 1981, 151 pp. 73 figs., in Die Naturwissenschaften, Heidelberg, Nawi BB577. 1983 Sedimentary Petrology, by H. Blatt, Sedimentology, v. 30, no. 4, Aug. 1983, pp. 586–587, XIII. 1985 Memoirs of an Unrepentant Field Geologist, by P.J. Pettijohn, Sedimentology (1985), 32, pp. 615–616, XIII 1985 Geological Evolution of the Mediterranean Basin, by D.J. Stanley & F.C. Wezel, Springer Verlag, 1985, 589 pp., XIII. 1985 The Caledonide Orogon-Scandinavia and Related Area: ed. D.G. Gee & B.A. Sturt, Chichester, 1985 (John Wiley & Son), XIII 1987 The Ocean of Truth, by H.W. Menard, Geochimica et Cosmochimica, v. 51, pp. 2045–2046, 1987, USA, XIII. 1988 The Geology of China, by Yang Zunyi et al., Geology, Jan. 1988, XIII 1990 The Origin of Species Revisited : The Theories of Evolution and of Abrupt Appearance (2 v.); by W.R. Bird. New York 1989 (Philosophical Library). American Journal of Science, Vol. 290, November 1990, No. 9, p. 1090-1092. XIV 1991 Scientist of Empire, by Robert A. Stafford, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 1989, 293 p. in GSA Today, Vol. 1, No. 2, Feb. 1991, p. 40, 41, 43. XIV 1993 The Tancheng-Lujiang Wrench Fault System, Xu Jiawei, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, U.K., 1993, XV + 279 pp. == Notable lectures == In Search Of A Common Language: What Does Modern Physics Have In Common With Traditional Chinese Medicine?, The Ashby Lecture, 15 March 2000, Clare Hall College, Cambridge University, UK. Nitrite Pollution & Cancer, Queen Mary College, University of London, 15 February 2008. In association with CSSA UK. Residual Oil Exploitation for Stable Economy and Transition, School of Oriental & African Studies, University of London, 23 January 2009. In association with CSSA UK. The Kenneth J. Hsu Oil & Water Press Conference, Geological Society, 15 October 2008, Geological Society of London, UK. In association with CSSA UK. == See also == List of ETH Zurich people == References == == External links == Kenneth J. Hsu Official Site Archived 2009-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Charles A. Perry - List of online Papers Perry & Hsu - List of online Papers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_Medical_College,_Srinagar#:~:text=Alumni%20and%20faculty-,History,college%20on%2013%20June%201957.	Government Medical College, Srinagar	The Government Medical College, Srinagar (also known as GMC Srinagar) is a government medical college and hospital located in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India. It was established in 1959. It is the oldest medical college in Kashmir. The college and hospital are affiliated with the University of Kashmir and recognised by the Medical Council of India (currently National Medical Commission). The college is located in the Karan Nagar area of Srinagar, about 1.5 km (0.93 mi) from Lal Chowk. The girls' hostel is located within the campus but the boys' hostel is one km (0.62 mi) away. It has well-equipped labs. The selection to the college is done on the basis of merit through National Eligibility and Entrance Test. == History == In the 1950s, the government of Jammu and Kashmir realised the need for a medical college in the state. The then Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, laid the foundation stone of the college on 13 June 1957. The college was established under the name of Jammu and Kashmir Medical College in 1959, and its first batch of students was admitted the same year. The college was initially located at the Shri Maharaja Hari Singh Hospital in the city of Srinagar. In 1962, the college was shifted to its present location at Karan Nagar in Srinagar, where it covers an area of around 100 acres. The college was renamed as Government Medical College Srinagar in 1970. In the same year, the college was affiliated with the University of Kashmir. In 1982, the first batch of postgraduate students was admitted to the college. In 1998, the college was granted recognition by the Medical Council of India (MCI) for undergraduate and postgraduate medical courses. == Campus == The Government Medical College (GMC) Srinagar is located in the city of Srinagar in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. The college covers an area of around 100 acres and is situated in the Karan Nagar area of the city. Academic Blocks: The college has several academic blocks that house classrooms, laboratories, and libraries. Auditorium: The college has an auditorium that can accommodate around 500 people. The auditorium is used for various academic and cultural events. Sports Facilities: The college has a playground and facilities for outdoor sports such as basketball, while as cricket and football ground in the boys hostel campus. == Associated hospitals == Currently there are eight associated hospitals of Government Medical College, Srinagar: Shri Maharaja Hari Singh Hospital (SMHS Hospital), also Known as Sadar Haspataal or Headwun G. B. Pant, Children Hospital, Bemina Srinagar (Bache Haspataal) Lal Ded Maternity Hospital, Hazuri Bag Srinagar (LD Haspatal) Psychiatric Diseases Hospital, Srinagar (Mental Haspatal) Chest Diseases Hospital Dalgate, Srinagar (Durgjan Haspatal) Bone and Joint Hospital Barzulla, Srinagar Chitranjan Mobile Hospital Superspeciality Hospital, Shireen Bagh == Alumni and faculty == Rafiq Ahmad Pampori (former principal) == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_for_Courage	Order for Courage	The Order for Courage (Ukrainian: Орден «За мужність», romanized: Orden “Za muzhnist”) is a Ukrainian award established by Ukrainian president Leonid Kuchma on August 21, 1996. The medal is designed by Ukrainian artist Mykola Lebid. == Awards of the President of Ukraine for Courage == Before August, 1996, personal bravery had been honoured with Awards of the President of Ukraine for Courage: the Star for Courage and the Cross for Courage instituted on April 29, 1995. On August 21, 1996, they were transformed into three classes of the Order for Courage. Recipients of Awards of the President of Ukraine, such as the Star for Courage and the Cross for Courage, are considered to be equal to the recipients of the Order for Courage and they are recognised as holders of the Order for Courage retaining the right to wear decorations that have been granted. Granting the Star For Courage and the Cross for Courage was discontinued following the institution of the Order for Courage. == Medals, star and ribbons == == Awardees == Viktor Hurniak (1987–2014) - Ukrainian scout, photographer, volunteer killed in the Russian-Ukrainian War. Aleksandr Akimov (1953–1986) - Engineer and shift supervisor at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant who worked tirelessly unto his death to mitigate the safety risks posed by the Chernobyl disaster. Leonid Toptunov (1960–1986) - In the control room at the reactor control panel at the moment of explosion, with Akimov; received fatal dose during attempts to restart feedwater flow into the reactor Valery Khodemchuk (1951–1986) - Engineer who was the night shift circulating pump operator at the Chernobyl power plant and was the first victim of Chernobyl disaster Yuri A. Vershynin - (died 28 July 1986) - In the turbine hall at the moment of explosion; received fatal dose (over 1,000 rad) during firefighting and stabilizing the turbine hall, died in a Moscow hospital Anatoly I. Shapovalov (died 19 May 1986) - Electrician during the Chernobyl disaster. Viktor V. Proskuryakov (died 17 May 1986) - Present in the control room at the moment of explosion; received fatal dose of radiation while attempting to enter the reactor hall to manually lower the control rods during the Chernobyl disaster Valery I. Perevozchenko (died 13 June 1986) - Foreman during the Chernobyl disaster. Received fatal dose of radiation during an attempt to locate and rescue Khodemchuk and others, approached the reactor hall together with Kudryavtsev and Proskuryakov Oleksandr V. Novyk (died 26 July 1986) - Turbine equipment machinist-inspector during Chernobyl disaster Received fatal dosage of more than 1,000 rad during firefighting and stabilizing the turbine hall. Vladimir I. Tishura (15 December 1959 – 10 May 1986) - First responding firefighter to the Chernobyl disaster. Received a fatal dose whilst extinguishing fires on the roof of reactor 3. Viktor N. Kibenok (17 February 1963 – 11 May 1986) - Chief of the Pripyat Fire Department, first responder to the Chernobyl disaster. Received a fatal dose of radiation while extinguishing fires on the roof of reactor 3 and around the ventilation chimney. Vladimir P. Pravik (13 June 1962 –11 May 1986) - The first firefighter to arrive on the scene of the Chernobyl disaster, coordinated firefighting efforts on the roof of the turbine hall and the roof of reactor 3. Received a fatal radiation dose while on the roof of reactor 3. Vasily I. Ignatenko (13 March 1961 – 13 May 1986) - First responding firefighter after the Chernobyl explosion. Extinguished fires around the ventilation chimney and helped carry his comrades down from the roof. He received a fatal radiation dose while on reactor 3's roof. (13 Sv) Leonid P. Telyatnikov (25 January 1951 – 2 December 2004) - Chief of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant FD, arrived 10 minutes after the explosion and coordinated all firefighting efforts at the site. He also helped his men into ambulances. (6 Sv) Nikolai I. Titenok (5 December 1962 – 16 May 1986) - First responder to the Chernobyl disaster. He was a sergeant from the Pripyat Fire Department. Helped firefighting on the roof of reactor 3. Nina Strokata Karavanska (31 January 1926 – 2 August 1998) - "for civil courage, devotion in the struggle for the establishment of the ideals of freedom and democracy, and on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the Ukrainian Public Group to promote the implementation of the Helsinki Accords.” Roman Mamasuyev (20 February 1983 - 22 December 2016), Ukrainian soldier from Alushta, Autonomous Republic of Crimea, fallen near Avdiivka. Viktor Chornobay (20 July 1983 - 20 July 2017), Ukrainian soldier from Kreminna, Luhansk Oblast, died near Krasnohorivka, while protecting a comrade with his own body. Dmytro Streknev (9 July 1997 - 6 April 2019) - Ukrainian soldier from Nyzhnia Duvanka, Luhansk Oblast, fallen near Zolote, for bravery and courage and in the defense of the homeland. Valeriy Herovkin (1999-2021), Ukrainian soldier from Kramatorsk Ivan Fedorov (born 29 August 1988) - Mayor of Melitopol, for bravery at the Battle of Melitopol. Jonathan Tseng (12 September 1997 – 2 November 2022) - Taiwanese volunteer, first East Asian killed in action during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, after successfully covering 3 colleagues to retreat in front line under siege. Trevor Kjeldal (? – 2 November 2022) - Australian sniper, returning from previous wound; Tseng's teammate, died in action of the same battle. Patron (born 2019) - Bomb-sniffing dog, awarded jointly with his handler Mykhailo Iliev. Mikhailo Dianov, soldier involved in the Mariupol resistance. Kyrylo Budanov, head of Main Directorate of Information of the Ukrainian Defense Ministry. Oleksiy Ananenko, (born 13 October 1959) - After the Chernobyl disaster, he was part of the three-man "suicide squad" that drained the steam suppression pools under the fourth reactor building. Oleksandr Kolchenko (born 26 November 1989), political activist from Crimea, who was held as a political prisoner by the Russian Federation for resisting against the ongoing occupation of the peninsula. Samuel Francis Thomas Newey , (2000 - 2023) - 22-year-old Birmingham-born British volunteer during the Russian Invasion of Ukraine. Luke Barrett Maczynski (born 20 February 2005) - American volunteer during the Russian Invasion of Ukraine. Analyst and battle action planner (планувальник бойових дій), awarded due to actions in the liberation of Pokrovsk and surrounding settlements in Donetsk Oblast. == References == == External links == Laws of Ukraine «About the state awards of Ukraine» State award of Ukraine – Order for Courage Order for Courage
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexej_von_Jawlensky#:~:text=Expelled%20from%20Germany%20in%201914,his%20in%20the%20United%20States.	Alexej von Jawlensky	Alexej Georgewitsch von Jawlensky (Russian: Алексе́й Гео́ргиевич Явле́нский, romanized: Alekséy Geórgiyevich Yavlénskiy; 13 March 1864 – 15 March 1941), surname also spelt as Yavlensky, was a Russian expressionist painter active in Germany. He was a key member of the New Munich Artist's Association (Neue Künstlervereinigung München), Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) group and later Die Blaue Vier (The Blue Four). == Life and work == Alexej von Jawlensky was born in Torzhok, a town in Tver Governorate, Russia, as the fifth child of Georgi von Jawlensky and his wife Alexandra (née Medwedewa). At the age of ten he moved with his family to Moscow. After a few years of military training, he became interested in painting, visiting the Moscow World Exposition c. 1880. Thanks to his good social connections, he managed to get himself posted to St. Petersburg and, from 1889 to 1896, studied at the art academy there, while also discharging his military duties. Jawlensky gained admittance to the circle of the renowned Russian realist painter Ilya Repin. There he met Marianne von Werefkin, a wealthy artist and former student of Repin. He requested that Werefkin be his mentor, and Werefkin decided to put her work on hold to promote his work and provide him with a comfortable lifestyle. Jawlensky and Werefkin moved to Munich in 1894, where he studied in the private school of Anton Ažbe. In 1905 Jawlensky visited Ferdinand Hodler, and two years later he began his long friendship with Jan Verkade and met Paul Sérusier. Together, Verkade and Sérusier transmitted to Jawlensky both practical and theoretical elements of the work of the Nabis, and Synthetist principles of art. In Munich he met Wassily Kandinsky and various other Russian artists, and he contributed to the formation of the Neue Künstlervereinigung München. His work in this period was lush and richly coloured, but later moved towards abstraction and a simplified, formulaic style. Between 1908 and 1910 Jawlensky and Werefkin spent summers in the Bavarian Alps with Kandinsky and his companion, the painter Gabriele Münter. Here, through painting landscapes of their mountainous surroundings, they experimented with one another's techniques and discussed the theoretical bases of their art. Following a trip to the Baltic coast, and renewed contact with Henri Matisse in 1911 and Emil Nolde in 1912, Jawlensky turned increasingly to the expressive use of colour and form alone in his portraits. Expelled from Germany in 1914 due to WWI, he moved to Switzerland. He met Emmy Scheyer in 1916 (Jawlensky gave her the affectionate nickname, Galka, a Russian word for jackdaw), another artist who abandoned her own work to champion his in the United States. After a hiatus in experimentation with the human form, Jawlensky produced perhaps his best-known series, the Mystical Heads (1917–19), and the Saviour’s Faces (1918–20), which are reminiscent of the traditional Russian Orthodox icons of his childhood. In 1921, Alexej von Jawlensky returned to Germany and took up residence in Wiesbaden. There, in 1922, he married Werefkin's former maid Hélène Nesnakomoff, the mother of his only son, Andreas, who was born before their marriage (1902). In 1924 he established the Blue Four, whose works, thanks to Scheyer's tireless promotion, were jointly exhibited in Germany and the US. From 1929 Jawlensky suffered from progressively crippling arthritis, which necessitated a reduced scale and finally forced a cessation in his painting in 1937. He began to dictate his memoirs in 1938. He died in Wiesbaden, Germany, on 15 March 1941. He and his wife Helene are buried in the cemetery of St. Elizabeth's Church, Wiesbaden. == Legacy == In November 2003 his Schokko (Schokko mit Tellerhut) sold for US$9,296,000 and in February 2008 for GB£9,450,000 (US$18.43 million). The 2006 album by the jazz group Acoustic Ladyland, Skinny Grin, features one of his works, Portrait of The Dancer Alexander Sacharoff, as its cover art. The six CD's issued by CPO with the complete string quartets by the Polish composer Mieczysław Weinberg (1919–1996), and played by the Danel Quartet, all have a female portrait by von Jawlensky on their cover. Volume 1 shows "Frauenbildnis" (1909). Volume 2 has "Kind mit blauen Augen". Volume 3 has "Weiblicher Kopf" (1912). Volume 4 has "Mädchen mit Haube" (1910). Volume 5 has "Spanierin" (1911). And volume 6 shows "Kopf" (1912). == Alexej of Jawlensky-Award == In remembrance of the artist, in 1991 the "Jawlensky Award" has been coined. Every five years it is being awarded to contemporary artists by the capital of the federal state of Hesse Wiesbaden, the Spielbank Wiesbaden and the Nassauische Sparkasse. The award is accompanied by a cash prize, an exhibition at the Museum Wiesbaden and the purchase of a work. == Works == Paintings by von Jawlensky are displayed in galleries and museums around the world. The Museum Ostwall in Dortmund, Germany, maintains a collection of exceptional depth. The largest collection of works by von Jawlensky is kept at the Museum Wiesbaden, which owns more than 90 works of the artist, and forms the most important collection of his work in Europe. === Representative works === == See also == Abstract Head == References == == External links == Official Website Available Works & Biography Galerie Ludorff, Düsseldorf, Germany Biography of Alexej Georgewitsch von Jawlensky Archived 2007-03-11 at the Wayback Machine Information with links from the-artists.org Alexei Jawlensky 2017 exhibition at the Neue Galerie, New York City
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Jean_Pierre_Laurent	Joseph Jean Pierre Laurent	Joseph Jean Pierre Laurent (or Joseph Laurent) (died 1900) was a French amateur astronomer and chemist who discovered the asteroid 51 Nemausa in 1858, for which he was a recipient of the Lalande Prize awarded by the French Academy of Sciences. It is also likely that he is the same person as the person of that name who provided chemistry assistance to photography pioneer André-Adolphe-Eugène Disdéri in 1853. He never made any more asteroid discoveries and not much is known about him. He was described as a "very skillful young man" (un jeune homme très habile) by Édouard Stephan. He was described as a "distinguished pupil of the Marseille school", and as an amateur astronomer and an inspector of the assay office in Nîmes (contrôleur du bureau de garantie de Nîmes). The asteroid was discovered using the private observatory at the house formerly occupied by Benjamin Valz, who left in 1836 to become the new director of the Marseille Observatory. He entrusted his former observatory to Laurent, who later found the asteroid. The house, at 32 rue Nationale in Nîmes (at that time known as rue de l'Agau), has a plaque commemorating the discovery. Laurent was awarded the Lalande Prize of the French Academy of Sciences in 1858 for his discovery, jointly with five other asteroid and comet discoverers. In addition, asteroid 162 Laurentia was named in his honour. Laurent was named assistant astronomer at the Marseille Observatory on 26 November 1858, however he resigned on 20 February 1859. He cited the disorder in the management of the observatory by Valz as the reason. Valz for his part blamed Laurent for neglecting his duties and disloyalty, in a 14 May 1863 letter to d'Abbadie. Upon his resignation in February 1859, Laurent started a chemical analysis and testing laboratory in Marseille under the name J. Icard et J. Laurent. == First name == Nineteenth-century sources do not mention his first name, referring to him only as "M. Laurent", the standard French abbreviation for Monsieur Laurent. At one time the Minor Planet Center, which lists asteroid discoverers using their initials and surname, gave his name as "A. Laurent", with the "A." (for "Anonymous") as a sort of placeholder for an unknown first name. However, in a letter dated 5 September 1858 to Benjamin Valz, Laurent wrote that his first name is Joseph-Jean-Pierre (see image), and the Minor Planet Center now uses "J. J. P. Laurent". When using only an initial rather than his full first name, he sometimes used "J. Laurent". A small set of astronomical charts known to have been drawn up by Laurent himself, as well as a hand-drawn star chart portraying the discovery of 51 Nemausa, show his name as J. Laurent (see images). Philippe Véron in his unpublished Dictionnaire des astronomes français gives his name as "Joseph Laurent" In 1857, it was reported that Valz had undertaken the publication of equinoxial charts, to be drawn up by Laurent. When Valz reported the discovery of Nemausa in a letter to the Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des Sciences, he cited this as the "first success" of these equinoxial charts. The equinoxial charts in question indicate the author as "J. Laurent" (see image) and this is also indicated in a library catalog. A notation (see image) at the top of a hand-drawn star chart in the Observatoire de Marseille – Patrimoines archives notes the discovery of the asteroid as follows: Némausa (51) dec. [ = découverte ] à Nîmes par J. Laurent (22 janvier 1858), which means "51 Nemausa disc. [ = discovered ] at Nîmes by J. Laurent (22 January 1858)". == Possible connection to photography pioneer Disdéri == André-Adolphe-Eugène Disdéri pioneered the carte de visite, an early form of mass-production portraiture photography. According to his biographer Elizabeth Anne McCauley, Disdéri developed this process during his stay in Nîmes in 1853, and then moved back to Paris to make his fortune. She cites Disdéri's own book which thanks a chemist and assay office inspector in Nîmes named Monsieur Laurent for his assistance with the chemistry. In her book McCauley identifies the full name of this Monsieur Laurent as Joseph Jean Pierre Laurent, citing an 1855 passport application. The coincidence of name, profession, city and time period is suggestive, however a definitive link to the discoverer of the asteroid has not been established. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettino_Ricasoli	Bettino Ricasoli	Bettino Ricasoli, 1st Count of Brolio, 2nd Baron Ricasoli (Italian pronunciation: [betˈtiːno riˈkaːzoli]; 9 March 1809 – 23 October 1880) was an Italian statesman. He was a central figure in the politics of Italy during and after the unification of Italy. He led the Moderate Party. == Biography == Ricasoli was born in Florence. Left an orphan at eighteen, with an estate heavily in debt, he was by special decree of the grand duke of Tuscany declared of age and entrusted with the guardianship of his younger brothers. He was Catholic. Interrupting his studies, he withdrew to Brolio, and by careful management disencumbered the family possessions. In 1847 he founded the journal La Patria, and addressed to the grand duke a memorial suggesting remedies for the difficulties of the state. In 1848 he was elected Gonfaloniere of Florence, but resigned on account of the anti-Liberal tendencies of the grand duke. As Tuscan minister of the interior in 1859 he promoted the union of Tuscany with Piedmont, which took place on March 12, 1860. Elected Italian deputy in 1861, he succeeded Cavour in the premiership. As premier he admitted the Garibaldian volunteers to the regular army, revoked the decree of exile against Mazzini, and attempted reconciliation with the Vatican; but his efforts were rendered ineffectual by the non possumus of the pope. Disdainful of the intrigues of his rival Rattazzi, he found himself obliged in 1862 to resign office, but returned to power in 1866. On this occasion he refused Napoleon III's offer to cede Venetia to Italy, on condition that Italy should abandon the Prussian alliance, and also refused the Prussian decoration of the Black Eagle because La Marmora, author of the alliance, was not to receive it. Upon the departure of the French troops from Rome at the end of 1866 he again attempted to conciliate the Vatican with a convention, in virtue of which Italy would have restored to the Church the property of the suppressed religious orders in return for the gradual payment of 24,000,000. In order to mollify the Vatican he conceded the exequatur to forty-five bishops inimical to the Italian régime. The Vatican accepted his proposal, but the Italian Chamber proved refractory, and, though dissolved by Ricasoli, returned more hostile than before. Without waiting for a vote, Ricasoli resigned office and thenceforward practically disappeared from political life, speaking in the Chamber only upon rare occasions. He died at his Castello di Brolio on 23 October 1880. The barone created the modern recipe of Chianti wine; though a formula of specific grape percentages is often erroneously attributed to him, his switch in focus to Sangiovese as the lead grape in the blend would have lasting implications for both Tuscan and Italian wine. The family named firm (Ricasoli 1141) still produces wine at Brolio. His private life and public career were marked by the utmost integrity, and by a rigid austerity which earned him the name of the Iron Baron. In spite of the failure of his ecclesiastical scheme, he remains one of the most noteworthy figures of the Italian Risorgimento. == See also == History of Chianti Tuscan Republic (1849) Provisional Government of Tuscany == References == == External links == Discorsi dei ministri Ricasoli Bettino, Migletti, Della Rovere, Peruzzi, Menabrea, e Cordova sulla Questione Romana e Sulla Condizione Provencie Napoletane Barone Ricasoli family Chianti Classico winery's - Ricasoli history
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuldeep_Singh_Sengar#Political_career	Kuldeep Singh Sengar	Kuldeep Singh Sengar is an Indian politician and former member of Legislative Assembly belonging to the Bhartiya Janta Party from Unnao district, Uttar Pradesh who has been convicted of rape, murder, attempt to murder, criminal conspiracy and criminal intimidation. He was the main defendant in the Unnao rape case and was booked under the POCSO Act. He was also accused of killing three people, including the victim's father in police custody and later her aunts by a conspired truck accident. A Delhi District and Sessions Court upheld an investigation conducted by the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) that had ruled out any foul play in the Unnao rape survivor's accident in 2019. == Political career == Sengar started his political career with Indian National Congress (INC) in the early 1990s. In 2002, he was a Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) candidate, winning the election from Unnao with 24% of the votes. It was the first time BSP won that seat. After being expelled from BSP due to alleged anti-party activities, he joined Samajwadi party and won a seat from Bangermau in 2007 (28% of the votes) and Bhagwant Nagar in 2012 (33% of the votes). In 2015, Kuldeep Singh's wife Sangeeta Singh won the election of District Panchayat chief as an Independent against Samajwadi Party after which the party had estrangement with him and started seeing him as a rebel. He joined Bharatiya Janata Party in 2017 to contest the elections. He won the election from Bangermau, a seat BJP has never won before, with 43% of the votes polled. He had held this seat earlier under Samajwadi Party (2007–2012). He has won 4 legislative elections from Unnao region on three different party tickets and has won every time. == Rape, attempted murder, murder charge, arrest, expulsion == === Rape charges === Sengar raped a 16-year-old teen in Unnao, who approached him asking for a job on 4 June 2017. On 13 April 2018, he was taken in by the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) for questioning. Allahabad High Court took suo moto cognizance of the case and ordered his immediate arrest by the CBI. First Information Reports (FIR) were lodged and Sengar was kept in judicial custody for a week. The CBI corroborated the victim's charge of rape. He was booked under 4 sections of the Indian Penal Code and Protection of Children from Sexual Offences. In December 2019, he was convicted of kidnapping and raping a minor. === Murder and attempt to murder charges === On 28 July 2019, two of the victim's aunts were killed, and the victim and her lawyer critically injured, when a truck rammed the car they were travelling in. Sengar has been booked for murder, attempt to murder, criminal conspiracy, and criminal intimidation. The police FIR lists 10 persons including Sengar's brother Manoj Singh Sengar, Sashi Singh and his aides. === Expulsion from BJP === Sengar was suspended from the BJP political party following the rape. In a statement, the State BJP president Swatantra Dev Singh said "Sengar was suspended by the party earlier and there is no change in his status. There is no change in the position of the party and the government, which is standing with the victim of the Unnao (rape) case." The demand for his expulsion from the ruling BJP grew, led by Congress Party leader Priyanka Gandhi and later joined in by other opposition party leaders. In August 2019, after facing massive public and political outrage, the state and the Centre led BJP government finally expelled him from the party. The suspension and later expulsion did not automatically disqualify him as a legislator. He is not a part of any legislative committee. Kuldeep Singh Family Introduction If we talk about Kuldeep Singh Sengar's family, his wife's name is Sangeeta Singh Sengar. Who has been the District Panchayat President of Unnao. They have two daughters. While Kuldeep Singh Sengar's political legacy is being handled by his nephew Antranjay Singh 'Goldy Raja'. == Previous criminal activities == Disobedience to order duly promulgated by public servant (IPC Section-188). Assault or criminal force to deter public servant from discharge of his duty (IPC Section-353): Police Station- Hasanganj Dist. Unnao, U.P. == Electoral history == Kuldeep Singh Sengar has been elected 4 times as MLA. == See also == Unnao rape case Kathua rape case 2019 Hyderabad gang rape == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bohn	Hans Bohn	Hans Bohn (December 23, 1891 – May 10, 1980) was a German graphic artist and typographer. He developed the fonts Orplid, Mondial, Allegro, and the heavier weight of Kuenstler Script. After training at the Technische Lehranstalt in Offenbach, he began his professional career at the Ullstein Verlag in Berlin in 1914. From 1919 to 1930, he worked at the Klingspor Foundry. Afterwards he was a freelance graphic designer. He produced fonts and graphic arts for Ludwig & Mayer, a major German foundry, in the 1930s. In the 1950s, he produced the Kuenstler font for the Stempel foundry . == See also == Kuenstler Script == References == == External links == Kuenstler Font at Adobe: [1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chigorod%C3%B3	Chigorodó	Chigorodó (Spanish pronunciation: [tʃiɣoɾoˈðo]) is a town and municipality in Antioquia Department, Colombia. It is part of the Urabá Antioquia sub-region. == Transportation == It is served by the Jaime Ortiz Betancur Airport, which once had commercial air service to Medellin on ACES Colombia Airlines during the early 1990s. == Residents == Jaime Castañeda, cyclist == Climate == Chigorodó has a tropical rainforest climate (Af) with heavy to very heavy rainfall year-round. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Mutua_Madrid_Open_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_singles	2022 Mutua Madrid Open – Women's singles	Ons Jabeur defeated Jessica Pegula in the final, 7–5, 0–6, 6–2 to win the women's singles tennis title at the 2022 Madrid Open. It was her first WTA 1000 title, and she became the first Arab and African woman to win a WTA 1000 title. Aryna Sabalenka was the defending champion, but lost in the first round to Amanda Anisimova. Pegula reached the final after being a match point down against Camila Giorgi in the first round. This marked the last professional appearance of 2016 Olympic gold medalist Monica Puig; she lost to Danielle Collins in the first round. == Seeds == Click on the seed number of a player to go to their draw section. == Draw == Key === Finals === === Top half === ==== Section 1 ==== ==== Section 2 ==== === Bottom half === ==== Section 3 ==== ==== Section 4 ==== == Seeded players == The following are the seeded players based on the entry list as of 25 April 2022. Rankings and points before are as of 25 April 2022. † The player did not qualify for the tournament in 2021. Accordingly, points from her 16th best tournament will be deducted instead. === Withdrawn players === The following players would have been seeded, but withdrew before the tournament began. † The player is not required to count zero points from this mandatory tournament due to a long-term injury exemption. == Other entry information == === Wildcards === Source: === Protected ranking === Karolína Muchová === Qualifiers === === Lucky losers === === Withdrawals === == Qualifying == === Seeds === === Qualifiers === === Lucky losers === === Qualifying draw === ==== First qualifier ==== ==== Second qualifier ==== ==== Third qualifier ==== ==== Fourth qualifier ==== ==== Fifth qualifier ==== ==== Sixth qualifier ==== ==== Seventh qualifier ==== ==== Eighth qualifier ==== ==== Ninth qualifier ==== ==== Tenth qualifier ==== ==== Eleventh qualifier ==== ==== Twelfth qualifier ==== == References == == External links == Main draw Qualifying draw
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attorney_General_of_Guatemala	Attorney General of Guatemala	The attorney general of Guatemala (fiscal general de la República de Guatemala) is the chief public prosecutor and head of the Ministerio Público (Department of Justice) of Guatemala. According to article 251 of the Constitution of Guatemala, the attorney general is selected by the president from a pool of six candidates who must be lawyers and must have the same qualifications as the magistrates of the Supreme Court. They are nominated by a commission conformed by the chief justice of the Supreme Court, the deans of the law schools of the country's universities, and both the chairman of the bar association and of its honor tribunal. The attorney general has a term of four years and has the same immunity as the magistrates of the Supreme Court. The president can remove the official only due to a justified reason properly established. This reason according to article 14 of the Organic Law of the Ministerio Público is conviction of the attorney general for committing a crime during the exercise of their functions. == List of attorneys general == == See also == Justice ministry Politics of Guatemala == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_EOS_R50#:~:text=The%20Canon%20EOS%20R50%20is%20an%20entry%2Dlevel%20crop%2Dframe%20mirrorless%20interchangeable%2Dlens%20camera%20launched%20by%20Canon%20in%20April%202023.	Canon EOS R50	The Canon EOS R50 is an entry-level APS-C mirrorless interchangeable-lens camera produced by Canon. It was announced on 27 February 2023 alongside the full-frame Canon EOS R8. The camera serves as an RF-mount replacement for Canon's discontinued EOS M50 Mark II and EOS 250D. == Design == The Canon EOS R50 follows the design principles of the EOS M50 Mark II and EOS 250D compact interchangeable lens cameras, primarily their compact and lightweight construction, while incorporating the newer RF lens mount system and other features from previously released EOS R series cameras. The camera fits the internals of Canon's previously released EOS R10 into a form factor better suited for vlogging and travel. == Features == The R50 includes many features from the more expensive EOS R10, including its 24.2-megapixel APS-C CMOS sensor, DIGIC X processor, Dual Pixel CMOS AF II focus system, and 2.36-million-dot OLED electronic viewfinder, though the physical controls have been simplified to fit the R50's role as a camera for beginner photographers. Additionally, features such as a fully mechanical shutter, sensor self-cleaning, and in-body image stabilization were not included, though the R50 can utilize in-lens stabilization. The R50 includes a fully-articulating 1.62-million-dot LCD touchscreen along with its electronic viewfinder, a built-in stereo microphone and a 3.5mm audio jack for use with an external microphone, a UHS-I capable SD card slot, and built-in Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity. It is capable of burst shooting at a framerate of 12 fps with a buffer up to 42 JPEG images when using the electronic first curtain shutter and 15 fps with a buffer up to 37 images when using the electronic shutter. It is capable of shutter speeds from as fast as 1/8000 seconds to as slow as 30 seconds. When recording video, the R50 is capable of up to 4K UHD resolution oversampled from the full sensor width at up to 29.97 fps while also supporting slow motion 1080p recording at up to 120 fps. Its DIGIC X processor enables multiple modes of subject detection, up to 651 autofocus zones and 4503 autofocus points, and in-camera focus bracketing. == Reception == The EOS R50 received generally positive reviews upon its launch. Engadget awarded the R50 a score of 87/100 and found it to be "a good balance between power and affordability". Digital Photography Review gave the camera a score of 84%, noting its high-quality photo and video capture and its "impressive" autofocus system while deducting points for a lack of available RF-mount APS-C lenses. Some reviewers were more critical in their reception of the R50, chiefly due to ergonomics and controls. TechRadar gave the camera 3.5 stars and described it as "affordable, but limited" due to its lack of physical controls when compared to the EOS R10. PCMag came to a similar conclusion in its review, where it also gave the R50 3.5 stars and noted that the small size of the camera made it difficult to hold comfortably. == Variants == On 26 March 2025, Canon announced the EOS R50 V, a vlogging-focused variant of the R50. The R50 V loses the R50's built-in flash and electronic viewfinder, but gains improved video recording capabilities, improved wired and wireless connectivity, and more video-focused physical and digital controls, especially the capability to shoot in Canon Log Clog3. == See also == List of lightest mirrorless cameras Canon EOS R50 V == References == == External links == Media related to Canon EOS R50 at Wikimedia Commons Official website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore	Singapore	Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island country and city-state in Southeast Asia. Its territory comprises one main island, 63 satellite islands and islets, and one outlying islet. The country is about one degree of latitude (137 kilometres or 85 miles) north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, bordering the Strait of Malacca to the west, the Singapore Strait to the south along with the Riau Islands in Indonesia, the South China Sea to the east and the Straits of Johor along with the State of Johor in Malaysia to the north. In its early history, Singapore was a maritime emporium known as Temasek; subsequently, it was a major constituent of several successive thalassocratic empires. Its contemporary era began in 1819, when Stamford Raffles established Singapore as an entrepôt trading post of the British Empire. In 1867, Singapore came under direct British control as part of the Straits Settlements. During World War II, Singapore was occupied by Japan in 1942 and returned to Britain as a Crown colony following Japan's surrender in 1945. Singapore gained self-governance in 1959 and in 1963 became part of the new federation of Malaysia, alongside Malaya, North Borneo and Sarawak. Ideological differences led to Singapore's expulsion from the federation two years later; it became an independent sovereign country in 1965. After early years of turbulence and despite lacking natural resources and a hinterland, the nation rapidly developed to become one of the Four Asian Tigers. As a highly developed country, Singapore has the highest PPP-adjusted GDP per capita in the world and is the only country in Asia with a AAA sovereign credit rating from all major rating agencies. Identified as a tax haven, it is a major aviation, financial and maritime shipping hub and has consistently been ranked as one of the most expensive cities for expatriates and foreign workers. Singapore ranks highly in key social indicators: education, healthcare, housing, peacefulness, passport strength, personal safety and infrastructure, with a high home-ownership rate. Singaporeans enjoy one of the longest life expectancies, fastest Internet connection speeds, lowest infant mortality rates and lowest levels of corruption in the world. Singapore is organised into five regions, 55 planning areas and hundreds of subzones. It has the third highest population density of any country, although there are numerous green and recreational spaces as a result of urban planning. With a multicultural population and in recognition of the cultural identities of the country's major ethnic groups, Singapore has four official languages: English, Malay, Mandarin and Tamil. English is the common language, with exclusive use in numerous public services. Multi-racialism is enshrined in the constitution and continues to shape national policies. Singapore is a parliamentary republic and its legal system is based on common law. While it is constitutionally a multi-party democracy where free elections are regularly held, it functions as a de facto one-party state, with the People's Action Party (PAP) maintaining continuous political dominance since 1959. The PAP's longstanding control has resulted in limited political pluralism and a highly centralised governance structure over national institutions. One of the five founding members of ASEAN, Singapore is also the headquarters of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Secretariat, the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council Secretariat and is the host city of many international conferences and events. Singapore is also a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the East Asia Summit, the Non-Aligned Movement and the Commonwealth of Nations. == Name and etymology == The English name of "Singapore" is an anglicisation of the native Malay name for the country, Singapura (Malay pronunciation: [siŋapura] ), which was in turn derived from the Sanskrit word for 'lion city' (Sanskrit: सिंहपुर; romanised: Siṃhapura; Brahmi: 𑀲𑀺𑀁𑀳𑀧𑀼𑀭; literally "lion city"; siṃha means 'lion', pura means 'city' or 'fortress'). Pulau Ujong was one of the earliest references to Singapore Island, which corresponds to a Chinese account from the third century referred to a place as Pú Luó Zhōng (Chinese: 蒲羅中), a transcription of the Malay name for 'island at the end of a peninsula'. Early references to the name Temasek (or Tumasik) are found in the Nagarakretagama, a Javanese eulogy written in 1365, and a Vietnamese source from the same time period. The name possibly means Sea Town, being derived from the Malay tasek, meaning 'sea' or 'lake'. The Chinese traveller Wang Dayuan visited a place around 1330 named Danmaxi (Chinese: 淡馬錫; pinyin: Dànmǎxí; Wade–Giles: Tan Ma Hsi) or Tam ma siak, depending on pronunciation; this may be a transcription of Temasek, alternatively, it may be a combination of the Malay Tanah meaning 'land' and Chinese xi meaning 'tin', which was traded on the island. Variations of the name Siṃhapura were used for a number of cities throughout the region prior to the establishment of the Kingdom of Singapura. In Hindu–Buddhist culture, lions were associated with power and protection, which may explain the attraction of such a name. The name Singapura supplanted Temasek sometime before the 15th century, after the establishment of the Kingdom of Singapura on the island by a fleeing Sumatran Raja (prince) from Palembang. However, the precise time and reason for the name change is unknown. The semi-historical Malay Annals state that Temasek was christened Singapura by Sang Nila Utama, a 13th-century Sumatran Raja from Palembang. The Annals state that Sang Nila Utama encountered a strange beast on the island that he took to be a lion. Seeing this as an omen, he established the town of Singapura where he encountered the beast. The second hypothesis, drawn from Portuguese sources, postulates that this mythical story is based on the real life Parameswara of Palembang. Parameswara declared independence from Majapahit and mounted a Lion Throne. After then being driven into exile by the Javanese, he usurped control over Temasek. He may have rechristened the area as Singapura, recalling the throne he had been driven from. Under Japanese occupation, Singapore was renamed Syonan-to (Japanese: 昭南, Hepburn: Shōnan), meaning 'light of the south'. Singapore is sometimes referred to by the nickname the "Garden City", in reference to its parks and tree-lined streets. Another informal name, the "Little Red Dot", was adopted after an article in the Asian Wall Street Journal of 4 August 1998 said that Indonesian President B. J. Habibie referred to Singapore as a red dot on a map. == History == === Ancient Singapore === In 1299, according to the Malay Annals, the Kingdom of Singapura was founded on the island by Sang Nila Utama. Although the historicity of the accounts as given in the Malay Annals is the subject of academic debates, it is nevertheless known from various documents that Singapore in the 14th century, then known as Temasek, was a trading port under the influence of both the Majapahit Empire and the Siamese kingdoms, and was a part of the Indosphere. These Indianised kingdoms were characterised by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability. Historical sources also indicate that around the end of the 14th century, its ruler Parameswara was attacked by either the Majapahit or the Siamese, forcing him to move to Malacca where he founded the Sultanate of Malacca. Archaeological evidence suggests that the main settlement on Fort Canning Hill was abandoned around this time, although a small trading settlement continued in Singapore for some time afterwards. In 1613, Portuguese raiders burned down the settlement, and the island faded into obscurity for the next two centuries. By then, Singapore was nominally part of the Johor Sultanate. The wider maritime region and much trade was under Dutch control for the following period after the 1641 Dutch conquest of Malacca. === British colonisation === The British governor Stamford Raffles arrived in Singapore on 28 January 1819 and soon recognised the island as a natural choice for the new port. The island was then nominally ruled by Tengku Abdul Rahman, the Sultan of Johor, who was controlled by the Dutch and the Bugis. However, the Sultanate was weakened by factional division: Abdul Rahman, the Temenggong of Johor to Tengku Abdul Rahman, as well as his officials, were loyal to the Sultan's elder brother Tengku Long, who was living in exile in Penyengat Island, Riau Islands. With the Temenggong's help, Raffles managed to smuggle Tengku Long back into Singapore. Raffles offered to recognise Tengku Long as the rightful Sultan of Johor, under the title of Sultan Hussein, as well as provide him with a yearly payment of $5000 and another $3000 to the Temenggong; in return, Sultan Hussein would grant the British the right to establish a trading post on Singapore. The Treaty of Singapore was signed on 6 February 1819. In 1824, a further treaty with the Sultan led to the entire island becoming a part of the British Empire. In 1826, Singapore became part of the Straits Settlements, then under the jurisdiction of British India. Singapore became the regional capital in 1836. Prior to Raffles' arrival, there were only about a thousand people living on the island, mostly indigenous Malays along with a handful of Chinese. By 1860 the population had swelled to over 80,000, more than half being Chinese. Many of these early immigrants came to work on the pepper and gambier plantations. In 1867, the Straits Settlements were separated from British India, coming under the direct control of Britain. Later, in the 1890s, when the rubber industry became established in Malaya and Singapore, the island became a global centre for rubber sorting and export. Singapore was not greatly affected by the First World War (1914–1918), as the conflict did not spread to Southeast Asia. The only significant event during the war was the 1915 Singapore Mutiny by Muslim sepoys from British India, who were garrisoned in Singapore. After hearing rumours that they were to be sent to fight the Ottoman Empire, a Muslim state, the soldiers rebelled, killing their officers and several British civilians before the mutiny was suppressed by non-Muslim troops arriving from Johore and Burma. After World War I, the British built the large Singapore Naval Base as part of the defensive Singapore strategy. Originally announced in 1921, the construction of the base proceeded at a slow pace until the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931. Costing $60 million and not fully completed in 1938, it was nonetheless the largest dry dock in the world, the third-largest floating dock, and had enough fuel tanks to support the entire British navy for six months. The base was defended by heavy 15-inch (380 mm) naval guns stationed at Fort Siloso, Fort Canning and Labrador, as well as a Royal Air Force airfield at Tengah Air Base. Winston Churchill touted it as the "Gibraltar of the East", and military discussions often referred to the base as simply "East of Suez". However, the British Home Fleet was stationed in Europe, and the British could not afford to build a second fleet to protect their interests in Asia. The plan was for the Home Fleet to sail quickly to Singapore in the event of an emergency. As a consequence, after World War II broke out in 1939, the fleet was fully occupied with defending Britain, leaving Singapore vulnerable to Japanese invasion. === Japanese occupation === During the Pacific War, the Japanese invasion of Malaya culminated in the Battle of Singapore. When the British force of 60,000 troops surrendered on 15 February 1942, British prime minister Winston Churchill called the defeat "the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British history". British and Empire losses during the fighting for Singapore were heavy, with a total of nearly 85,000 personnel captured. About 5,000 were killed or wounded, of which Australians made up the majority. Japanese casualties during the fighting in Singapore amounted to 1,714 killed and 3,378 wounded. The occupation was to become a major turning point in the histories of several nations, including those of Japan, Britain, and Singapore. Japanese newspapers triumphantly declared the victory as deciding the general situation of the war. Between 5,000 and 25,000 ethnic Chinese people were killed in the subsequent Sook Ching massacre. British forces had planned to liberate Singapore in 1945/1946; however, the war ended before these operations could be carried out. === Post-war period === After the Japanese surrender to the Allies on 15 August 1945, Singapore fell into a brief state of violence and disorder; looting and revenge-killing were widespread. British, Australian, and Indian troops led by Lord Louis Mountbatten returned to Singapore to receive the formal surrender of Japanese forces in the region from General Seishirō Itagaki on behalf of General Hisaichi Terauchi on 12 September 1945. Meanwhile, Tomoyuki Yamashita was tried by a US military commission for war crimes, but not for crimes committed by his troops in Malaya or Singapore. He was convicted and hanged in the Philippines on 23 February 1946. Much of the infrastructure in Singapore had been destroyed during the war, including those needed to supply utilities. A shortage of food led to malnutrition, disease, and rampant crime and violence. A series of strikes in 1947 caused massive stoppages in public transport and other services. However, by late 1947 the economy began to recover, facilitated by a growing international demand for tin and rubber. The failure of Britain to successfully defend its colony against the Japanese changed its image in the eyes of Singaporeans. British Military Administration ended on 1 April 1946, and Singapore became a separate Crown Colony. In July 1947, separate Executive and Legislative Councils were established and the election of six members of the Legislative Council was scheduled for the following year. During the 1950s, Chinese communists, with strong ties to the trade unions and Chinese schools, waged a guerrilla war against the government, leading to the Malayan Emergency. The 1954 National Service riots, Hock Lee bus riots, and Chinese middle schools riots in Singapore were all linked to these events. David Marshall, pro-independence leader of the Labour Front, won Singapore's first general election in 1955. He led a delegation to London, and Britain rejected his demand for complete self-rule. He resigned and was replaced by Lim Yew Hock in 1956, and after further negotiations Britain agreed to grant Singapore full internal self-government for all matters except defence and foreign affairs on 3 June 1959. Days before, in the 30 May 1959 election, the PAP won a landslide victory under Lee Kuan Yew. Governor Sir William Allmond Codrington Goode served as the first Yang di-Pertuan Negara (Head of State). === Within Malaysia === PAP leaders believed that Singapore's future lay with Malaya, due to strong ties between the two. It was thought that reuniting with Malaya would benefit the economy by creating a common market, alleviating ongoing unemployment woes in Singapore. However, a sizeable left-wing faction of the PAP was strongly opposed to the merger, fearing a loss of influence, and hence formed the Barisan Sosialis, after being kicked out from the PAP. The ruling party of Malaya, United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), was staunchly anti-communist, and it was suspected UMNO would support the non-communist factions of PAP. UMNO, initially sceptical of the idea of a merger due to distrust of the PAP government and concern that the large ethnic Chinese population in Singapore would alter the racial balance in Malaya on which their political power base depended, became supportive of the idea of the merger due to joint fear of a communist takeover. On 27 May 1961, Malaya's prime minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman, made a surprise proposal for a new Federation called Malaysia, which would unite the current and former British possessions in the region: the Federation of Malaya, Singapore, Brunei, North Borneo, and Sarawak. UMNO leaders believed that the additional Malay population in the Bornean territories would balance Singapore's Chinese population. The British government, for its part, believed that the merger would prevent Singapore from becoming a haven for communism. To obtain a mandate for a merger, the PAP held a referendum on the merger. This referendum included a choice of different terms for a merger with Malaysia and had no option for avoiding merger altogether. On 16 September 1963, Singapore joined with Malaya, the North Borneo, and Sarawak to form the new Federation of Malaysia under the terms of the Malaysia Agreement. Under this Agreement, Singapore had a relatively high level of autonomy compared to the other states of Malaysia. Indonesia opposed the formation of Malaysia due to its own claims over Borneo and launched Konfrontasi in response to the formation of Malaysia. On 10 March 1965, a bomb planted by Indonesian saboteurs on a mezzanine floor of MacDonald House exploded, killing three people and injuring 33 others. It was the deadliest of at least 42 bomb incidents which occurred during the Konfrontasi. Two members of the Indonesian Marine Corps, Osman bin Haji Mohamed Ali and Harun bin Said, were eventually convicted and executed for the crime. The explosion caused US$250,000 (equivalent to US$2,494,456 in 2024) in damages to MacDonald House. Even after the merger, the Singaporean government and the Malaysian central government disagreed on many political and economic issues. Despite an agreement to establish a common market, Singapore continued to face restrictions when trading with the rest of Malaysia. In retaliation, Singapore did not extend to Sabah and Sarawak the full extent of the loans agreed to for economic development of the two eastern states. Talks soon broke down, and abusive speeches and writing became rife on both sides. This led to communal strife in Singapore, culminating in the 1964 race riots. On 7 August 1965, after series of secret negotiations between the Malaysian and Singaporean leaders, a separation agreement was signed, paving way for a sudden but planned independence for Singapore. On 9 August 1965, the Malaysian Parliament voted 126 to 0 to pass a constitutional amendment bill, thereby separating Singapore from Malaysia, which left Singapore as a newly independent country. === Republic of Singapore === After its expulsion from Malaysia, Singapore became independent as the "Republic of Singapore" on 9 August 1965, with Lee Kuan Yew and Yusof bin Ishak as the first prime minister and president respectively. In 1967, the country co-founded the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Race riots erupted again in 1969 as a spillover from the 13 May incident in Malaysia. On this occasion, the unrest was more firmly contained. Lee's emphasis on rapid economic growth, racial integration, promotion of business entrepreneurship and curbs on democratic freedoms by governing with extensive legal powers shaped Singapore's policies for the next half century. Economic growth continued throughout the 1980s, with the unemployment rate falling to 3% and real GDP growth averaging at about 8% up until 1999. During the 1980s, Singapore began to shift towards high-tech industries, such as the wafer fabrication sector, in order to remain competitive as neighbouring countries began manufacturing with cheaper labour. Singapore Airlines was formed in 1972 and Changi Airport was opened in 1981, replacing the international airport at Paya Lebar. Lee's government capitalised on Singapore's favourable geographical position to develop the Port of Singapore into one of the world's busiest ports, while the service and tourism industries also expanded significantly during this period. The PAP has remained in power since 1959. Often described as a de facto one-party state because of its uncommon longevity for a nominal liberal democracy, some activists and opposition politicians view the PAP government's tight regulation of political and media activities, along with its stringent laws, as an infringement on political rights. In response, the PAP introduced several significant political changes, including the creation of the Non-constituency Members of Parliament (NCMPs) scheme from the 1984 election, which allowed a limited number of the best performing losing opposition candidates to be appointed as MPs. Group representation constituencies (GRCs) were subsequently introduced in the 1988 election as multi-member electoral divisions intended to guarantee minority representation in parliament, although the opposition has accused the scheme of enabling gerrymandering. In addition, Nominated Members of Parliament (NMPs) were introduced in 1990 to allow non-elected and non-partisan representatives from diverse professional fields to serve in parliament. The constitution was amended in 1991 to provide for an elected president with veto powers over the use of past reserves and key public service appointments. The first such election was held in 1993. In 1990, Goh Chok Tong succeeded Lee and became Singapore's second prime minister, leading the PAP into the 1991 election. During Goh's tenure, the country went through the 1997 Asian financial crisis and the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak. In 2004, Lee Hsien Loong, the eldest son of Lee Kuan Yew, became the country's third prime minister. Lee Hsien Loong's tenure included the 2008 financial crisis, the resolution of a dispute over land ownership at Tanjong Pagar railway station between Singapore and Malaysia, the introduction of the two integrated resorts (IRs) located at the Marina Bay Sands and Resorts World Sentosa as well as the COVID-19 pandemic. The PAP experienced its worst electoral performance in 2011, securing only 60% of the vote. While this would be considered a landslide victory in many countries since it preserved the party's supermajority, it was regarded locally as a poor outcome, reflecting public debate over issues such as the high rates of immigration and the rising cost of living. On 23 March 2015, Lee Kuan Yew died, and a one-week period of public mourning was observed nationwide. Subsequently, the PAP regained its dominance in Parliament through the September general election, receiving 69.9% of the popular vote, although this remained lower than the 2001 tally of 75.3% and the 1968 tally of 86.7%. The 2020 election held in July saw the PAP drop to 61% of the vote, while the Workers' Party (WP) took 10 of the 93 seats, including its leader Pritam Singh becoming the first de jure leader of the opposition since independence. On 15 May 2024, Lawrence Wong became Singapore's fourth prime minister and the first born after independence. Wong's first electoral test came at the 2025 election, which saw the PAP winning 65.5% of the vote and 87 out of 97 seats in Parliament; the WP retained their 10 seats. Singapore was one of eight cities worldwide that was classified as an "Alpha+" city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) in 2024. == Government and politics == Singapore is a parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system. The Constitution of Singapore is the supreme law of the country, establishing the structure and responsibility of governance. The President is the head of state. The governance of Singapore is separated into three branches: Executive: The executive consists of the Cabinet, led by the prime minister, and the Attorney-General's chambers, led by the attorney-general. The Cabinet is collectively responsible for all government policies and the day-to-day administration of the affairs of state. It is typically composed of members of the Singapore Parliament. The prime minister is appointed by the president, and the ministers in the Cabinet and the attorney-general are appointed by the president, acting on the advice and consent of the prime minister. The prime minister is the effective head of the executive branch of government. Legislature: The Singapore Parliament is unicameral and, together with the president, comprises the legislature. Members of parliament (MP) consist of elected, non-constituency, and nominated members. The majority of MPs are elected into parliament at a general election. The Singapore Parliament is collectively responsible for enacting the laws governing the state. The president holds limited discretionary powers of oversight over the government. The president's veto powers are further subject to parliamentary overruling. Judiciary: The judiciary's function is to independently administer justice and is headed by the chief justice of the Republic of Singapore. The judges and judicial commissioners are appointed by the president on the advice of the prime minister. The Supreme Court and State Courts adjudicates in civil disputes between persons, convicts or acquits accused persons in criminal prosecutions, and interprets laws to decide on its constitutionality. Any law or provision of a law found to be unconstitutional can be struck down by the Supreme Court. The president is directly elected by popular vote for a renewable six-year term. Requirements for this position, which were enacted by the PAP government, are extremely stringent, such that only a handful of people qualify for the candidacy. These qualifications include that a candidate needs to be a person at least 45 years of age who is no longer a member of a political party, to either have held public office for at least 3 years in a number of specific public service leadership roles, or to have 3 years experience as chief executive of a fully profitable private sector company with at least S$500 million in shareholders' equity, be a resident in Singapore for at least 10 years, not have a criminal record, and more. Candidates must also "satisfy" the Presidential Elections Committee (PEC) that he or she is a person of integrity, good character and reputation. From 2017, the Constitution requires that presidential elections be "reserved" for a racial community if no one from that ethnic group has been elected to the presidency in the five most recent terms. Only members of that community may qualify as candidates in a reserved presidential election. In the 2017 presidential election, this combination of stringent requirements and a reserved election that required the candidate to be of the 13% Malay ethnic group led to the PEC approving a single candidate for the presidency; Halimah Yacob, considered part of the Malay community, won in an uncontested election. She also became Singapore's first female president. Members of Parliament (MPs) are elected at least every five years (or sooner with a snap election). The 15th and current Parliament has 108 members; 97 were directly elected from the 33 constituencies, nine are nonpartisan nominated members appointed by the president, and two are non-constituency members from opposition parties who were not elected in the last general election but appointed to the legislature to increase opposition party representation. In group representation constituencies (GRCs), political parties assemble teams of candidates to contest elections. At least one MP in a GRC must be of an ethnic minority background. All elections are held using first-past-the-post voting. MPs host weekly political surgeries, called "Meet-the-People Sessions", where they help constituents resolve personal issues which can be related to housing, financial assistance, and immigration. The PAP occupies a dominant position in Singaporean politics, having won large parliamentary majorities in every election since self-governance was granted in 1959. The PAP, self-described as pragmatic, have a syncretic ideology combining free-market principles, civil nationalism, and welfarism. Despite promulgating restrictions on civil liberties, Singapore under the PAP has seen consistent economic growth and political stability. The most represented and popular opposition party is the centre-left Workers' Party (WP), which holds 12 seats in Parliament. The long-standing hegemony of the PAP has led to Singapore being described by academics as an illiberal democracy, or a soft-authoritarian state in which the PAP faces little to no feasible political competition to its rule of the country. The multi-party democratic process of Singapore has been described as "minimal" in comparison to the state's focus on economic development and social order. According to Gordon P. Means, professor emeritus of political science at McMaster University, Singapore reinvented the "benevolent" yet "highly authoritarian" colonial system of governance inherited from Britain rather than forging a full democracy. A conservative ideology of "Asian values" evolved to replace British rule, based on "communal loyalty, distrust of government, and avoidance of individual or collective responsibility for wider public interests", with less regard for human rights in the nascent Western sense. The fact that "neither the public nor elites had experience with democracy" helped create Singapore's political culture, as dominated by status-focused hierarchies committed to economic development. The legacy of Asian values and the limited political culture within Singapore has led to the country being described as "classic illustration of soft authoritarianism", and "profoundly illiberal". The judicial system is based on English common law, continuing the legal tradition established during British rule and with substantial local differences. Criminal law is based on the Indian Penal Code originally intended for British India, and was at the time as a crown colony also adopted by the British colonial authorities in Singapore and remains the basis of the criminal code in the country with a few exceptions, amendments and repeals since it came into force. Trial by jury was abolished in 1970. Singapore is known for its strict laws and conservative stances on crime; both corporal punishment (by caning) and capital punishment (by hanging) are retained and commonly used as legal penalties. The right to freedom of speech and association is guaranteed by Article 14(1) of the Constitution of Singapore, although there are provisions in the subsequent subsection that regulate them. The government has restricted freedom of speech and freedom of the press as well as some civil and political rights. In 2023, Singapore was ranked 129th out of 180 nations by Reporters Without Borders on the global Press Freedom Index. Freedom House ranks Singapore as "partly free" in its Freedom in the World report, and the Economist Intelligence Unit ranks Singapore as a "flawed democracy", the second freest rank of four, in its "Democracy Index". All public gatherings of five or more people require police permits, and protests may legally be held only at the Speakers' Corner. In the Corruption Perceptions Index, which ranks countries by "perceived levels of public sector corruption", Singapore has consistently ranked as one of the least corrupt countries in the world, in spite of being illiberal. Singapore's unique combination of a strong, soft authoritarian government with an emphasis on meritocracy is known as the "Singapore model", and is regarded as a key factor behind Singapore's political stability, economic growth, and harmonious social order. In 2021, the World Justice Project's Rule of Law Index ranked Singapore as 17th overall among the world's 193 countries for adherence to the rule of law. Singapore ranked high on the factors of order and security (#3), absence of corruption (#3), regulatory enforcement (#4), civil justice (#8), and criminal justice (#7), and ranked significantly lower on factors of open government (#34), constraints on government powers (#32), and fundamental rights (#38). === Foreign relations === Singapore's stated foreign policy priority is maintaining security in Southeast Asia and surrounding territories. An underlying principle is political and economic stability in the region. It has diplomatic relations with more than 180 sovereign states. As one of the five founding members of ASEAN, Singapore is a strong supporter of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) and the ASEAN Investment Area (AIA); it is also the host of the APEC Secretariat. Singapore is also a founding member of The Forum of Small States (FOSS), a voluntary and informal grouping at the UN. Singapore maintains membership in other regional organisations, such as Asia–Europe Meeting, the Forum for East Asia-Latin American Cooperation, the Indian Ocean Rim Association, and the East Asia Summit. It is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the United Nations and the Commonwealth. While Singapore is not a formal member of the G20, it has been invited to participate in G20 processes in most years since 2010. Singapore is also the location of the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC) Secretariat. In general, bilateral relations with other ASEAN members are strong; however, disagreements have arisen, and relations with neighbouring Malaysia and Indonesia have sometimes been strained. Malaysia and Singapore have clashed over the delivery of fresh water to Singapore, and access by the Singapore Armed Forces to Malaysian airspace. Border issues exist with Malaysia and Indonesia, and both have banned the sale of marine sand to Singapore over disputes about Singapore's land reclamation. Some previous disputes, such as the Pedra Branca dispute, have been resolved by the International Court of Justice. Piracy in the Strait of Malacca has been a cause of concern for all three countries. Close economic ties exist with Brunei, and the two share a pegged currency value, through a Currency Interchangeability Agreement between the two countries which makes both Brunei dollar and Singapore dollar banknotes and coins legal tender in either country. The first diplomatic contact with China was made in the 1970s, with full diplomatic relations established in the 1990s. China has been Singapore's largest trading partner since 2013, after surpassing Malaysia. Singapore and the United States share a long-standing close relationship, in particular in defence, the economy, health, and education. Singapore has also increased co-operation with ASEAN members and China to strengthen regional security and fight terrorism, and participated in ASEAN's first joint maritime exercise with China in 2018. It has also given support to the US-led coalition to fight terrorism, with bilateral co-operation in counter-terrorism and counter-proliferation initiatives, and joint military exercises. As Singapore has diplomatic relations with both the United States and North Korea, and was one of the few countries that have relationships with both countries, in June 2018, it hosted a historic summit between US President Donald Trump and North Korean leader Kim Jong-un, the first-ever meeting between the sitting leaders of the two nations. It also hosted the 2015 Ma–Xi meeting, the first meeting between the political leaders of the two sides of the Taiwan Strait since the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1950. === Military === The Singaporean military, arguably the most technologically advanced in Southeast Asia, consists of the Army, the Navy, the Air Force and the Digital and Intelligence Service. It is seen as the guarantor of the country's independence, translating into Singapore culture, involving all citizens in the country's defence. The government spent 2.7% of the country's GDP on the military in 2024, the highest in the region. After its independence, Singapore had only two infantry regiments commanded by British officers. Considered too small to provide effective security for the new country, the development of its military forces became a priority. In addition, in October 1971, Britain pulled its military out of Singapore, leaving behind only a small British, Australian and New Zealand force as a token military presence. A great deal of initial support came from Israel, a country unrecognised by Singapore's neighbouring Muslim-majority nations of Malaysia and Indonesia. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) commanders were tasked by the Singapore Government to create the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) from scratch, and Israeli instructors were brought in to train Singaporean soldiers. Military courses were conducted according to the IDF's format, and Singapore adopted a system of conscription and reserve service based on the Israeli model. Singapore still maintains strong security ties with Israel and is one of the biggest buyers of Israeli arms and weapons systems, with one recent example being the MATADOR anti-tank weapon. The SAF is being developed to respond to a wide range of issues in both conventional and unconventional warfare. The Defence Science and Technology Agency (DSTA) is responsible for procuring resources for the military. The geographic restrictions of Singapore mean that the SAF must plan to fully repulse an attack, as they cannot fall back and re-group. The small size of the population has also affected the way the SAF has been designed, with a small active force and a large number of reserves. Singapore has conscription for all able-bodied males at age 18, except those with a criminal record or who can prove that their loss would bring hardship to their families. Males who have yet to complete pre-university education, are awarded the Public Service Commission (PSC) scholarship, or are pursuing a local medical degree can opt to defer their draft. Though not required to perform military service, the number of women in the SAF has been increasing: since 1989 they have been allowed to fill military vocations formerly reserved for men. Before induction into a specific branch of the armed forces, recruits undergo at least nine weeks of basic military training. Because of the scarcity of open land on the main island, training involving activities such as live firing and amphibious warfare are often carried out on smaller islands, typically barred to civilian access. However, large-scale drills, considered too dangerous to be performed in the country, have been performed in other countries such as Brunei, Indonesia, Thailand and the United States. In general, military exercises are held with foreign forces once or twice per week. Due to airspace and land constraints, the Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) maintains a number of overseas bases in Australia, the United States, and France. The RSAF's 130 Squadron is based in RAAF Base Pearce, Western Australia, and its 126 Squadron is based in the Oakey Army Aviation Centre, Queensland. The RSAF has one squadron—the 150 Squadron—based in Cazaux Air Base in southern France. The RSAF's overseas detachments in the United States are: Luke Air Force Base in Arizona, Marana in Arizona, Mountain Home Air Force Base in Idaho, and Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The SAF has sent forces to assist in operations outside the country, in areas such as Iraq, and Afghanistan, in both military and civilian roles. In the region, they have helped to stabilise East Timor and have provided aid to Aceh in Indonesia following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. Since 2009, the Republic of Singapore Navy (RSN) has deployed ships to the Gulf of Aden to aid in countering piracy efforts as part of Task Force 151. The SAF also helped in relief efforts during Hurricane Katrina, and Typhoon Haiyan. Singapore is part of the Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA), a military alliance with Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Singapore is the 5th most peaceful country in the world. === Human rights === Capital punishment is a legal and enforced penalty in Singapore. The country is one of four in the developed world to retain the death penalty, along with the United States, Japan and Taiwan. Particularly, its use against drug trafficking has been a source of contention with non-governmental organisations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch. The government has responded that it has "no doubts" that it is the right policy and that there is "clear evidence" of serious deterrence, and that the law should be looked at upon in the wider context of "saving lives", particularly citizens. In 2004, Amnesty International claimed that some legal provisions of the Singapore system for the death penalty conflict with "the right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty". The government has disputed Amnesty's claims, stating that their "position on abolition of the death penalty is by no means uncontested internationally" and that the report contains "grave errors of facts and misrepresentations". From 1938 to 2023, sexual relations between men were technically illegal under Section 377A of the Penal Code, first introduced during British colonial rule. During the last few decades, this law was mostly unenforced and pressure to repeal it increased as homosexuality became more accepted by Singaporean society. Meanwhile, sexual relations between women had always been legal. In 2022, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced that Singapore would repeal 377A, effectively decriminalising homosexual behaviour. Nevertheless, he added that the repeal will not affect the recognition of "traditional familial and societal norms," including how marriage is defined, leaving the legal status of same-sex marriage unchanged for the time, although the possibility of civil unions was not officially ruled out. Lee described this as a compromise between the conservative (and often religious) and progressive elements of Singaporean society to prevent further political fracturing. The law was officially repealed on 3 January 2023. Pink Dot SG, an event held in support of the LGBT community, has drawn thousands of people annually since 2009 with increasing attendance. According to a survey conducted by the Institute of Policy Studies in 2019, Singaporean society has become more liberal on LGBT rights. In the survey, more than 20% of people said that sexual relations between adults of the same sex were not wrong at all or not wrong most of the time, up from 10% in 2013. The survey found that 27% felt the same way about same-sex marriage (an increase from 15% in 2013) and 30% did so about same-sex couples adopting a child (an increase from 24% in 2013). In 2021, six Singaporeans protested for improved trans protections in the educational system outside the Ministry of Education headquarters at Buona Vista. Pimps often traffic women from neighbouring countries such as China, Malaysia and Vietnam at their brothels as well as rented apartments and hostels for higher profit margins when they get a cut from customers. In response, amendments were made to the Women's Charter by the government in 2019 to legislate more serious punishments for traffickers, including imprisonment of up to seven years and a fine of S$100,000. == Economy == Singapore has a highly developed market economy, based historically on extended entrepôt trade. Along with Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan, Singapore is one of the Four Asian Tigers, and has surpassed its peers in terms of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita. Between 1965 and 1995, growth rates averaged around 6 per cent per annum, transforming the living standards of the population. The Singaporean economy is regarded as free, innovative, dynamic and business-friendly. For several years, Singapore has been one of the few countries with a AAA credit rating from the big three, and the only Asian country to achieve this rating. Singapore attracts a large amount of foreign investment as a result of its location, skilled workforce, low tax rates, advanced infrastructure and zero-tolerance against corruption. It was the world's 4th most competitive economy in 2023, according to the International Institute for Management Development's World Competitiveness Ranking of 64 countries, with the highest GDP (PPP) per capita. Roughly 44 per cent of the Singaporean workforce is made up of non-Singaporeans. Despite market freedom, Singapore's government operations have a significant stake in the economy, contributing 22% of the GDP. The city is a popular location for conferences and events. The currency of Singapore is the Singapore dollar (SGD or S$), issued by the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS). It has been interchangeable with the Brunei dollar at par value since 1967. MAS manages its monetary policy by allowing the Singapore dollar exchange rate to rise or fall within an undisclosed trading band. This is different from most central banks, which use interest rates to manage policy. Singapore has the world's eleventh largest foreign reserves, and one of the highest net international investment position per capita. Singapore has been identified as a tax haven for the wealthy due to its low tax rates on personal income and tax exemptions on foreign-based income and capital gains. Individuals such as Australian millionaire retailer Brett Blundy and multi-billionaire Facebook co-founder Eduardo Saverin are two examples of wealthy individuals who have settled in Singapore. In 2009, Singapore was removed from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) "liste grise" of tax havens, and ranked fourth on the Tax Justice Network's 2015 Financial Secrecy Index of the world's off-shore financial service providers, banking one-eighth of the world's offshore capital, while "providing numerous tax avoidance and evasion opportunities". In August 2016, The Straits Times reported that Indonesia had decided to create tax havens on two islands near Singapore to bring Indonesian capital back into the tax base. In October 2016, the Monetary Authority of Singapore admonished and fined UBS and DBS and withdrew the banking licence from Falcon Private Bank for their alleged role in the Malaysian Sovereign Fund scandal. In 2016, Singapore was rated the world's most expensive city for the third consecutive year by the Economist Intelligence Unit, and this remained true in 2018. The government provides numerous assistance programmes to the homeless and needy through the Ministry of Social and Family Development, so acute poverty is rare. Some of the programmes include providing financial assistance to needy households, providing free medical care at government hospitals, and paying for children's tuition. Other benefits include compensation for gym fees to encourage citizens to exercise, up to S$166,000 as a baby bonus for each citizen, heavily subsidised healthcare, financial aid for the disabled, the provision of reduced-cost laptops for poor students, rebates for costs such as public transport and utility bills, and more. In the 2025 report, Singapore was ranked 13th in the world in the Human Development Index (HDI) with a value of 0.946, making it one of four regions in Asia to be ranked within the top 20, with the other three being Hong Kong, United Arab Emirates, and South Korea. == Geography == Singapore consists of 63 islands, including the main island, Pulau Ujong. There are two man-made connections to Johor, Malaysia: the Johor–Singapore Causeway in the north and the Tuas Second Link in the west. Jurong Island, Pulau Tekong, Pulau Ubin and Sentosa are the largest of Singapore's smaller islands. The highest natural point is Bukit Timah Hill at 163.63 m (537 ft). Under British rule, Christmas Island and the Cocos Islands were part of Singapore, and both were transferred to Australia in 1957. Pedra Branca is the nation's easternmost point. Land reclamation projects have increased Singapore's land area from 580 km2 (220 sq mi) in the 1960s to 710 km2 (270 sq mi) by 2015, an increase of some 22% (130 km2). The country is projected to reclaim another 56 km2 (20 sq mi). Some projects involve merging smaller islands through land reclamation to form larger, more functional and habitable islands, as has been done with Jurong Island. The type of sand used in reclamation is found in rivers and beaches, rather than deserts, and is in great demand worldwide. In 2010 Singapore imported almost 15 million tons of sand for its projects, the demand being such that Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam have all restricted or barred the export of sand to Singapore in recent years. As a result, in 2016 Singapore switched to using polders for reclamation, in which an area is enclosed and then pumped dry. === Nature === Singapore's urbanisation means that it has lost 95% of its historical forests, and now over half of the naturally occurring fauna and flora in Singapore is present in nature reserves, such as the Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and the Sungei Buloh Wetland Reserve, which comprise only 0.25% of Singapore's land area. In 1967, to combat this decline in natural space, the government introduced the vision of making Singapore a "garden city", aiming to improve quality of life. Since then, nearly 10% of Singapore's land has been set aside for parks and nature reserves. The government has created plans to preserve the country's remaining wildlife. Singapore's well known gardens include the Singapore Botanic Gardens, a 165-year-old tropical garden and Singapore's first UNESCO World Heritage Site. === Climate === Singapore has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen: Af) with no distinctive seasons, uniform temperature and pressure, high humidity, and abundant rainfall. Temperatures usually range from 23 to 32 °C (73 to 90 °F). While temperature does not vary greatly throughout the year, there is a wetter monsoon season from November to February. From July to October, there is often haze caused by bush fires in neighbouring Indonesia, usually from the island of Sumatra. Singapore follows the GMT+8 time zone, one hour ahead of the typical zone for its geographical location. This causes the sun to rise and set particularly late during February, where the sun rises at 7:15 am and sets around 7:20 pm. During July, the sun sets at around 7:15 pm. The earliest the sun rises and sets is in late October and early November when the sun rises at 6:46 am and sets at 6:50 pm. Singapore recognises that climate change and rising sea levels in the decades ahead will have major implications for its low-lying coastline. It estimates that the nation will need to spend $100 billion over the course of the next century to address the issue. In its 2020 budget, the government set aside an initial $5 billion towards a Coastline and Flood Protection Fund. Singapore is the first country in Southeast Asia to levy a carbon tax on its largest carbon-emitting corporations producing more than 25,000 tons of carbon dioxide per year, at $5 per ton. To reduce the country's dependence on fossil fuels, it has ramped up deployment of solar panels on rooftops and vertical surfaces of buildings, and other initiatives like building one of the world's largest floating solar farms at Tengeh Reservoir in Tuas. === Water supply === Singapore considers water a national security issue and the government has sought to emphasise conservation. Water access is universal and of high quality, though the country is projected to face significant water-stress by 2040. To circumvent this, the Public Utilities Board has implemented the "four national taps" strategy – water imported from neighbouring Malaysia, urban rainwater catchments, reclaimed water (NEWater) and seawater desalination. Singapore's approach does not rely only on physical infrastructure; it also emphasises proper legislation and enforcement, water pricing, public education as well as research and development. Singapore has declared that it will be water self-sufficient by the time its 1961 long-term water supply agreement with Malaysia expires in 2061. However, according to official forecasts, water demand in Singapore is expected to double from 1.4 to 2.8 billion litres (1.4 to 2.8 million cubic metres; 370 to 740 million US gallons) per day between 2010 and 2060. The increase is expected to come primarily from non-domestic water use, which accounted for 55% of water demand in 2010 and is expected to account for 70% of demand in 2060. By that time, water demand is expected to be met by reclaimed water at the tune of 50% and by desalination accounting for 30%, compared to only 20% supplied by internal catchments. Singapore is expanding its recycling system and intends to spend S$10 billion (US$7.4 billion) in water treatment infrastructure upgrades. The Ulu Pandan wastewater treatment was specially built to test advanced used-water treatment processes before full deployment and won the Water/Wastewater Project of the Year Award at the 2018 Global Water Awards in Paris, France. Operation started in 2017 and was jointly developed by PUB and the Black & Veatch + AECOM Joint Venture. === Virtual Singapore === Virtual Singapore is a 3D digital replica of Singapore, which is used by the Government of Singapore, Singapore Land Authority, and many more companies to plan for industrial changes. It is also used for disaster management. == Transport == === Land === Singapore's public transport network is shaped up with trains (consisting of the MRT and LRT systems), buses and taxis. There are currently six MRT lines (North–South MRT line, East–West MRT line, North East MRT line, Circle MRT line, Downtown MRT line and Thomson–East Coast MRT line), three LRT lines serving the neighbourhoods of Bukit Panjang and Choa Chu Kang (Bukit Panjang LRT line), Sengkang (Sengkang LRT line) and Punggol (Punggol LRT line), covering around 241 km (150 mi) in total, and more than 300 bus routes in operation. Taxis are a popular form of transport as the fares are relatively affordable when compared to many other developed countries, whilst cars in Singapore are the most expensive to own worldwide. Singapore has a road system covering 3,356 kilometres (2,085 mi), which includes 161 kilometres (100 mi) of expressways. The Singapore Area Licensing Scheme, implemented in 1975, became the world's first congestion pricing scheme, and included other complementary measures such as stringent car ownership quotas and improvements in mass transit. Upgraded in 1998 and renamed Electronic Road Pricing (ERP), the system introduced electronic toll collection, electronic detection, and video surveillance technology. A satellite-based system was due to replace the physical gantries by 2020, but has been delayed until 2026 due to global shortages in the supply of semiconductors. As Singapore is a small island with a high population density, the number of private cars on the road is restricted with a pre-set car population quota, to curb pollution and congestion. Car buyers must pay for Additional Registration Fees (ARF) duties of either 100%, 140%, 180% or 220% of the vehicle's Open Market Value (OMV), and bid for a Singaporean Certificate of Entitlement (COE) (that varies twice a month in supply based on the number of car registrations and de-registrations), which allows the car to be driven on the road for maximum period of 10 years. Car prices are generally significantly higher in Singapore than in other English-speaking countries. As with most Commonwealth countries, vehicles on the road and people walking on the streets keep to the left (left-hand traffic). In 2025, Singapore started actively engaging in autonomous vehicle testing. In November 2025, The Land Transport Authority (LTA) approved WeRide and Grab to test 11 autonomous vehicles on two Punggol shuttle routes after initial tests in October, and aim for public passengers by early 2026. The Johor–Singapore Causeway (connecting Singapore with Johor Bahru, Malaysia) is the busiest international land border crossing in the world, whereby approximately 350,000 travellers cross the border checkpoints of both Woodlands Checkpoint and Sultan Iskandar Building daily (with an annual total of 128 million travellers). The Land Transport Authority (LTA) is responsible for all land transport-related infrastructure and operations in Singapore. === Air === Singapore is a major international transport hub in Asia, serving some of the busiest sea and air trade routes. Changi Airport is an aviation centre for Southeast Asia and a stopover on Qantas' Kangaroo Route between Sydney and London. There are two civilian airports in Singapore, Changi Airport and Seletar Airport. Changi Airport hosts a network of over 100 airlines connecting Singapore to some 300 cities in about 70 countries and territories worldwide. It has been rated one of the best international airports by international travel magazines, including being rated as the world's best airport for the first time in 2006 by Skytrax. It also had three of the ten busiest international air routes in the world in 2023: the busiest between Kuala Lumpur–Singapore, the seventh busiest between Jakarta–Singapore, and the ninth busiest between Bangkok–Singapore. Singapore Airlines, the flag carrier of Singapore, has been regarded as a 5-star airline by Skytrax and been in the world top 10 list of airlines for multiple consecutive years. It held the title of the World's Best Airline by Skytrax in 2023. It won this title 12 times. Its hub, Changi Airport had also been rated as the world's best airport from 2013 to 2020 before being superseded by Hamad International Airport in Doha. It reclaimed this title in 2023 before being superseded once more in 2024. === Sea === The Port of Singapore, managed by port operators PSA International and Jurong Port, was the world's second-busiest port in 2019 in terms of shipping tonnage handled, at 2.85 billion gross tons (GT), and in terms of containerised traffic, at 37.2 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs). It is also the world's second-busiest, behind Shanghai, in terms of cargo tonnage with 626 million tons handled. In addition, the port is the world's busiest for transshipment traffic and the world's biggest ship refuelling centre. == Industry sectors == Singapore is the world's third-largest foreign exchange centre, sixth-largest financial centre, second-largest casino gambling market, third-largest oil-refining and trading centre, largest oil-rig producer and hub for ship repair services, and largest logistics hub. The economy is diversified, with its top contributors being financial services, manufacturing, and oil-refining. Its main exports are refined petroleum, integrated circuits, and computers, which constituted 27% of the country's GDP in 2010. Other significant sectors include electronics, chemicals, mechanical engineering, and biomedical sciences. Singapore was ranked 5th in the Global Innovation Index in 2025 In 2019, there were more than 60 semiconductor companies in Singapore, which together constituted 11% of the global market share. The semiconductor industry alone contributes around 7% of Singapore's GDP. Singapore's largest companies are in the telecommunications, banking, transportation, and manufacturing sectors, many of which started as state-run statutory corporations and have since been publicly listed on the Singapore Exchange. Such companies include Singapore Telecommunications (Singtel), Singapore Technologies Engineering, Keppel Corporation, Oversea-Chinese Banking Corporation (OCBC), Development Bank of Singapore (DBS), and United Overseas Bank (UOB). In 2011, after the 2008 financial crisis, OCBC, DBS and UOB were ranked by Bloomberg Businessweek as the world's first, fifth, and sixth strongest banks in the world, respectively. It is home to the headquarters of three Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest in the region. The nation's best known global companies include Singapore Airlines, Changi Airport, and the Port of Singapore, all of which are among the most-awarded in their respective fields. Singapore Airlines was ranked as Asia's most-admired company, and the world's 19th most-admired company in 2015 by Fortune's annual "50 most admired companies in the world" industry surveys. Other awards it has received include the US-based Travel + Leisure's Best International Airline award, which it has won for 20 consecutive years. Changi Airport connects over 100 airlines to more than 300 cities. The strategic international air hub has more than 480 World's Best Airport awards as of 2015, and is known as the most-awarded airport in the world. Over ten free-trade agreements have been signed with other countries and regions. Singapore is the second-largest foreign investor in India. It is the 14th largest exporter and the 15th largest importer in the world. === Tourism === Tourism is a major industry and contributor to the Singaporean economy, attracting 13.6 million international tourists in 2023, more than double Singapore's total population. Tourism contributed directly to about 3% of Singapore's GDP, on average, in the 10 years before 2023, excluding the COVID-19 pandemic years. Altogether, the sector generated approximately 8.6% of Singapore's employment in 2016. Well-known landmarks include the Merlion, the Esplanade, Marina Bay Sands, Gardens by the Bay, Jewel Changi Airport, CHIJMES, National Gallery Singapore, the Singapore Flyer, the Orchard Road shopping belt, the resort island of Sentosa, and the Singapore Botanic Gardens, Singapore's first UNESCO World Heritage Site, all located in southern and eastern Singapore. The Singapore Tourism Board (STB) is the statutory board under the Ministry of Trade and Industry which is tasked with the promotion of the country's tourism industry. In August 2017 the STB and the Economic Development Board (EDB) unveiled a unified brand, Singapore – Passion Made Possible, to market Singapore internationally for tourism and business purposes. The Orchard Road district, which contains multi-storey shopping centres and hotels, can be considered the centre of shopping and tourism in Singapore. Other popular tourist attractions include the Singapore Zoo, River Wonders, Bird Paradise and Night Safari (located in Northern Singapore). The Singapore Zoo has embraced the open zoo concept whereby animals are kept in enclosures, separated from visitors by hidden dry or wet moats, instead of caging the animals, and the River Wonders has 300 species of animals, including numerous endangered species. Singapore promotes itself as a medical tourism hub, with about 200,000 foreigners seeking medical care there each year. Singapore medical services aim to serve at least one million foreign patients annually and generate US$3 billion in revenue. == Demographics == As of mid-2025, Singapore's total population stood at 6,110,200, of whom 3,660,200 (59.9%) were citizens and the remaining 2,450,000 (40.1%) were either permanent residents (543,800, 8.9%) or international students, foreign workers, or dependants (1,906,700, 31.2%). The 2020 census reported that about 74.3% of residents were of Chinese descent, 13.5% of Malay descent, 9.0% of Indian descent, and 3.2% of other descent (such as Eurasian); this proportion was virtually identical to the 2010 census, with slight increases among Chinese and Malay (0.2% and 0.1% respectively) and minor decreases in Indian and others (0.2% and 0.1%). Prior to 2010, each person could register as a member of only one race, by default that of his or her father; therefore, mixed-race persons were solely grouped under their father's race in government censuses. From 2010 onward, people may register using a multi-racial classification, in which they may choose one primary race and one secondary race, but no more than two. Like other developed countries in Asia, Singapore experienced a rapid decline in its total fertility rate (TFR) beginning in the 1980s. Since 2010, its TFR has largely plateaued at 1.1 children per woman, which is among the lowest in the world and well below the 2.1 needed to replace the population. Consequently, the median age of Singaporean residents is among the highest in the world, at 42.8 in 2022 compared to 39.6 ten years earlier. Starting in 2001, the government introduced a series of programmes to increase fertility, including paid maternity leave, childcare subsidies, tax relief and rebates, one-time cash gifts, and grants for companies that implement flexible work arrangements; nevertheless, live births have continued to decline, hitting a record low in 2022. Singapore's immigration policy is designed to alleviate the decline and maintain its working-age population. 91% of resident households (i.e. households headed by a Singapore citizen or permanent resident) own the homes they live in, and the average household size is 3.43 persons (which include dependants who are neither citizens nor permanent residents). However, due to scarcity of land, 78.7% of resident households live in subsidised, high-rise, public housing apartments developed by the Housing and Development Board (HDB). Also, 75.9% of resident households live in properties that are equal to, or larger than, a four-room (i.e. three bedrooms plus one living room) HDB flat or in private housing. Live-in foreign domestic workers are quite common in Singapore, with about 224,500 foreign domestic workers there, as of December 2013. === Religion === Most major religious denominations are present in Singapore, with the Inter-Religious Organisation, Singapore (IRO) recognising 10 major religions in the city state. A 2014 analysis by the Pew Research Center found Singapore to be the world's most religiously diverse nation, with no single religion claiming a majority. Buddhism is the most widely practised religion, with 31% of residents declaring themselves adherents in the 2020 census. Christianity was the second largest religion at 18.9%, followed by Islam (15.6%), Taoism and Chinese Traditional Beliefs (8.8%) and Hinduism (5.0%). One-fifth of the population had no religious affiliation. The proportion of Christians, Muslims, and the nonreligious slightly increased between 2010 and 2020, while the proportion of Buddhists and Taoists slightly decreased; Hinduism and other faiths remained largely stable in their share of the population. Singapore hosts monasteries and Dharma centres from all three major traditions of Buddhism: Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Most Buddhists in Singapore are Chinese and adhere to the Mahayana tradition, owing to decades of missionary activity from China. However, Thailand's Theravada Buddhism has seen growing popularity among the populace (not only the Chinese) during the past decade. Soka Gakkai International, a Japanese Buddhist organisation, is practised by many people in Singapore, and mostly by those of Chinese descent. Tibetan Buddhism has also made slow inroads into the country in recent years. === Languages === Singapore has four official languages: English, Malay, Mandarin, and Tamil. English is the lingua franca and the main language used in business, government, law and education. The Constitution of Singapore and all government legislation is written in English, and interpreters are required if a language other than English is used in the Singaporean courts. Statutory corporations conduct their businesses in English, while any official documents written in a non-English official language such as Malay, Mandarin, or Tamil are typically translated into English to be accepted for use. Malay was designated as a national language by the Singaporean government after independence from Britain in the 1960s to avoid friction with Singapore's Malay-speaking neighbours of Malaysia and Indonesia. It has a symbolic, rather than functional purpose. It is used in the national anthem Majulah Singapura, in citations of Singaporean orders and decorations and in military commands. Singaporean Malay is officially written in the Latin-based Rumi script, though some Singaporean Malays also learn the Arabic-based Jawi script. Jawi is considered an ethnic script for use on Singaporean identity cards. Singaporeans are mostly bilingual, typically with English as their common language and their mother-tongue as a second language taught in schools, in order to preserve each individual's ethnic identity and values. According to the 2020 census, English was the language most spoken at home, used by 48.3% of the population; Mandarin was next, spoken at home by 29.9%. Nearly half a million speak other ancestral Southern varieties of Chinese, mainly Hokkien, Teochew, and Cantonese, as their home language, although the use of these is declining in favour of Mandarin or just English. Singapore Chinese characters are written using simplified Chinese characters. Singaporean English is largely based on British English, owing to the country's status as a former crown colony. However, forms of English spoken in Singapore range from Standard Singapore English to a colloquial form known as Singlish, which is discouraged by the government as it claims it to be a substandard English creole that handicaps Singaporeans, presenting an obstacle to learning standard English and rendering the speaker incomprehensible to everyone except to another Singlish speaker. Standard Singapore English is fully understandable to all Standard English speakers, while most English-speaking people do not understand Singlish. Nevertheless, Singaporeans have a strong sense of identity and connection to Singlish, whereby the existence of Singlish is recognised as a distinctive cultural marker for many Singaporeans. As such, in recent times, the government has tolerated the diglossia of both Singlish and Standard English (only for those who are fluent in both), whilst continuously reinforcing the importance of Standard English amongst those who speak only Singlish (which is not mutually intelligible with the Standard English of other English-speaking countries). == Education == Education for primary, secondary, and tertiary levels is mostly supported by the state. All institutions, public and private, must be registered with the Ministry of Education (MOE). English is the language of instruction in all public schools, and all subjects are taught and examined in English except for the "mother tongue" language paper. While the term "mother tongue" in general refers to the first language internationally, in Singapore's education system, it is used to refer to the second language, as English is the first language. Students who have been abroad for a while, or who struggle with their "Mother Tongue" language, are allowed to take a simpler syllabus or drop the subject. Education takes place in three stages: primary, secondary, and pre-university education, with the primary education being compulsory. Students begin with six years of primary school, which is made up of a four-year foundation course and a two-year orientation stage. The curriculum is focused on the development of English, the mother tongue, mathematics, and science. Secondary school lasts from four to five years, and is divided between Express, Normal (Academic), and Normal (Technical) streams in each school, depending on a student's ability level. The basic coursework breakdown is the same as in the primary level, although classes are much more specialised. Pre-university education takes place at either the 21 Junior Colleges or the Millennia Institute, over a period of two and three years respectively. As alternatives to pre-university education, however, courses are offered in other post-secondary education institutions, including the 5 polytechnics and 3 ITE colleges. Singapore has six public universities, of which the National University of Singapore and Nanyang Technological University are among the top 20 universities in the world. National examinations are standardised across all schools, with a test taken after each stage. After the first six years of education, students take the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE), which determines their placement at secondary school. At the end of the secondary stage, O-Level or N-Level exams are taken; at the end of the following pre-university stage, the GCE A-Level exams are taken. Some schools have a degree of freedom in their curriculum and are known as autonomous schools, for secondary education level and above. Singapore is also an education hub, with more than 80,000 international students in 2006. 5,000 Malaysian students cross the Johor–Singapore Causeway daily to attend schools in Singapore. In 2009, 20% of all students in Singaporean universities were international students—the maximum cap allowed, a majority from ASEAN, China and India. Singapore students have excelled in many of the world education benchmarks in maths, science and reading. In 2015, both its primary and secondary students rank first in OECD's global school performance rankings across 76 countries—described as the most comprehensive map of education standards. In 2016, Singapore students topped both the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). In the 2016 EF English Proficiency Index taken in 72 countries, Singapore placed 6th and has been the only Asian country in the top 10. == Healthcare == Singapore has a generally efficient healthcare system, having achieved high quality of care while also keeping expenditures low. The World Health Organisation ranks Singapore's healthcare system as 6th overall in the world in its World Health Report. Singapore has had the lowest infant mortality rates in the world for the past two decades. In 2019, Singaporeans had the longest life expectancy of any country at 84.8 years. Women can expect to live an average of 87.6 years with 75.8 years in good health. The averages are lower for men. Singapore is ranked 1st on the Global Food Security Index. As of December 2011 and January 2013, 8,800 foreigners and 5,400 Singaporeans were respectively diagnosed with HIV, but there are fewer than 10 annual deaths from HIV per 100,000 people. Adult obesity is below 10%. There is a high level of immunisation. In 2013, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked Singapore as having the best quality of life in Asia and sixth overall in the world. The government's healthcare system is based upon the "3M" framework. This has three components: Medifund, which provides a safety net for those not able to otherwise afford healthcare; Medisave, a compulsory national medical savings account system covering about 85% of the population; and Medishield, a government-funded health insurance programme. Public hospitals in Singapore have considerable autonomy in their management decisions, and notionally compete for patients, but remain in government ownership. A subsidy scheme exists for those on low income. In 2008, 32% of healthcare was funded by the government. Healthcare accounts for approximately 3.5% of Singapore's GDP. == Culture == Despite its small size, Singapore has a diversity of languages, religions, and cultures. Former prime ministers of Singapore, Lee Kuan Yew and Goh Chok Tong, have stated that Singapore does not fit the traditional description of a nation, calling it a society-in-transition, pointing out the fact that Singaporeans do not all speak the same language, share the same religion, or have the same customs. Singaporeans who speak English as their native language would likely lean toward Western culture (along with either Christian culture or secularism), while those who speak Chinese as their native language mostly lean toward Chinese culture, which has linkages with Chinese folk religion, Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism. Malay-speaking Singaporeans mostly lean toward Malay culture, which itself is closely linked to Islamic culture. Tamil-speaking Singaporeans mostly lean toward Tamil culture, which itself is mostly linked to Hindu culture. Racial and religious harmony is regarded as a crucial part of Singapore's success, and played a part in building a Singaporean identity. When Singapore became independent from the United Kingdom in 1963, most Singaporean citizens were transient migrant labourers who had no intention of staying permanently. There was also a sizeable minority of middle-class, locally born people—known as Peranakans or Baba-Nyonya-descendants of 15th- and 16th-century Chinese immigrants. With the exception of the Peranakans who pledged their loyalties to Singapore, most of the labourers' loyalties lay with their respective homelands of Malaya, China and India. After independence, the government began a deliberate process of crafting a uniquely Singaporean identity and culture. Singapore has a reputation as a nanny state. The government also places a heavy emphasis on meritocracy, where one is judged based on one's ability. The national flower of Singapore is the hybrid orchid, Vanda Miss Joaquim, named in memory of a Singapore-born Armenian woman, who crossbred the flower in her garden at Tanjong Pagar in 1893. Singapore is known as the Lion City and many national symbols such as the coat of arms and the lion head symbol make use of a lion. Major religious festivals are public holidays. UNESCO recognises Singapore as a "Design City." === Arts === During the 1990s the National Arts Council was created to spearhead the development of performing arts, along with visual and literary art forms. The National Gallery Singapore is the nation's flagship museum with some 8,000 works from Singaporean and other Southeast Asian artists. The Singapore Art Museum focuses on contemporary art from a Southeast Asian perspective. The Red Dot Design Museum celebrates exceptional art and design of objects for everyday life, hosting more than 1,000 items from 50 countries. The lotus-shaped ArtScience Museum hosts touring exhibitions that combine art with the sciences. Other major museums include the Asian Civilisations Museum, the Peranakan Museum, and The Arts House. The Esplanade is Singapore's largest performing arts centre. In 2016 alone, it was the site of 5,900 free art and culture events. Literature of Singapore, or "SingLit", consists of a collection of literary works by Singaporeans written chiefly in the country's four official languages: English, Malay, Mandarin, and Tamil. Singapore is increasingly regarded as having four sub-literatures instead of one. Many significant works have been translated and showcased in publications such as the literary journal Singa, published in the 1980s and 1990s with editors including Edwin Thumboo and Koh Buck Song, as well as in multilingual anthologies such as Rhythms: A Singaporean Millennial Anthology Of Poetry (2000), in which the poems were all translated three times each. A number of Singaporean writers such as Tan Swie Hian and Kuo Pao Kun have contributed work in more than one language. Singapore has a diverse music culture that ranges from pop and rock, to folk and classical. Western classical music plays a significant role in the cultural life in Singapore, with the Singapore Symphony Orchestra (SSO) instituted in 1979. Other notable western orchestras in Singapore include Singapore National Youth Orchestra and the community-based Braddell Heights Symphony Orchestra. Many orchestras and ensembles are also found in secondary schools and junior colleges. Various communities have their own distinct ethnic musical traditions: Chinese, Malays, Indians, and Eurasians. With their traditional forms of music and various modern musical styles, the fusion of different forms account for the musical diversity in the country. The nation's lively urban musical scene has made it a centre for international performances and festivals in the region. Some of Singapore's best known pop singers include Stefanie Sun, JJ Lin, Liang Wern Fook, Taufik Batisah and Dick Lee, who is famous for composing National Day theme songs, including Home. === Cuisine === Singapore's diversity of cuisine is touted as a reason to visit the country, due to its combination of convenience, variety, quality, and price. Local food items generally relate to a particular ethnicity – Chinese, Malay and Indian; but the diversity of cuisine has increased further by the hybridisation of different styles (e.g., the Peranakan cuisine, a mix of Chinese and Malay cuisine). In hawker centres, cultural diffusion is exemplified by traditionally Malay hawker stalls also selling Tamil food. Hainanese chicken rice, based on the Hainanese dish Wenchang chicken, is considered Singapore's national dish. The city-state has a burgeoning food scene ranging from hawker centres (open-air), food courts (air-conditioned), coffee shops (open-air with up to a dozen hawker stalls), cafes, fast food, simple kitchens, casual, celebrity and high-end restaurants. Cloud kitchens and food delivery are also on the rise, with 70% of residents ordering from delivery apps at least once a month. Many international celebrity chef restaurants are located within the integrated resorts. Religious dietary strictures exist (Muslims do not eat pork and Hindus do not eat beef), and there is also a significant group of vegetarians. The Singapore Food Festival which celebrates Singapore's cuisine is held annually in July. Prior to the 1980s, street food was sold mainly by immigrants from China, India, and Malaysia to other immigrants seeking a familiar taste. In Singapore, street food has long been associated with hawker centres with communal seating areas. Typically, these centres have a few dozen to hundreds of food stalls, with each specialising in one or more related dishes. While street food can be found in many countries, the variety and reach of centralised hawker centres that serve heritage street food in Singapore is unique. In 2018, there were 114 hawker centres spread across the city centre and heartland housing estates. They are maintained by the National Environment Agency, which also grades each food stall for hygiene. The largest hawker centre is located on the second floor of Chinatown Complex, and contains over 200 stalls. The complex is also home to the cheapest Michelin-starred meal in the world – a plate of soya-sauce chicken rice or noodles for S$2 (US$1.50). Two street food stalls in the city are the first in the world to be awarded a Michelin star, obtaining a single star each. === Sport and recreation === In 1948, Lloyd Valberg participated in the 1948 Summer Olympics in London, which made him the first Singaporean to participate in the Olympic Games. The development of private sports and recreation clubs began in the 19th century colonial Singapore, with clubs founded during this time including the Cricket Club, the Singapore Recreation Club, the Singapore Swimming Club, and the Hollandse Club. Weightlifter Tan Howe Liang was Singapore's first Olympic medalist, winning a silver at the 1960 Rome Games. Singapore hosted the inaugural 2010 Summer Youth Olympics, in which 3,600 athletes from 204 nations competed in 26 sports. Indoor and water sports are some of the most popular sports in Singapore. At the 2016 Rio Olympics, Joseph Schooling won Singapore's first Olympic gold medal, claiming the 100-metre butterfly in a new Olympic record time of 50.39 seconds. Singapore sailors have had success on the international stage, with their Optimist team being considered among the best in the world. Despite its size, the country has dominated swim meets in the Southeast Asia Games. Its men's water polo team won the SEA Games gold medal for the 27th time in 2017, continuing Singapore sport's longest winning streak. At the 2024 Paris Olympics, Max Maeder won Singapore's first Olympic medal in sailing, achieving bronze at the Men's Formula Kite on National Day. At 17, he was also Singapore's youngest Olympic medalist. Singapore's women's table tennis team were silver medalists at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. They became world champions in 2010 when they beat China at the World Team Table Tennis Championships in Russia, breaking China's 19-year winning streak. In 2021, Singapore's Loh Kean Yew achieved a "World Champion" status when he won a badminton gold at the 2021 BWF World Championships men's singles, which is one of the most prestigious badminton tournaments alongside the Summer Olympics badminton tournaments. Singapore's football league, the Singapore Premier League, was launched in 1996 as the S.League and comprises eight clubs, including one foreign team. The Singapore Slingers is one of the inaugural teams in the ASEAN Basketball League, which was founded in October 2009. Kranji Racecourse is run by the Singapore Turf Club and hosts several meetings per week, including international races—notably the Singapore Airlines International Cup. Singapore began hosting a round of the Formula One World Championship, the Singapore Grand Prix at the Marina Bay Street Circuit in 2008. It was the inaugural F1 night race, and the first F1 street race in Asia. It is considered a signature event on the F1 calendar. ONE Championship was founded in Singapore, a major Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) promotion in Asia. === Media === Companies linked to the government control much of the domestic media in Singapore. MediaCorp operates most free-to-air television channels and free-to-air radio stations in Singapore. There are a total of six free-to-air TV channels offered by MediaCorp. StarHub TV and Singtel TV also offer IPTV with channels from all around the world. SPH Media Trust, a body with close links to the government, controls most of the newspaper industry in Singapore. Singapore's media industry has sometimes been criticised for being overly regulated and lacking in freedom by human rights groups such as Freedom House. Self-censorship among journalists is said to be common. In 2023, Singapore was ranked 129 on the Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders, up from 139 the previous year. The Media Development Authority regulates Singaporean media, claiming to balance the demand for choice and protection against offensive and harmful material. Private ownership of TV satellite dishes is banned. Internet in Singapore is provided by state-owned Singtel, partially state-owned Starhub and M1 Limited as well as some other business internet service providers (ISPs) that offer residential service plans of speeds up to 2 Gbit/s as of spring 2015. Equinix (332 participants) and the Singapore Internet Exchange (70 participants) are Internet exchange points where Internet service providers and Content delivery networks exchange Internet traffic between their networks (autonomous systems) in various locations in Singapore. In the mid-1980s to 1990s, Singaporeans could also use the locally based videotext service Singapore Teleview to communicate with one another. The phrase Intelligent Island arose in the 1990s in reference to the island nation's early adaptive relationship with the internet. In 2016, there were an estimated 4.7 million internet users in Singapore, representing 82.5% of the population. The Singapore government does not engage in widespread censoring of the internet, but it maintains a list of one hundred websites—mostly pornographic—that it blocks from home internet access as a "symbolic statement of the Singaporean community's stand on harmful and undesirable content on the Internet". Singapore has the world's highest smartphone penetration rates, in surveys by Deloitte and the Google Consumer Barometer—at 89% and 85% of the population respectively in 2014. The overall mobile phone penetration rate is at 148 mobile phone subscribers per 100 people. == See also == Foreign relations of Singapore Outline of Singapore == Notes == == References == === Citations === Attribution == Works cited == Bose, Romen (2010). The End of the War: Singapore's Liberation and the Aftermath of the Second World War. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-981-261-066-9. Legg, Frank (1965). The Gordon Bennett Story: From Gallipoli to Singapore. Sydney, New South Wales: Angus & Robertson. OCLC 3193299. Miksic, John N. (2013). Singapore & the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800. Singapore: NUS Press. ISBN 978-9971-69-558-3. Smith, Colin (2006). Singapore Burning: Heroism and Surrender in World War II. Penguin military history. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-101036-6. Toland, John (1970). The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire, 1936–1945. New York, NY: Random House. LCCN 77-117669. OL 25646706M. Wigmore, Lionel (1957). The Japanese Thrust. Canberra: Australian War Memorial. == Further reading == == External links == Wikimedia Atlas of Singapore Official website Singapore Government Portal Geographic data related to Singapore at OpenStreetMap Singapore Department of Statistics "Key Facts & Figures". Ministry of Transport, Singapore. Retrieved 11 January 2003. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of Singapore WikiSatellite view of Singapore at WikiMapia "About Us" from Singapore's National Library Board; numerous well-researched and well-documented essays on key events and important figures, as well as topics regarding culture, architecture, nature, etc. Singapore profile from the BBC News
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Hyderabad_gang_rape_and_murder	2019 Hyderabad gang rape and murder	2019 Hyderabad gang rape and murder of a 26-year-old veterinary doctor in Shamshabad, near Hyderabad, sparked outrage across India. Her body was found in Shadnagar on 28 November 2019, the day after she was murdered. Four suspects were arrested and according to the Cyberabad Metropolitan Police, confessed to having raped and killed the doctor. The Telangana Police Department stated the victim parked her scooter near a toll plaza, catching the attention of two lorry drivers and their assistants. According to police, they deflated her tire, pretended to help her and pushed her into nearby bushes, where they raped and smothered her. Allegedly, they loaded her corpse onto a lorry and dropped it by the roadside. The police arrested four men based on the evidence gathered from CCTV cameras and the victim's mobile phone. The accused were taken into judicial custody at Cherlapally Central Jail for seven days. The Chief Minister of Telangana ordered the formation of a fast-track court to try the accused for their alleged crimes. The rape and murder elicited outrage in several parts of the country. Protests and public demonstration against rape were organised nationwide after the incident, with the public demanding stricter laws against rape and rapists. The Minister of Home Affairs criticised the Telangana Police and stated that the government intended to amend the Indian Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure to introduce laws for quicker punishment by fast-track courts. All four accused were killed on 6 December 2019, under a bridge on the Bengaluru-Hyderabad national highway, while they were in police custody. According to the police, the suspects were taken to the location for a reconstruction of the crime scene, where two of them allegedly snatched guns from the policemen escorting them and attacked the police. In the ensuing shootout, all four suspects were shot dead. Some accused the police of extrajudicial execution, while hundreds of thousands of people celebrated the men's deaths. The first post-mortem of the four accused who were killed in the encounter was conducted on the same day at a government hospital in Mahbubnagar from where the bodies were subsequently moved to the Gandhi Hospital. The Telangana High Court on 21 December ordered the re-postmortem of the four accused. The second autopsy was done by a team of forensic experts of AIIMS Delhi at a hospital in Hyderabad. After re-postmortem, the bodies were handed over to the next of kin after due identification process was done. In 2022, an Inquiry Commission appointed by the Supreme Court of India concluded in its report that the custodial killing had occurred in a staged encounter, and the matter was transferred to the Telangana High Court for further action. == Background == Rape is the fourth most common crime against women in India. India has been characterised as one of the "countries with the lowest per capita rates of rape". Many rapes go unreported in various countries including India. The willingness to report rape has increased in recent years, after several incidents of rape received widespread media attention and triggered public protest. Most notably, the 2012 Delhi gang rape and murder led the Government of India to reform its penal code for crimes of rape and sexual assault. == Victim == The victim had pursued a degree in a veterinary college in Rajendranagar mandal. She was a resident of Shamshabad and was working as a veterinary assistant surgeon at the state-run hospital at Kollur village. As Indian laws do not permit the use of victim's real name in such cases; pseudonyms were being used by various media houses and police officials including "Disha" and "Hyderabad Nirbhaya" which was in reference to the 2012 Delhi Gang rape and murder case. The local police convinced the victim's family to allow the use of a fictional name, Disha, in place of the victim's true name in media reporting. They also suggested using the hashtag #JusticeForDisha for social media posts instead of using the real name. Indian laws prohibit naming rape victims, and violations are subject to legal penalties. On 3 December, a man from Nizamabad district was arrested by the Cyberabad Police, after a cyber crime case was filed against him, for posting pictures and spreading derogatory posts about the victim. == Rape and murder == According to the Telangana Police Department remand report, the victim had parked her scooter near Tondupally toll plaza, where the accused ones saw her, two lorry drivers and their assistants, who had been drinking whiskey before allegedly planning the crime. According to the remand report, on 27 November 2019 at around 6:15 p.m., after parking the scooter, the victim took a taxi to a dermatologist's office in Hyderabad. The suspects allegedly deflated her scooter's tire in her absence. After returning at around 9:15 p.m., she noticed the flat tyre and made a call to her sister. The accused told police they offered to help her, then ambushed her. Three of the suspects pushed her into bushes near the toll gate and turned off her phone. She continued screaming for help, so the men poured whiskey into her mouth in an attempt to silence her. The four men removed her clothes and took turns sexually assaulting her until she started bleeding and lost consciousness. When she regained consciousness, they smothered her, wrapped the corpse in a blanket, transported it in their truck 27 km to a location near the Shadnagar interchange on the Hyderabad Outer Ring road, and at approximately 2:30 a.m. burnt it under a bridge using diesel and petrol purchased for the purpose. == Investigation == The police arrested the four accused based on the evidence gathered from CCTV cameras, an eyewitness, and the victim's mobile phone. It was reported that they were drunk during the rape and murder. The woman's charred corpse was found under Chatanpally Bridge in Shadnagar located 30 km (19 mi) from the toll booth where she was abducted. Her scooter was found at a distance of 10 km (6.2 mi) from the place where her body was found. The police found her clothes, handbag, footwear and a liquor bottle near the toll booth. 70% of the body was covered with burns. A locket of Ganesha found on the charred corpse helped her family to identify the victim. The body was handed over to the family after a postmortem. The executive magistrate sent the four accused into custody for 14 days to Cherlapally Central Jail. On 1 December 2019, Telangana Chief Minister ordered that a fast-track court be formed to try the accused of this crime. == Aftermath == Although the case was solved by the police in twenty-four hours, the family was dissatisfied. According to the victim's family, the response by the Hyberabad Police was improper, claiming that a quicker response by the police could have saved the victim's life. The victim's father had approached the police at 11 p.m. on 27 November, after which the police allegedly wasted time over the applicability of the jurisdiction of the police station and inappropriate questioning of the family. Constables were only sent for a search along with the family at 3 a.m. to Thondupally toll plaza and could not find the victim. The day after the incident the local police suspended three policemen, including a sub-inspector, belonging to the Shamshabad airport police station for negligence and the delay in registering a missing person case. === Second corpse === The half-burnt corpse of another woman was found nearby, and the case is under investigation as of 1 December 2019. The police stated that it was not clear if it was a case of self-immolation or if she was set on fire. Police have not confirmed a link between the second corpse and the veterinarian's murder. === Protests === The rape and murder caused outrage in several parts of the country. Protests against rape were organised across the country, including major cities like New Delhi, Mumbai, and Ahmedabad. Hyderabad was the center of the protests. Politicians including Rahul Gandhi expressed shock over the incident that happened near Rajiv Gandhi International Airport. Protesters across India demanded stricter laws against rapists. After the arrest of the four suspects, a crowd of local residents gathered at the Shadnagar police station to protest against the crime and demanding that the police either hang or shoot the culprits. Due to the crowd of protestors around the police station, the accused could not be brought to court. Instead, the executive magistrate arrived to the police station and passed the order to send the accused on judicial custody for 14 days. While the police were transporting the accused from the Shadnagar police station to the prison in Hyderabad, several protestors threw stones over police vehicles. Police used force and wielded batons to control the crowd, who were demanding the police hand over the accused to them. The public sentiment was against the police. The protestors questioned the priorities of the police and demanded that police act in a sensitive, responsive and proactive manner. === Discussion in Parliament === On 2 December 2019, the incident was discussed in both houses of the Indian parliament, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. The members of the two houses expressed outrage on the incident and demanded concrete action. In the Lok Sabha, the Union Defense Minister Rajnath Singh stated that the government was "open to every suggestion to curb such heinous crimes" and ready to explore strongest legal provisions. Minister of State for Home Affairs G. Kishan Reddy said, "There is zero tolerance towards crimes against women and children. Our government will soon bring requisite amendments to CrPC and IPC." He further added that the government will possibly try to bring the changes in the ongoing winter session of Parliament. In Rajya Sabha, an adjournment motions over the incident was rejected by Chairman Venkaiah Naidu, but he allowed the members to discuss such incidents in the country. Member of Parliament Jaya Bachchan said during a heated debate that the rapists should be lynched. P. Wilson suggested courts be empowered "to surgically and chemically castrate convicted rapists before they are released from jails" to prevent repeat offenders. He stated that the list of sexual offenders should be released publicly. Vijila Sathyananth asked for faster delivery of justice and the hanging of the accused before 31 December. A speedy trial and death penalty for the accused was common demand of the members. Mohd. Ali Khan asked for defined timelines for the trial in fast-track courts. He also asked to avoid giving a religious color to the accused since they belonged to different religions. The Communist Party of India which generally opposes capital punishment demanded it for the accused, and its member Binoy Viswam stated "I do not believe in death penalty, but these accused should be hanged for such a heinous crime". === Proposed legal changes === In an interview to NDTV while visiting the family of the victim, Union Minister of State for Home G. Kishan Reddy criticised the casual attitude of Telangana Police and their lack of a sense of urgency, saying it might have saved the victim. He stated "No one can be turned away from the police station like that. We will make it compulsory for every police station to accept a complaint. The FIR can be filed later; first they should have helped to search [for] the girl". He added "We take a very serious view of the developments. We intend to amend the IPC (Indian Penal Code) and CrPC (Code of Criminal Procedure) to make the law such that punishment is quick through fast-track courts. We will discuss this in great detail in a meeting of DGPs (senior police officers) between December 6 and 8. We want to publicise 112 as an emergency response system. Every woman must download the app to use in emergency. At the same time, the police and law enforcement authorities, her family, even some volunteers will be alerted, so response can be quick. We have recently introduced it in Delhi and want to publicise it everywhere." The Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D) has made additional suggestions for changes to IPC and CrPC rules. == Killing of the suspects == All four accused were killed in an encounter (a term used in India for killings by police), at around 3:30 am IST on 6 December 2019, under a bridge on Bangalore Hyderabad national highway, prompting accusations of extrajudicial execution. The New York Times reported that police "had been under enormous pressure to bring the rapists to justice". According to Prakash Reddy, Deputy Commissioner of Shamshabad Police in Hyderabad, the four suspects were taken to the location for a reconstruction of the crime scene, where two of them snatched guns and attacked the police. In the ensuing shootout all four suspects were shot dead. According to reports in The Indian Express, police alleged that one of four accused had gestured to the other three to flee after attacking the police. The four tried to run towards a deserted pathway when police opened fire in what they described as self-defence. The suspects were not wearing handcuffs. According to Hyberabad police chief V. C. Sajjanar, the suspects had managed to snatch and use the weapons because the guns were unlocked. He stated "All four accused got together and started attacking the police party. Officers maintained restraint and asked them to surrender but without listening to us they kept firing. Our officers retaliated". === Response === The family of the victim welcomed the encounter. Thousands of people celebrated at the scene of the men's deaths the following day, some setting off firecrackers, distributing candies, showering police with flower petals, hoisting police to their shoulders, and shouting "hail the police!". The New York Times reported that crowds celebrating in the streets had brought traffic to a standstill. Celebrations were also reported in other areas. Politicians and celebrities thanked police for the encounter on social media. The BBC attributed the celebrations to frustration with the "meandering pace" of the judicial system in India, which often requires years and occasionally decades to adjudicate clear cases. The BBC noted the popularity of films featuring "trigger-happy, vigilante cops brazenly carrying out extrajudicial executions" and the number of tweets comparing the Cyberabad police officers with the protagonist of Singam, a 2010 film about an avenging police officer. The families of the accused were shocked with the news and questioned the killings. Human rights organizations and activists condemned the encounter. Maneka Gandhi stated that the case should have been tried in court. Karuna Nundy expressed concerns that "now nobody will ever know if the four men killed by the police were innocent men, arrested fast to show action. And whether four of the most brutal rapists roam free, to rape and kill more women." Amnesty International India stated that the "alleged extrajudicial execution" had raised disturbing questions and asked for an independent investigation. Other human rights organizations called the encounter a distraction from the government's failures to safeguard women's rights. Meenakshi Ganguly of Human Rights Watch tweeted, "To appease public rage over state failures against sexual assault, Indian authorities commit another violation." Activist Rukmini Rao criticized some members of parliament for adding to the pressure on police, telling News Today "The police are acting on what they see as public support. And today we find not just public support, ordinary citizens, but we are finding members of parliament demanding lynchings, demanding killings, and if that is the case, how do you expect the police to act? The parliament has to uphold constitutional law." The Telangana High Court ordered to preserve the bodies of the accused until 13 December, and permitted their transfer (due to lack of morgue space) to Gandhi Hospital. The National Human Rights Commission of India initiated an investigation of the killings and will send a team led by a senior officer to Telangana. News Today has questioned whether the encounter was staged. In May 2022, the Inquiry Commission headed by former Supreme Court judge V. S. Sirpurkar concluded in its report that the encounter was staged, and the accused "were deliberately fired upon with an intent to cause their death". The commission went on to recommend that the involved police officers be tried for murder. The Supreme Court of India transferred the matter to the Telangana High Court for further action. == Legacy == In response to the incident, the Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly passed Andhra Pradesh Disha-Criminal Law (Andhra Pradesh Amendment) Bill, 2019 and Special Courts for Specified Offences against Women and Children) Bill, 2020. The bills seek to expedite the investigation and trail of heinous cases related to sexual offences against women and children when substantial conclusive evidence is present. As of July 2021, the bills were reserved for the President's assent. In September 2020, filmmaker Ram Gopal Varma announced the film Disha Encounter which is based on the incident. The Central Board of Film Certification initially refused to certify the film but later passed it with an adult-only rating. The film's release has been delayed by the COVID-19 pandemic and the victim's parents approached the Telangana High Court petitioning that the film would bring disrepute to their family. == See also == Rape in India 2012 Delhi gang rape and murder Aasha Encounter Rameeza Bee rape case 2022 Hyderabad gang rape 2024 Kolkata rape and murder == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Sabourin	Jérôme Sabourin	Jérôme Sabourin is a Canadian cinematographer and documentary filmmaker, most noted as a three-time winner of the Gémeaux Award for Best Cinematography in a Drama Series. He is the son of actor Marcel Sabourin. In 2019 he announced that he was entering production on At the End of Nothing at All (Au boute du rien pantoute), a documentary film about his father, as his directorial debut. The film premiered at the 2024 Rendez-vous Québec Cinéma. == Filmography == === Film === === Television === == Awards == == References == == External links == Jérôme Sabourin at IMDb
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budshah_Bridge#cite_note-GK-2	Budshah Bridge	Budshah Bridge, locally also known as Budshah Kadal, is a concrete bridge located in the Srinagar city of the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. It was first built in 1957 during the rule of Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad and is named after the 15th Century ruler of Kashmir, Zain-ul-Abidin, popularly known as Budshah (the Great King). The bridge is also known as Alamgir Bridge. It is located more than 100 metres downstream of Amira Kadal and handles most of the vehicular traffic from the Civil Secretariat to the Maulana Azad Road. In 2017, colourful fountains were installed on either side of the bridge as part of a beautification programme for the city. == See also == Zero Bridge Abdullah Bridge Amira Kadal == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Carrigan	Bill Carrigan	William Francis Carrigan (October 22, 1883 – July 8, 1969), nicknamed "Rough", was an American Major League baseball catcher and manager. He played for the Boston Red Sox between 1906 and 1916, and he was a player-manager for the last four of those seasons. In 1915 and 1916, Carrigan's teams won back-to-back World Series. He was said to exert a positive influence on young Red Sox star Babe Ruth, serving as his roommate and his manager. He has the highest postseason winning percentage (.800) of any manager with multiple postseason appearances, and was named to the Honor Rolls of Baseball in 1946. After his playing career, Carrigan was a partner in a large chain of New England vaudeville and movie theaters. He returned to the Red Sox as a manager between 1927 and 1929; the team finished in last place in each of those seasons. He then returned to his native Lewiston, where he was named a bank president in 1953 and where he died in 1969. == Early life == Carrigan was born in Lewiston, Maine. Carrigan's brother John was a talented pitcher, and Carrigan served as his catcher. Carrigan played football and baseball at Lewiston High School; he also played roller polo, but it caused him to get into fights, and his brother pleaded with him to stop playing. He studied at College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts. At the time, Holy Cross was known for sending its baseball players to the major leagues. == Early baseball career == Carrigan started his career as a platoon catcher and played all ten seasons with the Boston Red Sox. Biographer Richard A. Johnson noted that Carrigan was known in baseball for combining toughness with intelligence. For a portion of his time in Boston, Carrigan's roommate was Babe Ruth. "Carrigan served Ruth as a combination father confessor, drill sergeant, psychologist and Dutch uncle," wrote Johnson. Ruth called Carrigan the best manager he ever played for. Carrigan also had a close relationship with Detroit Tigers star Ty Cobb. Both Carrigan and Cobb were known for their intense play on the field, but they were friends and Cobb often came to Maine to visit Carrigan. A schism was forming along religious lines among Red Sox players and coaches in the early 1910s. Players like Tris Speaker held anti-Catholic sentiments, and they supported their manager, Stahl. Carrigan was among a group of Catholics on the team who were more aligned with team co-owner Jimmy McAleer. Midway through the 1913 season, McAleer fired Stahl and made Carrigan a player-manager. Author Thomas Whalen writes that Speaker and Carrigan once had a fistfight, and Carrigan won the fight, helping him to establish a sense of authority. The Red Sox finished in second place in 1914. In July of that year, they paid $25,000 to Baltimore of the International League for Babe Ruth, Ernie Shore and Ben Egan. Ruth gave up 21 hits in 23 innings pitched for the Red Sox that year. Carrigan received a dispensation from the Catholic Church to marry a Protestant woman, Beulah Bartlett, before the 1915 baseball season. They had been friends since childhood. Carrigan led the team to world championships in 1915 and 1916, compiling an 8–2 record as a manager in World Series play. Until Terry Francona duplicated the feat in 2007, he was the only manager to have won two World Series titles with Boston. In August 1916, Carrigan approached Red Sox owner Joseph Lannin about the possibility of retiring soon. His father-in-law's death had left some family business outstanding. The next month he decided that he would step down at the end of the season, wanting to decrease the time he spent traveling. He was also looking to devote more attention to a movie theater partnership known as the Maine and New Hampshire Theater Corporation. Lannin had hoped that Carrigan would change his mind, but other things were on Carrigan's mind. He and his wife had a child, also named Beulah, in November, and they later had another daughter, Constance, and a son, William Jr. == Hiatus from baseball == With Carrigan having turned down Lannin's pleas to remain manager of the Red Sox, and with Lannin having sold the team, new owner Harry Frazee named Jack Barry as Carrigan's successor in January 1917. Carrigan pursued his theater venture. The group owned as many as fifty theaters and there were three other partners in the corporation: a Lewiston man named William P. Gray; a former Mayor of Portsmouth, Albert Hyslop; and former New Hampshire Governor John H. Bartlett. In January 1922, Carrigan sold his interests in the corporation to Gray; the Washington Times said that Carrigan was thought to have received between $200,000 and $250,000. == Return to the Red Sox == In the years after Carrigan's unexpected departure from the Red Sox, he was often the subject of rumors about a return to baseball. In the article announcing the sale of his theater shares, the Washington Times even speculated that he might be preparing to buy the Red Sox from Frazee. Carrigan did return to the Red Sox, but it was as a manager and not until 1927. He was unable to duplicate his previous success, as Boston finished in last place for three straight seasons. By early December 1929, Carrigan said he was uncertain whether he would accept President Bob Quinn's offer to return as Red Sox manager. Despite the team's struggles, James O'Leary of The Boston Globe wrote that "Pres Quinn and every baseball fan in New England and throughout the entire American League circuit would like to see the veteran back on the job next season." Carrigan resigned on December 20. == Managerial record == == Later life == In 1933 and 1934, Carrigan was the head baseball coach at Bates College. In 1953, he was named president of People's Savings Bank in Lewiston. In 1958, Carrigan's wife died. Carrigan died at Central Maine General Hospital in Lewiston at the age of 85. He was posthumously elected to the Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame in 2004. == See also == Honor Rolls of Baseball List of Major League Baseball player–managers List of Major League Baseball players who spent their entire career with one franchise == References == == Notes == == External links == Career statistics from MLB · Baseball Reference · Retrosheet · Baseball Almanac Bill Carrigan managerial career statistics at Baseball-Reference.com TheDeadBallEra.com - Carrigan's Obituary Bill Carrigan at Find a Grave
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Illustrators#:~:text=Wallace%20Morgan%20(1929%E2%80%931936),Albert%20Dorne%20(1947%E2%80%931948)	Society of Illustrators	The Society of Illustrators (SoI) is a professional society based in New York City. It was founded in 1901 to promote the art of illustration and, since 1959, has held an annual exhibition. Since absorbing the Museum of Comic and Cartoon Art (MoCCA) in 2012, the Society has also promoted the art of comics. In addition to its holding exhibitions in its own Museum of American Illustration, the Society holds the annual MoCCA Festival, an independent comics showcase. == History == === Founding === The Society of Illustrators was founded on February 1, 1901, by a group of nine artists and one advising businessman. The advising businessman was Henry S. Fleming, a coal dealer who offered his legal staff to the Society in an advisory role and also served as the Society of Illustrators Secretary and Treasurer for many years. The nine artists who, with Fleming, founded the Society were Otto Henry Bacher, Frank Vincent DuMond, Henry Hutt, Albert Wenzell, Albert Sterner, Benjamin West Clinedinst, F. C. Yohn, Louis Loeb, and Reginald Birch. The mission statement was "to promote generally the art of illustration and to hold exhibitions from time to time". Women first became part of the organization in 1903, when Elizabeth Shippen Green and Florence Scovel Shinn were named Associate Members; but women were prohibited from full membership until 1922. === World War I === During the World War I years, with Charles Dana Gibson as the acting president, Society members worked through the Committee on Public Information's Division of Pictorial Publicity, creating many original poster designs, including James M. Flagg's US Army iconic recruiting poster of Uncle Sam, as well as advertising of the massive War Bond effort. Photo journalism was impractical during these years and eight Society members, commissioned Captains in the Engineers, were sent to France to sketch the war. After the war, the Society operated the School for Disabled Soldiers. === Between the wars === In 1920, the society was incorporated, and in 1922 women were allowed to become full members. The early history of the society was documented in 1927 and 1939 by Norman Mills Price. His handwritten notes are held in the Society of Illustrators archives. During the 1920s and 1930s, the Society presented the Illustrator's Shows, featuring artists and their models as actors, songwriters, set designers and painters. Professional talent such as the Cotton Club band and Jimmy Durante also performed. Through member and set designer Watson Barrett, the Illustrator's Show of 1925 was held at the Shubert Theatre, and the Shuberts purchased the rights to the skits for their Broadway productions of Artists and Models. In 1939, those funds allowed the Society to acquire its present headquarters, at 128 East 63rd Street. Norman Rockwell's Dover Coach became the backdrop for the bar on the fourth floor, donated by Rockwell in honor of the Society's new building. This painting currently hangs in the Members Dining Room. === World War II === During World War II, the society again contributed to the war effort with a massive campaign of posters. Society members visited veterans’ hospitals to sketch the wounded, and these art works were sent to the families to boost morale. The Illustrator's Jazz Band was formed to entertain the wounded, and an ensemble by the same name plays at Society events up until the present. === Post-World War II === In 1946, a Welfare Fund for indigent artists was established. In 1948, the Joint Ethics Committee, of which The Society is a member developed the first Code of Fair Practice, which still serves today in addressing concerns of artists and art directors working in the graphic communications field where abuses and misunderstandings regarding usage rights and ownership of works of illustration and other works of art created for a wide range of public media. In 1954, the U.S. Air Force began sending Society of Illustrators members around the world to document the Air Force's activities. This program continues today. Thousands of paintings have been contributed over the years. In 1959, the society hold its first Annual Exhibition, juried by Bob Peak, Bradbury Thompson, Stevan Dohanos, and others. It opened with 350 original works of art and led to the publication of the first Illustrators Annual. The Society opened its doors to the public in 1981, establishing the Museum of American Illustration, with regular public exhibitions. === 21st century === In 2001, the 100th anniversary of the society's founding, a 12-month celebration began with the U.S. Postal Service issuing the Great American Illustrators. That year was punctuated with the 9/11 Memorial Exhibition, Prevailing Human Spirit. The Museum of Comic and Cartoon Art (MoCCA) endowed its assets in August 2012 to the society, which has since subsidized the MoCCA Festival. Anelle Miller was appointed executive director of the society in 2007 and served in that capacity until 2023. She updated the exhibition space, hired new staff, and instituted a slew of programs open to the general public. Arabelle Liepold took the position in June 2023. The Society of Illustrators maintains an annual of illustration, student scholarship competitions and various awards honoring excellence in the field of illustration. The society has had outreach programs with the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation since 2001, and with the New York City Board of Education since 1999. == Presidents == As of 2023, the president of the Society of Illustrators is Leslie Cober. Notable past presidents of the Society: Charles Dana Gibson (1904–1905, 1909–1920) Albert Sterner (1907–1908) — founding member George Hand Wright (1926–1927) Wallace Morgan (1929–1936) Harold von Schmidt (1938–1941) Albert Dorne (1947–1948) == Museum of American Illustration and Exhibitions == The Museum of American Illustration was established at the society in 1981, under the stewardship of John Witt, the society's president. The Society's permanent collection, featuring pieces on rotational display throughout the building, includes nearly 2500 works by such artists as Norman Rockwell, Howard Pyle, N.C. Wyeth, James Montgomery Flagg, Bob Peak, and Bernie Fuchs. The Museum hosts the Annual Illustration show and smaller topical exhibits related to illustration and comics. In recent years, the main galleries have played host to numerous acclaimed, contemporary, and popular exhibitions including: R. Crumb: Lines Drawn on Paper (March 23 - April 11, 2011), curated by Monte Beauchamp. Maurice Sendak: A Celebration of the Artist and his Work (June 11 - August 17, 2013), curated by Justin Schiller and Dennis David. The ZAP Show (March 2 - May 17, 2016), curated by Monte Beauchamp and Eric Sack. Will Eisner: The Centennial Celebration 1917–2017 (March 1 - June 3, 2017). The Art of MARCH: A Civil Rights Masterpiece (February 28 - June 30, 2018), curated by John Lind and Charles Brownstein. Illustrating Batman: Eighty Years of Comics and Pop Culture (June 12 - October 12, 2019), curated by Rob Pistella, John Lind, and Chip Kidd. The Society also has a gallery on the second floor dedicated to MoCCA that frequently hosts smaller exhibits of comic book art. == Recognition == The Society of Illustrators inaugurated the Hall of Fame program in 1958, to recognize "distinguished achievement in the art of illustration". The first recipient was Norman Rockwell. Like other recognized artists, he was elected by former Society presidents for his contributions to the field of illustration. Every year since 1958, one or more illustrators have been added to the Hall of Fame. In 2001, two additional forms of recognition were added: Dean Cornwell Recognition Award and the Arthur William Brown Achievement Award, which may be awarded annually. In 1965, The Society established the Hamilton King Award, which is given annually to one society member. In 1981, The Society established the Student Scholarship Competition, which has continued annually to the present. The Highest Award presented to a student by the society is the Zankel Scholarship Award, established in 2006 in honor of Arthur Zankel, an advocate for higher education whose bequest made the scholarship possible. == References == == External links == Official website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wes_Moore	Wes Moore	Westley Watende Omari Moore (born October 15, 1978) is an American politician, businessman, author, and former U.S. Army officer, serving as the 63rd governor of Maryland since 2023. Moore was born in Maryland and raised primarily in New York. He graduated from Johns Hopkins University and received a master's degree from Wolfson College, Oxford, as a Rhodes Scholar. After several years in the U.S. Army and Army Reserve, he became an investment banker in New York. Between 2010 and 2015, Moore published five books, including a young-adult novel. He served as CEO of the Robin Hood Foundation from 2017 to 2021. Moore authored The Other Wes Moore and The Work. He also hosted Beyond Belief on the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN), and was executive producer and a writer for Coming Back with Wes Moore on PBS. Moore is a member of the Democratic Party. He won the 2022 Maryland gubernatorial election, becoming Maryland's first African-American governor and the third African-American person elected governor of any U.S. state. == Early life and education == Moore was born in Takoma Park, Maryland in 1978, to William Westley Moore Jr., a broadcast news journalist, and Joy Thomas Moore, a daughter of immigrants from Cuba and Jamaica, and a news media professional. His maternal grandfather, James Thomas, a Jamaican immigrant, was the first black minister in the history of the Dutch Reformed Church. His grandmother, Winell Thomas, a Cuban who moved to Jamaica before immigrating to the U.S., was a retired schoolteacher. His grandmother's stepfather was Chinese. On April 16, 1982, when Moore was three years old, his father died of acute epiglottitis. In the summer of 1984, Moore's mother took him and his two sisters to live in the Bronx, New York, with her parents. His occasional babysitter was Kamala Harris' stepmother, Carol Kirlew. Moore attended Riverdale Country School. When his grades declined and he became involved in petty crime, his mother enrolled him in Valley Forge Military Academy and College. Moore's family moved back to Maryland after his mother's employer, the Annie E. Casey Foundation, relocated to Baltimore. In 1998, Moore graduated Phi Theta Kappa from Valley Forge with an associate degree, completed the requirements for the United States Army's early commissioning program, and was appointed a second lieutenant of Military Intelligence in the Army Reserve. He then attended Johns Hopkins University, from which he graduated Phi Beta Kappa with a B.A. in international relations and economics in 2001. At Johns Hopkins, he also played wide receiver for the Johns Hopkins Blue Jays football team for two seasons, served as the chair of the university's Men of the NAACP branch, and was initiated into the Omicron Delta Kappa honor society, and Sigma Sigma chapter of Alpha Phi Alpha. In 1998 and 1999, Moore interned for Baltimore Mayor Kurt Schmoke. He later became involved with the March of Dimes before serving in the Army. He also interned at the United States Department of Homeland Security under Secretary Tom Ridge. After graduating, he attended Wolfson College, Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar, where he earned a master's degree in international relations in 2004 and submitted a thesis titled Rise and Ramifications of Radical Islam in the Western Hemisphere. He then served in the 82nd Airborne Division and was deployed to Afghanistan from 2005 to 2006, attaining the rank of captain. He left the Army in 2014. == Career == In February 2006, Moore was named a White House Fellow to Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice. He later worked as an investment banker at Deutsche Bank in Manhattan and at Citibank from 2007 to 2012 while living in Jersey City, New Jersey. In 2009, Moore was included on Crain’s New York Business's "40 Under 40" list. In 2010, Moore founded a television production company, Omari Productions, to create content for networks such as the Oprah Winfrey Network, PBS, HBO, and NBC. In May 2014, he produced a three-part PBS series, Coming Back with Wes Moore, which followed the lives and experiences of returning veterans. In 2014, Moore founded BridgeEdU, a company that provided services to support students in their transition to college. Students participating in BridgeEdU paid $500 into the program with varying fees. BridgeEdU was not able to achieve financial stability and was acquired by student financial services company Edquity in 2019, mostly for its database of clients. A Baltimore Banner interview with former BridgeEdU students found that the short-lived company had mixed results. Moore was the commencement speaker at Utah Valley University's class of 2014 graduation ceremony. In September 2016, Moore produced All the Difference, a PBS documentary that followed the lives of two young African-American men from the South Side of Chicago from high school through college and beyond. Later that month, he launched Future City, an interview-based talk show with Baltimore's WYPR station. From June 2017 until May 2021, Moore was CEO of the Robin Hood Foundation, a charitable organization that attempts to alleviate problems caused by poverty in New York City. It works mainly through funding schools, food pantries and shelters. It also administers a disaster relief fund. During his tenure as CEO, the organization also raised more than $650 million, including $230 million in 2020 to provide increased need for assistance during the COVID-19 pandemic. Moore also sought to expand his advocacy to include America's poor and transform the organization into a national force in the poverty fight. Moore served on Under Armour's board of directors from September 2020 to November 2022, resigning from the board shortly after becoming governor-elect. === Books === On April 27, 2010, Spiegel & Grau published his first book, The Other Wes Moore. The 200-page book explores the lives of two young Baltimore boys who shared the same name and race, but largely different familial histories that leads them both down very different paths. In December 2012, Moore announced that The Other Wes Moore would be developed into a feature film, with Oprah Winfrey attached as an executive producer. In September 2013, Ember published his second book, Discovering Wes Moore. The book maintains the message and story set out in The Other Wes Moore, but is more accessible to young adults. In April 2021, Unanimous Media announced it would adapt The Other Wes Moore into a feature film. As of June 2022, a film has yet to be produced. In January 2015, Moore wrote his third book, The Work. In November 2016, he wrote This Way Home, a young adult novel about Elijah, a high school basketball player, who emerges from a standoff with a local gang after they attempt to recruit him to their basketball team, and he refuses. In March 2020, Moore and former Baltimore Sun education reporter Erica L. Green wrote Five Days: The Fiery Reckoning of an American City, which explores the 2015 Baltimore protests from the perspectives of eight Baltimoreans who experienced it on the front lines. === Political activities === Moore first expressed interest in politics in June 1996, telling a New York Times reporter that he planned to attend law school and enter politics after two years at Valley Forge. Moore first expressed interest in running for governor of Maryland during an interview with The Baltimore Sun in 2006, later telling The Baltimore Sun in October 2022 that he felt the idea of holding elected office only started to feel like a real possibility in 2020, when he was about to leave his job running Robin Hood. Moore gave a speech at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, supporting Barack Obama for president. In 2013, he said that he had "no interest" in running for public office, instead focusing on his business and volunteer work. Later that year, Attorney General Doug Gansler said that he considered choosing Moore as his running mate in the 2014 Maryland gubernatorial election, in which he ran with state delegate Jolene Ivey. In April 2015, following the 2015 Baltimore protests, Moore said that the demonstrations in Baltimore were a "long time coming" and that Baltimore "must seize this moment to redress systemic problems and grow." Moore attended the funeral for Freddie Gray but left early to catch a plane to Boston for a speech he was giving on urban poverty. He later said he "felt guilty being away, but it wasn't just that. An audience in Boston would listen to me talk about poverty, but at a historic moment in my own city's history, I was MIA." On the eighth anniversary of Gray's death in April 2023, Moore made a tweet calling his death a turning point for not just those who knew Gray personally, but the entire city. In February 2017, Governor Larry Hogan nominated Moore to serve on the University System of Maryland Board of Regents. In October 2020, Moore was named to serve on the transition team of Baltimore mayor-elect Brandon Scott. In January 2021, Speaker of the Maryland House of Delegates Adrienne A. Jones consulted with Moore to craft her "black agenda" to tackle racial inequalities in housing, health, banking, government, and private corporations. === Controversies === In June 2013, a Baltimore Sun investigation alleged that Moore was improperly receiving homestead property tax credits and owed back taxes to the city of Baltimore. Moore told The Sun that he was unaware of any issues with the home's taxes and wanted to pay what he owed immediately. In October 2022, Baltimore Brew reported that Moore had not paid any water and sewage charges since March 2021, owing $21,200 to the city of Baltimore. Moore settled his outstanding bills shortly after the article was published. In April 2022, the family of Baltimore County Police Sergeant Bruce Prothero, whose murder in 2000 is highlighted in The Other Wes Moore, accused Moore of making contradictory statements about where the proceeds of the book went, saying that the family "directed no donations" to anywhere, including the nonprofits Moore named. The family also complained that Moore exaggerated his role in their son's life. CNN accused Moore of embellishing his childhood and where he actually grew up. Shortly after the article was published, Moore created a website that attempted to rebut the allegations. On November 19, 2024, Moore was cited with a Bronze Star Medal for meritorious service in Afghanistan. Lieutenant General Michael R. Fenzel pinned the decoration on Moore on December 14. Fenzel recommended Moore for the Bronze Star in 2006 and encouraged Moore to list the award in his application for a White House fellowship. Fenzel assumed the medal would have been awarded by the time the fellows were named. In his view, Moore's medal was awarded 20 years late. Moore failed to correct journalists who referred to him as a Bronze Star recipient, and he apologized for the mistake. A Capital News Service article highlighted Moore's connections to various industries, including pharmaceutical, technology, beauty and retail giants, and the Green Thumb Industries cannabis company. Moore left Green Thumb Industries in March 2022, and said in October that he would use a blind trust to hold his assets and resign from every board position if elected governor. In May 2023, Moore finalized his trust, making him the first governor to have one since Bob Ehrlich. In May 2025, after similar conflict of interest concerns were raised about former governor Larry Hogan during his 2024 U.S. Senate campaign, Moore signed into law a bill requiring future governors to put their assets into a blind trust or sign an agreement not to participate in decisions affecting their businesses. In December 2025, the Washington Free Beacon accused Moore of exaggerating his academic and military achievements on his 2006 White House fellowship application, in which he claimed to have graduated Oxford a year and a half earlier than he had, did not submit his doctoral thesis, was working toward a doctorate at Oxford, and was a "foremost expert" on Islamic extremism who authored four articles and featured in two books on the threat of radical Islam in Latin America. A spokesperson for Moore disputed the claims made by the Free Beacon, saying that Moore had submitted his thesis and that the website would be spreading a conspiracy theory by suggesting otherwise, though his office was unable to locate the four articles Moore claimed to have contributed to. == Governor of Maryland == === Elections === ==== 2022 ==== In February 2021, Moore announced he was considering a run for governor of Maryland in the 2022 election. He launched his campaign on June 7, 2021, emphasizing "work, wages, and wealth" and running on the slogan "leave no one behind". His running mate was Aruna Miller, a former state delegate who represented Maryland's 15th district from 2010 to 2019. During the primary, Moore was endorsed by House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer, Prince George's County executive Angela Alsobrooks, television host Oprah Winfrey, and former Governor Parris Glendening. He also received backing from the Maryland State Education Association and VoteVets.org. On April 6, 2022, Moore filed a complaint with the Maryland State Board of Elections against the gubernatorial campaign of John King Jr., accusing "an unidentified party" of anonymously disseminating "false and disparaging information regarding Wes Moore via electronic mail and social media in an orchestrated attempt to disparage Mr. Moore and damage his candidacy." The complaint also suggested that King "may be responsible for this smear campaign", which the King campaign denied. In April 2024, King's campaign was fined $2,000 after prosecutors connected the email address to an IP address used by Joseph O'Hearn, King's campaign manager. Moore won the Democratic primary on July 19, 2022, defeating former Democratic National Committee chairman Tom Perez and Comptroller Peter Franchot with 32.4% of the vote. During the general election, Moore twice campaigned with U.S. President Joe Biden. He also campaigned on reclaiming "patriotism" from Republicans, highlighting his service in the U.S. Army while also bringing attention to Republican nominee and state delegate Dan Cox's participation in the January 6 United States Capitol attack. Moore defeated Cox in the general election, and became Maryland's first black governor and the first veteran to be elected governor since William Donald Schaefer. In December 2022, Moore was elected to serve as finance chair of the Democratic Governors Association. ==== 2026 ==== On September 9, 2025, Moore announced that he would run for re-election to a second term. === Tenure === Moore was sworn in on January 18, 2023. He took the oath of office on a Bible owned by abolitionist Frederick Douglass, as well as his grandfather's Bible. The morning before his inauguration, Moore participated in a wreath-laying ceremony at the Kunta Kinte-Alex Haley Memorial at the Annapolis City Dock to "acknowledge the journey" that led to him becoming the third elected black governor in U.S. history. Later that night, he held a celebratory event at the Baltimore Convention Center. As governor, Moore testified for several of his administration's bills, making him the first governor to do so since Martin O'Malley. During his first term, his legislative priorities included establishing a "service year option" for high school graduates, removing regulations around new housing development, and supporting military families through health care benefits, tax cuts, and employment opportunities. He has also sought to undo or revise many of his predecessor's decisions, including the cancellation of the Baltimore Red Line, the withholding of state funding for training abortion care providers, and plans to expand portions of the Capital Beltway and Interstate 270 using high-occupancy toll lanes. The Francis Scott Key Bridge collapse occurred during Moore's tenure, after which he supported and signed into law legislation to provide financial assistance to workers and businesses affected by the subsequent closure of the Port of Baltimore. Following the disaster, Moore has urged Congress to pass legislation that would have the federal government cover the costs of rebuilding the bridge. In December 2024, President Joe Biden signed into law a continuing resolution bill that included a provision to fully fund the Francis Scott Key Bridge replacement. == Personal life == Moore met Dawn Flythe in Washington, D.C. in 2002. They moved to the Riverside community in Baltimore in 2006. The couple eloped in Las Vegas while he was on a brief leave from Afghanistan and were married by an Elvis impersonator. Their official wedding ceremony was held on July 6, 2007. They have two children, born in 2011 and 2013. In late 2008, the Moores moved from Riverside to Guilford, where they lived until Moore's election as governor in 2022. From 2015 to 2023, he attended services at the Southern Baptist Church in east Baltimore. They reside in Government House, the official residence of the Maryland governor and First Family in Annapolis, Maryland. Moore holds honorary degrees from Lafayette College, Skidmore College, Lincoln University, and the University of the Commonwealth Caribbean. He is a member of the Sons of the American Revolution; his ancestor Prince Ames served in the Massachusetts Militia in the Revolutionary War. Moore is a fan of the Baltimore Ravens, Baltimore Orioles, and New York Knicks. === Military decorations and badges === Moore's decorations and medals include: == Electoral history == == Bibliography == The other Wes Moore : one name, two fates, New York : Spiegel & Grau, 2010. ISBN 9780385528191 Discovering Wes Moore : My Story, New York : Ember (Random House), 2013. ISBN 9780385741682, 9780385741675, 9780375986703 The work : searching for a life that matters, New York : Spiegel & Grau, 2015. ISBN 9780812983845 Wes Moore; Shawn Goodman, This way home, New York : Delacorte Press, 2015. ISBN 9780385741699 Wes Moore; Erica L Green, Five days : the fiery reckoning of an American city, New York : One World, 2020. ISBN 9780525512363 == See also == List of minority governors and lieutenant governors in the United States == Notes == == References == == External links == The Office of Governor Wes Moore official government website Wes Moore for Maryland campaign website Appearances on C-SPAN Profile at Vote Smart Wes Moore at IMDb
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_E._Ingersoll	Royal E. Ingersoll	Royal Eason Ingersoll (20 June 1883 – 20 May 1976) was a United States Navy four-star admiral who served as Commander in Chief, U.S. Atlantic Fleet (CINCLANT) from January 1, 1942 to late 1944; Commander, Western Sea Frontier from late 1944 to 1946; and Deputy Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet/Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (DCOMINCH/DCNO) from late 1944 to late 1945. Ingersoll was born in Washington, D.C., on 20 June 1883. He was second in a succession of three generations of U.S. Naval officers: his father, Rear Admiral Royal R. Ingersoll - United States Naval Academy class of 1868, and his son, Lieutenant Royal Rodney Ingersoll II - USNA class of 1934, was killed in a friendly fire accident on board the aircraft carrier Hornet (CV-8) on 4 June 1942, during the naval Battle of Midway. == 1905–1937 == Ingersoll graduated from the Naval Academy in 1905, along with Chester W. Nimitz, and reported as a passed midshipman to the battleship Missouri (BB-11). In August of that year, he was one of the young officers assigned special temporary duty to attend the Russian-Japanese Peace Conference, held at the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard, in Kittery, Maine. When detached from the Missouri in May 1906, he was assigned briefly to the Marietta (PG-15), and later the Hancock (AP-3), then assisted in fitting out the Connecticut (BB-18) at the New York Navy Yard. He served on board that battleship from her commissioning on 29 September 1906, until October 1907. Ingersoll served as an instructor of Seamanship and International Law, and later of English, at the Naval Academy between 1911 and 1913, preceding his assignment to the Asiatic Squadron. There he joined the armored cruiser Saratoga (ACR-2), the flagship of the U.S. Asiatic Fleet. He served briefly as her First Lieutenant, and then he became the Aide and Flag Lieutenant to the Chief-of-Staff of the Asiatic Fleet's Commander. He returned to the United States, and on 1 June 1916, reported as Assistant for Communications, and Communication Officer, in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Navy Department. Concerning that assignment, he subsequently wrote: "The work in this office began to pick up as the tension in the diplomatic relations with Germany increased, and overwhelmed us on 2 February 1917, when diplomatic relations with that country were broken...." For organizing the greatly expanded Naval Communications Office during World War I, he was awarded the Navy Cross and cited "for distinguished service in the line of his profession in organizing, developing, and administering the Communication Office of the Navy Department." After the Armistice in November 1918, he was ordered to join Admiral William S. Benson, USN, then Chief of Naval Operations, concerning the establishment of a communication office for that commission. In February 1919, he returned home in the George Washington with the Presidential party, handling messages for President Woodrow Wilson on the voyage across the Atlantic. In March 1919 he again joined the Connecticut, serving this time as her executive officer until September 1920, then transferring to the Arizona (BB-39). In June 1921, he reported to the Navy Department for a tour of duty in the Office of Naval Intelligence, and on 26 March 1924, assumed command of the Nokomis (SP-609). Under his command, that gunboat was fitted out as a survey ship and cruised in the Cuban–Haitian area, making new charts of the north coast of Cuba. Completing the Senior Course at the Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island in June 1927, he served the following year as a member of that staff. In June 1928, he reported for duty as Assistant Chief of Staff to Commander Battle Fleet, in the California (BB-44) and continued similar duty on the Staff when Admiral William V. Pratt became Commander in Chief, United States Fleet, with his flag in the Texas (BB-35). In August 1930, he was assigned to the Division of Fleet Training, Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, Navy Department, where he served until May 1933. He then reported as Commanding Officer of the heavy cruiser Augusta (CA-31), and in November 1933, was transferred to the Mare Island Naval Shipyard to fit out the San Francisco (CA-38). He commanded this cruiser from her commissioning on 10 February 1934 until June 1935. The following three years of duty in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, as Director of the War Plans Division, included his assignment in June 1936 as Technical Assistant to the American Delegation at the London Naval Conference in 1935 – 36. He again went to London in December 1937, concerned with requirements growing out of the London Naval Treaty limiting naval armament. == 1938-1946 == On 16 July 1938, Ingersoll took command of Cruiser Division Six of the Scouting Force, his flag in the cruiser Minneapolis (CA-36). Two years later, he returned to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations as assistant to the Chief, and on 1 January 1942, with the rank of Vice Admiral, he was designated Commander in Chief, U.S. Atlantic Fleet, with the Augusta as his flagship. Ingersoll was promoted to the rank of admiral on the following 1 July and broke his flag on the converted yacht USS Vixen (PG-53) on 17 July. Having organized the movements of the thousands of ships across the Atlantic to have men and supplies on hand at the precise hour for the North African landings in November 1942, he also had the responsibility of planning the composition of the naval escort forces which insured the troop convoys' safe arrival. Following the African invasion, the Atlantic Fleet was employed in running troop convoys and transporting stores, munitions, and fuel to the United Kingdom and the Mediterranean. As a subsidiary responsibility, it ran the convoys on the coast of Brazil and continuously waged the anti-submarine war which had been a matter of primary concern since the outbreak of hostilities. Ingersoll is generally credited with solving the U-boat and Atlantic logistics problems. In addition, he had the responsibility of defense of the Western Hemisphere by U.S. naval forces and made changes in the disposition of air and surface forces stationed at various points in North and South America. For his services in this command, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal and cited as a "forceful and resolute leader under the critical conditions existing throughout a period of approximately three years... against a determined and ruthless enemy intent on world domination..." In November 1944, he was detached from command of the Atlantic Fleet and became Commander Western Sea Frontier, with headquarters at San Francisco. In addition to commanding the naval forces engaged in protecting shipping in coastal waters, he managed the flow of supplies to the Pacific Fleet through West Coast ports. In carrying out this assignment, he had the status of a Deputy Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet, and Deputy Chief of Naval Operations. After the reorganization of the navy in October 1945, he continued to serve as Commander Western Sea Frontier until 10 April 1946, when he was relieved of all active duty pending his retirement that became official on 1 August 1946. == Family == Ingersoll was married in 1910 to Louise Van Harlingen of Atlanta, Georgia and had two children. Ingersoll died on 20 May 1976. In 1979, Mrs. Louise Ingersoll was the sponsor for USS Ingersoll (DD-990); their daughter, Alice Jean Ingersoll Nagle, acting as proxy sponsor. Their son, Royal Rodney II, had been (with Admiral Ingersoll's father) the namesake of the USS Ingersoll (DD-652). == Awards == In addition to the Navy Cross and the Distinguished Service Medal, Ingersoll was awarded the World War I Victory Medal; the American Defense Service Medal; European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal; and the World War II Victory Medal. He was also awarded the Chevalier of the Legion of Honor by the French Government, the Order of Naval Merit (Grand Cross) by the Government of Brazil and the Grand Officer of the Order of Orange Nassau with Swords by the Government of The Netherlands. == References == This article incorporates public domain material from Admiral Royal Ingersoll. United States government.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Fridas	The Two Fridas	The Two Fridas (Las dos Fridas in Spanish) is an oil painting by Mexican artist Frida Kahlo. The painting was the first large-scale work done by Kahlo and is considered one of her most notable paintings. It is a double self-portrait, depicting two versions of Kahlo seated together. One is wearing a white European style Victorian dress, while the other is wearing a traditional Tehuana dress. The painting is housed at the Museo de Arte Moderno in Mexico City. == History == Kahlo painted The Two Fridas in 1939, the same year she divorced artist Diego Rivera, although they remarried a year later. According to Kahlo's friend, Fernando Gamboa, the painting was inspired by two paintings that Kahlo saw earlier that year at the Louvre: Théodore Chassériau's The Two Sisters and the anonymous Gabrielle d'Estrées and One of Her Sisters. In January 1940, The Two Fridas was exhibited along with The Wounded Table at the International Surrealist Exhibition in Mexico City. The painting remained in Kahlo's possession until it was acquired by the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes (INBA) in 1947. The INBA transferred it to the Museo de Arte Moderno on December 28, 1966, where it is presently housed. == Subject == Some art historians have suggested that the two figures in the painting represent Frida's dual heritage. Her father, Guillermo Kahlo, was German; while her mother, Matilde Calderon, was Mexican. Another interpretation is that the Tehuana Frida is the one who was adored by her husband Diego Rivera, while the European Frida is the one that was rejected by him. In Frida's own recollection, the image is of a memory of a childhood imaginary friend. Both Fridas hold items in their respective laps; the Mexican Frida holds a miniature portrait of her husband Diego Rivera, while the European Frida holds forceps. Blood spills onto the European Frida's white dress from a broken blood vessel that the forceps have cut. The blood vessel connects the two Fridas, winding its way from their hands through their hearts. The work alludes to Kahlo's life of constant pain and surgical procedures and the Aztec tradition of human sacrifice. Because this piece was completed by Kahlo shortly after her divorce, the European Frida is missing a piece of herself, her Diego. Each Frida shows an open heart. The heart of the Mexican Frida is healthy, whereas the heart of the European Frida is open and cut. One interpretation of this is that it not only shows two separate personalities but indicates the constant pain that Frida is going through. The tragic motor accident that left her bedridden and then with medical problems throughout her life is shown through the two figures; one is weak while the other is strong. Although the two figures appear separate, a vein connecting them further symbolises that despite the differences in the two figures they both make up one Frida; together they make the self-portrait. == Impact == Hispanic studies professor Sarah M. Misemer suggests that Kahlo's multi-racial representation seen in The Two Fridas reflects the impact that the colonial era had on racial demographics in Mexico. Additionally, Misemer argues that Kahlo's representation of herself as a multi-racial individual serves as a cultural symbol for the Mexican nation. Kahlo's work has inspired the creation of cultural products. For example, the painting The Two Fridas inspired a play called Las Dos Fridas (1998) by Bárbara Córcega, María del Carmen Farías, and Abraham Oceransky. In this play, two separate actresses play different versions of Kahlo named Espina (Thorn) and Flor (Flower). Although these characters have different names, they are supposed to be the same person. Espina wears a Tehuana outfit, like the indigenous representation of Kahlo seen in the painting, whereas Flor wears a suit from the 1940s. In the original play, Espina and Flor were played by two of its writers, Córcega and Farías. The play begins with Flor asking Espina about Kahlo's identity. Espina then explains different aspects of Kahlo's identity, such as her gender and career. Historians argue that these various understandings of Kahlo's identity, which Espina and Flor carry, suggest the multi-faceted nature of Kahlo's own identity. This multifaceted nature of her identity is expanded through the set of the play; a sketch of a self-portrait of Kahlo is a prop on the stage. The play then moves to the two versions of Kahlo acting out various scenes from her own life, with an emphasis on her struggles in her marriage with Rivera, who had numerous affairs with other women during their marriage. Specifically, the play addresses the shame Kahlo feels and her denial regarding Rivera's affairs. The play also highlights how Kahlo used her physical pain to manipulate Rivera into staying with her. Misemer's studies suggest that Kahlo's medical conditions and pain prevented Rivera from ending their relationship. == See also == Self-portraiture List of paintings by Frida Kahlo == References == == External links == The Two Fridas in PBS The Two Fridas Smarthistory
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Happy_Valley_episodes	List of Happy Valley episodes	Happy Valley is a British crime drama television series created by Sally Wainwright and produced by Red Production Company. The first series of six episodes started airing on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 29 April 2014. It was released on Netflix in the United States and Canada on 20 August 2014. A second six-episode series began airing on BBC One on 9 February 2016 and was made available on Netflix in the US later that year. The BBC announced Series 3 on 26 October 2021 with filming scheduled to begin in 2022. Series 3 started airing on BBC One on 1 January 2023. == Series overview == == Episodes == === Series 1 (2014) === === Series 2 (2016) === === Series 3 (2023) === == Ratings == == References == == External links == Happy Valley episodes at BBC One Happy Valley episodes at the Internet Movie Database
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakti_Mills_gang_rape#Incident	Shakti Mills gang rape	The 2013 Mumbai gang rape, also known as the Shakti Mills gang rape, refers to the incident in which a 22-year-old photojournalist, who was interning with an English-language magazine in Mumbai, was gang-raped by five people, including a juvenile. The incident occurred on 22 August 2013, when she had gone to the deserted Shakti Mills compound, near Mahalaxmi in South Mumbai, with a male colleague on an assignment. The accused had tied up the victim's colleague with belts and raped her. The accused took photos of the victim during the sexual assault, and threatened to release them to social networks if she reported the rape. Later, an eighteen-year-old call centre employee reported that she too had been gang-raped, on 31 July 2013, inside the mills complex. On 20 March 2014, a Mumbai sessions court convicted all five adult accused in both cases on 13 counts. On 4 April 2014, the court awarded the death penalty to the three repeat offenders in the photojournalist rape case. For the other two accused, one was awarded life imprisonment, while the other accused turned approver in the case. Two minors, one in each case, were tried by the Juvenile Justice Board separately. They were convicted on 15 July 2015, and sentenced to three years (including time in custody) in a Nashik reform school, the maximum punishment that a juvenile offender can receive under Indian law. The Bombay High Court commuted the three death sentences to imprisonment for the remainder of their natural life on 25 November 2021. == Incident == A 22-year-old photojournalist working in Mumbai was gang raped by five people at the Shakti Mills compound, where she had gone on assignment with a male colleague on 22 August 2013. According to the statements given to the police by the two victims, the photojournalist and her colleague left their office at 5:00 pm on an assignment to take some photographs of the deserted Shakti Mills compound. Five men tied up the male colleague and took turns raping the photojournalist while holding a broken beer bottle to her neck to keep her from shouting for help. The rapists then forced the victim to clean the crime scene, and took two photos of her on a cellphone, threatening to release the photos on social networks if she reported the attack. Following the assault, the men brought her back to the place where her colleague was being held. They accompanied the survivor and her colleague to the railway tracks around 7:15 pm, where they were told to stay. When the criminals left, she informed her colleague that she had been raped six times by the five men and needed medical treatment. On reaching the Mahalaxmi station, her colleague contacted their boss and asked him to come. They went by taxi to Jaslok Hospital at Peddar Road. The victim called her mother and told her to meet her at the hospital. The survivor was bleeding profusely when she arrived at the hospital. She was immediately admitted and began undergoing medical treatment. She gave her statement to police on 26 August, and was discharged on the night of 27 August. In a statement to the media from her hospital bed, the victim said, "I want no other woman in this city and country to go through such a brutal physical humiliation. Perpetrators should be punished severely as they have ruined my life. No punishment short of a life term will take away my pain and humiliation and physical abuse I underwent. Rape is not the end of life. I will continue fighting." The victim also expressed her eagerness to return to work, stating, "I want to join duty as early as possible." Nirmala Samant Prabhawalkar, a member of the National Commission for Women who met the victim at the hospital, stated: "She is recuperating from her injuries and trauma. She is still not completely out of trauma but she is composed." On 3 September, a 19-year-old telephone operator with a private firm reported to authorities that she had been gang raped at the Shakti Mills compound by five men on 31 July 2013. Three of the men involved were also accused in the photojournalist's case. The victim had gone to the Shakti Mills compound with her boyfriend, where they were approached by the accused. Similar to the photojournalist case, the men tied and beat up the victim's male companion, before gang raping her. The two victims fled to Chhattisgarh following the incident, without reporting it, out of fear. Mumbai Police made the telephone operator undergo a "two-finger test", a check for a hymen as proof of sexual activity. This occurred despite a Maharashtra Government Resolution (GR) on 10 May 2013 which ordered that the test no longer be conducted stating, "The procedure (finger test) is degrading, crude and medically and scientifically irrelevant ... Information about past sexual conduct has been considered irrelevant." == Arrests == As the report was received, Mumbai Police formed 20 teams and officers from 12 crime branch units and 16 police stations were involved in the case. Police detained 20 men after the victim lodged a complaint following the attack. All five accused in the photojournalist case were arrested by Mumbai Police in about 65 hours after the complaint was registered around 8:30 pm on 22 August. The accused in the gang rape of the photojournalist were Vijay Jadhav, Siraj Rehman Khan alias Sirju, Chand Shaikh, Mohamed Kasim Hafiz Sheikh alias Kasim, and Mohammed Salim Ansari. The accused in the gang rape of the telephone operator were Vijay Jadhav, Mohamed Kasim Hafiz Sheikh, Mohammed Salim Ansari, Mohammed Ashfaq Sheikh (26) and an unnamed minor. Chand Shaikh was the first to be arrested. He was arrested in the early hours of 23 August from his residence in the Dhobi Ghat slum in Saat Raasta. He sold vegetables along with his grandmother for a living. Vijay Jadhav (aged 19) was the second accused to be arrested. He was sleeping at a video club at Dagad Chawl in Madanpura, when he was arrested by police at around 3:00 am on 24 August. He resided with a friend on Ramji Barucha Marg behind Dhobi Ghat at Agripada. His parents, two sisters and two brothers, stayed at a rented flat at Jai Ambe Park in Virar (East). He had previously been arrested in 2011 for breaking into a house. Siraj Rehman Khan alias Sirju (24) was arrested from a hideout in Govandi on 24 August based on information police obtained from interrogating Shaikh and Jadhav. He worked odd-jobs at shops for a living. Siraj Khan lived on a footpath near Dhobi Ghat at Agripada. His mother was dead, and he had no contact with his father. Siraj Rehman Khan was also an accused in another case in Thane. Television news reports claimed that Siraj Khan, had escaped from the Thane jail where the accused had been detained. This was confirmed by Special Public Prosecutor (SPP) Ujjwal Nikam who stated, "Siraj Rahman Khan, an accused in Shakti Mills gang-rape case of photojournalist, is untraceable." The report was later found to be incorrect. Qasim Shaikh (21) was arrested at 3:30 am on 25 August, outside Nair Hospital in Agripada. Police received a tipoff at 2:30 am from the relative of a patient admitted at the hospital who identified the accused from police sketches. Following the crime, Qasim Shaikh had returned to his residence at Kalapani in Agripada. He began watching television, when he received a call from a police constable inquiring about his whereabouts. His mother claims that he changed his shirt after receiving the call, then took ₹50 from her and left the house. Salim Ansari (27), who police described as the chief planner of the crime, was the last to be arrested. He was arrested by Delhi Police on the Delhi-Haryana border at 11:00 am on 25 August. Ansari had hidden in Govandi following the crime, and fled to Delhi on a long-distance train that he probably boarded from Kurla. Ansari hid at a relative's house in the Bharat Nagar slum, and planned to flee to Nepal. He was arrested by police while out for a walk. An officer stated that he "seemed oblivious to the possibility of the police looking for him. He was calmly going towards his relative's place when a police team of four swooped down on him." The Times of India reported that Mumbai Police used mobile phone tracking to locate Ansari, and told Delhi Police where to find him. He was produced before a Delhi court, and brought back to Mumbai on 25 August. == Trial == On 19 September 2013, the Mumbai crime branch filed charges against the four adults, and the report on charges against a minor delinquent was given to the juvenile court. The accused were charged under various sections of Indian Penal Code (IPC), including 376(d) for gang rape, 377 for unnatural offence, 120(b) for criminal conspiracy, sections 342 and 343 for wrongful restraint, section 506(2) for criminal intimidation and 34 for common intention and 201 for destruction of evidence. The sessions court ordered the prosecution to start trail proceedings in the case from 14 October 2013. The prosecution wanted to add a charge under section 67A of Information Technology Act (punishment for publishing or transmitting of material containing sexually explicit act in electronic form). This charge of section 67A is only against Ansari as he was the one who showed porn clips to survivor. Shalini Phansalkar-Joshi was the Principal Sessions judge of the fast track sessions court which hearing both cases. The court informed special public prosecutor Ujjwal Nikam that since the matter is on fast track, the trial should be completed within 60 days. The court further held that the trial in the case would run on regular basis. On 14 October 2013, the first day of the trial, three panch (independent) witnesses gave their statements. The photojournalist's mother wept continuously during her two-hour deposition before the sessions court on 15 October. The photojournalist's boss also made his deposition the same day. The proceedings were held "in-camera" on the second and third days. On 17 October, the 22-year-old photojournalist deposed in the court in front of four of her assaulters, and identified them during a four-hour deposition. The telephone operator deposed before the court on 30 October. According to Nikam, "As the proceedings began in the morning, the girl started weeping. She was trembling. Assuming that she was afraid of the accused, the judge ordered that a partition be put up between them. She still could not stop weeping. I told the court that she is a brave girl and she would give her statement. After some time, she regained her composure. She said she would talk about her ordeal. She then recognised four of the five accused present in the court." The friend of the telephone operator who accompanied her to the mill when the gang rape occurred deposed before the court on 20 November 2013. On 13 January 2014, the photojournalist's male colleague testified before the court on-camera, and identified all the accused. On 15 July 2014, Juvenile Justice Board convicted the two juvenile rapists involved in the crimes and sentenced them to three years at a Nashik reform school. The maximum punishment for a juvenile offender under Indian law is three years, which includes time in custody. == Verdict and sentencing == On 20 March 2014, the sessions court convicted all five adult accused on 13 counts, including gang rape, destruction of evidence, wrongful restraint, assault, common intention, unnatural sex, criminal conspiracy of the IPC and certain Sections of the Information Technology Act. "These accused have a criminal tendency and should be awarded strictest of punishment, which will serve as a deterrent," special public prosecutor Ujjwal Nikam told the court. Vijay Jadhav, Mohammad Qasim Shaikh, and Mohammad Salim Ansari, were convicted in both the gang rape cases, while Siraj Khan and Mohammad Ashfaque Shaikh were found guilty in the photojournalist and telephone operator cases respectively. On 21 March, the Mumbai sessions court awarded life sentences to four of the accused in the telephone operator case. Principal Sessions judge Shalini Phansalkar-Joshi said, "The manner in which the offence was committed reflects the depravity of the accused. The crime was not an impulsive act, but the premeditated outcome of a criminal conspiracy. They sexually ravished the girl and left her in a pathetic state. A proper signal has to be sent out to society. Even if in this case the accused are not reformed, others like them will be deterred. In some cases, mercy is justified. But in this case it would be misplaced and would be a mockery of justice". Following the conviction of the three repeat offenders (Vijay Jadhav, Qasim, and Mohammed Salim Ansari) in both gang rapes, on 4 April prosecutor Nikam moved an application to add charges against them under section 376E of the IPC, which provides for the death sentence for repeated rape convictions. The section was introduced by the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act in 2013, in the aftermath of the 2012 Delhi gang rape. Demanding the death penalty, Nikam told the court, "The accused are sex-starved goons in shape of humans. They deserve maximum sentence. Any leniency shown to the accused would be a mockery of justice. Their crime has shocked collective consciousness." On 4 April 2014, the court awarded the death penalty to the three repeat offenders in the photojournalist rape case. This was the first time that rapists in India were given death sentences under section 376E of the IPC. Siraj Khan, the other convict in the photojournalist case, was sentenced to life imprisonment. Awarding the death penalty, the judge stated, "Mumbai gang-rape accused have least respect for law. They don't have potential for reformation as per facts of case. The suffering that gang-rape survivor and her family has undergone is unparalleled. Mumbai gang-rape accused were emboldened since law enforcing agencies hadn't caught them. If this is not the case where death sentence prescribed by law is not valid, which is? Exemplary and rarest of rare punishment is required in the case." The judge further added that the crime violated all rights of the survivor. Joshi further observed, "The gang-rape accused were not only enjoying the act of sexual assault but also the survivor's helplessness. It was executed in the most gruesome manner with no mercy or show of human dignity to the survivor. The accused were acting in pursuance of criminal conspiracy as judicially proved. The defence argued that the convicts were "deprived of basic fundamental rights" and that their poor socioeconomic status should be taken into consideration. However, citing judgments by the Supreme Court, the judge stated that "Conviction cannot be dependent on the social and the economic status of the victim or the accused and the race, caste, creed of the accused cannot be taken into consideration." Joshi ruled, "Depravity of their character is reflected from the fact that the accused enjoyed the act. They did not commit the crime under any duress or compulsion. They had enjoyed the act. This was a case, where the accused were completely unprovoked. The judge also rubbished the defence's claims that the victims had suffered no physical injuries. The judge question whether such submissions made it appear like the accused had "done some charity by letting her leave uninjured". The judge further ruled, "This court had an opportunity to understand the trauma as she recalled them at the time of her testimony in the court. Questions like whether she has suffered any injuries are irrelevant and her trauma cannot be overlooked. Her testimony and her mother's deposition in the court clearly tell how heinous the crime was." Rejecting the accused plea for leniency, the judge rule, "A defenseless, harmless victim was raped by the accused unprovoked ... This did not happen because of some momentary lapse." Applauding the victim for her courage, the court observed, "This case would have also gone unreported if the victim had not come ahead and complained to the police. She took a bold step and lodged the complaint. Because of her, this and the other crime [the telephone operator case] came to light." === Commutation of death penalty === On 25 November 2021, the Bombay High Court commuted the three death sentences to life imprisonment. A division bench of Justices Sadhana Jadhav and Prithviraj Chavan ruled, "While setting aside the sentence of death penalty, it may appear to the public at large that we play a counter majoritarian role. However, the Constitutional Courts are bound to take into consideration the judicial mandate not by considering just individual rights or the rights of the criminal, but to follow the procedure established by law. At the cost of reiteration, we would observe that Section 376E of the Indian Penal Code is not a substantive offence, but is a punishment contemplated for repeat offenders under section 376D, 376DA, 376DB of Indian Penal Code. We would not take a pedantic approach to mean that it contemplates commission of an offence after the first conviction as under section 75 of the Indian Penal Code. But it would mean that the sentence of death penalty may be awarded in a case which is tried after the first conviction for a similar offence." The Court also noted, "Death puts an end to the whole concept of repentance, any sufferings and mental agony". The Court also observed, "Although the offence is barbaric and heinous, it cannot be said at the threshold that the accused deserve only death penalty and nothing less than that". However, the Court refused to permit any possibility of release stating, "We are of the opinion that in the facts of the present case, the convicts deserve the punishment of rigorous Imprisonment for life i.e. the whole of the remainder of their natural life in order to repent for the offence committed by them. The convicts in the present case do not deserve to assimilate with the society, as it would be difficult to survive in a society of such men who look upon women with derision, depravity, contempt and objects of desire. The conduct of the accused, and their bold confession to the survivor that she is not the first one to satisfy their lust, is sufficient to hold that there is no scope for reformation or rehabilitation. We therefore, feel that a sentence of rigorous imprisonment for the remainder of their natural life without any remission, parole or furlough would meet the ends of justice." == Reactions == Then Samajwadi Party (SP) MLA Naresh Agarwal (now in BJP) sparked a controversy over the brutal Mumbai gang-rape, saying that women needed to pay attention to their clothes to avoid being raped. Agarwal also said that women should not be too influenced by television. Reacting to the verdict, the mother of the telephone operator, stated, "They deserved death. If there was any harsher punishment than this, their crimes would merit that too. This crime is a blot on society. If rapists like them are set free, it will only encourage molesters and rapists, and send a wrong message to society. Also, it is necessary that equal urgency is shown in all rape and molestation cases. This incident has changed our lives. We live in a locality where word spreads very fast. Some of our neighbours have made our lives hell. They taunt us when we pass. While she has been struggling to overcome the trauma, the local boys have not been letting her do that. She is often chased by youths in the area. When we venture out for family functions, we feel the difference in our relatives' approach towards us." She also added that the quick conviction was only due to the proximity of the 2014 general elections. On 10 April 2014, SP chief Mulayam Singh Yadav said, "When boys and girls have differences, the girl gives a statement that 'the boy raped me,' and that poor boy gets a death sentence." Referring to the Mumbai gang rape he stated, "... later they had differences, and the girl went and gave a statement that I have been raped. And then the poor fellows, three of them have been sentenced to death. Should rape cases lead to hanging? Boys are boys, they make mistakes. Two or three have been given the death sentence in Mumbai." Complaints were filed against Yadav with the Election Commission and the National Commission for Women (NCW). His comments were denounced by the Indian media, women's groups, women's rights activists, public prosecutor in the Shakti Mills gang rape case Ujjwal Nikam, Bollywood celebrities, and a large section of Uttar Pradesh residents. The Times of India stated, "Even by his misogynistic standards, he [Yadav] seems to have sunk to a new low ... The change in the laws was brought on after months of selfless demonstration by citizens striving to bring about a change in India's social outlook. By terming rape as 'just another mistake boys make, Mulayam has just rendered a slap in the face of their effort. The parents of the 2012 Delhi gang rape victim strongly criticized Mulayam and asked people not to vote for his party in the next election. The victim's mother stated, "Raping a girl cannot be called a mistake, it is a crime. A leader who gives such a statement doesn't have any right to be in the power." The remarks were criticized by both Bharatiya Janata Party and Indian National Congress politicians, some of whom also demanded that Mulayam apologize for his statements. Rashtriya Janata Dal President Lalu Prasad Yadav criticized Mulayam stating, "He seems to have lost his mental balance. There is no place for rapists in the society. They deserve strong punishment." Political leaders like Raj Thackeray and then Prime Minister candidate Narendra Modi heavily condemned Yadav for insensitive comments and anti-women views while appearing on Aap Ki Adalat. Mulayam was defended by his daughter-in-law Dimple Yadav, wife of Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Akhilesh Yadav, who stated that such comments "are made by a lot of people and it happens at time." In the wake of a gang rape in Budaun district, Uttar Pradesh on 27 May 2014, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon criticised Mulayam Singh's statement saying, "We say no to the dismissive, destructive attitude of 'boys will be boys'." Following Yadav's comments, he and several Samajwadi Party leaders were labeled as "Supporters of Rape and Rapists". The day following Yadav's comments, SP Maharashtra unit chief Abu Azmi told Mid-Day, "Any woman if, whether married or unmarried, goes along with a man, with or without her consent, should be hanged. Rape is punishable by hanging in Islam. But here, nothing happens to women, only to men. Even the woman is guilty. Girls complain when someone touches them, and even when someone doesn't touch them. It becomes a problem then ... If rape happens with or without consent, it should be punished as prescribed in Islam." He also said, "See, I don't know what context he said it in. But, at times, the wrong people are awarded the death penalty. Boys do it in josh (Hindi: excitement), but what can I say in this? The death sentence should be given. I won't speak against Islam." Azmi's comments were widely criticized in India. == See also == 2012 Delhi gang rape 2014 Badaun gang rape Rape in India Category:Rape in India == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Huemer#:~:text=While%20as%20an%20artist%2Dillustrator,the%20Koko%20the%20Clown%20character.	Dick Huemer	Richard Huemer (January 2, 1898 – November 30, 1979) was an American animator in the Golden Age of Animation. == Career == While as an artist-illustrator living in the Bronx, New York City, Huemer first began his career in animation at the Raoul Barré cartoon studio in 1916. He joined the Fleischer Studio in 1923 where he developed the Koko the Clown character. He redesigned the "Clown" for more efficient animation production and moved the Fleischer's away from their dependency upon the Rotoscope for fluid animation. Huemer created Ko-Ko's canine companion, Fitz. Most importantly, Huemer set the drawing style that gave the series its distinctive look. Later he moved to Hollywood and worked as an animator and director for the Charles Mintz studio creating the character Scrappy. He subsequently moved to the Disney Studio, where he remained for the duration of his career, except for a three-year hiatus from 1948–51 when he pioneered animated TV commercials and created with Paul Murry The Adventures of Buck O'Rue comic strip. Some of Huemer's most creative work was done in partnership with Joe Grant; examples include Fantasia (story director), Dumbo (screenplay), and several propaganda films to advance the U.S. war effort during World War II. Atypically, Huemer and Grant submitted Dumbo to Walt Disney not as a completed storyboard, but as a series of storyboard "chapters," each ending in a cliffhanger. This was intended to pique Disney's enthusiasm for the project, and it worked. Huemer was at the Disney organization from April 16, 1933, to February 28, 1973. == Awards and accomplishments == Huemer was given a Mousecar by the Disney Studio in February 1973 at a ceremony attended by a number of his peers. He accepted the Winsor McCay Award at the Annie Awards in October 1978 and was introduced by Ward Kimball. On October 10, 2007, Huemer's son Dr. Richard P. Huemer accepted the Disney Legends award that was given in his father's name. == Filmography == === Director === Goofy and Wilbur (1939) The Whalers (1938) Scrappy's Auto Show (1933) Hollywood Babies (1933) Sandman Tails (1933) Movie Struck (1933) The World's Affair (1933) Technocracked (1933) The Match Kid (1933) False Alarm (1933) Beer Parade (1933) Scrappy's Party (1933) Sassy Cats (1933) The Wolf at the Door (1932) The Bad Genius (1932) Flop House (1932) The Great Bird Mystery (1932) Black Sheep (1932) Camping Out (1932) Fare Play (1932) Battle of the Barn (1932) Stepping Stones (1932) The Pet Shop (1932) Railroad Wretch (1932) The Treasure Runt (1932) Minding the Baby (1932) The Chinatown Mystery (1932) Showing Off (1931) The Dog Snatcher (1931) Sunday Clothes (1931) Little Pest (1931) Yelp Wanted (1931) The Museum (1930) === Writer === ==== Features/package films ==== Alice in Wonderland (1951) Peter and the Wolf (1946) Make Mine Music (1946) Saludos Amigos (1943) Dumbo (1941) The Reluctant Dragon (1941) Fantasia (1940) (story director) ==== TV shows (some dates uncertain) ==== Disneyland: "An Adventure in Art" (1958) #5694 Disneyland: "Tricks of Our Trade" (1956) #5664 Disneyland: "The Plausible Impossible" (1956) #5644 Disneyland: "The Story of the Animated Drawing" (1955) #5605 "Concerto con Doodle" (195?) (never aired) The Roy Williams Show (c. 1950) ==== Cartoons ==== Toot, Whistle, Plunk and Boom (1953)* Melody (1953) Chicken Little (1943) Reason and Emotion (1943) Education for Death (1942) Der Fuehrer's Face (1942)* The New Spirit (1942) === Animator === Wynken, Blynken and Nod (1938) Lonesome Ghosts (1937) Little Hiawatha (1937) ...a.k.a. Hiawatha (1937) Don Donald (1937) Mickey's Elephant (1936) Alpine Climbers (1936) Mickey's Rival (1936) Mickey's Polo Team (1936) Broken Toys (1935) Music Land (1935) Mickey's Garden (1935) Water Babies (1935) The Band Concert (1935) The Tortoise and the Hare (1934)* The Goddess of Spring (1934) Peculiar Penguins (1934) The Wise Little Hen (1934) Funny Little Bunnies (1934) The Grasshopper and the Ants (1934) The China Shop (1934) The Night Before Christmas (1933) Giantland (1933) The Steeplechase (1933) The Pied Piper (1933) Puppy Love (1933) Lullaby Land (1933) By the Light of the Silvery Moon (1927) Koko In 1999 (1927) Hell Is Freezing Over (c. 1926) Koko the Barber (1925) Oh Mabel (1924) More for Fleischer, Associated Animators, and Raoul Barré – to be updated later. * Denotes AMPAS ("Academy") Award. == Miscellaneous at Disney's == === Books === Baby Weems 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea True Life Adventures === Newspaper features === True-Life Adventures (March 14, 1955 – February 27, 1973) === Phonograph records === The Who-zis and The What-zis Melody Toot, Whistle, Plunk, and Boom A Christmas Adventure in Disneyland == References == == Sources == Huemer.com Note to editors, this link does not work == External links == Disney Legends Image Annie Award Image Dick Huemer at IMDb
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_European_martial_arts	Historical European martial arts	Historical European martial arts (HEMA) are martial arts of European origin, particularly using arts formerly practised, but having since died out or evolved into very different forms. While there is limited surviving documentation of the martial arts of classical antiquity (such as Greek wrestling or gladiatorial combat), most of the surviving dedicated technical treatises or martial arts manuals date to the late medieval period and the early modern period. For this reason, the focus of HEMA is de facto on the period of the half-millennium of ca. 1300 to 1800, with a German, Italian, and Spanish school flowering in the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance (14th to 16th centuries), followed by French, English, and Scottish schools of fencing in the modern period (17th and 18th centuries). Martial arts of the 19th century such as classical fencing, and even early hybrid styles such as Bartitsu, may also be included in the term HEMA in a wider sense, as may traditional or folkloristic styles attested in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including forms of folk wrestling and traditional stick-fighting methods. The term Western martial arts (WMA) is sometimes used in the United States and in a wider sense including modern and traditional disciplines. During the Late Middle Ages, the longsword had a position of honour among these disciplines, and sometimes historical European swordsmanship (HES) is used to refer to swordsmanship techniques specifically. == History of European martial arts == === Ancient history === The earliest Western book about the fighting arts currently known (c. 2025), Epitoma rei militaris, was written into Latin by a Roman writer, Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus, who lived in Rome between the fourth and fifth centuries. There are no other known Western martial arts manuals predating the Late Middle Ages (except for fragmentary instructions on Greek wrestling, see Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 466), although medieval literature (e.g., sagas of Icelanders, Eastern Roman Acritic songs, the Digenes Akritas and Middle High German epics) record specific martial deeds and military knowledge; in addition, historical artwork depicts combat and weaponry (e.g., the Bayeux Tapestry, the Synopsis of Histories by John Skylitzes, the Morgan Bible). Some researchers have attempted to reconstruct older fighting methods such as Pankration, Eastern Roman hoplomachia, Viking swordsmanship and gladiatorial combat by reference to these sources and practical experimentation. The Royal Armouries Ms. I.33 (also known as the "Walpurgis" or "Tower Fechtbuch"), dated to c. 1300, is the oldest surviving Fechtbuch, teaching sword and buckler combat. === Post-classical history === The central figure of late medieval martial arts, at least in Germany, is Johannes Liechtenauer. Though no manuscript written by him is known to have survived, his teachings were first recorded in the late 14th-century Nürnberger Handschrift GNM 3227a. From the 15th to the 17th century, numerous Fechtbücher (German 'fencing-books') were produced, of which some several hundred are extant; a great many of these describe methods descended from Liechtenauer's. Liechtenauer's Zettel (recital) remains one of the most famous — if cryptic — pieces of European martial arts scholarship to this day, with several translations and interpretations of the poem being put into practice by fencers and scholars around the world. Normally, several modes of combat were taught alongside one another, typically unarmed grappling (Kampfringen or abrazare), dagger (Degen or daga, often of the rondel dagger), long knife (Messer), or Dusack, half- or quarterstaff, polearms, longsword (Langesschwert, spada longa, spadone), and combat in plate armour (Harnischfechten or armazare), both on foot and on horseback. Some Fechtbücher have sections on dueling shields (Stechschild), special weapons used only in trial by combat. Important 15th century German fencing masters include Sigmund Ringeck, Peter von Danzig (see Cod. 44 A 8), Hans Talhoffer and Paulus Kal, all of whom taught the teachings of Liechtenauer. From the late 15th century, there were "brotherhoods" of fencers (Fechtbruderschaften), most notably the Brotherhood of St. Mark (attested 1474) and the Federfechter. An early Burgundian French treatise is Le jeu de la hache (The Play of the Axe) of ca. 1400. The earliest master to write in the Italian language was Fiore dei Liberi, commissioned by the Marquis di Ferrara. Between 1407 and 1410, he documented comprehensive fighting techniques in a treatise entitled Flos Duellatorum covering grappling, dagger, arming sword, longsword, pole-weapons, armoured combat, and mounted combat. The Italian school is continued by Filippo Vadi (1482–1487) and Pietro Monte (1492, Latin with Italian and Spanish terms). Three early (before George Silver) natively English swordplay texts exist, but are all very obscure and from uncertain dates; they are generally thought to belong to the latter half of the 15th century. === Early modern period === ==== Renaissance ==== In the 16th century, compendia of older Fechtbücher techniques were produced, some of them printed, notably by Paulus Hector Mair (in the 1540s) and by Joachim Meyer (in the 1570s). The extent of Mair's writing is unmatched by any other German master, and is considered invaluable by contemporary scholars. In Germany, fencing had developed sportive tendencies during the 16th century. The treatises of Paulus Hector Mair and Joachim Meyer derived from the teachings of the earlier centuries within the Liechtenauer tradition, but with new and distinctive characteristics. The printed Fechtbuch of Jacob Sutor (1612) is one of the last in the German tradition. In Italy, the 16th century was a period of big change. It opened with the two treatises of Bolognese masters Antonio Manciolino and Achille Marozzo, who described a variation of the eclectic knightly arts of the previous century. From sword and buckler to sword and dagger, sword alone to two-handed sword, from polearms to wrestling (though absent in Manciolino), early 16th-century Italian fencing reflected the versatility that a martial artist of the time was supposed to have achieved. Towards the mid-16th century, however, polearms and companion weapons besides the dagger and the cape gradually began to fade out of treatises. In 1553, Camillo Agrippa was the first to define the prima, seconda, terza, and quarta guards (or hand-positions), which would remain the mainstay of Italian fencing into the next century and beyond. From the late 16th century, Italian rapier fencing attained considerable popularity all over Europe, notably with the treatise by Salvator Fabris (1606). Antonio Manciolino (1531, Italian) Achille Marozzo (1536, Italian) Angelo Viggiani (1551, Italian) Camillo Agrippa (1553, Italian) Jerónimo Sánchez de Carranza (1569, Spanish) Giacomo di Grassi (1570, Italian) Giovanni Dall'Agocchie (1572, Italian) Henry de Sainct-Didier (1573, French) Angelo Viggiani (1575, Italian) Frederico Ghisliero (1587, Italian) Vincentio Saviolo (1595, Italian) Girolamo Cavalcabo (1597, Italian) George Silver (1599, English) ==== Baroque style ==== During the Baroque period, wrestling fell from favour among the upper classes, being now seen as unrefined and rustic. The fencing styles practice also needed to conform to the new ideals of elegance and harmony. This ideology was taken to great lengths in Spain in particular, where La Verdadera Destreza 'the true art (of swordsmanship)' was now based on Renaissance humanism and scientific principles, contrasting with the traditional "vulgar" approach to fencing inherited from the medieval period. Significant masters of Destreza included Jerónimo Sánchez de Carranza ("the father of Destreza", d. 1600) and Luis Pacheco de Narváez (1600, 1632). Girard Thibault (1630) was a Dutch master influenced by these ideals. The French school of fencing also moves away from its Italian roots, developing its own terminology, rules and systems of teaching. French masters of the Baroque period include Le Perche du Coudray (1635, 1676, teacher of Cyrano de Bergerac), Besnard (1653, teacher of Descartes), François Dancie (1623) and Philibert de la Touche (1670). In the 17th century, Italian swordsmanship was dominated by Salvator Fabris, whose De lo schermo overo scienza d'arme of 1606 exerted great influence not only in Italy, but also in Germany, where it all but extinguished the native German traditions of fencing. Fabris was followed by Italian masters such as Nicoletto Giganti (1606), Ridolfo Capo Ferro (1610), Francesco Alfieri (1640), Francesco Antonio Marcelli (1686) and Bondi' di Mazo (1696). The Elizabethan and Jacobean eras produce English fencing writers, such as the Gentleman George Silver (1599) and the professional fencing master Joseph Swetnam (1617). The English verb to fence is first attested in Shakespeare's Merry Wives of Windsor (1597). The French school of fencing originated in the 16th century, which is based on the Italian school, and developed into its classical form during the Baroque period. ==== Rococo style ==== In the 18th century, during the late Baroque and Rococo period, the French style of fencing with the small sword and later with the foil (fleuret), originated as a training weapon for small sword fencing. By 1715, the rapier had been largely replaced by the lighter and handier small sword throughout most of Europe, although treatments of the former continued to be included by authors such as Donald McBane (1728), P. J. F. Girard (1736) and Domenico Angelo (1763). In this time, bare-knuckle boxing emerged as a popular sport in England and Ireland. The foremost pioneers of the sport of boxing were Englishmen James Figg and Jack Broughton. Throughout the course of the 18th century, the French school became the western European standard to the extent that Angelo, an Italian-born master teaching in England, published his L'École des Armes in French in 1763. It was extremely successful and became a standard fencing manual over the following 50 years, throughout the Napoleonic period. Angelo's text was so influential that it was chosen to be included under the heading of Éscrime in the Encyclopédie of Diderot. === Late modern period === ==== Development into modern sports ==== In the 19th century, Western martial arts became divided into modern sports on one-handed fencing and applications that retain military significance on the other. In the latter category are the methods of close-quarter combat with the bayonet, besides use of the sabre and the lance by cavalrists and of the cutlass by naval forces. The English longbow is another European weapon that is still used in the sport of archery. Apart from the many styles of fencing, European combat sports of the 19th century include Boxing in England, Savate in France, and regional forms of wrestling such as Cumberland and Westmorland Wrestling, Lancashire Wrestling, and Cornish Wrestling. Fencing in the 19th century transformed into a pure sport. While duels remained common among members of the aristocratic classes, they became increasingly frowned upon in society during the course of the century, and such duels as were fought to the death were increasingly fought with pistols, instead of bladed weapons. ==== Stick fighting ==== Styles of stick fighting include walking-stick fighting (including Irish bata or shillelagh, French la canne and English singlestick) and Bartitsu (an early hybrid of Eastern and Western schools popularized at the turn of the 20th century). Some existing forms of European stick fighting can be traced to direct teacher-student lineages from the 19th century. Notable examples include the methods of Scottish and British Armed Services singlestick, la canne and bâton français, Portuguese jogo do pau, Italian Paranza or Bastone Siciliano, and some styles of Canarian juego del palo. In the 19th century and early 20th century, the greatstick (pau/bâton/bastone) was employed by some Portuguese, French, and Italian military academies as a method of exercise, recreation, and as preparation for bayonet training. A third category might be traditional "folk styles", mostly folk wrestling. Greco-Roman wrestling was a discipline at the first modern Olympic Games in 1896. Inclusion of freestyle wrestling followed in 1904. ==== 19th century revival ==== Attempts at reconstructing the discontinued traditions of European systems of combat began in the late 19th century, with a revival of interest from the Middle Ages. The movement was led in England by the soldier, writer, antiquarian, and swordsman, Alfred Hutton. Hutton learned fencing at the school founded by Domenico Angelo. In 1862, he organized in his regiment stationed in India the Cameron Fencing Club, for which he prepared his first work, a 12-page booklet entitled Swordsmanship. After returning home from India in 1865, Hutton focused on the study and revival of older fencing systems and schools. He began tutoring groups of students in the art of 'ancient swordplay' at a club attached to the London Rifle Brigade School of Arms in the 1880s. In 1889, Hutton published his most influential work Cold Steel: A Practical Treatise on the Sabre, which presented the historical method of military sabre use on foot, combining the 18th century English backsword with the modern Italian duelling sabre. Hutton's pioneering advocacy and practice of historical fencing included reconstructions of the fencing systems of several historical masters including George Silver and Achille Marozzo. He delivered numerous practical demonstrations with his colleague Egerton Castle of these systems during the 1890s, both in order to benefit various military charities and to encourage patronage of the contemporary methods of competitive fencing. Exhibitions were held at the Bath Club and a fund-raising event was arranged at Guy's Hospital. Among his many acolytes were Egerton Castle, Captain Carl Thimm, Colonel Cyril Matthey, Captain Percy Rolt, Captain Ernest George Stenson Cooke, Captain Frank Herbert Whittow, Esme Beringer, Sir Frederick, and Walter Herries Pollock. Despite this revival and the interest that was received in late Victorian England, the practice died out soon after the death of Hutton in 1910. Interest in the physical application of historical fencing techniques remained largely dormant during the first half of the 20th century, due to a number of factors. Similar work, although more academic than practical in nature, occurred in other European countries. In Germany, Karl Wassmannsdorf conducted research on the German school and Gustav Hergsell reprinted three of Hans Talhoffer's manuals. In France, there was the work of the Academie D'Armes circa 1880–1914. In Italy, Jacopo Gelli and Francesco Novati published a facsimile of the "Flos Duellatorum" of Fiore dei Liberi, and Giuseppe Cerri's book on the Bastone drew inspiration from the two-handed sword of Achille Marozzo. Baron Leguina's bibliography of Spanish swordsmanship is still a standard reference today. ==== 20th century ==== Starting in 1966, the Society for Creative Anachronism, an amateur medieval reenactment organization, renewed public interest in the practice of historic fighting arts, and has hosted numerous tournaments in which participants compete in simulated medieval and renaissance fighting styles using padded weapons. Dividing their focus between Heavy Armored Fighting, to simulate early medieval warfare, and adapted sport Rapier fencing, to reenact later renaissance styles, the SCA regularly holds large re-creation scenarios throughout the world. Their styles have been criticized by other groups as lacking historical authenticity, although a number of members of the group regularly engage in scholarship. A number of researchers, principally academics with access to some of the sources, continued exploring the field of historical European martial arts from a largely academic perspective. In 1972, James Jackson published a book called Three Elizabethan Manuals of Fence. This work reprinted the works of George Silver, Giacomo di Grassi, and Vincentio Saviolo. In 1965, Martin Wierschin published a bibliography of German fencing manuals, along with a transcription of Codex Ringeck and a glossary of terms. In turn, this led to the publication of Hans-Peter Hils' seminal work on Johannes Liechtenauer in 1985. During the mid-20th century, a small number of professional fight directors for theatre, film and television – notably including Arthur Wise. William Hobbs and John Waller, all of them British – studied historical combat treatises as inspiration for their fight choreography. In the 1980s and 1990s, Patri J. Pugliese began making photocopies of historical treatises available to interested parties, greatly spurring on research. In 1994, with the rise of the Hammerterz Forum, a publication devoted entirely to the history of swordsmanship. During the late 1990s, translations and interpretations of historical sources began appearing in print as well as online. == The modern HEMA community == Since the 1980s and 1990s, historical European martial arts communities have emerged in Europe, North America, Australia, and the wider English-speaking world. These groups attempt to reconstruct historical European martial arts using various training methods. Although the focus generally is on the martial arts of medieval and Renaissance masters, 19th- and early 20th-century martial arts teachers are also studied and their systems are reconstructed, including Edward William Barton-Wright, the founder of Bartitsu; combat savate and stick fighting master Pierre Vigny; London-based boxer and fencer Rowland George Allanson-Winn; French journalist and self-defence enthusiast Jean Joseph-Renaud; and British quarterstaff expert Thomas McCarthy. === Research and publications === Research into the rapier style of the innovative Roman, Neapolitan and Sicilian School of Fencing in Italy's 16th and 17th century was pioneered by M° Francesco Lodà, PhD, founder of Accademia Romana d'Armi in Rome, Italy. While research focused on the Marcelli family of fencing masters and their pupils in Rome and abroad (e.g. Mattei, Villardita, Marescalchi, De Greszy, Terracusa), through publication of papers and books on rapier fencing, attention was also paid to the influences of 16th century's masters active in Rome, such as Agrippa, Cavalcabò, Paternoster, or of the early 17th like D'Alessandri. Within Accademia Romana d'Armi historical research has continuously been carried out also on Fiore de' Liberi's longsword system, publishing the first Italian analysis and transcription of MS. Par. Lat. 11269, Radaelli's military saber and MS. I.33 sword and buckler, and more recently on Liechtenauer's tradition of fencing. Research into Italian sword forms and their influence on the French styles of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries has been undertaken by Rob Runacres of England's Renaissance Sword Club since 2013. Italian traditions are mainly investigated in Italy by Sala d'Arme Achille Marozzo, where you can find studies dedicated to the Bolognese tradition, to the Italian medieval tradition by Luca Cesari and Marco Rubboli, and to the Florentine tradition by Alessandro Battistini. Central and Southern Italian traditions are also investigated by Accademia Romana d'Armi, through the studies of Francesco Lodà on Spetioli (Marche) and Pagano (Neaples). Italian rapier instructors Tom Leoni (US) and Piermarco Terminiello (UK) have published annotated English translations of some of the most important rapier treatises of the 17th century, making this fencing style available to a worldwide audience. Leoni has also authored English translations of all of Fiore de' Liberi's Italian-language manuscripts, as well as Manciolino's Opera Nova and the third book of Viggiani's Lo Schermo. Ken Mondschein, one of the few professional academics working in this field, translated Camillo Agrippa's treatise of 1553 as well as the Paris manuscript of Fiore dei Liberi and written several academic articles. The martial traditions of the Netherlands are researched by Reinier van Noort, who additionally focuses on German and French martial sources of the 17th century. The ongoing study of the Germanic Langes Messer is most notably represented by the work of Jens Peter Kleinau and Martin Enzi. Dierk Hagedorn has also published significant translations. Leading researchers on Manuscript I.33's style of fence include Roland Warzecha, at the head of the Dimicator fencing school in Germany. Other fencing traditions are represented in the scholarship of Stephen Hand and Paul Wagner of Australia's Stoccata School of Defence, focusing on a range of systems, ranging from the works of George Silver and the techniques depicted in the Royal Armouries' Manuscript I.33 to the surviving evidence for how large shields were used, rapier according to Saviolo and Swetnam and Scottish Highland broadsword. Christian Henry Tobler is one of the earliest researchers on the German school of swordsmanship. Early publications also included books by Terry Brown, John Clements, David M. Cvet (self-published in 2001). In 2003, Stephen Hand edited a collection of scholarly papers titled SPADA, followed by a second volume in 2005. Since the mid-2000s, the rate of publication of HEMA related texts has greatly increased. A list of current publications is included below. === Events === Since 1998, Sala d'Arme Achille Marozzo has organized an annual championship in Italy. Due to the excessive number of participants, in 2011 this competitive event was split in two separate events: military weapons (in autumn) and civil weapons (in spring), extending the organization in a larger coalition of Italian HEMA clubs. Civilian weapons include single sword, sword and cape, sword and dagger, and sword and Brocchiero (Buckler). The military weapons are the two-handed sword, spear, shield and spear, sword and targe, and sword and rotella. The civil weapons championship is one of the largest HEMA tournaments in the world. Since 1999, a number of HEMA groups have held the Western Martial arts Workshop (WMAW) in the United States. In 2000, The Association for Renaissance Martial Arts (ARMA), then known as the "Historical Armed Combat Association" (HACA), hosted the Inaugural Swordplay Symposium International conference bringing together many of the then leading researchers from the US, Europe and Australia. Since 2003, ARMA has held the ARMA International Gathering every two to three years. The Fiore-oriented Schola Saint George has hosted a Medieval Swordsmanship Symposium annually in the United States since 2001. The annual Australian Historical Swordplay Convention, primarily a teaching event was hosted and attended by diverse Australian groups from 1999 to 2006. It was held in Brisbane in 1999 and 2006, Sydney in 2000 and 2004, Canberra in 2001 and 2005, the Gold Coast in 2003 and Melbourne in 2004. Since 2009, Swordplay, a tournament event has been run each year in Brisbane. Since 2002, Royal Arts Fencing Academy and the Rose & Gold foundation have hosted Ascalon Sword Festival, one of the largest HEMA tournaments in the United States. The event covers Olympic fencing, as well as the HEMA disciplines of longsword, rapier and dagger, military saber, and Harnisfechten. It was originally part of the larger Arnold Sports Festival as the Arnold Fencing Classic. Since 2004, FightCamp has been running and it is organized by London-based Schola Gladiatoria. Since 2006, a Swedish annual event called Swordfish has been taking place every year in Gothenburg, hosted by the Gothenburg Historical Fencing School (GHFS). It is currently one of the biggest HEMA tournaments in the world and is generally considered to be the "world cup of HEMA". Since 2006, a Canadian event called Nordschlag has been taking place annually in Edmonton, Alberta, hosted by The Academy of European Swordsmanship (The AES). It is Canada's first interprovincial tournament, and currently largest Canadian tournament, and has participants from all over Western Canada. The event also includes a full day workshop that features international and local instructors. Since 2010, The annual Pacific Northwest HEMA Gathering has been hosted by multiple schools and clubs in the Pacific Northwest. The tournament includes longsword, singlestick, glima, and one rotating weapon which is changed every year. The location of the event changes every year, and has been located at Fort Casey and Pacific Lutheran University. Since 2011, a biannual event called the Vancouver International Swordplay Symposium, has been held in Vancouver, Canada. Hosted by Academie Duello, this event has brought instructors, authors and researchers from around the world for workshops, lectures and seminars. Since 2012, the annual event SoCal Sword Fight has been hosted in Southern California. The event includes tournaments and classes in a variety of historical weapons, including some non-european weapons. In February 2023, the event had 329 registered fighters and over 500 participants. Since 2013, an annual event, Fechtschule Edinburgh, an event focusing on 16th century Fencing has been hosted in Edinburgh, UK, by the Stork's Beak: School of Historical Swordplay. This Event has attracted many practitioners from around the world. Since 2014, the Purpleheart Armoury Open has been held in Houston, TX. Formerly Fechtshule America, the Purpleheart Armoury Open is one of the largest and fastest growing HEMA competitions in North America. In 2015, Australia's Stoccata School of Defence hosted a revival of the World Broadsword Championship in Sydney, Australia. This event, held throughout the late 19th century in England, the United States and Australia was last won by Parker in Sydney in 1891. Parker was never challenged. The 2015 event was won by Paul Wagner of Sydney, also the current holder of the Glorianna Cup, the broadsword championship of Britain. Lewis Hand of Hobart, Australia won the junior title. In the tradition of the 19th century title, the championship is held in the home town of the current Champion. As such the next championship will be held in Sydney in early 2017. Jousting tournaments have become more common, with Jousters travelling Internationally to compete. These include a number organised by an expert in the Joust, Arne Koets, including The Grand Tournament of Sankt Wendel and The Grand Tournament at Schaffhausen Another type of event that is becoming more common is the sparring camp/fight camp. These events are often more casual than tournaments, with events and competitions not typical of more formal tournaments, and an emphasis on classes and sparring. === Umbrella groups === In 1998, the British Federation for Historical Swordplay was established as an umbrella organisation for UK groups. In 2001, the Historical European Martial Arts Coalition (HEMAC) was created to act as an umbrella organization for groups in Europe, with 4 sets of goals: Martial reconstruct historical martial arts from primary sources; refine interpretations into viable, effective martial arts; test martial skills in a variety of competitive environments Research locate, transcribe, translate primary sources; have a better understanding of the socio-historical context of the arts Outreach promote and publicise HEMA; dispel misconceptions & stereotypes; educate the general public Community establish a network of individuals and groups devoted to HEMA; foster close friendships and a sense of community among members; organise at least one annual HEMAC event. Since 2002, HEMAC has organized the annual International Historical European Martial arts Gathering in Dijon, France. In 2003, the Australian Historical Swordplay Federation became the umbrella organization for groups in Australia. In 2010, several dozen HEMA schools and clubs from around the world united under the umbrella of the HEMA Alliance, a US-based martial arts federation dedicated to developing and sharing the Historical European Martial Arts and assisting HEMA schools and instructors with such things as instructor certification, insurance, and equipment development. In 2012, Ruth García Navarro and Mariana López Rodríguez started Esfinges, an umbrella affinity group for women in or interested in HEMA. The goal of Esfinges is to encourage more participation of underrepresented genders in HEMA, and to support those already practicing the discipline. == See also == == References == == Further reading == == External links == A Chronological History of the Martial arts and Combative Sports 1350–1699 by Joseph R. Svinth Historical European Martial Arts: Studies & Sources. On-line historical and literary magazine for Russian speaking and partly for English speaking readers. HROARR, an online repository of articles and other resources on historical European martial arts and sports Wiktenauer, the world's largest library of historical European martial arts treatises, currently complete up to the late 1500s AEMMA – Academy of European Medieval Martial Arts Official website of HEMA ITALIA – Societas Artis Gladii – Information Point of Italian Martial Arts Academy of Medieval Fencing and Culture – HEMA in Russia Fencing club "NoName" – HEMA in Russia Acta Periodica Duellatorum, a peer-reviewed journal of historical European martial arts research Meyer Freifechter Guild, International Fencing Guild with a mission to educate people on the efficacy and art of Medieval & Renaissance martial arts.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary_at_the_1964_Summer_Olympics	Hungary at the 1964 Summer Olympics	Hungary competed at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan. 182 competitors, 150 men and 32 women, took part in 111 events in 17 sports. == Medalists == === Gold === Árpád Bárány, Tamás Gábor, István Kausz, Győző Kulcsár, and Zoltán Nemere — Fencing, Men's Épée Team Competition Tibor Pézsa — Fencing, Men's Sabre Individual Ildikó Rejtő — Fencing, Women's Foil Individual Paula Marosi, Katalin Juhász, Judit Ágoston, Lídia Dömölky, and Ildikó Rejtő — Fencing, Women's Foil Team Competition Ferenc Török — Modern Pentathlon, Men's Individual Competition László Hammerl — Shooting, Men's Small-bore Rifle, prone Imre Polyák — Wrestling, Men's Greco-Roman Featherweight István Kozma — Wrestling, Men's Greco-Roman Heavyweight Ferenc Bene, Tibor Csernai, János Farkas, József Gelei, Kálmán Ihász, Sándor Katona, Imre Komora, Ferenc Nógrádi, Dezső Novák, Árpád Orbán, Károly Palotai, Antal Szentmihályi, Gusztáv Szepesi, and Zoltán Varga — Football (soccer), Men's Team Competition Miklós Ambrus, András Bodnár, Ottó Boros, Zoltán Dömötör, László Felkai, Dezső Gyarmati, Tivadar Kanizsa, György Kárpáti, János Konrád, Mihály Mayer, Dénes Pócsik, and Péter Rusorán — Water Polo, Men's Team Competition === Silver === Gyula Zsivótzky — Athletics, Men's Hammer Throw Gergely Kulcsár — Athletics, Men's Javelin Throw Márta Rudas — Athletics, Women's Javelin Throw Mihály Hesz — Canoeing, Men's K1 1000m Kayak Singles Katalin Makray — Gymnastics, Women's Uneven Bars Imre Földi — Weightlifting, Men's Bantamweight Géza Tóth — Weightlifting, Men's Light Heavyweight === Bronze === Vilmos Varju — Athletics, Men's Shot Put Anikó Ducza — Gymnastics, Women's Floor Exercises Imre Nagy, Ferenc Török and Ottó Török — Modern Pentathlon, Men's Team Competition László Hammerl — Shooting, Men's Small-bore Rifle, Three Positions Győző Veres — Weightlifting, Men's Light Heavyweight == Athletics == == Basketball == == Boxing == == Canoeing == == Cycling == Seven cyclists represented Hungary in 1964. Individual road race János Juszkó András Mészáros Antal Megyerdi László Mahó Team time trial János Juszkó András Mészáros László Mahó Ferenc Stámusz Sprint Richárd Bicskey Ferenc Habony 1000m time trial Ferenc Habony Tandem Richárd Bicskey Ferenc Habony == Diving == == Fencing == 20 fencers, 15 men and 5 women, represented Hungary in 1964. Hungarian fencers topped the medal table for the event, with four gold. Men's foil Jenő Kamuti Sándor Szabó József Gyuricza Men's team foil Jenő Kamuti, László Kamuti, József Gyuricza, Sándor Szabó, Béla Gyarmati Men's épée Zoltán Nemere Győző Kulcsár István Kausz Men's team épée Győző Kulcsár, Zoltán Nemere, Tamás Gábor, István Kausz, Árpád Bárány Men's sabre Tibor Pézsa Attila Kovács Péter Bakonyi Men's team sabre Péter Bakonyi, Miklós Meszéna, Attila Kovács, Zoltán Horváth, Tibor Pézsa Women's foil Ildikó Ságiné Ujlakyné Rejtő Katalin Nagyné Juhász Lídia Sákovicsné Dömölky Women's team foil Ildikó Ságiné Ujlakyné Rejtő, Lídia Sákovicsné Dömölky, Katalin Nagyné Juhász, Judit Ágoston-Mendelényi, Paula Marosi == Football == == Gymnastics == == Modern pentathlon == Three male pentathletes represented Hungary in 1964. Ferenc Török won an individual gold and the team won bronze. Individual Ferenc Török Imre Nagy Ottó Török Team Ferenc Török Imre Nagy Ottó Török == Sailing == == Shooting == Eight shooters represented Hungary in 1964. László Hammerl won gold in the 50 m rifle, prone and won the bronze in the 50 m rifle, three positions. 25 m pistol Szilárd Kun Gábor Balla 50 m pistol Lajos Kelemen Ferenc Gönczi 300 m rifle, three positions Zoltán Sándor Imre Simkó 50 m rifle, three positions László Hammerl Tibor Jakosits 50 m rifle, prone László Hammerl Tibor Jakosits == Swimming == == Volleyball == Men's Team Competition Round Robin Lost to Czechoslovakia (3-2) Defeated Japan (3-0) Defeated United States (3-0) Lost to Soviet Union (0-3) Lost to Brazil (2-3) Lost to Romania (1-3) Defeated Netherlands (3-1) Defeated South Korea (3-2) Lost to Bulgaria (1-3) → Sixth place Team Roster Bela Czafik Vilmos Ivancso Csabas Lantos Gabor Bodo István Molnar Otto Prouza Ferenc Tuske Tibor Florián Laszlo Galos Antal Kangyerka Mihaly Tatar Ferenc Janosi == Water polo == == Weightlifting == == Wrestling == == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludovico_Corrao	Ludovico Corrao	Ludovico Corrao (26 June 1927 – 7 August 2011) was an Italian Independent Left politician and lawyer. He was the promotor of the reconstruction of Gibellina, after its destruction caused by the earthquake which took place in the Valle del Belice in Sicily. == Biography == === Professional activity === Born in Alcamo, in the Province of Trapani, he was the son of an artisan of iron and a clever broiderer. After his studies, first at the seminary and later at the law faculty, he practiced law; in 1965 he was Franca Viola’s plaintiff’s lawyer: she was the first woman in Italy who rose against the shotgun wedding and, by defying a male-dominated society, made a decisive contribution to have the honour crime deleted from Penal Code. Corrao also defended Graziano Verzotto who, according to Giuseppe Lo Bianco, was "the mysterious union man of Eni with the power’s darkest environments in Sicily, already existing at the time of its president’s assassination, in the affair of slush funds of Ente Minerario, deposited in Michele Sindona's banks". === Political activity with D.C. and Milazzismo === He started his political activity with the ACLI and the Christian Democracy; in 1955 he was elected as Deputy at ARS (Assemblea regionale siciliana), in the district of the province of Trapani for the list of DC. In 1958 Corrao followed Silvio Milazzo in the political split from D.C. and became the regional minister for public works; he was one of theorists of Milazzismo. In 1959 he was re-elected in the list of Social Christian Sicilian Union, both in the district of Trapani and Palermo, and he was appointed a regional minister once again, alongside Silvio Milazzo in the two subsequent governments, first for Public Works and later for Industry and Commerce. From 1960 to 1962 he also was the Mayor of Alcamo and then he was only a town councillor. === Member of Parliament as independent leftist === After the end of Milazzismo, he approached to the Left; in 1963 he was elected a Member of Parliament at the Chamber of Deputies, as an independent in the list of PCI (Communist Party), in the Legislature IV of Italy, for the district of western Sicily. Since 1968 Corrao was elected Senator of the Republic in the Legislature V and VI of Italy, for the district of Alcamo, and joined the group of Independent Left until 1976. He was elected again senator in 1994 and in 1996 (XII and XIII legislatures) with the list of PDS for the district of Alcamo until 2001. From 1995 to 2000 he was again the lord mayor of Gibellina. In 2001 The Olive Tree dropped him and he ran for the Senate of the Republic again (this time with Rifondazione Comunista), but was not elected. === Reconstruction of Gibellina and death === As lord mayor of Gibellina, after the Belice Earthquake, he called famous artists and architects, from Pietro Consagra to Alberto Burri, from Ludovico Quaroni to Franco Purini, who filled the new town with works of contemporary art; he was its lord mayor several times, until the 1980s. His activity continued with the creation of Orestiadi di Gibellina in 1981 (a foundation since 1992, of which he was the president until death), and the Museo delle Trame Mediterranee, with the aim of realizing a dialogue among the different Mediterranean cultures. In 2005, the president of Regione Siciliana, Salvatore Cuffaro, entrusted him the management of Casa Sicilia in Tunis. In 2010, together with the journalist Baldo Carollo, Corrao published Il sogno Mediterraneo, an interview-book which tells about sixty years of Sicily's history, reviewed by the intellectuals of that period Leonardo Sciascia, Carlo Levi, Pietro Consagra and Danilo Dolci: here Sicily is seen in the middle of a dialogue among different Mediterranean cultures, outside of any opposed fundamentalism. On 7 August 2011, Corrao, being 84 years old, was killed at Gibellina by Mohammed Saiful Islam, a 21-year-old Bengali working for him. == See also == Alcamo Gibellina == References == == Sources == "Museo d'Arte Contemporanea Ludovico Corrao". "Corrao: un intellettuale che vedeva il futuro". 17 August 2011. "Ludovico Corrao realizza il suo sogno". "Ludovico Corrao presenta il sogno Mediterraneo". == External links == "Ludovico Corrao: Una città non si ricostruisce con un disegno". 7 August 2013. Gibellina nuova, un museo a cielo aperto abbandonato a se stesso. https://web.archive.org/web/20170929044005/http://www.telesud3.com/fad/omaggio-a-ludovico-corrao http://www.trapaninostra.it/Foto_Trapanesi/Didascalie/Corrao_Ludovico.htm http://www.youreporter.it/video_Il_Sen_Ludovico_Corrao_sugli_ultimi_fatti_dell_Africa_1 http://www.fondazioneorestiadi.it/it/notizie/312-omaggio-a-ludovico-corrao.html https://web.archive.org/web/20170929000812/http://www.creativelabalcamo.it/eventi/omaggio-a-ludovico-corrao/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia%E2%80%93Europe_Meeting#ASEM_Culture_Ministers'_Meetings_(ASEMCMM)	Asia–Europe Meeting	The Asia–Europe Meeting (ASEM) is an Asian–European political dialogue forum to enhance relations and various forms of cooperation between its partners. It was officially established on 1 March 1996 at the 1st ASEM Summit (ASEM1) in Bangkok, Thailand, by the then 15 Member States of the European Union (EU) and the European Commission, the then 7 Member States of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and the individual countries of China, Japan, and South Korea. A series of enlargements saw additional EU Member States join as well as India, Mongolia, Pakistan and the ASEAN Secretariat in 2008, Australia, New Zealand and Russia in 2010, Bangladesh, Norway, and Switzerland in 2012, as well as Croatia, and Kazakhstan in 2014. The main components of the ASEM Process rest on the following 3 pillars: Political Pillar Economic & Financial Pillar Social, Cultural & Educational Pillar In general, the ASEM Process is considered by the Partners involved to be a way of deepening the relations between Asia and Europe at all levels, which is deemed necessary to achieve a more balanced political and economic world order. The process is enhanced by the biennial meetings of Heads of State and Government, alternately in Asia and Europe, and biennial meetings of Foreign Ministers as well as other Ministerial Meetings, and other political, economic, and socio-cultural events at various levels. == Partners == The ASEM Partnership currently has 53 Partners: 51 countries and 2 regional organisations. The countries are Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Belgium, Brunei, Bulgaria, Cambodia, China, Croatia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Laos, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Malta, Mongolia, Myanmar, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, the Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, the United Kingdom and Vietnam while the European Union and the ASEAN Secretariat are the regional organisations involved. == Meetings == === ASEM Summits === Biennial Summits are held alternating between Asia and Europe, attended by the Heads of State and Government of the respective partner countries and organisations: ASEM13: 25–26 November 2021, Phnom Penh, Cambodia ASEM12: 18–19 October 2018, Brussels, Belgium ASEM11: 15–16 July 2016, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia ASEM10: 16–17 October 2014, Milan, Italy ASEM9: 05–06 November 2012, Vientiane, Laos ASEM8: 04–05 October 2010, Brussels, Belgium ASEM7: 24–25 October 2008, Beijing, China ASEM6: 10–11 September 2006, Helsinki, Finland ASEM5: 08–09 October 2004, Hanoi, Vietnam ASEM4 Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine: 22–24 September 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark ASEM3: 20–21 October 2000, Seoul, South Korea ASEM2: 03–04 April 1998, London, United Kingdom ASEM1: 01–02 March 1996, Bangkok, Thailand === ASEM Ministerial Meetings === Aside from Summits, regular Ministerial Meetings are held on foreign affairs, financial, cultural, economic, educational, labor and employment, transport, or environmental issues, attended by the relevant ministers: ==== ASEM Foreign Ministers' Meetings (ASEMFMM) ==== ASEMFMM14 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15-16 December 2019, Madrid, Spain ASEMFMM13: 20–21 November 2017, Naypyidaw, Myanmar ASEMFMM12: 05–06 November 2015, Luxembourg, Luxembourg ASEMFMM11 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 11–12 November 2013, New Delhi, India ASEMFMM10 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 06–07 June 2011, Gödöllő, Hungary ASEMFMM9 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 25–26 May 2009, Hanoi, Vietnam ASEMFMM8 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 28–29 May 2007, Hamburg, Germany ASEMFMM7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 06–07 May 2005, Kyoto, Japan ASEMFMM6 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 17–18 April 2004, Kildare, Ireland ASEMFMM5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 23–24 July 2003, Bali, Indonesia ASEMFMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 06–07 June 2002, Madrid, Spain ASEMFMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 24–25 May 2001, Beijing, China ASEMFMM2 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 29 March 1999, Berlin, Germany ASEMFMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15 February 1997, Singapore ==== ASEM Finance Ministers' Meetings (ASEMFinMM) ==== ASEMFinMM14: 2020, Dhaka, Bangladesh ASEMFinMM13 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 26 April 2018, Sofia, Bulgaria ASEMFinMM12 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 09–10 June 2016, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia ASEMFinMM11 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 11–12 September 2014, Milan, Italy ASEMFinMM10 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15 October 2012, Bangkok, Thailand ASEMFinMM9 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 17–18 April 2010, Madrid, Spain ASEMFinMM8 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 16 June 2008, Jeju, South Korea ASEMFinMM7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 08–09 April 2006, Vienna, Austria ASEMFinMM6 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 25–26 June 2005, Tianjin, China ASEMFinMM5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 05–06 July 2003, Bali, Indonesia ASEMFinMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 05–06 July 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark ASEMFinMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 13–14 January 2001, Kobe, Japan ASEMFinMM2 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15–16 September 1999, Frankfurt, Germany ASEMFinMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 19 September 1997, Bangkok, Thailand ==== ASEM Culture Ministers' Meetings (ASEMCMM) ==== ASEMCMM9: 2020, Asia ASEMCMM8: 01-02 March 2018, Sofia, Bulgaria ASEMCMM7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 22–24 June 2016, Gwangju, South Korea ASEMCMM6 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 20–21 October 2014, Rotterdam, Netherlands ASEMCMM5: 18–19 September 2012, Yogyakarta, Indonesia ASEMCMM4: 08–10 September 2010, Poznań, Poland ASEMCMM3: 21–24 April 2008, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia ASEMCMM2: 06–07 June 2005, Paris, France ASEMCMM1: 03 December 2003, Beijing, China ==== ASEM Economic Ministers' Meetings (ASEMEMM) ==== ASEMEMM7: 21–22 September 2017, Seoul, South Korea High-level Meeting: 16-17 September 2005, Rotterdam, Netherlands ASEMEMM5: 23–24 July 2003, Dalian, China ASEMEMM4: 18–19 September 2002, Copenhagen, Denmark ASEMEMM3: 10–11 September 2001, Hanoi, Vietnam ASEMEMM2: 09–10 October 1999, Berlin, Germany ASEMEMM1: 27–28 September 1997, Makuhari, Japan ==== ASEM Education Ministers' Meetings (ASEMME) ==== ASEMME9: 25-26 January 2024, Valletta, Malta ASEMME8: 15 December 2021, Bangkok (online), Thailand ASEMME7 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 15-16 May 2019, Bucharest, Romania ASEMME6: 21–22 November 2017, Seoul, South Korea ASEMME5: 27–28 April 2015, Riga, Latvia ASEMME4: 12–14 May 2013, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia ASEMME3: 09–10 May 2011, Copenhagen, Denmark ASEMME2: 14–15 May 2009, Hanoi, Vietnam ASEMME1: 05–06 May 2008, Berlin, Germany ==== ASEM Labour & Employment Ministers' Conferences (ASEMLEMC) ==== ASEMLEMC5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 03–04 December 2015, Sofia, Bulgaria ASEMLEMC4: 24–26 October 2012, Hanoi, Vietnam ASEMLEMC3: 12–14 December 2010, Leiden, Netherlands ASEMLEMC2: 13–15 October 2008, Bali, Indonesia ASEMLEMC1: 03 September 2006, Potsdam, Germany ==== ASEM Transport Ministers' Meetings (ASEMTMM) ==== ASEMTMM5 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 11-12 December 2019, Budapest, Hungary ASEMTMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 26–28 September 2017, Bali, Indonesia ASEMTMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 29–30 April 2015, Riga, Latvia ASEMTMM2: 24–25 October 2011, Chengdu, China ASEMTMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 19–20 October 2009, Vilnius, Lithuania ==== ASEM Environment Ministers' Meetings (ASEMEnvMM) ==== ASEMEnvMM4 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 22–23 May 2012, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia ASEMEnvMM3 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 23–26 April 2007, Copenhagen, Denmark ASEMEnvMM2 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 12–13 October 2003, Lecce, Italy ASEMEnvMM1 Archived 16 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine: 17 January 2002, Beijing, China ==== ASEM Ministerial Conference on Energy Security (ASEMESMC) ==== ASEMESMC1: 17–18 June 2009, Brussels, Belgium == See also == ASEM Education Process Asia-Europe Foundation (ASEF), the only permanently established institution under the ASEM framework European Union, Latin America and the Caribbean Summit == References == == External links == ASEM InfoBoard, the official information platform of the Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM) Introduction to the Asia-Europe Meeting ASEM in Its Tenth Year: Looking Forward, Looking Back Archived 21 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine Asia-Europe People's Forum (AEPF) Asia-Europe Labour Forum (AELF) ASEM Education Secretariat (AES) Asia-Europe Foundation (ASEF), the only permanently established institution under the ASEM framework ASEF Classroom Network (ASEF ClassNet) Asia-Europe Museum Network (ASEMUS) Archived 1 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine ASEF University Alumni Network (ASEFUAN) Asia-Europe Institute (AEI)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solanum_albidum#:~:text=It%20can%20be%20either%20a,%E2%80%930.59%20in)%20in%20diameter.	Solanum albidum	Solanum albidum is a species of nightshade that is native to western South America, from southern Ecuador to northern Argentina, and grows well at mid elevations in the Andes. Common names include lumo (Ecuador) huaritar (Peru) and lavaplato plateado (Bolivia). It can be either a shrub or small tree. The plant has dull yellow berries 0.8–1.5 cm (0.31–0.59 in) in diameter. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_Dream_Smelter	Day Dream Smelter	Day Dream Smelter is a heritage-listed former smelter and archaeological site located approximately 20 km north-west of Broken Hill, New South Wales, Australia. The property is owned by the Broken Hill City Council. It was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. == History == The Day Dream Smelter, situated about 20 kilometres north-west of Broken Hill and north-east of Silverton, was established as a settlement following the discovery of rich silver-bearing ore in December 1882 and by 1884 there were some 400 to 500 people on the field. The Day Dream mine by 1884 had become important. It raised 96,000 tons of ore before it floated into a company. The Day Dream Smelter was built by the Barrier Ranges Association which was formed in the early days of the field to take over mines, work them, establish smelters and otherwise develop the field. The Day Dream Smelter was opened in 1885. It had a 25-ton and a 40-ton water-jacket furnace. The Day Dream mine proved short lived and in April 1886, after only 10 months of operation, the smelter was closed down as there was not sufficient ore to keep it going. Sometime soon afterward during 1886-87 the smelters were re-opened to treat the first production from the Broken Hill Mine, some 1,500 tons of ore, as the broken Hill mine had not then started its own furnaces. By the end of 1888 the Day Dream Settlement was almost abandoned and the smelters closed forever. Nothing remains of the settlement. All the machinery of the smelter was removed and all the salvageable material of the smelter buildings - timber and galvanised iron has long since gone. What remains of the smelter is interesting and very strongly evocative. Standing in dramatic isolation on a round hill in the arid Barrier Range, it remains a prominent reminder of the intense activity and high expectations which were later eclipsed by the wealth of the lode at Broken Hill. In 1980 the Heritage Council visited the site during its visit to Broken Hill. Subsequently, the Barrier Environment Group nominated Day Dream Smelter for a Permanent Conservation Order. On 11 February 1983 a Permanent Conservation order was placed over the smelter. It was transferred to the State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999. == Description == Remaining structures on the site include the chimney stack, adjoining surface trench, stone walls and platform upon which the smelter structures were erected, shaft access holes and mullock retaining walls. The coursed rubble stone based walls of the smelter stand on the hillside and are connected up the slope to the hilltop by the stone side walls of a rising flue tunnel which connects to the chimney stack on the hill top. The circular chimney stack is built of stone for its lower half and brick for its upper half. It was reported as at 3 October 2000 that the brickwork of the upper chimney stack was built in very weak mortar which was being eroded by rainwater from the top downwards. == Heritage listing == The remains of the Day Dream Smelter are a significant item of the environmental heritage of New South Wales as an important item in the mining and industrial history of the Broken Hill-Silverton area which pre-dates the development of Broken Hill itself. The masonry wall and chimney remains are interesting. What remains of the smelter is interesting and very strongly evocative. Standing in dramatic isolation on a round hill in the arid Barrier Range, it remains a prominent reminder of the intense activity and high expectations which were later eclipsed by the wealth of the lode at Broken Hill. Day Dream Smelter was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999 having satisfied the following criteria. The place is important in demonstrating the course, or pattern, of cultural or natural history in New South Wales. The remains of the Day Dream Smelter are a significant item of the environmental heritage of New South Wales as an important item in the mining and industrial history of the Broken Hill-Silverton area which pre-dates the development of Broken Hill itself. The place is important in demonstrating aesthetic characteristics and/or a high degree of creative or technical achievement in New South Wales. What remains of the smelter is interesting and very strongly evocative. Standing in dramatic isolation on a round hill in the arid Barrier Range, it remains a prominent reminder of the intense activity and high expectations which were later eclipsed by the wealth of the lode at Broken Hill. == See also == == References == === Bibliography === Branch Managers Report to the Heritage Council 27 July 1981. 1981. === Attribution === This Wikipedia article was originally based on Day Dream Smelter, entry number 00182 in the New South Wales State Heritage Register published by the State of New South Wales (Department of Planning and Environment) 2018 under CC-BY 4.0 licence, accessed on 1 June 2018. == External links == Media related to Day Dream Smelter at Wikimedia Commons
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyre_Davies	Wyre Davies	Ifan Wyre Davies is a Welsh journalist, and South America correspondent for BBC News. He speaks fluent Welsh and Spanish. == Background == His maternal grandfather, Captain Evan Rowlands of Llanon, was captain of Harmanteh, which whilst making passage between Brazil and the West Coast of Canada, on 22 May 1938 whilst under the control of a local pilot ran aground on Zealous Island, Messier Channel, Chile. Subsequently abandoned by her crew, salvage efforts were also abandoned on 6 June. Later he was captain of Stangrant, which during the Battle of the Atlantic was torpedoed and sunk west of the Outer Hebrides (58°27′N 12°36′W) by U-37 with the loss of eight of her 38 crew. Survivors including Captain Rowlands were rescued by a Short Sunderland aircraft of 10 Squadron, Royal Australian Air Force. Rowlands later retired to Llanrhystud, where Davies was born. == Career == After studying Latin American politics at university, he joined BBC News where he became a foreign correspondent in Latin America. In 2000 he transferred to a job as correspondent at BBC Wales, reporting on stories across Wales and appearing on Wales Today together with the BBC's Six and Ten o'clock news. He also reported on sports stories. In 2005, he was asked to fill in for Katya Adler for six months while she took maternity leave. He has since undertaken occasional assignments to both Palestine and Israel, and in April 2010 was appointed permanent Middle East correspondent, under fellow Welshman, BBC Middle East editor Jeremy Bowen. He covered the 2011 Egyptian protests from within Tahrir Square. Since mid-2013, Davies is based in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil with his family, and is the BBC's South American correspondent. == Personal life == Davies is married, with three daughters and one son. His close friends include BBC correspondent Alan Johnston, who was kidnapped in Gaza in 2007. == References == == External links == Wyre Davies at IMDb Radio Wales Drive (BBC Radio Wales) Wyre Davies @ journalisted
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourke_Award	Bourke Award	The Bourke Award of the Royal Society of Chemistry is an annual prize open to academics from outside the UK. Originally established by the Faraday Society and known as the Bourke Lectures, the award of £2000 enables experts in physical chemistry or chemical physics to present their work in the UK. The winner also receives a commemorative medal. In 2020 the Bourke Award was merged with the Liversidge Award to create the Bourke-Liversidge Award. == Winners == Source: == See also == List of chemistry awards == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IJCAI_Award_for_Research_Excellence	IJCAI Award for Research Excellence	The IJCAI Award for Research Excellence is a biannual award before given at the IJCAI conference to researcher in artificial intelligence as a recognition of excellence of their career. Beginning in 2016, the conference is held annually and so is the award. == Laureates == The recipients of this award have been: John McCarthy (1985) Allen Newell (1989) Marvin Minsky (1991) Raymond Reiter (1993) Herbert A. Simon (1995) Aravind Joshi (1997) Judea Pearl (1999) Donald Michie (2001) Nils Nilsson (2003) Geoffrey E. Hinton (2005) Alan Bundy (2007) Victor R. Lesser (2009) Robert Kowalski (2011) Hector Levesque (2013) Barbara Grosz (2015) for her pioneering research in Natural Language Processing and in theories and applications of Multiagent Collaboration. Michael I. Jordan (2016) for his groundbreaking and impactful research in both the theory and application of statistical machine learning. Andrew Barto (2017) for his pioneering work in the theory of reinforcement learning. Jitendra Malik (2018) Yoav Shoham (2019) Eugene Freuder (2020) Richard S. Sutton (2021) Stuart J. Russell (2022) Sarit Kraus (2023) for her pioneering work of the study of interactions among self-interested agents, creating the field of automated negotiation, and developing methods for coalition formation and teamwork, both as formal models and real-world implementations. == Winners of also Turing Award == John McCarthy (1971) Allen Newell (1975) Marvin Minsky (1969) Herbert A. Simon (1975) Judea Pearl (2011) Geoffrey Hinton (2018) Andrew Barto (2024) Richard S. Sutton (2024) == See also == List of computer science awards Turing Award == References == == External links == http://www.ijcai.org/awards/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garvan%E2%80%93Olin_Medal#:~:text=1951%20Katharine%20B.%20Blodgett	Garvan–Olin Medal	The Francis P. Garvan–John M. Olin Medal, previously called the Francis P. Garvan Medal, is an annual award that recognizes distinguished scientific accomplishment, leadership and service to chemistry by women chemists. The Award is offered by the American Chemical Society (ACS), and consists of a cash prize (US$5,000) and a medal. The medal was designed by Margaret Christian Grigor. == Background == Any individual may nominate a single eligible chemist in one year. Nominees must be a female citizen of the United States. The award was established by Francis Garvan and Mabel Brady Garvan in 1936 in honor of their daughter. It was initially an essay contest, that ran for seven years, as a memorial to their daughter (the American Chemical Society's Prize Essay Contest). It was solely funded by the Francis P. Garvan Medal Endowment from its establishment in 1936 until 1979. W. R. Grace & Co. assumed co-sponsorship of the award from 1979 to 1983. In 1984, Olin Corporation assumed co-sponsorship. Mabel Brady Garvan remained involved with the Award through 1967. The Garvan–Olin Award is the ACS' third-oldest award, and the first award established to honor women chemists. == Award recipients == == See also == List of chemistry awards List of science and technology awards for women == References == == External links == "Francis P. Garvan-John M. Olin Medal". American Chemical Society. Special Collections and University Archives. "Finding Aid for MS 678 Garvan Medalists Survey Collection, 1981-2000". Iowa State University.

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