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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender_people_and_military_service | Transgender people and military service | Not all armed forces have policies explicitly permitting LGBT personnel. Generally speaking, Western European militaries show a greater tendency toward inclusion of LGBT individuals.
On 18 July 1980, Sweden became the first country to permit legally recognized transgender individuals—those who had completed transition and obtained legal gender status under the 1972 gender-recognition law—to be medically classified as fit for duty and serve openly in their affirmed gender within the armed forces.
As of 2025, eight North Atlantic Treaty Organization members — Italy, Albania, Poland, Turkey, Hungary (ban effective 29 May 2020), Bulgaria (ban effective 20 February 2023), the United States (ban effective 8 May 2025), and Slovakia (ban effective 1 November 2025) — have prohibited transgender people from serving in their armed forces.
== Debate about inclusion of transgender people in the military ==
=== Arguments against inclusion ===
There are arguments against the inclusion of transgender people in military service. One argument is based on the view that being transgender is a mental illness, and as such transgender individuals are unfit for service. This argument follows a high incidence of depression and suicide manifest in transgender individuals. This is especially pertinent in individuals who have had sex-reassignment surgery and are unsatisfied with the results; in such cases severe depression is prevalent. Hormone therapy can affect mood and a sense of well-being, a factor that counts against inclusion of transgender people and its effect on service capability. Besides the well-being argument of hormone treatment, complications may arise due to hormone treatments. Possible complications arising from estrogen and testosterone therapies include an increased risk of thromboembolic disease, myocardial infarction, breast cancer, fertility problems, stroke, abnormal liver function, renal disease, endometrial cancer, and osteoporosis. Any of these could cause significant issues to effective military service, especially when deployed in remote areas or in field training settings. Another concern is the cost to treat transgender members in the military. A small portion of transgender soldiers seek medical intervention, yearly 30 to 140 pursue hormone treatment and 25 to 100 have surgical reassignment surgery. It is estimated that a male-to-female transition can cost between US$7,000 and $24,000; female-to-male transition can exceed US$50,000. The Defense Department's yearly budget for healthcare is $6 billion, the numbers found in the study show the cost to treat service members with Gender dysphoria would fall between $2.4 million and $8.4 million, that is .04 to .14 percent of the military's annual healthcare budget.
A further argument is that in order to have an effective, smooth-running military, there must be cohesion within the unit. It is argued that transgender individuals would have a negative impact on unit cohesion. "The bonds of trust among individual service members" are vital. There is a fear that if transgender personnel be allowed to serve openly, morale will be detrimentally affected. But this argument neglects to deal with the question of what kinds of structural accommodations might be needed to maintain morale and unit cohesion in such situations. Military service forces members into very intimate living quarters. Requiring members to live in situations that make them feel disconcerted and uncomfortable may result in their performance being undermined.
=== Arguments for inclusion ===
By excluding a demographic from equal service, militaries are overtly intensifying the stigma of that group's civic inferiority. This is supported by the notion that all citizens are obligated to serve their nations if the need arises. Allowing transgender military personnel to serve openly without fear of exclusion would be a huge step toward equality. It has been recognized by some academics that the inclusion of all LGBT personnel in the military is more than a mere human rights issue, it is argued that for militaries to survive in the twenty-first century diversity is critical.
With advancements in the current understanding of human experience, sexual identity is now better understood. Where being transgender was once considered a paraphilic disorder, the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders places being transgender in a separate chapter, terming the condition gender dysphoria. It is argued that militaries that exclude transgender people on grounds of mental illness, whose policies pathologize gender dysphoria, are at odds with the current medical understanding. This argument requires that transgender personnel be treated by the same level of medical care as all other personnel, in accordance with established medical practice.
Experts argue that there is no empirical evidence that supports the argument that transgender people are unfit for service. Often cited are factors such as a supposed predisposition of transgender individuals to problems such as depression, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts; this is countered by the prevalence of these same issues in the LGBT community, yet in many countries their service is not excluded. By creating a more accepting environment, distress that transgender personnel feel might be mitigated if they may serve openly with full support.
Whilst militaries often cite the high medical cost of transgender people, they fail to reconcile this argument with current standards with other service members. For example, militaries often allow hormone treatments for an array of reasons and conditions, besides gender dysphoria; a common hormone treatment being contraceptive. Furthermore, the often cited risks of cross hormone treatment are rare, and not likely to cause any significant issues to the military. Whilst the cost of gender reassignment surgery is high, it is suggested that fewer than 2% of transgender members per year will choose to undergo gender reassignment surgery.
Perhaps one of the most supporting arguments is based on the experiences of the 18 countries that currently allow transgender service. Research on the impacts of allowing LGBT to serve openly in the Israeli Defense Forces, British Armed Forces, and Canadian Armed Forces found no necessary negative impacts on performance, unit cohesion or morality. The idea of unit cohesion can also be demonstrated by a social study conducted less than one year prior to the repeal of the ban preventing transgender personnel from serving openly in the United States military. Morten G. Ender, David E. Rohall, and Michael D. Matthews presented the American military academy, Reserve Officers Training Corps, and civilian undergraduates with a survey to assess the general attitude on the prospect of the transgender community serving in the U.S. Armed Forces. After statistical analysis, 50.8% of individuals disagreed with the ban. In regards to productivity, 72.6% of subjects say that transgender inclusion would have no impact on their ability to do their job. Finally, on the subject of visibility, 21.8% of those interviewed said they would want transgender individuals to tell them their gender preferences, 56.1% said no preference. Overall, based on this study one year prior to the ban, the majority of the people that participated in the survey showed overwhelming support towards the inclusion of the transgender community in the United States military.
In October 2017, ruling that a renewed ban within the US military should not go into force, US District Judge Colleen Kollar-Kotelly stated that the evidence presented up to that time showed that "all of the reasons proffered ... for excluding transgender individuals from the military in this case were not merely unsupported, but were actually contradicted by the studies, conclusions and judgment of the military itself".
== Status of transgender people in the military by country ==
=== Albania ===
Albania has never maintained a published policy expressly allowing transgender people to serve in their affirmed gender. From independence on 4 December 1912 through the communist period and into the modern republic, the state has not created a general legal procedure for legal gender recognition (LGR). The contemporary civil-status framework—Law no. 10129 of 2009 on Civil Status—organises the population register and identity data but provides no routine path to change the sex marker beyond limited error-correction; international and regional monitors therefore classify Albania as having no functioning LGR procedure.
At the same time, Albania adopted a comprehensive anti-discrimination statute in 2010. Law no. 10221/2010 “On Protection from Discrimination” explicitly includes gender identity among protected characteristics and applies across employment, including the public sector. NGOs and the equality body (Commissioner for Protection from Discrimination) have treated the statute as covering public employment broadly, though it does not itself establish LGR or override civil-registry data.
Because military personnel records, uniforms, housing assignments and identity checks ordinarily rely on civil-registry data, the absence of LGR has the practical effect that a transgender person may only be recorded and serve under their sex as registered at birth; service in an affirmed gender is therefore not available “on paper” absent a prior court-recognised change (for which no general procedure exists). Human-rights reporting and sectoral overviews thus describe a de facto bar on affirmed-gender service, even though Albanian defence law contains no published, categorical ban on transgender enlistment as such.
Public commentary on LGBT service in Albania has historically focused on sexual orientation rather than gender identity. After the 2010 anti-discrimination law, local advocates noted that there was no legal impediment to the enrolment of gay, lesbian and bisexual people in the armed forces; however, these statements did not address transgender recognition in military records.
In summary, from 1912 to the present Albania has not operated a legal pathway for changing the sex marker in the civil registry; anti-discrimination norms protect gender identity in employment, but—absent LGR—transgender people cannot be recorded or serve in the armed forces in their affirmed gender, and there is no evidence of a distinct, formal military policy that authorises such recognition.
=== Australia ===
Eighteen years after the Australian Defence Force lifted their ban on gay and lesbian service, the ADF reversed policy that excluded transgender people from military service. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
It is believed that the Australian Defence Force was the last agency whose policy specifically allowed for firing employees for transitioning gender. The ADF policy supports diversity in the military identifying LGBTI as a main priority, whose key objective is to position the ADF as an employer of choice, who as an organisation respects and supports the inclusion of gender diverse persons.
In 2013 Australian law formally codified protections against discrimination based on gender identity by including federal protections for LGBTI in the Sex Discrimination Act 1984. There are approximately 15 transgender service member who are openly living as their identified gender, with the support of ADF ranking officials who have been vocally committed to creating an inclusive and diverse military environment.
In a One Plus One interview with ABC News ADF's highest ranking transgender service member Lieutenant Colonel Cate McGregor speechwriter to the Chief of Army, Lieutenant General David Morrison AO, stated that the Chief of Army took the view that the "army could not survive if it became a demographic ghetto" and described an underbelly within the military whose culture was to exclude those who are different. In the wake of the Jedi Council sex scandal Chief of Army released a strongly worded statement urging all service members to show moral courage, to stand against any person degrading another individual. He further stated that he will "be ruthless in ridding the army of people who cannot live up to its values".
Whilst there might still be a long road to full acceptance of the transgender community in Australia, transgender service members and their families are supported by DEFGLIS whose aim is to support LGBTI personnel and families, strengthen defence capability through inclusion, and educate the workforce about diversity.
=== Austria ===
As of 2014, Austria allowed transgender people to serve openly in its military forces. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
=== Belgium ===
As of 2014, Belgium allowed transgender people to serve openly in its military forces. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
=== Bolivia ===
The Armed Forces of Bolivia announced in 2013 that LGBT citizens would be allowed to serve beginning in 2015. As of 2014, Bolivia allowed transgender people to serve openly in the military. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
=== Brazil ===
There is no law forbidding transgender people from serving in the Brazilian Armed Forces. Sexual orientation and gender identity cannot be an obstacle for entry into the police force or the military in Brazil, and some trans women and travestis can be conscripted, like some Brazilian male citizens. According to a survey conducted by the Institute of Applied Economic Research (IPEA) in 2012, 63.7% of Brazilians support the entry of LGBT individuals into the Brazilian Armed Forces, and do not see it as a problem.
In Brazil, trans men are legally required to register for mandatory military service after rectifying legal sex, just like other male citizens. Advocacy groups and public defenders have been working to ensure their right to enlist is respected without discrimination. In 2023, the Public Defender's Office of the Federal District organized a special event to facilitate military registration for trans men, providing legal guidance and supporting them through the process. The initiative was part of broader efforts urging the Brazilian Armed Forces to implement clear policies that recognize gender identity and prevent unequal treatment during conscription.
Meanwhile, trans women generally are not required to serve, but they can still be called up in cases of national emergency if they remain registered as male or if they don't cancel their reservist card. Activists and legal experts continue to advocate for clearer policies that address these unique challenges and ensure dignity and equal treatment for transgender people in the Brazilian Armed Forces.
=== Bulgaria ===
There is no evidence that Bulgaria has ever maintained a published policy expressly allowing transgender people to serve openly in their affirmed gender. Throughout the monarchy, socialist, and contemporary republican periods, Bulgarian law did not create a general procedure for legal gender recognition (LGR), and military personnel systems have relied on civil-registry data—specifically sex as recorded at birth—for identity management. The first known legal gender change in Bulgaria was granted by the Pazardzhik Regional Court on 13 November 2003 (civil case No. 1055/2001), marking the beginning of limited case-by-case judicial recognition of gender change. In February 2023, the Supreme Court of Cassation issued a binding interpretative decision holding that domestic law does not permit courts to authorise changes of gender, name, or personal identification number for transgender people in the civil-status register. Observers describe this as a de facto nationwide ban on LGR, with the practical effect that a transgender person cannot be officially recorded or serve in the armed forces in an affirmed gender.
As of 2025, the legality of Bulgaria’s refusal to provide LGR is under review before the Court of Justice of the European Union in a case challenging the national ban as incompatible with EU law on equality, private life, and free movement. By contrast, public sources addressing military service in Bulgaria primarily discuss sexual orientation rather than gender identity, indicating that gay, lesbian, and bisexual people may serve but offering no evidence of a policy authorising transgender service in an affirmed gender.
=== Canada ===
In 1997, Seargent Sylvia Durand became the first serving member of the Canadian Forces to transition from male to female, and became the first member of any military worldwide to transition openly while serving under the Flag. On Canada Day of 1998, the military changed her name from Sylvain to Sylvia and changed her sex designation on all of her personal file documents. In 1999, the military paid for her Sex Reassignment Surgery. Sylvia continued to serve and got promoted to the rank of Warrant Officer. When she retired in 2012, after more than 31 years of service, she was the assistant to the Canadian Forces Chief Communications Operator.
As of 2014, Canada allowed transgender people to serve openly in its military forces. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
=== Chile ===
Chile allows transgender people to serve openly in its military forces. In 2012, the Law against Discrimination entered into force, which includes sexual orientation, gender identity and gender expression as protected categories. Since then, the Chilean Armed Forces officially repealed all internal regulations that prevented LGBT people from entering the Army, adapting the institution's practices and regulations to current legislation, allowing since then to openly serve gays, lesbians, bisexuals and transgender people.
In 2020, the Chilean Army officially incorporated a transgender man, Benjamín Barrera Silva, into its ranks for the first time.
=== Czechia ===
As of 2014, the Czechia allowed transgender people to serve openly in its military forces. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
=== Denmark ===
As of 2014, Denmark allowed transgender people to serve openly in its military forces. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
=== Estonia ===
As of 2014, Estonia allowed transgender people to serve openly in its military forces. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
=== Finland ===
As of 2014, Finland allowed transgender people to serve openly in its military forces. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
=== France ===
As of 2014, France allowed transgender people to serve openly in its military forces. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
In France, the military is sometimes initially more accepting of transgender service members than civilian authorities are, at least in some localities and jurisdictions, but they are also influenced by rulings of civilian courts which have strict requirements about changing identity documents. One service member was whipsawed by initially positive reception in the military, later overruled after a civilian court decision.
In 2009, a transgender Adjutant in the French Air Force who had already served 18 years as a man, returned to her unit in Nancy as a woman after a sick leave. Her superiors took stock of the situation, and provided the necessary uniforms and military papers with her new name. Delphine Ravisé-Giard was reintegrated into the military smoothly and without incident. On the other hand, she had difficulties in civilian life, such as when presenting her driver's license, passport, or other papers. The military then issued a request to the Nancy District Court to have her gender and name altered on her birth certificate, but their decision was negative based on the fact that she had not yet undergone sex reassignment surgery so her situation was reversible. A 1992 decision by the Cour de cassation (Court of Appeals) requires those wishing to change their legal documents to show proof of being diagnosed with "transsexual syndrome" which is listed as a long-term psychiatric disorder in France, and to have undergone surgical intervention, but the Adjutant declared that she had no "long-term psychiatric disorder", and any question about any surgical interventions she had or did not have was her private affair. Her lawyer insinuated that the real reason for the denial had to do with her ability to still have a child, and that the court's objective was sterilization before they would accord a legal name and gender change. The Commissioner for Human Rights of the European Council said that a transgender person "seeking to have their gender identity legally recognized should not be forced to submit to sterilization or to any other medical treatment."
However, in December, following the District Court decision, Hervé Morin, the Minister of Defense, ordered her to turn in her military papers, which she did. Meanwhile, she discovered that the name on her pay stub reverted to her old name, that the military supplement that women service members receive for feminine undergarments had been removed, and that the military was even going to dock her pay for the supplement she received while serving two years as a woman.
=== Germany ===
As of 2014, Germany allowed transgender people to serve openly in its military forces. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
=== India ===
Since at least 1947, transgender individuals have been de facto banned from serving in the Indian Armed Forces through inherited military regulations and medical fitness standards, even though no formal law explicitly targeted them.
=== Iran ===
Since 1980, transgender individuals in Iran have been de facto banned from military service through medical and psychiatric classifications that label gender nonconformity as a mental disorder. Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution, Iran implemented a new mandatory conscription system requiring all male citizens over the age of 18 to serve in the armed forces. Under this system, transgender individuals are medically exempted on the basis of "psychosexual disorders," a classification that not only bars them from serving but may also expose them to discrimination, harassment, and social stigma due to the explicit labeling of their exemption status.
Although a 1987 fatwa by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini recognized sex reassignment surgery as permissible under Islamic law, this religious sanction did not change military policy, and transgender people continue to be classified under disqualifying categories in Iran's military medical system.
Iran requires all male citizens over age 18 to serve in the military except for transgender women, who are classified as having mental disorders. New military identity cards listed the subsection of the law dictating this exemption. This practice of identifying transgender individuals put them at risk of physical abuse and discrimination.
=== Ireland ===
Commenting in July 2017 on the Trump administration's decision to roll back service in the U.S. military by openly transgender personnel, Taoiseach Leo Varadkar said, "On the transgender ban, it is not something I agree with." He further indicated that Ireland had never formally banned transgender military service and that he would not consider introducing such a ban.
=== Italy ===
From the unification of Italy on 4 May 1861 to the present day, the Italian Armed Forces have never formally permitted transgender people to serve openly. Historically, military medical regulations have classified gender identity variance as a form of mental or sexual disorder resulting in disqualification from service.
The earliest explicit exclusion appeared on 28 May 1964 with Decreto del Presidente della Repubblica (D.P.R.) n. 496, which listed "invertiti sessuali" (sexual inverts) among categories of psychiatric abnormalities rendering an individual unfit for conscription.
On 2 September 1985 (published in the Gazzetta Ufficiale on 21 April 1986), D.P.R. n. 1008 updated the list of medical causes of non-fitness, removing that phrase but continuing to exclude individuals for "devianze sessuali" (sexual deviations).
A Ministerial Decree of 29 November 1995 introduced modern psychiatric terminology, explicitly naming "disturbi dell’identità di genere (disturbi della sessualità)" as disqualifying conditions for service.
The 14 April 1999 revision reaffirmed this exclusion, listing "parafilie e disturbi dell’identità di genere" among psychiatric disorders incompatible with military fitness.
Under D.P.R. n. 90 of 15 March 2010 (Testo Unico dell'Ordinamento Militare), Article 582 confirmed that medical standards determined by the Ministry of Defence govern eligibility for service, maintaining the prior exclusions.
On 4 June 2014, the Ministry of Defence issued an updated technical directive (published 9 June 2014) reaffirming "parafilie e disturbi dell’identità di genere" among causes of non-fitness for service, a classification still applied in current regulations.
Although Italy enacted Law 164/1982 permitting legal gender change through judicial authorization, this reform did not alter military fitness standards. As of 2025, the Italian Armed Forces continue to exclude transgender individuals from service under the existing medical-fitness regulations.
=== Israel ===
As of 2014, Israel allowed transgender people to serve openly in its military forces. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
=== Lithuania ===
There is no explicit legal prohibition on transgender individuals serving in the Lithuanian Armed Forces.
The official medical fitness criteria for military, riflemen’s combat unit, or intelligence service (Order No. V-449 of 3 June 2020, consolidated version of 27 September 2025) do not list gender identity or gender transition as disqualifying conditions.
Suitability for service is assessed individually based on the person’s physical and mental health status, as determined by the Military Medical Expertise Commission.
=== Netherlands ===
As of 2014, the Netherlands allowed transgender people to serve openly in its military forces. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
=== New Zealand ===
The New Zealand Defence Force has been lauded as a world leader in diversity and for support of the LGBTQI community, and has been ranked as number one for integration of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender personnel into the nation's military.
With the addition of the Human Rights Act to the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act in 1994, discrimination based on sexual orientation was criminalised. Although there is no specific reference to transgender people in the New Zealand statute, it has been held by the Solicitor General that protections for transgender people did in fact come under the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 under the sex discrimination provision. Whilst the Human Rights Commission and many activists still assert the need for an express provision in the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act to properly protect transgender people from discrimination, the NZDF as an equal opportunity employer does not discriminate on the basis of gender identity. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
In support of maintaining diversity and inclusiveness the Chief of Defence Force approved the establishment of a support group for the military's LGBTI personnel. In 2012 an organisation called the NZDF Overwatch was launched within the defence force. Overwatch provides peer support and networking within the defence force to the LGBTI community, both in uniform and out. The organisation also offers education and guidance to command and commanders.
The NZDF and Overwatch was recognised for their inclusiveness and approach to equal employment opportunity being named the Supreme award winner of the ANZ and Equal Employment Opportunities Trust, Diversity Awards NZ 2013.
=== Nigeria ===
The Harmonised Armed Forces Terms and Conditions of Service (HAFCTCS), signed by President Bola Tinubu on December 16, 2024, explicitly bans transgender individuals and cross-dressing within the Nigerian Armed Forces. These provisions, effective immediately upon signing, aim to enforce strict adherence to military ethics and discipline.
=== Norway ===
As of 2014, Norway allowed transgender people to serve openly in its military forces. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
=== Philippines ===
As of 2017, the Philippines allow members of the LGBT community including transgender people to serve in its military. However gender expression is subject to restrictions which affects transgender people's ability to present as the gender they identify as such as regulations on uniform. The military implements its standards depending on the personnel's "gender reflected on their certificate of live birth".
=== Poland ===
From 12 October 1918 to the present, there has been no period in which the Polish Armed Forces officially permitted open service by transgender people. Military medical regulations have instead treated “transsexualism”/gender-identity variance as disqualifying for military service, assigning an “E” (permanently unfit) category or otherwise excluding candidates under psychiatric criteria. The eligibility regime is set by ministerial regulations (rozporządzenia) that include an annexed list of diseases and defects used by Military Medical Commissions. A 2005 regulation updated procedures and the annexed lists used to rule candidates ineligible; subsequent regulations in 2010 carried the framework forward.
On 25 March 2024, the Ministry of National Defence issued a consolidated regulation on fitness determinations (Dz.U. 2024 poz. 466), again specifying (in its annex) the disease/defect list used to classify applicants, including psychiatric conditions that disqualify service. The regulation entered into force upon publication in the Journal of Laws. In April–June 2024, the Commissioner for Human Rights (Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich) publicly noted that “transseksualizm” had been “again recognized by the Ministry of National Defence as a disqualifying premise” for professional military service, and requested the Ministry’s legal and factual justification for excluding transgender and intersex people from service.
On 1 July 2025, the Ministry issued an amending regulation (Dz.U. 2025 poz. 887) that retained the same legal architecture—continuing reliance on the annexed disease/defect list used by commissions to assign categories A–E—without creating a route for open transgender service. As of 2025, mainstream legal summaries continue to describe Poland as not allowing open service by transgender people, with LGB personnel able to serve but transgender status treated as disqualifying under the medical-fitness regime.
=== Russia ===
From 2 November 1721 to the present, there has been no period in which the Russian Armed Forces (including their predecessors in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Armed Forces) officially permitted open service by transgender people. Historical and contemporary medical-fitness rules have treated “transsexualism”/gender-identity diagnoses as disqualifying for military service. On 1 January 1968, the Ministry of Health adopted the Soviet adaptation of the eighth revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-8), which classified transseksualizm (“transsexualism”) as a mental disorder. A subsequent revision of the Schedule of Diseases (Raspisanie Boleznei) used for conscription, approved in 1969, listed “psychosexual deviations” and “sexual perversions” among disqualifying conditions. Soviet psychiatric practice interpreted these categories to encompass homosexuality and transsexualism, resulting in an unfit classification for persons diagnosed with “transsexualism.”
After 1991, the Russian Federation retained an exclusionary framework through its military-medical regulations. The Government’s 4 July 2013 decree No. 565 “On approval of the Regulations on military-medical examination,” in force since 1 January 2014 and amended multiple times (including 27 February 2020 and 29 August 2025), sets the legal basis and annexed Schedule of Diseases used by military medical commissions to assign fitness categories (A, B, V, G, D). Mental and behavioral disorders (ICD-10 “F” block), applied via the Schedule (notably Article 18), are grounds for a limited-fit or unfit classification, which practice has applied to gender-identity diagnoses (e.g., F64).
Civil-society and legal-aid guides produced after the 2022 mobilization likewise explain that a confirmed F64 diagnosis is assessed under Article 18 of the Schedule of Diseases and typically leads to a “D” (completely unfit) or “V” (limited fit/reserve) category, precluding open service in one’s affirmed gender. As of 2025, the same regulatory architecture remains in force: military medical commissions apply the Government’s Schedule of Diseases when determining fitness, and gender-identity diagnoses fall within the disqualifying psychiatric grounds. No policy authorizing open transgender service has been promulgated by the Ministry of Defence.
=== Spain ===
As of 2014, Spain allowed transgender people to serve openly in its military forces. The policy of inclusion was reportedly still in effect in 2017.
=== South Africa ===
Since 1998, South Africa allowed transgender individuals to serve in the South African National Defence Force (SANDF). It became the first and currently the only African country to do so.
=== South Korea ===
Since at least 1978, South Korea has excluded transgender individuals from military service through medical classifications such as "sexual perversion" and later "gender identity disorder," which have been used by the Military Manpower Administration to disqualify or exempt them from conscription.
=== Sweden ===
The Swedish Army traces its institutional origins to 14 January 1521, when Gustav Eriksson (later Gustav Vasa) was chosen as commander in Dalarna and a personal life guard was formed—an anniversary the Army still commemorates. However, modern policy concerning transgender personnel only becomes traceable in the twentieth century; earlier eras lacked a legal or medical category corresponding to "transgender", and there is no evidence of an explicit written ban in military statutes from those periods. On 1 January 1972, Sweden enacted the Law on the Determination of Gender in Certain Cases (SFS 1972:119), creating the world’s first statutory procedure to change legal sex in the civil register. Despite this civil framework, the Armed Forces continued to rely on their medical regulation code (Medicinska undersökningsreglementet, Med U), under which "transsexualism" was treated as a ground for exemption from service.
A first softening occurred in 1976, when Med U was revised so that "homosexuals as well as transsexuals could be considered for service in various military divisions", although in practice transgender conscripts were still commonly exempted on medical grounds and open service was not yet established. A decisive reform followed on 18 July 1980, when the Defence Medical Administration (Försvarets sjukvårdsstyrelse) issued an amendment to Med U (reg. no. 440–1279). The circular removed "homosexuality" as a medical exclusion and specified that for "transsexual" conscripts, "exemption is no longer the sole recommendation", permitting medical officers to find transgender individuals fit for service. Because legal gender recognition already existed by statute, the 1980 change made it possible for transgender people to serve openly in their legally affirmed gender—identified in scholarship as the first documented instance of such a policy in any national military.
Sweden subsequently embedded non-discrimination into general law. The Discrimination Act (SFS 2008:567), enacted on 5 June 2008 and in force from 1 January 2009, prohibits discrimination on the grounds of "transgender identity or expression" and applies to recruitment, training, and service in the total-defence system, binding the Armed Forces. On 3 July 2008, the Swedish Armed Forces appointed Petra Jäppinen as its first LGBT (HBT) officer, formalizing internal support and inclusion work explicitly covering transgender personnel. Further civil-law normalization occurred when the sterilization prerequisite associated with legal gender recognition was removed following litigation and legislative change in 2012–2013; from 1 July 2013 transgender people could obtain legal recognition without sterilization, eliminating a remaining barrier to full administrative recognition across state systems, including defence personnel records. In the 2010s and 2020s, the Swedish Armed Forces have presented inclusion as institutional policy and practice, participating publicly in Pride and running diversity-focused messaging that encompasses gender identity alongside other protected characteristics.
=== Thailand ===
In Thailand, males 21 years of age and above can serve voluntarily for six months in the military. If they opt not to if they got selected in the annual draft lottery they must serve for two years.
Transgender women/kathoeys are not exempted and are still legally required to show up for the military conscription event on draft day regardless of their transition status or presentation. Identity documents can't be legally changed in the country. Those who have undergone sex reassignment surgery (SRS) and those who are deemed to have taken up "a female appearance" are automatically exempted from being drafted. Those who have a "male appearance" would have to undergo a medical test to get an exemption.
Those who underwent SRS are exempted for the next two years while those diagnosed with gender identity disorder are exempted for life.
As a result, on draft day, lines of people awaiting processing may include transgender women in makeup and feminine attire, waiting along with the male draftees. Contrary to the wide impression of acceptance of transgender women in Thailand, many complain about being treated as second-class citizens, and of the stress of being undressed or publicly humiliated. Some transgender women were still drafted.
=== Turkey ===
From the establishment of the Turkish Armed Forces in May 1920 until 1 January 1968, there were no explicit legal provisions addressing transgender or homosexual individuals in military regulations. Nevertheless, the armed forces applied broad medical and moral fitness standards, which effectively barred persons considered to have "sexual disorders" or who deviated from social norms of masculinity and morality. This meant that transgender people were excluded in practice, even if not formally named in legislation or regulation.
On 1 January 1968, the Turkish Armed Forces brought into force a revised version of the Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri Sağlık Yeteneği Yönetmeliği (Health Capability Regulation), which for the first time contained provisions on cinsel terslik ("sexual inversion"). Under these rules, homosexuality, transvestism, and transsexualism were formally classified as disqualifying medical conditions. Individuals were deemed to have a "psychosexual disorder" and were issued a report marking them as unfit for service. On 24 November 1986, Turkey formally enacted a comprehensive re-issue of the Health Capability Regulation, maintaining psychosexual classifications as disqualifying grounds.
Independent summaries by international bodies during the same period confirm that the Turkish regulation bars those classified with “high-level psychosexual disorders,” a category applied in practice to transsexuality and transvestism. On 12 May 1988, the Turkish Civil Code was amended to permit some post-operative transgender people to change their legal sex on identity documents; this framework was later recodified in the new Civil Code (Law No. 4721, Article 40), in force from 1 January 2002. Legal gender recognition did not alter the armed forces’ medical-fitness exclusions, and transgender people continued to be classified as unfit and issued exemption/discharge certificates (çürük raporu), colloquially the “pink certificate.”
The exclusion applies beyond conscription to career officers and voluntary personnel through disciplinary provisions that permit dismissal on broad morality grounds, leaving no room for open transgender service; a 2015 Military Supreme Court referral questioning one of these provisions did not ultimately lead to repeal. A 2015 incident widely reported in the press illustrated the consequences for transgender women who remained legally male: a woman known as Bihter was recorded in army files as a deserter (asker kaçağı) because she had not completed conscription. As of 2024–2025, comparative policy summaries and country notes continue to list Turkey as not permitting open transgender military service; exclusion is effected through the medical-fitness regime rather than a distinct service-eligibility statute. A Williams Institute analysis of the 2017 Global Attitudes Toward Transgender People survey found that 36.5% agreed (19.2% strongly and 17.3% somewhat), while 55.9% disagreed (30.6% strongly and 25.3% somewhat), and 7.6% responded "don't know" when asked if "They should be allowed to serve in the military".
=== United Kingdom ===
From the establishment of the Royal Navy on 24 April 1546, the British Armed Forces did not permit anyone to serve openly as a gender different from their sex assigned at birth. For centuries, service was restricted by sex and social role; women and gender-nonconforming people could enlist only by concealing their identities. During the 18th and 19th centuries, a small number of people assigned female at birth disguised themselves as men to enlist, such as Hannah Snell (who served in the Royal Marines in 1747–1750) and James Barry (surgeon), an Army medical officer whose assigned sex was discovered only after his death on 25 July 1865.
In the 20th century, armed forces regulations classified gender transition or “transsexualism” as a psychiatric disorder rendering an individual medically unfit for service. Royal Navy medic Lynda Cash was dismissed in 1986 after beginning gender transition, officially on the grounds of “emotional instability.” She later won a pension and apology on 3 June 1999 after the service admitted wrongful dismissal. In 1993, a Royal Air Force technician known as "Officer M" was discharged after disclosing a diagnosis of gender identity disorder; the RAF classified her as "unfit for duty" on 12 February 1993. On 30 April 1996, the P v S and Cornwall County Council decision by the European Court of Justice established that dismissal for gender reassignment constituted sex discrimination under European law. On 27 September 1999, the European Court of Human Rights ruled in Smith and Grady v United Kingdom that the ban on homosexual service members violated Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights, leading the UK to reform its wider LGBT service policies.
On 2 August 1999, the Ministry of Defence issued new internal guidance allowing transgender personnel to remain in service if medically and operationally fit, ending automatic dismissal on the grounds of gender reassignment. In late 1999, Caroline Paige became the first openly serving transgender officer in the Royal Air Force, continuing her career after transitioning. On 12 January 2000, the UK government formally lifted the ban on gay, lesbian, and bisexual personnel and introduced a new Armed Forces Code of Social Conduct that was neutral regarding sexual orientation and gender identity. The Gender Recognition Act 2004, passed on 4 April 2004, established a legal mechanism for transgender people to obtain recognition of their affirmed gender, affecting service documentation and pensions.
The Equality Act 2010, which received Royal Assent on 8 April 2010, prohibited discrimination on grounds of “gender reassignment” in employment, including military service. On 19 July 2023, the UK Government formally apologised to LGBT veterans who had been discharged under earlier discriminatory military policies. As of 2025, transgender people serve openly in all branches of the British Armed Forces, protected under law and by Joint Service Publication 889, which sets out Defence policy on gender identity and transition.
=== United States ===
The United States' military policy previously allowed for exclusion of transgender people from service on medical grounds. While cisgender gay, lesbian, and bisexual service members were allowed to serve openly since 2011, transgender service members risked discharge if they did not pass as their assigned sex. This required that service members conceal their gender identities throughout service.
It was estimated that in 2008–2009 there were approximately 15,500 transgender individuals either serving on active duty or in the National Guard or Army Reserve forces within the U.S. Military.
A 2016 study based on previous research estimated that only between 1,320 and 6,630 transgender individuals served on active duty and between 830 and 4,160 in reserve duty, with midrange figures of 2,450 in active duty and 1,510 in reserves. Regardless of how many transgender individuals are members or veterans of the United States Armed Forces, transgender individuals are between 2-5 times more likely to serve in the military than their cisgender (non-trans) counterparts, primarily due to the provision of both financial security and a sense of belonging to a community. These reasons contribute to the belief that the United States Armed Forces is one of the largest, if not the largest, employer of transgender Americans.
A key controversy and concern for transgender service members is the use of military medical services to transition from one gender to another.
Different administrations' policies since 2016 regarding transgender people and military service has varied, as described in the summary below:
==== Barack Obama administration ====
On 22 August 2013, the day after her sentencing at an Army court-martial, U.S. soldier Chelsea Manning issued a public statement declaring herself to be a transgender woman. In 2014, while incarcerated in the United States Disciplinary Barracks, Manning filed a lawsuit against Secretary of Defense Hagel for failing to provide appropriate medical treatment necessary for her gender transition. In a military first, hormone therapy to assist with Manning's gender conformity was approved in early 2015 and added to her treatment plan along with other provisions such as cosmetics and female undergarments.
Air Force Secretary Deborah Lee James openly supported a change to the military's transgender policy, stating in 2014 that it was likely to be reviewed in the next year or so. In February 2015, Secretary of Defense Ashton Carter stated he was open minded about including transgender people in the military and that nothing but individual lack of merit should preclude such people from service. Carter's statement was later endorsed by President Obama.
On 19 August 2015, Carter stated in a memo that the Defense Department had begun the process of dismantling the ban and that transgender people would be able to openly serve in the U.S. military by 27 May 2016. Department of Defense regulations that ban transgender persons from US military service were repealed on 30 June 2016. Beginning on that date, otherwise qualified United States service members could not any longer be discharged, denied reenlistment, involuntarily separated, or denied continuation of service because of being transgender.
==== First Donald Trump administration ====
On 26 July 2017, US President Donald Trump announced that transgender people would no longer be allowed to serve in the US military. The following day, General Joseph Dunford, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, stated that openly transgender people will continue to be allowed to serve until Trump provides direction to James Mattis, the Secretary of Defense.
The Palm Center released, on 1 August 2017, a letter signed by 56 retired generals and admirals opposing the proposed ban on transgender military service members. The letter stated that if implemented, the ban "would cause significant disruptions, deprive the military of mission-critical talent and compromise the integrity of transgender troops who would be forced to live a lie, as well as non-transgender peers who would be forced to choose between reporting their comrades or disobeying policy".
On 9 August 2017, five transgender United States military personnel sued Trump and top Pentagon officials over the proposed banning of transgender people from serving in the military. The suit asks the court to prevent the ban from going into effect. Two major LGBT-rights organizations filed a petition in the United States District Court in Washington on behalf of the five transgender service members.
Trump signed a presidential memorandum, dated 25 August 2017, directing the Secretary of Defense and Secretary of Homeland Security to submit an implementation plan by 21 February 2018, to reinstate the ban and halt the use of military funds for "sex reassignment surgical procedures for military personnel". On 30 October 2017, US District Judge Colleen Kollar-Kotelly barred the administration from excluding transgender people from military service in Jane Doe v. Trump, but did not address whether federal funds should be used to pay for sex reassignment surgery for service members. The ruling also stated that as far as could be seen, "all of the reasons proffered by the president for excluding transgender individuals from the military in this case were not merely unsupported, but were actually contradicted by the studies, conclusions and judgment of the military itself".
In November 2017, the Defense Health Agency for the first time approved payment for sex reassignment surgery for an active-duty US military service member. The patient, an infantry soldier who is a trans woman, had already begun a course of treatment for gender reassignment. The procedure, which the treating doctor deemed medically necessary, was performed on 14 November at a private hospital, since US military hospitals lack the requisite surgical expertise. On 11 December, Kollar-Kotelly ruled that the government must accept transgender recruits into the military by 1 January 2018. After the ruling, the Department of Justice appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit to issue a stay on the district court's ruling. The Pentagon confirmed on 26 February 2018 that the first transgender recruit had signed a contract to join the military.
On 23 March 2018, President Trump banned transgender and transsexual people with current or previous gender dysphoria from serving in the U.S. military. However, the Pentagon said they would comply with the court decision until it is reversed. The policy was stayed in Karnoski vs. Trump (Western District of Washington) on 13 April 2018, when the court ruled that the 2018 memorandum essentially repeated the same issues as its predecessor order from 2017, that transgender service members (and transgender individuals as a class) were a protected class entitled to strict scrutiny of adverse laws (or at worst, a quasi-suspect class), and ordered that matter continue to a full trial hearing on the legality of the proposed policy.
On 22 January 2019, the US Supreme Court allowed President Trump's transgender military ban to go into effect while the ban was litigated in lower courts. On 12 March 2019, acting Deputy Defense Secretary David Norquist signed a directive to allow Trump's policy to take effect in 30 days.
==== Joe Biden administration ====
On Biden's first day in office, his press secretary, Jen Psaki, announced in a press conference that the President would soon reverse the government's ban on transgender people from serving openly in the military, though a specific date for this action was not announced. Although Biden had originally said that reversing the ban would be an action taken "on day one", this had been unable to happen due to the fact that his nominee for Secretary of Defense, Lloyd Austin, had still not been confirmed yet.
On 25 January 2021, President Biden signed an executive order to reverse the ban, allowing most transgender individuals to serve in the United States military. The order also required the United States Department of Homeland Security to lift its transgender service ban as well. The order immediately revoked both The Presidential Memorandum of 23 March 2018 (Military Service by Transgender Individuals) and the Presidential Memorandum of 25 August 2017 (Military Service by Transgender Individuals), and also required the Secretary of Defense and the Secretary of Homeland Security, with respect to the Coast Guard, to hold consultation with the Joint Chiefs of Staff to determine how to best implement a full reversal. Biden's order prohibited any service member from being forced out of the military on the basis of gender identity. On 30 April 2021, the Pentagon enacted a new policy which called for better medical service access and gender marker assistance to transgender people in the United States military.
==== Second Donald Trump administration ====
Executive Order 14183, titled "Prioritizing Military Excellence and Readiness", is an executive order issued by President Donald Trump on January 27, 2025, banning transgender people from military service. In March 2025, a federal judge blocked the Executive Order; but in May of that year the Supreme Court allowed the Trump administration to reinstate the ban while legal challenges continue in the Ninth Circuit.
== See also ==
Sexual orientation and military service
== References ==
== External links ==
Palm Center: Blueprints for Sound Public Policy
LGBTInclusion The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies
SPARTA A Transgender Military Advocacy Organization |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_Racim | Mohammed Racim | Mohammed Racim (Arabic: محمد راسم, 24 June 1896 – 30 March 1975) was an Algerian artist who founded the Algerian School for Miniature Painting with his brother, Omar. It still exists to this day.
== Biography ==
Racim was born in The Casbah of Algiers in 1896 into a distinguished family of artists, whose pre-colonial prosperity had been undermined by the French regime's confiscation of property. In 1880, Racim's father had re-established a wood-carving and copper-working workshop in the Casbah of Algiers, where his brother, Omar Racim, engraved decorated tombstones. The Racim family won commissions for decorating public buildings and the pavilions of French colonial exhibitions.
His talent for drawing was recognised during his primary education when he was given work copying Islamic decorative motifs for the state workshops set up by the Governor Charles Jonnart. By about 1914, Racim discovered the works of the Persian, Mughal and Andalusian miniatures made for the private use of the Muslim nobility. He evolved a personal hybrid form of expression through the miniature whereby he would use traditional materials and classical arabesque and calligraphic styles, yet use them to frame figurative inserts that had some modern features.
As a teenager Racim befriended Nasreddine Dinet, who advised him on painting the figure and helped him obtain commissions to decorate books with calligraphic plates. Racim's main patrons were businessmen and government officials who valued his re-creation of the milieu of old Algeria.
By the late 1930s, he became a major figure in Algerian culture. As with most of his work, Racim's "Women at the Cascade" set out an imagined past, before the arrival of the French colonizers, when the indigenous were masters of the Maghreb. The people of Algeria, prior to the French arrival, appear in his works as prosperous, given to fine textiles and costumes, and the arts of music, architecture and gardening. In fact, Roger Benjamin has argued that Racim's work could be said to wish away the presence of the foreign French settlers in his country. He celebrates a pristine Turkish city, not the industrialized port that had resulted for a century of French modernization. Nonetheless, he was not an ideologue, and recognized that his work had been enabled by the French scholarly.
Mohammed Racim and his wife were murdered in their home on 30 March 1975. He was buried with his wife in the Thaalibia Cemetery of the Casbah of Algiers.
== Tribute ==
On 24 June 2021, Google celebrated his 125th birthday with a Google Doodle.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%27hamed_Djellouli | M'hamed Djellouli | M'hamed Djellouli (Arabic: امحمد الجلولي; born February 1834 in Tunis and died in June 1908) was a Tunisian politician who served as Prime Minister of Tunisia from 1907 until his death in 1908.
== Biography ==
He was born into a Makhzen family from Sfax.His grandfather Mahmoud Djellouli fixed in Tunis after buying an important house Dar Djellouli of Rejeb Khaznadar and his wife Fatma Bey. He began his career in 1872 as an official in the Methelith tribe. In 1874, he was appointed vice president of the Capital's City Council, while also leading Djerba and Methelith starting in 1875, when he became a brigadier general. In 1876, he became responsible for reviewing any cases between subjects of the Bey of Tunis and European nationals.
In 1880, he became governor of Kef Wanifa and Agha Odjak and caïd of Sfax and South Agha Odjak after the expulsion of his predecessor and uncle, Hassouna Djellouli. In 1890, he was replaced in Sfax by his nephew, Sadok Djellouli.
After proving his loyalty to France, he was appointed in 1881 by the French authorities to succeed Mohammed Aziz Bouattour as Minister of the Pen and Minister of Justice for the first government of the French Protectorate of Tunisia. In April 1887, he received a palace in Medina of Tunis on the rue du Riche (named in honor of his grandfather Mahmoud Djellouli) from Jules Ferry during his visit. Serving from 1882 to 1906, he succeeded Bouattour as grand vizier from 1907 to his death in June 1908. He is among the ministers buried in the Tourbet el Bey mausoleum located in the Medina of Tunis.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_Terry | Ellen Terry | Dame Alice Ellen Terry (27 February 1847 – 21 July 1928) was an English actress of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Born into a family of actors, Terry began performing as a child, acting in Shakespeare plays in London, and toured throughout the British provinces in her teens. At 16, she married the 46-year-old artist George Frederic Watts, but they separated within a year. She soon returned to the stage but began a relationship with the architect Edward William Godwin and retired from the stage for six years. She resumed acting in 1874 and was immediately acclaimed for her portrayal of roles in Shakespeare and other classics.
In 1878 she joined Henry Irving's company as his leading lady, and for more than the next two decades she was considered the leading Shakespearean actress in Britain. Two of her most famous roles were Portia in The Merchant of Venice and Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing. She and Irving also toured with great success in America and Britain.
At the urging of George Bernard Shaw, Terry took over management of London's Imperial Theatre in 1903, opening a new play by Henrik Ibsen. The venture was a financial failure, and Terry turned to touring. She continued to find success on stage until 1920 and especial success in lecture tours discussing the Shakespeare heroines, she also appeared in several films from 1916 to 1922. Her career lasted nearly seven decades.
== Early life and career ==
Terry was born in Coventry, England, the third surviving child born into a theatrical family. Her parents, Benjamin (1818–1896), of Irish descent, and Sarah (née Ballard; 1819–1892), of Scottish ancestry, were childhood friends and began as comic actors in a Portsmouth-based company, where Sarah's father was a master sawyer. She used the stage name "Miss Yerrett", The two made a poor living in touring companies in their early years. The couple had eleven children, two of whom died in infancy. They had been christened Kate and Ellen after their paternal and maternal grandmothers; these names were reused for their next two daughters. At least five of the surviving nine became actors: Kate (b. 1844), Ellen, Marion, Florence, and Fred. The eldest son, Benjamin (b. 1839), went into commerce and emigrated to Australia and then India, and Tom (b. 1860), a drifter, lived on the fringes of criminality and poverty, constantly helped by his parents and siblings. Two other children, George and Charles, were connected with theatre management. Kate was the grandmother of Val and John Gielgud.
Benjamin coached his children in good stage diction. Terry later recalled that he "always corrected me if I pronounced any word in a slipshod fashion, and if I now speak my language well it is in no small degree due to my early training." Kate began acting at age 3; by 1851 she had received enough notice in the British provinces that she was invited to audition for Charles Kean of London's Princess's Theatre, who engaged her, and then her father, in his company. The family moved to London, and Sarah worked in the theatre's wardrobe department. Kean and especially his wife, Ellen Kean, were excellent teachers and models for young actors. Ellen Terry made her first stage appearance at age nine, as Mamillius in Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale in 1856 alongside her sister and father in small roles. She also played the roles of Puck in A Midsummer Night's Dream (1856, with Kate as Titania), Prince Arthur in King John (1858), and Fleance in Macbeth (1859), continuing at the Princess's Theatre until the Keans' retirement in 1859. While at the Princess's, the Keans introduced the girls to a circle of artists and playwrights, including Charles Reade and Tom Taylor. During the theatre's summer closures starting in 1856, Terry's father presented farces in Portsmouth, starring Terry and Kate; Terry loved playing badly behaved boys onstage, delighting the provincial audience. In the summer of 1859, Benjamin Terry presented drawing-room entertainments featuring his daughters in the concert room of the Royal Colosseum, Regent's Park, London, and then on tour. Also in 1859, Terry appeared in Tom Taylor's comedy Nine Points of the Law at London's Olympic Theatre. She then played in melodrama at the Royalty Theatre, managed by Madame Albina de Rhona, while Kate starred in Mr and Mrs Alfred Wigan's company at St James's Theatre.
In 1862, Terry joined Kate in J. H. Chute's stock company at the Theatre Royal in Bristol, a strong company that also featured Marie Wilton and Madge Robertson, where she played a wide variety of parts, including burlesque roles requiring singing and dancing, as well as Nerissa in The Merchant of Venice and Hero in Much Ado About Nothing. In 1863, Chute opened the Theatre Royal, Bath, where 15-year-old Terry appeared as Titania in A Midsummer Night's Dream. The family then returned to London where Kate starred at the Lyceum Theatre, while Ellen joined J. B. Buckstone's company at the Haymarket Theatre in Shakespeare roles as well as Sheridan plays and modern comedies. Her lack of maturity, though, led to such a bad experience for her there, that she became disenchanted with theatre.
== Watts and Godwin ==
In London, while Terry was still engaged at the Haymarket, she and Kate were the subject of The Sisters, painted by the eminent artist George Frederic Watts at his studio home in the annex of Little Holland House, the home of Sara Monckton Prinsep and her husband. His famous portraits of Terry include Choosing, in which she must select between earthly vanities, symbolised by showy but scentless camellias, and nobler values symbolised by humble-looking but fragrant violets. His other famous portraits of her include Ophelia and Watchman. At first Watts was interested in Kate, but he soon transferred his attentions to Ellen. She, in turn, was impressed with Watts's art, sense of style and elegant lifestyle, and she wished to please her parents by making an advantageous marriage; her friend Tom Taylor also was in favor of the union. Though Watts was vain, self-centered, unattractive and three decades her senior, she agreed to marry him. She left the stage during the run of Tom Taylor's hit comedy Our American Cousin at the Haymarket, in which she played Mary Meredith.
Terry and Watts married on 20 February 1864 at St Barnabas Church, Addison Road, Kensington, seven days before her 17th birthday; Watts was 46. At Little Holland House, she met many cultured, talented and important people in his social circle, such as the poets Robert Browning and Alfred, Lord Tennyson, prime ministers William Ewart Gladstone and Benjamin Disraeli, and Princep's sister, the photographer Julia Margaret Cameron. Because of the marriage and Watts's paintings of her, she "became a cult figure for poets and painters of the later Pre-Raphaelite and Aesthetic movements, including Oscar Wilde". Terry soon became uncomfortable in the role of child bride. Watts was a cold and thoughtless husband, and some of his admirers, especially his patron, salon organiser and confidante, Prinsep, became increasingly hostile to her. Terry began to behave erratically and was banned from the salons and other social occasions, and Watts no longer found her a source of inspiration for his paintings. Meanwhile, one of the visitors to the Watts home was the progressive architect-designer and essayist, and a recent widower, Edward William Godwin. He was interested in theatre, fashion and design and was a good conversationalist. Both Watts and Terry enjoyed his company, and they visited him at his architecture practice. Eventually Terry visited alone. One night Terry stayed with Godwin until morning, saying that Godwin had been ill, and she had tended to him. Watts and Princep disbelieved her, and her social reputation was ruined. Watts and Terry separated after only ten months, and she returned to her parents' home.
She returned to acting in 1866, touring with her father and playing a small role in The Hunchback at the Olympic Theatre where her sister was then starring, but she had lost her love of the theatre. In 1867, Terry performed in the Wigans' company in several Tom Taylor pieces, including A Sheep in Wolf's Clothing at the Adelphi Theatre, The Antipodes at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, and Still Waters Run Deep at the Queen's Theatre, Long Acre. She would play there later that year for the first time opposite Henry Irving in a single performance of the title roles in Katherine and Petruchio, David Garrick's version of The Taming of the Shrew. Early in 1868, still unhappy and disinterested in theatre, Terry left the Wigans company abruptly and, knowing it would upset her parents, went to live with Godwin at a house in Harpenden, north of London. She retired from acting for six years. She was happy, in love, and enjoying country life. As she was still married to Watts, not finalising the divorce until 1877, she and Godwin could not marry, and their cohabitation was considered scandalous. They soon had a daughter, Edith Craig, born in 1869 and a son, Edward Gordon Craig, born in 1872. The children used the surname Wardell to deflect the stigma of illegitimacy during Terry's second marriage and chose Craig years later. Goodwin built a house for them in Harpenden called Fallows Green. A widowed neighbor who had befriended Terry, Mrs Rumball, became her constant companion for the ensuing 30 years.
== Return to acting; Wardell ==
The relationship cooled in 1874 amid Godwin's preoccupation with his architectural practice and, due to Terry's freespending ways, they were financial difficulties. He fell in love with another woman, Beatrice Phillips, whom he later married. The same year Terry returned to the stage at the invitation of her old friend Charles Reade and played roles in several of his works, earning critical praise: Philippa Chester in The Wandering Heir; Susan Merton in It's Never Too Late to Mend; and Helen Rolleston in Our Seamen. Later in 1874 she performed at the Crystal Palace with Charles Wyndham as Volante in The Honeymoon by John Tobin and as Kate Hardcastle in She Stoops to Conquer by Oliver Goldsmith.
In 1875, Terry was engaged at the Prince of Wales's Theatre managed by Wilton (now Effie Bancroft) and her husband Squire Bancroft. In her first role there Terry gave an acclaimed performance as Portia in The Merchant of Venice. Godwin was in charge of the artistic designs, including Terry's costumes; even after the two separated in 1875, he continued to design Terry's costumes. Oscar Wilde wrote a sonnet upon seeing her in this role: "No woman Veronese looked upon/Was half so fair as thou whom I behold." She recreated this role many times in her career until her last appearance as Portia in London in 1917.
In 1876 she moved to the Court Theatre, under Hare's management, where she appeared as Lady Teazle in The School for Scandal, Blanche Haye in a revival of T. W. Robertson's Ours, and the title role in Olivia by William Gorman Wills (an adaptation of The Vicar of Wakefield), a role written for her, in which she was again strongly praised by the public and the critics, and which ran for several seasons. She reconciled with her parents, whom she had seen little of since she began to live out-of-wedlock with Godwin. Her sister Marion had now burst onto the London scene as a comic actress at the Haymarket. There Marion acted alongside two handsome actors: Johnston Forbes-Robertson and Charles Clavering Wardell (stage name Charles Kelly; 1839–1885), whom Ellen had met while appearing in Reade's plays. Both courted Ellen, who was now divorced. In November 1877 Terry married Wardell, who was a kind stepfather to her two children but had a drinking problem. The two acted together during the marriage, especially on summer tours between London seasons. During their 1879 tour, she played Beatrice for the first time in Much Ado About Nothing. They separated in 1881.
== Irving and the Lyceum ==
In 1878 Henry Irving, the new manager of the Lyceum Theatre, engaged the 30-year-old Terry as his leading lady at a generous salary, beginning with Ophelia opposite Irving's Hamlet. She again earned good notices and became fast friends with Irving, who also enjoyed her children. She next starred as Pauline in The Lady of Lyons by Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Lady Anne in Richard III, Queen Henrietta Maria in Wills's drama Charles I (all in 1879). The Times said of Terry's acting in Paul Terrier's All is Vanity, or the Cynic's Defeat the same year, "Miss Terry's Iris was a performance of inimitable charm, full of movement, ease, and laughter ... the most exquisite harmony and natural grace ... such an Iris might well have turned the head of Diogenes himself." Their production of The Merchant of Venice, opening at the end of 1879, ran for an unusual 250 nights, and success followed success in the Shakespeare canon as well as in Tennyson, Bulwer-Lytton, Reade, Willis, Sardou and other classic and contemporary playwrights. She was soon regarded as the leading Shakespearean actress in Britain. In partnership with Irving, she reigned as such for over 20 years until they left the Lyceum in 1902.
In 1880, at the Lyceum, she played the title role in an adaptation of King René's Daughter called Iolanthe. The Era wrote: "Nothing more winning and enchanting than the grace, and simplicity, and girlish sweetness of the blind Iolanthe as shown by Miss Ellen Terry has within our memory been seen upon the stage. The assumption was delightfully perfect. ... Exquisite ... exercise of the peculiarly fascinating powers of Miss Ellen Terry, who achieved an undoubted triumph ... and was cheered again and again". Her roles in the early 1880s included Camma in Tennyson's short tragedy The Cup (1881, with costumes by Godwin), Desdemona in Othello also in 1881, Juliet in Romeo and Juliet (1882), Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing, another of her signature roles (1882 and often thereafter), Jeanette in The Lyons Mail (1883) and the title part in Reade's romantic comedy Nance Oldfield the same year. Terry made her American debut in 1883, playing Queen Henrietta opposite Irving in Charles I. Among the other roles she portrayed on this and six subsequent North American tours with Irving were Jeanette, Ophelia, Beatrice, Viola and her most famous role, Portia.
Terry's Viola in Twelfth Night (1884) was cut short by a dangerous infection that struck on opening night. Her sister Marion took over the role and also substituted for her in a revival of Willis's Olivia, when Terry was again ill. In 1885, however, the theatre had its biggest commercial hit in a long-running adaptation of Faust by Wills (1885), with Ellen as Margaret. Terry played Lady Macbeth in the Lyceum's "lavish" Macbeth (1888, with incidental music by Arthur Sullivan), resplendent in a gown by Alice Comyns Carr covered in green beetle wings; John Singer Sargent painted her in the dress. The next year she was the mother of the Comte St Valery (played by her son Edward) in The Dead Heart by Watts Phillips, then Katherine of Aragon in Irving's grand-scale production of Henry VIII (1892), Cordelia in King Lear the same year, Rosamund de Clifford in Becket by Alfred Tennyson (1893), Guinevere in King Arthur by J. Comyns Carr, with incidental music by Sullivan (1895).
In 1895, Irving became the first person knighted for theatrical activities, proud of the recognition that this brought for his profession. By this time, however, the Lyceum was in debt, its scenery warehouse burned, destroying 44 productions, and Irving suffered a permanent knee injury, marking the beginning of ongoing health issues. Also, by this time, Terry's memory was becoming a problem, and she increasingly relied on prompters. She played Imogen in Cymbeline (1896), the title character in Victorien Sardou and Émile Moreau's Madame Sans-Gêne (1897). Terry's children joined the Lyceum company as actors, Edith from 1887 for several years, and Edward from 1889 to 1897, but both eventually retired from the stage to go on to other careers. Edith, among other endeavors, created costumes for Terry into the 20th century. In 1899, Terry toured as Desdemona and the title character in The Lady of Lyons but was back at the Lyceum as Volumnia in Coriolanus in 1901 and as Portia in Merchant in 1902. The Lyceum was bankrupt and closed. Their last performance together was in a charity matinee at Drury Lane in 1903, again as Portia and Shylock.
Whether Irving and Terry ever had a romantic relationship has been the subject of much speculation. According to Sir Michael Holroyd's book about Irving and Terry, A Strange Eventful History, after Irving's death, Terry stated that she and Irving had been lovers and that: "We were terribly in love for a while". Irving was separated, but not divorced from his spiteful wife, who kept their children from him. Terry had separated from Wardell in 1881, and Irving was godfather to both her children. They travelled on holiday together, and Irving wrote tender letters to Terry. Moira Shearer's biography of Terry calls it "romantic fiction" and notes that biographies by Laurence Irving, Olive Terry and Roger Manvell all disclaim the idea. She also points out that in his later years, Irving had found a loving partner in Eliza Aria. In London, Terry lived in Earls Court with her children and pets during the 1880s, first in Longridge Road, then Barkston Gardens in 1889, but she kept country homes. In 1900, she bought her farmhouse in Small Hythe, Kent, where she lived for the rest of her life.
== Shaw, Ibsen, Barrie ==
At His Majesty's Theatre in 1902 Terry played Mistress Page in The Merry Wives of Windsor, with Herbert Beerbohm Tree as Falstaff and Madge Kendal as Mistress Ford. In the 1890s, Terry had struck up a friendship and conducted a famous correspondence with George Bernard Shaw, a harsh critic of Irving, who wished to begin a theatrical venture with her. In 1903, Terry formed a new theatrical company, taking over management of the Imperial Theatre with her son; she hoped the venture would showcase his set design and directing talents and her daughter's costume designs. The venture was intended to focus on the plays of Shaw and Henrik Ibsen. It began with the latter's The Vikings in 1903, with Terry as the warlike Hiordis, a misjudged role for her. The play was a flop, and she hurried onto the stage Much Ado, opposite Oscar Asche, but the theatre was a failure for Terry. She then toured the English provinces and created the title role, written for her, in J. M. Barrie's Alice-Sit-by-the-Fire at the Duke of York's Theatre (1905). Irving died in October that year, and the distraught Terry briefly left the stage.
In April 1906, she returned as Lady Cecily Wayneflete, another role written for her, in Shaw's Captain Brassbound's Conversion at the Court Theatre and later toured successfully in that role in Britain and America. On 12 June 1906, her golden jubilee was commemorated by a star-studded gala performance at the Drury Lane Theatre, for Terry's benefit, at which Enrico Caruso sang, W. S. Gilbert directed a performance of Trial by Jury, Tree, Eleonora Duse, Mrs. Patrick Campbell, Lillie Langtry, Gabrielle Réjane, Gertie Millar, Nellie Melba, and more than 20 members of Terry's family performed an act of Much Ado about Nothing with her, among other performances. The benefit raised £6,000 for Terry. By this time, with her memory and eyesight fading, Edith became more involved in managing Terry's career. Terry next appeared at His Majesty's Theatre as Hermione in Tree's production of The Winter's Tale. In 1907 she toured America in Captain Brassbound's Conversion under the direction of Charles Frohman. During that tour, on 22 March 1907, now aged 59, she married her co-star, the American James Carew, who had appeared with her at the Court Theatre. He was 30 years her junior, and not popular with her family, especially Edith. The couple separated after two years, although they never divorced and remained friendly.
In 1908 she was back at His Majesty's, playing Aunt Imogen in W. Graham Robertson's fairy play Pinkie and the Fairies. She played Nance Oldfield in A Pageant of Great Women written in 1909 by Cicely Hamilton and directed by Edith. In 1910 she toured in the provinces (with Archibald Joyce) and then in the US, acting, giving recitations and lecturing with much success on the Shakespeare heroines. Returning to England, she played roles such as Nell Gwynne in The First Actress (1911) by Christopher St. John (a pseudonym for Christabel Marshall, Edith's lover), one of the first productions of the Pioneer Players theatre society, founded in 1911 by Craig and for which Ellen Terry served as President. Also in 1911, she recorded scenes from five Shakespeare roles for the Victor Talking Machine Company, which are the only known recordings of her voice. In 1914 to 1915, Terry toured Australasia, the US and Britain, again reciting and lecturing on the Shakespeare heroines. While in the US, she underwent an operation for the removal of cataracts from both eyes, but the operation was only partly successful. In 1916, she played Darling in Barrie's The Admirable Crichton (1916). During the First World War she performed in many war benefits.
== Last years ==
In 1916 she appeared in her first film as Julia Lovelace in Her Greatest Performance and continued to act in London and on tour, also playing supporting roles in a few more films through 1922, including Victory and Peace (1918), Pillars of Society (1920), Potter's Clay (1922), and The Bohemian Girl (1922) as Buda the nursemaid. During this time, she continued to lecture on Shakespeare throughout England and North America. She also gave scenes from Shakespeare plays in music halls under the management of Oswald Stoll. Her last fully staged role was as the Nurse in Romeo and Juliet at the Lyric Theatre on Shaftesbury Avenue in 1919. She returned to the stage to play Susan Wildersham in Walter de la Mare's fairy play, Crossings, in November 1925 at the Lyric Hammersmith.
In 1922 the University of St Andrews conferred an honorary LLD upon Terry, and in 1925 she was appointed Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire by King George V, only the second actress, after Geneviève Ward, to be created a dame for her professional achievements. In her last years, she gradually lost her eyesight and suffered from senility, but she enjoyed time with her grandchildren and continued to love letter writing. Stephen Coleridge anonymously published an annotated volume of his correspondence with Terry, The Heart of Ellen Terry, in 1928.
== Death and legacy ==
On 21 July 1928, Terry died of a cerebral haemorrhage at her home at Smallhythe Place, near Tenterden, Kent, aged 81. Her son Edward later recalled, "Mother looked 30 years old ... a young beautiful woman lay on the bed, like Juliet on her bier". Margaret Winser created a death mask. Terry was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium. Her ashes are kept in a silver chalice on the right side of the chancel of the actors' church, St Paul's, Covent Garden, London, where a memorial tablet was unveiled by Sir John Martin-Harvey.
After her death, the Ellen Terry Memorial Museum was founded by Edith Craig in her mother's memory at Smallhythe Place, an early 16th-century house that she bought at the turn of the 20th century. The museum was taken over by the National Trust in 1947. Edith became a theatre director, producer, costume designer, and an early pioneer of the women's suffrage movement in England. Edward became a scenery and effects designer, director, essayist and illustrator; he also founded the Gordon Craig School for the Art of the Theatre in Florence, Italy, in 1913. The actor John Gielgud was her great-nephew. The illustrator Helen Craig is Terry's great-granddaughter.
An archive of Ellen Terry memorabilia is held by Coventry University, which also has an Ellen Terry Building, the former Odeon cinema in Jordan's Well. David Hare's play Grace Pervades, starring Miranda Raison as Terry and Ralph Fiennes as Irving, played in July 2025 at Theatre Royal, Bath, directed by Jeremy Herrin. The play explores the lives of Irving, Terry and her children.
== Gallery ==
== See also ==
Neilson–Terry Guild of Dramatic Art
Terry family
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Terry, Ellen Alicia" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 660.
Cockin, Katharine. Edith Craig (1869–1947): Dramatic Lives (1998) Cassell.
Cockin, Katharine (2001). Women and Theatre in the Age of Suffrage: The Pioneers Players 1911–25. Basingstoke: Palgrave. ISBN 0333686969.
Cockin, Katherine (ed.) The Collected Letters of Ellen Terry, Vol. 6, London: Pickering & Chatto (2015) ISBN 9781851961504
Gielgud, John. An Actor and His Time, Sidgwick and Jackson, London, 1979. ISBN 0-283-98573-9
Hartnoll, Phyllis and Peter Found, The Concise Oxford Companion to the Theatre. (1992) Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-866136-3
Holroyd, Michael. A Strange Eventful History, Farrar Straus Giroux, 2008. ISBN 0-7011-7987-2
Looser, Devoney (2017). The Making of Jane Austen. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1421422824.
McDonald, Russ. Look to the Lady: Sarah Siddons, Ellen Terry, and Judi Dench on the Shakespearean Stage, University of Georgia Press (2005) ISBN 978-0820325064
Steen, Marguerite (1962). A Pride of Terrys – A Family Saga. London: Longmans. OCLC 1443983.
Biographies and correspondence
Auerbach, Nina. Ellen Terry: Player in Her Time (1987) W. W. Norton; (1997) University of Pennsylvania Press ISBN 978-0-8122-1613-4
Cheshire, David F. Portrait of Ellen Terry (1989) Amber Lane Press, ISBN 0-906399-93-9
Cockin, Katharine (ed). The Collected Letters of Ellen Terry (2010–2017; 8 volumes) London: Pickering & Chatto.
Cockin, Katharine (ed.) Ellen Terry, Spheres of Influence (2011) Pickering & Chatto.
Cockin, Katharine (ed.) Ellen Terry: Lives of the Shakespearian Actors (2012) Pickering & Chatto.
St. John, Christopher (ed.) Ellen Terry and Bernard Shaw: A Correspondence (1931); and The Shaw-Terry Letters: A Romantic Correspondence
Coleridge, Stephen (ed.) The Heart of Ellen Terry (1928), London; Mills & Boon, Ltd.
Fecher, Constance. Bright Star: a Portrait of Ellen Terry (1970)
Foulkes, Richard ed. Henry Irving: A Re-evaluation, (2008) London: Ashgate.
Goodman, Jennifer R. "The Last of Avalon: Henry Irving's King Arthur of 1895", Harvard Library Bulletin, 32.3 (Summer 1984) pp. 239–55.
Hiatt, C. Ellen Terry and her Impersonations (1908)
Manvell, Roger. Ellen Terry. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1968.
Melville, Joy. Ellen and Edy. London: Pandora, 1987.
Pemberton, Thomas Edgar. Ellen Terry and Her Sisters, London: C.A. Pearson (1902)
Prideaux, Tom. Love or Nothing: The Life and Times of Ellen Terry (1976) Scribner.
Scott, Clement. Ellen Terry (1900) New York: Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1900.
Shearer, Moira (1999). Ellen Terry. Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-1526-9.
St John, Christopher. Ellen Terry (1907)
Stoker, Bram. Personal Reminiscences of Henry Irving, 2 vols. (1906)
Stokes, John, Michael R. Booth & Susan Bassnett. Bernhardt, Terry, Duse: The Actress in Her Time. Cambridge University Press, 1988.
The Story of My Life by Ellen Terry at Project Gutenberg (1908) London: Hutchinson & Co; (1982) Schocken Books
== External links ==
Works by Ellen Terry at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Ellen Terry at the Internet Archive
Ellen Terry at IMDb
Ellen Terry at the Internet Broadway Database
Profile and photos of Terry Archived 28 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine, University of Rochester
Photos and links to Terry information Archived 30 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine at the Stage Beauty website
Terry bibliography
Paintings and other images of Terry Archived 14 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine at the National Portrait Gallery
Photos of Terry's home at Smallhythe and of Terry, National Trust
Beach, Chandler B., ed. (1914). "Terry, Ellen" . The New Student's Reference Work . Chicago: F. E. Compton and Co.
The Ellen Terry Collection held by the Victoria and Albert Museum Theatre and Performance Department.
Victor Catalog listing of recitals by Ellen Terry |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_Kreisky_Prize_for_Services_to_Human_Rights | Bruno Kreisky Prize for Services to Human Rights | The Bruno Kreisky Prize for Human Rights is a biennial award created in October 1976 on the occasion of the 65th birthday of Bruno Kreisky. The laureates are rewarded for their achievements in the field of human rights. The prize was divided in 1993 into a human rights prize (between 7000 and 30,000 Euros) and a prize in recognition of merit.
The Bruno Kreisky Foundation for Human Rights has awarded in 14 conferments more than 130 individuals, institutions and human rights projects for outstanding services to the development and protection of international human rights and extraordinary achievements in the area of humanitarian aid.
The prize winners are chosen both by the board of trustees of the Bruno Kreisky Foundation and by an international jury.
== Laureates ==
=== 1979 ===
Cardinal Raúl Silva Henríquez, Chile
Arie Lova Eliav, Israel
Issam Sartawi, Palestine
Archbishop Miguel Obando y Bravo, Nicaragua
Hildegard Goss-Mayr and Jean Goss, Austria/France
Christiaan Frederick Beyers Naudé, South Africa
Amnesty International Group II, Austria
Amnesty International, Austrian Section
Committee for Human Rights, International Trade Union, Austria
=== 1981 ===
Simha Flapan, Israel
Raymonda Tawil, Israel
Nelson Mandela, South Africa
Rosa Jochmann, Austria
Domitila Chúngara, Bolivia
Enrique Álvarez Córdova, El Salvador
Kim Chi-ha, South Korea
Kim Dae Jung, South Korea
Histadrut, Israel
Fondation pour une entraide intellectuelle européenne, France
Orlando Fals Borda, Columbia
Felix Ermacora, Austria
=== 1984 ===
The Austrian Aid Committee for Nicaragua, Austria
The Austrian Volkshilfe, Austria
The Austrian League for Human Rights, Austria
Union of Concerned Scientists
The Society of Friends of Tel Aviv University, Austria
Vicaría de la Solidaridad, Chile
Oswald Amstler, Austria
Archbishop Raymond G. Hunthausen, USA
Muzaffer Saraç, Turkey
Shulamit Aloni, Israel
Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, Brazil
Father Leopold Ungar, Austria
Yolanda Urízar Martínez de Aguilar, Guatemala
Marianella García Villas, El Salvador
=== 1986 ===
The Bruno Kreisky Archives Foundation, Austria
The Vienna Institute for Development and Cooperation, Austria
Herbert Amry, Austria
The Austrian Institute for Peace Research and Education, Austria
The Committee of Mothers of Political Prisoners, the Disappeared and Murdered in El Salvador, El Salvador
The Guatemalan Human Rights Commission, Guatemala
The Austrian Board for Refudee Aid, Austria
International Historians of the Labour Movement, ITH
Jewish-Arab House in Beth Berl, Israel
Erich Weisbier, Austria
=== 1988 ===
Frei Betto, Brazil
Benazir Bhutto, Pakistan
Latif Dori, Israel
Anton Lubowski, Namibia
Sergio Ramírez Mercado, Nicaragua
Claudia Vilanek, Austria
Bishop Leonidas Eduardo Proaño Villalba, Ecuador
The Society of Friends of the Chaim Sheba Medical Center Tel Hashomer, Austria
The Society for Austrian-Arab Relations, Austria
Greenpeace, Austria
The Guatemalan Human Rights Organisation GAM, Guatemala
International Helsinki Federation, Austria
The Korean Catholic Justice and Peace Committee, Netherlands
Neve Shalom/Wahat al-Salam, Israel
Catholic Social Academy of Austria, Austria
The Committee for Social and Medical Aid for Palestinians, Austria
Unidad Nacional de Trabajadores Salvadoreños, El Salvador
The Association for the History of the Labour Movement, Austria
=== 1991 ===
Bärbel Bohley, Germany
Congress of South African Trade Unions, South Africa
Yael Dayan, Israel
Faisal Husseini, Palestine
International Center for Peace in the Middle East, Israel/Palestine
İnsan Hakları Derneği, Turkey
Horst Kleinschmidt, South Africa/Great Britain
Committee Cap Anamur, Germany
Felicia Langer, Israel
Paulinho Paiakan, Brazil
Standing Committee for National Dialogue, El Salvador
Poznán Human Rights Center, Poland
Jalal Talabani, Syria/Iraq
Alfredo Vázquez Carrizosa, Colombia
Anti-Apartheid Movement, Austria
CARE, Austria
Social Services at Schwechat Airport, Austria
Liesl Frankl, Austria
Association of Women's solidarity, Austria
Society for the Endangered Peoples, Austria
Bishop Erwin Kräutler, Brazil
The Austrian Red Cross, Austria
Science shop at the University of Linz, Austria
Aid Committee for Refugees in Austria, Austria
=== 1993 ===
Abe J. Nathan, Israel
The indigenous people of the Canela, Brazil
Gani Fawehinmi, Nigeria
Nicolae Gheorghe, Romania
Christine Hubka and Gertrud Hennefeld, Austria
Father Georg Sporschill, SJ, Romania
Kemal Kurspahić and Zlatko Dizdarević, Bosnia-Herzegovina
Tanja Petovar, Yugoslavia
Memorial, Russia
Rudolf Pichlmayr, Germany
Martha Kyrle, Austria
SOS Mitmensch, Austria
Croatian-Muslim-Serbian-Dialogue, Austria
=== 1995 ===
Sumaya Farhat Naser, Palestine
Sergej Adamowitsch Kowaljow, Russia
Ken Saro-Wiwa, Nigeria
Leyla Zana, Turkey
Committee for the Defense of Human Rights in Iran, Austria
World University Service, Graz, Austria
Ludwig Boltzmann Institut für Menschenrechte, Austria
Flüchtlingshilfe Poysdorf (Maria Loley), Austria
The homeless shelter "Die Gruft" Austria
Father August Janisch Austria
=== 1997 ===
Abbas Amir-Entezam, Iran
Emily Lau, Hong Kong
Uri Avnery, Israel
Ivan Zvonimir Čičak, Croatia
Otto Tausig, Austria
Willi Resetarits, Austria
Austrian Network Against Poverty, Austria
=== 2000 ===
Radhika Coomaraswamy, Sri Lanka, UN-Special Ambassador for the matters related to violence against women
The Belgrade Center for Human Rights, Yugoslavia
Austrian NGO-project "An anti-discrimination law for Austria"
Karlheinz Böhm, Austria/Ethiopia
=== 2002 ===
Cardinal Franz König, Austria, the former archbishop of Vienna for his dedication to tolerance and dialogue
Ute Bock, Austria, for her commitment to helping refugees
Amira Hass, Israel/Palestine, for her outstanding and independent work in journalism;
Palestinian Centre for Human Rights from Gaza/Palestine, for its dedication to protecting human rights in the occupied Palestinian territories.
=== 2005 ===
Nadja Lorenz and Georg Bürstmayr, Austria for the advocacy of the asylum seekers' and migrants' rights in Austria
Andrej Sannikov from Belarus for his work within the Charter 97, a citizens' action group and human rights organisation from Minsk.
=== 2007 ===
Gao Zhisheng, China
Manfred Nowak, Austria
ZARA Austria (see German Wikipedia article)
Kofi Annan, United Nations
Jovan Mirilo, Serbia
=== 2011 ===
ASPIS, Austria
ESRA, Austria
Hemayat, Austria
Daniel Barenboim, Israel/ Palestine, For his commitment to reconciliation in the Middle East conflict
West-Eastern Divan Orchestra
=== 2013 ===
Bogaletch Gebre, Ethiopia
Mazen Darwish, Syria
Cecily Corti, Austria
=== 2015 ===
Vian Dakhil, Iraq
Marijana Grandits, Austria
Nachbarinnen in Wien, Austria
=== 2017 ===
Aslı Erdoğan, Turkey
Wolfgang Kaleck, Germany
Queer Base, Austria
Haus Liebhartstal UMF, Austria
=== 2019 ===
Amal Fathy, Egypt
Know Your Rights, Austria
Michael Landau, Austria
Shalom Alaikum – Jewish Aid for Refugees, Austria
=== 2022 ===
Al-Haq, Palestine
Asylum Coordination Austria, Austria
Martin Hochegger, Austria/Tanzania
Maria Kalesnikava, Belarus
== References ==
== External links ==
Bruno Kreisky - Foundation |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madonna_of_Bruges | Madonna of Bruges | The Madonna of Bruges is a marble sculpture by Michelangelo of the Virgin and Child.
Michelangelo's depiction of the Madonna and Child differs significantly from earlier representations of the same subject, which tended to feature a pious Virgin smiling down on an infant held in her arms. Instead, Jesus stands upright, almost unsupported, only loosely restrained by Mary's left hand, and appears to be about to step away from his mother. Meanwhile, Mary does not cling to her son or even look at him, but gazes down and away. It is believed the work was originally intended for an altar piece. If this is so, then it would have been displayed facing slightly to the right and looking down. The early 16th-century sculpture also displays the High Renaissance Pyramid style frequently seen in the works of Leonardo da Vinci during the late 1400s.
Madonna and Child shares certain similarities with Michelangelo's Pietà, which was completed shortly before – mainly, Mary's flowing robe, and the movement of the drapery. The long, oval face of Mary is also reminiscent of the Pietà.
The work is also notable in that it was the first sculpture by Michelangelo to leave Italy during his lifetime. In 1504, it was bought by Giovanni and Alessandro Moscheroni (Mouscron) for 100 ducats. The Mouscron brothers were wealthy cloth merchants in Bruges, then one of the leading commercial cities in Europe.
The sculpture was removed twice from Belgium after its initial arrival. The first was in 1794 after French Revolutionaries had conquered the Austrian Netherlands during the French Revolutionary Wars; the citizens of Bruges were ordered to ship it and several other valuable works of art to Paris. It was returned after Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo in 1815.
The second removal was in 1944, during World War II, with the retreat of German soldiers, who smuggled the sculpture to Germany enveloped in mattresses in a Red Cross truck. It was discovered a year later in Altaussee, Austria within a salt mine and again returned. It now sits in the Church of Our Lady in Bruges, Belgium. This is represented in the 2014 film The Monuments Men.
== See also ==
List of works by Michelangelo
Roman Catholic Marian art
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Brugge Madonna by Michelangelo Buonarroti at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Ryder_(engraver) | Thomas Ryder (engraver) | Thomas Ryder (1746–1810), engraver, was a pupil of James Basire, and during his apprenticeship established drawings with the Society of Artists in 1766 and 1767. He was also one of the first students in the schools of the Royal Academy.
== Works ==
Ryder engraved a few plates in the line manner, of which the most important are "The Politician" (a portrait of Benjamin Franklin), after S. Elmer, 1782; and "Vortigern and Rowena", after A. Kauffman, 1802; but he is best known by his works in stipple, which are among the finest of their class. These include "The Last Supper", after Benjamin West; "The Murder of James I of Scotland", after Opie; "Prudence and Beauty", after A. Kauffman; nine of the plates to the large edition of Boydell's "Shakspeare"; and others from designs by Bigg, Bunbury, Cipriani, Cosway, Ryley, and Shelley. Ryder also engraved portraits of Mrs. Damer, after Kauffman; Henry Bunbury, after Lawrence; Sir William Watson, M.D., after Abbot; and Maria Linley, after Westall. His plates are usually printed in brown ink and occasionally in colours. He had a son of the same Christian name who was also an engraver, and together they executed the whole-length portrait of Queen Charlotte, after Beechey, prefixed to the second volume of Boydell's ‘Shakspeare.’
== References ==
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Ryder, Thomas (1746-1810)". Dictionary of National Biography. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lillian_Disney | Lillian Disney | Lillian Marie Disney (née Bounds; February 15, 1899 – December 16, 1997) was an American ink artist at the Walt Disney Animation Studios and the wife of Walt Disney from 1925 until his death in 1966. Born in Spalding, Idaho, Disney graduated from high school in Lapwai before moving to Lewiston to attend college. She left Idaho in 1923 to move to Southern California, where she met future husband Walt while working as a secretary for his company.
During a train ride in 1928, Walt revealed to his wife a new animated character, whom he called "Mortimer Mouse". Lillian suggested that he rename his character "Mickey Mouse", a name which has since become synonymous with the Disney brand.
Walt Disney died from lung cancer on December 15, 1966, after which Lillian remarried, to John L. Truyens (a Southern California real estate developer) from 1969 until his death in 1981. On December 15, 1997, Lillian Disney suffered a stroke and died the following morning in Los Angeles at age 98.
== Early years ==
Born Lillian Marie Bounds in Spalding, Idaho, she grew up in nearby Lapwai on the Nez Perce Indian Reservation, where her father Willard worked as a blacksmith and federal marshal. She was the youngest of ten children, and the family struggled financially; her father died when she was seventeen. After graduation from Lapwai High School, Bounds and her mother moved down to Lewiston; she attended a year of business college then moved to southern California in 1923 to live with her sister Hazel's family. She was working at the Disney Studio in "ink and paint" as a secretary when she met Walt.
== Marriage to Walt Disney ==
Lillian Bounds and Walt Disney married on July 13, 1925, in Idaho at her brother's home. The wedding was officiated by the rector of Lewiston's Episcopal Church of the Nativity. Walt Disney's parents did not attend. As Bounds's father was deceased, her uncle, who was chief of the Lewiston Fire Department, gave the bride away. She wore a dress that she had made herself. The couple had two daughters, Diane Marie Disney (1933–2013) and Sharon Mae Disney (1936–1993), the latter of whom was adopted. Disney had ten grandchildren: seven by Diane and her husband (Ron W. Miller), and three by Sharon and her two husbands, Robert Brown and William Lund.
== Recognition ==
Her film career includes work as an ink artist on the film Plane Crazy. Disney is credited with having named her husband's most famous character, Mickey Mouse, during a train trip from New York to California in 1928. Walt showed a drawing of the cartoon mouse to his wife and told her that he was going to name it "Mortimer Mouse". Lillian replied that the name sounded "too depressing" and she was very proud to have suggested the name "Mickey Mouse" instead of Mortimer.
At the Carolwood Pacific Railroad, Walt Disney named his 1:8-scale live steam locomotive the "Lilly Belle" in his wife's honor. Additionally, the parlor car of the Disneyland Railroad was named the "Lilly Belle" in her honor, and the Walt Disney World Railroad has a locomotive named "Lilly Belle", where each locomotive is named for someone who greatly contributed to the Walt Disney Company. Walt Disney Imagineering created "The Empress Lilly", a paddle steamer replica, at Walt Disney World in Disney Springs and Disney christened it on May 1, 1977. Disney was inducted into the Disney Legends in 2003.
== Later years and death ==
Walt Disney died of lung cancer on December 15, 1966, at the age of 65. Lillian was later remarried John L. Truyens in May 1969 until his death on February 24, 1981, at the age of 73.
In 1987, she pledged a $50 million gift towards the construction of a new concert hall in Los Angeles. After several delays, the Walt Disney Concert Hall opened in 2003, six years after her death. She also helped fund the founding of The California Institute of the Arts. In 1996, she donated $100,000 to the Nez Perce indigenous people in support of buying back tribal artifacts.
In response to a controversial biography, Lillian made a rare public statement about her marriage with Walt, "We shared a wonderful, exciting life, and we loved every minute of it. He was a wonderful husband to me, and wonderful and joyful father and grandfather."
Lillian Disney suffered a stroke on December 15, 1997, exactly 31 years after Walt's death. She died the following morning at her home in West Los Angeles at the age of 98. She was interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California alongside her first husband, Walt Disney.
== References ==
== External links ==
Lillian Disney at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal#:~:text=In%201500%2C%20the%20Portuguese%20explorer,Portuguese%20colonies%20of%20the%20Americas. | Portugal | Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is an unitary semi-presidential republic composed by continental Portugal and two autonomous regions, with Lisbon as both its capital and largest city. The continental portion borders Spain to the north and east, with Madeira and the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean. It features the westernmost point in continental Europe.
The western Iberian Peninsula has been continuously inhabited since prehistoric times, with the earliest signs of settlement dating to 5500 BC. Celtic and Iberian peoples arrived in the first millennium BC. The region came under Roman control in the second century BC. A succession of Germanic peoples and the Alans ruled from the fifth to eighth centuries AD. Muslims invaded mainland Portugal in the eighth century, but were gradually expelled by the Christian Reconquista, culminating with the capture of the Algarve between 1238 and 1249. Modern Portugal began taking shape during this period, initially as a county of the Christian Kingdom of León in 868, and formally as a sovereign kingdom with the Manifestis Probatum in 1179.
As one of the main participants of the Age of Discovery, Portugal made several seminal advancements in nautical science. The Portuguese subsequently were among the first Europeans to explore and discover new territories and sea routes, establishing a maritime empire of settlements, colonies, and trading posts that extended mostly along the South Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts. A dynastic crisis in the early 1580s resulted in the Iberian Union (1580–1640), which unified Portugal under Spanish rule, marking its gradual decline as a global power. Portuguese sovereignty was regained in 1640 and was followed by a costly and protracted war lasting until 1688, while the 1755 Lisbon earthquake destroyed the city and further damaged the empire's economy.
The Napoleonic Wars drove the relocation of the court to Brazil in 1807, leading to its elevation from colony to kingdom, which culminated in Brazilian independence in 1822, this resulted in a civil war (1828–1834) between absolutist monarchists and supporters of a constitutional monarchy, with the latter prevailing. The monarchy endured until the 5 October 1910 revolution, which replaced it with the First Republic. Wracked by unrest and civil strife, the republic was replaced by the authoritarian Ditadura Nacional and its successor, the Estado Novo. Democracy was restored in 1974 following the Carnation Revolution, which brought an end to the Portuguese Colonial War and allowed the last of Portugal's African territories to achieve independence.
Portugal's imperial history has left a vast cultural legacy, with around 250 million native Portuguese speakers around the world. The country has a developed and advanced economy relying chiefly upon services, industry, and tourism. Portugal is a member of the United Nations, European Union, Schengen Area, and Council of Europe, and one of the founding members of NATO, the eurozone, the OECD, and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries.
== Etymology ==
The word Portugal ([puɾtuˈɣal] ) derives from the combined Roman-Celtic place name Portus Cale (present-day's conurbation of Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia). Porto stems from the Latin for port, portus; Cale's meaning and origin is unclear. The mainstream explanation is an ethnonym derived from the Callaeci, also known as the Gallaeci peoples, who occupied the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. One theory proposes Cale is a derivation of the Celtic word for 'port'. Another is that Cala was a Celtic goddess. Some French scholars believe it may have come from Portus Gallus, the port of the Gauls.
Around 200 BC, the Romans took Iberia from the Carthaginians during the Second Punic War. In the process they conquered Cale, renaming it Portus Cale ('Port of Cale') and incorporating it into the province of Gallaecia. During the Middle Ages, the region around Portus Cale became known by the Suebi and Visigoths as Portucale. The name Portucale changed into Portugale during the 7th and 8th centuries, and by the 9th century, it was used to refer to the region between the rivers Douro and Minho. By the 11th and 12th centuries, Portugale, Portugallia, Portvgallo or Portvgalliae were already referred to as Portugal.
With the implementation of the republic in 1910, the word Portugal lost its prior status as the official name for the country, being replaced with the phrase República Portuguesa ([ʁɛˈpuβlikɐ puɾtuˈɣezɐ]). After the current constitution entered into force, in 1976, the Mirandese language received official recognition as a regional language, with the phrase República Pertuesa being the official name of the country in Mirandese.
== History ==
=== Prehistory ===
The region has been inhabited by humans since circa 400,000 years ago, when Homo heidelbergensis entered the area. The oldest human fossil found in Portugal is the 400,000-year-old Aroeira 3 H. Heidelbergensis skull discovered in the Cave of Aroeira in 2014. Later Neanderthals roamed the northern Iberian peninsula and a tooth has been found at Nova da Columbeira cave in Estremadura. Homo sapiens sapiens arrived in Portugal around 35,000 years ago and spread rapidly, with the earliest signs of settlement dating to 5500 BC. Pre-Celtic tribes inhabited Portugal. The Cynetes developed a written language, leaving stelae, which are mainly found in the south.
The Lusitanians were an Indo-European-speaking people living in the far west of the Iberian Peninsula, in present-day central Portugal and regions of Western Spain.
It is uncertain whether the Lusitanians were Celticized Iberians, representatives of the ancient Beaker Culture (with Proto-Lusitanian tribes possibly originating from Gallia Belgica) or Celts, related to the Lusones.
Early in the first millennium BC, several waves of Celts arrived in Portugal from Central Europe and intermarried with the local populations to form several different ethnic groups.
The Celtic presence and heritage is patent in archaeological and linguistic evidence. They dominated most of northern and central Portugal, while the south maintained some of its older character (believed non-Indo-European, likely related to Basque) until the Roman conquest. In southern Portugal, some small, semi-permanent commercial outposts were also founded by Mediterranean peoples namely Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians along the coast.
=== Roman Portugal ===
Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC. The Carthaginians, Rome's opponent in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies. During Julius Caesar's rule, almost the entire peninsula was annexed to Rome. The conquest took two hundred years and many died, including those sentenced to work in slave mines or sold as slaves to other parts of the empire. The Roman occupation suffered a setback in 155 BC, when a rebellion began in the north. The Lusitanians and other native tribes, under the leadership of Viriathus, wrested control of all of western Iberia. Rome sent legions to quell the rebellion but were unsuccessful. Roman leaders bribed Viriathus's allies to kill him in 139 BC; he was replaced by Tautalus.
In 29 BC, Lusitania gained the status of Roman province. Later, a northern province was separated from the province of Tarraconensis, under Emperor Diocletian's reforms, known as Gallaecia. There are numerous ruins of castros (hill forts) and remains of the Castro culture, like the Mozinho, Zambujal, Cidadelhe, Conímbriga, Mirobriga, Briteiros archaeological sites.
=== Germanic kingdoms ===
In 409, with the decline of the Roman Empire, the Iberian Peninsula was occupied by Germanic tribes. In 411, with a federation contract with Emperor Honorius, many of these people settled in Hispania. An important group was made up of the Suebi, Buri, Vandals in Gallaecia, who founded a Suebi Kingdom with its capital in Braga. They came to dominate central Portugal, including Aeminium (Coimbra) all the way to the Tagus, while the Visigoths occupied the south.
The Suebi and the Visigoths were the Germanic tribes who had the most lasting presence in the territories corresponding to modern Portugal. As elsewhere in Western Europe, there was a sharp decline in urban life during the Dark Ages.
Roman institutions disappeared in the wake of the Germanic invasions with the exception of ecclesiastical organisations, which were fostered by the Suebi in the fifth century and adopted by the Visigoths afterwards. Although the Suebi and Visigoths were initially followers of Arianism and Priscillianism, they adopted Catholicism from the local inhabitants. St. Martin of Braga was a particularly influential evangelist.
In 429, the Visigoths moved south to expel the Alans and Vandals and founded a kingdom with its capital in Toledo. From 470, conflict between the Suebi and Visigoths increased. In 585, the Visigothic King Liuvigild conquered Braga and annexed Gallaecia; the Iberian Peninsula was unified under a Visigothic Kingdom. A new class emerged, unknown in Roman times: a nobility, which played a key social and political role during the Middle Ages. It was under the Visigoths that the Church began to play an important part within the state. As the Visigoths did not learn Latin from the local people, they had to rely on bishops to continue the Roman system of governance. The laws were made by councils of bishops, and the clergy emerged as a high-ranking class.
=== Islamic period ===
Today's continental Portugal, along with most of modern Spain, was invaded from the South and became part of al-Andalus between 726 and 1249, following the Umayyad Caliphate conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. This rule lasted decades in the North, up to five centuries in the South.
After defeating the Visigoths in a few months, the Umayyad Caliphate started expanding rapidly in the peninsula. Beginning in 726, the land that is now Portugal became part of the vast Umayyad Caliphate's empire of Damascus, until its collapse in 750. That year the west of the empire gained its independence under Abd-ar-Rahman I with the establishment of the Emirate of Córdoba. The Emirate became the Caliphate of Córdoba in 929, until its dissolution in 1031, into 23 small kingdoms, called Taifa kingdoms.
The governors of the taifas proclaimed themselves Emir of their provinces and established diplomatic relations with the Christian kingdoms of the north. Most of present-day Portugal fell into the hands of the Taifa of Badajoz of the Aftasid Dynasty, and in 1022 the Taifa of Seville of the Abbadids poets. The Taifa period ended with the conquest of the Almoravids in 1086, then by the Almohads in 1147.
Al-Andaluz was divided into districts called Kura. Gharb Al-Andalus at its largest consisted of ten kuras, each with a distinct capital and governor. The main cities were in the southern half of the country: Beja, Silves, Alcácer do Sal, Santarém and Lisbon. The Muslim population consisted mainly of native Iberian converts to Islam and Berbers. The Arabs (mainly noblemen from Syria) although a minority, constituted the elite. The Berbers who joined them, were nomads from the Rif Mountains of North Africa.
Invasions from the North also occurred in this period, with Viking incursions raiding the coast between the 9th and 11th centuries, including Lisbon. This resulted in the establishment of small Norse settlements in the coastline between Douro and Minho.
One likely Viking cultural heritage is found in the ancient Marcas Poveiras or Siglas Poveiras. It is generally accepted that the siglas, also known as marcas, are of Scandinavian origin. Based on numerous similarities initially found at the Nationalmuseet in Copenhagen, several objects marked with "home-marks" were also identified in Funen (also known as Fyn), Denmark. Further studies revealed that the complex hereditary marking system of Póvoa de Varzim was also present in Fyn. Given the geographical distance, historical Viking incursions along the Portuguese coast, and pagan rituals practiced by people from this particular fishing region, it is believed that there is a partial Norse ancestry and cultural legacy.
=== Reconquista ===
The Reconquista was a period when Christians reconquered the Iberian Peninsula from Moorish domination. An Asturian Visigothic noble named Pelagius of Asturias was elected leader in 718 by many of the ousted Visigoth nobles. Pelagius called for the remnants of the Christian Visigothic armies to rebel against the Moors and regroup in the unconquered northern Asturian highlands, known today as the Cantabrian Mountains, in north-west Spain. After defeating the Moors in the Battle of Covadonga in 722, Pelagius was proclaimed king, thus founding the Christian Kingdom of Asturias and starting the war of Christian reconquest.
At the end of the 9th century, the region of Portugal between the rivers Minho and Douro was reconquered from the Moors by nobleman and knight Vímara Peres on the orders of King Alfonso III of Asturias. Finding many towns deserted, he decided to repopulate and rebuild them.
Vímara Peres elevated the region to the status of County, naming it the County of Portugal after its major port city – Portus Cale or modern Porto. One of the first cities he founded is Vimaranes, known today as Guimarães – "birthplace of the Portuguese nation" or the "cradle city".
After annexing the County of Portugal into one of the counties that made up the Kingdom of Asturias, King Alfonso III of Asturias knighted Vímara Peres, in 868, as the First Count of Portus Cale (Portugal). The region became known as Portucale, Portugale, and simultaneously Portugália. With the forced abdication of Alfonso III in 910, the Kingdom of Asturias split into three separate kingdoms; they were reunited in 924 under the crown of León.
In 1093 Alfonso VI of León bestowed the county to Henry of Burgundy and married him to his daughter, Teresa of León. Henry thus became Henry, Count of Portugal and based his newly formed county from Bracara Augusta (modern Braga).
=== Independence ===
At the Battle of São Mamede, in the outskirts of Guimarães, in 1128, Afonso Henriques, Count of Portugal, defeated his mother Countess Teresa and her lover Fernão Peres de Trava, establishing himself as sole leader of the county. Afonso continued his father Henry of Burgundy's Reconquista wars. His campaigns were successful and in 1139, he obtained a victory in the Battle of Ourique, so was proclaimed King of Portugal by his soldiers. This is traditionally taken as the occasion when the County of Portugal became the independent Kingdom of Portugal and, in 1129, the capital city was transferred from Guimarães to Coimbra. Afonso was recognised as the first king of Portugal in 1143 by King Alfonso VII of León, and in 1179 by Pope Alexander III as Afonso I of Portugal, with the papal bull Manifestis Probatum.
Afonso Henriques and his successors, aided by military monastic orders, continued pushing southwards against the Moors. In 1217, during the reign of King Afonso II, Portuguese troops, supported by crusaders and others, retook Alcácer do Sal, with further land conquests from the Moors during the reign of Sancho II, mainly the start of the conquest of the Algarve in 1238. After internal tensions, Sancho II was deposed from the throne and his brother, Afonso III, became king in 1248. In 1249, the Reconquista ended with the capture of the Algarve, in the aftermath of the Siege of Faro, and the last Moorish settlements were expelled. With minor readjustments, Portugal's territorial borders have remained the same, making it one of the oldest established countries in Europe.
After a conflict with the kingdom of Castile, Denis of Portugal signed the Treaty of Alcañices in 1297 with Ferdinand IV of Castile. This treaty established the border between the kingdoms of Portugal and Leon. During the reign of Denis, the first university in Portugal opened in Lisbon, on March 1, 1290, being then transferred to Coimbra in 1308. Denis died in 1325 and was succeeded by his son, Afonso IV, who had a strained relationship with his father that nearly ended in war. In 1355, in the aftermath of the assassination of Inês de Castro, Peter's I lover, a civil war broke between the King, Afonso IV, and his son, and heir, Peter, with peace only being achieved in 1357. The reigns of Denis, Afonso IV, and Peter I mostly saw peace with the other kingdoms of Iberia.
In 1348-49 Portugal, as with the rest of Europe, was devastated by the Black Death. In 1373, Portugal, during the reign of Ferdinand I, made an alliance with England, the oldest standing alliance in the world. This alliance was signed during the Fernandine Wars, a series of conflicts between Portugal and Castile over the right to the throne of Castile. This alliance would be reinforced with the signing of the Treaty of Windsor in 1386.
=== Age of Discoveries ===
In 1383 John I of Castile and Beatrice of Portugal, the only surviving legitimate child of Ferdinand I of Portugal, claimed the throne of Portugal. John of Aviz, later John I of Portugal, led a revolt against this claim and defeated the Castilians in the Battle of Aljubarrota, with the House of Aviz becoming the ruling house. The new ruling dynasty led Portugal to the limelight of European politics and culture. They created and sponsored literature, such as a history of Portugal, by Fernão Lopes.
Portugal spearheaded European exploration of the world and the Age of Discovery under the sponsorship of Prince Henry the Navigator, and made several seminal advancements in nautical science. Portugal explored the Atlantic, encountering the Azores, Madeira, and Portuguese Cape Verde, which led to the first colonisation movements. The Portuguese explored the Indian Ocean, established trade routes in most of southern Asia, and sent the first direct European maritime trade and diplomatic missions to China (Jorge Álvares) and Japan (Nanban trade). In 1415, Portugal acquired its first colonies by conquering Ceuta, in North Africa. Throughout the 15th century, Portuguese explorers sailed the coast of Africa, establishing trading posts for commodities, ranging from gold to slavery. Portugal sailed the Portuguese India Armadas to Goa via the Cape of Good Hope.
The Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 was intended to resolve a dispute created following the return of Christopher Columbus and divided the newly located lands outside Europe between Portugal and Spain along a line west of the Cape Verde islands, off the west coast of Africa. In 1498 Vasco da Gama became the first European to reach India by sea, bringing economic prosperity to Portugal and helping to start the Portuguese Renaissance. In 1500, the Portuguese explorer Gaspar Corte-Real reached what is now Canada and founded the town of Portugal Cove-St. Philip's, one of many Portuguese colonies of the Americas.
In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral landed on Brazil and claimed it for Portugal. Ten years later, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Goa in India, Muscat and Ormuz in the Persian Strait, and Malacca, now in Malaysia. Thus, the Portuguese empire held dominion over commerce in the Indian Ocean and South Atlantic. Portuguese sailors set out to reach Eastern Asia, landing in Taiwan, Japan, Timor, Flores, and the Moluccas. Although it was believed the Dutch were the first Europeans to arrive in Australia, there is evidence the Portuguese may have discovered it in 1521.
Between 1519 and 1522 Ferdinand Magellan organised a Spanish expedition to the East Indies which resulted in the first circumnavigation of the globe. The Treaty of Zaragoza, signed in 1529 between Portugal and Spain, divided the Pacific Ocean between Spain and Portugal.
=== Iberian Union and Restoration ===
Portugal voluntarily entered a dynastic union (1580–1640) because the last two kings of the House of Aviz (Sebastian, King of Portugal, followed by his grand-uncle Henry, King of Portugal) died without heirs, resulting in the Portuguese succession crisis of 1580. Philip II of Spain claimed the throne, under the pretext that his mother was a Portuguese princess, Isabella of Portugal, the second child and first daughter of King Manuel I of Portugal. Philip II of Spain was accepted as Philip I of Portugal. Yet, Portugal did not lose its formal independence. Instead, a union of kingdoms was formed. But the joining of the two crowns deprived Portugal of an independent foreign policy, and led to its involvement in the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands.
War led to a deterioration of relations with Portugal's oldest ally, England, and the loss of Hormuz, a strategic trading post located between Iran and Oman. From 1595 to 1663 the Dutch Portuguese War primarily involved Dutch companies invading Portuguese colonies and commercial interests in Brazil, Africa, India and the Far East, resulting in the loss of Portugal's Indian sea trade monopoly.
In 1640 John IV of Portugal spearheaded an uprising backed by disgruntled nobles and was proclaimed king. The Portuguese Restoration War ended the 60-year period of the Iberian Union under the House of Habsburg. This was the beginning of the House of Braganza, which reigned until 1910. John V saw a reign characterised by the influx of gold into the royal treasury, supplied largely by the royal fifth (tax on precious metals) from the Portuguese colonies of Brazil and Maranhão. Most estimates place the number of Portuguese migrants to Colonial Brazil during the gold rush of the 18th century at 600,000. This represented one of the largest movements of European populations to their colonies, during colonial times.
=== Pombaline era and Enlightenment ===
In 1738 Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, later ennobled as 1st Marquis of Pombal, began a career as the Portuguese Ambassador in London, later in Vienna. King Joseph I was crowned in 1750 and made him his Minister of Foreign Affairs. As the King's confidence in Carvalho e Melo increased, he entrusted him with more control of the state. By 1755, Carvalho e Melo was made prime minister. Impressed by British economic success witnessed as ambassador, he successfully implemented similar economic policies in Portugal.
In 1761, during the reign of King José I, he banned the import of black slaves into mainland Portugal and India, not for humanitarian reasons, but because they were a necessary work force in Brazil. At the same time, he encouraged the trade of black slaves ("the pieces", in the terms of that time) to that colony, and with the support and direct involvement of the Marquis of Pombal, two companies were founded - the Companhia do Grão-Pará e Maranhão and the Companhia Geral de Pernambuco e Paraíba - whose main activity was the trafficking of slaves, mostly Africans, to Brazilian lands.
He reorganised the army and navy and ended legal discrimination against different Christian sects. He created companies and guilds to regulate commercial activity and one of the first appellation systems by demarcating the region for production of Port to ensure the wine's quality. This was the first attempt to control wine quality and production in Europe. He imposed strict law upon all classes of Portuguese society, along with a widespread review of the tax system. These reforms gained him enemies in the upper classes.
Lisbon was struck by a major earthquake on 1 November 1755, magnitude estimated to have been between 7.7 and 9.0, with casualties ranging from 12,000 to 50,000. Following the earthquake, Joseph I gave his prime minister more power, and Carvalho de Melo became an enlightened despot. In 1758 Joseph I was wounded in an attempted assassination. The Marquis of Távora, several members of his family and even servants were tortured and executed in public with extreme brutality (even by the standards of the time), as alleged part of the Távora affair.
The following year, the Jesuits were suppressed and expelled. This crushed opposition by publicly demonstrating even the aristocracy was powerless before Pombal. Further titled "Marquês de Pombal" in 1770, he ruled Portugal until Joseph I's death in 1777. The new ruler, Queen Maria I of Portugal, disliked Pombal because of his excesses, and upon her accession to the throne, withdrew all his political offices. Pombal was banished to his estate at Pombal, where he died in 1782.
Historians argue that Pombal's "enlightenment," while far-reaching, was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition, suppressing criticism, and furthering colonial exploitation and consolidating personal control, and profit.
=== Crises of the 19th century ===
In 1807 Portugal refused Napoleon's demand to accede to the Continental System of embargo against the United Kingdom; a French invasion under General Junot followed, and Lisbon was captured in 1807. British intervention in the Peninsular War helped maintain Portuguese independence; the last French troops were expelled in 1812. During the Napoleonic invasions, the Portuguese royal family transferred the court to Rio de Janeiro, in Brazil, making it the capital of the Portuguese empire between 1808 and 1821.
In 1820, constitutionalist insurrections took place at Porto and Lisbon, and King John VI and his court were forced to return to mainland Portugal in 1821. Lisbon regained its status as the capital of Portugal when Brazil declared its independence in 1822. The death of King John VI in 1826 led to a crisis of royal succession. His eldest son, Pedro I of Brazil, briefly became Pedro IV of Portugal, but neither the Portuguese nor Brazilians wanted a unified monarchy.
Consequently, Pedro abdicated the Portuguese crown in favour of his 7-year-old daughter, Maria da Glória, on the condition that when she came of age she would marry his brother, Miguel. Dissatisfaction at Pedro's constitutional reforms led the "absolutist" faction of landowners and the church to proclaim Miguel king in February 1828. This led to the Liberal Wars, in which Pedro forced Miguel to abdicate and go into exile in 1834 and place his daughter on the throne as Queen Maria II of Portugal.
After 1815 the Portuguese expanded their trading ports along the African coast, moving inland to take control of Angola and Mozambique. The slave trade was abolished in 1836. In Portuguese India, trade flourished in the colony of Goa, with its subsidiary colonies of Macau, near Hong Kong, and Timor, north of Australia. The Portuguese successfully introduced Catholicism and the Portuguese language into their colonies, while most settlers continued to head to Brazil.
In January 1890, the British government delivered an ultimatum to Portugal, demanding the withdrawal of Portuguese forces from the area between Portugal's colonies of Mozambique and Angola. The area had been claimed by Portugal as part of its colonialist Pink Map project, but Britain disputed these claims, mostly due to Cecil Rhodes' aspirations to create a Cape to Cairo Railway, which was intended to link all British colonies via a single railway. The government of Portugal quietly accepted the ultimatum and withdrew their forces from the disputed area, leading to a widespread backlash among the Portuguese public, who viewed acceptance of the British demands as a humiliation.
=== First Republic and Estado Novo ===
On 1 February 1908, King Carlos I and his son and heir, Luís Filipe, Prince Royal, were assassinated by Republican and Carbonária members. Two years later, on 5 October 1910, a coup d'état overthrew the near 800-year-old Monarchy and the Republic was proclaimed. During World War I, Portugal helped the Allies fight the Central Powers; however the war hurt its weak economy.
Political instability and economic weaknesses were fertile ground for chaos and unrest during the First Portuguese Republic. Several coups occurred during the First Republic, like the failed Monarchy of the North coup, but others had success, like the December 1917 coup d'état, which led to the rise of Sidónio Pais to power. In 1921, the Bloody Night revolt ended in the assassination of the Prime Minister and other high-ranking officials of the Republic.
These conditions led to the 28 May 1926 coup d'état and creation of the National Dictatorship (Ditadura Nacional). This in turn led to the right-wing dictatorship of the Estado Novo (New State), under António de Oliveira Salazar in 1933.
Portugal remained neutral in World War II. From the 1940s to 1960s, Portugal was a founding member of NATO, OECD, the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and joined the United Nations in 1955. New economic development projects and relocation of mainland Portuguese citizens into the overseas provinces in Africa were initiated, with Angola and Mozambique being the main targets of those initiatives. These actions were used to affirm Portugal's status as a transcontinental nation and not a colonial empire.
Pro-Indian residents of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, separated those territories from Portuguese rule in 1954. In 1961, Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá's annexation by the Republic of Dahomey was the start of a process that led to the dissolution of the centuries-old Portuguese Empire. Another forcible retreat occurred in 1961 when Portugal refused to relinquish Goa. The Portuguese were involved in armed conflict in Portuguese India against the Indian Armed Forces. The operations resulted in the defeat and loss of the remaining Portuguese territories in the Indian subcontinent. The Portuguese regime refused to recognise Indian sovereignty over the annexed territories, which continued to be represented in the National Assembly until the coup of 1974.
Also in the early 1960s the independence movements in the Portuguese provinces of Portuguese Angola, Portuguese Mozambique, and Portuguese Guinea in Africa, resulted in the Portuguese Colonial War (lasting from 1961 till 1974). The war mobilised around 1.4 million men for military or for civilian support service, and led to large casualties. Throughout the colonial war period Portugal dealt with increasing dissent, arms embargoes and other punitive sanctions imposed by the international community. The authoritarian and conservative Estado Novo regime, tried to preserve the empire.
Salazar governed until 1968, when he suffered a brain hemorrhage, and was replaced by Marcelo Caetano, which raised hopes of a "liberalization" of the Estado Novo regime, called the Marcelist Spring, but those hopes were soon crushed.
=== Carnation Revolution and return to democracy ===
The government and army resisted the decolonization of its overseas territories until April 1974, when a left-wing military coup in Lisbon, the Carnation Revolution, led the way for the independence of territories, as well as the restoration of democracy after two years of a transitional period known as PREC (Processo Revolucionário Em Curso). This period was characterised by power disputes between left- and right-wing political forces. By the summer of 1975, the tensions were so high, that the country was on the verge of civil war. Forces connected to the extreme left-wing launched another coup on 25 November, but a military faction, the Group of Nine, initiated a counter-coup.
The Group of Nine emerged victorious, preventing the establishment of a communist state and ending political instability. The retreat from the overseas territories prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from its African territories. Up to 600,000 Portuguese refugees fled the former Portuguese provinces, as white settlers were usually not considered part of the former colonies. By 1975, all Portuguese African territories were independent and Portugal held its first democratic elections in 50 years.
Portugal continued to be governed by a several provisional governments until the Portuguese legislative election of 1976. It was won by the Portuguese Socialist Party and Mário Soares, its leader, became prime minister. Soares would be prime minister from 1976 to 1978 and 1983 to 1985. Soares tried to resume the economic growth and development record that had been achieved before the Carnation Revolution. He initiated the process of accession to the European Economic Community (EEC).
After the transition to democracy, Portugal flipped between socialism and adherence to the neoliberal model. Land reform and nationalisations were enforced; the Portuguese Constitution was rewritten to accommodate socialist and communist principles. Until the revisions of 1982 and 1989, the constitution had references to socialism, the rights of workers, and the desirability of a socialist economy. Portugal's economic situation after the revolution obliged the government to pursue International Monetary Fund (IMF)-monitored stabilisation programmes in 1977–78 and 1983–85. In 1986 Portugal alongside Spain, joined the European Economic Community which later became the European Union (EU). Portugal's economy progressed considerably as a result of European Structural and Investment Funds and companies' easier access to foreign markets.
Portugal's last overseas territory, Macau, was peacefully handed over to China in 1999. In 2002, the independence of East Timor (Asia) was formally recognised by Portugal. In 1995, Portugal started to implement Schengen Area rules, eliminating border controls with other Schengen members. Expo '98 took place in Portugal and in 1999 it was one of the founding countries of the euro and eurozone. In 2004 José Manuel Barroso, the then Prime Minister of Portugal, was nominated President of the European Commission.
On 1 December 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon entered into force, enhancing the efficiency and democratic legitimacy of the Union. Economic disruption and an unsustainable growth in government debt during the 2008 financial crisis led the country to negotiate in 2011 with the IMF and the European Union, through the European Financial Stability Mechanism and the European Financial Stability Facility, a loan to help the country stabilise its finances.
== Geography ==
Portugal occupies an area on the Iberian Peninsula (referred to as the continent by most Portuguese) and two archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean: Madeira and the Azores. It lies between latitudes 30° and 42° N, and longitudes 32° and 6° W.
Continental Portugal is split by its main river, the Tagus, that flows from Spain and disgorges in the Tagus Estuary at Lisbon, before escaping into the Atlantic. The northern landscape is mountainous towards the interior with several plateaus indented by river valleys, whereas the south, including the Algarve and the Alentejo regions, is characterised by rolling plains.
Portugal's highest peak is Mount Pico on Pico Island in the Azores. The archipelagos of Madeira and the Azores are scattered within the Atlantic Ocean: the Azores straddling the Mid-Atlantic Ridge on a tectonic triple junction, and Madeira along a range formed by in-plate hotspot geology. Geologically, these islands were formed by volcanic and seismic events. The last terrestrial volcanic eruption occurred in 1957–58 (Capelinhos) and minor earthquakes occur sporadically.
The exclusive economic zone, a sea zone over which the Portuguese have special rights in exploration and have use of marine resources, covers an area of 1,727,408 km2 (666,956 sq mi). This is the 3rd largest exclusive economic zone of the European Union and the 20th largest in the world.
=== Provinces of Portugal ===
The term "provinces" (Portuguese: províncias) has been used throughout history to identify regions of continental Portugal. Current legal subdivisions of Portugal do not coincide with the provinces, but several provinces, in their 19th- and 20th-century versions, still correspond to culturally relevant, strongly self-identifying categories. They include:
Alentejo (Alto Alentejo, Baixo Alentejo)
Algarve
Beira (Beira Alta, Beira Baixa, Beira Litoral)
Douro Litoral
Estremadura
Minho
Ribatejo
Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro
The islands of Azores and Madeira weren't called "provinces".
=== Climate ===
Portugal is mainly characterised by a Mediterranean climate, temperate maritime climate in high altitude zones of the Azorean islands; a semi-arid climate in parts of the Beja District far south and in Porto Santo Island, a hot desert climate in the Selvagens Islands and a humid subtropical climate in the western Azores, according to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. It is one of the warmest countries in Europe: the average temperature in mainland Portugal varies from 10–12 °C (50.0–53.6 °F) in the mountainous interior north to 17–19 °C (62.6–66.2 °F) in the south and on the Guadiana river basin. There are variations from the highlands to the lowlands. The Algarve, separated from the Alentejo region by mountains reaching up to 900 metres (3,000 ft) in Alto da Fóia, has a climate similar to that of the southern coastal areas of Spain or Southwest Australia.
Annual average rainfall in the mainland varies from just over 3,200 millimetres (126.0 in) on the Peneda-Gerês National Park to less than 500 millimetres (19.7 in) in southern parts of Alentejo. Mount Pico receives the largest annual rainfall (over 6,250 millimetres (246.1 in) per year), according to Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera. In some areas, such as the Guadiana basin, annual diurnal average temperatures can be as high as 24.5 °C (76.1 °F), and summer's highest temperatures are routinely over 40 °C (104 °F). The record high of 47.4 °C (117.3 °F) was recorded in Amareleja.
Snowfalls occur regularly during winter in the interior North and Centre, particularly in the highlands. In these regions, temperatures can drop below −10.0 °C (14.0 °F), and snow may fall any time from October to May. In the South, snowfalls are rare but can still occur at the highest elevations. While the official absolute minimum by IPMA is −16.0 °C (3.2 °F) in Penhas da Saúde and Miranda do Douro, lower temperatures have been recorded. Continental Portugal receives around 2,300-3,200 hours of sunshine annually, an average of 4–6 hours in winter and 10–12 hours in the summer, with higher values in the south-east, south-west, Algarve coast and lower in the north-west.
Portugal's central west and southwest coasts have an extreme ocean seasonal lag; sea temperatures are warmer in October than in July and are their coldest in March. The average sea surface temperature on the west coast of mainland Portugal varies from 14–16 °C (57.2–60.8 °F) in January−March to 19–21 °C (66.2–69.8 °F) in August−October while on the south coast it ranges from 16 °C (60.8 °F) in January−March and rises in the summer to about 22–23 °C (71.6–73.4 °F), occasionally reaching 26 °C (78.8 °F). In the Azores, around 16 °C (60.8 °F) in February−April to 22–24 °C (71.6–75.2 °F) in July−September, and in Madeira, around 18 °C (64.4 °F) in February−April to 23–24 °C (73.4–75.2 °F) in August−October.
Azores and Madeira have a subtropical climate, although variations between islands exist. The Madeira and Azorean archipelagos have a narrower temperature range, with annual average temperatures exceeding 20 °C (68 °F) in some parts of the coast. Some islands in Azores have drier months in the summer. Consequently, the islands of the Azores have been identified as having a Mediterranean climate, while some islands (such as Flores or Corvo) are classified as Humid subtropical, transitioning into an Oceanic climate at higher altitudes. Porto Santo Island in Madeira has a warm semi-arid climate. The Savage Islands, which are part of the regional territory of Madeira and a nature reserve are unique in being classified as a desert climate with an annual average rainfall of approximately 150 millimetres (5.9 in).
Climate change in Portugal is causing rising temperatures and longer-lasting heat waves, decreases in average rainfall and increases in the number of extremely rainy days (causing droughts and floods), and rising sea levels which will threaten the country's many coastal populations. Wildfires are quite common and a major issue in Portugal, being the country with the highest percentage of burned area, on average, in the entire European Union.
=== Biodiversity ===
Portugal is located on the Mediterranean Basin, the third most diverse hotspot of flora in the world. It is home to six terrestrial ecoregions: Azores temperate mixed forests, Cantabrian mixed forests, Madeira evergreen forests, Iberian sclerophyllous and semi-deciduous forests, Northwest Iberian montane forests, and Southwest Iberian Mediterranean sclerophyllous and mixed forests. Over 22% of its land area is included in the Natura 2000 network. Eucalyptus, cork oak and maritime pine together make up 71% of the total forested area of continental Portugal.
Geographical and climatic conditions facilitate the introduction of exotic species that later turn to be invasive and destructive to the native habitats. Around 20 percent of the total number of extant species in continental Portugal are exotic. Portugal is the second country in Europe with the highest number of threatened animal and plant species. Portugal as a whole is an important stopover for migratory bird species.
The large mammalian species of Portugal (deer, Iberian ibex, wild boar, red fox, Iberian wolf and Iberian lynx) were once widespread throughout the country, but intense hunting, habitat degradation and growing pressure from agriculture and livestock reduced population on a large scale in the 19th and early 20th century, others, such as the Portuguese ibex were even led to extinction. Today, these animals are re-expanding their native range.
The Portuguese west coast is part of the four major Eastern Boundary Upwelling Systems of the ocean. This seasonal upwelling system typically seen during the summer months brings cooler, nutrient rich water up to the sea surface promoting phytoplankton growth, zooplankton development and the subsequent rich diversity in pelagic fish and other marine invertebrates. This makes Portugal one of the largest per capita fish-consumers in the world. 73% of the freshwater fish occurring in the Iberian Peninsula are endemic, the largest out of any region in Europe. Some protected areas of Portugal include: the Serras de Aire e Candeeiros, the Southwest Alentejo and Vicentine Coast Natural Park, and the Montesinho Natural Park which hosts some of the only populations of Iberian wolf and Iberian brown bear.
== Politics ==
Portugal has been a semi-presidential representative democratic republic since the ratification of the Constitution of 1976, with Lisbon, the nation's largest city, as its capital. The Constitution grants the division or separation of powers among four sovereignty bodies: the President of the Republic, the Assembly of the Republic, the Government and the Courts.
The Head of State is the President of the Republic, elected to a five-year term by direct, universal suffrage; the current president is Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa. Although largely a ceremonial post, Presidential powers include the appointment of the Prime Minister and other members of the Government; dismissing the Prime Minister; dissolving the Assembly; vetoing legislation (which may be overridden by the Assembly); and declaring war (only on the advice of the Government and with the authorisation of the Assembly). The President has also supervisory and reserve powers and is the ex officio Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. The President is advised on issues of importance by the Council of State.
According to International IDEA’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Portugal performs in the mid-high range on overall democratic measures, with particular strengths in political representation, including elected government and inclusive suffrage.
=== Government ===
The Assembly of the Republic is a single chamber parliament composed of a maximum of 230 deputies elected for a four-year term. The Government is headed by the Prime Minister and includes Ministers and Secretaries of State, that have full executive powers; the current prime minister is Luís Montenegro. The Council of Ministers – under the Prime Minister (or the President at the latter's request) and the Ministers – acts as the cabinet. The Courts are organised into several levels, among the judicial, administrative and fiscal branches. The Supreme Courts are institutions of last resort/appeal. A thirteen-member Constitutional Court oversees the constitutionality of the laws.
Portugal operates a multi-party system of competitive legislatures/local administrative governments at the national, regional and local levels. The Assembly of the Republic is dominated by three political parties, the Social Democratic Party (PSD), Enough (CH) and the Socialist Party (PS), while in Regional Assemblies and local municipalities and parishes the PSD and PS continue to be the dominant parties. Others parties include the Liberal Initiative, the Left Bloc, the Unitary Democratic Coalition (Portuguese Communist Party and Ecologist Party "The Greens"), LIVRE, the CDS – People's Party and the People Animals Nature.
=== Foreign relations ===
A member state of the United Nations since 1955, Portugal is a founding member of NATO (1949), the OECD (1961) and EFTA (1960); it left the last in 1986 to join the European Economic Community, which became the European Union in 1993. In 1996, Portugal co-founded the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organisation and political association of Lusophone nations where Portuguese is an official language.
Portugal has hosted several international summits and events like the first EU–Brazil summit in July 2007, the second EU–African Union summit in December 2007, the signing of the Treaty of Lisbon also in December 2007, and the NATO summit in November 2010. Portugal was a full member of the Latin Union (1983) and the Organisation of Ibero-American States (1949). It has a friendship alliance and dual citizenship treaty with its former colony, Brazil. Portugal and the United Kingdom share the world's oldest active military accord through their Anglo-Portuguese Alliance (Treaty of Windsor), signed in 1386.
=== Territorial disputes ===
Olivenza: Under Portuguese sovereignty since 1297, the municipality of Olivença was ceded to Spain under the Treaty of Badajoz in 1801, after the War of the Oranges. Portugal claimed it back in 1815 under the Treaty of Vienna. However, since the 19th century, it has been continuously ruled by Spain which considers the territory theirs not only de facto but also de jure.
Savage Islands: A small group of mostly uninhabited islets which fall under Portuguese Madeira's regional autonomous jurisdiction. Found in 1364 by Italian mariners under the service of Prince Henry The Navigator, it was first noted by Portuguese navigator Diogo Gomes de Sintra in 1438. Historically, the islands have belonged to private Portuguese owners from the 16th century on, until 1971 when the government purchased them and established a natural reserve area covering the whole archipelago. The islands have been claimed by Spain since 1911, and the dispute has caused some periods of political tension between the two countries. The main problem for Spain's attempts to claim these small islands, has been not so much their intrinsic value, but the fact that they expand Portugal's exclusive economic zone considerably to the south, in detriment of Spain. The Selvagens Islands have been tentatively added to UNESCO's world heritage list in 2017.
=== Military ===
The armed forces have three branches: Navy, Army and Air Force, commanded by the Portuguese Armed Forces General Staff. They serve primarily as a self-defence force whose mission is to protect the territorial integrity of the country but can also be used in offensive missions in foreign territories. In recent years, the Portuguese Armed Forces have carried out several NATO and European Union military missions in various territories, namely in Afghanistan, Iraq, Lebanon, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Mali, Central African Republic, Somalia, Mozambique and East Timor. As of 2024, the three branches numbered 23,678 military personnel. Portuguese military expenditure in 2023 was more than 4 billion US$, representing 1.48 per cent of GDP.
The Army of 10,969 personnel comprises three brigades and other small units. An Infantry Brigade (mainly equipped with Pandur II APC, M114 howitzer and MIM-72 Chaparral air defence systems), a Mechanized Brigade (mainly equipped with Leopard 2 A6 tanks and M113A2 APC) and a Rapid Reaction Brigade (consisting of Paratroopers, Commandos, Rangers and Artillery Regiment). The Navy (6,739 personnel by 2023, of which 1,030 are marines), the world's oldest surviving naval force, has five frigates, two corvettes, two submarines, and 20 oceanic patrol vessels. The Air Force (5,663 personnel by 2023) has the Lockheed F-16M Fighting Falcon as the main combat aircraft.
In addition to the three branches of the armed forces, there is the National Republican Guard, a security force subject to military law and organisation (gendarmerie) comprising 23,287 personnel by 2023. This force is under the authority of both the Defence and the Interior Ministry. It has provided detachments for participation in international operations in Iraq and East Timor. The United States maintains a military presence with 770 troops in the Lajes Air Base at Terceira Island, in the Azores.
=== Law and justice ===
The Portuguese legal system is part of the civil law legal system. The main laws include the Constitution (1976), the Portuguese Civil Code (1966) and the Penal Code of Portugal (1982), as amended. Other relevant laws are the Commercial Code (1888) and the Civil Procedure Code (1961). Portuguese laws were applied in the former colonies and territories and continue to be influences for those countries. The supreme national courts are the Supreme Court of Justice and the Constitutional Court. The Public Ministry, headed by the Attorney General of the Republic, constitutes the independent body of public prosecutors.
Drug decriminalisation was declared in 2001, making Portugal the first country to allow usage and personal possession of all common drugs. Despite criticism from other European nations, who stated Portugal's drug consumption would tremendously increase, overall drug use has declined along with HIV infection cases, which dropped 50 percent by 2009. Overall drug use among 16- to 18-year-olds declined, however use of marijuana rose slightly.
LGBT rights in Portugal have increased substantially in the 21st century. In 2003, Portugal added an anti-discrimination employment law on the basis of sexual orientation. In 2004, sexual orientation was added to the Constitution as part of the protected from discrimination characteristics. In 2010, Portugal became the sixth country in Europe and eighth in the world to legalise same-sex marriage at the national level.
LGBT adoption has been allowed since 2016 as has female same-sex couple access to medically assisted reproduction. In 2017 the Law of Gender Identity, simplified the legal process of gender and name change for transgender people, making it easier for minors to change their sex marker in legal documents. In 2018, the right to gender identity and gender expression self-determination became protected, intersex minors became protected by law from unnecessary medical procedures "until the minor gender identity manifests" and the right of protection from discrimination on the basis of sex characteristics became protected by the same law.
Over the past 30 years, Euthanasia legalisation has been proposed and approved in several parliamentary reviews, but has been blocked by the Constitutional Court, with the most recent unfavourable decision dating from 2025. In the most recent proposal, national residents over 18 who were terminally ill and in extreme suffering, but who could still decide to, would have the legal right to request for assisted dying. For non-residents or foreigners euthanasia would not be allowed.
=== Law enforcement ===
Portugal's main police organisations are the Guarda Nacional Republicana – GNR (National Republican Guard), a gendarmerie; the Polícia de Segurança Pública – PSP (Public Security Police), a civilian police force who work in urban areas; and the Polícia Judiciária – PJ (Judicial Police), a highly specialised criminal investigation police that is overseen by the Public Ministry.
Portugal has 49 correctional facilities in total run by the Ministry of Justice. They include seventeen central prisons, four special prisons, twenty-seven regional prisons, and one 'Cadeia de Apoio' (Support Detention Centre). As of 1 January 2025, the prison population stood at 12,193 inmates, which comes to about 0.11% of the country's entire population. The incarceration rate had a strong increase after 2010, with the prison population surpassing 14,000 inmates by 2013, but after that same year the incarceration rate began to steadily decline, a trend that has continued in recent years.
=== Administrative divisions ===
Administratively, Portugal is divided into 308 municipalities (municípios or concelhos), which, after a reform in 2013, were subdivided into 3,092 civil parishes (Portuguese: freguesia). The number of parishes grew to 3,259 in 2024, after several merged parishes were separated again. Operationally, the municipality and civil parish, along with the national government, are the only legally local administrative units identified by the government of Portugal (for example, cities, towns or villages have no standing in law, although may be used as catchment for the defining services). Continental Portugal is agglomerated into 18 districts, while the archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are governed as autonomous regions; the largest units, established since 1976, are either mainland Portugal and the autonomous regions of Portugal (Azores and Madeira).
The 18 districts of mainland Portugal are: Aveiro, Beja, Braga, Bragança, Castelo Branco, Coimbra, Évora, Faro, Guarda, Leiria, Lisbon, Portalegre, Porto, Santarém, Setúbal, Viana do Castelo, Vila Real and Viseu – each district takes the name of the district capital.
Within the European Union NUTS system, Portugal is divided into nine regions: the Azores, Alentejo, Algarve, Centro, Lisboa, Madeira, Norte, Oeste e Vale do Tejo and Península de Setúbal, and with the exception of the Azores and Madeira, NUTS areas are subdivided into 24 subregions.
== Economy ==
Portugal is a developed and high-income country with a GDP per capita of 82% of the EU27 average in 2024, and a HDI of 0.874 (the 42nd highest in the world) in 2022. It holds the 14th largest gold reserve in the world at its national central bank, with the highest gold share of forex reserves in the world, has the 8th largest proven reserves of lithium, and total exports representing 46.6% of its GDP in 2024. Portugal has been a net beneficiary of the European Union budget since it joined the union, then known as EEC, in 1986.
By the end of 2024, GDP (PPP) was $50,617 per capita, according to the World Bank. By the same year, Portugal had the 6th lowest GDP per capita (PPP), ranking 15th, among the 20 members of the eurozone, and ranked only 18th among the 27 member-states of the European Union. In 2022, labour productivity had fallen to the fourth lowest among the 27 member-states of the European Union (EU) and was 35% lower than the EU average.
Portugal was an original member of the eurozone. The national currency, the euro (€) started transitioning from the Portuguese Escudo in 2000 and consolidated in 2002. Portugal's central bank is the Banco de Portugal, an integral part of the European System of Central Banks. Most industries, businesses and financial institutions are concentrated in the Lisbon and Porto metropolitan areas, plus the areas around these two metro areas.
Since the Carnation Revolution of 1974, which culminated in the end of one of Portugal's most notable phases of economic expansion, a significant change has occurred in the nation's annual economic growth. After the turmoil of the 1974 revolution, Portugal tried to adapt to a changing modern global economy, a process that continues. Since the 1990s, Portugal's public consumption-based economic development model has changed to a system focused on exports, private investment and the development of the high-tech sector. Consequently, business services have overtaken more traditional industries such as textiles, clothing, footwear and cork (Portugal is the world's leading cork producer), wood products and beverages.
In the 2010s, the Portuguese economy suffered its most severe recession since the 1970s, which resulted in the country receiving a 78-billion-euro bailout from the European Union and the International Monetary Fund in May 2011. By end of 2023, the share of debt as percentage of GDP fell below 100 percent, to 96.9%, and fell further to 93.6% by the end of 2024.
In 2024, the average gross salary was €1,602 per month, and the minimum wage, which is regulated by law, is €870 per month (paid 14 times per annum) as of 2025. The World Competitiveness Ranking 2025, by Swiss institute IMD, ranked Portugal at 37th. The Numbeo quality of life index placed Portugal 20th in the world in 2023.
Companies listed on Euronext Lisbon stock exchange like EDP, Galp, Jerónimo Martins, Mota-Engil, Novabase, Semapa, Portucel Soporcel, Portugal Telecom and Sonae, are among the largest corporations by number of employees, net income or international market share. The Euronext Lisbon is the major stock exchange and part of the pan-European group of stock exchanges Euronext. The PSI-20 is Portugal's most selective and widely known stock index.
The OECD economic reports since 2018 show recovery. Rents and house prices have skyrocketed in Portugal, particularly Lisbon, where rents jumped 37% in 2022. The 8% inflation rate in the same year exacerbated the problem. According to the IMF, Portugal's economic recovery from the COVID pandemic in 2022 was substantially better than the EU average. Although modest, economic growth continued in 2023 while inflation continued decreasing to 5%. In 2024 the annual inflation continued a downward trend ending at 2.3% and accompanied by a small economic growth. In 2025, the economy is expected to continue growing at 1.9 annually, while inflation is forecast at 2.1% for the fiscal year. These moderately optimistic indicators are supported by increased private consumption, investment, employment growth and unemployment easing.
Agriculture in Portugal is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units. However, the sector also includes larger scale intensive farming, export-oriented agrobusinesses. The country produces a variety of crops and livestock products, including: tomatoes, citrus, green vegetables, rice, wheat, barley, maize, olives, oilseeds, nuts, cherries, bilberry, table grapes, edible mushrooms, dairy products, poultry and beef. According to FAO, Portugal is the top producer of cork and carob in the world, accounting for about 50% and 30% of world production, respectively. It is the third largest exporter of chestnuts and third largest European producer of pulp. Portugal is among the world's top ten largest olive oil producers and fourth largest exporter. The country is one of the world's largest exporters of wine, reputed for its fine wines. Forestry has played an important economic role among the rural communities and industry. In 2001, the gross agricultural product accounted for 4% of the economy; in 2022 it was 2%.
=== Tourism ===
Travel and tourism is an important part of Portugal's economy. As of 2024, the tourism sector contributed 11.9% to GDP, worth €34 billion, with tourism contributing 0.3% to an annual GDP growth of 1.9%, a decrease compared to 2023, when almost half of the annual GDP growth was due to the tourism sector. It has been necessary for the country to focus upon its niche attractions, such as health, nature and rural tourism, to stay ahead of its competitors.
Portugal is among the top 20 most-visited countries in the world, receiving nearly 29 million foreign tourists by 2024. In 2014, Portugal was elected The Best European Country by USA Today. In 2017, Portugal was elected both Europe's Leading Destination and in 2018 and 2019, World's Leading Destination
Tourist hotspots in Portugal are: Lisbon, Cascais, Algarve, Madeira, Nazaré, Fátima, Óbidos, Porto, Braga, Guimarães and Coimbra. Lisbon attracts many tourists, being the 9th most visited city in Europe, and with 6,7 million tourists occupying the city's hotels by 2024, of which 5,5 million were foreign.
=== Science and technology ===
Scientific and technological research activities are mainly conducted within a network of R&D units belonging to public universities and state-managed autonomous research institutions like the INETI – Instituto Nacional de Engenharia, Tecnologia e Inovação and the INRB – Instituto Nacional dos Recursos Biológicos. Funding and management of this system is conducted under the authority of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education and the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (Foundation for Science and Technology). The largest R&D units of the public universities by volume of research grants and peer-reviewed publications, include biosciences research institutions.
Among the largest non-state-run research institutions are the Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência and the Champalimaud Foundation, a neuroscience and oncology research centre. National and multinational high-tech and industrial companies, are responsible for research and development projects. One of the oldest learned societies of Portugal is the Lisbon Academy of Sciences, founded in 1779.
Iberian bilateral state-supported research efforts include the International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory and the Ibercivis distributed computing platform. Portugal is a member of pan-European scientific organisations. These include the European Space Agency (ESA), the European Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN), ITER, and the European Southern Observatory (ESO). Portugal has the largest aquarium in Europe, the Lisbon Oceanarium, and have other notable organisations focused on science-related exhibits and divulgation, like the state agency Ciência Viva, the Science Museum of the University of Coimbra, the National Museum of Natural History at the University of Lisbon, and the Visionarium. The European Innovation Scoreboard 2011, placed Portugal-based innovation 15th, with increase in innovation expenditure and output. Portugal was ranked 31st in the Global Innovation Index in 2025.
=== Transport ===
Portugal has a 68,732 km (42,708 mi) road network, of which 3,065 km (1,905 mi) are part of system of 48 motorways, making it the 8th largest motorway system among 42 European countries. On many highways, a toll needs to be paid (see Via Verde). Vasco da Gama bridge is the longest bridge in the EU (the second longest in Europe) at 12.345 km (7.671 mi).
Continental Portugal's 89,102 km2 (34,402 sq mi) territory is serviced by four international airports located near the principal cities of Lisbon, Porto, Faro and Beja. Lisbon's geographical position makes it a stopover for many foreign airlines at several airports within the country. The primary flag-carrier is TAP Air Portugal, although many other domestic airlines provide services within and without the country.
The most important airports are in Lisbon, Porto, Faro, Funchal (Madeira), and Ponta Delgada (Azores), managed by the national airport authority group ANA – Aeroportos de Portugal. A new airport, to replace the current Lisbon airport, has been planned for more than 50 years, but it has been always postponed by a series of reasons.
A national railway system that extends throughout the country and into Spain, is supported and administered by Comboios de Portugal (CP). Rail transport of passengers and goods is derived using the 2,527 km (1,570 mi) of railway lines currently in service, of which 1,791 km (1,113 mi) are electrified and about 900 km (559 mi) allow train speeds greater than 120 km/h (75 mph). The railway network is managed by Infraestruturas de Portugal while the transport of passengers and goods are the responsibility of CP, both public companies. In 2024, the CP carried 188,300,000 passengers and 8,555,000 tonnes of goods by 2023.
The major seaports are located in Sines, Leixões, Lisbon, Setúbal, Aveiro, Figueira da Foz, and Faro. The two largest metropolitan areas have subway systems: Lisbon Metro and Metro Sul do Tejo light rail system in the Lisbon metropolitan area, and Porto Metro light metro system in the Porto Metropolitan Area. Coimbra is currently developing a Bus rapid transit system, Metro Mondego, as is the Algarve, Algarve Metrobus.
In Portugal, Lisbon tram services have been supplied by the Companhia de Carris de Ferro de Lisboa (Carris), for over a century. In Porto, a tram network, of which only a tourist line on the shores of the Douro remains, began construction on 12 September 1895 (a first for the Iberian Peninsula). All major cities and towns have their own local urban transport network, as well as taxi services.
=== Energy ===
As of 2023, oil made up 44% of Portugal's total energy supply. However the country phased out coal-fired generation in 2021 and has been developing renewable energies such as hydopower and wind power and investing in public transport and electric vehicles.
Portugal has considerable wind and hydropower resources. In 2006, the world's then largest solar power plant, the Moura Photovoltaic Power Station, began operating, while the world's first commercial wave power farm, the Aguçadoura Wave Farm, opened in the Norte region (2008). By 2006, 66% of the country's electrical production was from coal and fuel power plants, while 29% were derived from hydroelectric dams, and 6% by wind energy. In 2008, renewable energy resources were producing 43% of the nation's electricity, even as hydroelectric production decreased with severe droughts. As of 2010, electricity exports had outnumbered imports and 70% of energy came from renewable sources.
Portugal's national energy transmission company, Redes Energéticas Nacionais (REN), uses modelling to predict weather, especially wind patterns. Before the solar/wind revolution, Portugal had generated electricity from hydropower plants on its rivers for decades. New programmes combine wind and water: wind-driven turbines pump water uphill at night; then water flows downhill by day, generating electricity, when consumer demand is highest. Portugal's distribution system is now two-way. It draws electricity small generators, like rooftop solar panels.
In 2023 Portugal emitted around 339 million tonnes of greenhouse gases (about 5 tonnes per person), equivalent to around 1% of global total emissions. As an EU member state, Portugal is part of their joint plan to reduce emissions by a minimum of 55% by 2030, compared to the level of emissions in 1990. Portugal has committed to carbon neutrality and net zero by 2050.
== Demographics ==
As of 31 December 2024, Portugal had a population 10,749,635, of which 52.2% was female and 47.8% male, according to Statistics Portugal. In 2025, the median life expectancy reached 82.95 years, with United Nations projecting a rise of up to 90 years or more by 2100. The population historically has been relatively homogeneous, with most people adhering to Catholicism and speaking Portuguese.
Portugal has had a fertility rate well below the replacement rate of 2.1 since the 1980s. The total fertility rate (TFR) as of 2024 was estimated at 1.36 children born per woman, one of the lowest in the world, and considerably below the high of 5.0 in 1911. Consequently, Portugal's population has been steadily ageing and was the 11th oldest in the world in 2024, with a median age of 46.4 years and the fourth highest number of citizens over 65 years, at 21.8% of the total population. According to projections by the national statistics office, the population will fall to 7.7 million by 2080 and the population will continue to age. As of 2022, 60.2% of births were to unmarried women, and 24.5% of births were to foreign born women.
Portuguese society displays relatively high rates of socioeconomic equality, with the country ranking 24th within the 41 countries of the EU and OECD in the 2019 Social Justice Index. In 2018, Portugal's parliament approved a budget plan for 2019 that included tax breaks for returning emigrants in a bid to attract back those who left during the 2008 financial crisis.
According to a Statistics Portugal study conducted between 2022 and 2023, around 6.4 million people aged between 18 and 74 years old identified themselves as White (84%), more than 262,000 as Mixed-race (3%), nearly 170,000 as Black (2%), 57,000 as Asian (<1%), and 47,500 as Romani (<1%)
=== Urbanisation ===
Based on commuting patterns, OECD and Eurostat define eight metropolitan areas of Portugal. Only two have populations over 1 million, and since the 2013 local government reform, these are the only two which also have administrative legal status of metropolitan areas: Lisbon and Porto, Several smaller metropolitan areas (Algarve, Aveiro, Coimbra, Minho and Viseu) also held this status from 2003 to 2008, when they were converted into intermunicipal communities, whose territories are roughly based on the NUTS III statistical regions.
=== Immigration ===
Historically a country of emigration, Portugal has been a net recipient of immigrants since the early 21st century. As of 2024, legal resident foreigners number 1,543,697, or approximately 14% of the population; these figures do not include more than 340,000 resident foreigners who acquired Portuguese citizenship between 2008 and 2022—and thus constitute around 3.27% of the country's population in 2022. That year, almost 21,000 foreign residents acquired Portuguese citizenship, of which 11,170 were female and 9,674 were male.
Until the late 20th century, immigrants came primarily from former Portuguese territories in India, Africa, and East Asia. Since the 1990s, economic growth, particularly in the construction industry, brought an influx of Ukrainians, Brazilians, and other Africans. Other sizeable groups include Romanians, Moldovans, Kosovo Albanians, Russians, Bulgarians, Chinese, Venezuelans, Pakistanis, Indians, and Bangladeshis. Net immigration persisted even during the COVID-19 pandemic, when the emigration rate increased to 6.9% in 2022 but remained well below the immigration rate of around 11.3%; Among those that had left the country, 56.8% returned within a year.
It is estimated that over 30,000 seasonal, often illegal immigrants work in agriculture, mainly southern cities such as Odemira, where they are often exploited by organised seasonal workers' networks. These migrants, who frequently arrive without due documentation or work contracts, make up over 90% of agricultural workers in southern Portugal. Most are Southeast Asians from India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Thailand; in the interior of the Alentejo there are many African workers. Significant numbers also come from Eastern Europe, including Moldova, Ukraine, Romania and Brazil.
A significant number of EU citizens, mostly from Italy, France, Germany, and other northern European countries, have become permanent residents. There is also a large expatriate community made up of Britons, Canadians and Americans. The British community is mostly composed of retired pensioners who live in the Algarve and Madeira.
A National Statistics Institute (INE) study conducted between 2022 and 2023 found out that 1.4 million people (13% of the population) have immigrant background, in which 947,500 are first generation immigrants, concentrated mainly in the Lisbon metropolitan area and the Algarve. As the survey was limited to people living legally in the country for at least one year at the time of the interview, the statistical office suggests that 16.1% of the country's population, or 1,683,829 people, were first generation immigrants.
=== Religion ===
Portugal is a secular state with no official religion. The Catholic Church, which has a long history in the country, was formally separated from government during the First Portuguese Republic; this was reiterated in the 1976 Portuguese Constitution. Religious freedom was also reaffirmed by the 1940 Concordata (later amended in 1971) between Portugal and the Holy See and the 2001 Religious Freedom Act.
According to the 2021 Census, 80.2% of the Portuguese population was Catholic. The country has small Protestant, Latter-day Saint, Muslim, Hindu, Sikh, Eastern Orthodox Church, Jehovah's Witnesses, Baháʼí, Buddhist, Jewish and Spiritist communities. Influences from African Traditional Religion and Chinese Traditional Religion are also felt among many people, particularly in fields related with Traditional Chinese Medicine and Traditional African Herbal Medicine. Some 14.1% of the population declared themselves nonreligious.
Many Portuguese holidays, festivals and traditions have a Christian origin or connotation.
=== Languages ===
Portuguese is the official language of Portugal. Mirandese is also recognised as a co-official regional language in some municipalities of North-Eastern Portugal. It is part of the Astur-Leonese group of languages. An estimate of between 6,000 and 7,000 Mirandese speakers has been documented for Portugal. Furthermore, a particular dialect known as Barranquenho, spoken in Barrancos, is also officially recognised and protected in Portugal since 2021. Minderico, a sociolect of the Portuguese language, is spoken by around 500 people in the town of Minde.
According to the International English Proficiency Index, Portugal has a high proficiency level in English, higher than those of other Romance-speaking European countries like France, Italy or Spain.
=== Education ===
The educational system is divided into preschool (for those under age six), basic education (nine years, in three stages, compulsory), secondary education (three years, compulsory since 2010), and higher education (subdivided in university and polytechnic education). Universities are usually organised into faculties. Institutes and schools are also common designations for autonomous subdivisions of Portuguese higher education institutions.
The total adult literacy rate in Portugal was 99.8% in 2021. According to the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018, Portugal scored around the OECD average in reading, mathematics and science. In reading and mathematics, mean performance in 2018 was close to the level observed in 2009 to 2015; in science, mean performance in 2018 was below that of 2015, and returned close to the level observed in 2009 and 2012, near below average.
About 47.6% of college-age citizens (20 years old) attend one of Portugal's higher education institutions (compared with 50% in the United States and 35% in the OECD on average). In addition to being a destination for international students, Portugal is also among the top places of origin for international students. All higher education students, both domestic and international, totalled 448,235 in 2024.
Portuguese universities have existed since 1290. The oldest Portuguese university was first established in Lisbon before moving to Coimbra. Historically, within the scope of the Portuguese Empire, the Portuguese founded the oldest engineering school of the Americas (the Real Academia de Artilharia, Fortificação e Desenho of Rio de Janeiro) in 1792, as well as the oldest medical college in Asia (the Escola Médico-Cirúrgica of Goa) in 1842. Presently, the largest university in Portugal is the University of Lisbon.
The Bologna process has been adopted by Portuguese universities and poly-technical institutes in 2006. Higher education in state-run educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis, a system of numerus clausus is enforced through a national database on student admissions. However, every higher education institution offers also a number of additional vacant places through other extraordinary admission processes for sportsmen, mature applicants (over 23 years old), international students, foreign students from the Lusosphere, degree owners from other institutions, students from other institutions (academic transfer), former students (readmission), and course change, which are subject to specific standards and regulations set by each institution or course department.
Most student costs are supported with public money. Portugal has entered into cooperation agreements with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and other US institutions to further develop and increase the effectiveness of Portuguese higher education and research.
=== Health ===
In 2025, Portugal ranked as 23rd best healthcare system in the world, which was visibly lower than the previous 12th place in the 2000 World Health Organisation ranking of best public health systems in the world. The health system is characterised by three coexisting systems: the National Health Service (Serviço Nacional de Saúde, SNS), special social health insurance schemes for certain professions (health subsystems) and voluntary private health insurance. The SNS provides universal coverage. In addition, about 55% of the population is covered by the health subsystems, 43% by private insurance schemes and another 12% by mutual funds.The Ministry of Health is responsible for developing health policy as well as managing the SNS. Five regional health administrations are in charge of implementing the national health policy objectives, developing guidelines and protocols and supervising health care delivery. Decentralisation efforts have aimed at shifting financial and management responsibility to the regional level. In practice, the autonomy of regional health administrations over budget setting and spending has been limited to primary care. The SNS is predominantly funded through general taxation. Employer (including the state) and employee contributions represent the main funding sources of the health subsystems. In addition, direct payments by the patient and voluntary health insurance premiums account for a large proportion of funding.
Similarly to other 'Eur-A countries', (Western Europe), most Portuguese die from noncommunicable diseases. Mortality from cardiovascular diseases (CVD) is around 30,000 deaths per year, a third of all annual deaths, but its two main components, ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease, display inverse trends compared with the Eur-A, with cerebrovascular disease being the single biggest killer in Portugal, with more than 11,000 deaths per year. Oncological diseases represent 22% of all deaths in the country, with lung and breast cancer cases being lower, and cervical and prostate cancer being more frequent. Diabetes mortality rates have been decreasing, from 4.5% in 2010 down to 2.8% in 2021.
Portugal's infant mortality rate (IMR) stood at 2,25 deaths per 1,000 live births as of 2024. A Eurostat opinion-poll in 2023 found that 55.4% of adults rated their health as good or very good, the third lowest rate collected in the European Union. The largest university hospital in the country is Hospital de Santa Maria, Lisbon.
Despite good economic development, the average Portuguese, along with Italians, have been among the shortest in Europe since around 1890 and still are. A driving factor was modest real wage growth, given late industrialisation and economic growth compared to the European core. Another determinant was delayed human capital formation.
== Culture ==
Portugal has developed a specific culture while being influenced by various civilisations that have crossed the European continent and Mediterranean, or were introduced when it played an active role during the Age of Discovery. In the 1990s and 2000s (decade), Portugal modernised its public cultural facilities, in addition to the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation established in 1956 in Lisbon.
These include the Belém Cultural Centre in Lisbon, Serralves Foundation and the Casa da Música, both in Porto, as well as new public cultural facilities like municipal libraries and concert halls that were built or renovated in many municipalities across the country. Portugal is home to 17 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, ranking it 9th in Europe and 18th in the world.
=== Architecture ===
Traditional architecture is distinctive and include the Manueline, also known as Portuguese late Gothic a sumptuous, composite Portuguese style of architectural ornamentation of the first decades of the 16th century, followed by Pombaline style of the 18th century.
A 20th-century interpretation of traditional architecture, Soft Portuguese style, appears extensively in major cities, especially Lisbon. Modern Portugal has given the world renowned architects like Eduardo Souto de Moura, Álvaro Siza Vieira (both Pritzker Prize winners) and Gonçalo Byrne. In Portugal Tomás Taveira is also noteworthy, particularly for stadium design. The azulejo is a mainstream, typical element among Portugal's traditional building materials and construction techniques.
=== Cuisine ===
Portuguese cuisine is diverse, part of the Atlantic diet. A significant ingredient in the Portuguese diet is dry cod (bacalhau in Portuguese). They say that the Portuguese have mastered 365 different ways to prepare codfish, meaning a cod dish for each day of the year, to name a few recipes: bacalhau à Brás, bacalhau à Gomes de Sá, bacalhau com natas, bacalhau à Minhota, bacalhau espiritual, bacalhau à Lagareiro, bacalhau assado, bacalhau à Zé do Pipo, pastéis de bacalhau. Other fish recipes include grilled sardines, mackerel, sea bream, and caldeirada, a tomato-based stew that can be made from several types of fish or shellfish, with a mix of onion, garlic, bay leaf, potatoes, peppers, parsley.
Typical Portuguese meat recipes made out of the customary beef, pork, chicken, goat, lamb or duck meat, include cozido à portuguesa, feijoada, frango de churrasco, leitão (roast suckling pig), chanfana and carne de porco à alentejana. Typical fast food dishes include the Francesinha (Frenchie) from Porto and bifanas (grilled pork) or prego (grilled beef) sandwiches. An egg custard tart pastry, the pastel de nata, typical and popular among the Portuguese, became popular abroad and among foreign tourists visiting the country as well.
Portuguese wines have enjoyed recognition since the Romans, who associated Portugal with their god Bacchus, due to its climate. Some of the most well known Portuguese wines are Vinho Verde, Alvarinho, Vinho do Douro, Vinho do Alentejo, Vinho do Dão, Vinho da Bairrada, Port Wine, Madeira Wine, Moscatel from Setúbal and Favaios.
=== Visual art ===
Portugal has a rich history in painting. The first well-known painters dating back to the 15th century – like Nuno Gonçalves and Vasco Fernandes – were part of the late Gothic painting period. During the Renaissance, Portuguese painting was highly influenced by Northern European painting. In the Baroque period Josefa de Óbidos and Vieira Lusitano were the most prolific painters.
José Malhoa, known for his work Fado, and Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro (who painted the portraits of Teófilo Braga and Antero de Quental) were both references in naturalist painting.
The 20th century saw the arrival of Modernism, and along with it came the most prominent Portuguese painters: Amadeo de Souza-Cardoso, who was heavily influenced by French painters, particularly the Delaunays (Robert and Sonia). Among his best-known works is Canção Popular – a Russa e o Fígaro. Other great modernist painters/writers include Carlos Botelho and Almada Negreiros, friend to the poet Fernando Pessoa, who painted Pessoa's portrait. He was deeply influenced by both Cubist and Futurist trends.
Prominent international figures in visual arts today include painters Vieira da Silva, Júlio Pomar, Joana Vasconcelos, Julião Sarmento and Paula Rego.
=== Literature ===
Portuguese literature, one of the earliest Western literatures, developed through text as well as song. Until 1350, the Portuguese-Galician troubadours spread their literary influence to most of the Iberian Peninsula, like King D. Dinis (1261–1325) who became famous for his poetry. Other kings would write and sponsor works of literature across Portuguese history, like D. Fernando (1367–1383) who supported Pêro Menino in writing o Livro da Falcoaria.
Adventurer and poet Luís de Camões (c. 1524–1580) wrote the epic poem Os Lusíadas (The Lusiads), with Virgil's Aeneid as his main influence. Modern Portuguese poetry is rooted in neoclassic and contemporary styles, as exemplified by Bocage (1765–1805), Antero de Quental (1842–1891) and Fernando Pessoa (1888–1935). Modern Portuguese literature is represented by authors such as Almeida Garrett, Camilo Castelo Branco, Eça de Queirós, Fernando Pessoa, Sophia de Mello Breyner Andresen, António Lobo Antunes, Miguel Torga and Agustina Bessa-Luís. Particularly popular and distinguished is José Saramago, recipient of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Literature.
=== Music ===
The Music of Portugal encompasses a wide variety of genres. The traditional one is the Portuguese folk music which has deep roots in local customs, utilising instruments such as bagpipes (gaita), drums, flutes, tambourines, accordions and ukuleles (cavaquinho). Within Portuguese folk music is the renowned genre of Fado, a melancholic urban music that originated in Lisbon in the 19th century, probably inside bohemian environments, and is usually associated with the Portuguese guitar and saudade, or longing. Coimbra fado, a unique type of "troubadour serenading" fado, is also noteworthy. Internationally notable performers include Amália Rodrigues, Carlos Paredes, José Afonso, Mariza, Carlos do Carmo, António Chainho, Mísia, Dulce Pontes and Madredeus.
In addition to Folk, Fado and Classical music, other genres are present at Portugal like pop and other types of modern music, particularly from North America and the United Kingdom, as well as a wide range of Portuguese, Caribbean, Lusophone African and Brazilian artists and bands. Artists with international recognition include Dulce Pontes, Moonspell, Buraka Som Sistema, Blasted Mechanism, David Carreira and The Gift, with the three latter being nominees for a MTV Europe Music Award.
Portugal has several summer music festivals, such as Festival Sudoeste in Zambujeira do Mar, Festival de Paredes de Coura in Paredes de Coura, Festival Vilar de Mouros near Caminha, Boom Festival in Idanha-a-Nova municipality, NOS Alive, Sumol Summer Fest in Ericeira, Rock in Rio Lisboa and Super Bock Super Rock in Greater Lisbon, plus Primavera Sound Porto and MEO Marés Vivas in the Greater Porto area.
The student festivals of Queima das Fitas, which are major events in a number of cities across Portugal, show every year a selection of well-established, high-profile musicians and bands to the public as well as newer, on the rise, upcoming success artists seeking definite recognition. In 2005, Portugal held the MTV Europe Music Awards, in Pavilhão Atlântico, Lisbon. Furthermore, Portugal won the Eurovision Song Contest 2017 in Kyiv with the song "Amar pelos dois" presented by Salvador Sobral, and subsequently hosted the 2018 contest.
Portuguese classical music constitutes an important chapter of Western music. Over the centuries, names of composers and performers have stood out, such as the troubadours Martim Codax and King Denis I, the polyphonists Duarte Lobo, Filipe de Magalhães, Manuel Cardoso and Pedro de Cristo, the organist Manuel Rodrigues Coelho, the composer and harpsichordist Carlos Seixas, the singer Luísa Todi, symphonist and pianist João Domingos Bomtempo or composer and musicologist Fernando Lopes Graça.
The golden period of Portuguese music coincided, arguably, with the heyday of classical polyphony in the 17th century (Escola de Évora, Santa Cruz de Coimbra). Among the great current references, the names of pianists Artur Pizarro, Maria João Pires and Sequeira Costa, violinist Carlos Damas, composer Emmanuel Nunes, composer and conductor Álvaro Cassuto stand out. The most important symphony orchestras are the Fundação Gulbenkian, the Porto National Orchestra and the Portuguese Symphony Orchestra. When it comes to opera, the Teatro Nacional de São Carlos in Lisbon is the most representative.
=== Sport ===
Football is the most popular sport in Portugal. There are several football competitions ranging from local amateur to world-class professional level. All-time greats Eusébio, Luís Figo and Cristiano Ronaldo are major symbols of Portuguese football history. Portuguese football managers are also noteworthy, with José Mourinho and Abel Ferreira among the most renowned.
The Portugal national football team has won one UEFA European Championship title: the UEFA Euro 2016, with a 1–0 victory in the final over France, the tournament hosts. In addition, Portugal finished first in the 2018–19 and 2024–25 UEFA Nations League, second in the Euro 2004, third in the 1966 FIFA World Cup and fourth in the 2006 FIFA World Cup. At youth level, Portugal have won two FIFA World Youth Championships.
S.L. Benfica, Sporting CP and FC Porto are the largest sports clubs by popularity and number of trophies, often known as "os três grandes" ("the big three"). They have won eight titles in the European UEFA club competitions and present in 21 finals. The Portuguese Football Federation (FPF) – Federação Portuguesa de Futebol – annually hosts the Algarve Cup, a women's football tournament.
Other than football, many Portuguese sports clubs, including the "big three", compete in other sports events with a varying level of success and popularity, these include roller hockey, basketball, futsal, handball, volleyball and athletics. The Portuguese national rugby union team qualified for the 2027 Rugby World Cup and the Portuguese national rugby sevens team has played in the World Rugby Sevens Series.
Road cycling, with Volta a Portugal the most important race, is a popular sports event and includes professional cycling teams such as Sporting CP, Boavista, Clube de Ciclismo de Tavira and União Ciclista da Maia. In motorsport, Portugal is noted for the Rally of Portugal, and the Estoril and Algarve Circuits as well as the revived Porto Street Circuit which held a stage of the WTCC for two years, as well as for a number of internationally noted racers such as Miguel Oliveira, Tiago Monteiro, António Félix da Costa, Filipe Albuquerque, Pedro Lamy, Armindo Araújo and others in a range of varied motorsports.
In water, Portugal has three major sports: swimming, water polo and surfing. Portugal had success in canoeing with several world and European champions, such as olympic medalist Fernando Pimenta. Annually, the country hosts one of the stages of the World Surf League men's and women's Championship Tour, the MEO Rip Curl Pro Portugal at the Supertubos in Peniche. Northern Portugal has its own original martial art, Jogo do Pau, in which fighters use staffs to confront one or several opponents. Other popular sport-related recreational outdoor activities include airsoft, fishing, golf, hiking, hunting and orienteering. Portugal is one of the world's leading golf destinations.
== See also ==
Outline of Portugal
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Sources ===
== External links ==
Geographic data related to Portugal at OpenStreetMap
National English language newspaper
National Wine Website
News about Portugal from the Portuguese American Journal
Portugal at UCB Libraries GovPubs
Portugal profile from the BBC News
Portugal. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
Prestage, Edgar; Jayne, Kingsley Garland (1911). "Portugal" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). pp. 134–163.
Portuguese Pamphlets Collection from the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress
Wikimedia Atlas of Portugal
Government
Official Parliament website
Official Portuguese Government website (in English and Portuguese)
Trade
World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Portugal
Travel
Official Portuguese Government Travel/media website
Official Travel and Tourism office website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydenham_Hospital | Sydenham Hospital | Sydenham Hospital was a healthcare facility in Harlem, Manhattan, New York, which operated between 1892 and 1980. It was located at 124th Street and Manhattan Avenue.
== History ==
Sydenham opened in 1892, occupying nine houses on 116th Street near 2nd Avenue as of 1911 serving mostly African American patients. Around 1924 the hospital moved to a new 200-bed building at the intersection of West 125 Street and Lenox Avenue. In 1944 the staff doctors were all white despite serving a mostly African American community. Soon after, it was the first hospital to have a full desegregated interracial policy with six African American trustees and twenty African Americans on staff. It was New York City's first full-service hospital to hire African-American doctors, and later became known for hiring African American doctors and nurses when other nearby hospitals would not.
Because of its relatively small size, Sydenham continually faced more financial problems than most private hospitals, and on March 3, 1949, control of it was taken by New York City and it became part of the municipal hospital system. However, in a new practice for the municipal hospital system, the city continued to allow Sydenham's private physicians to hospitalize their patients there. In 1971 Florence Gaynor became the first African American woman to head a major teaching hospital, taking over as executive director of Sydenham Hospital during a financial crisis.
During the severe economic troubles for New York city, the administration of Mayor Ed Koch in December 1978 formulated a tentative plan for an additional 10% reduction in funding for municipal hospitals, and closing or dramatically shrinking services at four hospitals, including Metropolitan Hospital Center in East Harlem and Sydenham. The cuts were a response to the prominent pressure that healthcare costs exerted on the municipal budget while the federal and New York state governments dithered over the escalating expense of healthcare. New York City was particularly vulnerable to healthcare costs because New York State uniquely required localities to pay 25 percent of Medicaid costs within their borders. Care to the uninsured through the city's hospital system ”accounted for more than half the budget gap for most of Koch’s mayoralty.” The administration feared that the municipal hospital system alone was "the one agency that could plunge us back into a fiscal crisis," according to Deputy Mayor Robert F. Wagner III. Sydenham was the smallest of the city's municipal hospitals with 119 beds and the most costly to operate. According to government studies, the daily cost of patient care at Sydenham was $382.40 ($1,194.40 in 2021 dollars), about $100 more per day ($312.34 in 2021 dollars) than at Bellevue Hospital, the city's flagship facility.
=== Closing ===
Koch saw the hospital closings and reorganization as steps to take control of healthcare costs and, in the bargain, deliver better services. But the hospital meant more to the community than just healthcare due to its place in history in the fight against segregation. Also, the threat of closing Sydenham came only months after the closing of Arthur C. Logan Memorial Hospital, also a Harlem institution and the only African American charitable hospital in the city. Furthermore, of the four municipal hospitals slated for closure, none were situated in predominantly white areas. However, the Civil Rights Office of the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare certified the Koch reorganization plan as without discriminatory effect.
In January 1979, the Committee for Interns and Residents staged a one-day walkout of doctors at municipal hospitals to protest the cuts, and were often supported on picket lines by hospital workers from District Council 37 of AFSCME. A “Coalition to Save Sydenham” supported legal efforts to stop the closing, organized public rallies and lobbying of elected officials, and helped publicize research to demonstrate the need for the hospital. (In 1977 the federal government designated Harlem a medically underserved area, with Joseph A. Califano Jr., the United States Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare, calling it a “health disaster area".)
In the spring of 1980, as Sydenham was about to be shut down, angry demonstrators stormed the hospital, and initiated an occupation that lasted 10 days under a so-called “People’s Administration.”
On June 24, 1980, city, state and federal officials proposed a plan they said would improve healthcare in Harlem by keeping Metropolitan Hospital open with improvements and converting Sydenham to a drug, alcoholism and outpatient clinic. Community activists rejected that plan and, in November 1980, Sydenham's doors were closed for good, while Metropolitan Hospital was saved.
Although unsuccessful, the demonstrations raised the profile of Sydenham among people who had previously never heard of the hospital. Nurse and Health Activist Ebun Adelona said the closure of Sydenham became a “symbol” for Black people throughout New York to revitalize communities, improve health, and exercise political power. In 1998 Sharon Lerner asserted that “The Sydenham blunder paved the way for today's more clandestine approach to hospital downsizing, in which the city reduces its contribution to the Health and Hospitals Corporation and the agency is thereby 'forced' to make cuts to the public hospitals.”
Historians and healthcare experts have observed that the closing of historically black hospitals was an unintended consequence of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the enactment of Medicare in 1965. White hospitals were obliged to desegregate and Black patients followed Black physicians into previously all-white hospitals, but white patients did not cross over to historically black hospitals. The result was the decline of historically black hospitals from 124 institutions in 1944 to only 10 by 1989.
== Physicians ==
Ethelene Crockett, M.D., Michigan's first Black woman certified in OBG, did her residency at Sydenham Hospital.
Peter Marshall Murray
Doris L. Wethers
== Deaths ==
William Christopher Handy (1873–1958), bronchial pneumonia.
== See also ==
Basil A. Paterson
== Further reading ==
Paterson, David "Black, Blind, & In Charge: A Story of Visionary Leadership and Overcoming Adversity."Skyhorse Publishing. New York, New York, 2020
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Sources ===
Soffer, Jonathan M. (2010). Ed Koch and the rebuilding of New York City. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-52090-4. OCLC 750192934. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bachelor_(American_TV_series)_season_16 | The Bachelor (American TV series) season 16 | The sixteenth season of ABC reality television series The Bachelor premiered on January 2, 2012. This show features a previous contestant from The Bachelorette, a winemaker and owner of Envolve wines, from Sonoma, California, 29-year-old Ben Flajnik, who finished runner-up in the seventh season of the show featuring Ashley Hebert. This season returns with 25 women featured in the competition, excluding a senior citizen.
The season concluded on March 12, 2012, with Flajnik choosing to propose to 28-year-old model Courtney Robertson. They called off their engagement on October 26, 2012.
== Production ==
=== Casting and contestants ===
On September 6, 2011, Flajnik was announced as the next bachelor, and he was subsequently formally named during the season finale of Bachelor Pad.
Notable contestants include Rachel Truehart, who is the sister of The Janice Dickinson Modeling Agency season 4 contestant Crystal Truehart.
=== Filming and development ===
Unlike previous seasons, traditionally, the contestants would not normally choose to stay the Villa de la Vina in Agoura Hills, California, for long but it appeared for the first night. For the rest of the season, the contestants traveled to Flajnik's hometown of Sonoma and San Francisco in California; Park City, Utah; Vieques, Puerto Rico; Panama City, Panama; Belize and Switzerland. Appearances for this season included recording artist Matt Nathanson and country singer Clay Walker.
== Contestants ==
Biographical information according to ABC official series site, plus footnoted additions.
In week 3, season 15 contestant Shawntel Newton asked to join the cast, but was eliminated by Flajnik in that rose ceremony.
=== Future appearances ===
==== Bachelor Pad ====
Lindzi Cox, Blakeley Jones, Jamie Otis, Jaclyn Swartz, and Rachel Truehart returned for the third season of Bachelor Pad. Jamie was eliminated in week 4. Lindzi and her partner, Kalon McMahon, were eliminated in week 6. Blakeley and her partner, Tony Pieper, and Jaclyn and her partner, Ed Swiderski, were eliminated in week 7. Rachel was eliminated in week 8.
==== Bachelor in Paradise ====
Jaclyn returned for season 2 of Bachelor in Paradise. She was eliminated in week 5.
==== Other appearances ====
Outside of Bachelor Nation, Jamie later appeared in the inaugural season of Married at First Sight.
== Call-out order ==
The contestant received the first impression rose
The contestant received a rose during the date
The contestant was eliminated
The contestant was eliminated during the date
The contestant was eliminated outside the rose ceremony
The contestant quit the competition
The contestant was disqualified from the competition
The previously eliminated contestant asked for a chance to return, but was denied
The contestant won the competition
== Episodes ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
ABC: The Bachelor official site
http://theashleysrealityroundup.com/2012/10/05/another-bachelor-couple-splits-ben-courtney-are-done/ |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdiana_Masanja | Verdiana Masanja | Verdiana Grace Masanja (née Kashaga, born October 12, 1954) is a Tanzanian mathematician specializing in fluid dynamics. She is the first Tanzanian woman to earn a doctorate in mathematics.
== Education ==
Masanja was born in Bukoba, at the time part of the United Nations trust territory of Tanganyika. She was a student at the Jangwani Girls Secondary School in Dar es Salaam and then at the University of Dar es Salaam, completing a degree in mathematics and physics in 1976 and a master's degree in 1981. Her master's thesis was Effect of Injection on Developing Laminar Flow of Reiner–Philippoff Fluids in a Circular Pipe.
She earned a second master's degree in physics and completed her doctorate in fluid dynamics at Technische Universität Berlin. Her dissertation, A Numerical Study of a Reiner–Rivlin Fluid in an Axi-Symmetrical Circular Pipe, was jointly supervised by Wolfgang Muschik and Gerd Brunk.
== Career ==
Already, while a master's student, Masanja had become a lecturer at the University of Dar es Salaam, and on her return from Germany she became a professor there, and remained on the university's faculty until 2010.
In 2006 she began teaching as well at the National University of Rwanda, and in 2007 became a professor there, as well as being appointed as the university's director of research, and as deputy vice chancellor and senior advisor at the University of Kibungo in Rwanda. In 2018 she returned to Tanzania as a professor of applied and computational mathematics at the Nelson Mandela African Institute of Science and Technology in Arusha.
Masanja has served as vice president for Eastern Africa of the African Mathematical Union, chaired the African Mathematical Union Commission on Women in Mathematics in Africa and the Tanzania Education Network, and has served as National Coordinator for Female Education in Mathematics in Africa.
== Research ==
She has also published on the education and participation of women in science.
Masanja is editor-in-chief of the Rwanda Journal.
== References ==
== External links ==
Verdiana Masanja publications indexed by Google Scholar |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rached_Ghannouchi#Retracted_allegations | Rached Ghannouchi | Rached Ghannouchi (Arabic: راشد الغنوشي, romanized: Rāshid al-Ghannūshī; born 22 June 1941), also spelled Rachid al-Ghannouchi or Rached el-Ghannouchi, is a Tunisian politician, the co-founder of the Ennahdha Party and serving as its intellectual leader. He was born Rashad Khriji (راشد الخريجي).
Ghannouchi was named one of Time's 100 Most Influential People in the World in 2012 and Foreign Policy's Top 100 Global Thinkers and was awarded the Chatham House Prize in 2012 (alongside Tunisian President Moncef Marzouki) by Prince Andrew, Duke of York, for "the successful compromises each achieved during Tunisia's democratic transition". In 2016, he received the Jamnalal Bajaj Award for "promoting Gandhian values outside India". On 13 November 2019, Ghannouchi was elected Speaker of the Assembly of the Representatives of the People. Ghannouchi narrowly survived a vote of no confidence after 97 MPs voted against him on 30 July 2020, falling short of 109 needed to oust him as Speaker of the House.
== Early life ==
Ghannouchi was born outside El Hamma, in the governorate of Gabès in southern Tunisia. His village had no electricity or paved roads. His father was a poor farmer with children including Rached. His family worked in the fields every day, and had meat to eat only a few times a year. After the ground season had ended, the family wove baskets from palm leaves to supplement its income. Rached was able to attend a local branch of the traditional Arabic-language Zaytouna school thanks to financial help from an older brother.
He received his certificate of attainment degree, equivalent to the Baccalauréat, in 1962 from the University of Ez-Zitouna (Zaytouna). He entered the school of agriculture at Cairo University in 1964 but, following the expulsion of Tunisians from Egypt, he left for Syria. He studied philosophy at the University of Damascus, graduating in 1968. Ghannouchi also spent some time in his 20s traveling and working in Europe as a grape picker and dish washer.
== Islamic Tendency Movement ==
In April 1981 Ghannouchi founded the Islamic Tendency Movement (Arabic: حركة الاتجاه الإسلامي Ḥarakat al-Ittijāh al-Islāmī). The Movement described itself as specifically rooted in non-violent Islamism, and called for a "reconstruction of economic life on a more equitable basis, the end of single-party politics and the acceptance of political pluralism and democracy." By the end of July, Ghannouchi and his followers were arrested, sentenced to eleven years in prison in Bizerte, and were tortured. Both the religious and secular community, including numerous secular political organizations, rallied in his support.
While in prison he translated a number of works and wrote on topics such as democracy, women's rights, and Palestine. He also wrote his most noted work, Al‐Hurriyat al‐'Ammah (Public Liberties).
He was released in 1984, but returned to prison in 1987 with a life sentence, then was again released in 1988. He moved to the United Kingdom as a political exile, where he lived for 22 years.
He attended The Islamic Committee for Palestine conference in Chicago in 1989. Following the 1990 invasion of Kuwait, Al-Ghannushi denounced King Fahd of Saudi Arabia for the "colossal crime" of inviting the U.S. to deploy forces. He also called for a Muslim boycott of American goods, planes and ships.
He has also been criticized for calling for jihad against Israel.
Ghannouchi continued to criticise Tunisian politics and the regime of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali.
== Tunisian Revolution and after ==
Following popular unrest in which Ben Ali was ousted, Ghannouchi returned to Tunisia on 30 January 2011, after spending twenty two years exiled in London, with thousands of people welcoming him.
His party won 37.04% of the vote (more than the next four biggest vote-getting parties combined) in the 2011 Tunisian Constituent Assembly election. Ghannouchi did not take a government position. Ennahdha's secretary-general Hamadi Jebali became Prime Minister.
Ennahda formed a government which led Tunisia through the challenging and tumultuous aftermath of the Jasmine revolution. The government during this period was characterized by greater transparency, lack of corruption, and consensus-building. In March 2012, Ennahda declared it would not support making sharia the main source of legislation in the new constitution, maintaining the secular nature of the state. Ennahda's stance on the issue was criticized by hardline Islamists, who wanted strict sharia, but was welcomed by secular parties. The government was criticized for mediocre economic performance, not stimulating the tourism industry, and poor relations with Tunisia's biggest trading partner France. In particular it was criticized for tolerating efforts at aggressive Islamisation by radical Islamists who were demanding Sharia law and denouncing gender equality and restrictions on polygamy, some of whom were responsible for the September 2012 ransacking and burning of the American embassy and school following the assassination of two leftist politicians Chokri Belaid (in February 2013) and Mohamed Brahmi (in July 2013). During this 2013–14 Tunisian political crisis enraged secularists demanded the government step down or even a Sisi-style coup, while Ennahda militants defiantly opposed early elections, even booing Ghannouchi's calls for sacrifice for national unity.
Nonetheless Ghanouchi worked with secularist leader Beji Caid Essebsi to forge a compromise and on October 5 signed a "road map" whereby Ennahda would step down for a caretaker government after the new constitution was agreed upon and until new elections were held. Both leaders were heavily criticized by their party rank and file and Ghannouchi received agreement from the Ennahda shura council only by threatening to resign.
In January 2014, after the new Tunisian Constitution was approved, Ennahdha peacefully quit government and handed power to a technocratic government led by Mehdi Jomaa. Ennahda placed second in the October 2014 parliamentary election with 27.79% of the popular vote and formed a coalition government with the larger secularist party Nidaa Tounes despite rank-and-file opposition. Ennahda did not put forth a presidential candidate for the November 2014 election. Ghanouchi "hinted broadly" that he personally supported Beji Caid Essebsi (who won with over 55% of the vote).
Ghannouchi argued for these accommodating measures against more purist party members on the grounds that the country was still too fragile, and the economy too much in need of reform, for Ennahda to be in opposition. Ghannouchi also gave his support to a crackdown on jihadi indoctrination at radical mosques (over 60 civilians, mostly tourists, were killed in 2015 by jihadis, devastating Tunisia's tourist industry). Despite his Islamist background, he had always been "reviled" by jihadis, according to Robert Worth, and now appeared near "the top" of the jihadi "wanted list".
=== Retracted allegations ===
On 22 October 2011, The Economist published an apology on their website for previously publishing an article in which they attributed false statements to Ghannouchi. The article claimed that Ghannouchi "opposes the country's liberal code of individual rights, the Code of Personal Status, and its prohibition of polygamy". The article, also, claimed that Ghannouchi "has threatened to hang a prominent Tunisian feminist, Raja bin Salama, in Basij Square in Tunis, because she has called for the country's new laws to be based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights". The apology stated that "we accept that neither of these statements is true: Mr Ghannouchi has expressly said that he accepts the Code of Personal Status; and he never threatened to hang Ms bin Salama. We apologise to him unreservedly."
On 9 October 2012, The Independent published an apology on their website for suggesting in a previous article that the Ennahdha Party has been offered foreign funds. The apology stated: "we wish to make it clear that Mr. Ghannouchi and his party have not accepted any donation from a foreign state in breach of Tunisian party funding laws. We apologise to Mr. Ghannouchi."
On 17 May 2013, the BBC published an apology on their website for previously publishing inaccurate statements about Ghannouchi six months earlier on 21 November 2012. The article had accused Ghannouchi of threatening to order troops on to the streets if the Ennahdha Party did not get the results he expected in the elections in 2011, and suggested he condoned the violent Salafist attack on the United States embassy and the burning of the American School in Tunis in September 2012. Acknowledging that none of these accusations and suggestions were in fact true, the retraction concluded: "The BBC apologises to Mr Ghannouchi for these mistakes and for the distress they caused him."
=== Libel case ===
In 2020, the UK High Court ruled in favour of Ghannouchi in a libel case against Middle East Online (MEO) and its editor Haitham El Zobaidi. Middle East Online and one of its editors had claimed that Ennahda "supported terrorism", a charge Ghannouchi "vigorously denied". According to Ahmed Yusuf, the article was part of a "a systematic campaign" against Ghannouchi from "media backed by Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Egypt."
=== Corruption charges ===
On 1 February 2024, Rached Ghannouchi was sentenced along with his son-in-law to three years in prison by the Tunis court, for illicit foreign financing, and ordered to pay a fine of $1.17 million on behalf of his party. On 19 February, he went on a hunger strike in prison in solidarity with other opposition figures imprisoned by Saied's government. On 13 July 2024, his sentence to three years in prison was confirmed by the Criminal Chamber of the Judicial and Financial Unit. On 8 July 2025, he was sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment on terrorism charges.
== Views and background ==
Ghannouchi's willingness to compromise with secularists in Tunisia and his country's unique success in maintaining a democratic system following the Arab Spring has been credited by at least one observer (Robert Worth) to his background. Unlike many Islamists, Ghannouchi "lived abroad for decades, reading widely in three languages", including Western thinkers Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud and Jean-Paul Sartre. He admired the courage of leftists who protested in the streets against the dictatorship, were arrested and tortured in prison, and became willing to work with them. Watching the initial victory of the Algerian Islamists—while exiled in London—collapse into the slaughter, mayhem and defeat of the civil war, left a deep impact. According to Azzam S. Tamimi, he was influenced by Malik Bennabi and his treatise "Islam and Democracy", which laid "the foundations" for Ghannouchi's "masterpiece" Al‐Hurriyat al‐'Ammah (Public Liberties).
In 2002, an unsympathetic Western source (Martin Kramer) described him as differing "from other Islamists" in his insistence "that Islam accepts multi-party democracy."
In 2015, he told French journalist Olivier Ravanello that homosexuality should not be criminalized, though he opposed gay marriage. He has been interviewed by Michael Moore in Where to Invade Next and stated that homosexuality is a "private affair."
== Personal life ==
On 13 July 2021, the official TAP news agency reported that Ghannouchi, already vaccinated, tested positive for COVID-19. On 1 August, he was discharged a few hours after he was readmitted to a hospital.
== Awards ==
One of the first in FP Top 100 Global Thinkers in 2011
The Chatham House Prize from Chatham House for the year 2012 in London (with Moncef Marzouki)
The Ibn Rushd Prize for Freedom of Thought for the year 2014 in Berlin
Lifetime membership of Aligarh Muslim University Students' Union in 2015
International Crisis Group's Founder's Award for pioneers in peace-building, along with Tunisian President Béji Caïd Essebsi
The Jamnalal Bajaj Award for the year 2016 in Mumbai
Honorary Degree from International Islamic University Malaysia in 2017
One of the 100 Most Influential Arabs in the World in Global Influence list 2018
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Tamimi, Azzam (2001). Rachid Ghannouchi: a democrat within Islamism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514000-1.
Saeed, Abdullah (1999). "Rethinking citizenship rights of non-Muslims in an Islamic State; Rashid al-Gannushi's contribution to the evolving debate". Islam and Christian Muslim Relations. 10 (3): 307–323 [p. 311]. doi:10.1080/09596419908721189.
alhiwar.net 6 May 2007
Jones, Linda G. (1988). "Portrait of Rashid al-Ghannoushi". Islam and the State. Middle East Report. Vol. 153. New York: Middle East Research and Information Project. pp. 19–22.
al-Ghannoushi, Rashid & Jones, Linda G. (1988). "Deficiencies in the Islamic Movement". Islam and the State. Middle East Report. Vol. 153. New York: Middle East Research and Information Project. pp. 23–24.
== External links ==
Official website
Interview with Rachid Ghannouchi
Al-Hiwar forums and news
Rachid al-Ghannouchi collected news and commentary at Al Jazeera English
Rashid Al-Ghannoushi: Ben Ali's regime aims to destroy Tunisian people's Islamic opposition, identity, Khaled Hamza, Ikhwanweb, 2 November 2006, interview
Rashid al-Ghannushi, A Leader of Pure Islam, Rohama, 27 January 2011
Rachid Ghannouchi, the Islamist Who Believes in Inclusion and Compromise – Fanack Chronicle |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farrer_Memorial_Trust | Farrer Memorial Trust | The Farrer Memorial Trust was established in 1911 in Australia in memory of William Farrer. Initially established to provide study scholarships to Agricultural Scientists, the Trust became responsible in 1941 for the annual presentation of the Farrer Memorial Oration and awarding the Farrer Medal.
== William Farrer and the Farrer Memorial Trust ==
William Farrer was a surveyor who turned his hand to farming in 1886 near where Canberra now stands. Initially he planted grape vines but the conditions were not suitable, so he then decided to plant wheat. Due to weather conditions his first two harvests where damaged by rust, which spurred Farrer to develop strains that were resistant to rust. In 1900, he was successful with a variety he named Federation after the imminent Federation of Australia. When Farrer died suddenly in 1906 a committee was created to raise funds needed to establish a Memorial Trust. On 16 October 1911, the Trust received the funds with a set of instructions, enabling it to provide research grants and scholarships to further agricultural science in Australia.
== Farrer Medal ==
In 1935, Frank Gallagher formed a committee to create the Farrer Memorial Oration, to be given by a person with an agricultural background. The first oration was by Tasmanian farmer and Australian Prime Minister Joseph Lyons at the Star Theatre, Queanbeyan on 3 April 1936, the birthday of William Farrer. At the end of the oration children from the Queanbeyan Intermediate High School presented Lyons with a silver medallion, which is now on display at Adolph Basser Library, Canberra. In 1941, Gallagher handed over the organisation of the Farrer Memorial Oration to the Farrer Memorial Trust.
=== Recipients ===
Source: NSW Department of Primary Industries
== See also ==
List of agriculture awards
List of prizes named after people
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Hatteras_Lighthouse | Cape Hatteras Lighthouse | Cape Hatteras Light is a lighthouse located on Hatteras Island in the Outer Banks in the town of Buxton, North Carolina and is part of the Cape Hatteras National Seashore. It is the tallest lighthouse in the U.S. from base to tip at 210 feet. The lighthouse's semi-unique pattern makes it easy to recognize and famous. It is often ranked high on lists of most beautiful, and famous lighthouses in the US.
The Outer Banks are a group of barrier islands on the North Carolina coast that separate the Atlantic Ocean from the coastal sounds and inlets. Atlantic currents in this area made for excellent travel for ships, except in the area of Diamond Shoals, just offshore at Cape Hatteras. Nearby, the warm Gulf Stream ocean current collides with the colder Labrador Current, creating ideal conditions for powerful ocean storms and sea swells. The large number of ships that ran aground because of these shifting sandbars gave this area the nickname "Graveyard of the Atlantic." It also led the U.S. Congress to authorize the construction of the Cape Hatteras Light. Its 198-foot height makes it the tallest brick lighthouse structure in the United States and 2nd in the world. Since its base is almost at sea level, it is only the 15th highest light in the United States, the first 14 being built on higher ground.
== Hatteras Island Visitor Center and Museum of the Sea ==
Adjacent to the Cape Hatteras Light is the Hatteras Island Visitor Center and Museum of the Sea, operated by the National Park Service, which is located in the historic Cape Hatteras Lighthouse Double Keepers' Quarters. Exhibits include the history, maritime heritage and natural history of the Outer Banks and the lighthouse. The visitor center offers information about the Cape Hatteras National Seashore, ranger programs and a bookstore.
== History ==
=== Original lighthouse ===
On July 10, 1794, after Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton requested that they make a lighthouse on this location after his ship almost crashed and sank on its to way to The New World, giving it the nickname "Hamilton's light." Congress appropriated $44,000 "for erecting a lighthouse on the headland of Cape Hatteras and a lighted beacon on Shell Castle Island, in the harbor of Ocracoke in the State of North Carolina." The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse was constructed in 1802.
The Cape Hatteras light marked very dangerous shoals that extend from the cape for a distance of 10 nautical miles (19 km). The original tower was built of dark sandstone and retained its natural color. The original light consisted of 18 lamps; with 14-inch (360 mm) reflectors, and was 112 feet (34 m) above sea level. It was visible in clear weather for a distance of 18 miles (29 km).
In July 1851, Lt. David D. Porter, USN, reported as follows:
"Hatteras light, the most important on our coast is, without doubt, the worst light in the world. Cape Hatteras is the point made by all vessels going to the south, and also coming from that direction; the current of the Gulf Stream runs so close to the outer point of the shoals that vessels double as close round the breakers as possible, to avoid its influence. The only guide they have is the light, to tell them when up with the shoals; but I have always had so little confidence in it, that I have been guided by the lead, without the use of which no vessel should pass Hatteras. The first nine trips I made I never saw Hatteras light at all, though frequently passing in sight of the breakers, and when I did see it, I could not tell it from a steamer's light, excepting that the steamer's lights are much brighter. It has improved much latterly but is still a wretched light. It is all-important that Hatteras should be provided with a revolving light of great intensity, and that the light is raised 15 feet (4.6 m) higher than at present. Twenty-four steamship's lights, of great brilliancy, pass this point in one month, nearly at the rate of one every night (they all pass at night) and it can be seen how easily a vessel may be deceived by taking a steamer's light for a light onshore."
The improvement in the light referred to had begun in 1845 when the reflectors were changed from 14 to 15-inch (380 mm). In 1848 the 18 lamps were changed to 15 lamps with 21-inch (530 mm) reflectors and the light had become visible in clear weather at a distance of 20 miles (32 km). In 1854 a first-order Fresnel lens with flashing white light was substituted for the old reflecting apparatus, and the tower was raised to 150 feet (46 m).
In 1860 the Lighthouse Board reported that Cape Hatteras Lighthouse required protection, due to the outbreak of the Civil War. In 1862 the Board reported "Cape Hatteras, lens and lantern destroyed, light reexhibited.
=== Second lighthouse ===
At the behest of mariners and officers of the U.S. Navy, Congress appropriated $80,000 to the United States Lighthouse Board to construct a new beacon at Cape Hatteras in 1868.
Completed in just under two years under the direction of brevet Brigadier General J. H. Simpson of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the new Cape Hatteras lighthouse cost $167,000. The new tower, from which the first-order light was first exhibited on December 16, 1871, was the tallest brick lighthouse tower in the world. It was 200 feet (61 m) above ground and the focal height of the light was 208 feet (63 m) above water. The old tower was demolished in February 1871, leaving ruins that lasted until finally eroded away in a storm in 1980.
In the spring of 1879 the tower was struck by lightning. Cracks subsequently appeared in the masonry walls, which were remedied by placing a metal rod to connect the iron work of the tower with an iron disk sunk in the ground. In 1912 the candlepower of the light was increased from 27,000 to 80,000.
Ever since the completion of the new tower in 1870, there had begun a very gradual encroachment of the sea upon the beach. This did not become serious, however, until 1919, when the high water line had advanced to about 120 ft (36.5) from the base of the tower. Since that time the surf gnawed steadily toward the base of the tower until 1935, when the site was finally reached by the surf. Several attempts were made to arrest this erosion, but dikes and breakwaters had been of no avail. In 1935, therefore, the tower light was replaced by an Aerobeacon atop a four-legged steel skeleton tower, placed farther back from the sea on a sand dune 166 feet (51 m) above the sea, visible for 19 miles (31 km). The abandoned brick tower was then put in the custody of the National Park Service.
The Civilian Conservation Corps and Works Progress Administration erected a series of wooden revetments which checked the wash that was carrying away the beach. In 1942, when German U-boats began attacking ships just offshore, the Coast Guard resumed its control over the brick tower and manned it as a lookout station until 1945. By then, due to accretion of sand on the beach, the brick tower was 500 to 900 feet (270 m) inland from the sea and again tenable as a site for the light, which was placed back in commission January 23, 1950.
The new light consisted of a 36-inch (0.91 m) aviation-type rotating beacon of 250,000 candlepower, visible 20 miles (32 km), and flashing white every 7.5 seconds. The steel skeleton tower, known as the Buxton Woods Tower, was retained by the Coast Guard in the event that the brick tower again became endangered by erosion requiring that the light again be moved.
The light displays a highly visible black and white diagonal daymark paint scheme. It shares similar markings with the St. Augustine Light. Another lighthouse, with helical markings—red and white 'candy cane stripe'-- is the White Shoal Light (Michigan), which is the only true 'barber pole' lighthouse in the United States. Its distinctive "barber pole" paint job is consistent with other North Carolina black-and-white lighthouses, "each with their own pattern to help sailors identify lighthouses during daylight hours."
Today the Coast Guard owns and operates the navigational equipment, while the National Park Service maintains the tower as a historic structure. The Hatteras Island Visitor Center, formerly the Double Keepers Quarters located next to the lighthouse, elaborates on the Cape Hatteras story and the lifestyle on the Outer Banks. Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, tallest in the United States, stands 208 feet (63 m) from the bottom of the foundation to the peak of the roof. To reach the light, which shines 191 feet (58 m) above mean high-water mark, requires climbing 268 steps. The construction order of 1,250,000 bricks was used in the construction of the lighthouse and principal keeper's quarters. The light is used and maintained by the U.S Coast Guard as an Aid to Navigation, protecting Mariners from the treacherous shoals of the Graveyard of the Atlantic.
=== Relocation ===
In 1999, with the sea again encroaching, the Cape Hatteras lighthouse had to be moved from its original location at the edge of the ocean to safer ground. Due to erosion of the shore, the lighthouse was just 15 feet (4.6 m) from the water's edge and was in imminent danger. The move was a total distance of 2,900 feet (880 m) to the southwest, placing the lighthouse 1,500 feet (460 m) from the current shoreline. All other support buildings at the site were also moved at the same time. All support buildings were placed back in positions that maintained their original compass orientations and distance/height relationship to the lighthouse. International Chimney Corp. of Buffalo, New York was awarded the contract to move the lighthouse, assisted by, among other contractors, Expert House Movers. The move was controversial at the time with speculation that the structure would not survive the move, resulting in lawsuits that were later dismissed. Despite some opposition, work progressed and the move was completed on September 14, 1999.
The Cape Hatteras Light House Station Relocation Project became known as "The Move of the Millennium." General contractor International Chimney and Expert House Movers won the 40th Annual Outstanding Civil Engineering Achievement Award from the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1999. The Cape Hatteras Lighthouse is one of the tallest masonry structures ever moved (200 feet tall and weighing 5,000 tons).
== Specifications ==
Construction material: Approximately 1,250,000 bricks
Height above sea level: 210 feet (64 m)
Height of the structure: 198.5 feet (60.5 m)
Daymark: black double helix spiral stripes on white background
Number of steps: 257 steps to reach the light
Brightness: 800,000 candle power from each of two 1,000-watt lamps
Flash pattern: 1 second flash, 6.5 second eclipse
Visibility: From 20 nautical miles (37 km) in clear conditions. In exceptional conditions, it has been seen from 51 miles (94 km) out.
== See also ==
List of tallest lighthouses
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Witcher, T. R. (January 2018). "Preserved For the Future: Cape Hatteras Lighthouse" (PDF). Civil Engineering. American Society of Civil Engineers. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 27, 2018. Retrieved January 26, 2018.
== External links ==
Moving the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse - Cape Hatteras National Seashore (U.S. National Park Service)
Video showing the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse from the ground and the view from the top from 2016
Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) No. NC-357, "Cape Hatteras Lighthouse, Point of Cape Hatteras, access road from Route 12, Buxton, Dare County, NC", 29 photos, 2 color transparencies, 13 measured drawings, 25 data pages, 3 photo caption pages |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuleleua_Paletasala_Tovale | Manuleleua Paletasala Tovale | Manuleleua Paletasala Tovale is a Samoan politician and former member of the Legislative Assembly of Samoa. He is a member of the FAST Party.
He was first elected to the Legislative Assembly of Samoa in the 2021 Samoan general election. An election petition against him was struck out in June 2021. On 28 July 2021 he was appointed Associate Minister for the Prime Minister and Cabinet. On 17 January 2025 he was fired as an associate minister by prime minister Fiamē Naomi Mataʻafa after supporting her expulsion from the FAST party.
He lost his seat in the 2025 Samoan general election.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hum_Kahan_Ke_Sachay_Thay#:~:text=Hum%20Kahan%20Ke%20Sachay%20Thay%20(Urdu%3A%20%DB%81%D9%85%20%DA%A9%DB%81%D8%A7%DA%BA%20%DA%A9%DB%92%20%D8%B3%DA%86%DB%92,same%20name%20by%20Umera%20Ahmad. | Hum Kahan Ke Sachay Thay | Hum Kahan Ke Sachay Thay (Urdu: ہم کہاں کے سچے تھے) (English literal: As if we were truthful) is a Pakistani drama television series based on the novel of the same name by Umera Ahmad. Directed by Farooq Rind, the serial is co-produced by Soul Fry Films and MD Productions. It features Mahira Khan, Usman Mukhtar, and Kubra Khan in lead roles. It premiered on 1 August 2021 on Hum TV.
The series received mixed to negative reviews throughout its broadcast, however, gained praise for its premise and performances of the leads while receiving negative reviews for glorification of toxicity.
== Plot ==
Aswad Ayub (Usman Mukhtar), Mehreen Mansoor (Mahira Khan), and Mashal Tahir (Kubra Khan) are three cousins. Aswad is humble and friendly and close to both Mashal and Mehreen. Mashal is beautiful and rich, and Mehreen is poor and average-looking in appearance. All three were best friends in their childhood. Mehreen's maternal grandmother hates her because her father is a drug addict. One day, Mehreen's dad Mansoor (Omair Rana) gets caught by his wife Rabia (Laila Wasti) for fraud and stealing her jewellery to buy drugs. She leaves him, threatening him that she will take Mehreen with her. Mansoor, who loves Mehreen very much, is unable to tolerate the idea of his daughter being away from him forever and commits suicide by heroin overdose. Mashal overhears her parents Tahir (Ali Tahir) and Shagufta (Zainab Qayyum) saying that Mansoor is a drug addict and says so to Mehreen, causing them to argue and begin to hate each other.
Rabia remarries and begins to neglect Mehreen because her stepfather does not want to keep her. Mehreen moves in with Mashal's parents and her paternal grandmother, who lives with them. Everybody hates her. She lives a lonely life; however, she is academically and artistically smart and does not let anyone bully her into submission. With the loss of her parents, she has no support, except for her aunt Saleha Ayub (Huma Nawab), who is Aswad's mother. She loves to debate and is a talented artist, often achieving first place at art competitions. Her friends admire her, making Mashal envious. Saleha is the sole person who knows Mehreen's reality and loves her dearly, like a daughter.
Mashal is the complete opposite of Mehreen. She is extremely beautiful but not very bright in her academics. Nor is she artistic in nature. Shagufta continuously tells Mashal to 'be like Mehreen', giving her an inferiority complex. She consequently becomes obsessed with Mehreen, wanting to be her. She sneaks into Mehreen's room and reads her diaries, trying to find out more about Mehreen's likes, dislikes, and lifestyle. She also finds out how much Mehreen hates her.
All this while, Mashal is in close contact with Aswad who lives in America. She is jealous because he still likes Mehreen, and feeds him false information about her, claiming that she smokes and has many boyfriends. She also often claims Mehreen's academic and artistic victories as her own. Aswad gets brainwashed by Mashal and begins to dislike Mehreen, thinking that his once best friend is going rogue.
Mehreen’s friends' cousin, Saffwan (Haroon Shahid), becomes romantically interested in Mehreen. Mashal finds out about this and tells Saffwan about Mehreen's past including her father's drug addiction. This creates a misunderstanding between Saffwan and Mehreen. However, Saffwan comes to realize that it was all Mashal's doing. He proposes to Mehreen. Mehreen rejects him, saying that he doesn't know anything about her past and once he does, he will hate her like the others.
Meanwhile, Saleha declares that she wants Mehreen to marry Aswad, saying it has been her longtime wish. Mehreen does not object, having secretly been in love with Aswad all along. Mashal decides to tell Aswad that she loves him and wants to marry him. Aswad, who also likes Mashal, agrees and tells his mother he wants to marry Mashal and not Mehreen, but Saleha rejects Mashal and insists that only Mehreen can be his wife. Aswad tells Mashal that he can not marry her. This breaks Mashal's heart but she tells Aswad that she forgives him and wants him to be happy. But she secretly tries to persuade Mehreen to not marry Aswad. She tears Mehreen's wedding veil to try to dissuade her. Mehreen gets annoyed with Mashal. The same night, Mashal is found dead in her room. Everyone blames Mehreen for her murder, and she is arrested. Shabbo, their maid, knows exactly what happened that night but doesn't speak up. Due to the trauma of being falsely accused, Mehreen starts to hallucinate about her father in jail.
Mehreen is soon bailed out as Saleha arranges a lawyer for her. Tahir and Shagufta aren't happy about Mehreen getting released, as they still think that Mehreen poisoned Mashal. Aswad also thinks that Mehreen killed Mashal and behaves rudely towards her. He marries Mehreen, and starts to emotionally abuse her, blaming her for killing Mashal. This makes Mehreen's mental state deteriorate, and she starts hallucinating about Mashal, who tells Mehreen that she should kill herself and saying that that is what Aswad wants too. After a series of events, Aswad forces Mehreen to sign an affidavit, stating that she killed Mashal. But the stress of the false statement gives Mehreen a nervous breakdown, and she has to be admitted to the hospital.
The psychiatrist tells Aswad that some great stress has brought Mehreen to this state. Aswad starts to feel guilty for mentally torturing Mehreen. Shagufta calls Aswad to inform him that she is going to dispose of Mehreen's things, which are still in her house. Aswad goes to collect them and is shocked to see Mehreen's awards and paintings. He remembers how Mashal used to show off the awards, realising that they were Mehreen's all along. Shabbo, who cannot keep the secret anymore, spills everything and unveils Mehreen's innocence. She tells Aswad that it was Mashal who was not bright in her studies, it was Mashal who smoked. Aswad regrets his behaviour towards Mehreen. He asks Shabbo what really happened on the night Mashal died. Shabbo says that Mashal tried to kill Mehreen, but Shabbo accidentally put sleeping pills in Mashal's cup instead of Mehreen's. Aswad is shocked to hear this.
He goes home and, upon reading Mehreen's diary, realises he has been falsely accusing her all along. He goes to the hospital to apologize to Mehreen, but she refuses to listen and asks for a divorce. Aswad pleads for her to listen to him and tells her about everything he has discovered. Mehreen gives further details about that night, saying that while Shabbo prepared tea, Mashal and Mehreen talked to each other. They hated each other because their parents' familial politics had broken them apart. Mashal confessed to Mehreen about her mother forcing her to be like her. Both of them realised that they had been manipulated into fighting with each other and reconciled. When Shabbo brought tea Mashal remembered that she had ordered Shabbo to put pills in Mehreen's cup. As she no longer wanted Mehreen to die, she threw Mehreen's cup to the ground, breaking it. Not knowing that the pills were actually in her own cup, Mashal drank her tea. They both apologised to each other and, not knowing that it would be the last night Mashal would be alive, said they would talk properly the next day.
Aswad is shocked after hearing this and asks Mehreen for forgiveness, promising to love her like he did in his childhood. Mehreen forgives Aswad, and they finally reconcile.
Later, Mehreen continues her incomplete degree with full support from Aswad, and they start a new life together.
== Cast ==
=== Main ===
Mahira Khan as Mehreen Aswad (nee Mansoor) : Rabia and Mansoor's daughter; Anum and Tooba's half sister; Aswad's wife.
Tehreem Ali Hameed as Mehreen Mansoor (young)
Usman Mukhtar as Aswad Ayub: Saleha and Ayub's son; Mehreen's husband.
Zohair Siddiqui as Aswad Ayub (young)
Kubra Khan as Mashal Tahir (Dead) : Shagufta and Tahir's daughter.
Minahil Naveed as Mashal Tahir (young)
=== Recurring ===
Zainab Qayyum as Shagufta Tahir : Tahir's wife; Mashal's mother.
Ali Tahir as Tahir Hafeez: Shagufta's husband; Rabia and Saleha's brother; Mashal's father.
Huma Nawab as Saleha Ayub : Aswad's mother; Tahir and Rabia's sister; Ayub's widow.
Haroon Shahid as Safwan : Sheeba's cousin; Mehreen's suitor.
Omair Rana as Mansoor Ali (Dead) : Rabia's husband; Mehreen's father.
Shamim Hilaly as Nani : Rabia, Saleha and Tahir's mother.
Laila Wasti as Rabia Nauman : Mansoor's widow; Nauman's wife; Saleha and Tahir's sister; Mehreen, Anum and Tooba's mother
Annie Zaidi as Safwan's mother; Sheeba's aunt.
Kaif Ghaznavi as Shabbo : Mashal's househelp.
Ameena Farooq as Shabbo (young)
Nadia Hussain as Psychiatrist
Zara Ahmad as Sheeba : Mehreen's best friend; Safwan's cousin
Haya Khan as Anum Nauman : Rabia and Nauman's daughter; Tooba's sister; Mehreen's half sister.
Sidra Khan as Tooba Nauman : Rabia and Nauman's daughter; Anum's sister; Mehreen's half sister.
Khalid Malik as Police Inspector
== Production ==
The project was first announced by Zainab Qayyum in late-March 2021 who confirmed on Instagram being part of the serial along with Kubra Khan, directed by Farooq Rind. Omair Rana in an interview revealed that he is starring in a serial and Mahira Khan will return to television after five years with the same serial.
== Soundtrack ==
== Reception ==
=== Critical reception ===
While reviewing the first episode, Haneena Moosa of The Daily Times wrote, "The drama begins with a very powerful dialogue, delivered by one of the drama’s protagonists, Aswad". She further praised the premise and subject of the serial. Critics praised the premise and acting performances of the series.
While writing for The News International, Maheen Zia termed some of the events regarding the character Aswad as unrealistic. Another reviewer of the newspaper called it out for the glorification of toxic relationships. A reviewer from DAWN Images praised the performances of the actors and introduction of mental therapy in the plot, but mentioned the toxicity of Mukhtar's character and suicide portrayal as the negative aspect. Jasir Shahbaz of The Friday Times critiqued the series for perpetuating the trope of romantic relationships between cousins, argues that this portrayal romanticizes and reinforces the practice of cousin marriages, limiting women's ambitions and agency. Due to the dragging storyline and slow pace, the series also gathered criticism from viewers and critics.
=== Television rating ===
== Awards and nominations ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Hum Kahan Ke Sachay Thay at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignaz_Alberti | Ignaz Alberti | Ignaz Alberti (11 April 1760, in Vienna – 31 August 1794, in Vienna) was an Austrian illustrator, engraver and book printer. He employed some 20 engravers in 1787 who applied their skills to cartography and botanical books. After his death his widow managed the printing and publication.
His 1796 Vienna edition of the New Testament was printed and published by his widow, was banned by the Catholic Church, and appeared without imprimatur.
Alberti engraved and printed the frontispiece for the original libretto of Mozart's Die Zauberflöte in Vienna in 1791. He was one of Mozart's fellow Masons in the Lodge Zur gekrönten Hoffung. The frontispiece was so richly embellished with Masonic symbolism that it was removed from all subsequent editions of the libretto.
Another publication to which Mozart contributed his final three lieder (K. 596-8), was the Liedersammlung für Kinder und Kinderfreunde am Clavier published in 1791 by Ignaz Alberti – this was the first in a set of four volumes of children’s songs to be published in Vienna.
Alberti was instrumental in the preparing, printing and publishing many volumes on natural history, librettos, oratory and other topics. Among these were
Joachim Johann Nepomuk Spalowsky's "Prodromus in Systema Historicum Testaceorum" published posthumously in 1795 by his widow.
Mauerrede auf Mozarts Tod 1792
Dankopfer Franz dem Zweyten, Kaiser der Deutschen 1792
Die ganze heilige Schrift, nach der in der Katholischen Kirche 1791-3
Ovid's Verwandlungen in Kupfern und mit den nöthigen erlaäuterungen versehen heraus gegeben von einer Gesellschaft 1791–93.
Emanuel Schikaneder's Die Zauberflöte 1791.
Liedersammlung für Kinder und Kinderfreunde am Clavier 1791.
Trauerrede auf Joseph II. zur Gedächtnisfeier gehalten in einer Versammlung der F. M. in derLoge zur gekr. Hofn. im Or. zu Wien 1790.
Alberti is sometimes confused with the engraver Ignaz Albrecht.
== References ==
== External links ==
"Prodromus in Systema Historicum Testaceorum" download
Symbolism of "The Magic Flute" frontispiece |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mowalola_Ogunlesi | Mowalola Ogunlesi | Mowalola Ogunlesi (born 25 March 1994) is a Nigerian-born fashion designer and singer working and living in London. She is known for working with a wide variety of textiles such as leather and PVC to produce non-traditional silhouettes inspired by Nigerian and London youth culture.
== Early life ==
Ogunlesi was born to a Nigerian-Scottish mother and Nigerian father. She is ethnic Yoruba. Both of her parents are fashion designers. Her mother, Adenike Ogunlesi of Ruff 'n' Tumble specializing in children's clothing and her father working in traditional Nigerian menswear. At the age of 12, Ogunlesi moved from Nigeria to attend boarding school in the Surrey countryside. Ogunlesi earned her Bachelor of Arts in Fashion at Central Saint Martins - University of the Arts London, debuting a collection at the Graduation Press Show in 2017. She enrolled in the Master of Arts programme at Central Saint Martins that year but dropped out in 2018 to have more creative freedom in her work.
== Career and recognition ==
After leaving Central Saint Martins, Ogunlesi applied to the Fashion East mentorship and support programme. Her 2019 London Fashion Week debut took place on Fashion East's stage.
Ogunlesi came under scrutiny in September 2019 when Naomi Campbell was spotted wearing a Mowalola gown with a bullet wound design. The dress was interpreted as a statement on gun violence, but on Instagram Ogunlesi clarified the garment was meant to convey a sense of being a walking target.
In October 2020, Ogunlesi was named by Elle as one of "10 Trailblazing Women Changing The Future You Need To Know", the others being: Tobi Kyeremateng, Ngozi Onwurah, Simi Lindgren, Balanda Atis, Magdalene Abraha, Koffee, Holly Fischer, Celeste and Margaret Busby.
=== Collaborations ===
In 2019, she created outfits for Skepta's "Pure Water" music video and was one of six designers approached by British Vogue to style Barbie dolls for the brand's 60th anniversary.
On 26 June 2020 the Yeezy Gap 10-year partnership was officially announced, with Ogunlesi appointed by Ye as design director.
In 2022, she joined with MGA Entertainment as a designer for a line of their Bratz dolls featuring two of the doll franchise's characters: Jade and Felicia. The collaboration line was released on 1 December.
In 2025, Ogunlesi collaborated with The Skateroom to design a limited-edition skateboard deck collection.
=== Music ===
Ogunlesi releases music also under the name Mowalola. In 2021, she released two singles, "Truck" and "Wawa". She was later featured on Namasenda's single "Banana Clip" (2021).
In 2024, she directed the visual for JT's single "Okay" and starred in FKA Twigs' music video for "Perfect Stranger".
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Moscone#:~:text=George%20Richard%20Moscone%20(%E2%AB%BDm,his%20assassination%20in%20November%201978. | George Moscone | George Richard Moscone ( mə-SKOH-nee; November 24, 1929 – November 27, 1978) was an American attorney and politician who served as the 37th mayor of San Francisco from January 1976 until his assassination in November 1978.
He was known as "The People's Mayor", who opened up City Hall and its commissions to reflect the diversity of San Francisco, appointing African Americans, Asian Americans, and gay people. A member of the Democratic Party, Moscone served in the California State Senate from 1967 until becoming mayor; in the Senate he served as majority leader. He is remembered for being an advocate of civil progressivism.
== Early life ==
George Richard Moscone was born in the Italian-American enclave of San Francisco's Marina District. The Moscone family comes from Piedmont and Liguria. His father was George Joseph Moscone, a corrections officer at nearby San Quentin, and his mother, Lena, was a homemaker who later went to work to support herself and her son after she separated from her husband.
Moscone attended St. Brigid's and then St. Ignatius College Preparatory, where he was a noted debater and an all-city basketball star. He then attended College of the Pacific on a basketball scholarship and played basketball for the Tigers. He received a Bachelor of Arts in sociology in 1953.
Moscone then studied at University of California, Hastings College of the Law, where he received his law degree. He married Gina Bondanza, whom he had known since she was in grade school, in 1954. The Moscones would go on to have four children. After serving in the United States Navy, Moscone started private practice in 1956.
== Career ==
As a young man playing basketball and as a young lawyer, Moscone became close friends with John Burton, who would later become a member of the U.S. House of Representatives. John's older brother, Phillip, a member of the California State Assembly, recruited Moscone to run for an Assembly seat in 1960 as a Democrat. Though he lost that race, Moscone would go on to win a seat on the San Francisco Board of Supervisors in 1963. On the Board, Moscone was known for his defense of poor people, racial minorities and small business owners, as well as supporting the first successful fight in San Francisco to block construction of a proposed freeway that would have cut through Golden Gate Park and several neighborhoods.
=== California State Senator ===
In 1966 Moscone ran for and won a seat in the California State Senate, representing the 10th District in San Francisco County. Moscone was quickly rising through the ranks of the California Democratic Party and became closely associated with a loose alliance of progressive politicians in San Francisco led by the Burton brothers. This alliance was known as the Burton Machine and included John Burton, Phillip Burton, and Assemblyman Willie Brown. Soon after his election to the State Senate, Moscone was elected by his party to serve as Majority Leader. He was reelected to the 10th District seat in 1970 and to the newly redistricted 6th District seat, representing parts of San Francisco and San Mateo Counties, in 1974. He successfully sponsored legislation to institute a school lunch program for California students, as well as a bill legalizing abortion that was signed into law by Governor Ronald Reagan. In 1974 Moscone briefly considered a run for governor of California, but dropped out after a short time in favor of California Secretary of State Jerry Brown.
Moscone also was an early proponent of gay rights. In conjunction with his friend and ally in the Assembly, Willie Brown, Moscone managed to pass a bill repealing California's sodomy law. The repeal was signed into law by California Governor Jerry Brown.
=== Mayor of San Francisco ===
On December 19, 1974, Moscone announced he would run for mayor of San Francisco in the 1975 race. In a close race in November 1975, Moscone placed first, with conservative city supervisor John Barbagelata second and supervisor Dianne Feinstein coming in third. Moscone and Barbagelata thus both advanced to the mandated runoff election in December where Moscone narrowly defeated the conservative supervisor by fewer than 5,000 votes. Liberals also won the city's other top executive offices that year as Joseph Freitas was elected district attorney and Richard Hongisto was re-elected to his office of sheriff.
Moscone ran a grassroots mayoral campaign which drew volunteers from organizations like Glide Methodist Memorial Church, Delancey Street (a rehabilitation center for ex-convicts) and the Peoples Temple which was initially known as a church preaching racial equality and social justice but turned into a fanatical political cult. For the rest of his life, Barbagelata maintained that the Peoples Temple had committed massive election fraud on behalf of Moscone by busing people in from out of town to vote multiple times under the names of deceased San Francisco residents.
Moscone passed legislation reducing marijuana sentences, granting abortion rights, establishing a school meals program and overturning the state's anti-sodomy laws.
The Peoples Temple also worked to get out the vote in precincts where Moscone received a 12-to-1 vote margin over Barbagelata. After the Peoples Temple's work and votes by Temple members were instrumental in delivering a close victory for Moscone, Moscone appointed Temple leader Jim Jones as chairman of the San Francisco Housing Commission.
Moscone's first year as mayor was spent preventing the San Francisco Giants professional baseball team from moving to Toronto and advocating a citywide ballot initiative in favor of district election to the board of supervisors. Moscone was the first mayor to appoint large numbers of women, homosexuals and racial minorities to city commissions and advisory boards. In 1977, he appointed Del Martin, the first lesbian woman, and Kathleen Hardiman Arnold, now Kathleen Rand Reed, the first Black woman, as commissioners on the San Francisco Commission on the Status of Women (SFCOSW). Moscone also appointed liberal Oakland Police Chief Charles Gain to head the San Francisco Police Department. Gain (and by extension Moscone) became highly unpopular among rank and file San Francisco police officers for proposing a settlement to a lawsuit brought by minorities claiming discriminatory recruiting practices by the police force.
In April 1977, Moscone stood up to officials in Washington by supporting a 25-day occupation of San Francisco's federal building by a group of over 100 people with disabilities demanding their civil rights in what would become known as the 504 Sit-in. While federal officials hoped to starve out the protesters, the mayor visited them and arranged to have portable showers and towels brought in. Thanks in part to Moscone's support, the occupation was successful, and helped pave the way for passing the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) thirteen years later.
In 1977 Moscone, Freitas and Hongisto all easily survived a recall election pushed by defeated Moscone opponent John Barbagelata along with business interests. It was a political vindication for Moscone, who won in a landslide. Barbagelata announced he was retiring from politics. That year also marked the passage of the district election system by San Francisco voters. The city's first district elections for board of supervisors took place in November 1977. Among those elected were the city's first openly gay supervisor, Harvey Milk, single mother and attorney Carol Ruth Silver, Chinese-American Gordon Lau, and fireman and police officer Dan White. Milk, Silver and Lau along with John Molinari and Robert Gonzales made up Moscone's allies on the board, while White, Dianne Feinstein, Quentin Kopp, Ella Hill Hutch, Lee Dolson, and Ron Pelosi formed a loosely organized coalition to oppose Moscone and his initiatives. Feinstein was elected president of the board of supervisors on a 6–5 vote, with Moscone's supporters backing Lau. It was generally believed that Feinstein, having twice lost election to the office of mayor, would support Kopp against Moscone in the 1979 election and retire rather than run for the board again.
==== Refusal to investigate Peoples Temple ====
In August 1977, after Peoples Temple leader Jim Jones fled to Jonestown following media scrutiny alleging criminal wrongdoing, Moscone announced that his office would not investigate Jones or Peoples Temple. The later mass murder-suicide at Jonestown dominated national headlines at the time of Moscone's death.
After the massacre, Temple members revealed to The New York Times that the Temple had arranged for "busloads" of members to be bused in from Redwood Valley to San Francisco to vote in the 1975 election. A former Temple member stated that many of those members were not registered to vote in San Francisco, while another former member said "Jones swayed elections." Prior to leaving San Francisco, Jones claimed to have bribed Moscone with sexual favors from female Temple members, including one who was underage; his son, Jim Jones, Jr., later remembered how Moscone frequented Temple parties "with a cocktail in his hand and doing some ass grabbing".
== Assassination ==
Late in 1978, Dan White resigned from the board of supervisors. His resignation would allow Moscone to choose White's successor, which could tip the board's balance of power in Moscone's favor. Recognizing this, those who supported a more conservative agenda and opposed integration of the police and fire departments talked White into changing his mind. White then requested that Moscone re-appoint him to his former seat.
Moscone originally indicated a willingness to reconsider, but more liberal city leaders, including supervisor Harvey Milk, lobbied him against the idea. Moscone ultimately decided not to appoint White. On November 27, 1978, three days after Moscone's 49th birthday, White went to San Francisco City Hall to meet with Moscone and purportedly to make a final plea for appointment. White sneaked into City Hall through a basement window to avoid the metal detector at the main door. He carried his old police revolver. When Moscone agreed to talk with him in a private room, White pulled the gun out of his suit jacket and shot and killed Moscone. White then re-loaded his gun and walked across City Hall to Milk's office, where White shot and killed Milk as well.
Dianne Feinstein, president of the board of supervisors, was sworn in as the city's new mayor and in the following years would emerge as one of California's most prominent politicians.
Six thousand mourners attended a service for Moscone at St. Mary's Cathedral.
White later turned himself in at the police station where he was formerly an officer. The term "Twinkie defense" has its origins in the murder trial that followed. White was convicted of the lesser crime of manslaughter, due in part to his claim of severe depression, which White's attorneys argued was evidenced by his consumption of Twinkies and other junk foods. Outrage over White's lenient sentence provoked a mass riot in San Francisco, during which police cars were set on fire by angry protestors. White was released from prison and then shortly afterward committed suicide in 1985.
Vigils are held annually to commemorate the assassinations of Moscone and Milk.
== Legacy ==
Moscone is interred at Holy Cross Cemetery in Colma, California alongside his mother Lena.
Moscone Center, San Francisco's largest convention center and exhibition hall, is named in his honor. Moscone and Milk also have schools named after them: George Moscone Elementary, Harvey Milk Elementary and Harvey Milk High School.
Moscone's main political legacy is his opening up San Francisco City Hall to be a more diverse and inclusive place with political appointments that represented the full spectrum of the population, including minorities and the growing gay community. Despite a backlash from the political old guard and conservatives, and despite the double assassination of Mayor Moscone and Supervisor Harvey Milk, both leading progressives, the city never retreated from Moscone's more inclusive view of politics.
In 1980, sculptor Robert Arneson was commissioned to create a monument to Moscone to be installed in the new Moscone Convention Center. The bust portraying Moscone was done in Arneson's California Funk style and was accepted by San Francisco's Art Commission. Arneson included as part of the sculpture on the pedestal the likeness of a pistol, and references to Harvey Milk, the assassinations, the "Twinkie Defense", the White Night riots, and Dianne Feinstein's mayoral succession. Arneson refused to make alterations to the work, the commission was returned to him, and it was later resold to the SF Museum of Modern Art. In a critique of the event, Frederic Stout wrote that "Arneson's mistake was in presenting the city mothers/fathers with something honest, engaging and provoking, that is to say, a work of art. What they wanted, of course, was not a work of art at all. They wanted an object of ritual magic: the smiling head of a dead politician." In 1994, a new bust by San Francisco artist Spero Anargyros was unveiled, depicting Moscone holding a pen, below which are words from Moscone: "San Francisco is an extraordinary city, because its people have learned to live together with one another, to respect each other, and to work with each other for the future of their community. That's the strength and beauty of this city – it's the reason why the citizens who live here are the luckiest people in the world."
Moscone was portrayed by Victor Garber in Gus Van Sant's Harvey Milk biopic, Milk. Their murders were also the subject of the Dead Kennedys' version of the Sonny Curtis song "I Fought the Law". Moscone's son Jonathan, aged 14 at the time of his father's murder, later co-wrote the play Ghost Light with Tony Taccone about the effects the assassination had on him. It premiered at the Oregon Shakespeare Festival in 2011. A public television documentary about Moscone's political career, Moscone: A Legacy of Change, debuted in November 2018, the 40th anniversary of Moscone's death. Produced by Nat Katzman, written by Stephen Talbot and narrated by Peter Coyote.
== See also ==
List of assassinated American politicians
== References ==
Weiss, Mike (2010). Double Play: The Hidden Passions Behind the Double Assassination of George Moscone and Harvey Milk. Vince Emery Productions. ISBN 978-0982565056.
Saxon, Wolfgang (November 28, 1978). "George Moscone, a Firm Mayor Who Stressed Anticrime Effort". The New York Times. p. B12.
Turner, Wallace (November 28, 1978). "San Francisco Mayor is Slain; City Supervisor Also Killed; Ex-Official Gives Up to Police". The New York Times. p. A1.
"A Son Confronts Moscone's 'Ghost' On Stage". All Things Considered. September 3, 2011. NPR.
Ghost Light - Oregon Shakespeare Festival
LaGumina, Salvatore J.; Frank J. Cavaioli; Salvatore Primeggia; Joseph A. Varacalli (1999). The Italian American Experience: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0203801147.
== External links ==
Moscone: A Legacy of Change film in the George Moscone Archives, University of the Pacific
Controversial commissioned bust of George Moscone by Robert Arneson
The George Moscone Digital Collection and George Moscone Collection available at Holt-Atherton Special Collections.
Join California George Moscone |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Draper_Catalogue#:~:text=In%20all%2C%20359%2C083%20stars%20were%20classified%20as%20of%20August%202017.&text=The%20HD%20catalogue%20is%20named,certain%20areas%20of%20the%20sky. | Henry Draper Catalogue | The Henry Draper Catalogue (HD) is an astronomical star catalogue published between 1918 and 1924, giving spectroscopic classifications for 225,300 stars; it was later expanded by the Henry Draper Extension (HDE), published between 1925 and 1936, which gave classifications for 46,850 more stars, and by the Henry Draper Extension Charts (HDEC), published from 1937 to 1949 in the form of charts, which gave classifications for 86,933 more stars. In all, 359,083 stars were classified as of August 2017.
The HD catalogue is named after Henry Draper, an amateur astronomer, and covers the entire sky almost completely down to an apparent photographic magnitude of about 9; the extensions added fainter stars in certain areas of the sky. The construction of the Henry Draper Catalogue was part of a pioneering effort to classify stellar spectra, and its catalogue numbers are commonly used as a way of identifying stars.
== History ==
The origin of the Henry Draper Catalogue dates back to the earliest photographic studies of stellar spectra. Henry Draper made the first photograph of a star's spectrum showing distinct spectral lines when he photographed Vega in 1872. He took over a hundred more photographs of stellar spectra before his death in 1882. In 1885, Edward Pickering began to supervise photographic spectroscopy at Harvard College Observatory, using the objective prism method. In 1886, Draper's widow, Mary Anna Palmer Draper, became interested in Pickering's research and agreed to fund it under the name Henry Draper Memorial. Pickering and his coworkers then began to take an objective-prism survey of the sky and to classify the resulting spectra.
A first result of this work was the Draper Catalogue of Stellar Spectra, published in 1890. This catalogue contained spectroscopic classifications for 10,351 stars, mostly north of declination −25°. Most of the classification was done by Williamina Fleming. The classification scheme used was to subdivide the previously used Secchi classes (I to IV) into more specific classes, given letters from A to N. Also, the letter O was used for stars whose spectra consisted mainly of bright lines, the letter P for planetary nebulae, and the letter Q for spectra not fitting into any of the classes A through P. No star of type N appeared in the catalogue, and the only star of type O was the Wolf–Rayet star HR 2583.
Antonia Maury and Pickering published a more detailed study of the spectra of bright stars in the northern hemisphere in 1897. Maury used classifications numbered from I to XXII; groups I to XX corresponded to subdivisions of the Draper Catalogue types B, A, F, G, K, and M, while XXI and XXII corresponded to the Draper Catalogue types N and O. She was the first to place B stars in their current position, prior to A stars, in the spectral classification.
In 1890, the Harvard College Observatory constructed the Boyden Observatory in Arequipa, Peru in order to study the sky in the Southern Hemisphere, and a study of bright stars in the southern hemisphere was published by Annie Jump Cannon and Pickering in 1901. Cannon used the lettered types of the Draper Catalogue of Stellar Spectra, but dropped all letters except O, B, A, F, G, K, and M, used in that order, as well as P for planetary nebulae and Q for some peculiar spectra. She also used types such as B5A for stars halfway between types B and A, F2G for stars one-fifth of the way from F to G, and so forth.
Between 1910 and 1915, new discoveries increased interest in stellar classification, and work on the Henry Draper Catalogue itself started in 1911. From 1912 to 1915, Cannon and her coworkers classified spectra at the rate of approximately 5,000 per month. The catalogue was published in 9 volumes of the Annals of Harvard College Observatory between 1918 and 1924. It contains rough positions, magnitudes, spectral classifications, and, where possible, cross-references to the Durchmusterung catalogs for 225,300 stars. The classification scheme used was similar to that used in Cannon's 1901 work, except that types such as B, A, B5A, F2G, and so on, had been changed to B0, A0, B5, F2, and so on. As well as the classes O through M, P was used for nebulae and R and N for carbon stars.
Pickering died on February 3, 1919, leaving 6 volumes to be overseen by Cannon. Cannon found spectral classifications for 46,850 fainter stars in selected regions of the sky in the Henry Draper Extension, published in six parts between 1925 and 1936. She continued classifying stars until her death in 1941. Most of these classifications were published in 1949 in the Henry Draper Extension Charts (the first portion of these charts was published in 1937.) These charts also contained some classifications by Margaret Walton Mayall, who supervised the work after Cannon's death.
The catalogue and its extensions were the first large-scale attempt to catalogue spectral types of stars, and its construction led to the Harvard classification scheme of stellar spectra which is still used today.
== Availability and usage ==
Stars contained in the main portion of the catalogue are of medium magnitude, down to about 9m (about 1/15 as bright as the faintest stars visible with the naked eye). The extensions contain stars as faint as the 11th magnitude selected from certain regions of the sky. Stars in the original catalogue are numbered from 1 to 225300 (prefix HD) and are numbered in order of increasing right ascension for the epoch 1900.0. Stars in the first extension are numbered from 225301 to 272150 (prefix HDE), and stars from the extension charts are numbered from 272151 to 359083 (prefix HDEC). However, as the numbering is continuous throughout the catalog and its extensions, the prefix HD may be used regardless as its use produces no ambiguity. Many stars are customarily identified by their HD numbers.
The Henry Draper Catalogue and the Extension were available from the NASA Astronomical Data Center as part of their third CD-ROM of astronomical catalogues. Currently, the Catalogue and Extension are available from the VizieR service of the Centre de Données astronomiques (French for "Astronomical Data Center") at Strasbourg as catalogue number III/135A. Because of their format, putting the Henry Draper Extension Charts into a machine-readable format was more difficult, but this task was eventually completed by 1995 by Nesterov, Röser and their coworkers, and the charts are now available at VizieR as catalogue number III/182.
== References ==
== External links ==
The Henry Draper Catalogue and its extensions are available on line free of charge at the VizieR service of the Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg:
Henry Draper Catalogue and Extension, A. J. Cannon and E. C. Pickering, CDS ID III/135A.
The Henry Draper Extension Charts: A catalogue of accurate positions, proper motions, magnitudes and spectral types of 86933 stars, V. V. Nesterov, A. V. Kuzmin, N. T. Ashimbaeva, A. A. Volchkov, S. Roeser, and U. Bastian, CDS ID III/182. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._D._Deve_Gowda | H. D. Deve Gowda | Haradanahalli Doddegowda Deve Gowda (; born 18 May 1933) is an Indian politician who served as the prime minister of India for nearly 11 months, from 1996 to 1997. He previously served as the chief minister of Karnataka from 1994 to 1996 and as a Member of Parliament (MP) in the Lok Sabha. A member of the Janata Dal (Secular), he has been serving as the party's president since 1999 and has been an MP in the Rajya Sabha representing Karnataka since 2020.
Born in a family of farmers, Deve Gowda joined the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1953 and remained a member until 1962. He became president of the state unit of the Janata Dal in 1994 and was considered to be a driving force in the party's victory in Karnataka. He served as the chief minister of Karnataka from 1994 to 1996. In the 1996 general elections, no party won enough seats to form a government and Deve Gowda was elected to serve as prime minister as head of the United Front coalition. His premiership lasted for less than a year and he left office in April 1997. After his prime ministerial tenure, he was re-elected to the Lok Sabha as a Member of Parliament until his defeat in 2019. Deve Gowda was elected to the Rajya Sabha in 2020.
== Early life and career ==
H. D. Deve Gowda was born on 18 May 1933 in Haradanahalli, a village in Holenarasipura Taluk, of the erstwhile Kingdom of Mysore (now in Hassan, Karnataka). His father Dodde Gowda was a paddy farmer and mother, Devamma was a home maker.
Gowda earned a diploma in civil engineering from L. V. Polytechnic, Hassan, in the early 1950s.
Deve Gowda joined the Indian National Congress party in 1953 and remained a member until 1962. During that period, he was President of Anjaneya Cooperative Society of Holenarasipura and later became a member of the Taluk Development Board of Holenarasipura.
== State politics (1962–1996) ==
In 1962, Deve Gowda was elected to the Karnataka Legislative Assembly from Holenarasipura constituency as an independent candidate. Later, he was elected from the same constituency to the Assembly for six consecutive terms from 1962 to 1989. He joined the Congress (O) during the Congress split. He served as the Leader of the Opposition in the Legislative Assembly from March 1972 to March 1976 and from November 1976 to December 1977. During the Emergency in the 1970s, he was imprisoned in the Bangalore Central Jail.
Later, Deve Gowda served as the two-time president of the state unit of the Janata Party. He served as a minister in the Janata Party Government in Karnataka headed by Ramakrishna Hegde from 1983 to 1988. When V.P. Singh joined Janata Dal, Subramanian Swamy formed Janata Party (Jaya Prakash) faction, and Deve Gowda joined him to become Janata Party (JP)'s Karnataka President. He was later defeated from Holenarasipur in 1989, and soon later rejoined Janata Dal. He became president of the state unit of the Janata Dal in 1994 and led the party to victory in the 1994 State Assembly elections. He was elected from the Ramanagara, and sworn in as the 14th Chief Minister of Karnataka in December.
As chief minister, Gowda toured Switzerland and attended the Forum of International Economists. His tour to Singapore brought in foreign investment to the State. He resigned from the position to serve as prime minister following his appointment in 1996.
== Premiership (1996–1997) ==
Following the 1996 general elections, P. V. Narasimha Rao government was defeated with no other party winning enough seats to form a government.
When the United Front (a conglomeration of non-Congress and non-BJP regional parties) decided to form the Government at the Centre with the support of the Congress and CPI(M), Deve Gowda was unexpectedly chosen to head the government after V. P. Singh and Jyoti Basu declined. He was sworn-in as the 11th Prime Minister of India in June 1996 and was elected to the Rajya Sabha in September 1996 during his tenure as prime minister after Indira Gandhi's tenture in Rajya Sabha. During his tenure, he served as the Home Minister and as the Chairman of the Steering Committee of the United Front, the policy-making committee consisting of other coalition party leaders. He is credited with providing financial closure and kickstarting development of the Delhi Metro Project. He left office on 21 April 1997 after the Congress revoked its support for Gowda amidst discontent over communication between the coalition and the Congress. It compromised to support a new government under I. K. Gujral, who served as the prime minister from 21 April 1997 to 19 March 1998.
== Post-premiership (1997–present) ==
He was defeated in the 1999 general elections. He was elected president of the Janata Dal (Secular) the same year. Subsequently, he won by-poll in 2002 against D. K. Shivakumar.
The 2004 Karnataka state elections witnessed the revival of his party's fortunes under the leadership of Siddaramaiah with the Janata Dal (Secular) winning 58 seats and becoming a part of the ruling coalition in the state. Later, the party joined with the BJP and formed another government in 2006. Deve Gowda's son, H. D. Kumaraswamy, headed the BJP-JD(S) coalition government in the state for 20 months. The alliance was defeated in 2008. B. S. Yediyurappa was elected as the Chief Minister of Karnataka. Deve Gowda verbally abused Yediyurappa. This event was termed as a "new low in Indian politics". Deve Gowda later apologised for hurling abuse at him.
Deve Gowda expelled Siddaramaiah and CM Ibrahim from the JD(S) in 2005. Later, both Siddaramaiah and CM Ibrahim joined the Indian National Congress, which won the 2013 Karnataka Legislative Assembly election, with Siddaramaiah being elected as the Chief Minister of Karnataka.
Deve Gowda contested the 2019 general elections against G. S. Basavaraj in Tumkur Lok Sabha constituency of Karnataka. G. S. Basavaraj, BJP candidate of Tumkur Constituency won against Deve Gowda by a margin of 13,339 votes. G. S. Basavaraj polled 596,127 votes while Deve Gowda got 582,788 votes. He has been elected to Rajya Sabha.
== Personal life ==
He married Chennamma in 1954. They have six children together: four sons, including politicians H. D. Revanna and H. D. Kumaraswamy, who is a former Chief Minister of Karnataka, and two daughters. He is the father-in-law of politician Anitha Kumaraswamy and grandfather of actor Nikhil Kumaraswamy, politicians Prajwal Revanna and Suraj Revanna.
In 2025, Gowda was hospitalised in Bengaluru after he developed urinary tract infection.
== Electoral history ==
== Positions held ==
== See also ==
List of prime ministers of India
List of chief ministers of Karnataka
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Prime Minister H. D. Deve Gowda Prime Ministers Office, Archived |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobita_Nobi | Nobita Nobi | Nobita Nobi (Japanese: 野比 のび太, Hepburn: Nobi Nobita) is one of the main characters in the Doraemon manga and anime series created by Fujiko Fujio. Known as Sidney, Specky and Noby in some English localizations of the anime, Nobita is usually depicted as an elementary school student. The title character, Doraemon, is sent back in time by Nobita's great-great grandson Sewashi Nobi to look after Nobita.
Along with Doraemon, Nobita is considered to be one of the most popular and widely recognizable manga characters due to the series' popularity, which extends beyond its native Japan.
== Characteristics ==
Nobita's characterization depicts him as a lazy underachiever, including but not limited to a lack of physical ability, predisposition to procrastination, reluctance to engage in critical thinking and exhibiting perverted behavior. He dislikes books (excluding manga) and lacks a basic grasp of knowledge expected for his age, such as being unable to understand concepts such as the definition of an eclipse. A running gag involves his disposition to frequent and efficient napping, infamous in the community to the point he is primarily known for his napping in nearby cities.
Many chapters start with Nobita in tears, begging Doraemon to lend him a (faulty or outdated) gadget. His usual motives are to get revenge on Gian and Suneo's harassment, show off to Shizuka for her affections, act out his imagination or simply solve extremely trivial problems. However, he is very untrustworthy when handling gadgets, frequently abusing their power to the point he causes suffering to himself or others, in part due to his poor decisions, the gadgets' own faults or interference by other characters.
He envies his classmate Hidetoshi Dekisugi, a straight-A student admired by all of the girls in his class, including Shizuka, but is otherwise on good terms with him. He is friends with Shizuka, Suneo and Gian, though the latter two harass and bully him for his ineptitude or poor decisions.
Even though Nobita possesses many questionable character traits, he occasionally displays redeeming qualities such as kind-heartedness, courage, and even a good work ethic. In some full-length stories, he has risked his life to help save others, or even entire civilizations. In some episodes, it is implied that his poor academic grades are due to his lazy nature as opposed to a lack of intellectual ability. Nobita has consistently displayed sharp marksmanship, mastering light gun games and the Air Cannon with little to no difficulty. The character has also demonstrated creativity when it comes to utilising Doraemon's gadgets in novel ways.
== Appearances ==
The central premise of the Doraemon media franchise is grounded on the relationship between its protagonists, Doraemon and Nobita. Nobita was doomed to suffer from a life of misery, marrying Gian's sister and squandering the family's finances due to poor personal and business choices. After his death, his descendants in the 22nd century, including his great-great-grandson Sewashi Nobi, live in poverty. Sewashi was able to acquire Doraemon due to Doraemon being deemed substandard by his manufacturer. He sends Doraemon back to Nobita's time, after which he is able to live a substantially improved life. There is otherwise little to no continuity in the manga and anime's plots, allowing for Nobita's character development, if any, to be essentially negated.
=== In other media ===
Japanese actor Satoshi Tsumabuki appeared as Nobita in several live-action television commercials throughout 2011 and 2016. The advertisement's were created by Toyota and depict the series' characters two decades after they "grow up."
Nobita has appeared in various educational manga along with other Doraemon characters. The character has been used in a public service campaign organized by the West Japan Railway Company (JR West), where posters of Doraemon, Nobita and several supporting characters from the series were distributed to promote appropriate etiquette for train travel during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.
== Cultural impact ==
Due to the success of the Doraemon franchise, Nobita is an internationally recognized character that has attained considerable notoriety. The character's likeness has been recreated as figurines sold during festive celebrations in parts of India. Nobita's family residence, a typical Japanese suburban house, is a recognizable element of the series to international audiences.
Nobita's relationship with Shizuka has been referenced by an Indian television personality from the Bigg Boss reality television series in a public discussion about the rivalry between his cast mates Sidharth Shukla and Rashami Desai, whereas his relationship dynamic with Doraemon had been co-opted as a satirical form of criticism against a Malaysian politician.
A footprint fossil of a dinosaur species discovered in China in 2020 is named Eubrontes nobitai after Nobita.
=== Reception ===
Critics found that the character's flawed personality and modest background is considered to be a departure from other contemporary anime and manga protagonists typically portrayed as special or extraordinary, and the consistent portrayal of Nobita as being relatable and down-to-earth had been cited as reasons behind the character's appeal as well as the contrary. Opinion of Nobita varies between countries; for example, he receives criticism in India and Pakistan for his amorality and lack of personal growth, deemed as a harmful role model to children. According to the Italian Parents Movement (Moige), in the manga, "the lazy Nobita does not know any kind of appreciable evolution", though there are still good points including "the criticism of bullying, the goodness that transpires from the little Nobita and the positive figure of Shizuka". According to an analysis by Anne Allison, professor of cultural anthropology at Duke University, the strong point of the series and its heart is the relationship between Nobita and Doraemon, as opposed to the variety of the gadgets showcased by the latter.
In early 2021, the character became a trending topic on social media following the international release of promotional material featuring the character marrying Shizuka in the animated film Stand by Me Doraemon 2.
=== Criticism ===
In August 2016, a member of the Tehreek-i-Insaf party submitted a resolution in the Punjab Assembly calling for a ban on the series, alleging the show's "negative impact" on Pakistani children: one of the cited reasons behind the motion was the depiction of mixed-sex education, which was labelled as incompatible with Pakistani Culture and Muslim culture, in addition to Nobita's own undesirable character traits. Similarly, politicians and activists in neighbouring India have criticized Nobita's problematic behavioural traits for setting a bad example to children, such as answering back to their parents and refusing to do their homework. One activist blamed the character's supposed influence for a 2013 exam-fixing scandal in the state of Madhya Pradesh.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
""Through The Glasses of a Nobita"". Korps Mahasiswa Ilmu Komunikasi (KOSMIK). Baruga. 2 April 2020. Retrieved 19 August 2021. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adil_Hussain | Adil Hussain | Khandkar Mohammad Adil Hussain (pronounced [ʕaːdɪl ħuˈseːn]; born 5 October 1963) is an Indian actor who is known for his work in several Indian independent and mainstream film productions, as well as international cinema, in films such as The Reluctant Fundamentalist and Life of Pi (both 2012).
He received National Film Awards (Special Jury) at the 64th National Film Awards for Hotel Salvation and Maj Rati Keteki.
He has starred in English, Hindi, Assamese, Bengali, Tamil, Marathi, Malayalam, Norwegian and French films.
== Early life and education ==
Born in an Assamese Muslim family in Goalpara, Assam on 5 October 1963, where his father was the headmaster of a high secondary school, Hussain was the youngest of seven children. His ancestors had traditionally been appointed as private tutors, known as Khandkar, to the Mughal Emperors. In an interview he described his multiethnic background, as his maternal grandfather was Iraqi while his maternal grandmother had Assamese, English and Italian roots.
Hussain acted in school plays. He left home at age 18 to study philosophy at B. Borooah College, Guwahati, he started acting in college plays and performing as a stand-up comedian.
He also mimicked popular Bollywood actors in between the performances of a local stand-up comedian group, the Bhaya Mama Group. He worked as a stand-up comedian for six years, joined a mobile theatre and also did some local cinema, before moving to Delhi, where he studied at National School of Drama (1990–1993).
He also studied at the Drama Studio London on a Charles Wallace India Trust Scholarship.
== Career ==
After his return to India in 1994, Hussain joined the mobile 'Hengul Theater' in Assam, where he worked for three years, before moving to Delhi. He started his stage career in Delhi, though he continued training under Khalid Tyabji. After Tyabji he trained with Swapan Bose at Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry, before starting training with Dilip Shankar in Delhi.
As an actor, he first received acclaim in Othello: A Play in Black and White (1999), which was awarded the Edinburgh Fringe First, and later Goodbye Desdemona also directed by Roysten Abel. He remained the artistic director and Trainer of the Society for Artists and Performers in Hampi from 2004 to 2007, and a visiting faculty at Royal Conservatory of Performing Arts, The Hague. He is also a visiting faculty at his alma mater, the National School of Drama.
In 2004, he made his Bengali film debut along with Soha Ali Khan in the period drama Iti Srikanta, where he played the lead role.
On television, he appeared in the lead role, in the detective series Jasoos Vijay (2002–2003), produced by BBC World Service Trust.
Though he had appeared in a few Assamese films, did a small roles in Vishal Bhardwaj's Kaminey and Sona Jain's For Real, it was his role in Abhishek Chaubey's Ishqiya (2010) that got him attention in Bollywood, though his first major role was in Saif Ali Khan-Kareena Kapoor Khan starrer Agent Vinod released in early 2012. In the same year, he appeared in Italian director Italo Spinelli's Gangor, Mira Nair's The Reluctant Fundamentalist, and Ang Lee's Life of Pi.
He next appeared alongside Sridevi in the comedy drama English Vinglish (2012), and also received critical acclaim for his role in Lessons in Forgetting at the New Jersey Independent South Asian Cine Fest. After these he acted in Aditya Bhattacharya's Bombay Most Wanted and Partho Sen-Gupta's Sunrise.
His next role as Inspector K. N. Singh was in the Ranveer Singh-Sonakshi Sinha Lootera under Vikramaditya Motwane's direction. This followed with Amit Vats' comedy Boyss Toh Boyss Hain, the story of four young men with similar problems in life, who eventually find their way to true love.
Hussain opened 2014 with the Assamese film Raag: The Rhythm of Love playing Iqbal, which marked his first Assamese film in a lead role. Sringkhal and Rodor Sithi were his other Assamese releases in the year. He was also seen in Hindi films like Kaanchi: The Unbreakable as a CBI officer, The Xposé as Rajan starring Himesh Reshammiya in the lead, and Tigers as Bilal starring Emraan Hashmi. Tigers, based on a real-life story about a salesman, was screened at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival. His first lead role in a Hindi film came with the drama Zed Plus as Aslam Puncturewala.
Hussain had his maximum number of film appearances in 2015 as he had releases in English, Hindi, Bengali and his first Tamil and Marathi movies. His Hindi movies include Main Aur Charles as Amod Kant, Jai Ho Democracy as Major Baruah, and Angry Indian Goddesses as a police superintendent. He debuted in Tamil cinema with Yatchan portraying the significant role of Selvam/Vetri, He also worked in his first Marathi movie Sunrise as Joshi. His Bengali film of the year was Arindam Sil's mystery thriller Har Har Byomkesh as Zamindar Deepnarayan Singh.
His 2016 projects include the drama film Parched directed by Leena Yadav, which premiered at the Special Presentations section of the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival. It is about four women who lead a tightly controlled-by-traditions life in a village in Rajasthan. His other project in the year is the action thriller Force 2 directed by Abhinay Deo featuring John Abraham and Sonakshi Sinha in the lead. His Assamese film in 2016 is Kothanodi. Adil Hussain's 2017 releases include Commando 2: The Black Money Trail, Love Sonia, Mantra, Mukti Bhawan, Dobaara: See Your Evil, Kabuliwala, and Naval Enna Jewel.
In 2018, he acted in S. Shankar's 2.0 as well as in Aiyaary and Bioscopewala. In 2022, Hussain became the first-ever personality to hoist the Indian National Flag in the Metaverse at the 'Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav' Metaverse event organised by Piro Space.
== Life membership ==
In 2013, after having conducted a film workshop at University Film Club, Aligarh Muslim University, Hussain was granted a lifetime membership in the university's film club.
Hussain has been honoured by Sandeep Marwah with the life membership of International Film And Television Club of Asian Academy of Film & Television at Noida Film City.
== Personal life ==
During the 1999 Edinburgh Film Festival, Hussain, cast as Othello, fell in love with Kristen Jain, who was playing Desdemona. He ended up tightly hugging her, much to her and the audience's shock, instead of "killing" her as per the script, thus forcing the curtains to be brought down immediately. They eventually got married eight years later, in 2007.
== Filmography ==
=== Television ===
== Short films ==
== National film awards ==
== Other awards and nominations ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Adil Hussain on Instagram
Adil Hussain at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Langmuir_Award#:~:text=Rudolph%20A.%20Marcus-,1977%20Aneesur%20Rahman,-1976%20John%20S | Irving Langmuir Award | The Irving Langmuir Prize in Chemical Physics is awarded annually, in even years by the American Chemical Society and in odd years by the American Physical Society. The award is meant to recognize and encourage outstanding interdisciplinary research in chemistry and physics, in the spirit of Irving Langmuir. A nominee must have made an outstanding contribution to chemical physics or physical chemistry within the 10 years preceding the year in which the award is made. The award will be granted without restriction, except that the recipient must be a resident of the United States.
The award was established in 1931 by Dr. A.C. Langmuir, brother of Nobel Prize-winning chemist Irving Langmuir, to recognize the best young chemist in the United States. A $10,000 prize was to be awarded annually by the American Chemical Society. The first recipient was Linus Pauling. In 1964, the General Electric Foundation took over the financial backing of the prize, which was renamed the Irving Langmuir Award and the modern selection process was created. In 2006 the GE Global Research took over sponsorship of the award, and since 2009 the award has been co-sponsored between GE Global Research and the ACS Division of Physical Chemistry.
== Past recipients ==
Source: American Physical Society and American Chemical Society
== See also ==
List of physics awards
List of chemistry awards
== References ==
== External links ==
Irving Langmuir Page at the American Chemical Society Site
Irving Langmuir Page at the American Physical Society Site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillar_of_Fire_(sculpture) | Pillar of Fire (sculpture) | Pillar of Fire is an illuminated glass sculpture in Washington, D.C. honoring Whitman-Walker Health (formerly Whitman-Walker Clinic) and the healthcare workers who assisted people living with HIV/AIDS during the height of the AIDS epidemic. Designed by artist William Cochran, the sculpture is composed of 370 layers of float glass that changes colors throughout the day. It was installed in 2013 in front of the old Whitman-Walker Clinic site at 14th and S Streets NW. The design was inspired by the ancient tale of a pillar of fire that led Israelites in their crossing of the Red Sea and through the desert after they fled Egypt.
== Design ==
Pillar of Fire is a 16 feet (4.9 m) high illuminated glass sculpture in the shape of a slender column which represents the pillar of fire that guided the Israelites at night. The glass weighs 2,000 pounds and is rigidly post-tensioned to a durable glass and steel rod placing the column under 15,000 pounds of pressure. The column is composed of 370 egg-shaped layers of float glass with unpolished edges that reflects natural light and is illuminated from within. The glasses ever-changing lights responds to changing atmospheric and lighting conditions throughout the day. An internal and external programmable lighting system creates the illumination. The color design at night is an abstraction of the rainbow flag, a symbol of LGBT pride. A plaque on the sculpture's concrete base says the artwork is dedicated to "Whitman-Walker Clinic and the many health care workers who served the LGBT community in this building from 1987 to 2008, the early years of the pandemic."
== Artists ==
The sculpture was designed by artist William Cochran of Frederick, Maryland, who specializes in large-scale public art installations. On choosing the design of the memorial, Cochran said "The title comes from this notion that when we get scared, as humans, we tend to bring out these old, dark myths of the Old Testament God that punishes people for sin and things that don’t make any sense. It’s darkness...And a place like Whitman-Walker has to work uphill against that to bring dignity and compassion to people caught up in a terrible situation...The 'pillar of fire' refers to the health care workers at Whitman-Walker, who did, in a moment of history, something so incredible that it can be an example for all of us, for the ages."
Lighting consultant John Coventry of Chevy Chase, Maryland, designed and donated the programmable lighting system. Acclaim Lighting of Los Angeles provided additional materials. Engineering services were provided by New York firm Eckersley O’Callaghan, which specializes in structural glass, and the assembly and installation was completed by Service Glass Industries of Frederick.
== History ==
In 2008, JBG Smith purchased the Whitman-Walker Clinic's former building located at 1407 S Street NW in the Logan Circle neighborhood of Washington, D.C. The Historic Preservation Review Board (HPRB) suggested a plaque be placed on the building noting the history of the clinic. Instead the company wanted a more prominent way of honoring the healthcare workers and clinic's role in assisting people living with HIV/AIDS during the height of the AIDS epidemic. James Nozar, a vice president of JBG, said "We thought the work of the clinic during the peak of the AIDS epidemic was worthy of a better memorial than just a plaque." In 2012, JBG announced the memorial would be installed on the corner of 14th and S Streets in front of the renovated building which was incorporated into a 125-unit apartment complex called The District. The plan was approved by the HPRB, Office of Planning and Advisory Neighborhood Commission (ANC). Ramon Estrada, a member of the ANC, noted the area was designated an arts overlay district and the installation of public art was encouraged. The total cost of the project was $80,000.
Pillar of Fire was dedicated on November 4, 2013, with Cochran, representatives from JBG and Whitman-Walker, and Councilmember Jim Graham in attendance. Graham, executive director of Whitman-Walker from 1984 to 2009, stated: "This is a celebration of the human spirit...Because the human spirit that worked in this building, that worked with individuals who, very often, were very poor and facing what was then thought to be a terminal illness – and was, in fact a terminal illness – who had no resources, no support system, very little in the way of friends and supporters, often abandoned by their family, abandoned by their employers. They came to this building as a place of hope and response." The following month Mayor Vincent Gray and around 75 people held a candlelight vigil at the new memorial on World AIDS Day.
== See also ==
List of public art in Washington, D.C., Ward 2
Outdoor sculpture in Washington, D.C.
== References ==
== External links ==
Dedication video by Metro Weekly
Illumination photos by William Cochran |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Sisulu#:~:text=Max%20Vuyisile%20Sisulu%20(born%2023,December%201994%20to%20December%202017. | Max Sisulu | Max Vuyisile Sisulu (born 23 August 1945) is a South African politician and businessman who was Speaker of the National Assembly from May 2009 to May 2014. A member of the African National Congress (ANC), he was a member of the party's National Executive Committee from December 1994 to December 2017.
Born in Soweto, Sisulu is the son of anti-apartheid activists Albertina and Walter Sisulu. Between 1963 and 1990, at the height of apartheid, he lived outside of South Africa with the exiled ANC and its military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe. An economist by training, he was the ANC's head of economic planning from 1986 to 1990, and he remained influential in ANC economic policymaking in subsequent decades.
In April 1994, in South Africa's first democratic elections, Sisulu was elected to represent the ANC in the National Assembly, the lower house of the new South African Parliament. For much of the First Parliament, he was the chairperson of the Portfolio Committee on the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP). Then, from February 1997 to November 1998, he served as Chief Whip of the Majority Party. However, he resigned from his seat in November 1998 to work in business, first at Denel and later at Sasol.
He did not return to Parliament until the April 2009 general election, pursuant to which he was elected as the Speaker. He was the first man to serve as Speaker since the end of apartheid, and the first black man ever to serve as Speaker in the South African Parliament. He served in the office throughout the Fourth Parliament but was replaced by Baleka Mbete after the May 2014 general election.
== Early life ==
Sisulu was born on 23 August 1945 in Soweto. He was the eldest of five children born to Albertina and Walter Sisulu, who were prominent anti-apartheid activists in the African National Congress; his younger siblings were Mlungisi, Zwelakhe, Lindiwe, and Nonkululeko. In 1963, when he was aged 19, he and his mother were arrested and detained after his father went into hiding. Shortly after his release, he left South Africa for exile; his father, meanwhile, was apprehended by police later that year and was sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial.
== Exile and early career ==
Leaving South Africa via Gaborone, Botswana, Sisulu travelled to Tanzania, where he joined Umkhonto we Sizwe. Over the next decade, he spent stints in various regions of Africa and Europe. Among other things, he completed a master's degree in political economy from the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics in Moscow in 1969, a senior military training course in Skhodnya, Soviet Union in 1972, and a one year-research fellowship at the University of Amsterdam in 1985. He also spent a period as the ANC's representative in Budapest. From 1986 to 1990, he was stationed at the ANC's headquarters in Lusaka, Zambia, where he was head of the ANC's Department of Economic Planning.
In 1990, Sisulu returned to South Africa amid the negotiations to end apartheid. The following year, he became the founding director of the Director of the National Institute of Economic Policies, an ANC think-tank based in Johannesburg. In addition, in 1993, he completed Master of Public Administration at the Harvard Kennedy School of Government.
== First Parliament: 1994–1998 ==
In South Africa's first post-apartheid elections in April 1994, Sisulu was elected to represent the ANC in the National Assembly, the lower house of the new South African Parliament. He was also appointed as the inaugural chairperson of the portfolio committee that was tasked with oversight of the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), the ANC's flagship economic and social policy; Sisulu had helped draft the policy itself. During the same period, Sisulu rose in the ANC: he was elected to the ANC National Executive Committee (NEC) for the first time at the party's congress in 1994, and in 1997 he was elected both to the NEC and to the smaller National Working Committee (NWC) at the next congress in 1997.
In February 1997, he was appointed as the second Chief Whip of the Majority Party, succeeding Arnold Stofile. Upon taking office, he announced a plan to restore and upgrade the status of Parliament's RDP committee. He also introduced academic training programmes for Members of Parliament and parliamentary staff. However, his tenure as whip was brief: he resigned from Parliament in November 1998 to enter the corporate world.
== Corporate hiatus: 1998–2009 ==
He was deputy chief executive officer of Denel from 1998 to 2001 and then group general manager of Sasol from 2003 to 2006. Thereafter he held various directorships, including at African Rainbow Minerals.
During this period, Sisulu remained active in the ANC; he was re-elected to the NEC, and re-appointed to the NWC, both in December 2002 and then in December 2007. He was particularly prominent as the chairperson of the NEC's Subcommittee on Economic Transformation, and the Mail & Guardian said that he brought "serious business nous" and "much-needed technical expertise" to the NWC.
== Fourth Parliament: 2009–2014 ==
In the April 2009 general election, Sisulu returned to the National Assembly, ranked 39th on the ANC's party list. When Parliament opened on 6 May, he was elected unopposed to replace Gwen Mahlangu-Nkabinde as the Speaker of the National Assembly, with Nomaindia Mfeketo as his deputy. He was nominated to the position by Andrew Mlangeni. The first man to hold the office since 1994, he used his acceptance speech to urge members to "resist the urge" to call him Madam Speaker. He served as Speaker throughout the Fourth Parliament, during which time he was "widely respected" for his fairness and levity. He also oversaw the establishment of the parliamentary budget office.
Simultaneously, Sisulu continued to serve as chairperson of the ANC NEC's Subcommittee on Economic Transformation until after the party's 53rd National Conference in December 2012, when Enoch Godongwana was elected to take over the position. The same conference re-elected Sisulu to his fifth term on the NEC, though he did not return to the NWC.
=== Nkandlagate ===
The end of Sisulu's term as Speaker was partly consumed by the so-called Nkandlagate scandal, which concerned state-funded upgrades to President Jacob Zuma's Nkandla homestead. In March 2014, shortly before the end of the parliamentary term, the Public Protector released a report which concluded that Zuma had benefitted unduly from the upgrades and should be required to repay the state. Opposition parties said that Sisulu was responsive to their requests for the Public Protector's report to be tabled in the National Assembly, and Sisulu ultimately announced that he would establish an ad hoc parliamentary committee to consider the report. Opposition politician Lindiwe Mazibuko welcomed his decision as a "bold move" and "a victory for Parliament, the constitution and accountability".
There were later reports – disputed by the ANC – that Sisulu had been rebuked by the party for establishing the committee. Although the ad hoc committee initially intended to complete its work before the end of the parliamentary term, it did not do so.
=== Departure ===
In the May 2014 general election, Sisulu was ranked 14th on the ANC's party list, but the ANC announced that Baleka Mbete would replace him as Speaker. Steven Friedman and others suggested that the move indicated that the ANC wanted to exert stricter partisan control of the Speaker's office and of Parliament. Sisulu was sworn in as an ordinary Member of Parliament on 21 May, but he resigned from his seat eight days later when he failed to gain appointment to Zuma's cabinet. Observers were surprised by his exclusion, but the ANC strenuously denied rumours that he was being punished for having instigated the Nkandla investigation.
== Retirement ==
After leaving Parliament, Sisulu remained active in the ANC. In 2016, he emerged as a critic of President Zuma, first expressing public dissatisfaction in April in the aftermath of the Economic Freedom Fighters v Speaker judgment. Later that year he called – both in public and during an ANC NEC meeting – for Zuma's resignation. He also said publicly that Zuma's failure to support Finance Minister Pravin Gordhan was "bloody foolish", and he attended a civil society march in support of Gordhan in Pretoria. Sisulu served the remainder of his five-year term as a member of the NEC, but he was not re-elected at the next national conference in December 2017.
On 31 January 2018, he was appointed as an independent non-executive director of Harmony Gold.
== Personal life ==
In 1966, Sisulu married Mercy Vutela, the daughter of activist Greta Ncapayi; she had been his high school sweetheart and reunited with him in exile in Moscow. Their son, Mlungisi, became a diplomat in the South African embassies to Khartoum and Prague; he died of cerebral malaria in London, England in January 2008, aged 40. Sisulu's first marriage was shortlived. His second child, Shaka, was born in 1979 to Makhosazana Msimang, Mendi Msimang's daughter, and went on to become an activist and media personality.
In September 1986, he married Elinor Sisulu, a writer whom he had met in Amsterdam in 1985. She later published a biography of her parents-in-law.
== References ==
== External links ==
Mr Max Vuyisile Sisulu at People's Assembly
Appearances on C-SPAN |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey#:~:text=In%201997%2C%20Cook%20tried%20to,book%20about%20their%20alleged%20relationship. | Oprah Winfrey | Oprah Gail Winfrey (; born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and media proprietor. She is best known for her talk show, The Oprah Winfrey Show, broadcast from Chicago, which ran in national syndication for 25 years, from 1986 to 2011. Globally, she is the richest Black woman and the wealthiest female celebrity. Dubbed the "Queen of All Media", she was the richest African-American of the 20th century and was once the world's only Black billionaire. By 2007, she was often ranked as the most influential woman in the world.
Winfrey was born into poverty in rural Mississippi to a single teenage mother and later raised in inner-city Milwaukee. She has stated that she was molested during her childhood and early teenage years and became pregnant at 14; her son was born prematurely and died in infancy. Winfrey was then sent to live with the man she calls her father, Vernon Winfrey, a barber in Nashville, Tennessee, and landed a job in radio while still in high school. By 19, she was a co-anchor for the local evening news. Winfrey's often emotional, extemporaneous delivery eventually led to her transfer to the daytime talk show arena, and after boosting a third-rated local Chicago talk show to first place, she launched her own production company.
Credited with creating a more intimate, confessional form of media communication, Winfrey popularized and revolutionized the tabloid talk show genre pioneered by Phil Donahue. By the mid-1990s, Winfrey had reinvented her show with a focus on literature, self-improvement, mindfulness, and spirituality. She has been criticized for unleashing a confession culture, promoting controversial self-help ideas, and having an emotion-centered approach, and has also been praised for overcoming adversity to become a benefactor to others. Winfrey also emerged as a political force in the 2008 presidential race, with her endorsement of Barack Obama estimated to have been worth about one million votes during the 2008 Democratic primaries. In the same year, she formed her own network, the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN). In 2013, Winfrey was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama.
In 1994, Winfrey was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. Then in October, she finished the Marine Corps Marathon in less than four and a half hours. She has received honorary doctorate degrees from multiple universities. Winfrey has won many awards throughout her career, including 19 Daytime Emmy Awards (including the Lifetime Achievement Award and the Chairman's Award), 2 Primetime Emmy Awards (including the Bob Hope Humanitarian Award), a Tony Award, a Peabody Award, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award awarded by the Academy Awards, in addition to two competitive Academy Award nominations. Winfrey was elected as a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2021.
== Early life ==
Orpah Gail Winfrey was born on January 29, 1954; her first name was spelled Orpah on her birth certificate after the biblical figure in the Book of Ruth, but people mispronounced it regularly and "Oprah" stuck. She was born in Kosciusko, Mississippi, to a teenaged mother, Vernita Lee, and father Vernon Winfrey. Winfrey's parents never married. Vernita Lee (1935–2018) was a housemaid. Vernon Winfrey (1933–2022) was a coal miner turned barber turned city councilman who was in the Armed Forces when she was born. A genetic test in 2006 determined that her matrilineal line originated among the Kpelle ethnic group, from the area that became Liberia. Her genetic makeup was determined to be 89% Sub-Saharan African, 8% Native American, and 3% East Asian.
After Winfrey's birth, her mother traveled north, and Winfrey spent her first six years living in rural poverty with her maternal grandmother, Hattie Mae (Presley) Lee (April 15, 1900 – February 27, 1963). Her grandmother was so poor that Winfrey often wore dresses made of potato sacks, for which other children made fun of her. Her grandmother taught her to read before the age of three and took her to the local church, where she was nicknamed "The Preacher" for her ability to recite Bible verses. Her grandmother, a believer in the adage "spare the rod, spoil the child," beat her almost daily.
At age six, Winfrey moved to an inner-city neighborhood in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Her mother had little time for Oprah as a result of the long hours she worked as a maid. Around this time, Lee had given birth to another daughter, Winfrey's younger half-sister, Patricia, who died of causes related to cocaine addiction in February 2003 at age 43. By 1962, Lee was having difficulty raising both daughters, so Winfrey was temporarily sent to live with Vernon in Nashville, Tennessee. While Winfrey was in Nashville, Lee gave birth to a third daughter, who was put up for adoption in the hopes of easing the financial straits that had led to Lee's being on welfare, and was later also named Patricia. Winfrey did not know that she had a second half-sister until 2010. By the time Winfrey moved back with her mother, Lee had also given birth to Winfrey's half-brother Jeffrey, who died of AIDS-related causes in 1989. At the age of eight, she was baptized in a Baptist church.
Winfrey has stated she was molested by her cousin, uncle, and a family friend, starting when she was nine years old, something she first announced on a 1986 episode of her TV show regarding sexual abuse. A biographer alleged that when Winfrey discussed the alleged abuse with family members at age 24, they refused to believe her account. Winfrey once commented that she had chosen not to be a mother because she had not been mothered well. At 13, after suffering what she described as years of abuse, Winfrey ran away from home.
When she was 14, she became pregnant, but her son was born prematurely and died shortly after birth. Winfrey later stated she felt betrayed by the family member who had sold the story of her son to the National Enquirer in 1990.
Winfrey attended Lincoln Middle and High School in Milwaukee, but after early success in the Upward Bound program, was transferred to the affluent suburban Nicolet High School. Upon transferring, she said she was continually reminded of her poverty as she rode the bus to school with fellow African-Americans, some of whom were servants of her classmates' families. She began to rebel and steal money from her mother in an effort to keep up with her free-spending peers. As a result, her mother once again sent her to live with her father in Nashville, although this time, she did not take her daughter back. Vernon was strict but encouraging, and made her education a priority. Winfrey became an honors student, was voted Most Popular Girl, and joined her high school speech team at East Nashville High School, placing second in the nation in dramatic interpretation. In 1986, Winfrey said, "'When my father took me, it changed the course of my life. He saved me. He simply knew what he wanted and expected. He would take nothing less'".
Winfrey's first job as a teenager was working at a local grocery store. At the age of 17, Winfrey won the Miss Black Tennessee beauty pageant. She also attracted the attention of the local black radio station, WVOL, which hired her to do the news part-time. She worked there during her senior year of high school and in her first two years of college. Winfrey won an oratory contest, which secured her a full scholarship to Tennessee State University, a historically black institution, where she studied communication. However, she did not deliver her final paper until 1987, by which time she was a successful television personality. It was only then Winfrey earned her degree.
Winfrey's career in media would not have surprised her grandmother, who once said that ever since Winfrey could talk, she was on stage. As a child, she played games interviewing her corncob doll and the crows on the fence of her family's property. Winfrey later acknowledged her grandmother's influence, saying it was Hattie Mae who had encouraged her to speak in public and "gave me a positive sense of myself".
== Television ==
Working in local media, Winfrey was both the youngest news anchor and the first black female news anchor at Nashville's WLAC-TV (now WTVF-TV), where she often covered the same stories as John Tesh, who worked at a competing Nashville station. In 1976, she moved to Baltimore's WJZ-TV to co-anchor the six o'clock news. In 1977, she was removed as co-anchor and worked in lower profile positions at the station. She was then recruited to join Richard Sher as co-host of WJZ's local talk show People Are Talking, which premiered on August 14, 1978. She also hosted the local version of Dialing for Dollars.
In 1984, Winfrey relocated to Chicago to host WLS-TV's low-rated half-hour morning talk show, AM Chicago, after being hired by that station's general manager, Dennis Swanson. The first episode aired on January 2, 1984. Within months after Winfrey took over, the show went from last place in the ratings to overtaking Donahue as the highest-rated talk show in Chicago. The movie critic Roger Ebert persuaded her to sign a syndication deal with King World. Ebert predicted that she would generate 40 times as much revenue as his television show, At the Movies. It was then renamed The Oprah Winfrey Show and expanded to a full hour. The first episode was broadcast nationwide on September 8, 1986. Winfrey's syndicated show brought in double Donahue's national audience, displacing Donahue as the number-one daytime talk show in America. Their much-publicized contest was the subject of enormous scrutiny. According to Time magazine in August 1988:
Few people would have bet on Oprah Winfrey's swift rise to host of the most popular talk show on TV. In a field dominated by white males, she is a black female of ample bulk. As interviewers go, she is no match for, say, Phil Donahue ... What she lacks in journalistic toughness, she makes up for in plainspoken curiosity, robust humor and, above all empathy. Guests with sad stories to tell are apt to rouse a tear in Oprah's eye ... They, in turn, often find themselves revealing things they would not imagine telling anyone, much less a national TV audience. It is the talk show as a group therapy session.
TV columnist Howard Rosenberg said: "She's a roundhouse, a full course meal, big, brassy, loud, aggressive, hyper, laughable, lovable, soulful, tender, low-down, earthy, and hungry. And she may know the way to Phil Donahue's jugular." Newsday's Les Payne observed, "Oprah Winfrey is sharper than Donahue, wittier, more genuine, and far better attuned to her audience, if not the world" and Martha Bayles of The Wall Street Journal wrote, "It's a relief to see a gab-monger with a fond but realistic assessment of her own cultural and religious roots."
In the early years of The Oprah Winfrey Show, the program was classified as a tabloid talk show. In the mid-1990s, Winfrey began to host shows on broader topics such as heart disease, geopolitics, spirituality, and meditation. She interviewed celebrities on social issues they were directly involved with, such as cancer, charity work, or substance abuse, and hosted televised giveaways. The later years of the show faced accusations that Winfrey was promoting junk science. This has manifested as criticisms of Winfrey for promoting particular guests whose medical commentaries (both on her show and in the wider media) frequently lack supporting science. Common targets of this criticism include Jenny McCarthy's unfounded assertions about vaccines, and Suzanne Somers's promotion of bioidenticals.
In addition to her talk show, Winfrey moderated three ABC Afterschool Specials from 1992 to 1994 and also produced and co-starred in the drama miniseries The Women of Brewster Place (1989) and its short-lived spin-off, Brewster Place. As well as hosting and appearing on television shows, Winfrey co-founded the women's cable television network Oxygen, which was the initial network for her Oprah After the Show program from 2002 to 2006 before moving to Oprah.com when Winfrey sold her stake in the network. She is also the president of Harpo Productions (Oprah spelled backwards), a film and TV production company behind The Oprah Winfrey Show, Dr. Phil, Rachael Ray, The Dr. Oz Show and many others.
Dr. Phil has been criticized as being at best, simplistic and, at worst, ineffective or harmful. The National Alliance on Mental Illness has called Dr. Phil's conduct "unethical" and "incredibly irresponsible". Dr. Oz (Mehmet Oz) has been criticized by various medical publications and physicians for spreading pseudoscience Dr. Oz's promotion of various "miracle pills" (especially those aimed at weight loss), One website, Science-Based Medicine, said "No other show on television can top The Dr. Oz Show for the sheer magnitude of bad health advice it consistently offers, all while giving everything a veneer of credibility".
Multiple publications have called on Winfrey to denounce medical statements made by her former proteges long after her show ended. For example, there were calls for her to denounce Dr. Oz in 2020 reaction to his comments about coronavirus and his promotion of a poorly vetted drug as a cure.
On January 15, 2008, Winfrey and Discovery Communications announced plans to change Discovery Health Channel into a new channel called OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network. It was scheduled to launch in 2009 but was delayed, and actually launched on January 1, 2011.
The series finale of The Oprah Winfrey Show aired on May 25, 2011.
In January 2017, CBS announced that Winfrey would join 60 Minutes as a special contributor on the Sunday evening news magazine program starting in September 2017. The National Museum of African American History and Culture in 2018 opened a special exhibit on Winfrey's cultural influence through television. Winfrey left 60 Minutes by the end of 2018.
In June 2018, Apple announced a multi-year content partnership with Winfrey, in which it was agreed that Winfrey would create new original programs exclusively for Apple's streaming service, Apple TV+. The first show under the deal, Oprah's Book Club, premiered on November 1, 2019. Oprah's Book Club is based on the segment of the same name from The Oprah Winfrey Show. The second show under the deal, Oprah Talks COVID-19, debuted on March 21, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic. A third show, The Oprah Conversation debuted on July 30, 2020, with Winfrey "[continuing] to explore impactful and relevant topics with fascinating thought leaders from all over the world".
=== Celebrity interviews ===
In 1993, Winfrey hosted a rare prime-time interview called, Michael Jackson Talks ... to Oprah with Michael Jackson, which became the fourth most-watched event in American television history as well as the most watched interview ever, with an audience of 36.5 million. On December 1, 2005, Winfrey appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman for the first time in 16 years, to promote the new Broadway musical, The Color Purple, which she produced. The episode was hailed by some as the "television event of the decade" and helped Letterman attract his largest audience in more than 11 years: 13.45 million viewers. Although a much-rumored feud was said to have been the cause of the rift, both Winfrey and Letterman balked at such talk. "I want you to know, it's really over, whatever you thought was happening," said Winfrey. On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, as its season premiere was filmed in New York City.
In 2006, rappers Ludacris, 50 Cent, and Ice Cube criticized Winfrey for what they perceived as an anti-hip hop bias. In an interview with GQ magazine, Ludacris said that Winfrey gave him a "hard time" about his lyrics, and edited comments he made during an appearance on her show with the cast of the film Crash. He also said that he wasn't initially invited on the show with the rest of the cast. Winfrey responded by saying that she is opposed to rap lyrics that "marginalize women," but enjoys some artists, including Kanye West, who appeared on her show. She said she spoke with Ludacris backstage after his appearance to explain her position and said she understood that his music was for entertainment purposes, but that some of his listeners might take it literally. In September 2008, Winfrey received criticism after Matt Drudge of the Drudge Report reported that Winfrey refused to have Sarah Palin on her show, allegedly because of Winfrey's support for Barack Obama. Winfrey denied the report, maintaining that there never was a discussion regarding Palin's appearing on her show. She said that after she made public her support for Obama, she decided that she would not let her show be used as a platform for any of the candidates. Although Obama appeared twice on her show, those appearances were prior to his declaration as a presidential candidate. Winfrey added that Palin would make a fantastic guest and that she would love to have her on the show after the election, which she did on November 18, 2009.
In 2009, Winfrey was criticized for allowing actress Suzanne Somers to appear on her show to discuss hormone treatments that are not accepted by mainstream medicine. Critics have also suggested that Winfrey is not tough enough when questioning celebrity guests or politicians whom she appears to like. Lisa de Moraes, a media columnist for The Washington Post, stated: "Oprah doesn't do follow-up questions unless you're an author who's embarrassed her by fabricating portions of a supposed memoir she's plugged for her book club", referring to the controversy around James Frey's A Million Little Pieces.
In 2021, she conducted an interview with Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, and her husband Prince Harry, which was broadcast globally and received international media attention.
In 2024, ABC aired a new television special titled "AI and the Future of Us: An Oprah Winfrey Special". The one-hour show aimed to delve into the impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on daily life. It featured interviews with prominent figures from the tech industry, including OpenAI CEO Sam Altman and Bill Gates.
== Other media ==
=== Film ===
Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's The Color Purple (1985), as distraught housewife Sofia. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. The Alice Walker novel later became a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer. In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film Beloved, based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize–winning novel of the same name. To prepare for her role as Sethe, the protagonist and former slave, Winfrey experienced a 24-hour simulation of the experience of slavery, which included being tied up and blindfolded and left alone in the woods. Despite major advertising, including two episodes of her talk show dedicated solely to the film, and moderate to good critical reviews, Beloved opened to poor box-office results, losing approximately $30 million. While promoting the movie, co-star Thandiwe Newton described Winfrey as "a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade." Harpo Productions released a film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's 1937 novel Their Eyes Were Watching God in 2005. The made-for-television film was based upon a teleplay by Suzan-Lori Parks and starred Halle Berry in the lead female role.
In late 2008, Winfrey's company Harpo Films signed an exclusive output pact to develop and produce scripted series, documentaries, and movies exclusively for HBO.
In 2013, Winfrey starred in the film The Butler directed by Lee Daniels. Though her performance garnered significant Oscar buzz, she was not nominated for the award.
Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in Charlotte's Web (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in Bee Movie (2007), co-starring the voices of Jerry Seinfeld and Renée Zellweger. In 2009, Winfrey provided the voice for the character of Eudora, the mother of Princess Tiana, in Disney's The Princess and the Frog and in 2010, narrated the US version of the BBC nature program Life for Discovery.
In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel A Wrinkle in Time. She also lent her voice to an animated virtual-reality short film written and directed by Eric Darnell, starring John Legend, titled Crow: The Legend, telling a Native American origin tale.
=== Publishing and writing ===
Winfrey has co-authored five books. At the announcement of a weight-loss book in 2005, co-authored with her personal trainer Bob Greene, it was said that her undisclosed advance fee had broken the record for the world's highest book advance fee, previously held by the autobiography of former U.S. President Bill Clinton.
In 2015, her memoir, The Life You Want, was announced following on her tour of the same name, and scheduled for publication in 2017, but was "indefinitely postponed" in 2016.
Winfrey publishes the magazine Oprah Daily and from 2004 to 2008 also published a magazine called O At Home. In 2002, Fortune called O, the Oprah Magazine the most successful start-up ever in the industry. Although its circulation had declined by more than 10 percent to 2.4 million from 2005 to 2008, the January 2009 issue was the best selling issue since 2006. The audience for her magazine is considerably more upscale than for her TV show; the average reader earns well above the median for U.S. women. In July 2020, it was announced that O Magazine would end its regular print publications after the December 2020 issue. In the December 2020 issue, Winfrey thanked readers and acknowledged it was the magazine's "final monthly print edition".
=== Online ===
Winfrey's company created the Oprah.com website to provide resources and interactive content related to her shows, magazines, book club, and public charity. Oprah.com averages more than 70 million page views and more than six million users per month, and receives approximately 20,000 e-mails each week. Winfrey initiated "Oprah's Child Predator Watch List", through her show and website, to help track down accused child molesters. Within the first 48 hours, two of the featured men were captured.
=== Radio ===
On February 9, 2006, it was announced that Winfrey had signed a three-year, $55-million contract with XM Satellite Radio to establish a new radio channel. The channel, Oprah Radio, features popular contributors to The Oprah Winfrey Show and O, The Oprah Magazine including Nate Berkus, Dr. Mehmet Oz, Bob Greene, Dr. Robin Smith, and Marianne Williamson. Oprah & Friends began broadcasting at 11:00 am ET, September 25, 2006, from a new studio at Winfrey's Chicago headquarters. The channel broadcasts 24 hours a day, seven days a week on XM Radio Channel 156. Winfrey's contract requires her to be on the air 30 minutes a week, 39 weeks a year.
== Personal life ==
=== Homes ===
Oprah's extensive and continuously evolving real-estate portfolio has garnered heightened attention throughout her life and career, with many prominent industry outlets branding her a "tycoon" regarding her investments which as of 2022, are estimated to total approximately $127 million.
As her talk show was beginning, Oprah first purchased a condominium in Chicago's Water Tower Place in 1985, before purchasing the condos adjoining and directly below it in 1992, 1993, and 1994, respectively. In 1988, she purchased an 164-acre property including main and guest residences, orchard, and stables in Rolling Prairie, Indiana as her weekend refuge. In 1992, she purchased an 80-acre compound in Telluride, Colorado, which she would go on to sell in approximately late 2000. In 1994, she also purchased an apartment at the Four Seasons Hotel Chicago. Between 1996 and 2000 she purchased a total of five condos in different development areas of Fisher Island, Florida. In 2000, through her Chicago-based LLC Overground Railroad, Oprah purchased her friend Gayle King an estate in Greenwich, Connecticut. In 2001, Oprah sold all five of her Fisher Island condos and purchased what would become her "main home base" she has also called "The Promised Land" (where she currently lives as of 2022), a (then) 42-acre (17 ha) estate with ocean and mountain views in Montecito, California.
Additionally that year, she also purchased homes in both Elmwood Park, Illinois and Merrillville, Indiana for other family members and friends. Similarly, in 2002, she purchased her father's home in Franklin, Tennessee and a lakefront condo in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In 2003 she listed her compound in Rolling Prairie, Indiana, and sold it in 2004. From 2003 to 2005, Oprah acquired several properties totaling 163 acres in Kula and Hana, Hawaii as well as a penthouse apartment in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2005, she purchased a home in Douglasville, Georgia which was gifted in 2011 to a family member.
In 2006, Oprah purchased a co-op apartment along Lake Shore Drive in downtown Chicago, reportedly with plans to permanently move there from her prior adjoined-condo unit in Water Tower Place for the duration of her show; for reasons unknown, the property sat entirely unused until she sold it in 2012. In 2008, she sold her penthouse apartment in Atlanta. That year, she also listed Gayle King's estate and purchased her (through her second LLC Sophie's Penthouse) a penthouse apartment in midtown Manhattan, New York City which would later be sold in 2012.
In early 2014, she listed her combined-unit Chicago duplex on the market. Later that year, Oprah came back to Telluride, Colorado to purchase a 60-acre lot with plans to build on the property. A lawsuit filed against her that year by a retired nuclear physicist living in the area regarding trail access rights was dismissed later that year with the judge citing little case law to support his case, among other issues. The extent of the agreement between all the parties and jurisdictions regarding her subsequent development on the property remains undisclosed.
In 2015, Oprah purchased another property in Telluride, and later that year, expanded her Montecito compound with another 23-acre estate and yet another 44-acre dedicated crop and equestrian preserve. That year she also sold both of her downtown Chicago homes.
In 2018, Oprah obtained two adjoining parcels of land totaling 23 acres including the Madroneagle compound on Orcas Island, Washington and sold her last home property in the Chicago area from Elmwood Park. In late 2019, Oprah yet again expanded her Montecito home-base compound, this time to 70 contiguous acres, with the purchase of a four-acre complex from actor Jeff Bridges. In 2021, she sold her Orcas Island compound as she said she was too busy to use it and purchased another compound in Montecito further away from her home-base compound, flipping the latter in 2022 with split properties, one of which was sold to her property manager and longtime personal trainer Bob Greene, and the other to actress Jennifer Aniston. In 2023, Winfrey also purchased 870 acres of land in Maui for $6.6 million.
=== Romantic history ===
Winfrey's high school sweetheart Anthony Otey recalled an innocent courtship that began in Winfrey's senior year of high school, from which he saved hundreds of love notes; Winfrey conducted herself with dignity and was a model student. The two spoke of getting married, but Otey claimed to have always secretly known that Winfrey was destined for a far greater life than he could ever provide. She broke up with him on Valentine's Day of her senior year.
In 1971, several months after breaking up with Otey, Winfrey met William "Bubba" Taylor at Tennessee State University. According to CBS journalist George Mair, Taylor was Winfrey's "first intense, to-die-for love affair". Winfrey helped get Taylor a job at WVOL, and according to Mair, "did everything to keep him, including literally begging him on her knees to stay with her". Taylor, however, was unwilling to leave Nashville with Winfrey when she moved to Baltimore to work at WJZ-TV in June 1976. "We really did care for each other," Winfrey would later recall. "We shared a deep love. A love I will never forget."
In the 1970s, Winfrey had a romantic relationship with John Tesh. Biographer Kitty Kelley claims that Tesh split with Winfrey over the pressures of an interracial relationship.
When WJZ-TV management criticized Winfrey for crying on air while reporting tragedies and were unhappy with her physical appearance (especially when her hair fell out as a result of a bad perm), Winfrey turned to reporter Lloyd Kramer for comfort. "Lloyd was just the best," Winfrey would later recall. "That man loved me even when I was bald! He was wonderful. He stuck with me through the whole demoralizing experience. That man was the most fun romance I ever had."
According to Mair, when Kramer moved to NBC in New York, Winfrey had a love affair with a married man who had no intention of leaving his wife. Winfrey would later recall: "I'd had a relationship with a man for four years. I wasn't living with him. I'd never lived with anyone—and I thought I was worthless without him. The more he rejected me, the more I wanted him. I felt depleted, powerless. At the end, I was down on the floor on my knees groveling and pleading with him". Winfrey became so depressed that on September 8, 1981, she wrote a suicide note to best friend Gayle King instructing King to water her plants. "That suicide note had been much overplayed" Winfrey told Ms. magazine. "I couldn't kill myself. I would be afraid the minute I did it, something really good would happen and I'd miss it."
According to Winfrey, her emotional turmoil gradually led to a weight problem: "The reason I gained so much weight in the first place and the reason I had such a sorry history of abusive relationships with men was I just needed approval so much. I needed everyone to like me, because I didn't like myself much. So I'd end up with these cruel self-absorbed guys who'd tell me how selfish I was, and I'd say 'Oh thank you, you're so right' and be grateful to them. Because I had no sense that I deserved anything else. Which is also why I gained so much weight later on. It was the perfect way of cushioning myself against the world's disapproval."
Winfrey later confessed to smoking crack cocaine with a man she was romantically involved with during the same era. She explained on her show: "I always felt that the drug itself is not the problem but that I was addicted to the man." She added: "I can't think of anything I wouldn't have done for that man."
Winfrey was allegedly involved in a second drug-related love affair. Self-proclaimed former boyfriend Randolph Cook said they lived together for several months in 1985 and did drugs. In 1997, Cook tried to sue Winfrey for $20 million for allegedly blocking a tell-all book about their alleged relationship.
In the mid-1980s, Winfrey briefly dated movie critic Roger Ebert, whom she credits with advising her to take her show into syndication.
In 1985, before Winfrey's Chicago talk show had gone national, Haitian filmmaker Reginald Chevalier claims he appeared as a guest on a look-alike segment and began a relationship with Winfrey involving romantic evenings at home, candlelit baths, and dinners with Michael Jordan and Danny Glover. Chevalier says Winfrey ended the relationship when she met Stedman Graham.
Winfrey and her partner Stedman Graham have been together since 1986. They were engaged to be married in November 1992, but the ceremony never took place.
=== Close friends ===
Winfrey's best friend since their early twenties is Gayle King. King was formerly the host of The Gayle King Show and is currently an editor of O, the Oprah Magazine. Since 1997, when Winfrey played the therapist on an episode of the sitcom Ellen in which Ellen DeGeneres came out of the closet, Winfrey and King have been the target of persistent rumors that they were gay. "I understand why people think we're gay," Winfrey says in the August 2006 issue of O magazine. "There isn't a definition in our culture for this kind of bond between women. So I get why people have to label it—how can you be this close without it being sexual?" "I've told nearly everything there is to tell. All my stuff is out there. People think I'd be so ashamed of being gay that I wouldn't admit it? Oh, please."
Winfrey has also had a long friendship with Maria Shriver, after they met in Baltimore. Winfrey considered Maya Angelou, author of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, her mentor and close friend; she called Angelou her "mother-sister-friend". Winfrey hosted a week-long Caribbean cruise for Angelou and 150 guests for Angelou's 70th birthday in 1998, and in 2008, threw her "an extravagant 80th birthday celebration" at Donald Trump's Mar-a-Lago club in Palm Beach, Florida.
=== Personal wealth ===
Born in rural poverty, and raised by a mother dependent on government welfare payments in a poor urban neighborhood, Winfrey became a millionaire at the age of 32 when her talk show received national syndication. Winfrey negotiated ownership rights to the television program and started her own production company. At the age of 41, Winfrey had a net worth of $340 million and replaced Bill Cosby as the only African American on the Forbes 400. By 2000, with a net worth of $800 million, Winfrey is believed to have been the richest African American of the 20th century. There has been a course taught at the University of Illinois focusing on Winfrey's business acumen; namely, "History 298: Oprah Winfrey, the Tycoon". Winfrey was the highest-paid television entertainer in the United States in 2006, earning an estimated $260 million during the year, five times the sum earned by second-place music executive Simon Cowell. By 2008, her yearly income had increased to $275 million.
Forbes' list of The World's Billionaires has listed Winfrey as the world's only black billionaire from 2004 to 2006 and as the first black woman billionaire in the world that was achieved in 2003. One of the richest celebrities ever, as of 2014, Winfrey had a net worth in excess of 2.9 billion dollars and had overtaken former eBay CEO Meg Whitman as the richest self-made woman in America.
=== Religious views ===
Oprah was raised a Baptist. In her early life, she would speak at local, mostly African American congregations of the Southern Baptist Convention that were often deeply religious and familiar with such themes as evangelical Protestantism, the Black church, and being born-again.
She was quoted as saying: "I have church with myself: I have church walking down the street. I believe in the God force that lives inside all of us, and once you tap into that, you can do anything." She also stated, "Doubt means don't. When you don't know what to do, do nothing until you do know what to do. Because the doubt is your inner voice or the voice of God or whatever you choose to call it. It is your instinct trying to tell you something is off. That's how I have found myself to be led spiritually, because that's your spiritual voice saying to you, 'let's think about it.' So when you don't know what to do, do nothing."
Oprah has stated that she is a Christian and her favorite Bible verse is Acts 17:28.
Oprah attends The Potter's House, an Evangelical church in Dallas.
=== Other ===
After the loss of her infant child at age 14, Winfrey did not want more children. In a 2017 interview with Vanity Fair, she explained "I didn't want babies. I wouldn't have been a good mom for babies. I don't have the patience. I have the patience for puppies but that's a quick stage!"
== Influence ==
=== Rankings ===
Winfrey was called "arguably the world's most powerful woman" by CNN and TIME, "arguably the most influential woman in the world" by The American Spectator, "one of the 100 people who most influenced the 20th Century" and "one of the most influential people" from 2004 to 2011 by TIME. Winfrey is the only person to have appeared in the latter list on ten occasions.
At the end of the 20th century, Life listed Winfrey as both the most influential woman and the most influential black person of her generation, and in a cover story profile the magazine called her "America's most powerful woman". In 2007, USA Today ranked Winfrey as the most influential woman and most influential black person of the previous quarter-century. Ladies' Home Journal also ranked Winfrey number one in their list of the most powerful women in America and then Senator Barack Obama in 2007 said she "may be the most influential woman in the country". In 1998, Winfrey became the first woman and first African American to top Entertainment Weekly's list of the 101 most powerful people in the entertainment industry. Forbes named her the world's most powerful celebrity in 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010, and 2013.
As chairman of Harpo Inc., she was named the most powerful woman in entertainment by The Hollywood Reporter in 2008. She has been listed as one of the world's 100 most powerful women by Forbes, ranking 14th in 2014 and 31st in 2023. In 2010, Life magazine named Winfrey one of the 100 people who changed the world, alongside Jesus Christ, Elvis Presley, and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Winfrey was the only living woman to make the list.
Columnist Maureen Dowd seems to agree with such assessments. Interviewed by The Guardian in 2006, Dowd said: "She is the top alpha female in this country. She has more credibility than the president. Other successful women, such as Hillary Clinton and Martha Stewart, had to be publicly slapped down before they could move forward. Even Condi has had to play the protégé with Bush. None of this happened to Oprah – she is a straight ahead success story." Vanity Fair wrote: "Oprah Winfrey arguably has more influence on the culture than any university president, politician, or religious leader, except perhaps the Pope. Bill O'Reilly said: "this is a woman that came from nothing to rise up to be the most powerful woman, I think, in the world. I think Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in the world, not just in America. That's – anybody who goes on her program immediately benefits through the roof. I mean, she has a loyal following; she has credibility; she has talent; and she's done it on her own to become fabulously wealthy and fabulously powerful."
In 2005, Winfrey was named the greatest woman in American history as part of a public poll as part of The Greatest American. She was ranked No. 9 overall on the list of greatest Americans. However, polls estimating Winfrey's personal popularity have been inconsistent. A November 2003 Gallup poll estimated that 73% of American adults had a favorable view of Winfrey. Another Gallup poll in January 2007 estimated the figure at 74%, although it dropped to 66% when Gallup conducted the same poll in October 2007. A December 2007 Fox News poll put the figure at 55%. According to Gallup's annual most admired poll, Americans consistently rank Winfrey as one of the most admired women in the world. Her highest rating came in 2007 when she was statistically tied with Hillary Clinton for first place. In a list compiled by the British magazine New Statesman in September 2010, she was voted 38th in the list of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010".
In 1989, she was accepted into the NAACP Image Award Hall of Fame.
=== "Oprahfication" ===
The Wall Street Journal coined the term "Oprahfication", meaning public confession as a form of therapy. By confessing intimate details about her weight problems, tumultuous love life, and sexual abuse, and crying alongside her guests, Winfrey has been credited by Time magazine with creating a new form of media communication known as "rapport talk" as distinguished from the "report talk" of Phil Donahue: "Winfrey saw television's power to blend public and private; while it links strangers and conveys information over public airwaves, TV is most often viewed in the privacy of our homes. Like a family member, it sits down to meals with us and talks to us in the lonely afternoons. Grasping this paradox, ... She makes people care because she cares. That is Winfrey's genius, and will be her legacy, as the changes she has wrought in the talk show continue to permeate our culture and shape our lives."
Observers have also noted the "Oprahfication" of politics such as "Oprah-style debates" and Bill Clinton being described as "the man who brought Oprah-style psychobabble and misty confessions to politics". Newsweek stated: "Every time a politician lets his lip quiver or a cable anchor 'emotes' on TV, they nod to the cult of confession that Oprah helped create."
The November 1988 Ms. observed that "in a society where fat is taboo, she made it in a medium that worships thin and celebrates a bland, white-bread prettiness of body and personality [...] But Winfrey made fat sexy, elegant – damned near gorgeous – with her drop-dead wardrobe, easy body language, and cheerful sensuality."
==== Daytime talk show's impact on LGBT people ====
While Phil Donahue has been credited with pioneering the tabloid talk show genre, Winfrey's warmth, intimacy, and personal confession popularized and changed it. Her success at popularizing the tabloid talk show genre opened up a thriving industry that has included Ricki Lake, The Jenny Jones Show, and The Jerry Springer Show. In the book Freaks Talk Back, Yale sociology professor Joshua Gamson credits the tabloid talk show genre with providing much needed high-impact media visibility for gay, bisexual, transsexual, and transgender (LGBT) people and doing more to make them mainstream and socially acceptable than any other development of the 20th century. In the book's editorial review, Michael Bronski wrote, "In the recent past, lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, and transgendered people had almost no presence on television. With the invention and propagation of tabloid talk shows such as Jerry Springer, Jenny Jones, Oprah, and Geraldo, people outside the sexual mainstream now appear in living rooms across America almost every day of the week." Gamson credits the tabloid talk show with making alternative sexual orientations and identities more acceptable in mainstream society. Examples include a Time magazine article on early 21st-century gays coming out of the closet at an increasingly younger age and on plummeting gay suicide rates. Gamson also believes that tabloid talk shows caused gays to be accepted on more traditional forms of media.
In April 1997, Winfrey played the therapist in "The Puppy Episode" on the sitcom Ellen to whom the character (and the real-life Ellen DeGeneres) came out as a lesbian.
=== "The Oprah Effect" ===
The power of Winfrey's opinions and endorsement to influence public opinion, especially consumer purchasing choices, has been dubbed "the Oprah Effect". The effect has been documented or alleged in domains as diverse as book sales, beef markets, and election voting. Late in 1996, Winfrey introduced the Oprah's Book Club segment to her television show. The segment focused on new books and classics and often brought obscure novels to popular attention. The book club became such a powerful force that whenever Winfrey introduced a new book as her book-club selection, it instantly became a best-seller; for example, when she selected the classic John Steinbeck novel East of Eden, it soared to the top of the book charts. Being recognized by Winfrey often means a million additional book sales for an author. In Reading with Oprah: The Book Club that Changed America (2005), Kathleen Rooney describes Winfrey as "a serious American intellectual who pioneered the use of electronic media, specifically television and the Internet, to take reading – a decidedly non-technological and highly individual act – and highlight its social elements and uses in such a way to motivate millions of erstwhile non-readers to pick up books."
When author Jonathan Franzen's book was selected for the Book Club, he reportedly "cringed" and said selected books tend to be "schmaltzy". After James Frey's A Million Little Pieces was found to contain fabrications in 2006, Winfrey confronted him on her show over the breach of trust. In 2009, Winfrey apologized to Frey for the public confrontation. During a show about mad cow disease with Howard Lyman (aired on April 16, 1996), Winfrey said she was stopped cold from eating another burger. Texas cattlemen sued her and Lyman in early 1998 for "false defamation of perishable food" and "business disparagement," claiming that Winfrey's remarks sent cattle prices tumbling, costing beef producers $11 million. Winfrey was represented by attorney Chip Babcock and, on February 26, after a two-month trial in an Amarillo, Texas, court, a jury found Winfrey and Lyman were not liable for damages. Winfrey's ability to launch other successful talk shows such as Dr. Phil, The Dr. Oz Show, and Rachael Ray has also been cited as examples of "The Oprah Effect".
=== Politics ===
Matthew Baum and Angela Jamison performed an experiment testing their hypothesis, "Politically unaware individuals who consume soft news will be more likely to vote consistently than their counterparts who do not consume soft news". In their studies, they found that low-awareness individuals who watch soft news shows, such as The Oprah Winfrey Show are 14% more likely to vote consistently than low-awareness individuals who only watch hard news.
Winfrey states she is a political independent who has "earned the right to think for myself and to vote for myself". She endorsed presidential candidate Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election. On September 25, 2006, Winfrey made her first endorsement of Obama for president on Larry King Live, the first time she endorsed a political candidate running for office. Two economists estimate that Winfrey's endorsement was worth over a million votes in the Democratic primary race and that without it, Obama would have lost the nomination. Winfrey held a fundraiser for Obama on September 8, 2007, at her Santa Barbara estate. In December 2007, Winfrey joined Obama for a series of rallies in the early primary states of Iowa, New Hampshire, and South Carolina. The Columbia, South Carolina, event on December 9, 2007, drew a crowd of nearly 30,000, the largest for any political event of 2007. An analysis by two economists at the University of Maryland, College Park estimated that Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for between 420,000 and 1,600,000 votes for Obama in the Democratic primary alone, based on a sample of states that did not include Texas, Michigan, North Dakota, Kansas, or Alaska. The results suggest that in the sampled states, Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for the difference in the popular vote between Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton. The governor of Illinois, Rod Blagojevich, reported being so impressed by Winfrey's endorsement that he considered offering Winfrey Obama's vacant senate seat, describing Winfrey as "the most instrumental person in electing Barack Obama president," with "a voice larger than all 100 senators combined". Winfrey responded by stating that although she was absolutely not interested, she did feel she could be a senator. The Topps trading card company memorialized Oprah's involvement in the campaign by featuring her on a card in a set commemorating Obama's road to the White House.
In April 2014, Winfrey spoke for more than 20 minutes at a fundraiser in Arlington, Virginia, for Lavern Chatman, a candidate in a primary to nominate a Democratic Party candidate for election to the U.S. House of Representatives. Winfrey participated in the event even after reports had revealed that Chatman had been found liable in 2001 for her role in a scheme to defraud hundreds of District of Columbia nursing-home employees of at least $1.4 million in owed wages.
Winfrey endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 election, and referred to Republican candidate Donald Trump as a "demagogue". In 2018, Winfrey canvassed door-to-door for Georgia gubernatorial Democratic nominee Stacey Abrams and donated $500,000 to the March for Our Lives student demonstration in favor of gun control in the United States.
Winfrey has at times been the subject of media speculation that she may run for president herself, most notably in the lead-up to the 2020 election in which some reports claimed that she was actively considering launching a campaign for the Democratic nomination. Winfrey ultimately denied any plans to run for president, saying in 2018 that while it was "a humbling thing to have people think you can run the country", she "would not be able to do it. It's not a clean business. It would kill me." Winfrey suggested that she would publicly endorse a candidate in the 2020 Democratic primaries, however she ultimately did not do so. She later campaigned for Joe Biden during the general election.
In early 2018, Winfrey met with Mohammad bin Salman, the crown prince and de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia, when he visited the United States.
In the 2022 Pennsylvania Senate election, Winfrey endorsed Democrat John Fetterman over Republican Mehmet Oz, whose show she promoted. In the 2022 Maryland gubernatorial election, she endorsed Baltimore author Wes Moore in the Democratic primary, co-hosting a virtual fundraiser for him in June. Winfrey later attended and spoke at Moore's gubernatorial inauguration on January 18, 2023.
In 2022, Winfrey set up OWN Your Vote, a nonpartisan group dedicated to voter registration and a get-out-the-vote campaign focused on providing Black women with tools and resources to vote in the November election. Their partners include Advancement Project, African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), Color Of Change, Delta Sigma Theta sorority, The King Center, The Lawyers' Committee, NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, National Action Network, National Bar Association, National Council of Negro Women, Sigma Gamma Rho, Southern Poverty Law Center, VoteRunLead, and Vote.org.
On August 21, 2024, Winfrey endorsed Kamala Harris in the 2024 United States presidential election at the 2024 Democratic National Convention.
=== Spiritual leadership ===
In 2000, she was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP. In 2002, Christianity Today published an article called "The Church of O" in which they concluded that Winfrey had emerged as an influential spiritual leader. "Since 1994, when she abandoned traditional talk-show fare for more edifying content, and 1998, when she began 'Change Your Life TV', Oprah's most significant role has become that of a spiritual leader. To her audience of more than 22 million mostly female viewers, she has become a postmodern priestess—an icon of church-free spirituality." The sentiment was echoed by Marcia Z. Nelson in her book The Gospel According to Oprah. Since the mid-1990s, Winfrey's show has emphasized uplifting and inspirational topics and themes and some viewers say the show has motivated them to perform acts of altruism such as helping Congolese women and building an orphanage. A scientific study by psychological scientists at the University of Cambridge, University of Plymouth, and University of California used an uplifting clip from The Oprah Winfrey Show in an experiment that discovered that watching the 'uplifting' clip caused subjects to become twice as helpful as subjects assigned to watch a British comedy or nature documentary.
In 1998, Winfrey began an ongoing conversation with Gary Zukav, an American spiritual teacher, who appeared on her television show 35 times. Winfrey has said she keeps a copy of Zukav's The Seat of the Soul at her bedside, a book that she says is one of her all-time favorites.
On the season premiere of Winfrey's 13th season, Roseanne Barr told Winfrey "you're the African Mother Goddess of us all" inspiring much enthusiasm from the studio audience. The animated series Futurama alluded to her spiritual influence by suggesting that "Oprahism" is a mainstream religion in 3000 AD. Twelve days after the September 11 attacks, New York mayor Rudy Giuliani asked Winfrey to serve as host of a Prayer for America service at New York City's Yankee Stadium, which was attended by former president Bill Clinton and New York senator Hillary Clinton. Leading up to the U.S.-led 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, less than a month after the September 11 attacks, Winfrey aired a controversial show called "Islam 101" in which she portrayed Islam as a religion of peace, calling it "the most misunderstood of the three major religions". In 2002, George W. Bush invited Winfrey to join a US delegation that included adviser Karen Hughes and Condoleezza Rice, planning to go to Afghanistan to celebrate the return of Afghan girls to school. The "Oprah strategy" was designed to portray the war on terror in a positive light; however, when Winfrey refused to participate, the trip was postponed.
Leading up to the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, Winfrey's show received criticism for allegedly having an anti-war bias. Ben Shapiro of Townhall.com wrote: "Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in America. She decides what makes The New York Times Best Seller lists. Her touchy-feely style sucks in audiences at the rate of 14 million viewers per day. But Oprah is far more than a cultural force, she's a dangerous political force as well, a woman with unpredictable and mercurial attitudes toward the major issues of the day." In 2006, Winfrey recalled such controversies: "I once did a show titled Is War the Only Answer? In the history of my career, I've never received more hate mail – like 'Go back to Africa' hate mail. I was accused of being un-American for even raising the question." Filmmaker Michael Moore came to Winfrey's defense, praising her for showing antiwar footage no other media would show and begging her to run for president.
A February 2003 series, in which Winfrey showed clips from people all over the world asking America not to go to war, was interrupted in several East Coast markets by network broadcasts of a press conference in which President George W. Bush and Colin Powell summarized the case for war.
In 2007, Winfrey began to endorse the self-help program The Secret. The Secret claims that people can change their lives through positive thoughts or 'vibrations', which will then cause them to attract more positive vibrations that result in good things happening to them. Peter Birkenhead of Salon magazine argued that this idea is pseudoscience and psychologically damaging, as it trivializes important decisions and promotes a quick-fix material culture, and suggests Winfrey's promotion of it is irresponsible given her influence. In 2007, skeptic and magician James Randi accused Winfrey of being deliberately deceptive and uncritical in how she handles paranormal claims on her show. In 2008, Winfrey endorsed author and spiritual teacher Eckhart Tolle and his book, A New Earth: Awakening to Your Life's Purpose, which sold several million extra copies after being selected for her book club. During a Webinar class, in which she promoted the book, Winfrey stated "God is a feeling experience and not a believing experience. If your religion is a believing experience [...] then that's not truly God." Frank Pastore, a Christian radio talk show host on KKLA, was among the many Christian leaders who criticized Winfrey's views, saying "if she's a Christian, she's an ignorant one because Christianity is incompatible with New Age thought".
Winfrey was named as the 2008 Person of the Year by animal-rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) for using her fame and listening audience to help the less fortunate, including animals. PETA praised Winfrey for using her talk show to uncover horrific cases of cruelty to animals in puppy mills and on factory farms, and Winfrey even used the show to highlight the cruelty-free vegan diet that she tried.
In 2009, Winfrey filmed a series of interviews in Denmark highlighting its citizens as the happiest people in the world. In 2010, Bill O'Reilly of Fox News criticized these shows for promoting a left-wing society. Following the launch of the Super Soul Sunday and SuperSoul Sessions programs on Harpo Productions' SuperSoul TV, in 2016 Winfrey selected 100 people for the SuperSoul 100 list of "innovators and visionaries who are aligned on a mission to move humanity forward".
On using the N-word, Winfrey said, "You cannot be my friend and use that word around me. ... I always think of the...people who heard that as their last word as they were hanging from a tree."
=== Fan base ===
The viewership for The Oprah Winfrey Show was highest during the 1991–92 season, when about 13.1 million U.S. viewers were watching each day. By 2003, ratings declined to 7.4 million daily viewers. Ratings briefly rebounded to approximately 9 million in 2005 and then declined again to around 7.3 million viewers in 2008, though it remained the highest-rated talk show.
In 2008, Winfrey's show was airing in 140 countries internationally and seen by an estimated 46 million people in the US weekly. According to the Harris poll, Winfrey was America's favorite television personality in 1998, 2000, 2002–06, and 2009. Winfrey was especially popular among women, Democrats, political moderates, Baby Boomers, Generation X, Southern Americans, and East Coast Americans.
Outside the U.S., Winfrey has become increasingly popular in the Arab world. The Wall Street Journal reported in 2007 that MBC 4, an Arab satellite channel, centered its entire programming around reruns of her show because it was drawing record numbers of female viewers in Saudi Arabia. In 2008, The New York Times reported that The Oprah Winfrey Show, with Arabic subtitles, was broadcast twice each weekday on MBC 4. Winfrey's modest dress, combined with her attitude of triumph over adversity and abuse has caused some women in Saudi Arabia to idealize her.
=== Philanthropy ===
In 2004, Winfrey became the first Black person to rank among the 50 most generous Americans and she remained among the top 50 until 2010. By 2012, she had given away about $400 million to educational causes.
As of 2012, Winfrey had also given over 400 scholarships to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia. Winfrey was the recipient of the first Bob Hope Humanitarian Award at the 2002 Emmy Awards for services to television and film. To celebrate two decades on national TV, and to thank her employees for their hard work, Winfrey took her staff and their families (1,065 people in total) on vacation to Hawaii in the summer of 2006.
In 2013, Winfrey donated $12 million to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture. President Barack Obama awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom later that same year.
Winfrey purchased 2,130 acres of land in Maui and set up a bed and breakfast for entertaining friends as well as a (unprofitable) organic farm; she is dedicated to keeping the area unoccupied and growing native species to aid in the restoration of damaged watersheds. She distributed pillows, diapers and other supplies to survivors of a devastating fire and, with Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson, set up the People’s Fund of Maui, personally donating $25 million of her own towards the cause.
==== Oprah's Angel Network ====
In 1998, Winfrey created Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. Oprah's Angel Network raised more than $80 million ($1 million of which was donated by Jon Bon Jovi). Winfrey personally covered all administrative costs associated with the charity, so 100% of all funds raised went to charity programs. In May 2010, with Oprah's show ending, the charity stopped accepting donations and was shut down.
==== South Africa ====
In 2004, Winfrey and her team filmed an episode of her show, "Oprah's Christmas Kindness", in which Winfrey travelled to South Africa to bring attention to the plight of young children affected by poverty and AIDS. During the 21-day trip, Winfrey and her crew visited schools and orphanages in poverty-stricken areas, and distributed Christmas presents to 50,000 children, with dolls for the girls and soccer balls for the boys, and school supplies. Throughout the show, Winfrey appealed to viewers to donate money to Oprah's Angel Network for poor and AIDS-affected children in Africa. From that show alone, viewers around the world donated over $7 million. Winfrey invested $40 million and some of her time establishing the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in Henley on Klip south of Johannesburg, South Africa. The school, set over 22 acres, opened in January 2007 with an enrollment of 150 pupils (increasing to 450) and features state-of-the-art classrooms, computer and science laboratories, a library, a theatre, and a beauty salon. Nelson Mandela praised Winfrey for overcoming her own disadvantaged youth to become a benefactor for others. Critics considered the school elitist and unnecessarily luxurious. Winfrey rejected the claims, saying: "If you are surrounded by beautiful things and wonderful teachers who inspire you, that beauty brings out the beauty in you." Winfrey, who has no surviving biological children, described maternal feelings towards the girls at Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls. Winfrey teaches a class at the school via satellite.
== Filmography ==
== Bibliography ==
By Oprah Winfrey
Winfrey, Oprah (1996). The Uncommon Wisdom of Oprah Winfrey: A Portrait in Her Own Words
Winfrey, Oprah (1998). Journey to Beloved (Photography by Ken Regan)
Winfrey, Oprah (1998). Make the Connection: Ten Steps to a Better Body and a Better Life (co-authored with Bob Greene)
Winfrey, Oprah (2000). Oprah Winfrey: The Soul and Spirit of a Superstar
Winfrey, Oprah (2014). What I Know for Sure
Winfrey, Oprah (2016). Mr. or Ms. Just Right (co-authored with B. Grace)
Winfrey, Oprah (2017). Food, Health and Happiness
Winfrey, Oprah (2017). The Wisdom of Sundays: Life-Changing Insights from Super Soul Conversations
Winfrey, Oprah (2017). The Wisdom Journal: The Companion to The Wisdom of Sundays
Winfrey, Oprah (2019). The Path Made Clear: Discovering Your Life's Direction and Purpose
Winfrey, Oprah (2021). What Happened to You?: Conversations on Trauma, Resilience, and Healing (co-authored with B. Perry)
== Awards, honors, and recognition ==
American Library Association Honorary Membership (1997)
Honorary degrees from: Princeton University, Howard University, Duke University, Harvard University, University of Massachusetts Lowell, University of the Free State, Tennessee State University, Spelman College, Colorado College, Smith College, Skidmore College
Mural including her image by Shawn Michael Warren in Chicago (painted in 2020)
Portrait of her by Shawn Michael Warren for the National Portrait Gallery (unveiled in 2023)
== See also ==
African Americans in Mississippi
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
Mair, George (1994). Oprah Winfrey: The Real Story. Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 1-55972-250-9. (Mair (1995). updated.) (updated 2001)
Moore, Michael (2003). Dude, Where's My Country?. Warner Books. ISBN 0-446-53223-1.
Cooper, Irene (2007). Oprah Winfrey. Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-06162-4.
== External links ==
Official website
Oprah Winfrey at IMDb
NPR "Oprah: The Billionaire Everywoman". Audio file, video and biography. Retrieved September 17, 2010
Works by Oprah Winfrey at Open Library
Oprah Winfrey (Archived February 16, 2013, at the Wayback Machine)—Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America
Appearances on C-SPAN
Watching Oprah (Archived April 17, 2021, at the Wayback Machine)—Smithsonian exhibition on the Oprah Show and Winfrey |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Japan | List of prime ministers of Japan | The prime minister of Japan is the country's head of government and the leader of the Cabinet. This is a list of prime ministers of Japan, from when the first Japanese prime minister (in the modern sense), Itō Hirobumi, took office in 1885, until the present day.
32 prime ministers under the Meiji Constitution had a mandate from the Emperor. The "electoral mandates" shown are for the House of Representatives, the lower house of the Imperial Diet, which was not constitutionally guaranteed to have any influence on the appointment of the prime minister.
The prime minister under the Constitution of Japan is designated from among the members of the National Diet, and appointed by the Emperor after being nominated by the National Diet.
The premiership of Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni, who was prime minister for fifty-four days in 1945, was the shortest in Japanese history. Shinzo Abe served the longest, with eight years over two non-consecutive periods.
The current prime minister is Sanae Takaichi, who assumed the office on 21 October 2025.
== From 1871 to 1885 ==
The office of daijō-daijin (太政大臣, chancellor of the realm) was the equivalent of what would become the office of prime minister. It was an ancient role which had been discontinued in the 18th century and was briefly revived during the Meiji era.
=== Daijō-daijin (chancellor of the realm) ===
The office of Daijō-daijin was abolished in December 1885 with the appointment of Itō Hirobumi in the new position of prime minister of Japan (内閣総理大臣, Naikaku Sōri-Daijin).
== Since 1885 ==
=== Prime ministers ===
== Living former prime ministers ==
As of 13 December 2025, there are eleven living former Prime Ministers of Japan. The most recent death of a former prime minister was that of Tomiichi Murayama (1994–1996) on 17 October 2025. He died at age 101, having become a centenarian on 3 March 2024.
== Timeline ==
== Relations between Japanese prime ministers ==
== See also ==
List of prime ministers of Japan by time in office
List of prime ministers of Japan by education
List of prime ministers of Japan by home prefecture
List of Japanese cabinets
Deputy Prime Minister of Japan
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Previous Prime Ministers | Prime Minister's Office of Japan |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_configurations_of_the_elements_(data_page) | Electron configurations of the elements (data page) | This page shows the electron configurations of the neutral gaseous atoms in their ground states. For each atom the subshells are given first in concise form, then with all subshells written out, followed by the number of electrons per shell. For phosphorus (element 15) as an example, the concise form is [Ne] 3s2 3p3. Here [Ne] refers to the core electrons which are the same as for the element neon (Ne), the last noble gas before phosphorus in the periodic table. The valence electrons (here 3s2 3p3) are written explicitly for all atoms.
Electron configurations of elements beyond hassium (element 108) have never been measured; predictions are used below.
As an approximate rule, electron configurations are given by the Aufbau principle and the Madelung rule. However there are numerous exceptions; for example the lightest exception is chromium, which would be predicted to have the configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d4 4s2, written as [Ar] 3d4 4s2, but whose actual configuration given in the table below is [Ar] 3d5 4s1.
Note that these electron configurations are given for neutral atoms in the gas phase, which are not the same as the electron configurations for the same atoms in chemical environments. In many cases, multiple configurations are within a small range of energies and the irregularities shown below do not necessarily have a clear relation to chemical behaviour. For the undiscovered eighth-row elements, mixing of configurations is expected to be very important, and sometimes the result can no longer be well-described by a single configuration.
== See also ==
Extended periodic table#Electron configurations – Predictions for undiscovered elements 119–173 and 184
== References ==
All sources concur with the data above except in the instances listed separately:
=== NIST ===
http://physics.nist.gov/PhysRefData/IonEnergy/ionEnergy.html ; retrieved July 2005, (elements 1–104) based on:
Atomic Spectroscopy, by W.C. Martin and W.L. Wiese in Atomic, Molecular, & Optical Physics Handbook, ed. by G.W.F. Drake (AIP, Woodbury, NY, 1996) Chapter 10, pp. 135–153.
This website is also cited in the CRC Handbook as source of Section 1, subsection Electron Configuration of Neutral Atoms in the Ground State.
91 Pa : [Rn] 5f2(3H4) 6d 7s2
92 U : [Rn] 5f3(4Io9/2) 6d 7s2
93 Np : [Rn] 5f4(5I4) 6d 7s2
103 Lr : [Rn] 5f14 7s2 7p1 question-marked
104 Rf : [Rn] 5f14 6d2 7s2 question-marked
=== CRC ===
David R. Lide (ed), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 84th Edition, online version. CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida, 2003; Section 1, Basic Constants, Units, and Conversion Factors; Electron Configuration of Neutral Atoms in the Ground State. (elements 1–104)
Also subsection Periodic Table of the Elements, (elements 1–103) based on:
G. J. Leigh, Editor, Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1990.
Chemical and Engineering News, 63(5), 27, 1985.
Atomic Weights of the Elements, 1999, Pure Appl. Chem., 73, 667, 2001.
=== WebElements ===
http://www.webelements.com/ ; retrieved July 2005, electron configurations based on:
Atomic, Molecular, & Optical Physics Handbook, Ed. Gordon W. F. Drake, American Institute of Physics, Woodbury, New York, 1996.
J.E. Huheey, E.A. Keiter, and R.L. Keiter in Inorganic Chemistry : Principles of Structure and Reactivity, 4th edition, Harper Collins, New York, 1993.
R.L. DeKock and H.B. Gray in Chemical Structure and bonding, Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park, California, 1980.
A.M. James and M.P. Lord in Macmillan's Chemical and Physical Data, Macmillan, London, UK, 1992.
103 Lr : [Rn].5f14.7s2.7p1 tentative ; 2.8.18.32.32.9.2 [inconsistent]
104 Rf : [Rn].5f14.6d2.7s2 tentative
105 Db : [Rn].5f14.6d3.7s2 (a guess based upon that of tantalum) ; 2.8.18.32.32.11.2
106 Sg : [Rn].5f14.6d4.7s2 (a guess based upon that of tungsten) ; 2.8.18.32.32.12.2
107 Bh : [Rn].5f14.6d5.7s2 (a guess based upon that of rhenium) ; 2.8.18.32.32.13.2
108 Hs : [Rn].5f14.6d6.7s2 (a guess based upon that of osmium) ; 2.8.18.32.32.14.2
109 Mt : [Rn].5f14.6d7.7s2 (a guess based upon that of iridium) ; 2.8.18.32.32.15.2
110 Ds : [Rn].5f14.6d9.7s1 (a guess based upon that of platinum) ; 2.8.18.32.32.17.1
111 Rg : [Rn].5f14.6d10.7s1 (a guess based upon that of gold) ; 2.8.18.32.32.18.1
112 Cn : [Rn].5f14.6d10.7s2 (a guess based upon that of mercury) ; 2.8.18.32.32.18.2
113 Nh : [Rn].5f14.6d10.7s2.7p1 (a guess based upon that of thallium) ; 2.8.18.32.32.18.3
114 Fl : [Rn].5f14.6d10.7s2.7p2 (a guess based upon that of lead) ; 2.8.18.32.32.18.4
115 Mc : [Rn].5f14.6d10.7s2.7p3 (a guess based upon that of bismuth) ; 2.8.18.32.32.18.5
116 Lv : [Rn].5f14.6d10.7s2.7p4 (a guess based upon that of polonium) ; 2.8.18.32.32.18.6
117 Ts : [Rn].5f14.6d10.7s2.7p5 (a guess based upon that of astatine) ; 2.8.18.32.32.18.7
118 Og : [Rn].5f14.6d10.7s2.7p6 (a guess based upon that of radon) ; 2.8.18.32.32.18.8
=== Lange ===
J.A. Dean (ed), Lange's Handbook of Chemistry (15th Edition), online version, McGraw-Hill, 1999; Section 4, Table 4.1 Electronic Configuration and Properties of the Elements. (Elements 1–103)
97 Bk : [Rn] 5f8 6d 7s2
103 Lr : [Rn] 4f14 [sic] 6d 7s2
=== Hill and Petrucci ===
Hill and Petrucci, General Chemistry: An Integrated Approach (3rd edition), Prentice Hall. (Elements 1–106)
58 Ce : [Xe] 4f2 6s2
103 Lr : [Rn] 5f14 6d1 7s2
=== Hoffman, Lee, and Pershina ===
Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean (eds.). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media. p. 1722. ISBN 1-4020-3555-1.
This book contains predicted electron configurations for the elements up to 172, as well as 184, based on relativistic Dirac–Fock calculations by B. Fricke in Fricke, B. (1975). Dunitz, J. D. (ed.). "Superheavy elements a prediction of their chemical and physical properties". Structure and Bonding. 21. Berlin: Springer-Verlag: 89–144. doi:10.1007/BFb0116496. ISBN 978-3-540-07109-9. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bridges_in_Srinagar | List of bridges in Srinagar | The city of Srinagar in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir, India, originally had seven wooden bridges across the Jhelum River. The seven bridges — Amira, Habba, Fateh, Zaina, Aali, Nawa and Safa — were constructed between the 15th and 18th century. This number remained unchanged for at least five centuries. In the Kashmiri language, these bridges are known as kadals. Localities around them have been eponymously named.
The old seven bridges are of similar construction and made of Cedrus deodara. Apart from heavy rocks used to add weight to the foundation, the entire bridge was made of wood. A number of passages allow for the flow of water making them considerably strong against water level and flow changes. They have been reconstructed a number of times. In 1841, bridges 3 to 7 were washed away. In 1893, bridges 2 to 7 were washed away.
== Bridges across the Jhelum ==
== Other bridges ==
=== Oont Kadal ===
Oont Kadal (camel bridge) is a 17th century structure located on the Dal Lake. It was restored with Germany's assistance in 2018-2021.
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Books
Ahmad, Khalid Bashir (2001). Jhelum, the River Through My Backyard. Bookman Publishers.
Knowles, J.H. (1885). A dictionary of Kashmiri proverbs. Calcutta: Education Society's Press.
Papers
Tiku, Neerja (April–June 1997). "Architecture of the Jhelum Waterfront - Srinagar. Image and Impressions" (PDF). Himalayan and Central Asian Studies. 1 (1).
Rashid, Waseem, Bridges of Medieval Kashmir; An outline historical study based on construction and architectural work, Academia.edu
Mushtaq, Mariyeh (11 November 2020). "Conflict, Space, and Public Architecture: Tracing Transformations of Loss through Bridges in Kashmir". Zanaan Wanaan. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020.
Articles
Khan, Zahoor A. (1995). "The Canals of Pre-Modern Kashmir". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 56: 287–292. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44158631.
Gul, Owais (16 February 2021). "Srinagar— Historic seven bridges losing sheen gradually". Kashmir Convener. Archived from the original on 14 March 2022.
"Srinagar — Historic seven bridges losing sheen gradually". Kashmir.Today. 15 February 2021. Archived from the original on 15 February 2021.
Noor, Shabir Ibn (31 May 2020). "Nallah Mar, a stream that once was". Kashmir Images. Archived from the original on 14 September 2020.
Majid, Zulfikar (2 December 2017). "Breathing life into old water transport project in Valley". Deccan Herald. Archived from the original on 14 December 2017.
Hussain, Yawar (18 April 2018). "Kashmir's Pittsburgh: Srinagar - The City of Bridges". Rising Kashmir. Archived from the original on 14 September 2019.
Byerly, Rebecca (9 June 2010). ""Venice of Asia" Canals Disappearing". Science. National Geographic. Archived from the original on 16 February 2022.
"Bridges in Srinagar being facade lighted to enhance their appearance". Kashmir Life. 21 October 2019. Archived from the original on 21 October 2019.
Bukhtiyar, Idrees (31 January 2022). "Towards Glorious Past: These Six Heritage Sites Will Soon Welcome Tourists In Kashmir". IndiaTimes. Archived from the original on 31 January 2022.
Bashir, Saif Ullah (22 December 2019). "Residents demand reopening of old Habba Kadal bridge". Kashmir Life. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020.
Kaur, Bhavneet (20 June 2017). "'Farooq broke his fast with a bullet': Ramzan massacre on Fateh Kadal bridge". Wande Magazine. Archived from the original on 23 June 2017.
== External links ==
Media related to List of bridges in Srinagar at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_Watkins | Sara Watkins | Sara Ullrika Watkins (born June 8, 1981) is an American singer-songwriter and fiddler. Watkins debuted in 1989 as the fiddler of Nickel Creek, the progressive bluegrass group she formed with her brother Sean and mandolinist Chris Thile. In addition to singing and fiddling, Watkins also plays the ukulele and the guitar, and also played percussion while touring with the Decemberists. In 2012, she and her brother played with Jackson Browne during his "I'll Do Anything" acoustic tour.
With Nickel Creek, Watkins released five studio albums, one compilation album, and seven singles. During the band's seven-year hiatus, she released three solo albums: Sara Watkins and Sun Midnight Sun on Nonesuch Records and Young in All the Wrong Ways on New West Records.
== Biography ==
=== 1989–2007, 2014–present: Nickel Creek ===
=== 2007–present: Solo career ===
In late 2005, Watkins stated in a PopMatters interview when discussing her first solo-written recorded song, "Anthony", that she "definitely [makes] the effort [to write more], but it's something that doesn't come too easy for me. Nor does it come really easy for the guys, I think they've just been doing it for a very long time."
Watkins signed as a solo artist with Nonesuch Records in fall 2008 and released her self-titled debut solo album on April 7, 2009. Watkins started recording the album in February 2008, and it was jointly recorded in Nashville and Los Angeles. Sara Watkins was produced by bassist John Paul Jones of Led Zeppelin fame, who first performed with Watkins on a Mutual Admiration Society tour in 2004.
Watkins toured the United States as an opening act in 2008. She performed short tours as an opening act for singer-songwriter Tift Merritt along the West Coast in March and April and with Robert Earl Keen around New England in September, as well as doing a 17-date tour with Donavon Frankenreiter in October. On April 14, 2009, she appeared on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, with Jones on bass, Questlove of The Roots on drums, and her brother Sean Watkins on guitar. On August 28, 2011, she made her debut with A Prairie Home Companion, at the Minnesota State Fair. In 2012, she toured with Jackson Browne as the opening act for his acoustic winter tour.
In September 2011, Watkins indicated via Twitter that she would begin work on a second album in the fall of 2011. In May 2012, Watkins released her second solo album, Sun Midnight Sun, again on Nonesuch Records. Produced by former Simon Dawes guitarist Blake Mills, it features guest appearances from Fiona Apple and Jackson Browne.
In 2016, Watkins won "Instrumentalist of the Year" at the Americana Music Honors & Awards.
=== Other projects ===
In 2002, Watkins starred in an advertisement for cell phone provider Cingular Wireless alongside her former fiddle teacher Dennis Caplinger, as well as other prominent bluegrass artists. Between 2000 and 2004, Watkins and the other members of Nickel Creek (Chris Thile and Sean Watkins), Glen Phillips, John Paul Jones, and Pete Thomas collaborated on an EP, Mutual Admiration Society Solo Sampler; an album, Mutual Admiration Society (recorded in 2000); and a brief tour.
The 2007 documentary film Arctic Tale featured a song by Watkins and musician Grant-Lee Phillips, titled "Song of the North (Beneath the Sun)". Watkins lent her vocal talents to the film alongside other performers such as Aimee Mann and Brian Wilson.
In January 2008, Billboard reported a new supergroup octet tentatively named The Scrolls, later named Works Progress Administration (W.P.A.). The octet is composed of Watkins, her brother Sean Watkins (guitar), Glen Phillips (guitar, vocals), Benmont Tench (piano), Luke Bulla (fiddle), Greg Leisz (various), Pete Thomas (drums), and Davey Faragher (bass). The group released their album WPA in September 2009.
Watkins is featured on Needtobreathe's 2009 CD The Outsiders on the track "Stones Under Rushing Water".
In late January and early February 2010, Watkins undertook a short tour with Jerry Douglas and Aly Bain in Scotland and England under the "Transatlantic Sessions" banner, culminating in a performance in the Royal Festival Hall in London on February 6, 2010. In June 2010, Watkins appeared on the Nerdist podcast as a musical guest, performing her best-known solo song, "Long Hot Summer Days" (a John Hartford cover). Later that summer, she participated in the Summer Love Tour with Garrison Keillor in venues across the United States. She guest hosted Keillor's show, A Prairie Home Companion, on January 15, 2011. Watkins contributed fiddle, guitar, percussion, and vocals on The Decemberists' 2011 tour. Also in 2011, she (and her brother Sean) began to perform as a musician and singer in the humor/retro-radio podcast "Thrilling Adventure Hour".
Watkins played violin and sang on "A Face To Call Home" on John Mayer's 2012 album Born and Raised. During 2012 and 2013, she toured with Jackson Browne, both as an opening act and accompanying him during the performance.
Watkins and her brother Sean play regularly at the Largo nightclub in Los Angeles as "Watkins Family Hour". Keyboardist Benmont Tench (of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers) and bassist Sebastian Steinberg (formerly of Soul Coughing) are regular participants, and other guest musicians from the Largo family generally show up as well, including Jon Brion, Fiona Apple, Don Heffington, Greg Leisz, and former Nickel Creek bandmate Chris Thile when he is in town. The irregular collaborations led to a 2015 album and tour under the same name. Also in 2015, Watkins toured extensively with Sarah Jarosz and Aoife O'Donovan (of Crooked Still fame). The trio, who since then have played under the name I'm With Her, hosted the radio show A Prairie Home Companion on October 10, 2015. Watkins also performed vocals for "June & Johnny" on Jon Foreman's 2015 EP The Wonderlands: Darkness.
In 2020, she played fiddle on Phoebe Bridgers's record Punisher, on track 10 "Graceland Too".
In 2021, she played fiddle on The Killers's record Pressure Machine (Tracks: West Fields, Cody, Pressure Machine) and violin on In Another Life.
=== Personal life ===
On August 16, 2008, Watkins married Todd Cooper in her parents' backyard in Vista, California. On June 15, 2017, she announced via Twitter that she and her husband were expecting a child in September.
== Discography ==
=== Solo career ===
==== Studio albums ====
==== Music videos ====
=== With Nickel Creek ===
=== With Watkins Family Hour ===
==== Albums ====
2015: Watkins Family Hour
2020: Brother Sister
2022: Vol. II
=== With I'm With Her ===
==== Singles ====
2015: "Crossing Muddy Waters" / "Be My Husband"
2017: "Little Lies"
2017: "Send My Love (to Your New Lover) – [Live – Feat. Paul Kowert]"
2019: "Call My Name"
==== Albums ====
2018: See You Around
2025: Wild And Clear And Blue
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
=== Interviews ===
Interview on Metromix.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gang_Chen_(engineer) | Gang Chen (engineer) | Gang Chen (Chinese: 陈刚; pinyin: Chén Gāng) is a Chinese-born American mechanical engineer and nanotechnologist. At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), he is currently the Carl Richard Soderberg Professor of Power Engineering. He served as head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering at MIT from July 2013 to June 2018. He directs the Solid-State Solar-Thermal Energy Conversion Center, an energy frontier research center formerly funded by the United States Department of Energy. He was elected as a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 2010 and of the National Academy of Sciences in 2023.
In January 2021, Chen was charged by the United States Department of Justice under the now abolished China Initiative, for allegedly failing to disclose connections to several Chinese educational programs when submitting a federal grant application. His arrest prompted protests by other academics including MIT's then president Leo Rafael Reif and editorials in the scientific press over the United States government targeting of Chinese American professors. One year later, federal prosecutors dropped the charges after evidence showed that the disclosures in question were not actually required by the federal government.
== Education ==
Gang Chen received a Bachelor of Engineering in 1984 and a Master of Engineering in 1987, both in power engineering from the Huazhong University of Science and Technology.
He received a Doctor of Philosophy in mechanical engineering from the University of California, Berkeley in 1993.
== Research career ==
Chen was an assistant professor at Duke University from 1993 to 1997 and a tenured associate professor at the University of California, Los Angeles from 1996 to 2001. He joined the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2001. Chen has made major contributions to thermoelectricity, nanotechnology, and thermal engineering.
In 2022, Chen and a team of colleagues discovered that cubic boron arsenide is a highly effective semiconductor, a discovery with potentially important applications in electronics.
== Awards and honors ==
Chen is a recipient of the K.C. Wong Education Foundation fellowship and the John Simon Guggenheim Foundation fellowship (2002-3). He has received the NSF Young Investigator Award, an R&D 100 award (2008), and the ASME Heat Transfer Memorial Award (2008). He is a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Physical Society, and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. In 2010, he was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering for contributions to heat transfer at the nanoscale and to thermoelectric energy conversion technology. He was elected as an academician of Academia Sinica in the Division of Engineering Science in 2014. In 2014, he also received the Nukiyama Memorial Award of the Heat Transfer Society of Japan. He was elected as a Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in April 2018, and of the National Academy of Sciences in 2023.
== Federal indictment and ensuing controversy ==
On January 14, 2021, Chen was arrested by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and charged with failing to disclose alleged connections to several educational programs in China in filing a U.S. Department of Energy grant application, as well as omissions in his IRS filings. Chen was charged with failing to report contacts with Chinese entities to the U.S. Department of Energy, leading to an allegation of wire fraud, with failing to file a foreign bank account report (FBAR) in some tax years, and with making false statements on his tax returns. The charge of wire fraud was based on alleged omissions from federal grant proposal form (Current and pending support) that was submitted electronically.
In response to these charges, the President of MIT, L. Rafael Reif wrote to the MIT community stating: "For all of us who know Gang, this news is surprising, deeply distressing and hard to understand." On January 21, 2021, more than 100 MIT Faculty submitted a letter to MIT President Reif, protesting Professor Chen's arrest and citing specific "deeply flawed and misleading statements" in the criminal complaint ending with "we are all Gang Chen". The letter was tweeted next morning.
The FBI documents alleged that Chen received $19 million from China's Southern University of Science and Technology (SUSTech). On January 22, 2021, MIT's president released a second statement pointing out that these funds went to not Chen, but to MIT itself to support a departmental research collaboration with SUSTech which Chen simply directed on MIT's behalf.
The indictment provoked strong criticism. Many more MIT faculty signed the protest letter questioning merits of the FBI's case and stating: "The defense of Gang Chen is the defense of the scientific enterprise that we all hold dear." An opinion article in Bloomberg remarked: "Ever since the Nazis drove Europe’s greatest minds into exile, U.S. science has flourished by attracting talent from overseas." An MIT researcher stated that: "The [Dept. of Justice's] China Initiative fundamentally misunderstands both research and international collaboration."
On January 14, 2022, the Wall Street Journal reported that federal prosecutors had recommended dropping the criminal charges against Professor Chen. The same day, The Washington Post reported that the DOE forms had not required Chen to disclose his connections to Chinese educational programs, undercutting the basis of the federal charges. On January 20, 2022, federal prosecutors filed a motion to drop the charges "in the interests of justice", and the US District Court dismissed the case.
In a New York Times interview published after his exoneration, Chen described the experience as "traumatic and deeply disillusioning ... 'I didn't do anything wrong'". After the charges were filed he was banned from the MIT campus and from contacting MIT employees. The postdocs he worked with were moved to other labs. He no longer had a research group or funding, and until the charges were dropped he worked alone on other topics. He returned to his MIT office the day after the case was dismissed.
== See also ==
Franklin Feng Tao, Chinese-American academic involved in a similar investigation
== References ==
== External links ==
Curriculum vitae
Faculty website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_Canadian_Open_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_doubles | 1992 Canadian Open – Men's doubles | Patrick Galbraith and Todd Witsken were the defending champions, but competed this year with different partners.
Witsken teamed up with Ken Flach and lost in the second round to Bryan Shelton and Kenny Thorne.
Galbraith teamed up with Danie Visser and successfully defended his title, by defeating Andre Agassi and John McEnroe 6–4, 6–4 in the final.
== Seeds ==
The first four seeds received a bye to the second round.
== Draw ==
Key
=== Finals ===
=== Top half ===
=== Bottom half ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Official results archive (ATP)
Official results archive (ITF) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most-listened-to_radio_programs#:~:text=In%20the%201980s%2C%20the%20Larry,talk%20shows%20discussing%20sociopolitical%20issues. | List of most-listened-to radio programs | In the United States, radio listenership is gauged by Nielsen and others for both commercial radio and public radio. Nielsen and similar services provide estimates by regional market and by standard daypart, but do not compile nationwide information by host. Because there are significant gaps in Nielsen's coverage in rural areas, and because there are only a few markets where the company's proprietary data can be compared against competing ratings tabulators, there is a great deal of estimation and interpolation when attempting to compile a list of the most-listened-to radio programs in the United States. In 2009, Arbitron, the American radio industry's largest audience-measurement company at the time (since subsumed into its television counterpart Nielsen), said that "the job of determining number of listeners for (any particular program or host) is too complicated, expensive and difficult for them to bother with." In contrast, because most UK radio broadcasts are distributed consistently and nationwide, the complications of measuring audiences that are present in American radio are not present for British radio.
Talkers Magazine, an American trade publication focusing on talk radio, formerly compiled a list of the most-listened-to commercial long-form talk shows in the United States, based primarily on Nielsen data.
In addition to Talkers' independent analyses, radio companies of all formats include estimates of the audience in news releases. The nature of news releases allows radio companies to inflate their listener totals by obscuring the difference between listeners at any given time, cumulative listenership over a time frame, and potential audience.
== Worldwide broadcasts ==
The Voice of America reached 326 million weekly listeners on all platforms and languages as of 2022.
BBC World Service has an estimated 188 million weekly listeners, broadcasting in 32 languages as of 2009.
A State of Trance with Armin van Buuren has an estimated 40 million listeners across 84 countries.
American Top 40 with Ryan Seacrest has an estimated 20 million listeners worldwide.
Intelligence for Your Life with John Tesh has an estimated 40 million weekly listeners across the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom.
== Popular radio shows in the United States ==
The total listenership for terrestrial radio in the United States as of January 2025 was 256 million, up from 230 million in 2024. Of the 121 million listeners in markets served by portable people meters in 2021, an average of 7.5 million are listening to a radio at any given time, up slightly from 2020. 68 percent of homes have at least one radio, with the average home having 1.5 radios as of 2020, both figures being steep declines from 2008. An estimated 12% of listenership to FCC-licensed AM and FM radio stations comes from means other than the actual AM or FM signal itself, usually an Internet radio stream.
Sirius XM Radio has a base of 34.3 million subscribers as of 2020. American Top 40 attracts over 20 million listeners per week. The late Rush Limbaugh's show was the number-one commercial talk show from 1991 until Limbaugh's death in February 2021. NPR's Morning Edition and All Things Considered are the two most popular news programs.The late Tom Kent self-estimated his listenership in 2014 at over 23 million weekly listeners over all of his network's programs, which span the classic hits, adult hits and hot adult contemporary formats. NPR has an overall listenership of 57 million listeners weekly across all shows and platforms as of 2020, with a growing proportion of that figure coming from off-air platforms.
Until the development of portable people meters, Arbitron (Nielsen's predecessor in the radio measurement business) did not have the capability to measure individual airings of a program the way Nielsen Ratings can for television, and as such, it only measures in three-month moving averages each month. Portable people meters are currently only available in the largest markets Arbitron serves. Thus, it is impossible under current survey techniques to determine the listenership of an individual event such as the Super Bowl; even in cases (such as in PPM markets) where such measurement is feasible, the radio industry's business model relies on selling advertising parceled by daypart rather than individual show or event. In 2022 and 2023, Nielsen released a "far from complete" report suggesting that National Football League games are among the most-listened-to events on radio. Major League Baseball radio broadcasts, particularly the playoffs, also rank among the most dominant broadcasts in their dayparts and home markets (usually in the evenings), with much of that coming from in-home listening.
For most of its existence, Talkers Magazine compiled Arbitron's data, along with other sources, to estimate the minimum weekly audiences of various commercial long-form talk radio shows; its list was updated monthly until the magazine unceremoniously dropped the feature in 2016, then resumed publication in 2017. The 2017 reintroduction also incorporates off-air distribution methods (particularly those that are Internet-based) but not satellite radio, as Talkers could not access data for that medium; as a result, the estimates for most shows increased dramatically when compared to the 2015 methodology. NPR and APM compile Arbitron's data for its public radio shows and releases analysis through press releases.
Included is a list of the 20 most-listened-to radio shows in the United States according to weekly cumulative listenership, followed by a selection of shows of various formats that are most-listened-to within their category. (Unless otherwise noted, the Talkers "non-scientific" estimate is the source.)
Note on broadcast time: because of the effects of time on North American broadcasting, nationally syndicated shows that air live will end up on different dayparts in different time zones. The above list makes note of this. Note that although shows such as Beck's and Levin's are listed under "West Coast" drive times, that their shows are based on the East Coast (and thus air in early midday and early evening time slots there).
The pay service Sirius XM Radio was monitored directly by Arbitron from 2007 to early 2008. The final numbers available, from early 2008 (prior to when XM and Sirius merged), had The Howard Stern Show being the most listened-to show on either platform, with Stern's Howard 100 channel netting a "cume" of 1.2 million listeners and Howard 101 (the secondary and replay channel) netting an additional 500,000 listeners. Among formats common to both platforms (all of which have since merged into singular channels), the contemporary hit radio channels, with a combined 1.6 million listeners, ranked highest, with classic rock, hot country music, 1970s and 1980s music channels each netting approximately 1 million listeners combined. Sirius had 8.3 million total subscribers in early 2008 (the Arbitron ratings were measured against a 7-million subscriber base compared to 10 million for XM) and now has more than 30 million. Eastlan Ratings, a service that competes with Arbitron in several markets, includes satellite radio channels in its local ratings; Howard 100 has registered above several lower-end local stations in the markets Eastlan serves, the only satellite station to do so.
Virtually all of the most-listened-to radio programs in the United States are in English. Other than English, Spanish had established national networks. Other languages (Chinese, Polish, Korean, various languages of India, and French) are broadcast only on a local level.
=== Past top programs in the United States ===
Beginning with the 1930–31 radio season, three ratings services measured radio listener totals. The Cooperative Analysis of Broadcasting did so from 1934 to 1935. From 1935 to 1936 and 1948–49, the bulk of radio's "golden age," C.E. Hooper monitored the numbers, which were popularly called "Hooperatings." The A.C. Nielsen company, which continues to measure television ratings today, took over American radio's ratings beginning with the 1949–50 radio season and ending in 1955–56. During this era, nearly all of radio's most popular programs were broadcast on one of three networks: NBC Red, NBC Blue, or CBS' Columbia network.
The top-rated radio programs on American radio from each season:
1930–31, 1931–32: Amos 'n' Andy (Pepsodent, NBC-WJZ)
1932–33, 1933–34: The Chase and Sanborn Hour (Eddie Cantor, NBC-WEAF)
1934–35: Fleischmann's Yeast Hour (Rudy Vallee, NBC-WEAF)
1935–36: Major Bowes Amateur Hour (Chase and Sanborn, NBC-WEAF)
1936–37: Texaco Town (Eddie Cantor, CBS)
1937–38, 1938–39, 1939–40: The Chase and Sanborn Hour (Edgar Bergen, NBC Red)
1940–41: The Jell-O Program (Jack Benny, NBC Red)
1941–42: The Chase and Sanborn Hour (Edgar Bergen, NBC Red)
1942–43: The Pepsodent Show (Bob Hope, NBC)
1943–44: Fibber McGee and Molly (Johnson Wax, NBC)
1944–45: The Pepsodent Show (Bob Hope, NBC)
1945–46, 1946–47: Fibber McGee and Molly (Johnson Wax, NBC)
1947–48: The Fred Allen Show (Ford Motor Company, NBC)
1948–49: Fibber McGee and Molly (Johnson Wax, NBC)
1949–50: The Lucky Strike Program (Jack Benny, CBS)
1950–51: Lux Radio Theatre (dramas with a rotating cast, NBC)
1951–52, 1952–53: Amos 'n' Andy (Rexall Drug Stores, CBS)
1953–54: People Are Funny (Mars Candy, NBC)
1954–55: The Lucky Strike Program (Jack Benny, CBS)
1955–56: Our Miss Brooks (Colgate-Palmolive-Peet, NBC)
At his peak in the late 1930s, commentator Charles Coughlin was praised for his listener base. His show was not a network broadcast but was instead syndicated on 36 stations. Some modern estimates peg his listenership at approximately 30 million listeners. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's irregularly scheduled fireside chats, simulcast on all of the major networks, consistently reached over 50 percent of the listening audience during his last five years in office.
In the 1980s, the Larry King Show was the most-listened-to program in the United States, before The Rush Limbaugh Show. During the early 1990s, Chuck Harder was Limbaugh's most prominent rival among talk shows discussing sociopolitical issues.
Though radio listenership totals collapsed in the 1950s with the advent of television, some radio programs attracted large audiences decades later. Before moving to satellite radio in 2006, The Howard Stern Show peaked at 20 million listeners on syndicated terrestrial radio. Unlike the above programs, Stern's radio show was broadcast daily for 4–5 hours per day. Paul Harvey, at his peak, drew an estimated 25 million listeners to his 15-minute daily program. At his peak in the 1990s, The Rush Limbaugh Show was drawing as many as 20 million listeners a week; as of 1998, Stern, Limbaugh and then-first-place Dr. Laura Schlessinger were drawing between 17 and 18 million listeners, according to Talkers estimates.
At the time of both shows' departure from Talk Radio Network in fall 2012, The Savage Nation was estimated to have an audience of 9 million listeners and The Laura Ingraham Show was estimated at 6 million listeners. Prior to his retirement, Neal Boortz registered approximately 5.75 million listeners. The public radio series Car Talk with Click and Clack had approximately 4 million listeners immediately prior to ending its original run, ranking it among the most-listened-to weekend radio programs in the United States; individual affiliates noted that the hour of highest listenership on their stations were during Car Talk, hence why it was kept in reruns for five years afterward. Talk of the Nation registered 3.2 million listeners prior to its cancellation in 2013. Immediately prior to Blair Garner's departure from the show in July 2013, After Midnite was quoted as drawing 2.7 million listeners, the most of any country music show for which listenership estimates are made available.
== Top stations in the United Kingdom ==
Total listenership in the United Kingdom in June 2025 was 49.995 million. All BBC programming had 31.100 million listeners, and all commercial programming had 39.503 million listeners. The figures counted listeners over the age of 15 who tuned in for at least five minutes.
Of breakfast programmes, the top three most listened to are BBC breakfast programmes.
== See also ==
Audience measurement
List of best-selling albums in the United States of the Nielsen SoundScan era
List of most-watched television broadcasts
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_syncytial_virus#References | Respiratory syncytial virus | Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), also called human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) and human orthopneumovirus, is a virus that causes infections of the respiratory tract. It is a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus. Its name is derived from the large, multinucleated cells known as syncytia that form when infected cells fuse.
RSV is a common cause of respiratory hospitalization in infants, and reinfection remains common in later life, though often with less severity. It is a notable pathogen in all age groups. Infection rates are typically higher during the cold winter months. Infections can cause bronchiolitis in infants, common colds in adults, and more serious respiratory illnesses, such as pneumonia, in older individuals and those with immunocompromise resulting from, e.g., cardiopulmonary disease.
RSV can cause outbreaks in both community and hospital settings. Following initial infection via the eyes or nasal passages, the virus infects the epithelial cells of the upper and lower airways, causing inflammation, cell damage, and airway obstruction. A variety of methods are available for detecting and diagnosing RSV, including antigen testing, molecular testing, and viral culture.
Other than vaccination, prevention measures include hand-washing and avoiding close contact with infected individuals. The carriage of RSV in respiratory aerosols, along with the production of fine and ultrafine aerosols during normal breathing, talking, and coughing, and the emerging scientific consensus around transmission of all respiratory infections, may suggest airborne precautions are needed for reliable protection. In May 2023, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first RSV vaccines, Arexvy (developed by GSK plc) and Abrysvo (Pfizer). The prophylactic use of palivizumab or nirsevimab (both are monoclonal antibody treatments) can prevent RSV infection among infants with high-risk predispositions.
Treatment for severe illness is primarily supportive, including oxygen therapy and more advanced breathing support with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) or nasal high flow oxygen, as required. In cases of severe respiratory failure, intubation and mechanical ventilation may be required. Ribavirin is an antiviral medication licensed for the treatment of RSV infection in children.
== History ==
RSV was discovered in 1956 when researchers isolated a virus from a population of chimpanzees with respiratory illness. They named the virus chimpanzee coryza agent (CCA). In 1957, this same virus was identified by Robert M. Chanock in children with respiratory illness. Studies of human antibodies in infants and children revealed that the infection was common in early life.
The virus was later renamed human orthopneumovirus, or human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV).
Several other pneumoviruses show great similarity to hRSV. Bovine RSV (bRSV) shares approximately 80% of its genome with hRSV. It also shares hRSV's predilection for the young, causing more severe disease in calves less than six months old. Because bRSV-infected calves have almost identical symptoms to hRSV-infected children, they have proven to be an important animal model in RSV research.
== Signs and symptoms ==
RSV infection can present with a wide variety of signs and symptoms that range from mild upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) to severe and potentially life-threatening lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) requiring hospitalization and mechanical ventilation. While RSV can cause respiratory tract infections in people of all ages and is among common childhood infections, its presentation often varies between age groups and immune status. Reinfection is common throughout life, but infants and the elderly remain at risk for symptomatic infection.
=== Children ===
Nearly all children in the United States experience at least one RSV infection before two years of age. Childhood RSV infections are fairly self-limited with typical upper respiratory tract signs and symptoms, such as nasal congestion, runny nose, cough, and low-grade fever. Inflammation of the nasal mucosa (rhinitis) and throat (pharyngitis), as well as redness of the eyes (conjunctival infection), may be seen on exam. Approximately 15–50% of children will go on to develop more serious lower respiratory tracts infections, such as bronchiolitis, viral pneumonia, or croup. Infants are at the highest risk of disease progression.
Bronchiolitis is a common lower respiratory tract infection characterized by inflammation and obstruction of the small airways in the lungs. While several viruses can cause bronchiolitis, RSV is responsible for about 70% of cases. It usually presents with 2 to 4 days of runny nose and congestion followed by worsening cough, noisy breathing, tachypnea (fast breathing), and wheezing. As infants work harder to breathe, they can also show signs of respiratory distress, such as subcostal retractions (when the belly pulls under the ribcage), intercostal retractions (when the muscles between the ribs pull inward), grunting, and nasal flaring. If the child has not been able to feed adequately, signs of dehydration may also be present. Fever may be present, but high-grade fever is uncommon. Crackles and wheezing can often be heard on auscultation, and oxygen saturation levels may be decreased.
In very young infants under six weeks of age, especially premature infants, signs of infection may be less specific. They may have minimal respiratory involvement. Instead, they may exhibit decreased activity, irritability, poor feeding, or breathing difficulties. This can also be accompanied by apneic spells, or brief pauses in breathing.
=== Adults ===
Reinfection with RSV remains common throughout life. Reinfection in adulthood often produces only mild to moderate symptoms indistinguishable from the common cold or sinus infection. Infection may also be asymptomatic. If present, symptoms are generally isolated to the upper respiratory tract: runny nose, sore throat, fever, and malaise. In most cases, nasal congestion precedes the development of cough. Unlike other upper respiratory infections, RSV is more likely to cause new onset wheeze in adults. About 25% of infected adults will progress to significant lower respiratory tract infections, such as bronchitis or tracheobronchitis.
While RSV very rarely causes severe disease in healthy adults, it can cause morbidity and mortality in the elderly and in those with underlying immune compromise or cardiopulmonary disease. Older adults have a similar presentation to younger adults but tend to have greater symptom severity with an increased risk of lower respiratory tract involvement. In particular, the elderly are more likely to experience pneumonia, respiratory distress, and death.
=== Immunocompromised ===
In both adults and children, those who are immunocompromised are at an increased risk of severe infection with RSV. Infected individuals in this group are more likely to progress from upper to lower respiratory tract involvement and have prolonged viral shedding. Symptom severity seems closely related to the extent of immune suppression. Those who have undergone hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT), intensive chemotherapy, and lung transplant are particularly susceptible. Bone marrow transplant patients appear to be at the highest risk, especially before marrow engraftment. In this group, RSV infection carries a nearly 80% risk of both pneumonia and death.
=== Elderly ===
RSV or Respiratory syncytial virus affects many populations differently. The most at-risk populations for RSV complications are older adults and those with underlying medical conditions or immunocompromised individuals. Between 60,000-160,000 older adults in the United States are hospitalized annually with RSV. Between 6,000 and 10,000 older adults die from RSV infection each year. Additionally RSV can "... lead to worsening of serious conditions such as, Asthma, Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) – a chronic disease of the lungs that makes it hard to breathe, and even Congestive heart failure – when the heart can't pump enough blood and oxygen through the body." Expedient and proper medical care is important for older adults as waiting or receiving a misdiagnosis can be associated with an increased risk of complications. As of August 2023, adults aged 60 years and older qualify for vaccination against RSV in Canada and the United States.
=== Complications ===
== Risk factors ==
Risk factors for the development of severe lower respiratory tract infection with RSV vary by population.
== Virology ==
=== Taxonomy ===
RSV is a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus. The scientific name for this viral species is human orthopneumovirus. This is synonymous with human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV), which is often shortened to just RSV. It belongs to the genus Orthopneumovirus, family Pneumoviridae, order Mononegavirales. Its name comes from the fact that F proteins on the surface of the virus cause neighboring cell membranes to merge, creating large multinucleated syncytia.
=== Antigenic subtypes ===
RSV is divided into two antigenic subtypes, A and B, based on the reactivity of the F and G surface proteins to monoclonal antibodies. The subtypes tend to circulate simultaneously within local epidemics, although subtype A tends to be more prevalent. Generally, RSV subtype A (RSVA) is thought to be more virulent than RSV subtype B (RSVB), with higher viral loads and faster transmission time. To date, 16 RSVA and 22 RSVB clades have been identified. Among RSVA, the GA1, GA2, GA5, and GA7 clades predominate; GA7 is found only in the United States. Among RSVB, the BA clade predominates worldwide.
=== Genome ===
RSV has a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA genome. The genome is linear and approximately 15,000 nucleotides in length. It has 10 genes encoding for 11 proteins. The gene order is NS1-NS2-N-P-M-SH-G-F-M2-L, with the NS1 and NS2 gene serving as nonstructural promoter genes.
=== Structure and proteins ===
RSV is a medium-sized (~150 nm) enveloped virus. While many particles are spherical, filamentous species have also been identified. The genome rests within a helical nucleocapsid and is surrounded by matrix protein and an envelope containing viral glycoproteins. There are 11 proteins, described further in the table below.
==== G protein ====
Surface protein G (glycoprotein) is primarily responsible for viral attachment to host cells. This protein is highly variable between strains. G protein exists in both membrane-bound and secreted forms. The membrane-found form is responsible for attachment by binding to glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), such as heparan sulfate, on the surface of host cells. The secreted form acts as a decoy, interacting with antigen-presenting cells to inhibit antibody-mediated neutralization. G protein also contains a CX3C fractalkine-like motif that binds to the CX3C chemokine receptor 1 (CX3CR1) on the surface of ciliated bronchial host cells. This binding may alter cellular chemotaxis and reduce the migration of immune cells into the lungs of infected individuals. G protein also alters host immune response by inhibiting signaling from several toll-like receptors, including TLR4.
==== F protein ====
Surface protein F (fusion protein) is responsible for the fusion of viral and host cell membranes, as well as syncytium formation between viral particles. Its sequence is highly conserved between strains. While viral attachment appears to involve both F and G proteins, F fusion occurs independently of G. F protein exists in multiple conformational forms. In the prefusion state (PreF), the protein exists in a trimeric form and contains the major antigenic site Ø. Ø serves as a primary target of neutralizing antibodies in the body. After binding to its target on the host cell surface (its exact ligand remains unclear), PreF undergoes a conformational change during which Ø is lost. This change enables the protein to insert itself into the host cell membrane and leads to fusion of the viral and host cell membranes. A final conformational shift results in a more stable and elongated form of the protein (postfusion, PostF). Opposite of the RSV G protein, the RSV F protein also binds to and activates toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), initiating the innate immune response and signal transduction.
=== Replication cycle ===
Following the fusion of the viral and host cell membranes, the viral nucleocapsid (containing the viral genome) and the associated viral polymerase are delivered into the host cell cytoplasm. Transcription and translation both occur within the cytoplasm. RNA-dependent RNA polymerase transcribes the genome into 10 segments of messenger RNA (mRNA) which is translated into structural proteins by host cell machinery. During replication of the negative-sense viral genome, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase synthesizes a positive-sense complement called the antigenome. This complementary strand is used as a template to construct genomic negative-sense RNA, which is packaged into nucleocapsids and transported to the plasma membrane for assembly and particle budding.
== Mechanism ==
=== Transmission ===
RSV is highly contagious and can cause outbreaks from both community and hospital transmission. For each person infected with RSV, it is estimated that an average of 5 to 25 uninfected people will become infected. RSV can spread when an infected person coughs or sneezes, releasing contaminated droplets into the air. Transmission usually occurs when these droplets come into contact with another person's eyes, nose, or mouth. As with all respiratory pathogens once presumed to transmit via respiratory droplets, it is highly likely to be carried by the aerosols generated during routine breathing, talking, and even singing. RSV can also live for up to 25 minutes on contaminated skin (i.e. hands) and several hours on other surfaces like countertops and doorknobs. It has an incubation period of 2 to 8 days. Once infected, people are usually contagious for 3 to 8 days. In infants and in people with weakened immune systems, however, the virus may continue to spread for up to 4 weeks (even after they are no longer showing symptoms).
=== Pathogenesis ===
Following transmission through the nose or eyes, RSV infects ciliated columnar epithelial cells of the upper and lower airway. RSV continues to replicate within these bronchial cells for about 8 days. After the first several days, RSV-infected cells will become more rounded and ultimately slough into the smaller bronchioles of the lower airway. This sloughing mechanism is also thought to be responsible for the spread of the virus from the upper to lower respiratory tract. Infection causes generalized inflammation within the lungs, including the migration and infiltration of inflammatory cells (such as monocytes and T-cells), epithelial necrosis, edema, and increased mucous production. Inflammation and cell damage tend to be patchy rather than diffuse. Together, the sloughed epithelial cells, mucous plugs, and accumulated immune cells obstruct the lower airway.
=== Reinfection ===
After recovery of "respiratory diseases associated with RSV infection, the virus interferes with the establishment of immunological memory, which leads to recurrent reinfections." An estimated of "36% of individuals" can be reinfected with RSV "at least once, during the winter season." Reinfections like these can be a result of "an initial encounter with RSV" that "fails to initiate adequate humoral and cellular immune responses to generate protective memory lymphocytes."
RSV reinfection can happen throughout life. As a result, it can cause "winter/early spring epidemics in temperate regions, but synchronization of RSV activity can vary widely" depending on the region that individual lives in. Usually, "unless immunocompromised," adults have mild symptoms when becoming reinfected. The mild symptoms tend to be restricting upper airways. However, younger individuals are extremely vulnerable to developing "severe symptoms," which typically involve the lower airways. Since infants have smaller airways than children do, "they might be obstructed by inflammation, edema, and mucus." This can contribute to developing a "more severe lower respiratory tract illness." As mentioned, RSV reinfection is frequent among all ages and the type of host response to reinfection can determine "which children will develop persistent wheezing and possibly asthma." It is possible that the age you are infected with RSV can be a vital factor in "determining the phenotype of airway response to subsequent RSV infection."
=== Immune escape ===
Genetic variations in viral epitopes and adjacent regions affect protein folding, post-transcriptional modifications, and antigenic processing, influencing B and T cell immunity during viral infections. This alteration in conformation can lead to immune evasion, potentially impacting disease severity, outbreaks, and reinfections. Notably, the variability observed in the G gene, followed by the SH and F genes, suggests a correlation between structural differences in proteins and their immunogenicity. Specifically, the irregular curl and low bond energy of the G protein make it prone to conformational changes, affecting its immunogenicity and potentially modulating the immune response.
Different genotypes of RSV exhibit variations in the structural conformation of key proteins such as G, SH, and F, impacting immune responses. The emergence of novel genotypes like ON1 and BA9 is associated with distinct structural differences, particularly in the G protein, which may contribute to immune evasion. Evidence suggests that RSV glycoprotein G plays a crucial role in immune modulation during infection, affecting cytokine expression and the antiviral response. In addition, positive selection pressure drives the dominance of certain genotypes over others, potentially driven by mutations within specific regions of the G gene.
The F protein is a major target for neutralizing antibodies, but its variability enables viral evasion from neutralization, affecting the efficacy of antibodies like Palivizumab. Cross-reactions between RSV subtypes and genotypes are observed, but immune responses are subtype- or genotype-specific, indicating the impact of gene mutations, particularly in the G protein, on immune evasion. Additionally, differences in cytokine expression and immune cell responses highlight the complexity of immune interactions during RSV infection. Genomic variations in RSV, particularly in proteins like G and F, influence immune responses and contribute to immune evasion. This multifaceted immunomodulatory arsenal likely contributes to RSV's ability to cause mild respiratory symptoms in most cases, yet it poses a severe threat to vulnerable populations such as infants and the elderly, potentially leading to life-threatening lung disease characterized by immune dysregulation. RSV has evolved numerous strategies to evade the host's antiviral response, with over half of its proteins exerting immunomodulatory effects.
== Diagnosis ==
=== Laboratory diagnosis ===
A variety of laboratory tests are available for the diagnosis of RSV infection. While the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) does not routinely recommend the use of lab testing to diagnose RSV bronchiolitis (for which the treatment is largely supportive), confirmation of RSV infection may be warranted in high-risk groups if the result will guide clinical decisions. Common identification techniques include antigen testing, molecular testing, and viral culture.
==== Antigen testing ====
Antigen testing involves the detection of RSV antigen fragments (or pieces of molecular viral structures), usually from an nasopharyngeal swab or aspirate. This can be accomplished either by viewing fluorescently labeled antigens under a microscope (direct fluorescence assay, or DFA) or using a commercially available rapid antigen detection test (RADT). Overall, antigen testing is highly sensitive in young children (80–90%) but substantially less reliable in older children and adults, who have less viral shedding. Antigen tests are also subject to higher false positive rates outside of the peak RSV season, such as in the summer months. In these scenarios, the use of either viral culture or nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) may aid in an accurate RSV diagnosis.
Rapid antigen detection tests (RADT) are commonly used as point-of-care testing due to their ease of use and quick turnaround time (as little as 10 minutes). These include both enzyme immunosorbent assays (EIA) and chromatographic immunoassays (CIA).
Direct fluorescence assay (DFA) allows for direct microscopic examination of virus-infected cells. The sensitivity of DFA testing depends on an adequate specimen.
==== Molecular testing ====
Molecular assays, such as nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs), enable sensitive detection of very small amounts of virus in nasopharyngeal swabs and aspirates. NAAT assays such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detect virus-specific genetic material, rather than viral antigens. They have a sensitivity and specificity approaching 100%. However, they tend to be more expensive and require more complex equipment than other testing methods, making them less practical in resource-limited areas. Molecular testing for RSV is not routinely recommended for all people with respiratory symptoms. However, it may be recommended for those at high risk of RSV complications, such as infants, older adults, and people with chronic medical conditions. RT-PCR has a sensitivity of 90-95% and a specificity of 98-99%, while LAMP has a sensitivity of 95-100% and a specificity of 99-100%.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a type of NAAT that allows a very small sample of genetic material to be rapidly amplified into millions of copies for study. PCR is more sensitive than either antigen testing or viral culture. Therefore, it can be used to detect virus in those with lower viral shedding, such as older children and adults. It may also be used to detect the disease earlier in at-risk individuals (such as hospitalized or immunocompromised patients), when the viral burden may still be too low to be identified by traditional techniques. Because of its sensitivity, PCR can also often detect asymptomatic carriers and may remain positive even days after an infection has clinically resolved.
Multi-pathogen panels are also available, which can detect the presence of multiple viral infections (including RSV) in a single person.
==== Viral culture ====
In traditional viral culture, a sample of the virus is introduced to different cell lines and allowed to replicate so it can be studied. Benefits of this technique include the ability to perform genetic characterization, strain typing, and antiviral susceptibility testing. However, it is limited by its prolonged turnaround time of 3–7 days, making it less common in patient care and more common in research settings.
==== Serologic testing ====
Serology (the measurement of virus-specific antibodies in the serum) is not frequently used in RSV diagnosis. The time required for the body to mount a significant serologic response (and demonstrate a significant rise in antibodies that can be detected in serum) is usually not useful in guiding patient care. Up to 30% of patients with documented RSV infection will have negative serology results. As such, this method is generally reserved for research and surveillance studies.
=== Imaging findings ===
Chest X-ray findings in children with RSV bronchiolitis are generally nonspecific and include perihilar markings, patchy hyperinflation, and atelectasis. However, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) does not recommend routine imaging for children with presumed RSV bronchiolitis because it does not change clinical outcomes and is associated with increased antibiotic use. Chest X-ray is sometimes considered when the diagnosis of bronchiolitis is unclear or when there is an unexpected worsening. In adults with RSV infection, chest films are often normal or demonstrate nonspecific changes consistent with viral pneumonia, such as patchy bilateral infiltrates.
=== Differential diagnosis ===
The differential diagnosis for individuals presenting with signs and symptoms of upper and lower respiratory tract infection includes other viral infections (such as rhinovirus, metapneumovirus, and influenza) and primary bacterial pneumonia. In children, inhaled foreign bodies and congenital conditions such as cystic fibrosis or asthma are typically considered.
== Prevention ==
Other than vaccination, the main prevention measure is to avoid close contact with infected individuals. Airborne precautions such as respirators, ventilation, and HEPA/high MERV filters, are likely protective against RSV-laden aerosols.
=== Vaccines ===
In May 2023, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first RSV vaccines, Arexvy (developed by GSK plc) and Abrysvo (Pfizer). Mresvia is an mRNA vaccine that was approved for medical use in the United States in May 2024.
The primary pharmaceutical developers, GSK and Pfizer, obtained Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for RSV vaccines targeting adults aged 60 and above. GSK's Arexvy boasts 94% efficacy against severe and 83% against symptomatic RSV in this age group, while Pfizer's Abrysvo is 86% effective against severe symptoms and 67% against symptomatic disease in adults aged 60 and older.
Addressing the more challenging aspect, the need for a newborn vaccine, researchers employed a pregnancy-administered approach to protect infants during the first six months, a critical period for RSV susceptibility. The FDA's advisory committee endorsed Pfizer's parental RSV vaccine, acknowledging its 82% effectiveness against severe RSV in newborns up to three months and 69% efficacy through six months. While unanimous in favor of efficacy, the committee voted 10 to 4 for safety, with concerns about a slightly higher premature birth rate in the vaccinated group. GSK halted its own trial due to a 38% higher likelihood of premature births in the vaccine group.
==== Background ====
The virus's disease burden and the lack of disease-specific therapies spurs interest and research in vaccine development, which faced obstacles that blocked its progress. Among these were infant-specific factors, such as the immature infant immune system and the presence of maternal antibodies, which make infantile immunization difficult.
RSV infection is widespread in early childhood, contributing significantly to the global disease burden. The association between severe childhood infections and subsequent respiratory issues is not fully understood—particularly the suggested link between bronchiolitis, recurrent infantile wheezing, and childhood asthma. Unlike other vaccine-preventable respiratory pathogens, RSV has proven challenging for vaccine development. Ongoing efforts focus on creating vaccines that confer durable protection, with field trials eagerly anticipated. Supportive care remains the mainstay for treating RSV disease, as effective antiviral drugs are awaited. The introduction of antivirals, coupled with vaccines and advanced diagnostic techniques, holds promise for reducing RSV's global impact in the coming years. These interventions may alter infection dynamics and weaken RSV's hold on communities worldwide.
Potential vaccines being researched fall into five broad categories: live-attenuated, protein subunit, vector-based, virus particle subunit, and messenger RNA. Each targets different immune responses and thus may be better suited to prevent disease in different at-risk groups. Live-attenuated vaccines have shown some success in RSV-naive infants. Other vaccine candidates hope to target vulnerable populations across the lifespan, including pregnant women and the elderly.
=== Immunoprophylaxis ===
Historically, RSV-specific intravenous immunoglobin (IVIG) was used to provide passive immunity to prevent RSV infection and hospitalization in the highest-risk infants. This involved monthly administration of RSV-neutralizing antibodies (or immunoglobins) from human donors recovering from the disease. While this transfer of antibodies was reasonably effective in providing short-term immunization to at-risk infants, it was limited by both its intravenous administration and cost.
RSV-IVIG has since been replaced with the use of a monoclonal antibody (MAb) that can be delivered through muscular injection. Palivizumab (Synagis) is a monoclonal antibody directed against the surface fusion (F) protein of the RSV virus. It was licensed in 1998 and is effective in providing temporary prophylaxis against both RSV A and B. It is given by monthly injections, which begin just before the RSV season and are usually continued for five months. Palivizumab has been shown to reduce both hospitalization rates and all-cause mortality in certain groups of high-risk children (such as those with chronic lung disease, congenital heart disease, and those born preterm). However, its cost limits its use in many parts of the world. More potent derivatives of this antibody have since been developed (including motavizumab) but were associated with considerable adverse events.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP 2014) recommends RSV prophylaxis with palivizumab during RSV season for:
Infants born at ≤28 weeks 6 days gestational age and <12 months at the start of RSV season
Infants <12 months old with chronic lung disease of prematurity
Infants ≤12 months old with hemodynamically significant congenital heart disease
Infants <24 months old with chronic lung disease of prematurity requiring medical therapy
Per AAP guidelines, palivizumab prophylaxis may also be considered in infants with:
Congenital airway abnormality
Neuromuscular disorder
Cystic fibrosis
Severe immunocompromise
Recent or upcoming heart transplantation
Nirsevimab (Beyfortus) is another antiviral monoclonal antibody, that has been approved for the prevention of RSV lower respiratory tract disease in newborns and infants during their first RSV season. Nirsevimab requires only one dose that lasts the entire RSV season, unlike palivizumab, which has to be injected about once a month for up to four times to remain effective. Nirsevimab was approved for medical use in the European Union and the United Kingdom in November 2022, and in Canada in April 2023.
== Treatment ==
=== Supportive care ===
Treatment for RSV infection is focused primarily on supportive care. This may include monitoring a patient's breathing or using suction to remove secretions from the upper airway. Supplemental oxygen may also be delivered through a nasal cannula or face mask in order to improve airflow. In severe cases of respiratory failure, intubation and mechanical ventilation may be required to support breathing. If signs of dehydration are present, fluids may also be given orally or through an IV.
Additional supportive treatments have been investigated in infants hospitalized with RSV bronchiolitis. These include:
Nebulized hypertonic saline has been shown to reduce length of hospitalization and reduce clinical severity in infants with viral bronchiolitis. A possible mechanism is reduced airway edema and mucus plugging to decrease airway obstruction.
Heliox, a mixture of oxygen with helium, may reduce respiratory distress within the first hour of treatment. It works by decreasing airway resistance and easing the work of breathing. However, it has not been shown to affect overall illness outcomes.
Chest physiotherapy including forced respiratory techniques for infants has not been found to reduce disease severity or yield any other improvement. Evidence supporting other physiotherapy approaches including instrumental physiotherapy and rhinopharyngeal retrograde technique (RRT) is very limited, The effects and any potential use needs further assessment in clinical trials. There is also no evidence to support hypertonic saline therapy combined with chest physiotherapy. There is very weak evidence to suggest that passive slow expiratory technique physiotherapy may contribute to a "mild to moderate" positive change in the severity of bronchiolitis for hospitalized infants, however, the benefit of this approach for infants treated in ambulatory settings is not known.
Inhaled recombinant human deoxyribonuclease (rhDNase), an enzyme that digests the DNA that contributes to mucus plugging and airway obstruction, has not been shown to improve clinical outcomes in this group.
=== Viral-specific therapies ===
Ribavirin is an antiviral medication licensed for the treatment of RSV in children. It is a guanosine analog that acts by inhibiting viral RNA synthesis and capping. It was approved in 1986 for treatment of RSV infection. However, the use of ribavirin remains controversial due to unclear evidence of efficacy and concerns about toxicity to exposed staff members, as well as cost. As such, treatment guidelines do not make recommendations for its use in children. In adults, ribavirin is used off-label and is generally reserved for the severely immunocompromised, such as those undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplants.
Presatovir, an experimental antiviral drug, has shown promising results in clinical trials but has not yet been approved for medical use. It acts as a fusion inhibitor by inhibiting the RSV F protein.
Immunoglobins, both RSV-specific and non-specific, have historically been used for RSV-related illnesses. However, there is insufficient evidence to support the use of immunoglobins in children with RSV infection.
=== Anti-inflammatories ===
Corticosteroids (systemic or inhaled) have not been found to decrease hospitalization length or disease severity in viral bronchiolitis. Their use may also prolong viral shedding, and thus is not commonly recommended. However, the use of oral corticosteroids remains common in adults with RSV-related exacerbation of underlying lung disease.
Leukotriene inhibitors such as montelukast have been used in the treatment of infants and children with bronchiolitis. However, the evidence supporting their use remains inconsistent with no definitive conclusions on their efficacy.
=== Bronchodilators ===
Bronchodilators, medications commonly used to treat asthma, are sometimes used to treat the wheezing associated with RSV infection. These medications (such as albuterol (sin. salbutamol)) are beta-agonists that relax the muscles of the airways to allow for improved airflow. However, bronchodilators have not been found to improve the clinical severity of infection or the rate of hospitalization among those with RSV infection. Given their limited benefit, plus their adverse event profile, they are not routinely recommended for use in RSV bronchiolitis.
=== Antibiotics ===
Antibiotic therapy is not appropriate for the treatment of RSV-related bronchiolitis or viral pneumonia. Antibiotics target bacterial pathogens, not viral pathogens such as RSV. However, antibiotics may be considered if there is clear evidence that a secondary bacterial infection has developed. Ear infections may also develop in a small number of infants with RSV bronchiolitis, in which case oral antibiotics may sometimes be used.
Beyond vaccines, AstraZeneca and Sanofi introduced nirsevimab, a prophylactic monoclonal antibody with 75% efficacy against RSV cases in infants under one year. Europe approved nirsevimab in November 2022, and the FDA followed suit in July 2023. Merck's clesrovimab, a similar monoclonal antibody, is in late-stage trials.
== Epidemiology ==
=== Infants and children ===
Worldwide, RSV is the leading cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia in infants and children under the age of 5. The risk of serious infection is highest during the first 6 months of life. Of those infected with RSV, 2–3% will develop bronchiolitis, necessitating hospitalization. Each year, approximately 30 million acute respiratory illnesses and over 60,000 childhood deaths are caused by RSV worldwide. An estimated 87% of infants will have experienced an RSV infection by the age of 18 months, and nearly all children will have been infected by 3 years. In the United States, RSV is responsible for up to 20% of acute respiratory infection hospitalizations in children under the age of 5. However, the vast majority of RSV-related deaths occur in low-income countries that lack access to basic supportive care.
The prophylactic use of palivizumab or nirsevimab (both are monoclonal antibody treatments) can prevent RSV infection in high-risk infants. Passive immunization is available to prevent RSV infection and hospitalization in the highest-risk infants.
A 2024 JAMA Open article suggested a rise in sudden unexpected infant deaths (SUID) may be connected to an unusual surge of RSV in 2021. Researchers analyzed over 14,000 SUID cases using CDC records and found that the rate per 100,000 live births increased by 10% between 2019 and 2021. The study revealed that the risk of SUID was highest from June to December 2021, coinciding with an off-season spike in RSV hospitalizations after the virus deviated from its typical winter pattern in 2020.
=== Adults ===
It is rare for healthy young adults to develop severe illness requiring hospitalization from RSV. However, it is now recognized as a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in certain adult populations, including the elderly and those with underlying heart or lung diseases. Its clinical impact among elderly adults is estimated to be similar to that of influenza. Each year, approximately 5–10% of nursing home residents will experience RSV infection, with significant rates of pneumonia and death. RSV is also responsible for 2–5% of adult community-acquired pneumonias.
=== Immunocompromised ===
In both adults and children, immunosuppression increases susceptibility to RSV infection. Children living with HIV are more likely to develop acute illness and are 3.5 times more likely to require hospitalization than children without HIV. Bone marrow transplant patients before marrow engraftment are at particularly high risk, with RSV accounting for nearly half of the viral infections in this population. This group has also demonstrated mortality rates of up to 80% among those with RSV pneumonia. While infection may occur within the community, hospital-acquired infection is thought to account for 30–50% of cases among immunocompromised individuals.
=== Seasonality ===
RSV seasonality varies around the world. In temperate climates, infection rates tend to be highest during the cold winter months. This is often attributed to increased indoor crowding and increased viral stability in lower temperatures. In tropical and arctic climates, however, the annual variation is less well-defined and seems to be more prevalent during the rainy season. Annual epidemics are generally caused by the presence of several different viral strains. Subtype A and B viruses will often circulate simultaneously within a specific geographic region, although group A viruses are more prevalent.
== Research ==
A study investigated RSV-specific T cell responses in 55 infants hospitalized for RSV bronchiolitis and found that these responses were similar during both acute illness and recovery, and did not increase after subsequent RSV infections. This suggests that RSV-specific T-cell responses may not prevent reinfection and might not expand effectively in the body after reinfection. However, these cells might be located in specific areas of the lungs and respond more strongly to secondary infection, as seen in animal studies. For instance, a study using mice showed that the "extent of the BALF inflammatory response to reinfection response to reinfection in adulthood is determined by the age at first infection." The study also discovered that the patterns differ for "neonatal infection primes the host to develop a Th2-biased response." The exact mechanisms behind this phenomenon remain unclear. One possibility is that a lack of IFN-γ production in newborns during their first encounter with RSV, possibly due to an immature immune system, allows for the emergence of a Th2-biased response that persists and can be triggered again during subsequent RSV infections. However, it is improbable that variations solely in IFN-γ levels explain this susceptibility window. IL-13 appears to play a significant role as a regulator in this process. IL-13 is a protein located in the lung. It is a "mediator of allergic asthma" and it is in charge of "regulating eosinophilic inflammation, mucus secretion, and airway hyperresponsiveness."
SARS-CoV-2 infections, the virus responsible for COVID-19, may lead to a higher risk of infection with RSV. In November 2022, the RSV hospitalization rate for newborns was seven times the rate in 2018. This, combined with increasing influenza circulation, caused the US state of Oregon to declare a state of emergency. The Children's Hospital Association and the American Academy of Pediatrics asked US President Joe Biden to declare a state of emergency.
The findings of a 2024 cross-sectional study of 6,248 hospitalized adults with RSV infection suggest that acute cardiac events are common among hospitalized older adults with RSV infection, and are associated with severe clinical outcomes. Nearly a quarter of hospitalized people over 50 with RSV experienced an acute cardiac event (most frequently acute heart failure), including 1 in 12 adults (8.5%) without documented underlying cardiovascular disease. Patients who had acute cardiac events had nearly twice the risk of a severe outcome than patients who did not.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Park GY, Tishkowski K (2024). "Paramyxovirus". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. PMID 33620863.
Walsh EE, Hall CB (2015). "Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)". Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. pp. 1948–1960.e3. doi:10.1016/B978-1-4557-4801-3.00160-0. ISBN 978-1-4557-4801-3. PMC 7173590.
Carbonell-Estrany X, Simões EA, Bont LJ, Gentile A, Homaira N, Scotta MC, et al. (November 2022). "Identifying the research, advocacy, policy and implementation needs for the prevention and management of respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract infection in low- and middle-income countries". Frontiers in Pediatrics. 10 1033125. doi:10.3389/fped.2022.1033125. PMC 9682277. PMID 36440349.
Kassem E, Na'amnih W, Bdair-Amsha A, Zahalkah H, Muhsen K (April 2019). "Comparisons between ethnic groups in hospitalizations for respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis in Israel". PLOS ONE. 14 (4) e0214197. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1414197K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0214197. PMC 6443173. PMID 30933992.
Dakhama A, Park JW, Taube C, Joetham A, Balhorn A, Miyahara N, et al. (August 2005). "The Enhancement or Prevention of Airway Hyperresponsiveness during Reinfection with Respiratory Syncytial Virus Is Critically Dependent on the Age at First Infection and IL-13 Production". The Journal of Immunology. 175 (3): 1876–1883. doi:10.4049/jimmunol.175.3.1876. PMID 16034131.
Carvajal JJ, Avellaneda AM, Salazar-Ardiles C, Maya JE, Kalergis AM, Lay MK (September 2019). "Host Components Contributing to Respiratory Syncytial Virus Pathogenesis". Frontiers in Immunology. 10 2152. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.02152. PMC 6753334. PMID 31572372.
Chakraborty C, Sharma AR, Bhattacharya M, Lee SS (February 2022). "A Detailed Overview of Immune Escape, Antibody Escape, Partial Vaccine Escape of SARS-CoV-2 and Their Emerging Variants With Escape Mutations". Frontiers in Immunology. 13 801522. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.801522. PMC 8863680. PMID 35222380.
Zhou X, Jiang M, Wang F, Qian Y, Song Q, Sun Y, et al. (January 2023). "Immune escaping of the novel genotypes of human respiratory syncytial virus based on gene sequence variation". Frontiers in Immunology. 13 1084139. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.1084139. PMC 9871593. PMID 36703972.
Wynn TA (April 2003). "IL-13 Effector Functions". Annual Review of Immunology. 21 (1): 425–456. doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.141142. PMID 12615888.
Mousa JJ, Williams JV, Crowe JE (2022). "Pneumoviruses: Respiratory Syncytial Virus and Human Metapneumovirus". Viral Infections of Humans. pp. 1–53. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-9544-8_26-1. ISBN 978-1-4939-9544-8. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Callister_Hales#:~:text=5%20External%20links-,Biography,Subregular%20Germ%20of%20Orbital%20Integrals. | Thomas Callister Hales | Thomas Callister Hales (born June 4, 1958) is an American mathematician working in the areas of representation theory, discrete geometry, and formal verification. In representation theory he is known for his work on the Langlands program and the proof of the fundamental lemma over the group Sp(4) (many of his ideas were incorporated into the final proof of the fundamental lemma, due to Ngô Bảo Châu). In discrete geometry, he settled the Kepler conjecture on the density of sphere packings, the honeycomb conjecture, and the dodecahedral conjecture. In 2014, he announced the completion of the Flyspeck Project, which formally verified the correctness of his proof of the Kepler conjecture.
== Biography ==
He received his Ph.D. from Princeton University in 1986 with a dissertation titled The Subregular Germ of Orbital Integrals. Hales taught at Harvard University and the University of Chicago, and from 1993 and 2002 he worked at the University of Michigan.
In 1998, Hales submitted his paper on the computer-aided proof of the Kepler conjecture, a centuries-old problem in discrete geometry which states that the most space-efficient way to pack spheres is in a tetrahedron shape. He was aided by graduate student Samuel Ferguson. In 1999, Hales proved the honeycomb conjecture, and also stated that the conjecture may have been in the minds of mathematicians before Marcus Terentius Varro. The conjecture is mentioned by Pappus of Alexandria in his Book V.
After 2002, Hales became the University of Pittsburgh's Mellon Professor of Mathematics. In 2003, Hales started work on Flyspeck to vindicate his proof of the Kepler conjecture. His proof relied on computer calculation to verify conjectures. The project used two proof assistants, HOL Light and Isabelle. Annals of Mathematics accepted the proof in 2005; but was only 99% sure of the proof. In August 2014, the Flyspeck team's software finally verified the proof to be correct.
In 2017, he initiated the Formal Abstracts project which aims to provide formalised statements of the main results of each mathematical research paper in the language of an interactive theorem prover. The goal of this project is to benefit from the increased precision and interoperability that computer formalisation provides while circumventing the effort that a full-scale formalisation of all published proofs currently entails. In the long term, the project hopes to build a corpus of mathematical facts which would allow for the application of machine learning techniques in interactive and automated theorem proving.
Hales worked on a conjecture of Karl Reinhardt with Koundinya Vajjha, that the smoothed octagon has the lowest maximum packing density of all centrally symmetric convex shapes in the plane. Although they failed to prove Reinhardt's conjecture, in 2024 they claim to have proved a related conjecture of Kurt Mahler:
It seems highly probable from the convexity condition, that the boundary of an extreme convex domain consists of line segments and arcs of hyperbolae.
== Awards ==
Hales was an invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in 2002. He won the Chauvenet Prize in 2003, the R. E. Moore Prize in 2004, a Lester R. Ford Award in 2008, and a Fulkerson Prize in 2009. He was awarded the inaugural Robbins Prize of the American Mathematical Society in 2007. In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society. He was invited to give the Tarski Lectures in 2019. His three lectures were titled "A formal proof of the Kepler conjecture", "Formalizing mathematics", and "Integrating with Logic". He was awarded the Senior Berwick Prize of the London Mathematical Society in 2020.
== Publications ==
Hales, Thomas C. (1994). "The status of the Kepler conjecture". The Mathematical Intelligencer. 16 (3): 47–58. doi:10.1007/BF03024356. ISSN 0343-6993. MR 1281754. S2CID 123375854.
Hales, Thomas C. (2001). "The Honeycomb Conjecture". Discrete and Computational Geometry. 25 (1): 1–22. arXiv:math/9906042. doi:10.1007/s004540010071. MR 1797293. S2CID 14849112.
Hales, Thomas C. (2005). "A proof of the Kepler conjecture". Annals of Mathematics. 162 (3): 1065–1185. arXiv:math/9811078. doi:10.4007/annals.2005.162.1065.
Hales, Thomas C. (2006). "Historical overview of the Kepler conjecture". Discrete & Computational Geometry. 36 (1): 5–20. doi:10.1007/s00454-005-1210-2. ISSN 0179-5376. MR 2229657.
Hales, Thomas C.; Ferguson, Samuel P. (2006). "A formulation of the Kepler conjecture". Discrete & Computational Geometry. 36 (1): 21–69. arXiv:math/9811078. doi:10.1007/s00454-005-1211-1. ISSN 0179-5376. MR 2229658. S2CID 6529590.
Hales, Thomas C.; Ferguson, Samuel P. (2011), The Kepler Conjecture: The Hales-Ferguson Proof, New York: Springer, ISBN 978-1-4614-1128-4
Hales, Thomas C.; Adams, Mark; Bauer, Gertrud; Dang, Tat Dat; Harrison, John; Hoang, Truong Le; Kaliszyk, Cezary; Magron, Victor; McLaughlin, Sean; Nguyen, Tat Thang; Nguyen, Quang Truong; Nipkow, Tobias; Obua, Steven; Pleso, Joseph; Rute, Jason; Solovyev, Alexey; An Hoai Thi Ta; Tran, Nam Trung; Trieu, Thi Diep; Urban, Josef; Vu, Ky; Zumkeller, Roland (2017). "A formal proof of the Kepler conjecture". Forum of Mathematics, Pi. 5 e2. arXiv:1501.02155. doi:10.1017/fmp.2017.1.
== Notes ==
== External links ==
Thomas Callister Hales at the Mathematics Genealogy Project |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_state_highways_in_Tamil_Nadu#SH151_to_SH200 | List of state highways in Tamil Nadu | State Highways in India are stretches with heavy traffic intensity of more than 10,000 Passenger Car Units (PCUs) but less than 30,000 PCUs which connects district headquarters, important towns and the National Highways in the state and neighboring states. The Construction & Maintenance wing of the Highways Department manages construction and maintenance of all the State Highways (SH), major district roads (MDR), and other district roads (ODR). The Tamil Nadu State Highways Network has eight circles: Chennai, Villupuram, Madurai, Salem, Tiruchirappalli, Coimbatore, Tiruppur and Tirunelveli.
The state has a total of 286 state highways, 161 state highways urban (SH-U) stretches and 905 major district roads (MDRs), apart from other district roads (ODRs).
== List of state highways ==
This is a list of state highways in Tamil Nadu (as of March 2019).
=== SH1 to SH50 ===
=== SH51 to SH100 ===
=== SH 101 to SH 150 ===
=== SH151 to SH200 ===
=== SH201 to SH234 ===
== List of state highways urban ==
This is a list of state highways urban stretches in Tamil Nadu (as of March 2019).
=== SHU to SHU50 ===
=== SHU51 to SHU100 ===
=== SHU101 to SHU150 ===
=== SHU151 to SHU223 ===
== See also ==
National Highways Authority of India
List of major district roads in Tamil Nadu
National highways of India
List of national highways in India
Road network in Tamil Nadu
Chennai bypass
Coimbatore bypass
== References ==
== External links ==
Government of Tamil Nadu – Highways Department
Tamil Nadu Highways – Right to information (Chapter-02)
Maps of TN state highways
Government of Tamil Nadu – Annual Plan 2008–09 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nallah_Mar#:~:text=Nallah%20Mar%20or%20Mar%20Canal,territory%20of%20Jammu%20and%20Kashmir. | Nallah Mar | Nallah Mar or Mar Canal (also known as Mar Kol) was a navigational canal running through the old city of Srinagar in the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. It connected the Brari Nambal lagoon to the Khushal Sar lake and thus provided navigability between the Dal and Aanchar lakes. It was filled up and converted to a road in the 1970s. Once regarded as the lifeline of the city, it served vital functions in transportation, drainage, and urban life by linking Brari Nambal with Khushal Sar and other water bodies. Lined with stonework and arched bridges, its banks supported a bustling network of workshops, ghats, and stilted homes. However, in the 1970s, the canal was filled to create a road through the old city, an act now widely viewed as an ecological misstep that disrupted Srinagar’s water system and contributed to increased flood risks.
== History ==
The canal was built during the reign of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin of the Shah Mir dynasty (popularly known in Kashmir as 'Budshah'). It was considered as a lifeline of the city even up to the early part of the 20th century. However, with the arrival of motor transport, it gradually lost its sheen. As such, it was filled up to pave way for a road through the old city. The filling up of the canal is considered an ecological disaster as it led to the choking up of Brari Nambal and in turn affected the entire water system of the city. In the 1970s, Nallah Mar was filled in and converted into a road to accommodate increasing road traffic, reflecting urban infrastructure priorities of the time but resulting in loss of drainage function and worsened flood risk. The culverting of the canal severely disrupted the hydrology of Brari Nambal and the Dal-Anchar waterway system.
== Architecture ==
Nallah Mar, also known as Mar Kol, was a historic canal originally constructed to connect Brari Nambal lagoon with Khushal Sar and other water bodies serving both navigation and flood control purposes. It was lined with flattened stones and brick paving and featured numerous arched bridges such as Nowpora, Bohri, Saraf, Qadi, and Rajouri Kadals over its winding course through Old Srinagar. The canal's banks were once lined with workshops and waterfront houses set on stilts, with ghats where locals bathed, washed, and socialized creating a vibrant urban fabric along the water.
== Maps ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Wani, Arif Shafi (14 March 2015). "Filling of Mar Canal a blunder". Greater Kashmir.
"Budshah's Nallai Mar". Kashmir Life. 13 April 2017.
Naqash, Rayan (7 August 2017). "Gently down the Jhelum: Is water transport in Kashmir a practical option?". Scroll.in.
Qayoom, Sheikh (21 September 2014). "Jammu and Kashmir floods: Is nature saying "back off"?". The News Minute. IANS.
"How Human Greed Robbed Kashmir". Kashmir Observer. 27 April 2016.
Draboo, Anisa (15 September 2014). "Man vs nature: Srinagar's flood misery has been heightened by bad planning". The Times of India.
Punjabi, Riyaz (5 February 2020). "Remembering Nallah Mar: Lost Artery of the Dal Lake". Kashmir Trends. Archived from the original on 13 August 2022. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blake#:~:text=On%208%20October%201779%2C%20Blake,throughout%20the%20six%2Dyear%20period. | William Blake | William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827) was an English poet, painter and printmaker. Largely unrecognised during his life, Blake has become a seminal figure in the history of the poetry and visual art of the Romantic Age. What he called his "prophetic works" were said by the 20th-century critic Northrop Frye to form "what is in proportion to its merits the least read body of poetry in the English language". While he lived in London his entire life, except for three years spent in Felpham, he produced a diverse and symbolically rich collection of works, which embraced the imagination as "the body of God", or "human existence itself".
Although Blake was considered mad by contemporaries for his idiosyncratic views, he came to be highly regarded by later critics and readers for his expressiveness and creativity, and for the philosophical and mystical undercurrents within his work. His paintings and poetry have been characterised as part of the Romantic movement and as "Pre-Romantic". A theist who preferred his own Marcionite style of theology, he was hostile to the Church of England (indeed, to almost all forms of organised religion), and was influenced by the ideals and ambitions of the French and American Revolutions. Although later he rejected many of these political beliefs, he maintained an amicable relationship with the political activist Thomas Paine; he was also influenced by thinkers such as Emanuel Swedenborg. Despite these known influences, the singularity of Blake's work makes him difficult to classify. The 19th-century scholar William Michael Rossetti characterised him as a "glorious luminary", and "a man not forestalled by predecessors, nor to be classed with contemporaries, nor to be replaced by known or readily surmisable successors".
Collaboration with his wife, Catherine Boucher, was instrumental in the creation of many of his books. Boucher worked as a printmaker and colourist for his works. "For almost forty-five years she was the person who lived and worked most closely with Blake, enabling him to realize numerous projects, impossible without her assistance. Catherine was an artist and printer in her own right," writes the literary scholar Angus Whitehead.
== Early life ==
William Blake was born on 28 November 1757 at 28 Broad Street (now Broadwick Street) in Soho, London. He was the third of seven children, two of whom died in infancy. Blake's father, James, was a hosier, who had lived in London. William attended school only long enough to learn reading and writing, leaving at the age of 10, and was otherwise educated at home by his mother Catherine Blake (née Wright). Even though the Blakes were English Dissenters, William was baptised on 11 December at St James's Church, Piccadilly, London. The Bible was an early and profound influence on Blake, and remained a source of inspiration throughout his life. Blake's childhood, according to him, included mystical religious experiences such as "beholding God's face pressed against his window, seeing angels among the haystacks, and being visited by the Old Testament prophet Ezekiel."
Blake started engraving copies of drawings of Greek antiquities purchased for him by his father, a practice that was preferred to actual drawing. In these drawings Blake found his first exposure to classical forms through the work of Raphael, Michelangelo, Maarten van Heemskerck and Albrecht Dürer. The number of prints and bound books that James and Catherine were able to purchase for young William suggests that the Blakes enjoyed, at least for a time, a comfortable wealth. When William was ten years old, his parents knew enough of his headstrong temperament that he was not sent to school but instead enrolled in drawing classes at Henry Pars's drawing school in the Strand. He read avidly on subjects of his own choosing. During this period, Blake made explorations into poetry; his early work displays knowledge of Ben Jonson, Edmund Spenser and the Psalms.
=== Apprenticeship ===
On 4 August 1772 Blake was apprenticed to the engraver James Basire of Great Queen Street, at the sum of £52.10, for a term of seven years. At the end of the term, aged 21, he became a professional engraver. No record survives of any serious disagreement or conflict between the two during the period of Blake's apprenticeship, but Peter Ackroyd's biography notes that Blake later added Basire's name to a list of artistic adversaries; and then crossed it out. This aside, Basire's style of line-engraving was of a kind held at the time to be old-fashioned compared to the flashier stipple or mezzotint styles. It has been speculated that Blake's instruction in this outmoded form may have been detrimental to his acquiring work or recognition in later life.
After two years, Basire sent his apprentice to copy images from the Gothic churches in London (perhaps to settle a quarrel between Blake and James Parker, his fellow apprentice). His experiences in Westminster Abbey helped form his artistic style and ideas. The Abbey in his day was decorated with suits of armour, painted funeral effigies and varicoloured waxworks. Ackroyd notes that "the most immediate [impression] would have been of faded brightness and colour". This close study of the Gothic (which he saw as the "living form") left clear traces in his style. In the long afternoons Blake spent sketching in the Abbey, he was occasionally interrupted by boys from Westminster School, who were allowed in the Abbey. They teased him and one tormented him so much that Blake knocked the boy off a scaffold to the ground, "upon which he fell with terrific Violence". After Blake complained to the Dean, the schoolboys' privilege was withdrawn. Blake claimed that he experienced visions in the Abbey. He saw Christ with his Apostles and a great procession of monks and priests, and heard their chant.
=== Royal Academy ===
On 8 October 1779, Blake became a student at the Royal Academy in Old Somerset House, near the Strand. While the terms of his study required no payment, he was expected to supply his own materials throughout the six-year period. There, he rebelled against what he regarded as the unfinished style of fashionable painters such as Peter Paul Rubens, championed by the school's first president, Joshua Reynolds. Over time, Blake came to detest Reynolds' attitude towards art, especially his pursuit of "general truth" and "general beauty". Reynolds wrote in his Discourses that the "disposition to abstractions, to generalising and classification, is the great glory of the human mind"; Blake responded, in marginalia to his personal copy, that "To Generalize is to be an Idiot; To Particularize is the Alone Distinction of Merit". Blake also disliked Reynolds' apparent humility, which he held to be a form of hypocrisy. Against Reynolds' fashionable oil painting, Blake preferred the Classical precision of his early influences Michelangelo and Raphael.
David Bindman suggests that Blake's antagonism towards Reynolds arose not so much from the president's opinions (like Blake, Reynolds held history painting to be of greater value than landscape and portraiture), but rather "against his hypocrisy in not putting his ideals into practice". Certainly Blake was not averse to exhibiting at the Royal Academy, submitting works on six occasions between 1780 and 1808.
Blake became a friend of John Flaxman, Thomas Stothard and George Cumberland during his first year at the Royal Academy. They shared radical views, with Stothard and Cumberland joining the Society for Constitutional Information.
=== Gordon Riots ===
Blake's first biographer, Alexander Gilchrist, records that in June 1780 Blake was walking towards Basire's shop in Great Queen Street when he was swept up by a rampaging mob that stormed Newgate Prison. The mob attacked the prison gates with shovels and pickaxes, set the building ablaze, and released the prisoners inside. Blake was reportedly in the front rank of the mob during the attack. The riots, in response to a parliamentary bill revoking sanctions against Roman Catholicism, became known as the Gordon Riots and provoked a flurry of legislation from the government of George III, and the creation of the first police force.
== Marriage and collaboration with Catherine Boucher ==
In 1781 Blake met Catherine Boucher when he was recovering from a relationship that had culminated in a refusal of his marriage proposal. He recounted the story of his heartbreak for Catherine and her parents, after which he asked Catherine: "Do you pity me?" When she responded affirmatively, he declared: "Then I love you". William married Catherine, who was five years his junior, on 18 August 1782 in St Mary's Church, Battersea. Illiterate, Catherine signed her wedding contract with an X. The original wedding certificate may be viewed at the church, where a commemorative stained-glass window was installed between 1976 and 1982. The marriage was successful and Catherine became William's "partner in both life and work", undertaking important roles as an engraver and colourist. According to the Tate Gallery, Catherine mixed and applied his paint colours. One of Catherine Blake's most noted works is the colouring of the cover of the book Europe: A Prophecy. William Blake's 1863 biographer, Alexander Gilchrist, wrote, "The poet and his wife did everything in making the book – writing, designing, printing, engraving – everything except manufacturing the paper: the very ink, or colour rather, they did make." In 2019 Tate Britain's Blake exhibition gave particular focus to Catherine's role in Blake's work.
== Career ==
=== Early work ===
Around 1783, Blake's first collection of poems, Poetical Sketches, was printed. In 1784, after his father's death, Blake and his former fellow apprentice James Parker opened a print shop. They began working with the radical publisher Joseph Johnson. Johnson's house was a meeting-place for some leading English intellectual dissidents of the time: the theologian and scientist Joseph Priestley; the philosopher Richard Price; the artist John Henry Fuseli; the early feminist Mary Wollstonecraft; and the English-American revolutionary Thomas Paine. Along with William Wordsworth and William Godwin, Blake had great hopes for the French and American revolutions and wore a Phrygian cap in solidarity with the French revolutionaries, but despaired with the rise of Maximilien Robespierre and the Reign of Terror in France. That same year, Blake composed his unfinished manuscript An Island in the Moon (1784).
Blake illustrated Original Stories from Real Life (2nd edition, 1791) by Wollstonecraft. Although they seem to have shared some views on sexual equality and the institution of marriage, no evidence is known that would prove that they had met. In Visions of the Daughters of Albion (1793), Blake condemned the cruel absurdity of enforced chastity and marriage without love and defended the right of women to complete self-fulfilment.
From 1790 to 1800, William Blake lived in North Lambeth, London, at 13 Hercules Buildings, Hercules Road. The property was demolished in 1918, but the site is marked with a plaque. A series of 70 mosaics commemorates Blake in the nearby railway tunnels of Waterloo Station. The mosaics largely reproduce illustrations from Blake's illuminated books, The Songs of Innocence and of Experience, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, and the prophetic books.
=== Relief etching ===
In 1788, aged 31, Blake experimented with relief etching, a method he used to produce most of his books, paintings, pamphlets and poems. The process is also referred to as illuminated printing, and the finished products as illuminated books or prints. Illuminated printing involved writing the text of the poems on copper plates with pens and brushes, using an acid-resistant medium. Illustrations could appear alongside words in the manner of earlier illuminated manuscripts. He then etched the plates in acid to dissolve the untreated copper and leave the design standing in relief (hence the name).
This is a reversal of the usual method of etching, where the lines of the design are exposed to the acid, and the plate printed by the intaglio method. Relief etching (which Blake referred to as "stereotype" in The Ghost of Abel) was intended as a means for producing his illuminated books more quickly than via intaglio. Stereotype, a process invented in 1725, consisted of making a metal cast from a wood engraving, but Blake's innovation was, as described above, very different. The pages printed from these plates were hand-coloured in watercolours and stitched together to form a volume. Blake used illuminated printing for most of his well-known works, including Songs of Innocence and of Experience, The Book of Thel, The Marriage of Heaven and Hell and Jerusalem.
=== Engravings ===
Although Blake has become better known for his relief etching, his commercial work largely consisted of intaglio engraving, the standard process of engraving in the 18th century in which the artist incised an image into the copper plate, a complex and laborious process, with plates taking months or years to complete, but as Blake's contemporary John Boydell realised, such engraving offered a "missing link with commerce", enabling artists to connect with a mass audience and became an immensely important activity by the end of the 18th century.
Europe Supported by Africa and America is an engraving by Blake held in the collection of the University of Arizona Museum of Art. The engraving was for a book written by Blake's friend John Gabriel Stedman called The Narrative of a Five Years Expedition against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam (1796). It depicts three women embracing one another. Black Africa and White Europe hold hands in a gesture of equality, as the barren earth blooms beneath their feet. Europe wears a string of pearls, while her sisters Africa and America are depicted wearing slave bracelets. Some scholars have speculated that the bracelets represent the "historical fact" of slavery in Africa and the Americas while the handclasp refer to Stedman's "ardent wish": "we only differ in color, but are certainly all created by the same Hand." Others have said it "expresses the climate of opinion in which the questions of color and slavery were, at that time, being considered, and which Blake's writings reflect."
Blake employed intaglio engraving in his own work, such as for his Illustrations of the Book of Job, completed just before his death. Most critical work has concentrated on Blake's relief etching as a technique because it is the most innovative aspect of his art, but a 2009 study drew attention to Blake's surviving plates, including those for the Book of Job: they demonstrate that he made frequent use of a technique known as "repoussage", a means of obliterating mistakes by hammering them out by hitting the back of the plate. Such techniques, typical of engraving work of the time, are very different from the much faster and fluid way of drawing on a plate that Blake employed for his relief etching, and indicates why the engravings took so long to complete.
== Later life ==
Blake's marriage to Catherine was close and devoted until his death. Blake taught Catherine to write, and she helped him colour his printed poems. Gilchrist refers to "stormy times" in the early years of the marriage. Some biographers have suggested that Blake tried to bring a concubine into the marriage bed in accordance with the beliefs of the more radical branches of the Swedenborgian Society, but other scholars have dismissed these theories as conjecture. In his Dictionary, Samuel Foster Damon suggests that Catherine may have had a stillborn daughter for which The Book of Thel is an elegy. That is how he rationalises the Book's unusual ending, but notes that he is speculating.
=== Felpham ===
In 1800 Blake moved to a a cottage at Felpham, in Sussex (now West Sussex), to take up a job illustrating the works of William Hayley, a minor poet. It was in this cottage that Blake began Milton (the title page is dated 1804, but Blake continued to work on it until 1808). The preface to this work includes a poem beginning "And did those feet in ancient time", which became the words for the anthem "Jerusalem". Over time, Blake began to resent his new patron, believing that Hayley was uninterested in true artistry, and preoccupied with "the meer drudgery of business" (E724). Blake's disenchantment with Hayley has been speculated to have influenced Milton: a Poem, in which Blake wrote that "Corporeal Friends are Spiritual Enemies". (4:26, E98)
Blake's trouble with authority came to a head in August 1803, when he was involved in a physical altercation with a soldier, John Schofield. Blake was charged not only with assault, but with uttering seditious and treasonable expressions against the King. Schofield claimed that Blake had exclaimed "Damn the king. The soldiers are all slaves." Blake was cleared in the Chichester assizes of the charges. According to a report in the Sussex county paper, "[T]he invented character of [the evidence] was ... so obvious that an acquittal resulted". Schofield was later depicted wearing "mind forged manacles" in an illustration to Jerusalem The Emanation of the Giant Albion.
=== Return to London ===
Blake returned to London in 1804 and began to write and illustrate Jerusalem (1804–20), his most ambitious work. Having conceived the idea of portraying the characters in Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Blake approached the dealer Robert Cromek, with a view to marketing an engraving. Knowing Blake was too eccentric to produce a popular work, Cromek promptly commissioned Blake's friend Thomas Stothard to execute the concept. When Blake learned he had been cheated, he broke off contact with Stothard. He set up an independent exhibition in his brother's haberdashery shop at 27 Broad Street in Soho. The exhibition was designed to market his own version of the Canterbury illustration (titled The Canterbury Pilgrims), along with other works. As a result, he wrote his Descriptive Catalogue (1809), which contains what Anthony Blunt called a "brilliant analysis" of Chaucer and is regularly anthologised as a classic of Chaucer criticism. It also contained detailed explanations of his other paintings. The exhibition was very poorly attended, selling none of the temperas or watercolours. Its only review, in The Examiner, was hostile.
Also around this time (circa 1808), Blake gave vigorous expression of his views on art in an extensive series of polemical annotations to the Discourses of Sir Joshua Reynolds, denouncing the Royal Academy as a fraud and proclaiming, "To Generalize is to be an Idiot".
In 1818 he was introduced by George Cumberland's son to a young artist named John Linnell. A blue plaque commemorates Blake and Linnell at Old Wyldes' at North End, Hampstead. Through Linnell he met Samuel Palmer, who belonged to a group of artists who called themselves the Shoreham Ancients. The group shared Blake's rejection of modern trends and his belief in a spiritual and artistic New Age. Aged 65, Blake began work on illustrations for the Book of Job, later admired by John Ruskin, who compared Blake favourably to Rembrandt, and by Vaughan Williams, who based his ballet Job: A Masque for Dancing on a selection of the illustrations.
In later life Blake began to sell a great number of his works, particularly his Bible illustrations, to Thomas Butts, a patron who saw Blake more as a friend than a man whose work held artistic merit; this was typical of the opinions held of Blake throughout his life.
The commission for Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy came to Blake in 1826 through Linnell, with the aim of producing a series of engravings. Blake's death in 1827 cut short the enterprise, and only a handful of watercolours were completed, with only seven of the engravings arriving at proof form. Even so, they have earned praise:
[T]he Dante watercolours are among Blake's richest achievements, engaging fully with the problem of illustrating a poem of this complexity. The mastery of watercolour has reached an even higher level than before, and is used to extraordinary effect in differentiating the atmosphere of the three states of being in the poem.
Blake's illustrations of the poem are not merely accompanying works, but rather seem to critically revise, or furnish commentary on, certain spiritual or moral aspects of the text.
Because the project was never completed, Blake's intent may be obscured. Some indicators bolster the impression that Blake's illustrations in their totality would take issue with the text they accompany: in the margin of Homer Bearing the Sword and His Companions, Blake notes, "Every thing in Dantes Comedia shews That for Tyrannical Purposes he has made This World the Foundation of All & the Goddess Nature & not the Holy Ghost." Blake seems to dissent from Dante's admiration of the poetic works of ancient Greece, and from the apparent glee with which Dante allots punishments in Hell (as evidenced by the grim humour of the cantos).
At the same time, Blake shared Dante's distrust of materialism and the corruptive nature of power, and clearly relished the opportunity to represent the atmosphere and imagery of Dante's work pictorially. Even as he seemed to be near death, Blake's central preoccupation was his feverish work on the illustrations to Dante's Inferno; he is said to have spent one of the last shillings he possessed on a pencil to continue sketching.
== Final years ==
Blake's last years were spent at Fountain Court off the Strand (the property was demolished in the 1880s, when the Savoy Hotel was built). On the day of his death (12 August 1827), Blake worked relentlessly on his Dante series. Eventually, it is reported, he ceased working and turned to his wife, who was in tears by his bedside. Beholding her, Blake is said to have cried, "Stay Kate! Keep just as you are – I will draw your portrait – for you have ever been an angel to me." Having completed this portrait (now lost), Blake laid down his tools and began to sing hymns and verses. At six that evening, after promising his wife that he would be with her always, Blake died. Gilchrist reports that a female lodger in the house, present at his expiration, said, "I have been at the death, not of a man, but of a blessed angel."
George Richmond gives the following account of Blake's death in a letter to Samuel Palmer:
He died ... in a most glorious manner. He said He was going to that Country he had all His life wished to see & expressed Himself Happy, hoping for Salvation through Jesus Christ – Just before he died His Countenance became fair. His eyes Brighten'd and he burst out Singing of the things he saw in Heaven.
Catherine paid for Blake's funeral with money lent to her by Linnell. Blake's body was buried in a plot shared with others, five days after his death – on the eve of his 45th wedding anniversary – at the Dissenters's burial ground in Bunhill Fields, in the City of London area. His parents' bodies were buried in the same graveyard. Present at the ceremonies were Catherine, Edward Calvert, George Richmond, Frederick Tatham and John Linnell. Following Blake's death, Catherine moved into Tatham's house as a housekeeper. She believed she was regularly visited by Blake's spirit. She continued selling his illuminated works and paintings, but entertained no business transaction without first "consulting Mr. Blake". On the day of her death, in October 1831, she was as calm and cheerful as her husband, and called out to him "as if he were only in the next room, to say she was coming to him, and it would not be long now."
On her death, longtime acquaintance Frederick Tatham took possession of Blake's works and continued selling them. Tatham later joined the fundamentalist Irvingite church and under the influence of conservative members of that church burned manuscripts that he deemed heretical. The exact number of destroyed manuscripts is unknown, but shortly before his death Blake told a friend he had written "twenty tragedies as long as Macbeth", none of which survive. Another acquaintance, William Michael Rossetti, also burned works by Blake that he considered lacking in quality, and John Linnell erased sexual imagery from a number of Blake's drawings. At the same time, some works not intended for publication were preserved by friends, such as his notebook and An Island in the Moon.
Blake's grave is commemorated by two stones. The first was a stone that reads "Near by lie the remains of the poet-painter William Blake 1757–1827 and his wife Catherine Sophia 1762–1831". The memorial stone is situated approximately 20 metres (66 ft) away from the actual grave, which was not marked until 12 August 2018. For years since 1965, the exact location of William Blake's grave had been lost and forgotten. The area had been damaged in the Second World War; gravestones were removed and a garden was created. The memorial stone, indicating that the burial sites are "nearby", was listed as a Grade II listed structure in 2011. A Portuguese couple, Carol and Luís Garrido, rediscovered the exact burial location after 14 years of investigatory work, and the Blake Society organised a permanent memorial slab, which was unveiled at a public ceremony at the site on 12 August 2018. The new stone is inscribed "Here lies William Blake 1757–1827 Poet Artist Prophet" above a verse from his poem Jerusalem.
The Blake Prize for Religious Art was established in his honour in Australia in 1949. In 1957 a memorial to Blake and his wife was erected in Westminster Abbey. Another memorial lies in St James's Church, Piccadilly, where he was baptised.
At the time of Blake's death, he had sold fewer than 30 copies of Songs of Innocence and of Experience.
== Opinions ==
=== Politics ===
Blake was not active in any well-established political party. His poetry consistently embodies an attitude of rebellion against the abuse of class power as documented in David Erdman's major study Blake: Prophet Against Empire: A Poet's Interpretation of the History of His Own Times (1954). Blake was concerned about senseless wars and the blighting effects of the Industrial Revolution. Much of his poetry recounts in symbolic allegory the effects of the French and American revolutions. Erdman claims Blake was disillusioned with the political outcomes of the conflicts, believing they had simply replaced monarchy with irresponsible mercantilism. Erdman also notes Blake was deeply opposed to slavery and believes some of his poems, read primarily as championing "free love", had their anti-slavery implications short-changed. A more recent study, William Blake: Visionary Anarchist by Peter Marshall (1988), classified Blake and his contemporary William Godwin as forerunners of modern anarchism. The British Marxist historian E. P. Thompson's last finished work, Witness Against the Beast: William Blake and the Moral Law (1993), claims to show how far he was inspired by dissident religious ideas rooted in the thinking of the most radical opponents of the monarchy during the English Civil War.
=== Development of views ===
Because Blake's later poetry contains a private mythology with complex symbolism, his late work has been less published than his earlier more accessible work. The Vintage anthology of Blake edited by Patti Smith focuses heavily on the earlier work, as do many critical studies such as William Blake by D. G. Gillham.
The earlier work is primarily rebellious in character and can be seen as a protest against dogmatic religion especially notable in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, in which the figure represented by the "Devil" is virtually a hero rebelling against an imposter authoritarian deity. In later works, such as Milton and Jerusalem, Blake carves a distinctive vision of a humanity redeemed by self-sacrifice and forgiveness, while retaining his earlier negative attitude towards what he felt was the rigid and morbid authoritarianism of traditional religion. Not all readers of Blake agree upon how much continuity exists between Blake's earlier and later works.
Psychoanalyst June Singer has written that Blake's late work displayed a development of the ideas first introduced in his earlier works, namely, the humanitarian goal of achieving personal wholeness of body and spirit. The final section of the expanded edition of her Blake study The Unholy Bible suggests the later works are the "Bible of Hell" promised in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. Regarding Blake's final poem, Jerusalem, she writes: "The promise of the divine in man, made in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, is at last fulfilled."
John Middleton Murry notes discontinuity between Marriage and the late works, in that while the early Blake focused on a "sheer negative opposition between Energy and Reason", the later Blake emphasised the notions of self-sacrifice and forgiveness as the road to interior wholeness. This renunciation of the sharper dualism of Marriage of Heaven and Hell is evidenced in particular by the humanisation of the character of Urizen in the later works. Murry characterises the later Blake as having found "mutual understanding" and "mutual forgiveness".
=== Religious views ===
Regarding conventional religion, Blake was a satirist and ironist in his viewpoints which are illustrated and summarised in his poem Vala, or The Four Zoas, one of his uncompleted prophetic books begun in 1797. The demi-mythological and demi-religious main characters of the book are the Four Zoas (Urthona, Urizen, Luvah and Tharmas), who were created by the fall of Albion in Blake's mythology. It consists of nine books, referred to as "nights". These outline the interactions of the Zoas, their fallen forms and their Emanations. Blake intended the book to be a summation of his mythic universe. Blake's Four Zoas represent four aspects of the Almighty God, and Vala is the first work to mention them. In particular, Blake's God/Man union is broken down into the bodily components of Urizen (head), Urthona (loins), Luvah (heart), and Tharmas (unity of the body) with paired Emanations being Ahania (wisdom, from the head), Enitharmon (what can't be attained in nature, from the loins), Vala (nature, from the heart), and Enion (earth mother, from the separation of unity). As connected to Blake's understanding of the divine, the Zoas are the God the Father (Tharmas, sense), the Son of God (Luvah, love), the Holy Ghost (Urthona, imagination), and Satan who was originally of the divine substance (Urizen, reason) and their Emanations represent Sexual Urges (Enion), Nature (Vala), Inspiration (Enitharmon), and Pleasure (Ahania).
Blake believed that each person had a twofold identity with one half being good and the other evil. In Vala, both the character Orc and The Eternal Man discuss their selves as divided. By the time he was working on his later works, including Vala, Blake felt that he was able to overcome his inner battle but he was concerned about losing his artistic abilities. These thoughts carried over into Vala as the character Los (imagination) is connected to the image of Christ, and he added a Christian element to his mythic world. In the revised version of Vala, Blake added Christian and Hebrew images and describes how Los experiences a vision of the Lamb of God that regenerates Los's spirit. In opposition to Christ is Urizen and the Synagogue of Satan, who later crucifies Christ. It is from them that Deism is born.
Blake did not subscribe to the notion of a body distinct from the soul that must submit to the rule of the soul, but sees the body as an extension of the soul, derived from the "discernment" of the senses. Thus, the emphasis orthodoxy places upon the denial of bodily urges is a dualistic error born of misapprehension of the relationship between body and soul. Elsewhere, he describes Satan as the "state of error", and as beyond salvation.
Blake opposed the sophistry of theological thought that excuses pain, admits evil and apologises for injustice. He abhorred self-denial, which he associated with religious repression and particularly sexual repression:
He saw the concept of "sin" as a trap to bind men's desires (the briars of Garden of Love), and believed that restraint in obedience to a moral code imposed from the outside was against the spirit of life:
He did not hold with the doctrine of God as Lord, an entity separate from and superior to mankind; this is shown clearly in his words about Jesus Christ: "He is the only God ... and so am I, and so are you." A telling phrase in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is "men forgot that All deities reside in the human breast".
== Enlightenment philosophy ==
Blake had a complex relationship with Enlightenment philosophy. His championing of the imagination as the most important element of human existence ran contrary to Enlightenment ideals of rationalism and empiricism. Due to his visionary religious beliefs, he opposed the Newtonian view of the universe. This mindset is reflected in an excerpt from Blake's Jerusalem:
Blake believed the paintings of Sir Joshua Reynolds, which depict the naturalistic fall of light upon objects, were products entirely of the "vegetative eye", and he saw Locke and Newton as "the true progenitors of Sir Joshua Reynolds' aesthetic". The popular taste in the England of that time for such paintings was satisfied with mezzotints, prints produced by a process that created an image from thousands of tiny dots upon the page. Blake saw an analogy between this and Newton's particle theory of light. Accordingly, Blake never used the technique, opting rather to develop a method of engraving purely in fluid line, insisting that:
a Line or Lineament is not formed by Chance a Line is a Line in its Minutest Subdivision[s] Strait or Crooked It is Itself & Not Intermeasurable with or by any Thing Else Such is Job. (E784)
It has been supposed that, despite his opposition to Enlightenment principles, Blake arrived at a linear aesthetic that was in many ways more similar to the Neoclassical engravings of John Flaxman than to the works of the Romantics, with whom he is often classified. However, Blake's relationship with Flaxman seems to have grown more distant after Blake's return from Felpham, and there are surviving letters between Flaxman and Hayley wherein Flaxman speaks ill of Blake's theories of art. Blake further criticised Flaxman's styles and theories of art in his responses to criticism made against his print of Chaucer's Caunterbury Pilgrims in 1810.
== Sexuality ==
=== "Free Love" ===
Since his death, Blake has been claimed by those of various movements who apply his complex and often elusive use of symbolism and allegory to the issues that concern them. In particular, Blake is sometimes considered (along with Mary Wollstonecraft and her husband William Godwin) a forerunner of the 19th-century "free love" movement, a broad reform tradition starting in the 1820s that held that marriage is slavery, and advocated the removal of all state restrictions on sexual activity such as homosexuality, prostitution and adultery, culminating in the birth control movement of the early 20th century. Blake scholarship was more focused on this theme in the earlier 20th century, although it is still mentioned by the Blake scholar Magnus Ankarsjö who moderately challenges this interpretation. The 19th-century "free love" movement was not particularly focused on the idea of multiple partners, but did agree with Wollstonecraft that state-sanctioned marriage was "legal prostitution" and monopolistic in character. It has somewhat more in common with early feminist movements (particularly with regard to the writings of Mary Wollstonecraft, whom Blake admired).
Blake was critical of the marriage laws of his day, and generally railed against traditional Christian notions of chastity as a virtue. At a time of tremendous strain in his marriage, in part due to Catherine's apparent inability to bear children, he directly advocated bringing a second wife into the house. His poetry suggests that external demands for marital fidelity reduce love to mere duty rather than authentic affection, and decries jealousy and egotism as a motive for marriage laws. Poems such as "Why should I be bound to thee, O my lovely Myrtle-tree?" and "Earth's Answer" seem to advocate multiple sexual partners. In his poem "London" he speaks of "the Marriage-Hearse" plagued by "the youthful Harlot's curse", the result alternatively of false Prudence and/or Harlotry. Visions of the Daughters of Albion is widely (though not universally) read as a tribute to free love since the relationship between Bromion and Oothoon is held together only by laws and not by love. For Blake, law and love are opposed, and he castigates the "frozen marriage-bed". In Visions, Blake writes:
In the 19th century the poet and free-love advocate Algernon Charles Swinburne wrote a book on Blake drawing attention to the above motifs in which Blake praises "sacred natural love" that is not bound by another's possessive jealousy, the latter characterised by Blake as a "creeping skeleton". Swinburne notes how Blake's Marriage of Heaven and Hell condemns the hypocrisy of the "pale religious letchery" of advocates of traditional norms. Another 19th-century free love advocate, Edward Carpenter (1844–1929), was influenced by Blake's mystical emphasis on energy free from external restrictions.
In the early 20th century, Pierre Berger described how Blake's views echo Wollstonecraft's celebration of joyful authentic love rather than love born of duty, the former being the true measure of purity. Irene Langridge notes that "in Blake's mysterious and unorthodox creed the doctrine of free love was something Blake wanted for the edification of 'the soul'." Michael Davis' 1977 book William Blake a New Kind of Man suggests that Blake thought jealousy separates man from the divine unity, condemning him to a frozen death.
As a theological writer, Blake has a sense of human "fallenness". S. Foster Damon noted that for Blake the major impediments to a free love society were corrupt human nature, not merely the intolerance of society and the jealousy of men, but the inauthentic hypocritical nature of human communication. Thomas Wright's 1928 book Life of William Blake (entirely devoted to Blake's doctrine of free love) notes that Blake thinks marriage should in practice afford the joy of love, but notes that in reality it often does not, as a couple's knowledge of being chained often diminishes their joy. Pierre Berger also analyses Blake's early mythological poems such as Ahania as declaring marriage laws to be a consequence of the fallenness of humanity, as these are born from pride and jealousy.
Some scholars have noted that Blake's views on "free love" are both qualified and may have undergone shifts and modifications in his late years. Some poems from this period warn of dangers of predatory sexuality such as The Sick Rose. Magnus Ankarsjö notes that while the hero of Visions of the Daughters of Albion is a strong advocate of free love, by the end of the poem she has become more circumspect as her awareness of the dark side of sexuality has grown, crying "Can this be love which drinks another as a sponge drinks water?" Ankarsjö also notes that a major inspiration to Blake, Mary Wollstonecraft, similarly developed more circumspect views of sexual freedom late in life. In light of Blake's aforementioned sense of human 'fallenness' Ankarsjö thinks Blake does not fully approve of sensual indulgence merely in defiance of law as exemplified by the female character of Leutha, since in the fallen world of experience all love is enchained. Ankarsjö records Blake as having supported a commune with some sharing of partners, though David Worrall read The Book of Thel as a rejection of the proposal to take concubines espoused by some members of the Swedenborgian church.
Blake's later writings show a renewed interest in Christianity, and although he radically reinterprets Christian morality in a way that embraces sensual pleasure, there is little of the emphasis on sexual libertarianism found in several of his early poems, and there is advocacy of "self-denial", though such abnegation must be inspired by love rather than through authoritarian compulsion. Berger (more so than Swinburne) is especially sensitive to a shift in sensibility between the early Blake and the later Blake. Berger believes the young Blake placed too much emphasis on following impulses, and that the older Blake had a better formed ideal of a true love that sacrifices self. Some celebration of mystical sensuality remains in the late poems (most notably in Blake's denial of the virginity of Jesus's mother). However, the late poems also place a greater emphasis on forgiveness, redemption, and emotional authenticity as a foundation for relationships.
== Legacy ==
=== Creativity ===
Northrop Frye, commenting on Blake's consistency in strongly held views, notes that Blake himself says that his notes on [Joshua] Reynolds, written at fifty, are 'exactly Similar' to those on Locke and Bacon, written when he was 'very Young'. Even phrases and lines of verse will reappear as much as forty years later. Consistency in maintaining what he believed to be true was itself one of his leading principles ... Consistency, then, foolish or otherwise, is one of Blake's chief preoccupations, just as 'self-contradiction' is always one of his most contemptuous comments.
Blake abhorred slavery, and believed in racial and sexual equality. Several of his poems and paintings express a notion of universal humanity: "As all men are alike (tho' infinitely various)". In one poem, narrated by a black child, white and black bodies alike are described as shaded groves or clouds, which exist only until one learns "to bear the beams of love":
Blake retained an active interest in social and political events throughout his life, and social and political statements are often present in his mystical symbolism. His views on what he saw as oppression and restriction of rightful freedom extended to the Church. His spiritual beliefs are evident in Songs of Experience (1794), in which he distinguishes between the Old Testament God, whose restrictions he rejected, and the New Testament God whom he saw as a positive influence.
=== Visions ===
From a young age, Blake claimed to have seen visions. The first may have occurred as early as the age of four when, according to one anecdote, the young artist "saw God" when God "put his head to the window", causing Blake to break into screaming. At the age of eight or ten in Peckham Rye, London, Blake claimed to have seen "a tree filled with angels, bright angelic wings bespangling every bough like stars." According to Blake's Victorian biographer Gilchrist, he returned home and reported the vision and only escaped being thrashed by his father for telling a lie through the intervention of his mother. Though all evidence suggests that his parents were largely supportive, his mother seems to have been especially so, and several of Blake's early drawings and poems decorated the walls of her chamber. On another occasion, Blake watched haymakers at work, and thought he saw angelic figures walking among them.
Blake claimed to experience visions throughout his life. They were often associated with beautiful religious themes and imagery, and may have inspired him further with spiritual works and pursuits. Certainly, religious concepts and imagery figure centrally in Blake's works. God and Christianity constituted the intellectual centre of his writings, from which he drew inspiration. Blake believed he was personally instructed and encouraged by Archangels to create his artistic works, which he claimed were actively read and enjoyed by the same Archangels. In a letter of condolence to William Hayley, dated 6 May 1800, four days after the death of Hayley's son, Blake wrote:
I know that our deceased friends are more really with us than when they were apparent to our mortal part. Thirteen years ago I lost a brother, and with his spirit I converse daily and hourly in the spirit, and see him in my remembrance, in the region of my imagination. I hear his advice, and even now write from his dictate.
In a letter to John Flaxman, dated 21 September 1800, Blake wrote:
[The town of] Felpham is a sweet place for Study, because it is more spiritual than London. Heaven opens here on all sides her golden Gates; her windows are not obstructed by vapours; voices of Celestial inhabitants are more distinctly heard, & their forms more distinctly seen; & my Cottage is also a Shadow of their houses. My Wife & Sister are both well, courting Neptune for an embrace... I am more famed in Heaven for my works than I could well conceive. In my Brain are studies & Chambers filled with books & pictures of old, which I wrote & painted in ages of Eternity before my mortal life; & those works are the delight & Study of Archangels. (E710)
In a letter to Thomas Butts, dated 25 April 1803, Blake wrote:
Now I may say to you, what perhaps I should not dare to say to anyone else: That I can alone carry on my visionary studies in London unannoy'd, & that I may converse with my friends in Eternity, See Visions, Dream Dreams & prophecy & speak Parables unobserv'd & at liberty from the Doubts of other Mortals; perhaps Doubts proceeding from Kindness, but Doubts are always pernicious, Especially when we Doubt our Friends.
In A Vision of the Last Judgement Blake wrote:
Error is Created Truth is Eternal Error or Creation will be Burned Up & then & not till then Truth or Eternity will appear It is Burnt up the Moment Men cease to behold it I assert for My self that I do not behold the Outward Creation & that to me it is hindrance & not Action it is as the Dirt upon my feet No part of Me. What it will be Questiond When the Sun rises do you not see a round Disk of fire somewhat like a Guinea O no no I see an Innumerable company of the Heavenly host crying Holy Holy Holy is the Lord God Almighty I question not my Corporeal or Vegetative Eye any more than I would Question a Window concerning a Sight I look thro it & not with it. (E565-6)
Despite seeing angels and God, Blake has also claimed to have seen Satan on the staircase of his South Molton Street home in London.
Aware of Blake's visions, William Wordsworth commented, "There was no doubt that this poor man was mad, but there is something in the madness of this man which interests me more than the sanity of Lord Byron and Walter Scott." In a more deferential vein, John William Cousins wrote in A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature that Blake was "a truly pious and loving soul, neglected and misunderstood by the world, but appreciated by an elect few", who "led a cheerful and contented life of poverty illumined by visions and celestial inspirations". Blake's sanity was called into question as recently as the publication of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, whose entry on Blake comments that "the question whether Blake was or was not mad seems likely to remain in dispute, but there can be no doubt whatever that he was at different periods of his life under the influence of illusions for which there are no outward facts to account, and that much of what he wrote is so far wanting in the quality of sanity as to be without a logical coherence".
=== Cultural influence ===
Blake's work was neglected for a generation after his death and almost forgotten by the time Alexander Gilchrist began work on his biography in the 1860s. The publication of the Life of William Blake rapidly transformed Blake's reputation, in particular as he was taken up by Pre-Raphaelites and associated figures, in particular Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Algernon Charles Swinburne. In the 20th century, however, Blake's work was fully appreciated and his influence increased. Important early and mid-20th-century scholars involved in enhancing Blake's standing in literary and artistic circles included S. Foster Damon, Geoffrey Keynes, Northrop Frye and David V. Erdman.
While Blake had a significant role in the art and poetry of figures such as Rossetti, it was during the Modernist period that this work began to influence a wider set of writers and artists. William Butler Yeats, who edited an edition of Blake's collected works in 1893, drew on him for poetic and philosophical ideas, while British surrealist art in particular drew on Blake's conceptions of non-mimetic, visionary practice in the painting of artists such as Paul Nash and Graham Sutherland.
His poetry came into use by a number of British classical composers, who set his works. The earliest such work known is Doyne Bell's setting of the poem Can I see another's woe, from Songs of Innocence and of Experience, published in 1876. Notable settings are by Benjamin Britten and Ralph Vaughan Williams, and John Tavener set several of Blake's poems, including The Lamb (as the 1982 work "The Lamb") and The Tyger.
Many such as June Singer have argued that Blake's thoughts on human nature greatly anticipate and parallel the thinking of the psychoanalyst Carl Jung. In Jung's own words: "Blake [is] a tantalizing study, since he compiled a lot of half or undigested knowledge in his fantasies. According to my ideas they are an artistic production rather than an authentic representation of unconscious processes." Similarly, Diana Hume George claimed that Blake can be seen as a precursor to the ideas of Sigmund Freud.
Blake had an enormous influence on the beat poets of the 1950s and the counterculture of the 1960s, frequently being cited by such seminal figures as the beat poet Allen Ginsberg, the songwriters Bob Dylan, Richard Ashcroft, Jim Morrison, Van Morrison and Bruce Dickinson, and the writer Aldous Huxley. The Pulitzer Prize for Music–winning composer William Bolcom set Songs of Innocence and of Experience to music, with different poems set to different styles of music, "from modern techniques to Broadway to Country/Western" and reggae.
Much of the central conceit of Philip Pullman's fantasy trilogy His Dark Materials is rooted in the world of Blake's The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. Blake also features as a relatively significant character in Brian Catling's fantasy novel The Erstwhile, where his visions of angelic beings are figured into the story. The composer Kathleen Yearwood is one of many contemporary musicians that have set Blake's poems to music. After the Second World War, Blake's role in popular culture came to the fore in a variety of areas such as popular music, film and the graphic novel, leading Edward Larrissy to assert that "Blake is the Romantic writer who has exerted the most powerful influence on the twentieth century."
== Exhibitions ==
Major recent exhibitions focusing on William Blake include:
The Ashmolean Museum's (Oxford) exhibition William Blake: Apprentice and Master, open from December 2014 until March 2015, examined William Blake's formation as an artist, as well as his influence on young artist-printmakers who gathered around him in the last years of his life.
The National Gallery of Victoria's exhibition William Blake in summer 2014 showcased the Gallery's collection of works by William Blake which includes spectacular watercolours, single prints and illustrated books.
The Morgan Library & Museum exhibition William Blake's World: A New Heaven Is Begun, open from September 2009 until January 2010, included more than 100 watercolours, prints, and illuminated books of poetry.
An exhibition at Tate Britain in 2007–2008, William Blake, coincided with the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of William Blake's birth and included Blake works from the Gallery's permanent collection, but also private loans of recently discovered works which had never before been exhibited.
The Scottish National Gallery 2007 exhibition William Blake coincided with the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of William Blake's birth and featured all of the Gallery's works associated with Blake.
An exhibition at Tate Britain in 2000–2001, William Blake, displayed the full range of William Blake's art and poetry, together with contextual materials, arranged in four sections: One of the Gothic Artists; The Furnace of Lambeth's Vale; Chambers of the Imagination; Many Formidable Works. The exhibit traveled to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 2001.
In 2016 the world's first William Blake antique bookstore and art gallery opened in San Francisco, US.
A major exhibition on Blake at Tate Britain in London opened in the autumn of 2019.
An exhibition at the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, titled William Blake's Universe, ran between 23 February and 19 May 2024.
== Bibliography ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Blake Society
Making facsimiles of Blake's prints (archived 29 April 2014)
William Blake Archived 31 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine at the British Library
William Blake Poems Arts & Experience Library
William Blake at IMDb
Selected works at Poetry-Index
=== Profiles ===
Profile at the Academy of American Poets
Profile at the Poetry Foundation
BBC etching gallery
=== Archives ===
The William Blake Archive – A Comprehensive Academic Archive of Blake's works with scans from multiple collections
47 artworks by or after William Blake at the Art UK site
Single Institution Holdings:
The G. E. Bentley: William Blake Collection Special Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
The G. E. Bentley: William Blake Collection Digital Collections | Victoria University Library in the University of Toronto
William Blake collection at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin
William Blake Digital Material From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress
William Blake Collection. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.
Digital editions and research
Project Gutenberg – works by Blake downloadable
Works by or about William Blake at the Internet Archive
Works by William Blake at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Settings of William Blake's poetry in the Choral Public Domain Library |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_W._Liepmann | Hans W. Liepmann | Hans Wolfgang Liepmann (July 3, 1914 – June 24, 2009) was an American fluid dynamicist,
aerospace scientist and emeritus Theodore von Kármán Professor of Aeronautics at the California Institute of Technology.
He is known for his numerous contributions in fluid mechanics covering a wide range of problem areas, such as flow instability and turbulence, gas kinetics, viscous compressible fluids and liquid helium flows.
== Academic history ==
Hans Liepmann received a Dr.Ing.h.c. from the University of Aachen and a Ph.D. from the University of Zurich in 1938.
On July 31, 1939 Liepmann arrived in New York, to join Theodore von Kármán at Caltech as a Research Fellow in Aeronautics. He became Assistant Professor of Aeronautics in 1945, Associate Professor in 1946 and Professor from 1949 to 1974. From 1974 to 1976 he was Professor of Aeronautics and Applied Physics, from 1976 to 1983 Charles Lee Powell Professor of Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics and 1984-85 von Kármán Professor of Aeronautics. From 1972 to 1985 Liepmann was Director of the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory and Executive Officer for Aeronautics from 1976 to 1985.
He retired in 1985, but remained the emeritus von Kármán Professor at Caltech.
Liepmann received several awards, a selection:
1968: Ludwig-Prandtl-Ring from Deutsche Gesellschaft für Luft- und Raumfahrt
1980: Fluid Dynamics Prize by the American Physical Society
1985: Otto Laporte Award by the American Physical Society
1986: National Medal of Science
1986: Daniel Guggenheim Medal
1993: National Medal of Technology for "Outstanding research contributions to the field of fluid mechanics"
== Books ==
1957: (with Anatol Roshko) Elements of Gas Dynamics, John Wiley & Sons, Dover Publications (2002)
1947: (with Allen E. Puckett) Introduction to Aerodynamics of a Compressible Fluid, John Wiley & Sons
== References ==
== External links ==
Hans W. Liepmann at the American Institute of Physics
Hans W. Liepmann at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
Passings: Hans W.Liepmann, longtime Caltech professor from Los Angeles Times |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetty_King#:~:text=Early%20life,-She%20was%20born&text=She%20adopted%20the%20name%20Hetty,at%20the%20age%20of%20six. | Hetty King | Winifred Emms (4 April 1883 – 28 September 1972), best known by her stage name Hetty King, was an English entertainer who performed in the music halls as a male impersonator over some 70 years.
== Early life ==
She was born in New Brighton, Cheshire, where her itinerant family were living temporarily; they were usually based in Manchester. Her father, William Emms (1856–1954), was a comedian and musician who performed as Billy King and ran Uncle Billy's Minstrels, a troupe who constantly travelled around the country with a portable theatre and caravans. As a child, she began appearing in her father's shows, imitating popular performers of the day. She adopted the name Hetty King when she first appeared on the stage of the Shoreditch Theatre, at the age of six.
== Career ==
At the age of 10, King won a contest which offered a season’s work at Blackpool Pier. King started performing as a solo act in music halls in around 1902, (though she appeared as a solo act at the Argyle Theatre Birkenhead as early as December 1898 billed as a vocalist and dancer) doing impersonations of such stars as Gus Elen and Vesta Victoria. In her early career, she perfected an impression of the successful lion comique, George Lashwood. For the week commencing 10 December 1904, she topped the programme at the newly opened (for 10 days) Empire Theatre in Ashton-under-Lyne, billed as "The Society Gem". It was her first of many appearances at this theatre, part of W. H. Broadhead's theatre circuit.
She started appearing regularly as a male impersonator from 1905, when she starred in Dick Whittington at the Kennington Theatre. Thereafter she appeared regularly, dressed as a "swell". In 1907, King travelled to the United States with the Canadian comedian R. G. Knowles, and broke all records at the New York Theatre, performing songs including "I Want a Gibson Girl" and "When I Get Back To Piccadilly". After returning to England, she began performing the song "Ship Ahoy! (All the Nice Girls Love a Sailor)", written by Bennett Scott and A. J. Mills. She said that she first sang it at the Liverpool Empire in 1908, but it did not become successful until 1909, when it became popular and, towards the end of the year, was described as the greatest pantomime hit for four years. It became her signature song, which she continued to perform throughout her career.
Her career spanned both World Wars, when she performed in the uniform of either a soldier or a sailor. In the First World War, she toured in France and Belgium, entertaining the troops. In 1915, she appeared with her husband, Ernest Lotinga, at a fundraiser for The Evening News Prisoners of War Fund, staged at the Prince of Wales Hotel in Hampton Court. The gathering included some 30 wounded soldiers. All the artists gave their services for free. In 1916, her act included "Songs the Soldiers Sing", in which she sang some of the less ribald songs invented by soldiers in the trenches.
By around 1930, King was reputedly the highest-paid music hall star in the world. Much of her success was due to her painstaking observation of the mannerisms of such men as sailors and soldiers. She learned how to march, salute, light a pipe, and swing a kitbag of the right weight, so as to give the correct appearance of a man, while always ensuring that "her femininity shone through, sometimes winking at the audience as if to let them in on the subterfuge". King also played the "principal boy" in many pantomimes, and appeared on BBC Radio, being described in 1933 as the "most virile of male impersonators... [a] broadcasting favourite of long standing."
King continued to entertain until the end of her life, and regularly performed in the United States, Australia and South Africa. By the late 1930s, she was seen as a nostalgia act. She toured Britain from 1948 as one of the veteran music hall performers in the show Thanks for the Memory produced by Don Ross. King was known for her insistence on receiving top billing, and was described as "stubborn, uncompromising and a legend in the business for cantankerous and temperamental behaviour, [who] refused to consider any other type of performance as fashions changed."
== Personal life and death ==
In 1901, she married actor and writer Ernie Lotinga (1876–1951), who was born in Sunderland. He was a music hall comedian, singer and theatre proprietor, billed as Dan Roe from 1898, who appeared in films in the 1920s and 1930s, often as the comic character PC Jimmy Josser. They had one child and divorced in 1917, a decree nisi being granted on 16 March by Sir Samuel Evans on the grounds of King's misconduct with the vaudeville artist and actor Jack Norworth. The divorce was not contested. Her second marriage, in 1918, was to Alexander Lamond.
King's half-sister, Olive Emms, was also an actress, who often travelled with her and acted as her dresser; her half-brother, Harold Emms, wrote many of King's songs with his French wife, Francine.
King died in Wimbledon, London, in 1972, aged 89, and was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium.
== Commemoration ==
On 8 November 2010 a commemorative blue plaque was erected to King at her last residence in Wimbledon by the theatre charity The Music Hall Guild of Great Britain and America.
== Songs recorded ==
"Ship Ahoy! (All the Nice Girls Love a Sailor)"
"Piccadilly"
"Tell her the Old, Old Story"
"Down by the Riverside"
"I'm Going Away"
"Now I'm Home Again"
"Bye Bye Bachelor Days"
"Love 'em and Leave 'em Alone"
"Fill 'em up"
"Oh Girls, why do you Love the Soldiers"
"What Does A Sailor Care?"
"I'm Afraid to Come Home in the Dark"
== Film ==
Hetty King appeared in the movie Lilacs in the Spring (1954), which was directed by Herbert Wilcox and starred Anna Neagle and Errol Flynn. Towards the end of her career, aged 87, she appeared in a film entitled Hetty King – Performer (1970).
== References ==
== External links ==
Hetty King at IMDb
Kindly Leave the Stage R Wilmut ISBN 0-413-59290-1
Hetty King: Performer (1970) (TV documentary)
Ernie Lotinga – Filmography
Interviewed on BBC Desert Island Discs 14 April 1969 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_E._Byrd#:~:text=This%20assignment%20brought%20Byrd%20into,)%20on%20June%208%2C%201915. | Richard E. Byrd | Richard Evelyn Byrd Jr. (October 25, 1888 – March 11, 1957) was an American naval officer, and pioneering aviator, polar explorer, and organizer of polar logistics. Aircraft flights in which he served as a navigator and expedition leader crossed the Atlantic Ocean, a segment of the Arctic Ocean, and a segment of the Antarctic Plateau. He is also known for discovering Mount Sidley, the largest dormant volcano in Antarctica.
Byrd claimed to be the first to reach both the North and South Poles by air. However, there is some controversy as to whether he was actually the first person to reach the North Pole. It is generally believed that the distance he claimed to have flown was longer than the possible fuel range of his airplane.
He was a recipient of the Medal of Honor, the United States Armed Forces' highest military decoration, and the Navy Cross, the second highest honor for valor given by the U.S. Navy.
== Family ==
=== Ancestry ===
Byrd was born in Winchester, Virginia, the son of Esther Bolling (Flood) and Richard Evelyn Byrd Sr. He was a descendant of one of the First Families of Virginia. His ancestors include planter John Rolfe and his wife Pocahontas, William Byrd II of Westover Plantation, who established Richmond, as well as William Byrd I and Robert "King" Carter, a colonial governor. He was also descended from George Yeardley, Francis Wyatt and Samuel Argall. He was the brother of Virginia Governor and U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, a dominant figure in the Virginia Democratic Party from the 1920s until the 1960s; their father served as Speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates for a time.
=== Marriage ===
On January 20, 1915, Richard married Marie Ames Byrd (d. 1974). He would later name a region of Antarctic land he discovered "Marie Byrd Land" after her, and a mountain range, the Ames Range, after her father. They had four children – Richard Evelyn Byrd III, Evelyn Bolling Byrd Clarke, Katharine Agnes Byrd Breyer, and Helen Byrd Stabler. By late 1924, the Byrd family moved into a large brownstone house at 9 Brimmer Street in Boston's fashionable Beacon Hill neighborhood that had been purchased by Marie's father, a wealthy industrialist.
=== Personal life ===
Byrd was friends with Edsel Ford and his father Henry Ford, whose admiration of his polar exploits helped to gain Byrd sponsorship and financing for his various polar expeditions from the Ford Motor Company.
He had a pet dog, Igloo, who accompanied Byrd to the North and South poles and who is buried at the Pine Ridge Pet Cemetery with a tombstone that reads "He was more than a friend."
== Education and early naval career ==
Byrd attended the Virginia Military Institute for two years and transferred to the University of Virginia, before financial circumstances inspired his starting over and taking an appointment to the United States Naval Academy, where he was appointed as a midshipman on May 28, 1908.
On June 8, 1912, Byrd graduated from the Naval Academy and was commissioned an ensign in the United States Navy. On July 14, 1912, he was assigned to the battleship USS Wyoming. During service in the Caribbean Sea, Byrd received his first letter of commendation, and later a Silver Lifesaving Medal, for twice plunging fully clothed to the rescue of a sailor who had fallen overboard. In April 1914, he transferred to the armored cruiser USS Washington and served in Mexican waters in June following the American intervention in April.
His next assignment was to the gunboat USS Dolphin, which also served as the yacht of the Secretary of the Navy. This assignment brought Byrd into contact with high-ranking officials and dignitaries, including then Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin Roosevelt. He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant (junior grade) on June 8, 1915. During Byrd's assignment to Dolphin, he was commanded by future Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy, who served as chief of staff to President Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II. Byrd's last assignment before forced retirement was to the presidential yacht USS Mayflower.
On March 15, 1916, Byrd, much to his frustration, was medically retired on three-quarters pay for an ankle injury he suffered on board Mayflower. Shortly thereafter, on December 14, 1916, he was assigned as the inspector and instructor for the Rhode Island Naval Militia in Providence, Rhode Island. While serving in this position, he was commended by Brigadier General Charles W. Abbot, the adjutant general of Rhode Island, for making great strides in improving the efficiency of the militia.
== First World War ==
Shortly after the entry of the United States into the First World War in April 1917, Byrd oversaw the mobilization of the Rhode Island Naval Militia. He was then recalled to active duty and was assigned to the Office of Naval Operations and served in a desk job as secretary and organizer of the Navy Department Commission on Training Camps. In the autumn of 1917, he was sent to naval aviation school at Pensacola, Florida. He qualified as a naval aviator (number 608) in June 1918. He then commanded naval air forces at Naval Air Station Halifax in Nova Scotia, Canada, from July 1918 until the armistice in November. In that assignment, he was promoted to the permanent rank of lieutenant and the temporary rank of lieutenant commander.
For his services during the war, he received a letter of commendation from Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, which was after World War II converted to a Navy Commendation Medal.
== After the war ==
After the war, Byrd volunteered to be a crew member in the U.S. Navy's 1919 aerial transatlantic crossing. This mission was historic, as it was the first time the Atlantic Ocean was crossed by an aircraft. It was decided that only men who had not served overseas would be allowed on the mission. Unfortunately for Byrd, his tour of duty in Newfoundland was considered overseas service. Byrd was, however, able to make a valuable contribution, as his expertise in aerial navigation resulted in his appointment to plan the flight path of the mission. Of the three flying boats (NC-1, NC-3, and NC-4) that started from Newfoundland, only Lieutenant Commander Albert Read's NC-4 completed the trip on May 18, 1919, achieving the first transatlantic flight.
In 1921, Byrd volunteered to attempt a solo nonstop crossing of the Atlantic Ocean, prefiguring Charles Lindbergh's historic flight by six years. Byrd's ambition was dashed by then acting Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt Jr., who felt the risks outweighed the potential rewards. Byrd was then assigned to the ill-fated dirigible ZR-2 (formerly the British airship R-38). As fate would have it, Byrd missed his train to take him to the airship on August 24, 1921. The airship broke apart in midair, killing 44 of 49 crew members on board. Byrd lost several friends in the accident, and was involved in the subsequent recovery operations and investigation. The accident affected him deeply and inspired him to make safety a top priority in all of his future expeditions.
Due to reductions in the Navy after the First World War, Byrd reverted to the rank of lieutenant at the end of 1921. During the summer of 1923, then-Lieutenant Byrd and a group of volunteer Navy veterans of the First World War helped found the Naval Reserve Air Station (NRAS) at Squantum Point near Boston, using an unused First World War seaplane hangar which had remained more-or-less intact after the Victory Destroyer Plant shipyard was built on the site. NRAS Squantum was commissioned on August 15, 1923, and is considered to have been the first air base in the Naval Reserve program.
Byrd commanded the aviation unit of the arctic expedition to North Greenland led by Donald B. MacMillan from June to October 1925. Although the expedition was largely unsuccessful (they did not in fact reach the pole) Byrd's efforts and the successful contributions of the aviation element during the expedition led to Byrd's renown as a pioneer of aircraft in exploration.
During this expedition, Byrd made the acquaintance of Navy Chief Aviation Pilot Floyd Bennett and Norwegian pilot Bernt Balchen, both of whom would later contribute to Byrd's expeditions. Bennett served as a pilot in his flight to the North Pole the next year. Balchen, whose knowledge of Arctic flight operations proved invaluable, was the primary pilot on Byrd's flight to the South Pole in 1929.
== 1926 North Pole flight ==
On May 9, 1926, Byrd and Navy Chief Aviation Pilot Floyd Bennett attempted a flight over the North Pole in a Fokker F.VIIa/3m tri-motor monoplane named Josephine Ford after the daughter of Ford Motor Company president Edsel Ford, who helped finance the expedition. In addition to Ford contributions, John D. Rockefeller also notably provided funding for the expedition. The flight left from Spitsbergen (Svalbard) and returned to its takeoff airfield, lasting 15 hours and 57 minutes, including 13 minutes spent circling at their Farthest North. Byrd and Bennett said they reached the North Pole, a distance of 1,535 miles (1,335 nautical miles).
When he returned to the United States from the Arctic, Byrd became a national hero. He was thrown a parade in New York City, and Congress passed a special act on December 21, 1926, promoting him to the rank of commander and awarding both Floyd Bennett and him the Medal of Honor. The Josephine Ford was flown around the country in celebration. Bennett was promoted to the warrant officer rank of machinist. Byrd and Bennett were presented with Tiffany Cross versions of the Medal of Honor on March 5, 1927, at the White House by President Calvin Coolidge.
=== Controversy ===
Since 1926, doubts have been raised, defenses made, and heated controversy arose over whether or not Byrd actually reached the North Pole. In 1958, Norwegian-American aviator and explorer Bernt Balchen cast doubt on Byrd's statement on the basis of his knowledge of the airplane's speed. Balchen said that Bennett had confessed to him months after the flight that Byrd and he had not reached the pole. Bennett, who had not completely healed from the early crash, developed pneumonia after participating in a flight to rescue downed German aviators in Greenly Island, Canada, leading to his death on April 25, 1928. Bennett, though, had started a memoir, given numerous interviews, and wrote an article for an aviation magazine about the flight before his death that all confirmed Byrd's version of the flight.
The 1996 release of Byrd's diary of the May 9, 1926, flight revealed erased (but still legible) sextant sights that sharply differ from Byrd's later June 22 typewritten official report to the National Geographic Society. Byrd took a sextant reading of the Sun at 7:07:10 GCT. His erased diary record shows the apparent (observed) solar altitude to have been 19°25'30", while his later official typescript reports the same 7:07:10 apparent solar altitude to have been 18°18'18". On the basis of this and other data in the diary, Dennis Rawlins concluded that Byrd steered accurately, and flew about 80% of the distance to the pole before turning back because of an engine oil leak, but later falsified his official report to support his statement of reaching the pole.
Accepting that the conflicting data in the typed report's flight times indeed require both northward and southward ground speeds greater than the flight's 85-mph airspeed, a Byrd defender posits a westerly-moving anticyclone that tailwind-boosted Byrd's ground speed on both outward and inward legs, allowing the distance said to be covered in the time stated (the theory is based on rejecting handwritten sextant data in favor of typewritten alleged dead-reckoning data). This suggestion has been challenged by Dennis Rawlins, who adds that the sextant data in the long-unavailable original official typewritten report are all expressed to 1 second, a precision not possible on Navy sextants of 1926 and not the precision of the sextant data in Byrd's diary for 1925 or the 1926 flight, which was normal (half or quarter of a minute of arc).
If Byrd and Bennett did not reach the North Pole, then the first flight over the pole occurred a few days later, on May 12, 1926, with the flight of the airship Norge that flew from Spitsbergen (Svalbard) to Alaska nonstop with a crew including Roald Amundsen, Umberto Nobile, Oscar Wisting, and Lincoln Ellsworth.
== 1927 Trans-Atlantic flight ==
In 1927, Byrd announced he had the backing of the American Trans-Oceanic Company, which had been established in 1914 by department-store magnate Rodman Wanamaker for the purpose of building aircraft to complete nonstop flights across the Atlantic Ocean. Byrd was one of several aviators who attempted to win the Orteig Prize in 1927 for making the first nonstop flight between the United States and France.
Once again, Byrd named Floyd Bennett as his chief pilot, with Norwegian Bernt Balchen, Bert Acosta, and Lieutenant George Noville as other crewmembers. During a practice takeoff with Anthony Fokker at the controls and Bennett in the co-pilot seat, the Fokker Trimotor airplane, America, crashed, severely injuring Bennett and slightly injuring Byrd. As the plane was being repaired, Charles Lindbergh won the prize by completing his historic flight on May 21, 1927. (Coincidentally, in 1925, then Army Air Service Reserve Corps Lieutenant Charles Lindbergh had applied to serve as a pilot on Byrd's North Pole expedition, but apparently, his bid came too late.)
Byrd continued with his quest to cross the Atlantic nonstop, naming Balchen to replace Bennett, who had not yet fully recovered from his injuries, as chief pilot. Byrd, Balchen, Acosta, and Noville flew from Roosevelt Field, East Garden City, New York, in the America on June 29, 1927. On board was mail from the US Postal Service to demonstrate the practicality of aircraft. Arriving over France the next day, they were prevented from landing in Paris by cloud cover; they returned to the coast of Normandy and crash-landed near the beach at Ver-sur-Mer (known as Gold Beach during the Normandy Invasion on June 6, 1944) without fatalities on July 1, 1927. In France, Byrd and his crew were received as heroes and Byrd was invested as an Officer of the French Legion of Honor by Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré on July 6.
After their return to the United States, an elaborate dinner in their honor was held in New York City on July 19. Byrd and Noville were awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross by Secretary of the Navy Curtis D. Wilbur at the dinner. Acosta and Balchen did not receive the Distinguished Flying Cross because, at that time, it could only be awarded to members of the armed services and not to civilians.
Byrd wrote an article for the August 1927 edition of Popular Science Monthly in which he accurately predicted that while specially modified aircraft with one to three crewmen would fly the Atlantic nonstop, another 20 years were needed before it would be realized on a commercial scale.
== Early Antarctic expeditions ==
=== First Antarctic expedition (1928–1930) ===
In 1928, Byrd began his first expedition to the Antarctic involving two ships and three airplanes: Byrd's flagship was the City of New York (a Norwegian sealing ship previously named Samson that had come into fame as a ship some said was in the vicinity of the Titanic when the latter was sinking) and the Eleanor Bolling (named after Byrd's mother); a Ford Trimotor airplane called the Floyd Bennett (named after the recently deceased pilot of Byrd's previous expeditions) flown by Dean Smith; a Fairchild FC-2W2, NX8006, built 1928, named Stars And Stripes (now displayed at the National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center); and a Fokker Super Universal monoplane called the Virginia (Byrd's birth state). A base camp named "Little America" was constructed on the Ross Ice Shelf, and scientific expeditions by snowshoe, dog sled, snowmobile, and airplane began. To increase the interest of youth in arctic exploration, a 19-year-old American Boy Scout, Paul Allman Siple, was chosen to accompany the expedition. Siple went on to earn a doctorate and was probably the only person, other than Byrd himself, to participate in all five of Byrd's Antarctic expeditions.
Photographic expeditions and geological surveys were undertaken for the duration of that summer, and constant radio communications were maintained with the outside world. After their first winter, their expeditions were resumed, and on November 28, 1929, the first flight to the South Pole and back was launched. Byrd, along with pilot Bernt Balchen, co-pilot/radioman Harold June, and photographer Ashley McKinley, flew the Floyd Bennett to the South Pole and back in 18 hours, 41 minutes. They had difficulty gaining enough altitude, and they had to dump empty gas tanks, as well as their emergency supplies, to achieve the altitude of the Antarctic Plateau, but they ultimately were successful.
In November 1929, Byrd participated in a privately financed expedition, where he headed the inaugural aircraft crew that successfully flew over the South Pole. Byrd strongly advocated for ski-equipped aircraft, despite the considerable operational, logistical, and maintenance challenges they posed, necessitating the establishment of significant onshore bases to address these issues.
As a result of his achievement, Byrd was promoted to the rank of rear admiral by a special act of Congress on December 21, 1929. As he was only 41 years old at the time, this promotion made Byrd the youngest admiral in the history of the United States Navy. By way of comparison, none of his Annapolis classmates became admirals until 1942, after 30 years of commissioned service. He is one of only four persons including Admiral David Dixon Porter, Arctic explorer Rear Admiral Donald Baxter MacMillan and Rear Admiral Frederic R. Harris, to have been promoted to the rank of rear admiral in the United States Navy without having first held the rank of captain.
After a further summer of exploration, the expedition returned to North America on June 18, 1930. Unlike the 1926 flight, this expedition was honored with the gold medal of the American Geographical Society. This was also seen in the film With Byrd at the South Pole (1930), which covered his trip there.
Byrd, by then an internationally recognized, pioneering American polar explorer and aviator, served for a time as Honorary National President (1931–1935) of Pi Gamma Mu, the international honor society in the social sciences. He carried the society's flag during his first Antarctic expedition to dramatize the spirit of adventure into the unknown, characterizing both the natural and social sciences.
To finance and gain both political and public support for his expeditions, Byrd actively cultivated relationships with many powerful individuals, including President Franklin Roosevelt, Henry Ford, Edsel Ford, John D. Rockefeller Jr., and Vincent Astor. As a token of his gratitude, Byrd named geographic features in the Antarctic after his supporters.
=== Second Antarctic expedition (1933–1934) ===
On his second expedition during the Southern Hemisphere summer of 1933–1934, (winter in the United States, in the Northern Hemisphere), Byrd spent five months alone operating a meteorological station, Advance Base, from which he narrowly escaped with his life after suffering carbon monoxide poisoning from a poorly ventilated stove. Unusual radio transmissions from Byrd finally began to alarm the men at the base camp, who then attempted to go to Advance Base. The first two trips were failures due to darkness, snow, and mechanical troubles. Finally, Thomas Poulter, E. J. Demas, and Amory Waite arrived at Advance Base, where they found Byrd in poor physical health. The men remained at Advance Base until October 12. when an airplane from the base camp picked up Dr. Poulter and Byrd. The rest of the men returned to base camp with the tractor. This expedition is described by Byrd in his autobiography Alone.
During the summer months the days were long and the evenings existed in twilight. Inside the exploration headquarters Byrd had fashioned a large calendar on the wall, where he would cross off each day as it passed.
A CBS radio station, KFZ, was set up on the base camp ship, the Bear of Oakland and The Adventures of Admiral Byrd program was short-waved to Buenos Aires, then relayed to New York. Sponsored by General Foods, the broadcasts aired on Saturday nights at 10:00 pm and reached #16 on the Hooper rating for the 1933–34 broadcast season, reaching an average audience of 19.1 million.
Byrd's Antarctic expedition prompted President Roosevelt and the U.S. Postmaster General to honor the event in 1933 on a U.S. commemorative stamp which greatly helped raise the funding needed to finance Byrd's expedition to the Antarctic. The expedition, via the Post Office, sold philatelic subscription Philatelic covers to be serviced at the official USPOD post office set up in the Antarctic exploration base, dubbed Little America, and which was officially established on October 6, 1933. All mail sent to the Antarctic required at least one Byrd II 3 cent stamp (pictured), along with sufficient postage amounting to 53 cents. The postage stamp is numbered 753 in the Scott's Catalog. The U.S. Post Office contracted with the expedition for this purpose as it had no other means to deliver mail to and from the Antarctic. Approximately 150,000 pieces of such mail went through the special Antarctic post office in 1933 to 1934. As only members of the post office were authorized to postmark and handle mail, Charles F. Anderson, a special representative of the Postmaster General, was assigned to the post office at Little America in Antarctica.
In late 1938, Byrd visited Hamburg, where he was invited by Alfred Ritscher, leader of the German Antarctic Expedition 1938/39, to present his Antarctic film to the expedition members. According to german historian Heinz Schön, Byrd answered questions and offered practical advice to the scientists and aircrew based on his polar experience. The event was held privately, with no press present.
=== Antarctic Service Expedition (1939–1940) ===
Byrd's third expedition was the first one financed and conducted by the United States government. The project included extensive studies of geology, biology, meteorology, and exploration. The innovative Antarctic Snow Cruiser was brought with the expedition, but broke down shortly after arriving.
Within a few months, in March 1940, Byrd was recalled to active duty in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. The expedition continued in Antarctica without him until the last of its participants left Antarctica on March 22, 1941.
== World War II ==
As a senior officer in the United States Navy, Byrd was recalled on active duty on March 26, 1942, and served as the confidential advisor to Admiral Ernest J. King. From 1942 to 1945 he served on the South Pacific Island Base Inspection Board, which toured bases in the South Pacific in May and June 1942. The report submitted by the Board describes conditions found at each base and analyses, lessons learned in planning and equipping these bases. The report contains recommendations applicable to the individual bases and others designed to be helpful in the planning of future advanced bases.
On 1 September 1943, in compliance with a series of letters from the President to the Secretary of the Navy, the Commander-in-Chief United States Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations ordered Byrd to assume direction of a survey and "investigation of certain islands in the East and South Pacific in connection with national defense and commercial air bases and routes." The members of the Special Navy Mission sailed from Balboa, Canal Zone, on USS Concord, Captain Irving Reynold Chambers, commanding, in September 1943. A large explosion at sea on October 7, 1943, took the lives of 24 Concord crewmen, including the executive officer, Commander Rogers Elliott. Caused by ignition of gasoline fumes at the stern of the ship, the explosion threw some men overboard, while others were killed from concussion, burns, fractured skulls and broken necks. Several sailors died while trying to save their shipmates. The dead were buried at sea on October 8. On October 23, 1943, Byrd wrote a letter from Nuku Hiva (the largest of the Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia) to Chambers, the ship's commanding officer, commending him and his crew "for the courage and efficiency" displayed following the explosion that made Byrd "feel proud to be an American. Great heroism was displayed, especially by the men who lost their lives rescuing the wounded." Byrd completed the Special Mission in December and participated in the United States Strategic Bombing Survey (USSBS) in 1944 to 1945.
On February 10, 1945, Byrd received the Order of Christopher Columbus from the government of the Dominican Republic. Byrd was present at the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay on September 2, 1945. He was released from active duty on October 1, 1945. In recognition of his service during World War II, Byrd received two awards of the Legion of Merit.
== Later Antarctic expeditions ==
=== Operation Highjump (1946–1947) ===
In 1946, Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal appointed Byrd as officer in charge of Antarctic Developments Project. Byrd's fourth Antarctic expedition was code-named Operation Highjump. It was the largest Antarctic expedition to date and was expected to last 6–8 months.
The expedition was supported by a large naval force (designated Task Force 68), commanded by Rear Admiral Richard H. Cruzen. Thirteen US Navy support ships (besides the flagship USS Mount Olympus and the aircraft carrier USS Philippine Sea), six helicopters, six flying boats, two seaplane tenders, and 15 other aircraft were used. The total number of personnel involved was over 4,000.
The armada arrived in the Ross Sea on December 31, 1946, and made aerial explorations of an area half the size of the United States, recording 10 new mountain ranges. The major area covered was the eastern coastline of Antarctica from 150°E to the Greenwich meridian.
Admiral Byrd was interviewed by Lee van Atta of International News Service aboard the expedition's command ship USS Mount Olympus, in which he discussed the lessons learned from the operation. The interview appeared in the Wednesday, March 5, 1947, edition of the Chilean newspaper El Mercurio, and read in part:
Admiral Richard E. Byrd warned today that the United States should adopt measures of protection against the possibility of an invasion of the country by hostile planes coming from the polar regions. The admiral explained that he was not trying to scare anyone, but the cruel reality is that in case of a new war, the United States could be attacked by planes flying over one or both poles. This statement was made as part of a recapitulation of his own polar experience, in an exclusive interview with International News Service. Talking about the recently completed expedition, Byrd said that the most important result of his observations and discoveries is the potential effect that they have in relation to the security of the United States. The fantastic speed with which the world is shrinking – recalled the admiral – is one of the most important lessons learned during his recent Antarctic exploration. I have to warn my compatriots that the time has ended when we were able to take refuge in our isolation and rely on the certainty that the distances, the oceans, and the poles were a guarantee of safety.
In 1948, the U.S. Navy produced a documentary about Operation Highjump named The Secret Land. The film shows live-action footage of the operation, along with a few re-enacted scenes. It won the Academy Award for Best Documentary.
On December 8, 1954, Byrd appeared on the television show Longines Chronoscope. He was interviewed by Larry LeSueur and Kenneth Crawford about his Antarctic voyages, and said that Antarctica, in the future, would become the most important place in the world for science.
=== Operation Deep Freeze I (1955–1956) ===
As part of the multinational collaboration for the International Geophysical Year (IGY) 1957–58, Byrd was appointed as officer in charge of the U.S. Navy Operation Deep Freeze I in 1955–56, which established permanent Antarctic bases at McMurdo Sound, the Bay of Whales, and the South Pole. This was Byrd's last trip to Antarctica, and marked the beginning of a permanent U.S. military presence in Antarctica. Byrd spent only one week in the Antarctic, and started his return to the United States on February 3, 1956.
== Death ==
Admiral Byrd died in his sleep of a heart ailment at the age of 68 on March 11, 1957, at his home at 7 Brimmer Street in the Beacon Hill neighborhood in Boston. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
== Memberships ==
Byrd was an active Freemason. He was raised (became a Master Mason) in Federal Lodge No. 1, Washington, D.C., on March 19, 1921, and affiliated with Kane Lodge No. 454, New York City, September 18, 1928. He was a member of National Sojourners Chapter No. 3 at Washington. In 1930, Byrd was awarded a gold medal by Kane Lodge.
In 1931, Byrd became a compatriot of the Tennessee Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. He was assigned state membership number 605 and national membership number 50430. He received the society's War Service Medal for his service during the First World War.
He was also a member of numerous other patriotic, scientific, and charitable organizations, including the Explorers Club, the American Legion, and the National Geographic Society.
== Honors ==
By the time he died, Byrd had amassed 22 citations and special commendations, nine of which were for bravery and two for extraordinary heroism in saving the lives of others. In addition, he received the Medal of Honor, the Silver Lifesaving Medal, the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, the Distinguished Flying Cross, and the Navy Cross.
Admiral Byrd is the only person to have three ticker-tape parades in New York City (in 1926, 1927, and 1930) given in his honor.
Byrd was one of only four American military officers in history entitled to wear a medal with his own image on it. The others were Admiral George Dewey, General John J. Pershing, and Admiral William T. Sampson. As Byrd's image is on both the first and second Byrd Antarctic Expedition Medals, he was the only American entitled to wear two medals with his own image on them.
He was one of the recipients of the Langley Gold Medal, which is awarded by the Smithsonian Institution for outstanding achievement in aviation.
He was the seventh recipient of the prestigious Hubbard Medal awarded by the National Geographic Society for his flight to the North Pole. Other recipients include Robert Peary, Roald Amundsen, and Charles Lindbergh.
Byrd received numerous medals from nongovernmental organizations in honor of his achievements. These included the David Livingstone Centenary Medal of the American Geographical Society, the Loczy Medal of the Hungarian Geographical Society, the Vega Medal of the Swedish Geographical Society, and the Elisha Kent Kane Medal of the Philadelphia Geographical Society.
In 1927, the Boy Scouts of America made Byrd an Honorary Scout, a new category of scout created that same year. This distinction was given to "American citizens whose achievements in outdoor activity, exploration, and worthwhile adventure are of such an exceptional character as to capture the imagination of boys ...".
Also in 1927 the City of Richmond dedicated the Richard Evelyn Byrd Flying Field, now Richmond International Airport, in Henrico County, Virginia. Byrd's Fairchild FC-2W2, NX8006, Stars And Stripes, is on display at the Virginia Aviation Museum located on the north side of the airport, on loan from the National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C.
In 1929, Byrd received the Silver Buffalo Award from the Boy Scouts of America. Also in 1929, he received the Langley Gold Medal from the Smithsonian Institution.
Lunar crater Byrd is named after him, as was the United States Navy dry cargo ship USNS Richard E. Byrd (T-AKE-4) and the now decommissioned Charles F. Adams-class guided missile destroyer USS Richard E. Byrd (DDG-23).
In 1930, Byrd was elected to the American Philosophical Society.
In Glen Rock, New Jersey, Richard E. Byrd School was dedicated in 1931.
On March 31, 1934, during a regularly scheduled broadcast, Admiral Byrd was awarded the CBS Medal for Distinguished Contribution to Radio. Byrd's short-wave relay broadcasts, from his second Antarctic expedition, established a new chapter of communication history. Byrd was the sixth individual to receive this award.
The Institute of Polar Studies at the Ohio State University officially changed its name to the Byrd Polar Research Center (BPRC) on January 21, 1987, after it acquired Byrd's expeditionary records, personal papers, and other memorabilia in 1985 from the estate of Marie A. Byrd, the late wife of Admiral Byrd. His papers served as the nucleus for establishment of the BPRC Polar Archival Program in 1990. In 1958. the Richard Byrd Library, part of the Fairfax County Public Library system opened in Springfield, Virginia.
Richard E. Byrd Elementary School, a Department of Defense school located in Negishi (Yokohama, Japan) opened on September 20, 1948. The name was changed to R.E. Byrd Elementary School on April 5, 1960.
Memorials to Byrd can be found in two cities in New Zealand (Wellington and Dunedin). Byrd used New Zealand as his departure point for several of his Antarctic expeditions.
The 50th anniversary of Byrd's first flight over the South Pole was commemorated in a set of two postage stamps by Australian Antarctic Territory in 1979, and a commemorative flag was designed.
The long-range short-wave voice transmissions from Byrd's Antarctic expedition in 1934 were named an IEEE Milestone in 2001.
Admiral Richard E. Byrd Middle School, located in Frederick County, Virginia, was opened in 2005, and is decorated with pictures and letters from Byrd's life and career.
He was inducted into Phi Beta Kappa as an honorary member at the University of Virginia.
Byrd was inducted into the International Air and Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air and Space Museum in 1968.
Richard E. Byrd Middle School in Sun Valley, California, is named after Admiral Byrd. The school opened in its present location in 2008 after its original location was converted to Sun Valley High School.
== Popular culture ==
Jacques Vallée in his book Confrontations mentions a "spurious story" about "'holes in the pole' allegedly found by Admiral Byrd", when he quotes Clint Chapin of the Copper Medic case as believing the UFOs came from inside the earth.
In Great Circle by Maggie Shipstead, Byrd and the Little America bases are the final stop in Marian Graves' journey to circle the globe by flight over the North and South Poles.
== Military awards ==
Admiral Byrd was one of the most highly decorated officers in the history of the United States Navy. He is, probably, the only individual to receive the Medal of Honor, Navy Cross, Distinguished Flying Cross, and the Silver Life Saving Medal. He also was one of a very few individuals to receive all three Antarctic expedition medals issued for expeditions prior to the Second World War.
=== Decorations and medals ===
Note – The dates on the table below are the year the award was received and not necessarily the year of the actions the award recognizes.
Byrd was posthumously eligible for the Antarctic Service Medal, established in 1960, for his participation in the Antarctic expeditions Operation Highjump (1946 to 1947) and Operation Deep Freeze (1955 to 1956).
Byrd also received numerous other awards from governmental and private entities in the United States.
=== Medal of Honor citation ===
Rank and organization: Commander, United States Navy. Born: October 25, 1888, Winchester, Va. Appointed from: Virginia.
Citation
For distinguishing himself conspicuously by courage and intrepidity at the risk of his life, in demonstrating that it is possible for aircraft to travel in continuous flight from a now inhabited portion of the earth over the North Pole and return.
Byrd, along with Machinist Floyd Bennett, was presented with the Medal of Honor by President Calvin Coolidge on March 5, 1927.
=== Navy Cross citation ===
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Cross to Rear Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd Jr. (NSN: 0–7918), United States Navy, for extraordinary heroism in the line of his profession as Commanding Officer of the Byrd Antarctic Expedition I, in that on November 28, 1929 he took off in his "Floyd Bennett" from the Expedition's base at Little America, Antarctica and, after a flight made under the most difficult conditions he reached the South Pole on November 29, 1929. After flying some distance beyond this point he returned to his base at Little America. This hazardous flight was made under extreme conditions of cold, over ranges and plateaus extending nine to ten thousand feet above sea level and beyond probable rescue of personnel had a forced landing occurred. Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd, U.S.N, Retired, was in command of this flight, navigated the airplane, made the mandatory preparations for the flight, and through his untiring energy, superior leadership, and excellent judgment the flight was brought to a successful conclusion.
=== First Distinguished Service Medal citation ===
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Distinguished Service Medal to Commander Richard Evelyn Byrd Jr. (NSN: 0–7918), United States Navy, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished service in a position of great responsibility to the Government of the United States, in demonstrating, by his courage and professional ability that heavier-than-air craft could in continuous flight travel to the North Pole and return.
General Orders: Letter Dated August 6, 1926
=== Second Distinguished Service Medal citation ===
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting a Gold Star in lieu of a Second Award of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal to Rear Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd Jr. (NSN: 0–7918), United States Navy, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished service in a position of great responsibility to the Government of the United States as Commanding Officer of the U.S. Antarctic Service. Rear Admiral Byrd did much toward the difficult task of organizing the expedition, which was accomplished in one fourth of the time generally necessary for such undertakings. In spite of a short operating season, he established two Antarctic bases 1,500 miles apart, where valuable scientific and economic investigations are now being carried on. With the USS Bear, he penetrated unknown and dangerous seas where important discoveries were made; in addition to which he made four noteworthy flights, resulting in the discovery of new mountain ranges, islands, more than a hundred thousand square miles of area, a peninsula and 700 miles of hitherto unknown stretches of the Antarctic coast. The operations of the Antarctic Service have been a credit to the Government of the United States. His qualities of leadership and unselfish devotion to duty are in accordance with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.
=== First Legion of Merit citation ===
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Legion of Merit to Rear Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd Jr. (NSN: 0–7918), United States Navy, for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services to the Government of the United States while in command of a Special Navy Mission to the Pacific from August 27, 1943, to December 5, 1943, when thirty-three islands of the Pacific were surveyed or investigated for the purpose of recommending air base sites of value to the United States for its defense or for the development of post-war civil aviation. In this service Admiral Byrd exercised fine leadership in gaining the united effort of civilian, Army, and Navy experts. He displayed courage, initiative, vision, and a high order of ability in obtain data and in submitting reports which will be of great present and future value to the National Defense and to the Government of the United States in the post-war period.
Action Date: August 27 – December 5, 1943
=== Second Legion of Merit citation ===
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting a Gold Star in lieu of a Second Award of the Legion of Merit to Rear Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd Jr. (NSN: 0–7918), United States Navy, for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services to the Government of the United States as Confidential Advisor to the Commander in Chief, United States Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations from March 26, 1942 to May 10, 1942, August 14, 1942 to August 26, 1943, and from December 6, 1943 to October 1, 1945. In the performance of his duty Rear Admiral Byrd served in the Navy Department and in various areas outside the continental limits of the United States, employed on special missions on the fighting fronts in Europe and the Pacific. In all assignments his thoroughness, attention to detail, keen discernment, professional judgment and zeal produced highly successful results. His wise counsel, sound advice and foresight in planning constituted a material contribution to the war effort and to the success of the United States Navy. The performance of duty of Rear Admiral Byrd was at all times in keeping with the highest traditions and reflected credit upon himself and the United States Naval Service.
General Orders: Board Serial 176P00 (February 4, 1946)
Action Date: March 26, 1942 – October 1, 1945
=== Distinguished Flying Cross citation ===
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Distinguished Flying Cross to Commander Richard Evelyn Byrd Jr. (NSN: 0–7918), United States Navy, for extraordinary achievement while participating in aerial flight; in recognition of his courage, resourcefulness and skill as Commander of the expedition which flew the airplane "America" from New York City to France from June 29 to July 1, 1927, across the Atlantic Ocean under extremely adverse weather conditions which made a landing in Paris impossible; and finally for his discernment and courage in directing his plane to a landing at Ver sur Mer, France, without serious injury to his personnel, after a flight of 39 hours and 56 minutes.
Action Date: June 29 – July 1, 1927
=== Letter of Commendation ===
He rendered valuable service as Secretary and Organizer of the Navy Department Commission on Training Camps, and trained men in aviation in the ground school in Pensacola, and in charge of rescue parties and afterwards in charge of air forces in Canada.
== Dates of rank ==
United States Naval Academy Midshipman – May 28, 1908 (Class of 1912)
== See also ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
== External links ==
Richard Evelyn Byrd letter, MSS 420 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University
Byrd's Decorations at Military Times via Internet Archive.
"The Byrd Polar Research Center at Ohio State University".
The short film Longines Chronoscope with Richard E. Byrd is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive. and from Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: "Public.Resource.Org". YouTube. 1954. on YouTube.
Newspaper clippings about Richard E. Byrd in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
The Papers of Richard E. Byrd at Dartmouth College Library
Philip White Scrapbooks and Correspondence on Admiral Richard Byrd and the Byrd Antarctic Expedition of 1928–1933 at Dartmouth College Library
Frederick G. Dustin logbook of Second Byrd Antarctic Expedition at Dartmouth College Library
The Papers of Thomas B. Mulroy on Richard E. Byrd's Antarctic Expedition at Dartmouth College |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Dialect_Society#Word_of_the_Year | American Dialect Society | The American Dialect Society (ADS), founded in 1889, is a learned society "dedicated to the study of the English language in North America, and of other languages, or dialects of other languages, influencing it or influenced by it." The Society publishes the academic journal American Speech.
Since its foundation, dialectologists in English-speaking North America have affiliated themselves with the American Dialect Society, an association which in its first constitution defined its objective as "the investigation of the spoken English of the United States and Canada" (Constitution, 1890). Over the years, its objective has remained essentially the same, only expanded to encompass "the English language in North America, together with other languages or dialects of other languages influencing it or influenced by it" (Fundamentals, 1991).
== History ==
The organization was founded as part of an effort to create a comprehensive American dialect dictionary, a near century-long undertaking that culminated in the publication of the Dictionary of American Regional English. In 1889, when Joseph Wright began editing the English Dialect Dictionary, a group of American philologists founded the American Dialect Society with the ultimate purpose of producing a similar work for the United States.
Members of the Society began to collect material, much of which was published in the Society's journal Dialect Notes, but little was done toward compiling a dictionary recording nationwide usage until Frederic G. Cassidy was appointed Chief Editor in 1963. The first volume of the Dictionary of American Regional English, covering the letters A-C, was published in 1985. The other major project of the Society is the Linguistic Atlas of the United States and Canada.
== Membership ==
The Society has never had more than a few hundred active members. With so few scholars advancing the enterprise, the developments in the field came slowly. Members of the organization include "linguists, lexicographers, etymologists, grammarians, historians, researchers, writers, authors, editors, professors, university students, and independent scholars." Its activities include a mailing list, which deals chiefly with American English but also carries some discussion of other issues of linguistic interest.
== Word of the Year ==
Since 1991, the American Dialect Society has designated one or more words or terms to be the word of the year. The New York Times stated that the American Dialect Society "probably started" the "word-of-the-year ritual". However, the "Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache" (GfdS) has announced a word of the year since 1977.
Special votes that they've made:
Word of the 20th Century: jazz
Word of the Past Millennium: she
Word of the Decade (1990–1999): web
Word of the Decade (2000–2009): Google (verb)
Word of the Decade (2010–2019): they (singular)
The society also selects words in other categories that vary from year to year, such as "most original", "most unnecessary", "most outrageous", or "most likely to succeed" (see: Word of the year).
A number of words chosen by the ADS are also on the lists of Merriam-Webster's Words of the Year.
=== List of Words of the Year ===
== See also ==
American English
Language planning
Language Report from Oxford University Press
Lists of Merriam-Webster's Words of the Year
Neologism
Word formation
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Lerer, Seth (2007). Inventing English: A Portable History of the Language. New York, New York: Columbia University Press. p. 195.
Mencken, H.L. (2006). The American Language: An Inquiry into the Development of English in the United States. Alfred A. Knopf.
Metcalf, Allan A. (2002). Predicting New Words: The Secrets of Their Success. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 188. ISBN 9780618130061.
Sheidlower, Jesse (January 11, 2005). "Linguists Gone Wild! Why "wardrobe malfunction" wasn't the word of the year". Slate Magazine. The Slate Group, LLC.
Wolfram, Walt; Natalie Schilling-Estes (2006). American English: Dialects and Variation. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. p. 24.
== External links ==
Official website
American Dialect Society, information page at Duke University Press
Publication of the American Dialect Society, archive articles at Duke University Press
American Dialect Society, information page at American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS)
American Dialect Society, news page at Dictionary Society of North America
American Dialect Society Collection, at Library of Congress
American Dialect Society, publications listed with timeline at WorldCat, from participation in the Online Computer Library Center
Creator: American Dialect Society, at website of Internet Archive |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothair_I#:~:text=Lothair%20I%20(Dutch%20and%20Medieval,Francia%20(843%E2%80%93855). | Lothair I | Lothair I (9th. C. Frankish: Ludher and Medieval Latin: Lodharius; Dutch and Medieval Latin: Lotharius; German: Lothar; French: Lothaire; Italian: Lotario; 795 – 29 September 855) was a 9th-century Emperor of the Carolingian Empire (817–855, with his father until 840) and King of Italy (818–855) and Middle Francia (843–855).
Lothair I was the eldest son of the Carolingian emperor Louis I and his wife Ermengarde of Hesbaye, daughter of Ingerman the duke of Hesbaye. On several occasions, Lothair led his full-brothers Pepin I of Aquitaine and Louis the German in revolt against their father to protest against attempts to make their half-brother Charles the Bald a co-heir to the Frankish domains. Upon the father's death, Charles and Louis joined forces against Lothair in a three-year dynastic war (840–843). The struggles between the brothers led directly to the breakup of the Frankish Empire assembled by their grandfather Charlemagne, and laid the foundation for the development of modern France and Germany.
== Early life and reign ==
Lothair was born in 795, to Louis the Pious and Ermengarde of Hesbaye. His father was the son of the reigning Emperor, Charlemagne. At the time of Lothair's birth, his father Louis was already the King of Aquitaine. Little is known of Lothair's early life, which was probably passed at the courts of his father and grandfather. In 814, the elderly emperor died, and left his sole surviving legitimate son Louis the Pious as successor to his vast empire. Being already of age, Lothair was sent to govern Bavaria for his father, the new emperor.
In 817, Louis the Pious drew up his Ordinatio Imperii. By that act, Louis designated Lothair as his principal heir and ordered that Lothair would be the overlord of Louis' younger sons Pippin of Aquitaine (who was 20) and Louis the German (who was 13), and also the presumptive overlord of the Kingdom of Italy, that was ruled at this time by their cousin, king Bernard of Italy. Lothair would also inherit their lands if they were to die childless. Lothair was then crowned joint emperor by his father at Aachen. At the same time, Aquitaine and Bavaria were granted to his brothers Pippin and Louis, respectively, as subsidiary kingdoms.
Following the death of Bernard (818), brought on by his plotting against and blinding by Louis the Pious, Italy was awarded to Lothair. In 821, Lothair married Ermengarde (d. 851), daughter of Hugh the Count of Tours. In 822, he assumed the government of Italy, and at Easter, 5 April 823, he received the royal crown of Italy, and was again crowned as emperor by Pope Paschal I, this time at Rome. In November 824, Lothair promulgated a statute, the Constitutio Romana, concerning the relations of pope and emperor, which reserved the supreme power to the secular potentate, and he afterwards issued various ordinances for the good government of Italy.
On Lothair's return to his father's court, his stepmother Judith won his consent to her plan for securing a kingdom for her son Charles, a scheme which was carried out in 829, when the young prince was given Alemannia as king. Lothair, however, soon changed his attitude and spent the succeeding decade in constant strife over the division of the Empire with his father. He was alternately master of the Empire, and banished and confined to Italy, at one time taking up arms in alliance with his brothers and at another fighting against them, whilst the bounds of his appointed kingdom were in turn extended and reduced.
== Division of the kingdom ==
The first rebellion began in 830. All three brothers fought their father, whom they deposed. In 831, their father was reinstated and he deprived Lothair of his imperial title and gave Italy to Charles. The second rebellion was instigated by Angilbert II, Archbishop of Milan in 833, and again Louis was deposed in 834. Lothair, through the loyalty of the Lombards and later reconciliations, retained Italy and the imperial position through all remaining divisions of the Empire by his father.
When Louis the Pious was dying in 840, he sent the imperial insignia to Lothair, who, disregarding the various partitions, claimed the whole of the Empire. He was 45 years old when his father died. Negotiations with his brother Louis the German and his half-brother Charles, both of whom resisted this claim, were followed by an alliance of the younger brothers against Lothair. A decisive battle was fought at Fontenay-en-Puisaye on 25 June 841, when, in spite of his and his allied nephew Pepin II of Aquitaine's personal gallantry, Lothair was defeated and fled to Aachen. With fresh troops he began a war of plunder, but the forces of his brothers were too strong, and taking with him such treasure as he could collect, he abandoned his capital to them. He met with the leaders of the Stellinga in Speyer and promised them his support in return for theirs, but Louis and then the native Saxon nobility put down the Stellinga in the next years.
Peace negotiations began, and in June 842 the brothers met on an island in the Saône. They agreed to an arrangement which developed, after much difficulty and delay, into the Treaty of Verdun, signed in August 843. By this, Lothair received the imperial title as well as northern Italy and a long stretch of territory from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, essentially along the valleys of the Rhine and the Rhône; this territory includes the regions Lorraine, Alsace, Burgundy, and Provence. He soon ceded Italy to his eldest son, Louis, and remained in his new kingdom, engaging in alternate quarrels and reconciliations with his brothers and in futile efforts to defend his lands from the attacks of the Northmen (as Vikings were known in Frankish writings) and the Saracens (as those loyal to the various Fatimids, Umayyads and Abbasides are known in Frankish writings).
In 845 the count of Arles, Fulcrad, led a rebellion in Provence. The emperor put it down and the count joined him in an expedition against the Saracens in Italy in 846.
== Death and aftermath ==
In 855 he became seriously ill, and despairing of recovery renounced the throne, divided his lands among his three sons, and on 23 September entered the monastery of Prüm, where he died six days later. He was buried at Prüm, where his remains were found in 1860. It was at Prüm that Lothair was most commemorated.
The same year, Lothair's kingdom was divided between his three sons in a deal called the Treaty of Prüm: the eldest, Louis II, received Italy and the title of emperor; the second, Lothair II, received Lotharingia; the youngest, Charles, received Provence.
== Family ==
Lothair married Ermengarde of Tours in 821, who died in 851.
Louis II (825–875) Crowned as King of Italy in 844 by Pope Sergius II. Crowned Emperor in 850. Married Engelberga
Hiltrude (826–865) Married Berengar of Spoleto.
Bertha (c. 830–852) Married to an unknown man, but later Abbess of Avenay.
Gisela (c. 830–856) abbess of San Salvatore at Brescia.
Lothair II (835–869) Succeeded his father. Married Teutberga, daughter of Boso the Elder, Count of Arles.
Rotrude (c. 840) Married Lambert II of Nantes.
Charles (845–863) Invested with Provence, Lyon and Transjuranian Burgundy
One illegitimate child is known.
Carloman (? – d. 853)
== See also ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
== External links ==
Media related to Lothair I at Wikimedia Commons
Surviving letters of Lothar I, in Latin with English translation by Richard Matthew Pollard. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naro-1#:~:text=Third%20flight,-Main%20article%3A%20STSAT&text=Naro%2D1%20became%20the%20first,480%20kilometers%20south%20of%20Seoul. | Naro-1 | Naro-1 (Korean: 나로호), previously designated the Korea Space Launch Vehicle or KSLV (also KSLV-1), was South Korea's first carrier rocket, and the first South Korean launch vehicle to achieve Earth orbit. On January 30, 2013, the third Naro-1 vehicle built successfully placed STSAT-2C into low Earth orbit.
The first stage was a modified Russian Angara (Russian: Ангара) URM. The solid-fuel second stage was built by KARI, the national space agency of South Korea, and Korean Air.
Neither the maiden flight on August 25, 2009, nor the second flight on June 10, 2010, reached orbit. The third flight on January 30, 2013, successfully reached orbit. The launches took place from the Naro Space Center. The official name of the first KSLV rocket, KSLV-I, is Naro, which is the name of the region in which Naro Space Center is located. Since Naro's retirement, the South Korean government has announced the rocket Nuri as its replacement and successor.
== History ==
In 1992, Republic of Korea developed and launched several satellite systems and rockets overseas, such as the solid-fueled KSR-1 and KSR-2 sounding rockets. In 2000, Republic of Korea began construction of the Naro Space Center, located on Naro Island in Goheung, 485 kilometres (301 mi) south of Seoul, with Russian assistance. The work was completed by the launch of the 6,000-kilogram (13,000 lb) KSR-3 liquid-propellant sounding rocket on November 28, 2002. South Korea announced in 2002 that it intended to develop a small satellite launch vehicle by 2005 that would be based on technology flown on the KSR-3 test vehicle. The launcher would be entirely indigenous, based on the 122.500-kilonewton (27,539 lbf) thrust LOX/kerosene motor used for the KSR-3 rocket stage. In 2005 a change was announced, indicating that they would use the Russian RD-191 as the vehicle's first stage. The program, like that of the Angara, was subject to continuous funding shortages and schedule delays.
On October 26, 2004, during the visit of a GKNPTs Khrunichev delegation headed by A. A. Medvedev, Director General to Republic of Korea, a contract was signed to design and build a Space Rocket Complex for the small-lift launch vehicle KSLV-1. The design represented a joint effort between GKNPTs Khrunichev partner NPO Energomash "V. P. Glushko", who would build the first stage of KSLV-1, and Republic of Korea KARI, who would design and produce the second stage. As the prerequisite to signing the contract South Korea joined the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR). All documentation was reviewed by the Russian Space Agency (RSA), and the joint project to build the Korean rocket complex was approved. The vehicle was unveiled at the Naro Space Center in Goheung, South Jeolla Province in October 2008. South Korea has spent some KR₩ 500 billion (US$ 490 million) since 2002 on the project.
The total cost of the first three launches was over 500 billion won (US$450 million), raising concerns among the Korean populace about the value of the Naro space program.
=== Impediments to South Korean rocket development ===
Republic of Korea efforts to build an indigenous space launch vehicle is hindered due to persistent political pressure of the United States, who had for many decades hindered South Korea's indigenous rocket and missile development programs in fear of their possible connection to clandestine military ballistic missile programs. South Korea has sought the assistance of foreign countries such as Russia through MTCR commitments to supplement its restricted domestic rocket technology. South Korea is working on an engine for an indigenous launcher planned for 2021.
== Vehicle description ==
The whole rocket was originally planned to be completely indigenous, but due to technological constraints largely spurred by political pressure from the United States that discouraged independent research and development of rocket technology by South Korea, KARI decided that the KSLV would be built on the basis of the universal rocket module (URM) designed for the Russian Angara family of rockets. The first stage of the vehicle uses the Russian RD-151 engine, which is essentially the RD-191 de-powered to 170 tonnes-force (1.7 MN; 370,000 lbf) from 190 tonnes. The second stage is a solid rocket motor developed and built by KARI. The launch vehicle weighs 140 tonnes (310,000 lb), stands 33 metres (108 ft) tall and has a diameter of almost 3 metres (9 ft 10 in).
== Launch history ==
=== First flight ===
The first launch of the Naro-1 took place on August 25, 2009. The rocket was launched from the Naro Space Center. The Khrunichev-built first stage reportedly performed nominally, and the second stage separation took place as expected, but the payload fairing separation system malfunctioned and half of the satellite protective cover stayed bolted to the second stage. The added weight of the remaining fairing caused the rocket to tumble upwards and to be thrown off its nominal course, soaring 20 kilometres (12 mi) above the planned altitude before falling down. The payload (STSAT-2) reentered the atmosphere and disintegrated.
The Government of the Republic of Korea officially approved the launch of the KSLV in June 2009, which was expected to send the STSAT-2A satellite into orbit. The launch was first tentatively scheduled for August 11, after receiving approval from the National Space Committee.
The first actual attempt to launch Naro-1 was conducted on August 19, 2009, but the launch was canceled seven minutes 56 seconds before launch.
=== Second flight ===
The launch of the second Naro-1 took place on June 10, 2010 at 08:01 UTC. The launch ended in failure 137 seconds (2 minutes 17 seconds) later, when contact with the rocket was lost. Ahn Byung-man, Minister of Science and Technology, told reporters that the rocket was believed to have exploded in midair. The launch originally had been scheduled for 9 June 2010, but was postponed due to a malfunction of a fire protection system.
Thirteen engineering experts from Republic of Korea and thirteen from Russian Federation formed a Failure Review Board and met in August 2010 to discuss the launch. They were able to officially conclude that the launch had failed. Further investigation was ongoing as to the cause of the failure. A new independent team consisting of 30 experts was formed in June 2011 for the further investigation but failed to conclude the cause of the failure, deciding to send four recommendations for the Failure Review Board instead.
=== Third flight ===
Naro-1 became the first South Korean launch vehicle to achieve Earth orbit on January 30, 2013, when it was successfully used to launch the Science and Technology Satellite 2C (STSAT-2C). Naro-1 launched from the Naro Space Center, located 480 kilometers south of Seoul.
==== Previous launch history for the third flight ====
Launch of the third flight was postponed from its original launch date of late October to sometime in mid to late November due to a damaged rubber ring that caused a fuel leak. A launch countdown on 29 November was halted 17 minutes prior to launch due to an excessive electric current reading, indicating some type of electrical malfunction. Diagnosing and correcting the problem were reported to require delaying the launch for at least four days.
The Republic of Korea government announced this would be the final flight attempt. Had the mission failed there would not be another attempt and the project would come to an end.
While the immediate cause of the leak was a damaged rubber seal further investigation into the failure revealed a defective adapter bloc linking the rocket to the port. Korean ministry announced that the new adapters will be brought in from Russia in preparation for the launch. A new preliminary launch date no earlier than November 24, 2012 was also announced.
While no cause for the failure of the second launch has officially been declared, changes to the third launch were to include eliminating the flight termination system on the second stage (built by Republic of Korea KARI), and changes to the system on the first stage (supplied by Russia). Changes to the electrical system that operates the payload fairing were also to be made.
The first stage of the rocket Naro-1 for the third attempt was delivered from the Russian manufacturer at the end of August 2012.
Shortly after the mishap with the second launch attempt, South Korea had announced the third flight would take place in 2011. Specific plans were never announced and no launch attempt was made in 2011.
== Political impact ==
The third launch of Naro-1 occurred one month after North Korea's successful December 2012 launch of their Unha-3 rocket developed with North Korean technology. The launch came in the wake of news that North Korea had plans for a third nuclear test.
== Comparable rockets ==
Unha
VLS-1
== See also ==
Comparison of orbital launchers families
Comparison of orbital launch systems
2010 in spaceflight
List of launch vehicles
Timeline of first orbital launches by country
KSLV-2
== References ==
== External links ==
KARI (Korea Aerospace Research Institute)
KSLV official website
KARI Space activities
South Korea Completes Space Center For Rocket Launch
Gov't Approves Launch of S. Korea's First Space Rocket
KSLV-I from Encyclopedia Astronautica
Third Naro-1 launch |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mildred_Barker | Mildred Barker | Ruth Mildred Barker (February 3, 1897 – January 25, 1990) was a musician, scholar, manager, and spiritual leader from the Alfred and Sabbathday Lake Shaker villages. A prominent and respected Shaker during her long life, she worked to preserve Shaker music. With the help of Daniel Patterson, she recorded Early Shaker Spirituals, a collection of Shaker songs. In recognition of her achievements in the field, in 1983 she received the National Heritage Fellowship. She also co-founded and managed The Shaker Quarterly, a magazine and journal focused on the Shakers, to which she was also a regular contributor.
== Biography ==
=== Birth and life at Alfred Village (1897–1931) ===
Barker was born in Providence, Rhode Island on February 3, 1897. She joined the Shakers on July 7, 1903, when her newly widowed mother placed her under the care of the Alfred village. She was placed into the Second Family, where sister Harriet Coolbroth became a mother figure for Barker. Barker was tasked with assisting the very elderly sister Paulina Springer, whom she befriended. Springer taught Barker the song "Mother Has Come with Her Beautiful Song". Springer died in 1905, and on her deathbed asked Barker to always remain Shaker, which Barker promised she would do. Barker's inclination to music continued, as Coolbroth and Lucinda Taylor taught her and other girls in her care Shaker songs, and Barker attempted to learn as many of these songs as she could. She later claimed that it was the "vim and vigor" of Shaker song that attracted her to the faith. She belonged to a club called the "Beacon Light Circle". Barker's mother returned in 1911 to take her back home to Providence, but Barker insisted on remaining at Alfred to live as a Shaker. Seven years later, she signed the covenant, binding herself as a member of the Alfred community. That same year, the Second Family was closed, and thus Barker relocated to Alfred's Church Family.
=== Sabbathday Lake (1931–1990) ===
In 1931, the Alfred community closed, and Barker moved to the Sabbathday Lake in New Gloucester, Maine. At Sabbathday Lake, she was placed in charge of the Girls' Order, where she formed the "Girls' Improvement Club", in which the girls and young women wrote poetry, practiced recitations, and studied the Bible. She also was placed in charge of preserves and candy making – specializing in hand-dipped chocolates – at the village's store, where she also sewed and knitted. She oversaw these industries until 1968. In 1950, she was made trustee of Sabbathday Lake and thus charged with running the businesses and finances for the entire village.
Since the 1940s, Barker was de facto spiritual leader for the Sabbathday Lake community. Gertrude Soule, who had left and rejoined the community several times, had been appointed Eldress in 1950, and felt uncomfortable with this level of Barker's influence. In 1957, she was appointed to the Parent Ministry at the Hancock Shaker Village, and so relocated to that Ministry's base in Pittsfield, Massachusetts. In 1971, Soules, now living at the Canterbury Shaker Village, decided not to return to Sabbathday Lake, and Barker was appointed Eldress in her stead.
In 1960, Theodore Johnson joined the Shakers, and the following year he and Barker launched The Shaker Quarterly, a journal and magazine that published scholarly articles on theology and the Shakers, shared news from the village, and, occasionally, advertised products produced by the community. Barker served as business manager for the publication from its founding until 1974, and frequently contributed articles as well as the regularly occurring newsletter column Home Notes. It was mostly through Barker's leadership that Sabbathday Lake decided to re-open their religious meetings to public attendance. She traveled as a speaker on topics regarding the Shakers. For many years, Barker worked with historian and musicologist Daniel W. Patterson toward preserving Shaker music. She commented that "I didn't realize for a very long time how important it was, it was a feeling that I got myself from the old songs, the music. It suddenly came upon me that I was keeping the tradition alive, which meant everything to me. We're just a small group, but it's something that the world needs and I'm sure it's going to pass right down through many centuries. I don't believe that it will be lost." She appeared on four recordings, including Early Shaker Spirituals. In recognition of her contributions to traditional Shaker song, in 1983 Barker was awarded a National Heritage Fellowship by the National Endowment for the Arts. Over the course of her life, she received numerous other awards as well. Barker died on January 25, 1990, after battling cancer for several months.
== Awards ==
Catholic Art Association award, 1965
Maine Arts Commission award, 1971
National Heritage Fellowship, 1983
Women's Career Center award from Westbrook College, 1987
== Selected works ==
Barker, R. Mildred (1937). Greetings to you, from the Society of American Shakers. Sabbathday Lake Shaker Village. OCLC 25076604.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Barker, R. Mildred (1963). Johnson, Theodore (ed.). "Revelation: A Shaker Viewpoint". The Shaker Quarterly. 5 (1). Gloucester, Maine: Sabbathday Lake Shaker Village: 7–17. ASIN B00073DX0O. ISSN 0582-9348. LCCN sf80001422. OCLC 65878644.
Barker, R. Mildred (1983). Poems and Prayers. Sabbathday Lake Shaker Village: The Shaker Press. ASIN B0007B5KES. OCLC 894492882.
Barker, R. Mildred (1985) [1978, 1st edition]. Sabbathday Lake Shakers: An Introduction to the Shaker Heritage (2nd ed.). Sabbathday Lake Shaker Village: The Shaker Press. ISBN 978-0915836048. OCLC 50144364.
Barker, R. Mildred (1986) [1983, 1st edition]. Holy Land: A History of the Alfred Shakers. Sabbathday Lake Shaker Village: The Shaker Press. ISBN 978-0915836031. OCLC 21952433.
Barker, R. Mildred (1996) [1966, 1st addition]. Early Shaker Spirituals (CD). Supporting vocals by Ethel Peacock, Elsie McCool, Della Haskell, Marie Burgess, Frances Carr; additional performers from the United Society of Shakers, Sabbathday Lake, Maine. Program notes by Daniel W. Patterson. (6th ed.). Rounder Records. ASIN B0000002DC. LCCN 72761670. OCLC 36097123.
== Citations ==
== References ==
Associated Press (January 27, 1990). "Sister R. Mildred Barker, Shaker Leader, 92". The New York Times. Retrieved December 8, 2016.
Hall, Roger Lee (January 25, 2000). ""Mother has come with her beautiful song" – A Memorial Tribute to Sister Ruth Mildred Barker". American Music Preservation. Retrieved December 8, 2016.
Harrington, Richard (June 25, 1983). "Honoring Just Plain Folks, the Keepers of Tradition". The Washington Post. Retrieved December 13, 2016.
Lauber, Jeannine (2009). Chosen Faith, Chosen Land: The Untold Story of America's 21st Century Shakers. Camden: Down East Books. ISBN 9780892729036. LCCN 2009025082. OCLC 318421320.
Miller, Amy Bess (1998). Shaker Medicinal Herbs: A Compendium of History, Lore, and Uses. Pownal: Storey Books. ISBN 1-58017-040-4. OCLC 38073384.
National Endowment for the Arts. "National Heritage Fellowships: Sister Mildred Barker". National Endowment for the Arts. Retrieved November 22, 2020.
Patterson, Daniel W. (April 14, 2007). "Shakers Appearing in the Film". Folkstreams. Retrieved December 10, 2016.
Paterwic, Stephen J. (2009). The A to Z of the Shakers. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6893-9. LCCN 2008009185. OCLC 472450582.
Stein, Stephen J. (1992). The Shaker Experience in America: A History of the United Society of Believers. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300059335. OCLC 24284630.
== External links ==
PBS special with Mildred Barker discussing Shaker dance |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyphipterix_saurodonta#:~:text=Glyphipterix%20saurodonta%20is%20a%20species%20of%20sedge%20moth%20in%20the%20genus%20Glyphipterix.%20It%20was%20described%20by%20Edward%20Meyrick%20in%201913. | Glyphipterix saurodonta | Glyphipterix saurodonta is a species of sedge moth in the genus Glyphipterix. It was described by Edward Meyrick in 1913. It is found in North America.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katia_Bellillo | Katia Bellillo | Katia Bellillo (born 17 February 1951) is an Italian politician and former minister. She served in governments under Massimo D'Alema and Giuliano Amato between 1998 and 2001. Originally a member of the Italian Communist Party (PCI), she joined the Party of Italian Communists (PDCI) in 1998 and became Minister for Regional Affairs. She later became Minister for Equal Opportunities in 2000, in which role she successfully championed a range of issues including LGBT rights and women's boxing. During the following year, she was physically and verbally attacked by Alessandra Mussolini during a live TV broadcast. After leaving government, in 2008, she was one of the founders of the Unite the Left movement and, after a long political hiatus, unsuccessfully ran for mayor of Perugia in 2019.
== Early career ==
Katia Bellillo was born in Foligno in Umbria on 17 February 1951. After graduating in education and social work, specializing in family mediation, from the University of Perugia, she was elected a regional councillor for Umbria from 1976. She served two terms as a member of the Italian Communist Party (PCI), and was raised to be vice president of the Regional Council. She later became a city councilor in Perugia where she was part of the Board of Directors of the local public transport company and a member of the Management Committee of the local health authority. She became vice president of the Provincial Council of Perugia and councilor with responsibility for wildlife planning, social services, education, culture, sports and leisure, equal opportunities. When the PCI dissolved in 1991, she joined the more radical Communist Refoundation Party (PRC).
== Role in government ==
In 1998 she participated in the internal split in the PRC, becoming part of the new Party of Italian Communists (PDCI). The new party joined the coalition led by the Democrats of the Left. Bellillo joined the first D'Alema government, serving in both the first and second governments as Minister for Regional Affairs. The end of the century saw upheaval in the government and after two crises in five months, Bellillo was given a new responsibility on 26 April 2000. Replacing Laura Balbo, she was appointed Minister for Equal Opportunities in the next Amato cabinet. In this role, she co-founded the Commission for Equalities and the Rights of Homosexuals, working with Balbo who had moved into an academic role at the University of Milan. Among other achievements, the Commission enabled homosexuals to become blood and organ donors for the first time. She also launched a national campaign to remove discrimination against female boxers and promote the sport of women's boxing.
== Later career ==
At the 2001 general election she was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in the single-member constituency of Orvieto. She joined the XIV European Affairs Commission and was the member of the PDCI National Secretariat responsible for the Department of Civil Rights.
During a Porta a Porta programme on sexual harassment broadcast in February 2001, Bellillo approached Alessandra Mussolini, the granddaughter of Benito Mussolini, and verbally accosted her. Mussolini responded by kicking Bellillo and calling her an "ugly communist". The furore did not harm either of their reputations.
In 2005, both Bellillo and actress Sabrina Ferilli supported the referendum on assisted fertilisation. Ferilli later told Gente that despite respecting the practice, she personally preferred adoption. Bellillo denounced her in an interview in Corriere della Sera and was unsuccessfully sued by Ferilli due to parliamentary immunity.
After the electoral defeat of The Left – The Rainbow coalition in the 2008 elections, she joined with Umberto Guidoni to found the Unite the Left movement. The movement, initially part of the PDCI, became independent and merged into Left Ecology Freedom (SEL) in 2010. Bellillo left the party shortly afterwards. In 2013, she joined the RadicalSocialist Movement association, becoming its national spokesperson. In 2019, she reentered politics and ran for mayor of Perugia. She was unsuccessful, receiving 1.77% of the vote.
== Electoral history ==
== References ==
=== Bibliography ===
Colombo, Giancarlo (2001). Who's Who in Italy. Zürich: Who's Who. ISBN 978-8-88524-644-7.
Fabbrini, Sergio; Piattoni, Simona (2008). Italy in the European Union: Redefining National Interest in a Compound Polity. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-742555-655.
Massari, Roberto; Bontempelli, Massimo (2007). I Forchettoni Rossi: La Sottocasta della "Sinistra Radicale" [The Red Forks: The Underclass of the Radical Left]. Bolsena: Massari. ISBN 978-8-84570-249-5.
Rose, Sarah (2002). "Parties of the Left". In Newell, James (ed.). The Italian General Election of 2001: Berlusconi's Victory. Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 71–87. ISBN 978-0-71906-100-4.
Ross, Charlotte (2009). "Collective Assertion of the LGBT Movement". In Albertazzi, Daniele; Rothenberg, Nina; Ross, Charlotte; Brook, Clodagh (eds.). Resisting the Tide: Cultures of Opposition Under Berlusconi (2001–06). New York: Continuum. pp. 204–216. ISBN 978-0-82649-291-3. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Liberator_General_San_Mart%C3%ADn | Order of the Liberator General San Martín | The Order of the Liberator General San Martín (Spanish: Orden del Libertador General San Martín) is the highest decoration in Argentina. It is awarded to foreign politicians or military, deemed worthy of the highest recognition from Argentina. It is granted by the sitting President of Argentina.
== History ==
It owes its name to General José de San Martín, called Father of the Nation and Liberator. The original design was made by the Argentine engineer and sculptor Ángel Eusebio Ibarra García. It was created by Decree No. 5,000 of 17 August 1943; amended by Law No. 13. 202 of 21 May 1948; which in turn was repealed by Decree Law No. 16.628 of 17 December 1957, which re-creates the Order. The modifications introduced were only in the form. The regulations still in force were approved by Decree No. 16,643 of 18 December 1967.
== Grades ==
The Grades are:
Collar (Spanish: Collar)
Grand Cross (Spanish: Gran Cruz)
Grand Officer (Spanish: Gran Oficial)
Commander (Spanish: Comendador)
Officer (Spanish: Oficial)
Knight (Spanish: Caballero)
== Notable recipients ==
== References ==
== External links ==
(in Spanish) History of San Martín
(in Spanish) Articles on San Martin on newspaper Clarín
(in Spanish) Sanmartinian National Institute
(in Spanish) Foreign Relations Ministry of Argentina |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Drago | Dick Drago | Richard Anthony Drago (June 25, 1945 – November 2, 2023) was an American relief pitcher in Major League Baseball who played for the Kansas City Royals (1969–1973), Boston Red Sox (1974–1975, 1978–1980), California Angels (1976–1977), Baltimore Orioles (1977), and Seattle Mariners (1981). He batted and threw right-handed. Drago is notable for being the final pitcher to give up a home run to Hank Aaron.
== Career ==
Drago played high school ball for Woodward High School in Toledo, Ohio, graduating in 1963.
He was originally signed by the Detroit Tigers in the 1964 amateur draft, though was selected by the Kansas City Royals during the 1968 expansion draft and started his Major League career with the Royals in 1969, becoming the ace of their pitching staff in 1971, after going 17–11 with a 2.98 earned run average (ERA), and ending fifth in the AL Cy Young Award vote behind Vida Blue, Mickey Lolich, Wilbur Wood and Dave McNally. Finishing with a 3.01 ERA in 1972, Drago went 12–17, but declined with 12–14 and 4.23 in 1973. He was traded by the Royals to the Red Sox for Marty Pattin on October 24, 1973,
Drago also pitched for the Angels and Orioles in parts of two seasons.
He had been acquired by the Orioles from the Angels for Dyar Miller on June 13, 1977.
He filed for free agency after his lone season with the Orioles. He returned to Boston after signing with the Red Sox on November 21, 1977. During his last three years with the Red Sox, he saved 13 games with a 10–6 record in 1979. He ended his major league career with Seattle in 1981.
On July 20, 1976, Drago gave up the last of Hank Aaron's then-major league record 755 career home runs. In a 13-season career, Drago posted a 108–117 record with a 3.62 ERA and 58 saves in 519 appearances (189 as a starter).
== Death ==
Drago died on November 2, 2023, at the age of 78.
== References ==
== External links ==
Career statistics from MLB · Baseball Reference · Fangraphs · Baseball Reference (Minors) · Retrosheet · Baseball Almanac |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susac%C3%B3n | Susacón | Susacón is a town and municipality in the Colombian Department of Boyacá, part of the subregion of the Northern Boyacá Province. Susacón borders to the north Soatá, in the east Boavita, La Uvita and Jericó, in the south Sativanorte and in the west the Santander municipality of Onzaga.
== History ==
When the Spanish conquistadors led by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada entered the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, the central highlands of the Colombian Andes, they found there the Muisca Confederation, the former country, home of the Muisca.
Susacón was ruled by a cacique who was loyal to the cacique of Soatá. The cacique of Susacón took part in the bloody Battle of Bonza against the Spanish troops of De Quesada.
Although the Spanish missionaries already arrived in 1556, the village was officially founded on December 18, 1809.
Susacón means in Chibcha: "ally of the cacique Susa".
== Economy ==
Main economical activities of Susacón are agriculture (potatoes, maize, barley, sugar cane, wheat and bananas), livestock farming, fishing and crafts.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Doyle_(transit_worker) | Peter Doyle (transit worker) | Peter George Doyle (June 1843 – April 19, 1907) was an Irish-born American transit worker, known for being an intimate companion of Walt Whitman from around 1865 to 1876, and to some extent to Whitman's death in 1892. Doyle also witnessed the assassination of Abraham Lincoln in 1865.
== Biography ==
Peter George Doyle was born in early June 1843 in Ireland to Peter George Doyle, a blacksmith, and Catherine Nash Doyle, the sixth of nine children. He was baptized on June 16, 1843, in Limerick. He moved with members of his family to Alexandria, Virginia, in 1853, travelling through Baltimore which they reached on May 10. Doyle was not well educated. He grew to be around 5 feet and 8 inches tall. Doyle's niece described him as "a homosexual".
Somewhere between 1856 and 1859 the Doyles moved to Richmond, Virginia, where Peter Sr. found employment at the Tredegar Iron Works. When the American Civil War broke out, Doyle enlisted in the Confederate States Army on April 25, 1861. He fought in several engagements of the war, including the Battle of Antietam, where he was wounded and he was discharged on November 7, 1862. He likely re-joined the army for a time in 1863 before deserting and fleeing North, where he was placed in a prison near Old Capitol Prison in April 1863. He was released on May 11 and began working at the Washington Navy Yard in Washington, D.C., holding a position there until 1865. After the war ended, he lived in Washington, D.C., and worked as a streetcar conductor for the Washington and Georgetown Railroad Company.
Doyle was an eyewitness to the assassination of Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theatre on April 14, 1865. Whitman later drew on Doyle's account of his experience.
=== Relationship with Whitman ===
Doyle first met Whitman in 1865 on a "cold, stormy night". Whitman was the only passenger on Doyle's streetcar at the time, and the two began talking. They became very close friends, corresponding regularly and frequently meeting. Whitman often rode Doyle's streetcar, they went on numerous hikes together, and wrote many letters, Whitman addressing Doyle as "boy" or "son", while Doyle signed his "Pete the Great". The historian Martin G Murray wrote that Doyle may have influenced Whitman's famous poem "O Captain! My Captain!", arguing that Whitman adopted a more conventional form to appeal to Doyle. The hero in Whitman's "Come Up From the Fields Father" is named "Pete" and according to Murray, Doyle may have inspired some of the poems or influenced Whitman's writing in the book Drum-Taps.
In May 1870, the two briefly traveled to New York City, where they saw the opera Poliuto. Whitman was known to abbreviate Doyle as "16.4" (P being the 16th letter of the alphabet and D the fourth) in his diary. Whitman may have begun to worry that he loved Doyle and Doyle did not reciprocate. Whitman wanted to live with Doyle, but Doyle initially refused as he was supporting his mother. By the end of 1870, Whitman was more confident in their relationship. In 1872 or 1873, Doyle began working on the Pennsylvania Railroad as a braker. After Whitman had a stroke in 1873, Doyle helped to nurse him. Doyle gradually grew unhappy with his job and continued to visit Whitman, even after he moved to Camden, New Jersey, in 1874. After 1876, the two wrote and visited each other much less.
Doyle met Richard Maurice Bucke, a promoter and early biographer of Whitman, in 1880. After 1885, he moved permanently to Philadelphia, where he was a member of the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks and joined the United Confederate Veterans. The last time Doyle and Whitman were in contact may have been 1889, though they likely met at least once after that. Whitman left Doyle his watch and Doyle visited Whitman's body after he died in 1892, though he was almost not allowed into the funeral. Doyle was friends with Horace Traubel and his wife Anne Traubel, as well as Gustave Percival Wiksell, Horace's friend or lover.
Whitman's letters to Doyle were published in 1895 as Calamus, A Series of Letters Written During the Years 1868-1880 by Walt Whitman To A Young Friend (Peter Doyle). The collection has generally been recognized as being of love letters, and received mixed reviews. After Whitman died, Doyle had a coat that Whitman had worn, saying it was like "Aladdin's lamp". For the rest of his life, Doyle was considered a celebrity by "friends and followers" of Whitman.
== Death and interment ==
Doyle died on April 19, 1907, in Philadelphia of uremia. He is buried in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C.
== Legacy ==
A portrait of Doyle and Whitman was taken around 1865 by M. P. Rice. It is the earliest known portrait of Whitman with someone else. Paraphrasing Thomas Gray's "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard", John Burroughs described Doyle as "a mute inglorious Whitman".
Doyle is considered possibly the most likely candidate for the love of Whitman's life. Whitman's biographer Justin Kaplan wrote in 1980 that "Whitman extended himself with Peter Doyle farther than he had with any other man and at greater risk to his psychic safety." Their relationship has been described as a "romantic friendship", though its exact nature is unknown.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Kaplan, Justin (1979). Walt Whitman: A Life. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-671-22542-1.
Loving, Jerome (1999). Walt Whitman: The Song of Himself. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22687-9.
Murray, Martin (July 1, 1994). ""Pete the Great": A Biography of Peter Doyle". Walt Whitman Quarterly Review. 12 (1): 1–51. doi:10.13008/2153-3695.1429. ISSN 0737-0679.
Reynolds, David S. (1995). Walt Whitman's America: A Cultural Biography. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-76709-6. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairey_Albacore#Specifications_(Albacore_with_Taurus_XII) | Fairey Albacore | The Fairey Albacore is a single-engine biplane torpedo bomber designed and produced by the British aircraft manufacturer Fairey Aviation. It was primarily operated by the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm (FAA) during the Second World War.
The Albacore, popularly known as the "Applecore", was conceived as a replacement for the Fairey Swordfish, an earlier biplane introduced during the mid 1930s. It was typically operated by a crew of three and was designed for spotting and reconnaissance as well as level, dive, and torpedo bombing. First flown on 12 December 1938, the Albacore was in production between 1939 and 1943, and entered FAA service with 826 Naval Air Squadron during March 1940. The type was initially operated from land bases, being dispatched on attack missions against enemy shipping and harbours in the vicinity of the English Channel. The first operations on board an aircraft carrier commenced in November 1940.
At its height, 15 first-line FAA squadrons flew the Albacore. The type was much used in the Mediterranean, participating in the Battle of Cape Matapan, the Second Battle of El Alamein, and the landings at Sicily and Salerno. Although intended to replace the Swordfish, the Albacore served with it and was eventually retired before it, both aircraft having been replaced by a pair of monoplane designs, the Fairey Barracuda and Grumman Avenger. In addition to the FAA, the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) operated the type.
== Design and development ==
=== Background ===
The origins of the Albacore can be traced back to the issuing of Specification S.41/36 by the Air Ministry on 11 February 1937, as well as the earlier Specification M.7/36. The latter had sought a three-seat TSR (torpedo/spotter/reconnaissance) aircraft with which to replace the Fairey Swordfish in Fleet Air Arm (FAA) service. It was required to be capable of speeds between 58 and 183 knots while also carrying a single 18-inch Mark XIIA torpedo; furthermore, it was to be fitted with dual flight controls, have a powered rear turret, comprehensive facilities for observation and navigation, and incorporate soundproofing and heating measures.
In response, Fairey Aviation decided to work on its own design. Early activities included the wind tunnel testing of various biplane models at RAE Farnborough between November 1936 and June 1937. These tests reportedly influenced designs regarding the fitting of flaps upon the wings. The company produced both biplane and monoplane configurations to fulfil the requirement, officials dismissed the monoplane proposal as it raised uncertainties for the role it was to be tasked with at that time. Accordingly, Fairey focused its efforts onto the biplane configuration.
The Albacore, otherwise designated TBR (torpedo/bomber/reconnaissance), was a single-bay all-metal biplane. Its fuselage was of a semi-monocoque design and was equipped with a split undercarriage. In comparison to the Swordfish, the Albacore was furnished with a more powerful engine that drove a Constant-speed propeller, while the fuselage was also more aerodynamically refined. The engine that powered the early Albacores was a single Bristol Taurus II radial engine, capable of 1,065 hp, while those built later on received the more powerful Taurus XII, capable of 1,130 hp, instead.
Furthermore, the Albacore provided numerous amenities for the benefit of its crew, such as its fully enclosed cockpit, a central heating system, a windscreen wiper for the pilot, and lavatory. In the event of a water landing, the aircraft was also fitted with an automatic liferaft deployment system to assist in the crew's survival. The armament of the Albacore typically included a single fixed forward-firing machine gun in the upper starboard wing, while the rear cockpit was provided with either a single or twin Vickers K machine gun. It could carry a maximum under-wing bomb load of four 500 lb (230 kg) bombs.
The wings of the Albacore were of an equal span and were foldable for more compact stowage onboard aircraft carriers. They were covered by fabric, had relatively large flaps which were hydraulically-actuated and could also act as air brakes during dives. Like the Swordfish, it was capable of dive bombing; it could dive at speeds of up to 215 knots (400 km/h) IAS irrespective of the positioning of the flaps. According to test pilot Eric Brown, the Albacore was relatively steady throughout the dive, while the recovery was typically both smooth and relatively easy to perform.
=== Into flight ===
The first of two prototypes was first flown on 12 December 1938 from the Great West Aerodrome, piloted by F. H. Dixon. The second prototype made its first flight during April 1939, joining the flight test programme shortly thereafter. Both prototypes had not been ordered under individual contracts, but had instead been the first two of a production batch of 100 aircraft. There were some differences from subsequent production aircraft, such as their initial fitting with non-tapered engine cowlings and wheel-spats.
While the Albacore had been developed as a carrier-capable land plane, there was interest in its potential as a floatplane, and the first prototype was later fitted with floats and was experimentally configured for catapult-assisted takeoffs. The Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment (MAEE) tested it in early 1940, during which its water-handling was less than favourable, although it retained acceptable airborne characteristics, save for its reportedly poorly-harmonised flight controls.
During 1939, quantity production of the first batch of 98 aircraft began; the start of production had been delayed on account of production slippages of the Taurus engine. During February 1940, testing of the Albacore and Taurus II engine alike commenced at RAF Boscombe Down. During these tests, the prototype demonstrated its ability to attain a maximum speed of 160 mph (140 kn; 260 km/h), at an altitude of 4,800 ft (1,463 m), at 11,570 lb (5,259 kg), which was achieved while carrying four depth charges underneath its wings, while its maximum speed without the depth charges was 172 mph (149 kn; 277 km/h). An Albacore fitted with the Taurus II engine and carrying a torpedo weighed 11,100 lb (5,045 kg).
Some minor criticisms of the Albacore were produced during its 1940 evaluation flights; issues included the excessive heat of the forward cockpit during the summer months, while the rear cockpit was cold and subject to persistent drafts. The stall characteristics were described as uncomfortable, while the crew boarding process was also seen as somewhat hazardous. However, the only major change in the specification was the replacement of the Taurus II engine with the improved Taurus XII.
A total of 800 Albacores were built, including the two prototypes, which were all manufactured at Fairey's Hayes factory. Production came to an end in 1943. They were typically test flown from London's Great West Aerodrome, since been expanded to form London Heathrow Airport.
== Operational history ==
During March 1940, No. 826 Naval Air Squadron was specially formed to operate the first Albacores; within weeks, the type had begun operations, attacking harbours and shipping in the English Channel, operating from shore bases, as well as providing convoy escort for the rest of 1940. HMS Formidable's 826 and 829 Squadrons were the first to operate the Albacore from an aircraft carrier, operations commencing in November 1940. The Albacore suffered from reliability problems with the Taurus engine, although these were later solved, so that the failure rate was no worse than the Pegasus equipped Swordfish. The Albacore remained less popular than the Swordfish, as it was less manoeuvrable, while the controls were considered to be too heavy for a pilot to perform much evasive action after dropping a torpedo.
Eventually, there were 15 first-line FAA squadrons equipped with the Albacore which operated widely in the Mediterranean. In March 1941, Albacores made torpedo attacks during the Battle of Cape Matapan, inflicting severe damage on the Italian battleship Vittorio Veneto despite the presence of heavy anti-aircraft fire. The type also played a prominent role in the ill-fated raid on Kirkenes and Petsamo during July 1941. Albacores also participated, with greater success, in the fighting at El Alamein, dropping flares to mark targets for RAF night bombers.
Between September 1941 and June 1943, No. 828 Squadron, based at RAF Hal Far, Malta, operated a squadron of Albacores under severe blitz conditions during the Siege of Malta. The type employed a mixture of mines and bombs to attack Italian shipping, including convoys, along with shore targets in Sicily, mainland Italy, and North Africa. Albacores also supported the landings at Sicily and Salerno, guarding against enemy submarines and raiding key enemy facilities such as airfields and forts.
On 9 March 1942, twelve Albacores from HMS Victorious attacked the German battleship Tirpitz at sea near Narvik. Based on information from one of a search force of six Albacores that had been launched earlier, Albacores from 817 and 832 Squadrons launched torpedoes. One attack came within 20 yd (18 m) of Tirpitz, but the attack failed for the loss of two aircraft.
During 1943, the Albacore was replaced in FAA service by the newer Barracuda. The final Albacore squadron of the FAA, No. 841 Squadron, which had flown numerous shore-based attacks against shipping in the English Channel for the whole of its career with the Albacore, was disbanded in late 1943.
The Royal Air Force deployed some Albacores; 36 Squadron based at Singapore acquired five to supplement its Vickers Vildebeests at RAF Seletar in December 1941. The remnants of the squadron was captured by the Japanese in March 1942. During 1943, No. 415 Squadron RCAF was equipped with Albacores (presumably ex-FAA) before the Flight operating them was transferred and reformed as 119 Squadron at RAF Manston in July 1944. The squadron deployed later to Belgium and their Albacores were disposed of in early 1945, due to spares shortages, in favour of the inferior but ASV radar-equipped Swordfish Mk.IIIs that the squadron kept until the end of the war on 8 May. This was to combat German mini-submarines attacking Allied shipping entering the River Scheldt on its way to the Port of Antwerp. The Aden Communication Flight used 17 Albacores between the middle of 1944 and August 1946. Some of these were delivered by sea on the SS Empire Arun in December 1945 (all from Royal Navy stock).
The Royal Canadian Air Force took over the Albacores and used them during the Normandy invasion, for a similar role until July 1944. The Albacore was the last biplane to be used in combat by the RCAF.
== Operators ==
Canada
Royal Canadian Air Force
No. 415 Squadron RCAF
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force
No. 36 Squadron RAF
No. 119 Squadron
Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm
== Surviving aircraft ==
Only one Albacore is known to survive, on display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum, which was built using parts of Albacores N4389 and N4172 recovered from crash sites.
== Specifications (Albacore with Taurus XII) ==
Data from Jane's all the World's Aircraft 1943–44, British naval aircraft since 1912, The British Bomber since 1914, The Hamlyn Concise Guide to British Aircraft in World War IIGeneral characteristics
Crew: 2 (torpedo bomber) or 3 (reconnaissance mission)
Length: 40 ft 1+1⁄8 in (12.221 m) in tail-up rigging position
Wingspan: 50 ft 0 in (15.24 m)
Width: 17 ft 9 in (5.41 m) wings folded
Height: 12 ft 10+1⁄2 in (3.924 m) tail down, propeller tip down
Wing area: 623 sq ft (57.9 m2)
Empty weight: 7,250 lb (3,289 kg) torpedo bomber
Gross weight: 10,460 lb (4,745 kg) torpedo bomber
Max takeoff weight: 12,830 lb (5,820 kg)
Powerplant: 1 × Bristol Taurus XII 14-cylinder sleeve-valve radial piston engine, 1,130 hp (840 kW) for take-off
Propellers: 3-bladed constant-speed propeller
Performance
Maximum speed: 161 mph (259 km/h, 140 kn) torpedo bomber at 4,500 ft (1,400 m)
Cruise speed: 140 mph (230 km/h, 120 kn) maximum
Stall speed: 54 mph (87 km/h, 47 kn) flaps down
Range: 710 mi (1,140 km, 620 nmi) with torpedo
Ferry range: 930 mi (1,500 km, 810 nmi)
Service ceiling: 18,800 ft (5,700 m)
Time to altitude: eight minutes to 6,000 ft (1,800 m)
Armament
Guns: ** 1 × fixed, forward-firing 0.303 in (7.7 mm) M1919 Browning machine gun in starboard wing
1 or 2 × 0.303 in (7.7 mm) Vickers K machine guns in rear cockpit.
Bombs: 1 × 1,670 lb (760 kg) torpedo or 2,000 lb (910 kg) of bombs
== See also ==
Related development
Fairey Swordfish
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Douglas TBD Devastator
Fieseler Fi 167
Nakajima B5N
Related lists
List of aircraft of World War II
List of aircraft of the Fleet Air Arm
== Notes ==
== References ==
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
Bridgman, Leonard, ed. (1944). Jane's all the World's Aircraft 1943-44. London: Sampson Low, Marston & Co.
Brown, Eric; Green, William; Swanborough, Gordon (1980). Wings of the Navy: Flying Allied carrier aircraft of World War Two. London: Jane's. ISBN 0-7106-0002-X.
Harrison, W. A. Warpaint Series No.52 : Fairey Albacore. Bedfordshire: Warpaint Books Ltd 2004. OCLC 65202541.
Kostam, Angus. Sink the Tirpitz 1942–44: The RAF and Fleet Air Arm duel with Germany's mighty battleship. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2018. ISBN 978-1472831590
Lawrence, Joseph (1945). The Observer's Book Of Airplanes. London and New York: Frederick Warne & Co. OCLC 226100552.
Mason, Francis K. (1994). The British Bomber Since 1914. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books. ISBN 0-85177-861-5.
Shores, Christopher; Cull, Brian; Izawa, Yasuho (1992). Bloody Shambles: The Drift to War to the Fall of Singapore. Vol. I. London: Grub Street. ISBN 0-948817-50-X.
Taylor, H. A. Fairey Aircraft Since 1915. London: Putnam, 1974. ISBN 0-370-00065-X.
== Further reading ==
Smith, Peter C. (1982). Dive bomber : an illustrated history. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-930-6.
Taylor, H.A. (1974). Fairey aircraft since 1915. London: Putnam & Company Ltd. ISBN 0-370-00065-X.
== External links ==
Fleet Air Arm Archive
828 Squadron (TSR) Albacores: Malta War-Time Diaries 1941-1943 Sgt. Thomas Barker BEM |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Streamer_Awards | The Streamer Awards | The Streamer Awards is an annual awards show dedicated to live streamers. It was founded in 2022 by Twitch streamer QTCinderella to award and celebrate other streamers, primarily in the Twitch community. Nominees are selected via an online vote by fans and winners are then determined using a weighted combination of the online popular vote (70%) and panelist vote (30%).
The show consists of two main segments – a red carpet show that has interviews with the nominees and internet personalities as they arrive for the show, and the main award show where nominees are reviewed and winners are revealed. At various points during the awards portion of the show there are musical performances.
The trophy presented to award winners depicts a Peepo, a variation of Pepe the Frog.
== List of ceremonies ==
== Categories ==
In total, The Streamer Awards have designated awards in 50 categories. The 2025 awards contained 38 categories, with 12 being absent from previous years.
=== Current categories ===
=== Discontinued categories ===
== Records ==
=== Overall wins ===
=== Streamer of the Year ===
=== Legacy Award ===
== See also ==
The Game Awards
Shorty Awards
Streamy Awards
Webby Awards
List of web awards
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WhatsApp#:~:text=In%20June%202009%2C%20when%20the,when%20a%20user's%20status%20changed. | WhatsApp | WhatsApp (officially WhatsApp Messenger), owned by Meta Platforms, is an American social media, instant messaging (IM), and Voice over IP (VoIP) service accessible via desktop and mobile app. It allows users to send text messages, voice messages, and video messages, make voice and video calls, and share images, documents, user locations, and other content. The service requires a cellular mobile telephone number to register. WhatsApp was launched in May 2009. In January 2018, WhatsApp released a standalone business app called WhatsApp Business which can communicate with the standard WhatsApp client. As of May 2025, the service had 3 billion monthly active users, making it the most used messenger app. The name of the app is meant to sound like "what's up".
The service was created by WhatsApp Inc. of Mountain View, California, which was acquired by Facebook in February 2014 for approximately US$19.3 billion. It became the world's most popular messaging application in 2015, with 900 million users, and had more than 2 billion active users worldwide in February 2020. WhatsApp Business had approximately 200 million monthly users in 2023. By 2016, it had become the primary means of Internet communication in regions including the Americas, the Indian subcontinent, and large parts of Europe and Africa.
== History ==
=== 2009–2014 ===
WhatsApp was founded by Brian Acton and Jan Koum, former employees of Yahoo! Koum incorporated WhatsApp Inc. in California on February 24, 2009. A month earlier, after Koum purchased an iPhone, he and Acton decided to create an app for the App Store. The idea started off as an app that would display statuses in a phone's Contacts menu, showing if a person was at work or on a call.
Their discussions often took place at the home of Koum's Russian friend Alex Fishman in West San Jose. They realized that to take the idea further, they would need an iPhone developer. Fishman visited RentACoder.com, found Russian developer Igor Solomennikov, and introduced him to Koum.
Koum named the app WhatsApp to sound like "what's up" and it was published on the Apple App Store and BlackBerry App World in May and June 2009 respectively. However, when early versions of WhatsApp kept crashing, Koum considered giving up and looking for a new job. Acton encouraged him to wait for a "few more months".
In June 2009, when the app had been downloaded by only a handful of Fishman's Russian-speaking friends, Apple launched push technology, allowing users to be pinged even when not using the app. Koum updated WhatsApp so that everyone in the user's network would be notified when a user's status changed. This new facility, to Koum's surprise, was used by users to ping "each other with jokey custom statuses like, 'I woke up late' or 'I'm on my way.'" Fishman said, "At some point it sort of became instant messaging".
WhatsApp 2.0, released for iPhone in August 2009, featured a purpose-designed messaging component; the number of active users suddenly increased to 250,000.
Although Acton was working on another startup idea, he decided to join the company. In October 2009, Acton persuaded five former friends at Yahoo! to invest $250,000 in seed funding, and Acton became a co-founder and was given a stake. He officially joined WhatsApp on November 1. Koum then hired a friend in Los Angeles, Chris Peiffer, to develop a BlackBerry version, which arrived two months later. Subsequently, WhatsApp for Symbian OS was added in May 2010, and for Android OS in August 2010. In 2010 Google made multiple acquisition offers for WhatsApp, which were all declined.
To cover the cost of sending verification texts to users, WhatsApp was changed from a free service to a paid one. In December 2009, the ability to send photos was added to the iOS version. By early 2011, WhatsApp was one of the top 20 apps in the U.S. Apple App Store.
In April 2011, Sequoia Capital invested about $8 million for more than 15% of the company, after months of negotiation by Sequoia partner Jim Goetz.
By February 2013, WhatsApp had about 200 million active users and 50 staff members. Sequoia invested another $50 million at a $1.5 billion valuation. Some time in 2013 WhatsApp acquired Santa Clara–based startup SkyMobius, the developers of Vtok, a video and voice calling app.
As of December 2013, the service had 400 million monthly active users. That year, the company had $148 million in expenses and a net loss of $138 million.
=== 2014–2015 ===
On February 19, 2014, one year after the venture capital financing round at a $1.5 billion valuation, Facebook, Inc. (now Meta Platforms) agreed to acquire the company for US$19 billion, its largest acquisition to date. At the time, it was the largest acquisition of a venture-capital-backed company in history. Sequoia Capital received an approximate 5,000% return on its initial investment. Facebook paid $4 billion in cash, $12 billion in Facebook shares, and an additional $3 billion in restricted stock units granted to WhatsApp's founders Koum and Acton. Employee stock was scheduled to vest over four years subsequent to closing. Days after the announcement, WhatsApp users experienced a loss of service, leading to anger across social media.
The acquisition was influenced by the data provided by Onavo, Facebook's research app for monitoring competitors and trending usage of social activities on mobile phones, as well as startups that were performing "unusually well".
The acquisition caused many users to try, or move to, other message services. Telegram claimed that it acquired 8 million new users, and Line, 2 million.
At a keynote presentation at the Mobile World Congress in Barcelona in February 2014, Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg said that Facebook's acquisition of WhatsApp was closely related to the Internet.org vision. A TechCrunch article said about Zuckerberg's vision:The idea, he said, is to develop a group of basic internet services that would be free of charge to use – "a 911 for the internet". These could be a social networking service like Facebook, a messaging service, maybe search and other things like weather. Providing a bundle of these free of charge to users will work like a gateway drug of sorts – users who may be able to afford data services and phones these days just don't see the point of why they would pay for those data services. This would give them some context for why they are important, and that will lead them to pay for more services like this – or so the hope goes.
Three days after announcing the Facebook purchase, Koum said they were working to introduce voice calls. He also said that new mobile phones would be sold in Germany with the WhatsApp brand, and that their ultimate goal was to be on all smartphones.
In August 2014, WhatsApp was the most popular messaging app in the world, with more than 600 million users. By early January 2015, WhatsApp had 700 million monthly users and over 30 billion messages every day. In April 2015, Forbes predicted that between 2012 and 2018, the telecommunications industry would lose $386 billion because of "over-the-top" services like WhatsApp and Skype. That month, WhatsApp had over 800 million users. By September 2015, it had grown to 900 million; and by February 2016, one billion.
On November 30, 2015, the Android WhatsApp client made links to Telegram unclickable and not copyable. Multiple sources confirmed that it was intentional, not a bug, and that it had been implemented when the Android source code that recognized Telegram URLs had been identified. (The word "telegram" appeared in WhatsApp's code.) Some considered it an anti-competitive measure; WhatsApp offered no explanation.
=== 2016–2019 ===
On January 18, 2016, WhatsApp's co-founder Jan Koum announced that it would no longer charge users a $1 annual subscription fee, in an effort to remove a barrier faced by users without payment cards. He also said that the app would not display any third-party ads, and that it would have new features such as the ability to communicate with businesses.
On May 18, 2017, the European Commission announced that it was fining Facebook €110 million for "providing misleading information about WhatsApp takeover" in 2014. The Commission said that in 2014 when Facebook acquired the messaging app, it "falsely claimed it was technically impossible to automatically combine user information from Facebook and WhatsApp." However, in the summer of 2016, WhatsApp had begun sharing user information with its parent company, allowing information such as phone numbers to be used for targeted Facebook advertisements. Facebook acknowledged the breach, but said the errors in their 2014 filings were "not intentional".
In September 2017, WhatsApp's co-founder Brian Acton left the company to start a nonprofit group, later revealed as the Signal Foundation, which developed the WhatsApp competitor Signal. He explained his reasons for leaving in an interview with Forbes a year later. WhatsApp also announced a forthcoming business platform to enable companies to provide customer service at scale, and airlines KLM and Aeroméxico announced their participation in the testing. Both airlines had previously launched customer services on the Facebook Messenger platform.
In January 2018, WhatsApp launched WhatsApp Business for small business use.
In April 2018, WhatsApp co-founder and CEO Jan Koum announced he would be leaving the company. By leaving before November 2018, due to concerns about privacy, advertising, and monetization by Facebook, Acton and Koum were initially believed to have given up $1.3 billion in unvested stock options, however, it was later reported that Koum retained $450M worth of options via a "rest and vest" program. Facebook later announced that Koum's replacement would be Chris Daniels.
On November 25, 2019, WhatsApp announced an investment of $250,000 through a partnership with Startup India to provide 500 startups with Facebook ad credits of $500 each.
In December 2019, WhatsApp announced that a new update would lock out any Apple users who had not updated to iOS 9 or higher and Samsung, Huawei, Sony and Google users who had not updated to version 4.0 by February 1, 2020. The company also reported that Windows Phone operating systems would no longer be supported after December 31, 2019. WhatsApp was announced to be the 3rd most downloaded mobile phone app of the decade 2010–2019.
=== Since 2020 ===
In March 2020, WhatsApp partnered with the World Health Organization and UNICEF to provide messaging hotlines for people to get information on the COVID-19 pandemic. In the same month, WhatsApp began testing a feature to help users find out more information and context about information they receive to help combat misinformation.
In January 2021, WhatsApp announced a controversial new privacy policy allowing WhatsApp to share data with its parent company, Facebook. This led many users to delete WhatsApp and instead use services such as Signal and Telegram. However, the WhatsApp privacy policy does not apply in the EU, since it violates the principles of GDPR. Facing criticism, WhatsApp postponed the update to May 15, 2021, and had no plans to limit functionality of users, nor nag users who did not approve the new terms.
The 2021 Facebook outage affected other platforms owned by Facebook, such as Instagram and WhatsApp.
In May 2022, WhatsApp launched its Cloud API services (now known as WhatsApp Business Platform) for larger businesses requiring features beyond the WhatsApp Business App. The Cloud API enables businesses to integrate WhatsApp with other software, have a central WhatsApp account for multiple users and implement advanced automation.
In August 2022, WhatsApp launched an integration with JioMart, available only to users in India. Local users can text special numbers in the app to launch an in-app shopping process, where they can order groceries.
In March 2024, Meta announced that WhatsApp would let third-party messaging services enable interoperability with WhatsApp, a requirement of the EU's Digital Markets Act (DMA). This allows users to send messages between other messaging apps and WhatsApp while maintaining end-to-end encryption.
== Features ==
=== Presence ===
On February 24, 2017, WhatsApp launched a new Status feature similar to Snapchat and Facebook stories. WhatsApp has rolled out a feature called 'Voice Status Updates', which allows users to record voice notes and share them as their status on the app.
WhatsApp has the facility to hide users' online status ("Last Seen"). In December 2021, WhatsApp changed the default setting from "everyone" to only people in the user's contacts or who have been conversed with ("nobody" is also an option). In 2022, WhatsApp added the ability for users to turn off their online status.
=== General texting ===
In October 2018, the "Swipe to Reply" option was added to the Android beta version, 16 months after it was introduced for iOS.
In early 2020, WhatsApp launched its "dark mode" for iPhone and Android devices – a new design consisting of a darker palette.
In October 2020, WhatsApp rolled out a feature allowing users to mute both individuals and group chats forever. The mute options are "8 hours", "1 week", and "Always". The "Always" option replaced the "1 year" option that was originally part of the settings.
In May 2023, WhatsApp allowed users to edit messages, aligning itself with competitors such as Telegram and Signal which already offered this feature. According to the company, messages could be edited within a 15-minute window after being sent. Edited messages were tagged as "edited" to inform recipients that the content had been modified. Text formatting options like code blocks, quote blocks, and bulleted lists also became available for the first time.
In October 2024, WhatsApp expanded their chat filter feature, adding the ability for users to create custom lists that contain specific chats of their choice.
=== Voice and video calling and notes ===
In August 2013, WhatsApp added voice messages to their apps, giving users a way to send short audio recordings directly in their chats.
Voice calls between two accounts were added to the app in March and April 2015. By June 2016, the company's blog reported more than 100 million voice calls per day were being placed on WhatsApp.
In November 2016, video calls between two accounts were introduced.
Later in September 2018, WhatsApp introduced group audio and video call features.
In July 2023, video messages were added to WhatsApp. Similar to voice messages, this feature allows users to record and send short videos directly in a chat. This lets users share videos of themselves more quickly, and without adding anything to their device's gallery. Currently, video messages are limited to 60 seconds.
In November 2023, WhatsApp added a "voice chat" feature for groups with more than 32 members. Unlike their 32-person group calls, starting a voice chat does not call all group members directly; they instead receive a notification to join the voice chat.
In December 2023, WhatsApp's "View Once" feature expanded to include voice messages. Voice messages sent this way are deleted after the recipient listens to them the first time.
In June 2024, improvements were made to voice and video calls, allowing up to 32 participants in video calls, adding audio to screen sharing, and introducing a new codec to increase call reliability.
In November 2024, the ability to transcribe voice messages was added, allowing users to read out what was said in a voice message, rather than listening to the audio.
In December 2024, WhatsApp introduced several new video calling features, including the ability to select specific participants from a group to make a call, rather than calling all group members. Visual effects also became available, adding visual filters to a user's video feed.
=== File sharing ===
In November 2010, a slate of improvements for the iOS version of WhatsApp were released, including the ability to search for messages in your chat history, trimming long videos to a sendable size, the ability to cancel media messages as they upload or download, and previewing photos before sending them. In March 2012, WhatsApp improved its location-sharing function, allowing users to share not only their location, but also the location of places, such as restaurants or hotels.
In July 2017, WhatsApp added support for file uploads of all file types, with a limit of 100 MB. Previously between March 2016 and May 2017, only limited file types categorised as images (JPG, PNG, GIF), videos (MP4, AVI), and documents (CSV, DOC/DOCX, PDF, PPT/PPTX, RTF, TXT, XLS/XLSX), were allowed to be shared for file attachments.
In July 2021, WhatsApp announced forthcoming support for sending uncompressed images and videos in 3 options: Auto, Best Quality and Data Saver.
In May 2022, the file upload limit was raised from 100 MB to 2 GB, and the maximum group size increased to 512 members.
=== Security and encryption ===
On November 10, 2016, WhatsApp launched a beta version of two-factor authentication for Android users, which allowed them to use their email addresses for further protection. Also in November 2016, Facebook ceased collecting WhatsApp data for advertising in Europe.
In October 2019, WhatsApp officially launched a new fingerprint app-locking feature for Android users.
In July 2021, WhatsApp announced forthcoming support for end-to-end encryption for backups stored in Facebook's cloud.
In August 2021, WhatsApp launched a feature that allows chat history to be transferred between mobile operating systems. This was implemented only on Samsung phones, with plans to expand to Android and iOS "soon".
In October 2023 they also introduced passkey support, where a user can verify their login with on-device biometrics, rather than SMS. In November 2023, WhatsApp also began rolling out support for sending login codes to a linked email address, rather than via SMS. In a later update on November 30, WhatsApp added a Secret Code feature, which allows those who use locked chats to enter a unique password that hides those chats from view when unlocking the app.
=== Linked and multi-device support ===
In January 2015, WhatsApp launched a web client that allowed users to scan a QR code with their mobile app, mirroring their chats to their browser. The web client was not standalone, and required the user's phone to stay on and connected to the internet. It was also not available for iOS users on launch, due to limitations from Apple. Since then, linked devices support has expanded and more information is written in the Platform Support part of this article.
In July 2021 the company was also testing multi-device support, allowing computer users to run WhatsApp without an active phone session.
In April 2023, the app rolled out a feature that would allow account access across multiple phones, in a shift that would make it more like competitors. Messages would still be end-to-end encrypted. WhatsApp officially rolled out the Companion mode for Android users, allowing linking up to five Android phones to a single account. Now, the feature is also made available to iOS users, allowing them to link up to four iPhones.
In October 2023, support for logging in to multiple (meaning two) accounts was added, allowing users to switch between different WhatsApp accounts in the same app.
=== Stickers and avatars ===
On October 25, 2018, WhatsApp announced support for Stickers. Unlike other platforms, WhatsApp requires third-party apps to add Stickers to WhatsApp.
In March 2021, WhatsApp started rolling out support for third-party animated stickers, initially in Iran, Brazil and Indonesia, then worldwide.
In December 2022, WhatsApp launched 3D digital avatars. Users are able to use an avatar as their profile picture or use it for stickers during instant messaging, similar to those offered by Bitmoji or Memoji.
=== Communities and Channels ===
In April 2022, WhatsApp announced undated plans to roll out a Communities feature allowing several group chats to exist in a shared space, getting unified notifications and opening up smaller discussion groups. The company also announced plans to implement reactions, the ability for administrators to delete messages in groups and voice calls up to 32 participants.
In June 2023, a feature called WhatsApp Channels was launched which allows content creators, public figures and organizations to send newsletter-like broadcasts to large numbers of users. Unlike messages in groups or private chats, channels are not end-to-end encrypted. Channels were initially only available to users in Colombia and Singapore, then later Egypt, Chile, Malaysia, Morocco, Ukraine, Kenya and Peru before becoming widely available in September 2023.
=== Artificial intelligence ===
In April 2024, an AI-powered "Smart Assistant" became widely available in WhatsApp, allowing users to ask it questions or have it complete tasks such as generating images. The assistant is based on the LLaMa 3 model, and is also available on other Meta platforms like Facebook and Instagram. WhatsApp also introduced chat filters, allowing users to sort their chats by All, Unread or Groups.
In September 2024, WhatsApp expanded support for Meta AI, allowing users to send text and photos to Meta AI to ask questions, identify objects, translate text or edit pictures.
In December 2024, WhatsApp introduced a reverse image search feature, allowing users to verify image authenticity directly within the app using Google Search.
=== About ===
In November 2025, WhatsApp announced that they would update their About feature, which allows users to add a short message to explain what they are doing. By default, it is set to disappear in 24 hours, but it can be set for a longer amount of time and can be restricted for viewing by other contacts in the Settings menu. According to WhatsApp, this update was made for the incoming Christmas period for users to inform their contacts on their activities during the holidays. Prior to the update, the feature was "largely hidden within the apps menus" and difficult to find, with the reason for updating being that WhatsApp wanted the feature to be used more often. Engadget called the revamped feature "WhatsApp’s version of an AIM away message" and likened it to Instagram's and Facebook's Notes.
== Platform support ==
Currently, WhatsApp's principal platforms, which are fully supported, are devices supporting mobile telephony running Android, and iPhones. As of 2025, the software requires at least Android version 5.0 or iOS version 15.1 respectively. This table details platform support history.
=== Linked devices ===
Linked devices are secondary devices running the WhatsApp messenger software. They link to and sync with WhatsApp actively running on a supported primary phone. Up to four linked devices can be added per user account. Linked devices automatically log out after 14 days of inactivity on the primary phone. Linked devices allow the service to be used on multiple other platforms like desktop computers and smartwatches (e.g. WhatsApp Web, Facebook Portal), but also on other smartphones (called companions).
Originally it was required for the primary phone to keep an online connection to WhatsApp for linked devices to work, but now WhatsApp can run on linked devices without such requirement. This ability (named multi-device support) began testing in July 2021 and rolled out to all users in April 2023.
==== WhatsApp Web ====
WhatsApp was officially made available for PCs through a web client, under the name WhatsApp Web, released on January 21, 2015. WhatsApp Web is accessed through web.whatsapp.com and access is granted after the user scans their personal QR code through their mobile WhatsApp client. The desktop version was first only available to Android, BlackBerry, and Windows Phone users. Later on, it also added support for iOS, Nokia Series 40, and Nokia S60 (Symbian).
Previously the WhatsApp user's handset had to be connected to the Internet for the browser application to function but as of an update in October 2021 (and integrated by default in WhatsApp as of April 2022) that is no longer the case. When this multi-device feature was first introduced to Android and iOS users, it could only show messages for the last three months on the Web version, because the Web version was syncing with the phone. Since the complete roll out of this feature, users cannot check old messages before this period on the Web version anymore.
There are similar unofficial WhatsApp solutions for macOS, such as the open-source ChitChat, previously known as WhatsMac.
==== Windows and Mac ====
On May 10, 2016, the messenger was introduced for both Microsoft Windows and macOS operating systems. Support for video and voice calls from desktop clients was later added. Similar to the WhatsApp Web format, the app, which synchronises with a user's mobile device, is available for download on the website. It supported operating systems Windows 8 and OS X 10.10 and higher.
In 2023, WhatsApp replaced the Electron-based apps with native versions for their respective platforms. The Windows version is based on UWP while the Mac version is a port of the iOS version using Catalyst technology.
In July 2025, WhatsApp stopped developing the Windows UWP-based app due to poor support and deprecation of the UWP framework by Microsoft. WhatsApp for Windows transitioned over to the Microsoft Edge WebView2 framework, marking a return to utilising a web-based framework (just like Electron previously) instead of a native framework. The WebView2-based app has been criticised for its sluggish performance, high RAM usage, and requirement to keep the app running in the background to receive push notifications, compared to the previous native version.
==== iPad ====
WhatsApp has been officially supported for iPads and its iPadOS since May 27, 2025. Similarly to WhatsApp for web, Windows, Mac, and smartwatches, the iPad is a type of linked device that connects and syncs to WhatsApp running on a smartphone.
==== Smartwatches ====
WhatsApp added support for Android Wear (now called Wear OS) in 2014.
== Technical ==
WhatsApp uses a customized version of the open standard Extensible messaging and presence protocol (XMPP). A 2019 document released by the DOJ confirms this by naming "FunXMPP" as the protocol used by WhatsApp. The document was part of a lawsuit by WhatsApp and Meta against the NSO Group for their Pegasus malware. Upon installation, it creates a user account using the user's phone number as the username (Jabber ID: [phone number]@s.whatsapp.net).
WhatsApp automatically compares all the phone numbers from the device's address book with its central database of WhatsApp users to automatically add contacts to the user's WhatsApp contact list. Previously the Android and Nokia Series 40 versions used an MD5-hashed, reversed-version of the phone's IMEI as a password, while the iOS version used the phone's Wi-Fi MAC address instead of the IMEI. A 2012 update implemented generation of a random password on the server side. Alternatively a user can also contact any other WhatsApp user through the URL https://api.whatsapp.com/send/?phone=[phone number] where [phone number] is the number of the contact including the country code.
Some devices using dual SIMs may not be compatible with WhatsApp, though there are unofficial workarounds to install the app.
In February 2015, WhatsApp implemented voice calling, which helped WhatsApp to attract a different segment of the user population. WhatsApp's voice codec is Opus, which uses the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) and linear predictive coding (LPC) audio compression algorithms. WhatsApp uses Opus at 8–16 kHz sampling rates. On November 14, 2016, WhatsApp added video calling for users using Android, iPhone, and Windows Phone devices.
In November 2017, WhatsApp implemented a feature giving users seven minutes to delete messages sent by mistake.
Multimedia messages are sent by uploading the image, audio or video to be sent to an HTTP server and then sending a link to the content along with its Base64 encoded thumbnail, if applicable.
WhatsApp uses a "store and forward" mechanism for exchanging messages between two users. When a user sends a message, it is stored on a WhatsApp server, which tries to forward it to the addressee, and repeatedly requests acknowledgement of receipt. When the message is acknowledged, the server deletes it; if undelivered after 30 days, it is also deleted.
=== End-to-end encryption ===
On November 18, 2014, Open Whisper Systems announced a partnership with WhatsApp to provide end-to-end encryption by incorporating the encryption protocol used in Signal into each WhatsApp client platform. Open Whisper Systems said that they had already incorporated the protocol into the latest WhatsApp client for Android, and that support for other clients, group/media messages, and key verification would be coming soon after. WhatsApp confirmed the partnership to reporters, but there was no announcement or documentation about the encryption feature on the official website, and further requests for comment were declined. In April 2015, German magazine Heise security used ARP spoofing to confirm that the protocol had been implemented for Android-to-Android messages, and that WhatsApp messages from or to iPhones running iOS were still not end-to-end encrypted. They expressed the concern that regular WhatsApp users still could not tell the difference between end-to-end encrypted messages and regular messages.
On April 5, 2016, WhatsApp and Open Whisper Systems announced that they had finished adding end-to-end encryption to "every form of communication" on WhatsApp, and that users could now verify each other's keys. Users were also given the option to enable a trust on first use mechanism to be notified if a correspondent's key changes. According to a white paper that was released along with the announcement, WhatsApp messages are encrypted with the Signal Protocol. WhatsApp calls are encrypted with SRTP, and all client-server communications are "layered within a separate encrypted channel".
On October 14, 2021, WhatsApp rolled out end-to-end encryption for backups on Android and iOS. The feature has to be turned on by the user and provides the option to encrypt the backup either with a password or a 64-digit encryption key.
The application can store encrypted copies of the chat messages onto the SD card, but chat messages are also stored unencrypted in the SQLite database file "msgstore.db".
WhatsApp uses the Sender Keys protocol.
=== WhatsApp Payments ===
WhatsApp Payments (marketed as WhatsApp Pay) is a peer-to-peer money transfer feature. The service became generally available in India and Brazil, and in Singapore for WhatsApp Business transactions only.
==== India ====
In July 2017, WhatsApp received permission from the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) to enter into partnership with multiple Indian banks, for transactions over Unified Payments Interface (UPI), which relies on mobile phone numbers to make account-to-account transfers. In November 2020, UPI payments via WhatsApp were initially restricted to 20 million users, and to 100 million users in April 2022, and became generally available to everyone in August 2022.
=== Facebook/WhatsApp cryptocurrency project, 2019–2022 ===
On February 28, 2019, The New York Times reported that Facebook was "hoping to succeed where Bitcoin failed" by developing an in-house cryptocurrency that would be incorporated into WhatsApp. The project reportedly involved more than 50 engineers under the direction of former PayPal president David A. Marcus. This "Facebook coin" would reportedly be a stablecoin pegged to the value of a basket of different foreign currencies.
In June 2019, Facebook said that the project would be named Libra, and that a digital wallet named "Calibra" was to be integrated into Facebook and WhatsApp. After financial regulators in many regions raised concerns, Facebook stated that the currency, renamed Diem since December 2020, would require a government-issued ID for verification, and the wallet app would have fraud protection. Calibra was rebranded to Novi in May 2020.
Meta (formerly Facebook) ended its Novi project on September 1, 2022.
== Controversies and criticism ==
=== Misinformation ===
WhatsApp has repeatedly imposed limits on message forwarding in response to the spread of misinformation in countries including India and Australia. The measure, first introduced in 2018 to combat spam, was expanded and remained active in 2021. WhatsApp stated that the forwarding limits had helped to curb the spread of misinformation regarding COVID-19.
==== Murders in India ====
In India, WhatsApp encouraged people to report messages that were fraudulent or incited violence after lynch mobs in India murdered innocent people because of malicious WhatsApp messages falsely accusing the victims of intending to abduct children. There were a series of incidents between 2017 and 2020, after which WhatsApp announced changes for Indian users of the platform that labels forwarded messages as such.
==== 2018 elections in Brazil ====
In an investigation on the use of social media in politics, it was found that WhatsApp was being abused for the spread of fake news in the 2018 presidential elections in Brazil. It was reported that US$3 million was spent in illegal concealed contributions related to this practice.
Researchers and journalists called on WhatsApp's parent company, Facebook, to adopt measures similar to those adopted in India and restrict the spread of hoaxes and fake news.
=== Security and privacy ===
WhatsApp was initially criticized for its lack of encryption, sending information as plaintext. Encryption was first added in May 2012. End-to-end encryption was only fully implemented in April 2016 after a two-year process. As of September 2021, it is known that WhatsApp makes extensive use of outside contractors and artificial intelligence systems to examine certain user messages, images and videos (those that have been flagged by users as possibly abusive); and turns over to law enforcement metadata including critical account and location information.
In 2016, WhatsApp was widely praised for the addition of end-to-end encryption and earned a 6 out of 7 points on the Electronic Frontier Foundation's "Secure Messaging Scorecard". WhatsApp was criticized by security researchers and the Electronic Frontier Foundation for using backups that are not covered by end-to-end encryption and allow messages to be accessed by third-parties.
In May 2019, a security vulnerability in WhatsApp was found and fixed that allowed a remote person to install spyware by making a call which did not need to be answered.
In September 2019, WhatsApp was criticized for its implementation of a 'delete for everyone' feature. iOS users can elect to save media to their camera roll automatically. When a user deletes media for everyone, WhatsApp does not delete images saved in the iOS camera roll and so those users are able to keep the images. WhatsApp released a statement saying that "the feature is working properly", and that images stored in the camera roll cannot be deleted due to Apple's security layers.
In November 2019, WhatsApp released a new privacy feature that let users decide who can add them to groups.
In December 2019, WhatsApp confirmed a security flaw that would allow hackers to use a malicious GIF image file to gain access to the recipient's data. When the recipient opened the gallery within WhatsApp, even if not sending the malicious image, the hack is triggered and the device and its contents become vulnerable. The flaw was patched and users were encouraged to update WhatsApp.
On December 17, 2019, WhatsApp fixed a security flaw that allowed cyber attackers to repeatedly crash the messaging application for all members of group chat, which could only be fixed by forcing the complete uninstall and reinstall of the app. The bug was discovered by Check Point in August 2019 and reported to WhatsApp. It was fixed in version 2.19.246 onwards.
For security purposes, since February 1, 2020, WhatsApp has been made unavailable on smartphones using legacy operating systems like Android 2.3.7 or older and iPhone iOS 8 or older that are no longer updated by their providers.
In April 2020, the NSO Group held its governmental clients accountable for the allegation of human rights abuses by WhatsApp. In its revelation via documents received from court, the group claimed that the lawsuit brought against the company by WhatsApp threatened to infringe on its clients' "national security and foreign policy concerns". However, the company did not reveal names of the end users, which according to a research by Citizen Lab include, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kazakhstan, Morocco, Mexico and the United Arab Emirates.
On December 16, 2020, a claim that WhatsApp gave Google access to private messages was included in the anti-trust case against the latter. As the complaint was heavily redacted due to being an ongoing case, it did not disclose whether this was alleged tampering with the app's end-to-end encryption, or Google accessing user backups.
In January 2021, WhatsApp announced an updated privacy policy which stated that WhatsApp would share user data with Facebook and its "family of companies" beginning February 2021. Previously, users could opt-out of such data sharing, but the new policy removed this option. The new privacy policy would not apply within the EU, as it is illegal under the GDPR. Facebook and WhatsApp were widely criticized for this move. The enforcement of the privacy policy was postponed from February 8 to May 15, 2021, WhatsApp announced they had no plans to limit the functionality of the app for those who did not approve the new terms.
On October 15, 2021, WhatsApp announced that it would begin offering an end-to-end encryption service for chat backups, meaning no third party (including both WhatsApp and the cloud storage vendor) would have access to a user's information. This new encryption feature added an additional layer of protection to chat backups stored either on Apple iCloud or Google Drive.
On November 29, 2021, an FBI document was uncovered by Rolling Stone, revealing that WhatsApp responds to warrants and subpoenas from law enforcement within minutes, providing user metadata to the authorities. The metadata includes the user's contact information and address book.
In January 2022, an unsealed surveillance application revealed that WhatsApp started tracking seven users from China and Macau in November 2021, based on a request from US DEA investigators. The app collected data on who the users contacted and how often, and when and how they were using the app. This is reportedly not an isolated occurrence, as federal agencies can use the Electronic Communications Privacy Act to covertly track users without submitting any probable cause or linking a user's number to their identity.
At the beginning of 2022, it was revealed that San Diego–based startup Boldend had developed tools to hack WhatsApp's encryption, gaining access to user data, at some point since the startup's inception in 2017. The vulnerability was reportedly patched in January 2021. Boldend is financed, in part, by Peter Thiel, a notable investor in Facebook.
In September 2022, a critical security issue in WhatsApp's Android video call feature was reported. An integer overflow bug allowed a malicious user to take full control of the victim's application once a video call between two WhatsApp users was established. The issue was patched on the day it was officially reported.
In 2025, WhatsApp alerted 90 journalists and other members of civil society that they had been targeted by spyware used by the Israeli technology company Paragon Solutions.In April 2025, a group of Austrian researchers were able to extract 3.5 billion users' phone numbers by being able to make a hundred million contact discovery requests an hour, a flaw that exposed previous warnings from researchers in 2017 were not addressed. The researchers notified, Meta (who updated the enumeration problem in October), and deleted their copy of the phone numbers.
==== UK institutions ====
As of 2023, WhatsApp is widely used by government institutions in the UK, although such use is viewed as problematical since it hinders the public, including journalists, from obtaining accurate government records when making freedom of information requests.
The information commissioner has said that the use of WhatsApp posed risks to transparency since members of Parliament, government ministers, and officials who wished to avoid scrutiny might use WhatsApp despite there being official channels. Transparency campaigners have challenged the practice in court.
Notably, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the UK government routinely used WhatsApp to make decisions on managing the crisis, including on personal rather than government-issued devices. When the official inquiry into the pandemic began seeking evidence in May 2023, this presented issues for its ability to gather the material it sought. A personal device of the former Prime Minister, Boris Johnson, had been compromised by a security breach, and it was claimed that it could not be switched on to recover messages. Further, the Cabinet Office had claimed that since many messages were not relevant to the inquiry, it only needed to hand over material it had
selected as being relevant. The High Court, in a judicial review sought by the Cabinet Office, declared that all documents sought by the inquiry were to be handed over unredacted.
In 2018, it was reported that around 500,000 National Health Service (NHS) staff used WhatsApp and other instant messaging systems at work and around 29,000 had faced disciplinary action for doing so. Higher usage was reported by frontline clinical staff to keep up with care needs, even though NHS trust policies do not permit their use.
==== Mods and fake versions ====
In March 2019, WhatsApp released a guide for users who had installed unofficial modified versions of WhatsApp and warned that it may ban those using unofficial clients.
==== WhatsApp snooping scandal ====
In May 2019, WhatsApp was attacked by hackers who installed spyware on a number of victims' smartphones. The hack, allegedly developed by Israeli surveillance technology firm NSO Group, injected malware onto WhatsApp users' phones via a remote-exploit bug in the app's Voice over IP calling functions. A Wired report noted the attack was able to inject malware via calls to the targeted phone, even if the user did not answer the call.
In October 2019, WhatsApp filed a lawsuit against NSO Group in a San Francisco court, claiming that the alleged cyberattack violated US laws including the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA). According to WhatsApp, the exploit "targeted at least 100 human-rights defenders, journalists and other members of civil society" among a total of 1,400 users in 20 countries.
In April 2020, the NSO Group held its governmental clients accountable for the allegation of human rights abuses by WhatsApp. In its revelation via documents received via court, the group claimed that the lawsuit brought against the company by WhatsApp threatened to infringe on its clients' "national security and foreign policy concerns". However, the company did not reveal the names of the end users, which according to research by Citizen Lab include, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kazakhstan, Morocco, Mexico and the United Arab Emirates.
In July 2020, a US federal judge ruled that the lawsuit against NSO group could proceed. NSO Group filed a motion to have the lawsuit dismissed, but the judge denied all of its arguments.
==== Jeff Bezos phone hack ====
In January 2020, a digital forensic analysis revealed that the Amazon founder Jeff Bezos received an encrypted message on WhatsApp from the official account of Saudi Arabia's Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. The message reportedly contained a malicious file, the receipt of which resulted in Bezos' phone being hacked. The United Nations' special rapporteur David Kaye and Agnes Callamard later confirmed that Jeff Bezos' phone was hacked through WhatsApp, as he was one of the targets of Saudi's hit list of individuals close to The Washington Post journalist Jamal Khashoggi.
==== FBI ====
In 2021, an FBI document obtained through a Freedom of Information request by Property of the People, Inc., a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, revealed that WhatsApp and iMessage are vulnerable to law-enforcement real-time searches.
==== Tek Fog ====
In January 2022, an investigation by The Wire claimed that BJP, an Indian political party, allegedly used an app called Tek Fog which was capable of hacking inactive WhatsApp accounts en masse to mass message their contacts with propaganda. According to the report, a whistleblower with app access was able to hack a test WhatsApp account controlled by reporters "within minutes." It was later determined that staff of their Meta investigative team had been duped by false information; The Wire fired the staff member involved and issued a formal apology to its readers.
=== Terrorism ===
In December 2015, it was reported that terrorist organization ISIS had been using WhatsApp to plot the November 2015 Paris attacks. According to The Independent, ISIS also uses WhatsApp to traffic sex slaves.
In March 2017, British Home Secretary Amber Rudd said encryption capabilities of messaging tools like WhatsApp are unacceptable, as news reported that Khalid Masood used the application several minutes before perpetrating the 2017 Westminster attack. Rudd publicly called for police and intelligence agencies to be given access to WhatsApp and other encrypted messaging services to prevent future terror attacks.
In April 2017, the perpetrator of the Stockholm truck attack reportedly used WhatsApp to exchange messages with an ISIS supporter shortly before and after the incident. The messages involved discussing how to make an explosive device and a confession to the attack.
In April 2017, nearly 300 WhatsApp groups with about 250 members each were reportedly being used to mobilize stone-pelters in Jammu and Kashmir to disrupt security forces' operations at encounter sites. According to police, 90% of these groups were closed down after police contacted their admins. Further, after a six-month probe which involved the infiltration of 79 WhatsApp groups, the National Investigation Agency reported that out of about 6386 members and admins of these groups, about 1000 were residents of Pakistan and gulf nations. Further, for their help in negating anti-terror operations, the Indian stone pelters were getting funded through barter trade from Pakistan and other indirect means.
In May 2022, the FBI stated that an ISIS sympathizer, who was plotting to assassinate George W. Bush, was arrested based on his WhatsApp data. According to the arrest warrant for the suspect, his WhatsApp account was placed under surveillance.
=== Scams and malware ===
There are numerous ongoing scams on WhatsApp that let hackers spread viruses or malware. In May 2016, some WhatsApp users were reported to have been tricked into downloading a third-party application called WhatsApp Gold, which was part of a scam that infected the users' phones with malware. A message that promises to allow access to their WhatsApp friends' conversations, or their contact lists, has become the most popular hit against anyone who uses the application in Brazil. Clicking on the message actually sends paid text messages. Since December 2016, more than 1.5 million people have clicked and lost money.
Another application called GB WhatsApp is considered malicious by cybersecurity firm Symantec because it usually performs some unauthorized operations on end-user devices.
=== Bans ===
==== China ====
WhatsApp is owned by Meta, whose main social media service Facebook has been blocked in China since 2009. In September 2017, security researchers reported to The New York Times that the WhatsApp service had been completely blocked in China. On April 19, 2024, Apple removed WhatsApp from the App Store in China, citing government orders that stemmed from national security concerns.
==== Iran ====
On May 9, 2014, the government of Iran announced that it had proposed to block the access to WhatsApp service to Iranian residents. "The reason for this is the assumption of WhatsApp by the Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg, who is an American Zionist", said Abdolsamad Khorramabadi, head of the country's Committee on Internet Crimes. Subsequently, Iranian president Hassan Rouhani issued an order to the Ministry of ICT to stop filtering WhatsApp. It was blocked permanently until Meta answers September 2022.
==== Turkey ====
Turkey temporarily banned WhatsApp in 2016, following the assassination of the Russian ambassador to Turkey.
==== Brazil ====
On March 1, 2016, Diego Dzodan, Facebook's vice-president for Latin America was arrested in Brazil for not cooperating with an investigation in which WhatsApp conversations were requested. On March 2, 2016, at dawn the next day, Dzodan was released because the Court of Appeal held that the arrest was disproportionate and unreasonable.
On May 2, 2016, mobile providers in Brazil were ordered to block WhatsApp for 72 hours for the service's second failure to cooperate with criminal court orders. Once again, the block was lifted following an appeal, after less than 24 hours.
Brazil's Central Bank issued an order to payment card companies Visa and Mastercard on June 23, 2020, to stop working with WhatsApp on its new electronic payment system. A statement from the Bank asserted the decision to block the Facebook-owned company's latest offering was taken to "preserve an adequate competitive environment" in the mobile payments space and to ensure "functioning of a payment system that's interchangeable, fast, secure, transparent, open and cheap."
==== Uganda ====
The government of Uganda banned WhatsApp and Facebook, along with other social media platforms, to enforce a tax on the use of social media. Users are to be charged USh.200/= per day to access these services according to the new law set by parliament.
==== United Arab Emirates (UAE) ====
The United Arab Emirates banned WhatsApp video chat and VoIP call applications in as early as 2013 due to what is often reported as an effort to protect the commercial interests of their home grown nationally owned telecom providers (du and Etisalat). Their app ToTok has received press suggesting it is able to spy on users.
==== Cuba ====
In July 2021, the Cuban government blocked access to several social media platforms, including WhatsApp, to curb the spread of information during the anti-government protests.
==== Switzerland ====
In December 2021, the Swiss army banned the use of WhatsApp and several other non-Swiss encrypted messaging services by army personnel. The ban was prompted by concerns of US authorities potentially accessing user data for such apps because of the CLOUD Act. The army recommended that all army personnel use Threema instead, as the service is based in Switzerland.
==== Zambia ====
In August 2021, the digital rights organization Access Now reported that WhatsApp along with several other social media apps was being blocked in Zambia for the duration of the general election. The organization reported a massive drop-off in traffic for the blocked services, though the country's government made no official statements about the block.
==== Saudi Arabia ====
The Saudi Central Bank (SAMA) has prohibited local banks from using instant messaging applications like WhatsApp for customer communication. This decision aims to enhance data security and protect customer information.
==== Russia ====
28 November 2025 Russia threatens full ban on WhatsApp.
==== Third-party clients ====
In mid-2013, WhatsApp Inc. filed for the DMCA takedown of the discussion thread on the XDA Developers forums about the then popular third-party client "WhatsApp Plus".
In 2015, some third-party WhatsApp clients that were reverse-engineering the WhatsApp mobile app, received a cease and desist to stop activities that were violating WhatsApp legal terms. As a result, users of third-party WhatsApp clients were also banned.
== WhatsApp Business ==
WhatsApp launched two business-oriented apps in January 2018, separated by the intended userbase:
A WhatsApp Business app for small companies
An Enterprise Solution known as WhatsApp Business Platform for bigger companies with global customer bases, such as airlines, e-commerce retailers and banks, who would be able to offer customer service and conversational commerce (e-commerce) via WhatsApp chat, using live agents or chatbots (as far back as 2015, companies like Meteordesk had provided unofficial solutions for enterprises to attend to large numbers of users, but these were shut down by WhatsApp)
This solution was originally available as on-premise only, but in 2022, WhatsApp Cloud API became available. The on-premise API has been deprecated and will be fully sunset on October 23, 2025.
As WhatsApp API does not have a frontend interface, businesses need to subscribe through one of Meta's approved Business Solution Providers. Examples of these include respond.io, Gupshup, Trengo, Wati and Manychat.
In October 2020, Facebook announced the introduction of pricing tiers for services offered via the WhatsApp Business API, charged on a per-conversation basis. On July 1, 2025, a new pricing tier system came into effect which charges per-message rather than per-conversation.
== User statistics ==
WhatsApp handled ten billion messages per day in August 2012, growing from two billion in April 2012, and one billion the previous October. On June 13, 2013, WhatsApp announced that they had reached their new daily record by processing 27 billion messages. According to the Financial Times, WhatsApp "has done to SMS on mobile phones what Skype did to international calling on landlines".
By April 22, 2014, WhatsApp had over 500 million monthly active users, 700 million photos and 100 million videos were being shared daily, and the messaging system was handling more than 10 billion messages each day.
On August 24, 2014, Koum announced on his Twitter account that WhatsApp had over 600 million active users worldwide. At that point WhatsApp was adding about 25 million new users every month, or 833,000 active users per day.
In May 2017, it was reported that WhatsApp users spend over 340 million minutes on video calls each day on the app. This is the equivalent of roughly 646 years of video calls per day.
By February 2017, WhatsApp had over 1.2 billion users globally, reaching 1.5 billion monthly active users by the end of 2017.
In January 2020, WhatsApp reached over 5 billion installs on Google Play Store making it only the second non-Google app to achieve this milestone.
In February 2020, WhatsApp had over 2 billion users globally.
In May 2025, Meta reported WhatsApp had over 3 billion monthly active users globally.
=== Specific markets ===
India is by far WhatsApp's largest market in terms of total number of users. In May 2014, WhatsApp crossed 50 million monthly active users in India, which is also its largest country by the number of monthly active users, then 70 million in October 2014, making users in India 10% of WhatsApp's total user base. In February 2017, WhatsApp reached 200 million monthly active users in India.
Israel is one of WhatsApp's strongest markets in terms of ubiquitous usage. According to Globes, already by 2013 the application was installed on 92% of all smartphones, with 86% of users reporting daily use.
In July 2024, WhatsApp reached 100 million users in the United States.
=== Competition ===
WhatsApp competes with messaging services including iMessage (estimated 1.3 billion active users), WeChat (1.26 billion active users), Telegram (900 million users), Viber (260 million active users), LINE (217 million active users), KakaoTalk (57 million active users), and Signal (70 million active users). Both Telegram and Signal in particular were reported to get registration spikes during WhatsApp outages and controversies.
WhatsApp has increasingly drawn its innovation from competing services, such as a Telegram-inspired web version and features for groups. In 2016, WhatsApp was accused of copying features from a then-unreleased version of iMessage.
== See also ==
Comparison of cross-platform instant messaging clients
Comparison of user features of messaging platforms
Comparison of VoIP software – Voice over IP software comparison
Criticism of Facebook
Instagram – Social media platform owned by Meta
List of most-downloaded Google Play applications
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Media related to WhatsApp at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._N._Sinha#:~:text=Lal%20Narayan%20Sinha%20was%20a,Patna%20Law%20College%2C%20Patna%20University. | L. N. Sinha | Lal Narayan Sinha was a lawyer who served as the Attorney General of India between 9 August 1979 and 8 August 1983, and as the Solicitor General of India from 17 July 1972 until 5 April 1977. He was educated at Patna Law College, Patna University.
Sinha was the first Attorney General to represent a private party during their term in office. Before becoming the Solicitor General of India, he was the Advocate General of Bihar for several years.
== Family and early life ==
His son Lalit Mohan Sharma became the Chief Justice of India. His grandson Justice Partha Sarthy currently serves as a Judge in the Patna High Court.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audrey_McLaughlin | Audrey McLaughlin | Audrey Marlene McLaughlin (née Brown; born November 8, 1936) is a Canadian politician and former leader of the New Democratic Party from 1989 to 1995. She was the first female leader of a political party with representation in the House of Commons of Canada, as well as the first federal political party leader to represent an electoral district in a Canadian territory.
== Life and career ==
McLaughlin was born Audrey Marlene Brown in Dutton, Ontario, the daughter of Margaret Clark and William Brown, of Scottish and English descent. She worked as a social worker in Toronto, Ontario, and in Ghana. In 1955, she graduated with a Diploma in Home Science from the MacDonald Institute, later a founding college of the University of Guelph. In 1979, McLaughlin moved to Yukon and set up a consultancy business. In 1987, she ran in a by-election and won, the first federal NDP candidate to win in Yukon. In 1988, she was appointed caucus chair, and in 1989, she won the NDP 1989 leadership convention, replacing the retiring Ed Broadbent.
McLaughlin had taken over the NDP during a peak in its popularity. However, the party began a steady decline in the polls for several reasons. One was the NDP's provincial affiliates in British Columbia and Ontario, whose unpopularity in government reflected badly on the federal party. The rise of the Reform Party also sapped much NDP support in Western Canada. In the 1993 election, the NDP lost badly and went from 44 seats to only 9 in Parliament. More than half of its losses came in Ontario, where it lost all 10 of its MPs, and British Columbia, where it lost 17 of its 19 MPs.
McLaughlin won her seat in the Yukon but resigned as leader and was succeeded by Alexa McDonough in 1995. McLaughlin did not run for re-election in the 1997 election.
McLaughlin was an overseas volunteer in Barbados in 1986 with Canadian Crossroads International. Today, she is an honorary patron with Crossroads.
In 1991, she was sworn in as a member of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada so that she could access classified documents during the Gulf War. In August 2003, she was made an Officer of the Order of Canada.
She published an autobiography, A Woman's Place: My Life and Politics, in 1992.
=== Post-political career ===
In 2000, she joined the National Democratic Institute, an organization that promotes democracy and peace in developing nations, and travelled to Kosovo to help women run in that country's first democratic election. McLaughlin has also served as the President of the Socialist International Women and as special representative for the Government of the Yukon on Circumpolar Affairs. She was an honorary pallbearer at the state funeral of Jack Layton in 2011.
== Archives ==
There is an Audrey McLaughlin fonds at Library and Archives Canada (archival reference number R11545).
== References ==
== External links ==
Audrey McLaughlin – Parliament of Canada biography |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_2000#Service_packs | Windows 2000 | Windows 2000 is a major release of the Windows NT operating system developed by Microsoft, targeting the server and business markets. It is the direct successor to Windows NT 4.0, and was released to manufacturing on December 15, 1999, and then to retail on February 17, 2000 for all versions, with Windows 2000 Datacenter Server being released to retail on September 26, 2000.
Windows 2000 introduces NTFS 3.0, Encrypting File System, and basic and dynamic disk storage. Support for people with disabilities is improved over Windows NT 4.0 with a number of new assistive technologies, and Microsoft increased support for different languages and locale information. The Windows 2000 Server family has additional features, most notably the introduction of Active Directory, which in the years following became a widely used directory service in business environments. Although not present in the final release, support for Alpha (which was a 64-bit platform but only distributed as a 32-bit OS) was present in its alpha, beta, and release candidate versions. Its successor, Windows XP, only supports x86, x64 and Itanium processors. Windows 2000 was also the first NT release to drop the "NT" name from its product line.
Four editions of Windows 2000 have been released: Professional, Server, Advanced Server, and Datacenter Server; the latter of which was launched months after the other editions. While each edition of Windows 2000 is targeted at a different market, they share a core set of features, including many system utilities such as the Microsoft Management Console and standard system administration applications.
Microsoft marketed Windows 2000 as the most secure Windows version ever at the time; however, it became the target of a number of high-profile virus attacks such as Code Red and Nimda. Windows 2000 was succeeded by Windows XP a little over a year and a half later on October 2001 while Windows 2000 Server was succeeded by Windows Server 2003 more than three years after its initial release on April 2003. For ten years after its release, it continued to receive patches for security vulnerabilities nearly every month until reaching the end of support on July 13, 2010, the same day that support ended for Windows XP SP2.
Both the original Xbox and the Xbox 360 use a modified version of the Windows 2000 kernel as their system software; the former's source code was leaked in 2020.
== History ==
Windows 2000, originally named Windows NT 5.0, is a continuation of the Microsoft Windows NT family of operating systems, replacing Windows NT 4.0. Chairman and CEO Bill Gates was originally "pretty confident" Windows NT 5.0 would ship in the first half of 1998, revealing that the first set of beta builds had been shipped in early 1997; these builds were identical to Windows NT 4.0. The first official beta was released in September 1997, followed by Beta 2 in August 1998. On October 27, 1998, Microsoft announced that the name of the final version of the operating system would be Windows 2000, a name which referred to its projected release date. Windows 2000 Beta 3 was released in May 1999. Windows NT 5.0 Beta 1 was similar to Windows NT 4.0, including a very similarly themed logo. Windows NT 5.0 Beta 2 introduced a new 'mini' boot screen, and removed the 'dark space' theme in the logo. The Windows NT 5.0 betas had very long startup and shutdown sounds, though these were changed in the early Windows 2000 beta, but during Beta 3, a new piano-made startup and shutdown sounds were made, composed by Steven Ray Allen. It was featured in the final version as well as in Windows Me. The new login prompt from the final version made its first appearance in Beta 3 build 1946 (the first build of Beta 3). The new, updated icons (for My Computer, Recycle Bin etc.) first appeared in Beta 3 build 1964. The Windows 2000 boot screen in the final version first appeared in Beta 3 build 1983. Windows 2000 did not have an actual codename because, according to Dave Thompson of Windows NT team, "Jim Allchin didn't like codenames". Service Pack 1 for Windows 2000 was codenamed "Asteroid".
During development, builds for the Alpha architecture were compiled, but the project was abandoned in the final stages of development (between RC1 and RC2) after Compaq announced they had dropped support for Windows NT on Alpha. The Alpha 64-bit builds of Windows 2000 were also in development simultaneously with the 32-bit versions (versions of Windows NT for Alpha were 32-bit only due to it using 32-bit application binary interfaces on an otherwise 64-bit processor) until it to was discontinued; development of Windows for Alpha 64-bit continued on for some time as a development platform for the 64-bit Intel Itanium platform when no other Itanium hardware was available at the time. From here, Microsoft issued three release candidates between July and November 1999, and finally released the operating system to partners on December 12, 1999, followed by manufacturing three days later on December 15. The public could buy the full version of Windows 2000 on February 17, 2000. Three days before this event, which Microsoft advertised as "a standard in reliability," a leaked memo from Microsoft reported on by Mary Jo Foley revealed that Windows 2000 had "over 63,000 potential known defects." After Foley's article was published, she claimed that Microsoft blacklisted her for a considerable time. However, Abraham Silberschatz et al. claim in their computer science textbook that "Windows 2000 was the most reliable, stable operating system Microsoft had ever shipped to that point. Much of this reliability came from maturity in the source code, extensive stress testing of the system, and automatic detection of many serious errors in drivers." InformationWeek summarized the release "our tests show the successor to Windows NT 4.0 is everything we hoped it would be. Of course, it isn't perfect either." Wired News later described the results of the February launch as "lackluster." Novell criticized Microsoft's Active Directory, the new directory service architecture, as less scalable or reliable than its own Novell Directory Services (NDS) alternative.
Windows 2000 was initially planned to replace both Windows 98 and Windows NT 4.0. However, this would be changed later, as an updated version of Windows 98 called Windows 98 Second Edition was released in 1999.
On or shortly before February 12, 2004, "portions of the Microsoft Windows 2000 and Windows NT 4.0 source code were illegally made available on the Internet." The source of the leak was later traced to Mainsoft, a Windows Interface Source Environment partner. Microsoft issued the following statement:
"Microsoft source code is both copyrighted and protected as a trade secret. As such, it is illegal to post it, make it available to others, download it or use it."
Despite the warnings, the archive containing the leaked code spread widely on the file-sharing networks. On February 16, 2004, an exploit "allegedly discovered by an individual studying the leaked source code" for certain versions of Microsoft Internet Explorer was reported. On April 15, 2015, GitHub took down a repository containing a copy of the Windows NT 4.0 source code that originated from the leak.
Microsoft planned to release in 2000 a version of Windows 2000 which would run on 64-bit Intel Itanium microprocessors, specially codenamed "Janus". 64-bit builds of Windows 2000 were already in development for the Alpha 64-bit platform (which served as testing grounds for Itanium), however the first officially released 64-bit version of Windows was Windows XP 64-Bit Edition, released alongside the 32-bit editions of Windows XP on October 25, 2001, followed by the server versions Windows Datacenter Server Limited Edition and later Windows Advanced Server Limited Edition, which were based on the pre-release Windows Server 2003 (then known as Windows .NET Server) codebase. These editions were released in 2002, were shortly available through the OEM channel and then were superseded by the final versions of Server 2003 on April 24, 2003.
== New and updated features ==
Windows 2000 introduced many of the new features of Windows 98 and 98 SE into the NT line, such as the Windows Desktop Update, Internet Explorer 5 (Internet Explorer 6, which followed in 2001, is also available for Windows 2000), Outlook Express, NetMeeting, FAT32 support, 3DNow!, SSE and SSE2 support, Windows Driver Model, Internet Connection Sharing, Windows Media Player 6.4, WebDAV support etc. Certain new features are common across all editions of Windows 2000, among them NTFS 3.0, the Microsoft Management Console (MMC), UDF support, the Encrypting File System (EFS), Logical Disk Manager, Image Color Management 2.0, support for PostScript 3-based printers, OpenType (.OTF) and Type 1 PostScript (.PFB) font support (including a new font—Palatino Linotype—to showcase some OpenType features), the Data protection API (DPAPI), an LDAP/Active Directory-enabled Address Book, usability enhancements and multi-language and locale support. Windows 2000 also introduced USB device class drivers for USB printers, Mass storage class devices, and improved FireWire SBP-2 support for printers and scanners, along with a Safe removal applet for removable storage devices. Windows 2000 SP4 added native USB 2.0 support, Wireless Zero Configuration support and SSE3 support. Windows 2000 is also the first Windows version to support hibernation at the operating system level (OS-controlled ACPI S4 sleep state) unlike Windows 98 which required special drivers from the hardware manufacturer or driver developer.
A new capability designed to protect critical system files called Windows File Protection was introduced. This protects critical Windows system files by preventing programs other than Microsoft's operating system update mechanisms such as the Package Installer, Windows Installer and other update components from modifying them. The System File Checker utility provides users the ability to perform a manual scan of the integrity of all protected system files, and optionally repair them, either by restoring from a cache stored in a separate "DLLCACHE" directory, or from the original install media.
Microsoft recognized that a serious error (a Blue screen of death or stop error) could cause problems for servers that needed to be constantly running and so provided a system setting that would allow the server to automatically reboot when a stop error occurred. Also included is an option to dump any of the first 64 KB of memory to disk (the smallest amount of memory that is useful for debugging purposes, also known as a minidump), a dump of only the kernel's memory, or a dump of the entire contents of memory to disk, as well as write that this event happened to the Windows 2000 event log. In order to improve performance on servers running Windows 2000, Microsoft gave administrators the choice of optimizing the operating system's memory and processor usage patterns for background services or for applications. Windows 2000 also introduced core system administration and management features, such as the Windows Installer, Windows Management Instrumentation and Event Tracing for Windows (ETW) into the operating system.
=== Plug and Play and hardware support improvements ===
The most notable improvement from Windows NT 4.0 is the addition of Plug and Play with full ACPI and Windows Driver Model support. Similar to Windows 9x, Windows 2000 supports automatic recognition of installed hardware, hardware resource allocation, loading of appropriate drivers, PnP APIs and device notification events. The addition of the kernel PnP Manager along with the Power Manager are two significant subsystems added in Windows 2000.
Windows 2000 introduced version 3 print drivers (user mode printer drivers) based on Unidrv, which made it easier for printer manufacturers to write device drivers for printers. Generic support for 5-button mice is also included as standard and installing IntelliPoint allows reassigning the programmable buttons. Windows 98 lacked generic support. Driver Verifier was introduced to stress test and catch device driver bugs.
=== Shell ===
Windows 2000 introduces layered windows that allow for transparency, translucency and various transition effects like shadows, gradient fills and alpha-blended GUI elements to top-level windows. Menus support a new Fade transition effect.
The Start menu in Windows 2000 introduces personalized menus, expandable special folders and the ability to launch multiple programs without closing the menu by holding down the SHIFT key. A Re-sort button forces the entire Start Menu to be sorted by name. The Taskbar introduces support for balloon notifications which can also be used by application developers. Windows 2000 Explorer introduces customizable Windows Explorer toolbars, auto-complete in Windows Explorer address bar and Run box, advanced file type association features, displaying comments in shortcuts as tooltips, extensible columns in Details view (IColumnProvider interface), icon overlays, integrated search pane in Windows Explorer, sort by name function for menus, and Places bar in common dialogs for Open and Save.
Windows Explorer has been enhanced in several ways in Windows 2000. It is the first Windows NT release to include Active Desktop, first introduced as a part of Internet Explorer 4.0 (specifically Windows Desktop Update), and only pre-installed in Windows 98 by that time. It allowed users to customize the way folders look and behave by using HTML templates, having the file extension HTT. This feature was abused by computer viruses that employed malicious scripts, Java applets, or ActiveX controls in folder template files as their infection vector. Two such viruses are VBS/Roor-C and VBS.Redlof.a.
The "Web-style" folders view, with the left Explorer pane displaying details for the object currently selected, is turned on by default in Windows 2000. For certain file types, such as pictures and media files, the preview is also displayed in the left pane. Until the dedicated interactive preview pane appeared in Windows Vista, Windows 2000 had been the only Windows release to feature an interactive media player as the previewer for sound and video files, enabled by default. However, such a previewer can be enabled in previous versions of Windows with the Windows Desktop Update installed through the use of folder customization templates. The default file tooltip displays file title, author, subject and comments; this metadata may be read from a special NTFS stream, if the file is on an NTFS volume, or from an OLE structured storage stream, if the file is a structured storage document. All Microsoft Office documents since Office 4.0 make use of structured storage, so their metadata is displayable in the Windows 2000 Explorer default tooltip. File shortcuts can also store comments which are displayed as a tooltip when the mouse hovers over the shortcut. The shell introduces extensibility support through metadata handlers, icon overlay handlers and column handlers in Explorer Details view.
The right pane of Windows 2000 Explorer, which usually just lists files and folders, can also be customized. For example, the contents of the system folders aren't displayed by default, instead showing in the right pane a warning to the user that modifying the contents of the system folders could harm their computer. It's possible to define additional Explorer panes by using DIV elements in folder template files. This degree of customizability is new to Windows 2000; neither Windows 98 nor the Desktop Update could provide it. The new DHTML-based search pane is integrated into Windows 2000 Explorer, unlike the separate search dialog found in all previous Explorer versions. The Indexing Service has also been integrated into the operating system and the search pane built into Explorer allows searching files indexed by its database.
=== NTFS 3.0 ===
Microsoft released the version 3.0 of NTFS (sometimes incorrectly called "NTFS 5" in relation to the kernel version number) as part of Windows 2000; this introduced disk quotas (provided by QuotaAdvisor), file-system-level encryption, sparse files and reparse points. Sparse files allow for the efficient storage of data sets that are very large yet contain many areas that only have zeros. Reparse points allow the object manager to reset a file namespace lookup and let file system drivers implement changed functionality in a transparent manner. Reparse points are used to implement volume mount points, junctions, Hierarchical Storage Management, Native Structured Storage and Single Instance Storage. Volume mount points and directory junctions allow for a file to be transparently referred from one file or directory location to another.
Windows 2000 also introduces a Distributed Link Tracking service to ensure file shortcuts remain working even if the target is moved or renamed. The target object's unique identifier is stored in the shortcut file on NTFS 3.0 and Windows can use the Distributed Link Tracking service for tracking the targets of shortcuts, so that the shortcut file may be silently updated if the target moves, even to another hard drive.
=== Encrypting File System ===
The Encrypting File System (EFS) introduced strong file system-level encryption to Windows. It allows any folder or drive on an NTFS volume to be encrypted transparently by the user. EFS works together with the EFS service, Microsoft's CryptoAPI and the EFS File System Runtime Library (FSRTL). To date, its encryption has not been compromised.
EFS works by encrypting a file with a bulk symmetric key (also known as the File Encryption Key, or FEK), which is used because it takes less time to encrypt and decrypt large amounts of data than if an asymmetric key cipher were used. The symmetric key used to encrypt the file is then encrypted with a public key associated with the user who encrypted the file, and this encrypted data is stored in the header of the encrypted file. To decrypt the file, the file system uses the private key of the user to decrypt the symmetric key stored in the file header. It then uses the symmetric key to decrypt the file. Because this is done at the file system level, it is transparent to the user.
For a user losing access to their key, support for recovery agents that can decrypt files is built into EFS. A Recovery Agent is a user who is authorized by a public key recovery certificate to decrypt files belonging to other users using a special private key. By default, local administrators are recovery agents however they can be customized using Group Policy.
=== Basic and dynamic disk storage ===
Windows 2000 introduced the Logical Disk Manager and the diskpart command line tool for dynamic storage. All versions of Windows 2000 support three types of dynamic disk volumes (along with basic disks): simple volumes, spanned volumes and striped volumes:
Simple volume, a volume with disk space from one disk.
Spanned volumes, where up to 32 disks show up as one, increasing it in size but not enhancing performance. When one disk fails, the array is destroyed. Some data may be recoverable. This corresponds to SPAN and not to RAID-1.
Striped volumes, also known as RAID-0, store all their data across several disks in stripes. This allows better performance because disk reads and writes are balanced across multiple disks. Like spanned volumes, when one disk in the array fails, the entire array is destroyed (some data may be recoverable).
In addition to these disk volumes, Windows 2000 Server, Windows 2000 Advanced Server, and Windows 2000 Datacenter Server support mirrored volumes and striped volumes with parity:
Mirrored volumes, also known as RAID-1, store identical copies of their data on 2 or more identical disks (mirrored). This allows for fault tolerance; in the event one disk fails, the other disk(s) can keep the server operational until the server can be shut down for replacement of the failed disk.
Striped volumes with parity, also known as RAID-5, functions similar to striped volumes/RAID-0, except "parity data" is written out across each of the disks in addition to the data. This allows the data to be "rebuilt" in the event a disk in the array needs replacement.
=== Accessibility ===
With Windows 2000, Microsoft introduced the Windows 9x accessibility features for people with visual and auditory impairments and other disabilities into the NT-line of operating systems. These included:
StickyKeys: makes modifier keys (ALT, CTRL and SHIFT) become "sticky": a user can press the modifier key, and then release it before pressing the combination key. (Activated by pressing Shift five times quickly.)
FilterKeys: a group of keyboard-related features for people with typing issues, including:
Slow Keys: Ignore any keystroke not held down for a certain period.
Bounce Keys: Ignore repeated keystrokes pressed in quick succession.
Repeat Keys: lets users slow down the rate at which keys are repeated via the keyboard's key-repeat feature.
Toggle Keys: when turned on, Windows will play a sound when the CAPS LOCK, NUM LOCK or SCROLL LOCK key is pressed.
SoundSentry: designed to help users with auditory impairments, Windows 2000 shows a visual effect when a sound is played through the sound system.
MouseKeys: lets users move the cursor around the screen via the numeric keypad.
SerialKeys: lets Windows 2000 support speech augmentation devices.
High contrast theme: to assist users with visual impairments.
Microsoft Magnifier: a screen magnifier that enlarges a part of the screen the cursor is over.
Additionally, Windows 2000 introduced the following new accessibility features:
On-screen keyboard: displays a virtual keyboard on the screen and allows users to press its keys using a mouse or a joystick.
Microsoft Narrator: introduced in Windows 2000, this is a screen reader that utilizes the Speech API 4, which would later be updated to Speech API 5 in Windows XP
Utility Manager: an application designed to start, stop, and manage when accessibility features start. This was eventually replaced by the Ease of Access Center in Windows Vista.
Accessibility Wizard: a control panel applet that helps users set up their computer for people with disabilities.
=== Languages and locales ===
Windows 2000 introduced the Multilingual User Interface (MUI). Besides English, Windows 2000 incorporates support for Arabic, Armenian, Baltic, Central European, Cyrillic, Georgian, Greek, Hebrew, Indic, Japanese, Korean, simplified Chinese, Thai, traditional Chinese, Turkic, Vietnamese and Western European languages. It also has support for many different locales.
Since Windows 2000, English versions of Windows (NT) can support display and input right-to-left languages (such as Arabic) and CJKV languages, but related files needed to be installed in Control Panel.
=== Games ===
Windows 2000 included version 7.0 of the DirectX API, commonly used by game developers on Windows 98. The last version of DirectX that was released for Windows 2000 was DirectX 9.0c (Shader Model 3.0), which shipped with Windows XP Service Pack 2. Microsoft published quarterly updates to DirectX 9.0c through the February 2010 release after which support was dropped in the June 2010 SDK. These updates contain bug fixes to the core runtime and some additional libraries such as D3DX, XAudio 2, XInput and Managed DirectX components. The majority of games written for versions of DirectX 9.0c (up to the February 2010 release) therefore run on Windows 2000.
Windows 2000 included the same games as Windows NT 4.0 did: FreeCell, Minesweeper, Pinball, and Solitaire.
=== System utilities ===
Windows 2000 introduced the Microsoft Management Console (MMC), which is used to create, save, and open administrative tools. Each of these is called a console, and most allow an administrator to administer other Windows 2000 computers from one centralised computer. Each console can contain one or many specific administrative tools, called snap-ins. These can be either standalone (with one function), or an extension (adding functions to an existing snap-in). In order to provide the ability to control what snap-ins can be seen in a console, the MMC allows consoles to be created in author mode or user mode. Author mode allows snap-ins to be added, new windows to be created, all portions of the console tree to be displayed and consoles to be saved. User mode allows consoles to be distributed with restrictions applied. User mode consoles can grant full access to the user for any change, or they can grant limited access, preventing users from adding snapins to the console though they can view multiple windows in a console. Alternatively users can be granted limited access, preventing them from adding to the console and stopping them from viewing multiple windows in a single console.
The main tools that come with Windows 2000 can be found in the Computer Management console (in Administrative Tools in the Control Panel). This contains the Event Viewer—a means of viewing system or application-related events and the Windows equivalent of a log file, a system information utility, a backup utility, Task Scheduler and management consoles to view open shared folders and shared folder sessions, configure and manage COM+ applications, configure Group Policy, manage all the local users and user groups, and a device manager. It contains Disk Management and Removable Storage snap-ins, a disk defragmenter as well as a performance diagnostic console, which displays graphs of system performance and configures data logs and alerts. It also contains a service configuration console, which allows users to view all installed services and to stop and start them, as well as configure what those services should do when the computer starts. CHKDSK has significant performance improvements.
Windows 2000 comes with two utilities to edit the Windows registry, REGEDIT.EXE and REGEDT32.EXE. REGEDIT has been directly ported from Windows 98, and therefore does not support editing registry permissions. REGEDT32 has the older multiple document interface (MDI) and can edit registry permissions in the same manner that Windows NT's REGEDT32 program could. REGEDIT has a left-side tree view of the Windows registry, lists all loaded hives and represents the three components of a value (its name, type, and data) as separate columns of a table. REGEDT32 has a left-side tree view, but each hive has its own window, so the tree displays only keys and it represents values as a list of strings. REGEDIT supports right-clicking of entries in a tree view to adjust properties and other settings. REGEDT32 requires all actions to be performed from the top menu bar. Windows XP is the first system to integrate these two programs into a single utility, adopting the REGEDIT behavior with the additional NT features.
The System File Checker (SFC) also comes with Windows 2000. It is a command line utility that scans system files and verifies whether they were signed by Microsoft and works in conjunction with the Windows File Protection mechanism. It can also repopulate and repair all the files in the Dllcache folder.
=== Recovery Console ===
The Recovery Console is run from outside the installed copy of Windows to perform maintenance tasks that can neither be run from within it nor feasibly be run from another computer or copy of Windows 2000. It is usually used to recover the system from problems that cause booting to fail, which would render other tools useless, like Safe Mode or Last Known Good Configuration, or chkdsk. It includes commands like fixmbr, which are not present in MS-DOS.
It has a simple command-line interface, used to check and repair the hard drive(s), repair boot information (including NTLDR), replace corrupted system files with fresh copies from the CD, or enable/disable services and drivers for the next boot.
The console can be accessed in either of the two ways:
Booting from the Windows 2000 CD, and choosing to start the Recovery Console from the CD itself instead of continuing with setup. The Recovery Console is accessible as long as the installation CD is available.
Preinstalling the Recovery Console on the hard disk as a startup option in Boot.ini, via WinNT32.exe, with the /cmdcons switch. In this case, it can only be started as long as NTLDR can boot from the system partition.
=== Windows Scripting Host 2.0 ===
Windows 2000 introduced Windows Script Host 2.0 which included an expanded object model and support for logon and logoff scripts.
=== Networking ===
Starting with Windows 2000, the Server Message Block (SMB) protocol directly interfaces with TCP/IP. In Windows NT 4.0, SMB requires the NetBIOS over TCP/IP (NBT) protocol to work on a TCP/IP network.
Windows 2000 introduces a client-side DNS caching service. When the Windows DNS resolver receives a query response, the DNS resource record is added to a cache. When it queries the same resource record name again and it is found in the cache, then the resolver does not query the DNS server. This speeds up DNS query time and reduces network traffic.
=== Server family features ===
The Windows 2000 Server family consists of Windows 2000 Server, Windows 2000 Advanced Server, Windows 2000 Small Business Server, and Windows 2000 Datacenter Server.
All editions of Windows 2000 Server have the following services and features built in:
Routing and Remote Access Service (RRAS) support, facilitating dial-up and VPN connections using IPsec, L2TP or L2TP/IPsec, support for RADIUS authentication in Internet Authentication Service, network connection sharing, Network Address Translation, unicast and multicast routing schemes.
Remote access security features: Remote Access Policies for setup, verify Caller ID (IP address for VPNs), callback and Remote access account lockout
Autodial by location feature using the Remote Access Auto Connection Manager service
Extensible Authentication Protocol support in IAS (EAP-MD5 and EAP-TLS) later upgraded to PEAPv0/EAP-MSCHAPv2 and PEAP-EAP-TLS in Windows 2000 SP4
DNS server, including support for Dynamic DNS. Active Directory relies heavily on DNS.
IPsec support and TCP/IP filtering
Smart card support
Microsoft Connection Manager Administration Kit (CMAK) and Connection Point Services
Support for distributed file systems (DFS)
Hierarchical Storage Management support including remote storage, a service that runs with NTFS and automatically transfers files that are not used for some time to less expensive storage media
Fault tolerant volumes, namely Mirrored and RAID-5
Group Policy (part of Active Directory)
IntelliMirror, a collection of technologies for fine-grained management of Windows 2000 Professional clients that duplicates users' data, applications, files, and settings in a centralized location on the network. IntelliMirror employs technologies such as Group Policy, Windows Installer, Roaming profiles, Folder Redirection, Offline Files (also known as Client Side Caching or CSC), File Replication Service (FRS), Remote Installation Services (RIS) to address desktop management scenarios such as user data management, user settings management, software installation and maintenance.
COM+, Microsoft Transaction Server and Distributed Transaction Coordinator
MSMQ 2.0
TAPI 3.0
Integrated Windows Authentication (including Kerberos, Secure channel and SPNEGO (Negotiate) SSP packages for Security Support Provider Interface (SSPI)).
MS-CHAP v2 protocol
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) and Enterprise Certificate Authority support
Terminal Services and support for the Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP)
Internet Information Services (IIS) 5.0 and Windows Media Services 4.1
Network quality of service features
A new Windows Time service which is an implementation of Simple Network Time Protocol (SNTP) as detailed in IETF RFC 1769. The Windows Time service synchronizes the date and time of computers in a domain running on Windows 2000 Server or later. Windows 2000 Professional includes an SNTP client.
The Server editions include more features and components, including the Microsoft Distributed File System (DFS), Active Directory support and fault-tolerant storage.
==== Distributed File System ====
The Distributed File System (DFS) allows shares in multiple different locations to be logically grouped under one folder, or DFS root. When users try to access a network share off the DFS root, the user is really looking at a DFS link and the DFS server transparently redirects them to the correct file server and share. A DFS root can only exist on a Windows 2000 version that is part of the server family, and only one DFS root can exist on that server.
There can be two ways of implementing a DFS namespace on Windows 2000: either through a standalone DFS root or a domain-based DFS root. Standalone DFS allows for only DFS roots on the local computer, and thus does not use Active Directory. Domain-based DFS roots exist within Active Directory and can have their information distributed to other domain controllers within the domain – this provides fault tolerance to DFS. DFS roots that exist on a domain must be hosted on a domain controller or on a domain member server. The file and root information is replicated via the Microsoft File Replication Service (FRS).
==== Active Directory ====
A new way of organizing Windows network domains, or groups of resources, called Active Directory, is introduced with Windows 2000 to replace Windows NT's earlier domain model. Active Directory's hierarchical nature allowed administrators a built-in way to manage user and computer policies and user accounts, and to automatically deploy programs and updates with a greater degree of scalability and centralization than provided in previous Windows versions. User information stored in Active Directory also provided a convenient phone book-like function to end users. Active Directory domains can vary from small installations with a few hundred objects, to large installations with millions. Active Directory can organise and link groups of domains into a contiguous domain name space to form trees. Groups of trees outside of the same namespace can be linked together to form forests.
Active Directory services could always be installed on a Windows 2000 Server Standard, Advanced, or Datacenter computer, and cannot be installed on a Windows 2000 Professional computer. However, Windows 2000 Professional is the first client operating system able to exploit Active Directory's new features. As part of an organization's migration, Windows NT clients continued to function until all clients were upgraded to Windows 2000 Professional, at which point the Active Directory domain could be switched to native mode and maximum functionality achieved.
Active Directory requires a DNS server that supports SRV resource records, or that an organization's existing DNS infrastructure be upgraded to support this. There should be one or more domain controllers to hold the Active Directory database and provide Active Directory directory services.
==== Volume fault tolerance ====
Along with support for simple, spanned and striped volumes, the Windows 2000 Server family also supports fault-tolerant volume types. The types supported are mirrored volumes and RAID-5 volumes:
Mirrored volumes: the volume contains several disks, and when data is written to one it is also written to the other disks. This means that if one disk fails, the data can be totally recovered from the other disk. Mirrored volumes are also known as RAID-1.
RAID-5 volumes: a RAID-5 volume consists of multiple disks, and it uses block-level striping with parity data distributed across all member disks. Should a disk fail in the array, the parity blocks from the surviving disks are combined mathematically with the data blocks from the surviving disks to reconstruct the data on the failed drive "on-the-fly."
== Deployment ==
Windows 2000 can be deployed to a site via various methods. It can be installed onto servers via traditional media (such as CD) or via distribution folders that reside on a shared folder. Installations can be attended or unattended. During a manual installation, the administrator must specify configuration options. Unattended installations are scripted via an answer file, or a predefined script in the form of an INI file that has all the options filled in. An answer file can be created manually or using the graphical Setup manager. The Winnt.exe or Winnt32.exe program then uses that answer file to automate the installation. Unattended installations can be performed via a bootable CD, using Microsoft Systems Management Server (SMS), via the System Preparation Tool (Sysprep), via the Winnt32.exe program using the /syspart switch or via Remote Installation Services (RIS). The ability to slipstream a service pack into the original operating system setup files is also introduced in Windows 2000.
The Sysprep method is started on a standardized reference computer – though the hardware need not be similar – and it copies the required installation files from the reference computer to the target computers. The hard drive does not need to be in the target computer and may be swapped out to it at any time, with the hardware configured later. The Winnt.exe program must also be passed a /unattend switch that points to a valid answer file and a /s file that points to one or more valid installation sources.
Sysprep allows the duplication of a disk image on an existing Windows 2000 Server installation to multiple servers. This means that all applications and system configuration settings will be copied across to the new installations, and thus, the reference and target computers must have the same HALs, ACPI support, and mass storage devices – though Windows 2000 automatically detects "plug and play" devices. The primary reason for using Sysprep is to quickly deploy Windows 2000 to a site that has multiple computers with standard hardware. (If a system had different HALs, mass storage devices or ACPI support, then multiple images would need to be maintained.)
Systems Management Server can be used to upgrade multiple computers to Windows 2000. These must be running Windows NT 3.51, Windows NT 4.0, Windows 98 or Windows 95 OSR2.x along with the SMS client agent that can receive software installation operations. Using SMS allows installations over a wide area and provides centralised control over upgrades to systems.
Remote Installation Services (RIS) are a means to automatically install Windows 2000 Professional (and not Windows 2000 Server) to a local computer over a network from a central server. Images do not have to support specific hardware configurations and the security settings can be configured after the computer reboots as the service generates a new unique security ID (SID) for the machine. This is required so that local accounts are given the right identifier and do not clash with other Windows 2000 Professional computers on a network.
RIS requires that client computers are able to boot over the network via either a network interface card that has a Pre-Boot Execution Environment (PXE) boot ROM installed or that the client computer has a network card installed that is supported by the remote boot disk generator. The remote computer must also meet the Net PC specification. The server that RIS runs on must be Windows 2000 Server and it must be able to access a network DNS Service, a DHCP service and the Active Directory services.
== Editions ==
Microsoft released various editions of Windows 2000 for different markets and business needs: Professional, Server, Advanced Server and Datacenter Server. Each was packaged separately.
Windows 2000 Professional was designed as the desktop operating system for businesses and power users. It is the client version of Windows 2000. It offers greater security and stability than many of the previous Windows desktop operating systems. It supports up to two processors, and can address up to 4 GB of RAM. The system requirements are a Pentium processor (or equivalent) of 133 MHz or greater, at least 32 MB of RAM, 650 MB of hard drive space, and a CD-ROM drive (recommended: Pentium II, 128 MB of RAM, 2 GB of hard drive space, and CD-ROM drive). However, despite the official minimum processor requirements, it is still possible to install Windows 2000 on 4th-generation x86 CPUs such as the 80486.
Windows 2000 Embedded and Windows 2000 Professional Embedded/Windows 2000 Professional For Embedded Systems are versions of Windows 2000 Professional that was designed for embedded use, and targeted at ATMs, vending machines and other large embedded devices. Windows 2000 Embedded was cancelled during development in favor of Windows XP Embedded, however the binary identical FES versions were released and function exactly the same as its retail counterpart, but licensed for embedded use.
Windows 2000 Server shares the same user interface with Windows 2000 Professional, but contains additional components for the computer to perform server roles and run infrastructure and application software. A significant new component introduced in the server versions is Active Directory, which is an enterprise-wide directory service based on LDAP (Lightweight Directory Access Protocol). Additionally, Microsoft integrated Kerberos network authentication, replacing the often-criticised NTLM (NT LAN Manager) authentication system used in previous versions. This also provided a purely transitive-trust relationship between Windows 2000 Server domains in a forest (a collection of one or more Windows 2000 domains that share a common schema, configuration, and global catalog, being linked with two-way transitive trusts). Furthermore, Windows 2000 introduced a Domain Name Server which allows dynamic registration of IP addresses. Windows 2000 Server supports up to 4 processors and 4 GB of RAM, with a minimum requirement of 128 MB of RAM and 1 GB hard disk space, however requirements may be higher depending on installed components.
Windows 2000 Server Embedded and Windows 2000 Server For Embedded Systems are binary identical versions of Windows 2000 Server that was targeted at the embedded market. Both versions function exactly the same as its retail counterpart, but is licensed for embedded use.
Windows 2000 Advanced Server is a variant of Windows 2000 Server operating system designed for medium-to-large businesses. It offers the ability to create clusters of servers, support for up to 8 CPUs, a main memory amount of up to 8 GB on Physical Address Extension (PAE) systems and the ability to do 8-way SMP. It supports TCP/IP load balancing and builds on Microsoft Cluster Server (MSCS) in Windows NT Enterprise Server 4.0, adding enhanced functionality for two-node clusters. System requirements are similar to those of Windows 2000 Server, however they may need to be higher to scale to larger infrastructure.
Windows 2000 Datacenter Server is a variant of Windows 2000 Server designed for large businesses that move large quantities of confidential or sensitive data frequently via a central server. Like Advanced Server, it supports clustering, failover and load balancing. Its minimum system requirements are similar to those of Advanced Server, but it was designed to be capable of handing advanced, fault-tolerant and scalable hardware—for instance computers with up to 32 CPUs and 32 GBs RAM, with rigorous system testing and qualification, hardware partitioning, coordinated maintenance and change control. Windows 2000 Datacenter Server was released to manufacturing on August 11, 2000 and launched on September 26, 2000. This edition was based on Windows 2000 with Service Pack 1 and was not available at retail.
== Service packs ==
Windows 2000 has received four full service packs and one rollup update package following SP4, which is the last service pack. Microsoft phased out all development of its Java Virtual Machine (JVM) from Windows 2000 in SP3. Internet Explorer 5.01 has also been upgraded to the corresponding service pack level.
Service Pack 4 with Update Rollup was released on September 13, 2005, nearly four years following the release of Windows XP and sixteen months prior to the release of Windows Vista.
Microsoft had originally intended to release a fifth service pack for Windows 2000, but cancelled this project early in its development, and instead released Update Rollup 1 for SP4, a collection of all the security-related hotfixes and some other significant issues. The Update Rollup does not include all non-security related hotfixes and is not subjected to the same extensive regression testing as a full service pack. Microsoft states that this update will meet customers' needs better than a whole new service pack, and will still help Windows 2000 customers secure their PCs, reduce support costs, and support existing computer hardware.
== Upgradeability ==
Several Windows 2000 components are upgradable to the latest versions, which include new versions introduced in later versions of Windows, and other major Microsoft applications are available. These latest versions for Windows 2000 include:
ActiveSync 4.5
DirectX 9.0c (February 5, 2010, Redistributable)
Internet Explorer 6 SP1 and Outlook Express 6 SP1
Microsoft Agent 2.0
Microsoft Data Access Components 2.81
Microsoft NetMeeting 3.01
Microsoft Virtual PC 2004 SP1
Office 2003 SP3
MSN Messenger 7.0 (Windows Messenger)
MSXML 6.0 SP2
.NET Framework 2.0 SP2
Tweak UI 1.33
Visual C++ 2008
Visual Studio 2005
Windows Desktop Search 2.66
Windows Script Host 5.7
Windows Installer 3.1
Windows Media Format Runtime and Windows Media Player 9 Series (including Windows Media Encoder 7.1 and the Windows Media 8 Encoding Utility)
== Security ==
During the Windows 2000 period, the nature of attacks on Windows servers changed: more attacks came from remote sources via the Internet. This has led to an overwhelming number of malicious programs exploiting the IIS services – specifically a notorious buffer overflow tendency. This tendency is not operating-system-version specific, but rather configuration-specific: it depends on the services that are enabled. Following this, a common complaint is that "by default, Windows 2000 installations contain numerous potential security problems. Many unneeded services are installed and enabled, and there is no active local security policy." In addition to insecure defaults, according to the SANS Institute, the most common flaws discovered are remotely exploitable buffer overflow vulnerabilities. Other criticized flaws include the use of vulnerable encryption techniques.
Code Red and Code Red II were famous (and much discussed) worms that exploited vulnerabilities of the Windows Indexing Service of Windows 2000's Internet Information Services (IIS). In August 2003, security researchers estimated that two major worms called Sobig and Blaster infected more than half a million Microsoft Windows computers. The 2005 Zotob worm was blamed for security compromises on Windows 2000 machines at ABC, CNN, the New York Times Company, and the United States Department of Homeland Security.
On September 8, 2009, Microsoft skipped patching two of the five security flaws that were addressed in the monthly security update, saying that patching one of the critical security flaws was "infeasible." According to Microsoft Security Bulletin MS09-048: "The architecture to properly support TCP/IP protection does not exist on Microsoft Windows 2000 systems, making it infeasible to build the fix for Microsoft Windows 2000 Service Pack 4 to eliminate the vulnerability. To do so would require re-architecting a very significant amount of the Microsoft Windows 2000 Service Pack 4 operating system, there would be no assurance that applications designed to run on Microsoft Windows 2000 Service Pack 4 would continue to operate on the updated system." No patches for this flaw were released for the newer Windows XP (32-bit) and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition either, despite both also being affected; Microsoft suggested turning on Windows Firewall in those versions.
== Support lifecycle ==
Windows 2000 and Windows 2000 Server were superseded by newer Microsoft operating systems: Windows 2000 Server products by Windows Server 2003, and Windows 2000 Professional by Windows XP Professional.
The Windows 2000 family of operating systems moved from mainstream support to the extended support phase on June 30, 2005. Microsoft says that this marks the progression of Windows 2000 through the Windows lifecycle policy. Under mainstream support, Microsoft freely provides design changes if any, service packs and non-security related updates in addition to security updates, whereas in extended support, service packs are not provided and non-security updates require contacting the support personnel by e-mail or phone. Under the extended support phase, Microsoft continued to provide critical security updates every month for all components of Windows 2000 (including Internet Explorer 5.0 SP4) and paid per-incident support for technical issues. Because of Windows 2000's age, updated versions of components such as Windows Media Player 11 and Internet Explorer 7 have not been released for it. In the case of Internet Explorer, Microsoft said in 2005 that, "some of the security work in IE 7 relies on operating system functionality in XP SP2 that is non-trivial to port back to Windows 2000." (though ironically, support for both Windows 2000 and Windows XP SP2 ended on July 13, 2010).
While users of Windows 2000 Professional and Server were eligible to purchase the upgrade license for Windows Vista Business or Windows Server 2008, neither of these operating systems can directly perform an upgrade installation from Windows 2000; a clean installation must be performed instead or a two-step upgrade through XP/2003. Microsoft has dropped the upgrade path from Windows 2000 (and earlier) to Windows 7. Users of Windows 2000 must buy a full Windows 7 license.
Although Windows 2000 is the last NT-based version of Microsoft Windows which does not include product activation, Microsoft has introduced Windows Genuine Advantage for certain downloads and non-critical updates from the Download Center for Windows 2000.
Windows 2000 reached the end of its lifecycle (EoL) on July 13, 2010 (alongside Service Pack 2 of Windows XP). It will not receive new security updates and new security-related hotfixes after this date. In Japan, over 130,000 servers and 500,000 PCs in local governments were affected; many local governments said that they will not update as they do not have funds to cover a replacement.
As of 2011, Windows Update still supports the Windows 2000 updates available on Patch Tuesday in July 2010, e.g., if older optional Windows 2000 features are enabled later. Microsoft Office products under Windows 2000 have their own product lifecycles. While Internet Explorer 6 for Windows XP did receive security patches up until it lost support, this is not the case for IE6 under Windows 2000. The Windows Malicious Software Removal Tool installed monthly by Windows Update for XP and later versions can be still downloaded manually for Windows 2000.
In 2020, Microsoft announced that it would disable the Windows Update service for SHA-1 endpoints for older Windows versions. Since Windows 2000 did not get an update for SHA-2, Windows Update Services are no longer available on the OS as of late July 2020. As of March 2024, many of the old updates for Windows 2000 are still available on the Microsoft Update Catalog. A third-party tool named Legacy Update allows previously released updates for Windows 2000 to be installed from the Update Catalog. An independent project named Windows Update Restored is also available since 2022 and aims to restore the Windows Update websites for older versions of Windows, including Windows 2000.
== Total cost of ownership ==
In October 2002, Microsoft commissioned IDC to determine the total cost of ownership (TCO) for enterprise applications on Windows 2000 versus the TCO of the same applications on Linux. IDC's report is based on telephone interviews of IT executives and managers of 104 North American companies in which they determined what they were using for a specific workload for file, print, security and networking services.
IDC determined that the four areas where Windows 2000 had a better TCO than Linux – over a period of five years for an average organization of 100 employees – were file, print, network infrastructure and security infrastructure. They determined, however, that Linux had a better TCO than Windows 2000 for web serving. The report also found that the greatest cost was not in the procurement of software and hardware, but in staffing costs and downtime. While the report applied a 40% productivity factor during IT infrastructure downtime, recognizing that employees are not entirely unproductive, it did not consider the impact of downtime on the profitability of the business. The report stated that Linux servers had less unplanned downtime than Windows 2000 servers. It found that most Linux servers ran less workload per server than Windows 2000 servers and also that none of the businesses interviewed used 4-way SMP Linux computers. The report also did not take into account specific application servers – servers that need low maintenance and are provided by a specific vendor. The report did emphasize that TCO was only one factor in considering whether to use a particular IT platform, and also noted that as management and server software improved and became better packaged the overall picture shown could change.
== See also ==
Architecture of Windows NT
BlueKeep (security vulnerability)
Comparison of operating systems
DEC Multia, one of the DEC Alpha computers capable of running Windows 2000 beta
Microsoft Servers, Microsoft's network server software brand
Windows Neptune, a cancelled consumer edition based on Windows 2000
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bolosky, William J.; Corbin, Scott; Goebel, David; & Douceur, John R. "Single Instance Storage in Windows 2000." Microsoft Research & Balder Technology Group, Inc. (white paper).
Bozman, Jean; Gillen, Al; Kolodgy, Charles; Kusnetzky, Dan; Perry, Randy; & Shiang, David (October 2002). "Windows 2000 Versus Linux in Enterprise Computing: An assessment of business value for selected workloads." IDC, sponsored by Microsoft Corporation. White paper.
Finnel, Lynn (2000). MCSE Exam 70–215, Microsoft Windows 2000 Server. Microsoft Press. ISBN 1-57231-903-8.
Microsoft. Running Nonnative Applications in Windows 2000 Professional . Windows 2000 Resource Kit. Retrieved May 4, 2005.
Microsoft. "Active Directory Data Storage." Retrieved May 9, 2005.
Minasi, Mark (2000). "Chapter 3 – Installing Windows 2000 On Workstations with Remote Installation Services". Mastering Windows 2000 Server (Second ed.). Sybex. ISBN 0-7821-2774-6. Archived from the original on March 11, 2005.
Russinovich, Mark (October 1997). "Inside NT's Object Manager." Windows IT Pro.
Russinovich, Mark (2002). "Inside Win2K NTFS, Part 1." Windows IT Pro (formerly Windows 2000 Magazine).
Saville, John (January 9, 2000). "What is Native Structure Storage?." Windows IT Pro (formerly Windows 2000 Magazine).
Siyan, Kanajit S. (2000). Windows 2000 Professional Reference. New Riders. ISBN 0-7357-0952-1.
Solomon, David; Russinovich, Mark E (2000). "System Architecture". Inside Microsoft Windows 2000 (Third ed.). Microsoft Press. ISBN 0-7356-1021-5. Archived from the original on March 23, 2005.
Tanenbaum, Andrew S. (2001). Modern Operating Systems (2nd ed.). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-031358-0.
Trott, Bob (October 27, 1998). "It's official: NT 5.0 becomes Windows 2000." InfoWorld.
Wallace, Rick (2000). MCSE Exam 70–210, Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional. Microsoft Press. ISBN 1-57231-901-1.
== External links ==
Official website at the Wayback Machine (archived 2000-02-29) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darsheel_Safary | Darsheel Safary | Darsheel Safary (born 9 March 1997) is an Indian actor who appears in Hindi, Gujarati films and television. Safary made his film debut with the leading role of a dyslexic student in Aamir Khan's directorial debut, the critically acclaimed drama Taare Zameen Par (2007), for which he won the Filmfare critic's Award for Best Actor.
== Career ==
Born into a Gujarati Jain family, Safary made his acting debut in Taare Zameen Par (2007), playing the film's protagonist Ishaan Nandkishore Awasthi. Safary was discovered by script writer and creative director, Amol Gupte in late 2006 when he was looking for a male lead for Taare Zameen Par. After going through hundreds of auditions, Gupte found Safary at Shiamak Davar's dancing school, "Summer Funk". In choosing Safary, Gupte had a number of boys audition for a scene in which they would informally describe how they would "bunk" school after being given a few scenarios. He recalls, "It was a tough call. But Darsheel has the mischief in his eyes to be Ishaan. Everyone just naturally gravitated towards him."
Safary's performance as a struggling dyslexic child was praised by film critics. He won several awards for his performance. Taran Adarsh from indiaFM called Safary a "Master" and stated his performance merited a special award. Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN wrote, "Darsheel Safary steals your heart as Ishaan Awasthi. Darsheel is a revelation as an actor, he's spontaneous and lovable and carries this film completely on his shoulders". Other reviewers called Safary the "real star of the film" and his performance as "brilliant". In a 2007 interview, Safary stated that his career plans may include singing, dancing, becoming a businessman or jewellery designer.
His second film Bumm Bumm Bole came in 2010 and according to some sources he was paid ₹ 3 lakh, the highest amount paid to any child actor at the time. He did two more films, Disney India's superhero film Zokkomon (2011) and Deepa Mehta's Midnight's Children (2012).
In 2012, he participated in dance reality show Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa with Avneet Kaur as his dance partner, but was eliminated and came in seventh position. He took a break from acting to focus on studies.
In 2016, he played the role of Abhay in the anthology series Yeh Hai Aashiqui. He then appeared in 2023 Hindi sports drama film, Hukus Bukus. and Gujarati film, Kutch Express (film).
== Filmography ==
=== Films ===
=== Television ===
=== Web series ===
=== Music videos ===
== Awards and nominations ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Darsheel Safary at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille_Pissarro | Camille Pissarro | Jacob Abraham Camille Pissarro ( piss-AR-oh; French: [kamij pisaʁo]; 10 July 1830 – 13 November 1903) was a Danish-French Impressionist and Neo-Impressionist painter born on the island of St Thomas (now in the US Virgin Islands, but then in the Danish West Indies). His importance resides in his contributions to both Impressionism and Post-Impressionism. Pissarro studied from great forerunners, including Gustave Courbet and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot. He later studied and worked alongside Georges Seurat and Paul Signac when he took on the Neo-Impressionist style at the age of 54.
In 1873 he helped establish a collective society of fifteen aspiring artists, becoming the "pivotal" figure in holding the group together and encouraging the other members. Art historian John Rewald called Pissarro the "dean of the Impressionist painters", not only because he was the oldest of the group, but also "by virtue of his wisdom and his balanced, kind, and warmhearted personality". Paul Cézanne said "he was a father for me. A man to consult and a little like the good Lord", and he was also one of Paul Gauguin's masters. Pierre-Auguste Renoir referred to his work as "revolutionary", through his artistic portrayals of the "common man", as Pissarro insisted on painting individuals in natural settings without "artifice or grandeur".
Pissarro is the only artist to have shown his work at all eight Paris Impressionist exhibitions, from 1874 to 1886. He "acted as a father figure not only to the Impressionists" but to all four of the major Post-Impressionists, Cézanne, Seurat, Gauguin, and van Gogh.
== Early years ==
Jacob Abraham Camille Pissarro was born on 10 July 1830 on the island of St. Thomas to Frederick Abraham Gabriel Pissarro and Rachel Manzano-Pomié. His father was of Portuguese Jewish descent and held French nationality. His mother was from a French-Jewish family from St. Thomas with Provençal Jewish roots. His father was a merchant who came to the island from France to deal with the hardware store of a deceased uncle, Isaac Petit, and married his widow. The marriage caused a stir within St. Thomas's small Jewish community because she was previously married to Frederick's uncle and according to Jewish law, a man is forbidden to marry his aunt. As a result, his four children were barred from attending the local Jewish school, instead being sent to an all-black primary school. Upon his death, his will specified that his estate be split equally between the synagogue and St. Thomas' Protestant church.
When Pissarro was twelve his father sent him to boarding school in France. He studied at the Savary Academy in Passy near Paris. While a young student, he developed an early appreciation of the French art masters. Monsieur Savary himself gave him a strong grounding in drawing and painting and suggested he draw from nature when he returned to St. Thomas.
After his schooling, Pissarro returned to St. Thomas at the age of sixteen or seventeen, where his father had Pissarro work in his business as a port clerk. Nevertheless, Pissarro took every opportunity during the next five years at the job to practice drawing during breaks and after work.
Visual theorist Nicholas Mirzoeff argues that the young Pissarro was inspired by the artworks of James Gay Sawkins, a British painter and geologist who lived in Charlotte Amalie, St. Thomas circa 1847. Pissarro may have attended art classes taught by Sawkins and seen Sawkins's paintings of Mitla, Mexico. Mirzoeff states, "A formal analysis suggests that [Sawkins's] work influenced the young Pissarro, who had just returned to the island from his school in France. Soon afterward, Pissarro began his own drawings of the local African population in apparent imitation of Sawkins", creating "sketches for a postslavery imagination".
When Pissarro turned twenty-one, Danish artist Fritz Melbye, then living on St. Thomas, inspired him to take on painting as a full-time profession, becoming his teacher and friend. Pissarro then chose to leave his family and job and live in Venezuela, where he and Melbye spent the next two years working as artists in Caracas and La Guaira. He drew everything he could, including landscapes, village scenes, and numerous sketches, enough to fill up multiple sketchbooks.
== Life in France ==
In 1855, at the age of 25, Pissarro opted to move back to Paris, where he began working as an assistant to Anton Melbye, Fritz Melbye's brother and also a painter. He also studied paintings by other artists whose style impressed him: Courbet, Charles-François Daubigny, Jean-François Millet, and Corot. He also enrolled in various classes taught by masters, at schools such as École des Beaux-Arts and Académie Suisse. But Pissarro eventually found their teaching methods "stifling", states art historian John Rewald. This prompted him to search for alternative instruction, which he requested and received from Corot.
=== Paris Salon and Corot's influence ===
His initial paintings were in accord with the standards at the time to be displayed at the Paris Salon, the official body whose academic traditions dictated the kind of art that was acceptable. The Salon's annual exhibition was essentially the only marketplace for young artists to gain exposure. As a result, Pissarro worked in the traditional and prescribed manner to satisfy the tastes of its official committee.
In 1859 his first painting was accepted and exhibited. His other paintings during that period were influenced by Camille Corot, who tutored him. He and Corot shared a love of rural scenes painted from nature. It was by Corot that Pissarro was inspired to paint outdoors, also called "plein air" painting. Pissarro found Corot, along with the work of Gustave Courbet, to be "statements of pictorial truth," writes Rewald. He discussed their work often. Jean-François Millet was another whose work he admired, especially his "sentimental renditions of rural life".
=== Use of natural outdoor settings ===
During this period Pissarro began to understand and appreciate the importance of expressing on canvas the beauties of nature without adulteration. After a year in Paris, he therefore began to leave the city and paint scenes in the countryside to capture the daily reality of village life. He found the French countryside to be "picturesque", and worthy of being painted. It was still mostly agricultural and sometimes called the "golden age of the peasantry". Pissarro later explained the technique of painting outdoors to a student:
"Work at the same time upon sky, water, branches, ground, keeping everything going on an equal basis and unceasingly rework until you have got it. Paint generously and unhesitatingly, for it is best not to lose the first impression."
Corot would complete his paintings back in his studio, often revising them according to his preconceptions. Pissarro, however, preferred to finish his paintings outdoors, often at one sitting, which gave his work a more realistic feel. As a result, his art was sometimes criticised as being "vulgar," because he painted what he saw: "rutted and edged hodgepodge of bushes, mounds of earth, and trees in various stages of development." According to one source, such details were equivalent to today's art showing garbage cans or beer bottles on the side of a street. This difference in style created disagreements between Pissarro and Corot.
=== With Monet, Cézanne, and Guillaumin ===
In 1859, while attending the free school, the Académie Suisse, Pissarro became friends with a number of younger artists who likewise chose to paint in the more realistic style. Among them were Claude Monet, Armand Guillaumin and Paul Cézanne. What they shared in common was their dissatisfaction with the dictates of the Salon. Cézanne's work had been mocked at the time by the others in the school, and, writes Rewald, in his later years Cézanne "never forgot the sympathy and understanding with which Pissarro encouraged him." As a part of the group, Pissarro was comforted from knowing he was not alone, and that others similarly struggled with their art.
Pissarro agreed with the group about the importance of portraying individuals in natural settings, and expressed his dislike of any artifice or grandeur in his works, despite what the Salon demanded for its exhibits. In 1863 almost all of the group's paintings were rejected by the Salon, and French Emperor Napoleon III instead decided to place their paintings in a separate exhibit hall, the Salon des Refusés. However, only works of Pissarro and Cézanne were included, and the separate exhibit brought a hostile response from both the officials of the Salon and the public.
In 1864, Pissarro was accepted to the official Salon for the first time, and in subsequent Salon exhibits of 1865 and 1866, Pissarro acknowledged his influences from Melbye and Corot, whom he listed as his masters in the catalogue. In the exhibition of 1868, however, he no longer credited other artists as an influence, in effect declaring his independence as a painter. This was noted at the time by art critic and author Émile Zola, who offered his opinion:
"Camille Pissarro is one of the three or four true painters of this day ... I have rarely encountered a technique that is so sure."
Another writer tries to describe elements of Pissarro's style:
"The brightness of his palette envelops objects in atmosphere ... He paints the smell of the earth."
And though, on orders from the hanging Committee and the Marquis de Chennevières, Pissarro's paintings of Pontoise for example had been skyed, hung near the ceiling, this did not prevent Jules-Antoine Castagnary from noting that the qualities of his paintings had been observed by art lovers. At the age of thirty-eight, Pissarro had begun to win himself a reputation as a landscapist to rival Corot and Daubigny.
In the late 1860s or early 1870s, Pissarro became fascinated with Japanese prints, which influenced his desire to experiment in new compositions. He described the art to his son Lucien:
"It is marvelous. This is what I see in the art of this astonishing people ... nothing that leaps to the eye, a calm, a grandeur, an extraordinary unity, a rather subdued radiance ..."
=== Marriage and children ===
In 1871 in Croydon, England, he married his mother's maid, Julie Vellay (1838–1926), a vineyard grower's daughter, with whom he had seven children, six of whom would become painters: Lucien Pissarro (1863–1944), Georges Henri Manzana Pissarro (1871–1961), Félix Pissarro (1874–1897), Ludovic-Rodo Pissarro (1878–1952), Jeanne Bonin-Pissarro (1881–1948), and Paul-Émile Pissarro (1884–1972). They lived outside Paris in Pontoise and later in Louveciennes, both of which places inspired many of his paintings including scenes of village life, along with rivers, woods, and people at work. He also kept in touch with the other artists of his earlier group, especially Monet, Renoir, Cézanne, and Frédéric Bazille.
=== Political thought ===
Pissarro was involved in anarchist circles and held strong views of egalitarianism. Pissarro was a subscriber to the radical anarchist publication Le Révolté and was in consistent communication with leading anarchist theorizer Jean Grave as well as fellow anarchist artists such as Paul Signac and Henri-Edmond Cross. His political philosophies also motivated some of his art. For instance, in 1889, Pissarro created an album of 30 drawings titled Turpitudes sociales, using a style of caricature and allegory to critique modern societal issues. The purpose of the album was political, Pissarro created the album as a gift for his niece aiming to solidify her anarchist tendencies.
== The London years ==
After the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, having only Danish nationality and being unable to join the army, he moved his family to Norwood, then a village on the edge of London. However, his style of painting, which was a forerunner of what was later called "Impressionism", did not do well. He wrote to his friend, Théodore Duret, that "my painting doesn't catch on, not at all ..."
Pissarro met the Paris art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel, in London, who became the dealer who helped sell his art for most of his life. Durand-Ruel put him in touch with Monet who was likewise in London during this period. They both viewed the work of British landscape artists John Constable and J. M. W. Turner, which confirmed their belief that their style of open air painting gave the truest depiction of light and atmosphere, an effect that they felt could not be achieved in the studio alone. Pissarro's paintings also began to take on a more spontaneous look, with loosely blended brushstrokes and areas of impasto, giving more depth to the work.
=== Paintings ===
Through the paintings Pissarro completed at this time, he records Sydenham and the Norwoods at a time when they were just recently connected by railways, but prior to the expansion of suburbia. One of the largest of these paintings is a view of St. Bartholomew's Church at Lawrie Park Avenue, commonly known as The Avenue, Sydenham, in the collection of the National Gallery in London. Twelve oil paintings date from his stay in Upper Norwood and are listed and illustrated in the catalogue raisonné prepared jointly by his fifth child Ludovic-Rodolphe Pissarro and Lionello Venturi and published in 1939. These paintings include Lower Norwood Under Snow, and Lordship Lane Station, views of The Crystal Palace relocated from Hyde Park, Dulwich College, Sydenham Hill, All Saints Church Upper Norwood, and a lost painting of St. Stephen's Church.
Returning to France, Pissarro lived in Pontoise from 1872 to 1884. In 1890 he again visited England and painted some ten scenes of central London. He came back again in 1892, painting in Kew Gardens and Kew Green, and also in 1897, when he produced several oils described as being of Bedford Park, Chiswick, but in fact all being of the nearby Stamford Brook area except for one of Bath Road, which runs from Stamford Brook along the south edge of Bedford Park.
== French Impressionism ==
When Pissarro returned to his home in France after the war, he discovered that of the 1,500 paintings he had done over 20 years, which he was forced to leave behind when he moved to London, only 40 remained. The rest had been damaged or destroyed by the soldiers, who often used them as floor mats outside in the mud to keep their boots clean. It is assumed that many of those lost were done in the Impressionist style he was then developing, thereby "documenting the birth of Impressionism." Armand Silvestre, a critic, went so far as to call Pissarro "basically the inventor of this [Impressionist] painting"; however, Pissarro's role in the Impressionist movement was "less that of the great man of ideas than that of the good counselor and appeaser ..." "Monet ... could be seen as the guiding force."
He soon reestablished his friendships with the other Impressionist artists of his earlier group, including Cézanne, Monet, Manet, Renoir, and Degas. Pissarro now expressed his opinion to the group that he wanted an alternative to the Salon so their group could display their own unique styles.
To assist in that endeavour, in 1873 he helped establish a separate collective, called the "Société Anonyme des Artistes, Peintres, Sculpteurs et Graveurs," which included fifteen artists. Pissarro created the group's first charter and became the "pivotal" figure in establishing and holding the group together. One writer noted that with his prematurely grey beard, the forty-three-year-old Pissarro was regarded as a "wise elder and father figure" by the group. Yet he was able to work alongside the other artists on equal terms due to his youthful temperament and creativity. Another writer said of him that "he has unchanging spiritual youth and the look of an ancestor who remained a young man".
=== Impressionist exhibitions that shocked the critics ===
The following year, in 1874, the group held their First Impressionist Exhibition, which shocked and "horrified" the critics, who primarily appreciated only scenes portraying religious, historical, or mythological settings. They found fault with the Impressionist paintings on many grounds:
The subject matter was considered "vulgar" and "commonplace," with scenes of street people going about their everyday lives. Pissarro's paintings, for instance, showed scenes of muddy, dirty, and unkempt settings;
The manner of painting was too sketchy and looked incomplete, especially compared to the traditional styles of the period. The use of visible and expressive brushwork by all the artists was considered an insult to the craft of traditional artists, who often spent weeks on their work. Here, the paintings were often done in one sitting and the paints were applied wet-on-wet;
The use of color by the Impressionists relied on new theories they developed, such as having shadows painted with the reflected light of surrounding, and often unseen, objects.
=== A "revolutionary" style ===
Pissarro showed five of his paintings, all landscapes, at the exhibit, and again Émile Zola praised his art and that of the others. In the Impressionist exhibit of 1876, however, art critic Albert Wolff complained in his review, "Try to make M. Pissarro understand that trees are not violet, that sky is not the color of fresh butter ..." Journalist and art critic Octave Mirbeau on the other hand, writes, "Camille Pissarro has been a revolutionary through the revitalized working methods with which he has endowed painting".
According to Rewald, Pissarro had taken on an attitude more simple and natural than the other artists. He writes:
"Rather than glorifying—consciously or not—the rugged existence of the peasants, he placed them without any 'pose' in their habitual surroundings, thus becoming an objective chronicler of one of the many facets of contemporary life."
In later years, Cézanne also recalled this period and referred to Pissarro as "the first Impressionist". In 1906, a few years after Pissarro's death, Cézanne, then 67 and a role model for the new generation of artists, paid Pissarro a debt of gratitude by having himself listed in an exhibition catalogue as "Paul Cézanne, pupil of Pissarro".
Pissarro, Degas, and American impressionist Mary Cassatt planned a journal of their original prints in the late 1870s, a project that nevertheless came to nothing when Degas withdrew. Art historian and the artist's great-grandson Joachim Pissarro notes that they "professed a passionate disdain for the Salons and refused to exhibit at them." Together they shared an "almost militant resolution" against the Salon, and through their later correspondences it is clear that their mutual admiration "was based on a kinship of ethical as well as aesthetic concerns".
Cassatt had befriended Degas and Pissarro years earlier when she joined Pissarro's newly formed French Impressionist group and gave up opportunities to exhibit in the United States. She and Pissarro were often treated as "two outsiders" by the Salon since neither were French or had become French citizens. However, she was "fired up with the cause" of promoting Impressionism and looked forward to exhibiting "out of solidarity with her new friends". Towards the end of the 1890s she began to distance herself from the Impressionists, avoiding Degas at times as she did not have the strength to defend herself against his "wicked tongue". Instead, she came to prefer the company of "the gentle Camille Pissarro", with whom she could speak frankly about the changing attitudes toward art. She once described him as a teacher "that could have taught the stones to draw correctly."
=== Other mediums ===
Pissarro was also known to experiment with lithographs, woodblock engravings, and original techniques in multicolor etching and monotype. Art historian Cora Michael notes that "of the Impressionists, Pissarro was perhaps the one most devoted to printmaking and…approached prints from the point of view of an avant-garde artist." In the 1880s to early 1890s, Pissarro returned to his studio in Pontoise, where he worked with many different print mediums to produce works such as "Vegetable Market at Pontoise" and "The Road to Rouen: The Hills of Pontoise".
== Neo-Impressionist period ==
By the 1880s, Pissarro began to explore new themes and methods of painting to break out of what he felt was an artistic "mire". As a result, Pissarro went back to his earlier themes by painting the life of country people, which he had done in Venezuela in his youth. Degas described Pissarro's subjects as "peasants working to make a living".
However, this period also marked the end of the Impressionist period due to Pissarro's leaving the movement. As Joachim Pissarro points out:
"Once such a die-hard Impressionist as Pissarro had turned his back on Impressionism, it was apparent that Impressionism had no chance of surviving ..."
It was Pissarro's intention during this period to help "educate the public" by painting people at work or at home in realistic settings, without idealising their lives. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, in 1882, referred to Pissarro's work during this period as "revolutionary," in his attempt to portray the "common man". Pissarro himself did not use his art to overtly preach any kind of political message, however, although his preference for painting humble subjects was intended to be seen and purchased by his upper class clientele. He also began painting with a more unified brushwork along with pure strokes of color.
=== Studying with Seurat and Signac ===
In 1885 he met Georges Seurat and Paul Signac, both of whom relied on a more "scientific" theory of painting by using very small patches of pure colours to create the illusion of blended colours and shading when viewed from a distance. Pissarro then spent the years from 1885 to 1888 practising this more time-consuming and laborious technique, referred to as pointillism. The paintings that resulted were distinctly different from his Impressionist works, and were on display in the 1886 Impressionist Exhibition, but under a separate section, along with works by Seurat, Signac, and his son Lucien.
All four works were considered an "exception" to the eighth exhibition. Joachim Pissarro notes that virtually every reviewer who commented on Pissarro's work noted "his extraordinary capacity to change his art, revise his position and take on new challenges." One critic writes:
"It is difficult to speak of Camille Pissarro ... What we have here is a fighter from way back, a master who continually grows and courageously adapts to new theories."
Pissarro explained the new art form as a "phase in the logical march of Impressionism", but he was alone among the other Impressionists with this attitude, however. Joachim Pissarro states that Pissarro thereby became the "only artist who went from Impressionism to Neo-Impressionism".
In 1884, art dealer Theo van Gogh asked Pissarro if he would take in his older brother, Vincent, as a boarder in his home. Lucien Pissarro wrote that his father was impressed by Van Gogh's work and had "foreseen the power of this artist", who was 23 years younger. Although Van Gogh never boarded with him, Pissarro did explain to him the various ways of finding and expressing light and color, ideas which he later used in his paintings, notes Lucien.
=== Abandoning Neo-Impressionism ===
Pissarro eventually turned away from Neo-Impressionism, claiming its system was too artificial. He explains in a letter to a friend:
"Having tried this theory for four years and having then abandoned it ... I can no longer consider myself one of the neo-impressionists ... It was impossible to be true to my sensations and consequently to render life and movement, impossible to be faithful to the effects, so random and so admirable, of nature, impossible to give an individual character to my drawing, [that] I had to give up."
However, after reverting to his earlier style, his work became, according to Rewald, "more subtle, his color scheme more refined, his drawing firmer ... So it was that Pissarro approached old age with an increased mastery."
But the change also added to Pissarro's continual financial hardship which he felt until his 60s. His "headstrong courage and a tenacity to undertake and sustain the career of an artist", writes Joachim Pissarro, was due to his "lack of fear of the immediate repercussions" of his stylistic decisions. In addition, his work was strong enough to "bolster his morale and keep him going", he writes. His Impressionist contemporaries, however, continued to view his independence as a "mark of integrity", and they turned to him for advice, referring to him as "Père Pissarro" (father Pissarro).
== Later years ==
In his older age Pissarro suffered from a recurring eye infection that prevented him from working outdoors except in warm weather. As a result of this disability, he began painting outdoor scenes while sitting by the window of hotel rooms. He often chose hotel rooms on upper levels to get a broader view. He moved around northern France and painted from hotels in Rouen, Paris, Le Havre and Dieppe. On his visits to London, he would do the same.
Pissarro died in Paris on 13 November 1903 and was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery.
== Legacy and influence ==
During the period Pissarro exhibited his works, art critic Armand Silvestre had called Pissarro the "most real and most naive member" of the Impressionist group. His work has also been described by art historian Diane Kelder as expressing "the same quiet dignity, sincerity, and durability that distinguished his person." She adds that "no member of the group did more to mediate the internecine disputes that threatened at times to break it apart, and no one was a more diligent proselytizer of the new painting."
According to Pissarro's son, Lucien, his father painted regularly with Cézanne beginning in 1872. He recalls that Cézanne walked a few miles to join Pissarro at various settings in Pontoise. While they shared ideas during their work, the younger Cézanne wanted to study the countryside through Pissarro's eyes, as he admired Pissarro's landscapes from the 1860s. Cézanne, although only nine years younger than Pissarro, said that "he was a father for me. A man to consult and a little like the good Lord."
Lucien Pissarro was taught painting by his father, and described him as a "splendid teacher, never imposing his personality on his pupil." Gauguin, who also studied under him, referred to Pissarro "as a force with which future artists would have to reckon". Art historian Diane Kelder notes that it was Pissarro who introduced Gauguin, who was then a young stockbroker studying to become an artist, to Degas and Cézanne. Gauguin, near the end of his career, wrote a letter to a friend in 1902, shortly before Pissarro's death:
"If we observe the totality of Pissarro's work, we find there, despite fluctuations, not only an extreme artistic will, never belied, but also an essentially intuitive, purebred art ... He was one of my masters and I do not deny him."
The American impressionist Mary Cassatt, who at one point lived in Paris to study art, and joined his Impressionist group, noted that he was "such a teacher that he could have taught the stones to draw correctly."
Caribbean author and scholar Derek Walcott based his book-length poem, Tiepolo's Hound (2000), on Pissarro's life.
Camille Pissarro is a pivotal character in the historical fiction novels, The Dream Collector, Books I & II by R.w. Meek, depicting his major role among the Impressionists and his open-mindedness toward the Post-Impressionist art of Georges Seurat, Paul Gauguin and Vincent van Gogh.
=== The legacy of Nazi-looted Pissarros ===
During the early 1930s throughout Europe, Jewish owners of numerous fine art masterpieces found themselves forced to give up or sell off their collections for minimal prices due to anti-Jewish laws created by the new Nazi regime. Many Jews were forced to flee Germany starting in 1933, and then, as the Nazis expanded their hold over all of Europe, Austria, France, Holland, Poland, Italy and other countries. The Nazis created special looting organizations like the Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce whose mission it was to seize Jewish property notably valuable artworks. When those forced into exile or deported to extermination camps owned valuables, including artwork, they were often sold to finance the Nazi war effort, sent to Hitler's personal museum, traded or seized by officials for personal gain. Several artworks by Pissarro were looted from their Jewish owners in Germany, France and elsewhere by the Nazis.
Pissarro's Shepherdess Bringing Home the Sheep (La Bergère Rentrant des Moutons") was looted from the Jewish art collectors Yvonne et Raoul Meyer in France in 1941 and transited via Switzerland and New York before entering the Fred Jones Jr Museum at the University of Oklahoma. In 2014, Meyer's daughter, Léonie-Noëlle Meyer filed a restitution claim which resulted in years of court battle. The lawsuit resulted in the recognition of Meyer's ownership and its transfer to France for five years, coupled with an agreement to shuttle the painting back and forth between Paris and Oklahoma every three years after that. However, in 2020 Meyer filed suit in a French court to challenge the accord. After Fred Jones Jr Museum sued Meyer requesting heavy financial penalties, the Holocaust survivor abandoned her effort to recover the Pissarro, saying, "I have no other choice.
Pissarro's Picking Peas (La Cueillette) was looted from Jewish businessman Simon Bauer, in addition to 92 other artworks seized in 1943 by the Vichy collaborationist regime in France.
Pissarro's Sower And Ploughman, was owned by Dr Henri Hinrichsen, a Jewish music publisher from Leipzig, until 11 January 1940, when he was forced to relinquish the painting to Hildebrand Gurlitt in Nazi-occupied Brussels, before being murdered in Auschwitz in September 1942.
Pissarro's "Le Quai Malaquais, Printemps", owned by German Jewish publisher Samuel Fischer, founder of the famous S. Fischer Verlag, passed through the hands of infamous Nazi art looter Bruno Lohse.
Pissarro's Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps, owned by Max Silberberg, a German Jewish industrialist whose renowned art collection was considered "one of the best in pre-war Germany", was seized and sold in a forced auction before Silberberg and his wife Johanna were murdered in Auschwitz.
In the decades after World War II, many art masterpieces were found on display in various galleries and museums in Europe and the United States, often with false provenances and labels missing. Some, as a result of legal action, were later returned to the families of the original owners. Many of the recovered paintings were then donated to the same or other museums as a gift.
One such lost piece, Pissarro's 1897 oil painting, Rue St. Honoré, Apres Midi, Effet de Pluie, was discovered hanging at Madrid's government-owned museum, the Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza. In January 2011 the Spanish government denied a request by the US ambassador to return the painting. At the subsequent trial in Los Angeles, the court ruled that the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection Foundation was the rightful owner. California's Attorney General Rob Bonta announced in November 2025 that the state would intervene in the case. In 1999, Pissarro's 1897 Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps appeared in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, its donor having been unaware of its pre-war provenance. In January 2012, Le Marché aux Poissons (The Fish Market), a color monotype, was returned after 30 years.
During his lifetime, Camille Pissarro sold few of his paintings. By the 21st century, however, his paintings were selling for millions. An auction record for the artist was set on 6 November 2007 at Christie's in New York, where a group of four paintings, Les Quatre Saisons (the Four Seasons), sold for $14,601,000 (estimate $12,000,000 – $18,000,000). In November 2009 Le Pont Boieldieu et la Gare d'Orléans, Rouen, Soleil sold for $7,026,500 at Sotheby's in New York.
In February 2014 the 1897 Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps, originally owned by the German industrialist and Holocaust victim Max Silberberg (de), sold at Sotheby's in London for £19.9M, nearly five times the previous record.
In October 2021 Berlin's Alte Nationalgalerie restituted Pissarro's "A Square in La Roche-Guyon" (1867) to the heirs of Armand Dorville, a French Jewish art collector whose family was persecuted by the Nazis and whose paintings had been sold at a 1942 auction in Nice that was overseen by the Commissariat Général aux Questions Juives. The museum then purchased the Pissarro back.
== A family of painters ==
Camille's son Lucien was an Impressionist and Neo-impressionist painter as were his second and third sons Georges Henri Manzana Pissarro and Félix Pissarro. Lucien's daughter Orovida Pissarro was also a painter. Camille's great-grandson, Joachim Pissarro, became Head Curator of Drawing and Painting at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City and a professor in Hunter College's Art Department. Camille's great-granddaughter, Lélia Pissarro, has had her work exhibited alongside her great-grandfather. Another great-granddaughter, Julia Pissarro, a Barnard College graduate, is also active in the art scene. From the only daughter of Camille, Jeanne Pissarro, other painters include Henri Bonin-Pissarro (1918–2003) and Claude Bonin-Pissarro (born 1921), who is the father of the Abstract artist Frédéric Bonin-Pissarro (born 1964).
The grandson of Camille Pissarro, Hugues Claude Pissarro (dit Pomié), was born in 1935 in the western section of Paris, Neuilly-sur-Seine, and began to draw and paint as a young child under his father's tutelage. During his adolescence and early twenties he studied the works of the great masters at the Louvre. His work has been featured in exhibitions in Europe and the United States, and he was commissioned by the White House in 1959 to paint a portrait of U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower. He now lives and paints in Donegal, Ireland, with his wife Corinne also an accomplished artist and their children.
Stern Pissarro Gallery, in London, specialises in works by the family and provides a research and authentication service for artworks attributed to several of Camille Pissarro's descendants.
== Paintings ==
== Drawings and prints ==
== List of paintings ==
The Banks of the Oise near Pontoise, 1873, Indianapolis Museum of Art
Pont Boieldieu in Rouen, Rainy Weather, 1896, Art Gallery of Ontario
Steamboats in the Port of Rouen, 1896, Metropolitan Museum of Art
Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps, view from window, 1897, private collection
Bath Road, London, 1897, Ashmolean Museum
Hay Harvest at Éragny, 1901, National Gallery of Canada
Self-portrait, 1903, Tate Gallery, London
Le Printemps, Paysannes dans un Champ, 1882, fan-shaped painting in gouache on silk, Private Collection
Paysans Ramassant des Pommes, circa 1890, oil on panel
== See also ==
Jewish culture
List of claims for restitution for Nazi-looted art
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Rewald, John, ed., with the assistance of Lucien Pissarro: Camille Pissarro, Lettres à son fils Lucien, Editions Albin Michel, Paris 1950; previously published, translated to English: Camille Pissarro, Letters to his son Lucien, New York 1943 & London 1944; 3rd revised edition, Paul P Appel Publishers, 1972 ISBN 0-911858-22-9
Bailly-Herzberg, Janine, ed.: Correspondance de Camille Pissarro, 5 volumes, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris, 1980 & Editions du Valhermeil, Paris, 1986–1991 ISBN 2-13-036694-5 – ISBN 2-905684-05-4 – ISBN 2-905684-09-7 – ISBN 2-905684-17-8 – ISBN 2-905684-35-6
DeLue, Rachael Ziady. "Pissarro, Landscape, Vision, and Tradition", The Art Bulletin, vol. 80, no. 4, Dec. 1998, p. 718, https://doi.org/10.2307/3051320.
Herbert, Robert L. "Artists and Anarchism: Unpublished Letters of Pissarro, Signac and Others – II", The Burlington Magazine, vol. 102, no. 693, 1960, pp. 517–22. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/873160.
Hubert van den Berg. "Pissarro and Anarchism", History Workshop, no. 32, 1991, pp. 226–28. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4289126.
Mathews, Nancy Mowll (1994). Mary Cassatt: A Life. New York: Villard Books. ISBN 978-0-394-58497-3. LCCN 98-8028.
Thomson, Richard. "Camille Pissarro's 'Turpitudes Sociales' Revisited, Part I: Politics, Caricature and Family Tensions in 1889", The Burlington Magazine, vol. 142, no. 1169, 2000, pp. i–478, https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/43858729.pdf.
Thorold, Anne & Erickson, Kristen. Camille Pissarro and His Family, Ashmolean Museum, 2006 ISBN 1-854-44032-2
Thorold, Anne, ed.: The Letters of Lucien to Camille Pissarro 1883–1903, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, New York & Oakleigh, 1993 ISBN 0-521-39034-6
== Further reading ==
Baker, Kenneth (30 June 1981). "Pissarro in Perspective". The Boston Phoenix. Retrieved 6 April 2024.
Carlson, Michael (12 May 1981). "The Painter's Painter: Pissarro Joins Impressionism's Pantheon". The Boston Phoenix. Retrieved 16 March 2024.
Clement, Russell T. and Houze, Annick, Neo-Impressionist Painters: A Sourcebook on Georges Seurat, Camille Pissarro, Paul Signac, Théo van Rysselberghe, Henri-Edmond Cross, Charles Angrand, Maximilien Luce, and Albert Dubois-Pillet (1999), Greenwood Press ISBN 0-313-30382-7
Eitner, Lorenz, An Outline of 19th Century European Painting: From David through Cézanne (1992), HarperCollins Publishers, ISBN 0-06-430223-7
Gopnik, Adam, "Winter Sun: How Camille Pissarro Went from Mediocrity to Magnificence", The New Yorker, 1 & 8 January 2024, pp. 53–57.
Lloyd, Christopher (1981). Camille Pissarro. Skira Rizzoli.
Nochlin, Linda, The Politics of Vision: Essays on Nineteenth-Century Art and Society (1991). Westview Press, ISBN 0-06-430187-7
Muhlstein, Anka, Camille Pissarro: The Audacity of Impressionism (2023). New York: Other Press ISBN 978-1635421705 (Translation by Adriana Hunter of Camille Pissarro: Le Premier Impressionniste (2024). Paris: Plon ISBN 9782259319607)
Pissarro, Joachim; Snollaerts, Claire Durand-Ruel (2006). Pissarro: Critical Catalogue of Paintings. Skira/Wildenstein. ISBN 88-7624-525-1.
Rewald, John, The History of Impressionism (1961), Museum of Modern Art ISBN 0-8109-6035-4
Shikes, Ralph E. and Harper, Paula. Pissarro: His Life and Work (1980). New York: Horizon Press. Brettell, Richard R. Review Art Journal, Autumn 1981, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 271, 273, 275.
Stone, Irving, Depths of Glory: A Biographical Novel of Camille Pissarro (1985). Doubleday ISBN 0385120656
Tabarant, Adolphe, Pissarro (1925), John Lane the Bodley Head Ltd., translated by J. Lewis May
== External links ==
Camille Pissarro Protests Alfred Dreyfus' Conviction: Original Letter Archived 20 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine Shapell Manuscript Foundation
Photograph of Pissarro's mausoleum at Cimetière Père Lachaise, Paris (JPG)
Pissarro's People, exhibition held at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute, Williamstown MA, 12 June – 2 October 2011 Archived 23 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine; Exhibition brochure
Union List of Artist Names, Getty Vocabularies. ULAN Full Record Display for Camille Pissarro. Getty Vocabulary Program, Getty Research Institute. Los Angeles, California.
54 artworks by or after Camille Pissarro at the Art UK site: works in public British collections
Exhibition Pissarro dans les ports, 2013, Museum of modern art André Malraux – MuMa
Camille Pissarro Personal Manuscripts
Camille Pissarro at The Jewish Museum
Pissarro Paintings and Works on Paper at the Art Institute of Chicago, one of the Art Institute of Chicago's digital scholarly catalogues
Jennifer A. Thompson, "L'île Lacroix, Rouen (The Effect of Fog) by Camille Pissarro (cat. 1060)," in The John G. Johnson Collection: A History and Selected Works, a Philadelphia Museum of Art free digital publication
An artwork by Camille Pissarro at the Ben Uri site
Camille Pissarro: Works from the Gallery Collection exhibition at Stern Pissarro Gallery, 17 November 2021 - 04 December 2021
Pissarro: Father of Impressionism Exhibition at Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, 18 February – 12 June 2022
Pissarro on Paper exhibit at the National Gallery of Art, 30 September 2012 – 31 March 2013
The Honest Eye: Camille Pissarro’s Impressionism 2025 retrospective organized by the Denver Art Museum (26 October 2025 – 8 February 2026) and Museum Barberini, Potsdam (14 June – September 28, 2025), catalog ISBN 978-3-791-37789-6 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaynes_Covered_Bridge#:~:text=The%20Jaynes%20Covered%20Bridge%20is,in%20a%20five%2Dmile%20span. | Jaynes Covered Bridge | The Jaynes Covered Bridge is a historic covered bridge, carrying Codding Hollow Road across the North Branch Lamoille River in Waterville, Vermont. Built in 1877, it is one of three 19th-century covered bridges in the town, and one of five to span the North Branch Lamoille in a five-mile span. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.
== Description and history ==
The Jaynes Covered Bridge stands in northern Waterville, a short way east of Vermont Route 109 on Codding Hill Road. It spans the North Branch Lamoille River, which flows south through the village of Waterville to the main branch of the river further south. The bridge is a single-span queen post truss structure, 56.5 feet (17.2 m) long and 15 feet (4.6 m) wide, with a roadway width of 12 feet (3.7 m) (one lane). It is covered by a gabled metal roof, and its exterior is finished in vertical board siding which stops short of the eaves. The bridge deck has been replaced by steel I-beams covered with wooden planking, so the trusses now only carry the superstructure. The joints between the truss posts and diagonals have also been reinforced with steel plating.
The bridge was built about 1877; its builder is unknown. It is one three period bridges in the town (all spanning the same river). Along with another two in neighboring Belvidere, this assemblage of bridges makes for one of the state's highest concentrations of bridges on a single waterway.
== See also ==
Transport portal
Engineering portal
National Register of Historic Places portal
List of covered bridges in Vermont
National Register of Historic Places listings in Lamoille County, Vermont
List of bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Jaynes Covered Bridge at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dollywood#1990s_developments | Dollywood | Dollywood is a theme park that is jointly owned by Herschend and country singer-songwriter Dolly Parton through her entertainment company, Dolly Parton Productions. It is located in the Knoxville metropolitan area in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee, near the gateway to The Great Smoky Mountains. Hosting nearly 3 million guests in a typical season from mid-March to the Christmas holidays, Dollywood is the biggest ticketed tourist attraction in Tennessee. It has won several international awards.
In addition to standard amusement park thrill rides, Dollywood features traditional crafts, food, and music of the Smoky Mountain area. The park hosts a number of concerts and musical events each year, including appearances by Dolly Parton and her family as well as other national and local musical acts.
The theme park is the anchor of Parton's 150-acre (61 ha) Dollywood amusement destination, which also includes the 35-acre (14 ha) sister water park Dollywood's Splash Country, the 20-acre (8.1 ha) Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa, and the 5-acre (2.0 ha) Dolly Parton's Stampede Dinner Attraction.
== History ==
=== Rebel Railroad (1961-1963) ===
The park opened on June 10, 1961 as a small tourist attraction owned by the Robbins brothers from Blowing Rock, North Carolina. Named "Rebel Railroad", it included a steam train, general store, blacksmith shop, and saloon. With a theme inspired by the centennial of the Civil War, the train ride let visitors experience "attacks" by Union soldiers, train robbers, and Native Americans. The train and its riders were protected by Confederates who fought off the attacks. The park was modeled after the Robbins brothers' first successful theme park, Tweetsie Railroad in Blowing Rock.
=== Goldrush Junction (1964-1974) ===
For the 1964 season, the park was renamed "Goldrush Junction". A special announcement was made in the May 24, 1964, edition of Knoxville News Sentinel. As part of the name change the park switched to a wild west theme similar to its sister park Tweetsie Railroad.
In 1970, Art Modell – who also owned the Cleveland Browns football team – bought Goldrush Junction. The park retained the railroad and added an outdoor theater and the Robert F. Thomas Chapel.
=== Goldrush (1975-1976) ===
For the 1975 season, the park name was changed to "Goldrush". In April of 1976, Jack and Pete Herschend, owners of Silver Dollar City, bought Goldrush. The park continued to operate as Goldrush for the 1976 season.
=== Silver Dollar City (1977-1985) ===
In 1977, the Herschends renamed Goldrush to "Silver Dollar City Tennessee", making it a sister park to their original Silver Dollar City in Branson, Missouri. The Herschends spent about $1 million upgrading the park upon purchase and added other improvements over the years. Also in 1977, the train ride added two new steam locomotives, the #70 and the #71, plus the remains of engine #72 for spare parts, from the White Pass & Yukon Route Railroad.
=== Dollywood (1986-present) ===
In 1986, Dolly Parton, who grew up in the area, bought an interest in Silver Dollar City. As part of the deal, the park reopened for the 1986 season as "Dollywood". In 2010, Parton said she became involved with the operation because she "always thought that if I made it big or got successful at what I had started out to do, that I wanted to come back to my part of the country and do something great, something that would bring a lot of jobs into this area."
Dollywood has approximately 4,000 people on its payroll, making it the largest employer in the community. From 1986 to 2010, the park doubled in size to 150 acres (61 ha). On November 16, 2010, Dollywood earned the Liseberg Applause Award, which Dolly Parton accepted during a ceremony at IAAPA Attractions Expo 2010 in Orlando.
==== 1980s developments ====
On May 3, 1986, Silver Dollar City Tennessee reopened as Dollywood. The new Rivertown Junction area included Smoky Mountain River Rampage, a whitewater rafting ride; Back Porch Theater; Aunt Granny's Dixie Fixins' Restaurant; and Dolly's Tennessee Mountain Home, a replica of the cabin that was Parton's childhood home. Also new was "Rags to Riches: The Dolly Parton Story", a museum displaying articles and mementos from Dolly's life and career. "The Butter Churn" (a Trabant ride) was removed at the end of the season. Park attendance doubled to more than a million guests during the first season as Dollywood.
In 1987, the Daydream Ridge area opened and included the Mountain Slidewinder water toboggan ride, Mountain Dan's Burger House, Sweet Dreams Candy Shop, The Rainbow Factory blown glass shop, and Critter Creek Playground. Engine #70 was restored to operation. In 1988, the 1,739-seat Celebrity Theater, featuring the "Showcase of Stars" celebrity concert series, was constructed adjacent to the entrance of the park. Five new children's rides were added to the Fun Country area, including a Zamperla Balloon Race. The Dollywood Foundation was established to provide books and schools supplies to the children of Sevier County. Thunder Express, a steel mine train coaster, was built adjacent to Blazing Fury in 1989. The ride was relocated to the park from Six Flags Over Mid-America. The 1989 season was the last for the National Mountain Music Festival, which was a carryover from the Silver Dollar City years.
==== 1990s developments ====
In 1990, a 1924 antique Dentzel Carousel, originally built for Rocky Springs Park in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, was relocated to the park. Situated near the train depot, it took over the space previously occupied by the Silver Dollar Saloon. The 600-seat Gaslight Theater opened near the carousel. The Smoky Mountain Christmas Festival premiered in November, extending the park's operating season into December. Eagle Mountain Sanctuary, an outdoor aviary, was added in 1991 along with the Wings of America Theater, site of the Birds of Prey show, and the 300-seat Valley Theater.
The Showstreet area was added in 1992 and included the Showstreet Palace Theater, The Butterfly Emporium, The Backstage Restaurant, The Spotlight Bakery, Friendship Gardens, and WDLY-FM, a working radio station. To accommodate the expansion, the park's main entrance moved from Rivertown Junction to Showstreet. The Barnwood Theater was converted into Imagination Station, an interactive children's play area. Dollywood's annual attendance topped 2 million for the first time during the 1992 season.
In 1993, the Fun Country area was renovated and became The Country Fair with three new rides: The Wonder Wheel, a 60 ft (18 m) tall Ferris wheel; Twist and Shout, a scrambler ride; and Tennessee Twister, a tilt-a-whirl. The Balloon Race ride was relocated to the Daydream Ridge area to make room for the new attractions. Also new at the park was "Sunset Musicfest", a summer music festival. A year later, in 1994, the Gaslight Theater became the Heartsong Theater, named for the multi-media musical presentation that told the story of Dolly Parton's life. In 1995, the Jukebox Junction 1950s "Main Street" themed area was added and included Rockin' Roadway miniature car ride, The Pines Theater, Red's Diner, and Cas Walker's Music Store. The Sunset Musicfest did not return for the 1995 season.
The Dollywood Boulevard area was added in 1996 and included Thunder Road, a turbo-simulator ride based on the 1958 movie of the same name. Silver Screen Café, a 1950s cinema-themed restaurant, and Centerstage gift shop were also in the area. In 1997, the "U Pick Nick" children's show focused on themes from the Nickelodeon television network and played in Celebrity Theater. The Flooded Mine dark-ride was closed and demolished in October, and Silver Screen Cafe became DJ Platters in the Dollywood Boulevard area. Daredevil Falls, a new shoot the chutes flume ride, opened in the area formerly occupied by the Flooded Mine a year later in 1998. At the time, it was billed as "The Highest and Fastest Waterfall Ride in America" with its 62 ft (19 m) drop. Thunder Express was closed in September and sold to Magic Springs Theme Park in Arkansas. The antique carousel was removed at the end of the season and replaced with a new Chance Rides carousel.
In 1999, the Tennessee Tornado, a steel looping coaster, opened in the area formerly occupied by Thunder Express. Also new was the Southern Gospel Museum and Hall of Fame, while the Balloon Race ride was removed.
==== 2000s developments ====
The Daydream Ridge area was renovated and became Dreamland Forest, a children's mountain-themed interactive play area in 2000. The Festival of Nations international music festival premiered a year later in April 2001. Dolly's Splash Country, a new 25-acre (100,000 m2) water park opened adjacent to Dollywood's parking lot.
Dollywood Boulevard was renovated and became a new area, Adventures in Imagination, in 2002. Smoky Mountain Wilderness Adventure, a new simulator film, replaced Thunder Road, and a new Dolly museum called Chasing Rainbows opened in the building formerly occupied by DJ Platters. In 2003, summer children's festival KidsFest premiered, and Imagination Station was converted into Celebration Hall, a special events facility. It was also the final season for the "Showcase of Stars" celebrity concert series.
A new area of the park, Thunderhead Gap, opened with the Thunderhead wooden roller coaster in 2004. The construction of the new area opened up a new valley for park expansion. The Country Fair Falls log flume was demolished in November, and most of the other Country Fair rides, including the Swingamajig, Tennessee Twister, The Convoy, and The Barnstormer, were removed at the end of the season to free up space for newer rides that were added for the 2005 season. The new rides included Dizzy Disk, Amazing Flying Elephants, Lemon Twist, Shooting Star, Sky Rider, VeggieTales Sideshow Spin (children's roller coaster), Waltzing Swinger, Piggy Parade, Busy Bees, and Lucky Ducky. The National Southern Gospel & Harvest Celebration was also new in 2005.
In 2006, the Timber Tower ride, along with Lil' Loggers Landing, Beaver Creek, Beaver Creek Boat Float, and Lumberjack Lifts, opened in a new area adjacent to Thunderhead. The Barbeque & Bluegrass festival also premiered. The 2007 season included the addition of Mystery Mine, a Gerstlauer Eurofighter coaster with two vertical lifts hills and dark ride elements. The ride's climax featured fire effects in front of the riders, a 95-degree 85-foot (26 m) drop, a heartline roll, and a dive loop. The $17 million ($25.8 million in 2024 dollars) ride used an abandoned mine shaft theme. In 2008, River Battle, an interactive water raft ride, was built in a new section of the park called Wilderness Pass that connected the Timber Canyon and Craftsman's Valley areas. "Thunder Road" returned to the motion theater (Imagination Cinema) and replaced Smoky Mountain Wilderness Adventure. Della's Lye Soap shop moved from Craftsman's Valley to the Wilderness Pass area. A new exhibit housing the Wings of America show birds moved to its former location. The Polar Express 4-D Experience was shown in Imagination Cinema during the park's Smoky Mountain Christmas.
In 2009, Dollywood presented two new shows, "Imaginé" by Le Grand Cirque and "Sha-Kon-O-Hey! Land of Blue Smoke", which featured music written by Dolly Parton and told the story of the last family living in the Smoky Mountains at the time it became a national park. "Imaginé" headlined the park's Festival of Nations. "Thunder Road" was renamed "White Lightning" and then changed to a new attraction, Journey to the Center of the Earth: 4-D Adventure, based on the 2008 film. In 2009, an upcharge zipline attraction called SkyZip (owned by Skyline Eco-Adventures of Maui, Hawaii) opened at Dollywood, becoming the first multi-line zip line tour inside a theme park.
==== 2010s developments ====
The Adventure Mountain attraction opened at a cost of $5 million in the Wilderness Pass area in 2010. It included three distinct adventure courses, Geyser Gorge, Black Bear Cliff, and Rocky Top, that ranged from easy to expert with 100 different rope features, swinging beams, suspension bridges, flying islands, and floating stairs. Adventure trails ranged from a few inches above the ground to more than 26 feet (7.9 m) in the air. The area also included a scaled-down play area called Camp Teachittoomee for younger children. Also for the 2010 season, Dollywood brought back "Sha-Kon-O-Hey! Land of Blue Smoke" and changed its logo for the 25th anniversary.
In 2011, a new area called Owens Farm with a $5.5 million giant swing called Barnstormer replaced Dreamland Forest. The barnyard-themed area included a play area for younger guests. Christmas on Ice, a new ice skating Christmas show, premiered in DP's Celebrity Theater and headlined Smoky Mountain Christmas. Wild Eagle opened March 24, 2012, and was the first Bolliger & Mabillard Wing Coaster in the United States. It was also the biggest investment in Dollywood history. In 2012, the operator of SkyZip sued Dollywood, blaming the park for damaging the zip line network during its construction of Wild Eagle, but Dollywood blamed the damage on storms. Settling out of court, Dollywood took over SkyZip operations from Skyline Eco-Adventures, and closed the attraction in 2019. Timber Tower was dismantled before opening in 2012 due to a lawsuit with the ride manufacturer. Also in 2012, Dollywood dropped the VeggieTales name from Sideshow Spin, removing any mentions of the franchise from the ride altogether. In December of the very same year, the park announced that Adventure Mountain would be closed permanently following the 2012 season.
Dollywood dedicated 2013 to encouraging families to spend time together. New shows for the season included Cirque Shanghai, Mystic India, and One World Party as part of Festival of Nations along with more than 50 new international food items. The park also introduced "Great American Summer", a new summer festival that replaced KidsFest. It included the Great American Country Show, Gazillion Bubbles, The Little Engine Playhouse, and Salute to America. Dollywood extended its hours and added a nightly fireworks show. Smoky Mountain Christmas added a new show that was Dolly Parton's version of Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol. Dollywood's slogan for the year was "Make Time for Happy!" Imagination Cinema became Dreamsong Theater and played Dolly's My People, a show about Dolly's family.
In 2014, FireChaser Express, a dual-launch family coaster, replaced Adventure Mountain in the Wilderness Pass area of the park. Dollywood's slogan was changed to "Love Every Moment", and Smoky Mountain Christmas added a Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer meet-and-greet called Holly Jolly Junction. Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa opened adjacent to Dollywood's Splash Country in 2015. For the 30th anniversary of the park, the park redesigned the entrance for resort guests and added two new shows to Festival of Nations called "Rhythm of the Dance" and "Timber". Cas Walker's was demolished to make room for a new attraction, and six new shows were added to "Great American Summer" along with the revival of the Showcase of Stars concert series. Also new was Rock the Smokies, a Christian music festival, and Rudolph and friends returned to the Smoky Mountain Christmas festival.
In 2010, Parton said that she would like to open more Dollywood parks in the future. "We definitely want to expand with new things every year, eventually with a resort," she said. "We may eventually have Dollywoods in other parts of the country, where we can kind of be true to whatever's going on in that part of the world." On August 21, 2013, Parton announced Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa, which opened on July 27, 2015.
Lightning Rod, a Rocky Mountain Construction wooden coaster, opened on June 13, 2016. It opened as the world's first launched wooden coaster as well as the fastest wooden coaster in the world. A year later, in 2017, a 200-foot (61 m) freefall ride called Drop Line, which replaced Timber Tower, opened along with a junior roller coaster called Whistle Punk Chaser. Two new seasonal events debuted, and Dollywood's Splash Country added the TailSpin Racer mat racer slide complex. Sideshow Spin and River Battle were removed.
In 2018, the former River Battle site was transformed into the Plaza at Wilderness Pass, a new open space with covered seating for relaxing and enjoying seasonal events. With the debut of the Spring Mix three-week music series, the 2018 "Season of Showstoppers" also marked the park's largest investment in entertainment in Dollywood's history. The 2018 Festival of Nations includes three headliners that are new to Dollywood: Flamenco Kings starring Los Vivancos (Pines Theater), National Dance Company of Siberia (Celebrity Theater), and Ladysmith Black Mambazo (Showstreet Palace Theater). The first Summer Celebration event includes various performances and attractions, including DRUMLine Live! in Celebrity Theater, a show that focuses on the musical styles of marching bands from Historically Black Colleges and Universities. It uses technology, including video screens and special effects, to enhance soul, R&B, country, and other types of music. Renovations included upgrades to Aunt Granny's and re-branding and renaming of two shops.
Work began in October 2017 on "Wildwood Grove", adding eleven new experiences to the park. Attractions include a suspended family coaster (Dragonflier), a restaurant (Till & Harvest), an indoor play area (Hidden Hollow), an outdoor splash pad (Wildwood Creek), a swinging boat ride (The Great Tree Swing), and a 50 ft tall tree with a canopy covered in butterflies (The Wildwood Tree). The $37 million 5-acre development, described as "a land built from Dolly Parton's dreams", opened May 10, 2019. It was part of a $300 million 6-year expansion project.
==== 2020s developments ====
In October 2019, it was announced that the park would add its first new festival in 14 years. Dollywood's Flower & Food Festival will feature 10 to 15 feet tall topiaries based on Dolly's songs like "Coat of Many Colors", photo opportunities, a rainbow sky over Showstreet, and food. The festival was to have commemorated the park's 35th season and run from May 8 to June 14, 2020, but was deferred to May 7 to June 13, 2021.
Dollywood filed plans in October 2019 for a new resort adjacent to Splash Country and DreamMore Resort. It is planned to feature a 310-room hotel, a 325-seat restaurant, and a conference space. The plans indicate the resort will create 100 jobs. In June 2021, Dollywood announced plans for a $500 million expansion of the complex, including more details about the planned hotel complex announced in 2019. The new resort, with the name revealed to be the HeartSong Lodge & Resort, will have 302 rooms, five floors of suites, a four-story atrium with a large central fireplace, and multiple shopping and culinary experiences. HeartSong Lodge is scheduled to open in 2023, along with campgrounds, three additional resorts, and a "record-breaking" attraction for the theme park.
During the 2022 off-season, a few changes were made to better the park and provide more space and improve efficiency. The Silver Dollar Mine tunnel, connecting the lower section of Craftsman's Valley and The Village, was removed. The area now provides a more open space for guests to walk through and also allow a chance to relax and enjoy the views of the passing Dollywood Express. Also, the parking complex was renovated to better utilize the lots at both Dollywood and Dollywood's Splash Country to provide a more efficient experience for guests as they enter the property. The principal change being the swapping of the guest traffic lanes with the tram lanes, which removes previous points of intersection between the two. The multi-property parking complex now employs a one-way circuit which eliminates the two-way traffic pattern of the old parking lot layout. Also, the addition of two extra parking toll booths (four attendants), as well as more staging lanes for the toll booths, will result in a reduction of time spent waiting to enter the property. Other projects throughout the Dollywood theme park property include the renovation of Iron Horse Pizza (formerly known as Victoria's Pizza) to include greater production capacity and more seating space for guests. The Emporium also received a complete makeover, providing a modern shopping experience as guests look to find unique Dollywood keepsakes. Also, as guests have continued to ask for more room to provide spacing in the park, two buildings were removed to allow for wider walkways — the former Eagle Shop (part of the second phase of the Craftsman's Valley widening project) and the former Christmas Cottage in Rivertown Junction.
On August 5, 2022, it was announced that a new roller coaster named Big Bear Mountain was under construction and opened on May 12, 2023. It is also the longest in the park's history.
== Areas ==
Dollywood is organized into 11 themed areas: Showstreet, Rivertown Junction, Craftsman's Valley, The Village, Country Fair, Timber Canyon, Wilderness Pass, Jukebox Junction, Owens Farm, Adventures in Imagination and Wildwood Grove reflect the historical eras and culture of East Tennessee, while Owens Farm and Adventures in Imagination explore Dolly Parton's life and imagination. Many attractions focus on the history and culture of the Southern Appalachian region.
=== Showstreet ===
Attractions include Showstreet Palace Theater and the Celebrity Theater.
=== Rivertown Junction ===
Attractions include Dolly's Tennessee Mountain Home, Back Porch Theater, and Smoky Mountain River Rampage whitewater rafting ride.
=== Craftsman's Valley ===
Attractions include Dollywood Grist Mill, Valley Theater, Eagle Mountain Sanctuary, Wings of America Theater, Robert F. Thomas Chapel, Calico Falls Schoolhouse, Tennessee Tornado coaster, Blazing Fury coaster, Daredevil Falls flume ride, and craft exhibits.
=== The Village ===
Attractions include the 3 ft (914 mm) narrow gauge Dollywood Express steam train, Imagination Playhouse, Village Carousel.
=== Country Fair ===
Rides include The Amazing Flying Elephants, Lemon Twist, Shooting Star, Sky Rider, The Waltzing Swinger, Piggy Parade, Busy Bees, Lucky Ducky, Dolly's Demolition Derby, and The Scrambler.
=== Timber Canyon ===
Attractions include the Mystery Mine coaster, the Thunderhead coaster, Drop Line, Whistle Punk Chaser, and Lumberjack Lifts.
=== Jukebox Junction ===
Attractions include the Rockin' Roadway car ride and Pines Theater. Also featured is Lightning Rod a high-speed lift wooden roller coaster.
=== Owens Farm ===
Attractions include Barnstormer, a barn and plane styled giant swing attraction. It also includes soft play areas and a splash pad.
=== The Dolly Parton Experience ===
Attractions include Behind the Seams and Song-teller Museums
=== Wilderness Pass ===
Attractions include The Plaza at Wilderness Pass, Wild Eagle – America's first winged coaster – and FireChaser Express, a dual-launch coaster that launches forward and backward.
=== Wildwood Grove ===
Opened in 2019; attractions include Dragonflier, a suspended family coaster; Big Bear Mountain, a family launched coaster; The Mad Mockingbird, a flying scooter ride; The Wildwood Tree, a 50-foot-tall (15 m) lighted tree; and Till & Harvest Food Hall, a Smoky Mountains-inspired restaurant. In 2023, Big Bear Mountain, a launching steel family roller coaster, was added.
== Festivals and annual events ==
Dollywood hosts six of the South's largest festivals between the months of March and December:
Running normally from mid-March to mid-April, Festival of Nations offers cultural events by performers from around the world. This festival has been retired since the COVID-19 pandemic and was replaced with The I Will Always Love You Festival, which started in 2023.
From late April until mid-May, the Barbeque & Bluegrass presented by Bush Brothers and Company is a bluegrass music and barbecue festival.
Starting in 2021 (originally 2020), and scheduled to run from mid-May and running until early June, is the Flower and Food Festival.
Summer Celebration (formerly Great American Summer) includes Night of Many Colors, a nightly fireworks display set to music; 3D Light and Drone Show, Night Experience, night performances and rides in the dark; and new shows, such as DRUMLine Live! and iLuminate.
Harvest Festival presented by Humana features Southern Gospel music, professional craftsmen, and Great Pumpkin LumiNights.
Smoky Mountain Christmas presented by Humana is a 13 time award winner of Golden Ticket's Best Christmas Event and features seven holiday performances, 5 million Christmas lights, Glacier Ridge (in which part of the park has frozen over), and a nightly parade.
== Rankings and awards ==
In 2010, Dollywood received the Applause Award, an honor presented biennially by the Liseberg amusement park in Gothenburg, Sweden. The award recognizes a theme park "whose management, operations, and creative accomplishments have inspired the industry with their foresight, originality, and sound business development."
In 2017, Dollywood won Golden Ticket awards from Amusement Today for Friendliest Park, Best Christmas Event, Best Food and Best Show.
In 2018, Dollywood received a Golden Ticket award from Amusement Today in the Best Food category, marking the park's fourth win in seven years. In addition to three dinner show options, more than 25 vendors serve meals and snacks, ranging from barbecue ribs, pizza, corn dogs, and pork rinds to cinnamon bread, funnel cakes, cotton candy, and banana pudding made using Dolly's recipe. The park also received Golden Tickets for Best Shows, Friendliest Park, and Best Christmas Event and was ranked the third best park in the world.
In the 2018 USA Today 10Best Readers' Choice Awards – awards voted on by the general public – Dollywood was ranked as the sixth Best Amusement Park in the U.S. Additionally, Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa was ranked first in the Best Amusement Park Hotel category, and Aunt Granny's Restaurant was ranked first in the Best Amusement Park Restaurant category. Dollywood's DreamMore Resort and Spa, which opened in 2015, includes family-oriented amenities and provides direct access to the theme park. Aunt Granny's opened the first year the park operated as Dollywood. It uses an all-you-can-eat buffet format with comfort foods like chicken and dumplings, tacos, and steaks along with a salad bar and health-conscious choices.
Dreamland Drive-In was ranked third in the Best Amusement Park Entertainment category, and Dollywood's Splash Country was ranked sixth in the Best Outdoor Water Park category.
In 2019, Dollywood won Golden Ticket awards for Best Kids' Area, Best Guest Experience, and Best Christmas Event of 2018.
In 2019, Coaster101.com named Lightning Rod "Wooden Roller Coaster of the Decade".
In 2021, Dollywood's Smoky Mountain Christmas won the Golden Ticket Award for Best Christmas Event for the 13th straight year. In June of 2022, Tripadvisor named Dollywood the number one theme park in the U.S.
== See also ==
List of Dollywood attractions
List of Dollywood entertainment
List of amusement parks
List of amusement parks in the Americas
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Herschend
Dollywood at the Roller Coaster DataBase
Themepark Timelines
Dollywood Archived April 2, 2013, at the Wayback Machine at Pigeon Forge Department of Tourism |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghosts_(What_We_Do_in_the_Shadows) | Ghosts (What We Do in the Shadows) | "Ghosts" is the second episode of the second season of the American mockumentary comedy horror television series What We Do in the Shadows, set in the franchise of the same name. It is the twelfth overall episode of the series and was written by executive producer Paul Simms, and directed by producer Kyle Newacheck. It was released on FX on April 15, 2020, airing back-to-back with the previous episode, "Resurrection".
The series is set in Staten Island, New York City. Like the 2014 film, the series follows the lives of vampires in the city. These consist of three vampires, Nandor, Laszlo, and Nadja. They live alongside Colin Robinson, an energy vampire; and Guillermo, Nandor's familiar. The series explores the absurdity and misfortunes experienced by the vampires. In the episode, the vampires realize that they are disturbed by ghosts and settle on helping them with their unfinished business so they can move on.
According to Nielsen Media Research, the episode was seen by an estimated 0.409 million household viewers and gained a 0.17 ratings share among adults aged 18–49. The episode received positive reviews from critics, who praised the humor, originality and limited scale. The episode received a nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series at the 72nd Primetime Emmy Awards.
== Plot ==
Things start moving through the house, and the vampires believe Guillermo (Harvey Guillén) is responsible. Eventually, Nadja (Natasia Demetriou) concludes that there are ghosts in the house, dead beings with unfinished business.
Nadja performs a séance to talk with the ghosts. It turns out that the ghost is actually Gregor (Jake McDorman), annoying Laszlo (Matt Berry). Curious about their unfinished business, the vampires perform another séance to see the ghosts of their previous lives. While Laszlo and Nadja bond with their respective selves, Nandor (Kayvan Novak) struggles in understanding his self, as he forgot how to speak his original extinct language. While they try to solve their unfinished business, Nadja hangs out with her past self and decides to let her stay. Ghost Nadja then possesses one of Nadja's dolls, with Nadja telling her to not let the others know.
After struggling, Nandor eventually concludes that his ghost self wants to reconnect with his warrior horse, whom he killed to eat due to starvation. Through a séance, they summon the ghost of the horse. Ghost Nandor reunites with the horse and both disappear as their unfinished business is done. Meanwhile, Laszlo helps his ghost self orgasm, as Nadja turned him to a vampire during sex before he could ejaculate. Later, Colin Robinson (Mark Proksch) conjures his dead grandmother, just to tell her an "updog" joke he repeatedly said to the vampires. After she laughs, he vanishes her, not wanting to catch up with her.
== Production ==
=== Development ===
In March 2020, FX confirmed that the second episode of the season would be titled "Ghosts", and that it would be written by executive producer Paul Simms, and directed by producer Kyle Newacheck. This was Simms' third writing credit, and Newacheck's second directing credit.
== Reception ==
=== Viewers ===
In its original American broadcast, "Ghosts" was seen by an estimated 0.409 million household viewers with a 0.17 in the 18-49 demographics. This means that 0.17 percent of all households with televisions watched the episode. This was a 24% decrease in viewership from the previous episode, which was watched by 0.537 million household viewers with a 0.22 in the 18-49 demographics.
With DVR factored in, the episode was watched by 0.915 million viewers with a 0.3 in the 18-49 demographics.
=== Critical reviews ===
"Ghosts" received positive reviews from critics. Katie Rife of The A.V. Club gave the episode a "B" grade and wrote, "A pretty good episode of What We Do In The Shadows is still better than the best episode of many TV comedies, however. And it's exciting to see that the show is getting a little more ambitious in its action scenes and with its special effects while keeping all the things that made the first season click. There were some fabulous faux-medieval paintings of Nandor in this episode as well. Shoutout to the art history nerd who creates those."
Tony Sokol of Den of Geek gave the episode a 4.5 star rating out of 5 and wrote, "'Ghosts' is an almost historic episode and is sure to be a fan favorite. The expansion of the monster universe is always a welcome addition. The episode only features the main characters, the only guest in the house this week is formerly-Jeff, who is almost family. He is assured to come back because he's been banished without even getting to finish his tale of unfinished business. The series continues to gain its self-assured footing as it dances across the horror genre with unabashed glee." Greg Wheeler of The Review Geek gave the episode a 3.5 star rating out of 5 and wrote, "With a simple story layered with interesting character developments, What We Do In The Shadows does well with its second episode, allowing our trio of vampires to have their own individual scenes before bringing things full circle at the end with Colin Robinson. Throughout the episode are numerous memorable jokes and quite what will happen now that Nadja's ghost is possessing this doll remains to be seen."
=== Accolades ===
For the episode, Paul Simms was nominated for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series at the 72nd Primetime Emmy Awards. He lost the award to Schitt's Creek for the episode "Happy Ending".
== References ==
== External links ==
"Ghosts" at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Langmuir_Award#:~:text=1981%20Willis%20H.%20Flygare | Irving Langmuir Award | The Irving Langmuir Prize in Chemical Physics is awarded annually, in even years by the American Chemical Society and in odd years by the American Physical Society. The award is meant to recognize and encourage outstanding interdisciplinary research in chemistry and physics, in the spirit of Irving Langmuir. A nominee must have made an outstanding contribution to chemical physics or physical chemistry within the 10 years preceding the year in which the award is made. The award will be granted without restriction, except that the recipient must be a resident of the United States.
The award was established in 1931 by Dr. A.C. Langmuir, brother of Nobel Prize-winning chemist Irving Langmuir, to recognize the best young chemist in the United States. A $10,000 prize was to be awarded annually by the American Chemical Society. The first recipient was Linus Pauling. In 1964, the General Electric Foundation took over the financial backing of the prize, which was renamed the Irving Langmuir Award and the modern selection process was created. In 2006 the GE Global Research took over sponsorship of the award, and since 2009 the award has been co-sponsored between GE Global Research and the ACS Division of Physical Chemistry.
== Past recipients ==
Source: American Physical Society and American Chemical Society
== See also ==
List of physics awards
List of chemistry awards
== References ==
== External links ==
Irving Langmuir Page at the American Chemical Society Site
Irving Langmuir Page at the American Physical Society Site |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Oberhoffer | Emil Oberhoffer | Emil Oberhoffer (10 August 1867 – 22 May 1933) was a German-born American conductor and minor composer. He founded the Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra (now known as the Minnesota Orchestra), and was its conductor for the first 19 years of its existence.
== Biography ==
Emil Johann Oberhoffer was born near Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria on 10 August 1867 to a musical family, his father being a well known organist, composer and provincial conductor, and his mother and siblings also making their marks. He showed early promise on the organ and violin, and was sent for training with the Josef Rheinberger disciple Cyrill Kistler, and later to Paris for intensive piano study with Isidor Philipp.
He emigrated to New York City in 1885, became an American citizen in 1893, and moved to St. Paul, Minnesota in 1897 as a teacher, lecturer, concert performer and conductor. He conducted the Apollo Club of Minneapolis, a notable choral society. He also organised the Schubert Choral Association and the Schubert Orchestra in St. Paul, and he was director of the Minneapolis Philharmonic Club, a choral group. He became frustrated at the quality of the scratch ensembles used for accompaniments for these groups, and this became the catalyst for the establishment a permanent orchestra in Minneapolis. The Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra gave its first performance, under Oberhoffer's direction, on 5 November 1903.
He was also organist and director of music at the Church of the Redeemer, and he founded the chair of music at the University of Minnesota. He was personally very active and energetic, and instigated a practice of touring the orchestra widely, making it better known than most of its metropolis-bound counterparts. The orchestra made its Carnegie Hall debut in 1912.
Oberhoffer left Minneapolis in 1922 after increasing friction with the orchestra's management. His place was taken by Bruno Walter as guest conductor for 1922–23, then by Henri Verbrugghen. His tenure of 19 years with the Minneapolis Symphony was not equalled until Stanisław Skrowaczewski (1960–79).
He moved to California, and became guest conductor with the Los Angeles Philharmonic, San Francisco Symphony, St. Louis Symphony Orchestra and Detroit Symphony Orchestra. On 8 July 1926, he conducted the first performance by the LA Philharmonic of Maurice Ravel's Alborada del gracioso.
His compositions include: Hora Novissima (a vocal scene about the last hours of a dying child at whose side his mother waits while a bell tolls), and Mélodie élégiaque, dedicated to the French violinist Camilla Urso.
Emil Oberhoffer died in San Diego, California on 22 May 1933, aged 65. He is buried in the Lakewood Cemetery, Minneapolis, where the Oberhoffer Obelisk stands in his memory.
== Legacy ==
The Emil J. Oberhoffer House overlooks Orchard Lake in Lakeville, Minnesota.
== References ==
== External links ==
Emil Oberhoffer at Find a Grave
"Oberhoffer, Emil" . Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kate_Stoneman | Kate Stoneman | Katherine Stoneman (April 1841 – May 19, 1925) was an early 20th-century suffragist and the first woman admitted to the Bar Association in the State of New York.
== Early life and family ==
Katherine (Kate) Stoneman was born on her family's farm in Busti, Chautauqua County, New York. She was the fifth of eight children. Her family was in the lumber business. Her father was also a justice of the peace for several years.
One of her brothers, George Stoneman, went on to become the Governor of California. Her brother Edward became a Judge on the Supreme Court of Illinois.
== Education and teaching career ==
In 1864, Stoneman began attending the Albany Normal School to pursue her goal of becoming a teacher. While at school, she worked for the New York Court of Appeals as a copyist. Kate graduated from Albany Law School of Union University, a private independent law school founded in 1851.
She graduated in 1866 and began teaching at the Glens Falls Seminary. She later taught at her alma mater, the Albany Normal School. She was the first female president of their alumni association, and served as Vice-Principal.
== Legal career ==
Kate Stoneman was the first woman to pass the New York Bar Exam in 1885. However, her application to the New York Bar was rejected in the spring of 1886 on the basis of her gender. With the help of local suffragettes, Stoneman urged for the introduction and passage of a bill to allow for the admission of all qualified applicants, regardless of race or gender. The bill was introduced, passed, and signed by Governor David Hill on May 20, 1886, only nine days after her initial rejection.
12 years after her admission to the bar, Stoneman went on to study law formally at Albany Law School. While studying law, she continued to teach at the State University of Albany and also clerked for a lawyer in the area. She was the first woman to graduate from Albany Law School in 1898. She maintained a law office in Albany from 1889 to 1922.
== Honors and awards ==
Stoneman died on May 19, 1925, and is buried in Albany Rural Cemetery.
Stoneman was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame in October 2009.
The eponymous Kate Stoneman Project celebrates and advances women in the legal profession.
== See also ==
List of first women lawyers and judges in New York
== References ==
== External links ==
Website on Stoneman by Albany Law School
Albany Times Union article announcing the first Kate Stoneman lecture Archived 2013-02-22 at archive.today at Albany Law School |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_brown_bandicoot | Southern brown bandicoot | The southern brown bandicoot (Isoodon obesulus) is a short-nosed bandicoot, a type of marsupial, found mostly in southern Australia. A subspecies in Western Australia is also known as the quenda in South Western Australia (from the Noongar word kwinda). This subspecies was elevated to species in 2018.
== Taxonomy ==
George Shaw described the species as Didelphis obesula in 1797. While some authorities list as few as two subspecies (I. o. obesulus and I. o. nauticus), there are currently five recognised species:
Isoodon obesulus nauticus – restricted to the Nuyts Archipelago
Isoodon obesulus obesulus – NSW, Victoria, SA
Isoodon obesulus peninsulae – Cape York Peninsula
Isoodon obesulus affinus – Tasmania and Bass Strait Islands
Isoodon obesulus fusciventer – southwest WA. This subspecies was elevated to species in 2018.
== Description ==
Southern brown bandicoots have a stocky body with a short snout and short, rounded ears. They show sexual dimorphism, with females being smaller than males. On average, males measure 50 cm (20 in) in total length, and weigh up to 1.2 kg (2.6 lb), while females measure 40 cm (16 in) and weigh no more than 1 kg (2.2 lb). They have coarse, bristly hair that is grizzled and coloured a dark greyish to yellowish brown, with the undersides a creamy-white or yellowish grey. The tail is relatively short, measuring about 13 cm (5.1 in) in length, and is brown above and white below.
There are five toes on each foot, although, as in many other marsupials, they are syndactylous, with the second and third toes of the hind foot are fused along almost their entire length. The toes end in sturdy claws, except for the first digits of the fore feet and the fifth digits of the hind feet, which are tiny and vestigial. The pouch in females opens to the rear, and contains eight teats arranged in a partial circle.
== Distribution and habitat ==
Once common throughout many parts of coastal Australia, today southern brown bandicoots have a more limited distribution. An isolated population exists at the north-eastern part of the Cape York Peninsula in Queensland, but all other surviving animals are found in the southern half of the country. In New South Wales they are considered rare, and are primarily restricted to the extreme south-east of the state and to two national parks north of Sydney. In Victoria, they are more common, being found along the whole length of the coast and at up to 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in the Grampian and Dandenong mountains.
In South Australia, they inhabit the Eyre and Fleurieu peninsulas, the extreme southeast, and Kangaroo Island. Isolated and increasingly restricted populations are known from south-western Western Australia. However, southern brown bandicoots are most common in Tasmania, where they are found across almost the entire island. They are also currently found on Inner Sister Island but have been extirpated from many other small Tasmanian islands where they once lived.
Within these regions, southern brown bandicoots inhabit open forest, scrub, and heathland, especially where there is extensive ground cover by shrubs or mat-rushes. I. o. obesulus has shown a preference for the margins of artificial waterways over drier habitats.
== Biology and behaviour ==
Southern brown bandicoots are nocturnal and omnivorous, feeding on insects, spiders, worms, plant roots, ferns, and fungi. They spend very little time drinking, being able to obtain sufficient water from their diet alone. Although their native predators include barn owls, tiger snakes, and quolls, the bandicoots do not avoid the odour of these animals, which may make them vulnerable to predation. They do, however, typically avoid one another, living solitary lives in non-overlapping home ranges that typically vary from 1 to 5 hectares (2.5 to 12.4 acres), depending on the local conditions. If males encounter one another, the more dominant individual leaps onto the back of the other, scratching with its claws. Because the skin of bandicoots is unusually thick, this results in hair loss, but little permanent injury to the defeated male.
They spend much of the night searching for food, which the detect primarily by scent, sniffing the ground before digging into with their claws. They pursue any prey that escapes, holding it down with their forepaws as they consume it. The digging behaviour is considered a critical component in the maintenance of the ecosystems in which they live. It is estimated that a single bandicoot displaces around 3.9 tonnes of soil each year. They spend the day sleeping in well-concealed nests of shredded vegetation. Both sexes possess scent glands between the ears that are apparently used in intra-species communication and become enlarged during the breeding season.
The Southern brown bandicoot is a host of the Acanthocephalan intestinal parasite Australiformis semoni.
=== Life history ===
Reproduction is closely linked to local rainfall pattern, and many brown bandicoots breed all year around, giving birth to up to four litters a year. Gestation lasts less than fifteen days, and perhaps as few as twelve, and typically results in the birth of two or three young, although litters of up to five have been reported; larger mothers tend to give birth to larger litters.
The young weigh just 350 mg (5.4 gr) at birth, remain in the pouch for about the first 53 days of life, and are fully weaned at around 60 days. Growth and maturation is relatively rapid among marsupials, with females becoming sexually mature at four to five months of age, and males at six or seven months. Lifespan in the wild is probably no more than four years.
== Conservation status ==
The southern brown bandicoot is currently classified as Least Concern by the IUCN. However, populations have declined markedly and become much more fragmented in the time since European expansion on the Australian mainland. In many areas of its range the species is threatened locally, while it may be common where rainfall is high enough and vegetation cover is thick enough. Apart from habitat fragmentation, the species is under pressure from introduced predators such as the red fox and feral cats. It has been reintroduced to some lower rainfall areas where there is protection against cat and fox predation – one such site being Wadderin Sanctuary in the eastern wheatbelt of Western Australia, 300 km east of Perth.
In national assessment, the southern brown bandicoot is currently regarded as Endangered on the mainland as a whole, and Vulnerable in South Australia.
== References ==
== External links ==
The Aussie Southern Brown Bandicoot Ark Conservation Project |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Charleson_Hedge | Ian Charleson Hedge | Ian Charleson Hedge (18 August 1928 – 7 August 2022) was a Scottish botanist at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Edinburgh. Hedge made important contributions to the flora of Iran and Iraq, and was a recognised authority on the flora of south-west Asia. He named more than 300 new plant species.
== Biography ==
Hedge spent seven months collecting in Turkey in 1957 with Peter Davis. Together they gathered more than 6,000 specimens. Then he spent 3 months in Afghanistan with (a Norwegian botanist) Per Wendelbo, they made significant collections to the Garden Herbarium in 1962 in the north and north-east of the country and then he returned in 1969 with Wendelbo and Lars Ekberg. They were one of the first botanists to explore the area.
He described Salvia buchananii in the Botanical Magazine in 1963.
In 1982, he published a book about Salvia's, which recognised up to 86 species.
In 1986, Ian and Professor Karl Rechinger published Plant life of South-West Asia by the Royal Society of Edinburgh, it was dedicated to Karl Heinz Rechinger on his eightieth birthday.
By 1988, he was the curator of the Botanical Garden Herbarium.
He collected in Portugal in the 1990s. Then with Fatima Sales, he published 'Jasione L. taxonomy and phylogeny' in 2002. Also 'Three perplexing names of species of Campanula L.' and 'The taxonomy and conservation of Campanula primulifolia (Campanulaceae), a critically endangered species in the Iberian Peninsula' in 2010 (with Anna Trias-Blasi, Eddie, William M.M. and Michel Möller).
He contributed to 'The Davis Festschrift' (edited by Kit Tan) on Peter Hadland Davis's 70th birthday and his own 60th Birthday in 1989.
In 1999, he was honoured by the naming of Ianhedgea, a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Brassicaceae from central Asia and Tibet.
He is mentioned in Mabberley's Plant-book of 2003 and his The Plant-book: A Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants (in 1990).
In 2010, with other members of the Royal Botanical Garden, he identified various plant specimens for Mark Price's book 'Animal Re-introductions: The Arabian Oryx in Oman'.
On 31 January 2012, he appealed (on behalf of the Royal Botanic Garden) via the BBC to the Pakistani government to release more than 4,000 copies of a botany text book destined for Afghanistan schools and environmental groups. The 10 tonnes of books had been held at customs in Karachi for the past year. It is the 'Field Guide Afghanistan Flora and Vegetation', written by Ian and Siegmar-Walter Breckle in 2010.
Hedge died on 7 August 2022, at the age of 93.
== Other sources ==
M. Alam, 2009, "Plant Collectors in Afghanistan", Bulletin de la Société vaudoise des Sciences naturelles, 91(3): 327-329
K. Tan (ed.), 1989, Plant taxonomy, phytogeography and related subjects. The Davis & Hedge Festschrift.
Kent, D.H. & Allen, D.E., Brit. Irish Herb. (1984)
== Bibliography ==
Studies in the Flora of Afghanistan by Ian Charleson Hedge and Per Wendelbo, 1963
Flora Iranica: Capparidaceae - Volume 68 (Ian Charleson Hedge - 1970)
Index of collectors in the Edinburgh Herbarium / edited by I. C. Hedge and J. M. Lamond, Edinburgh Herbarium, 1970
Plant life of South-West Asia. Edited by Peter Hadland Davis, Peter Charles Harper and Ian Charleson Hedge (1971),
Flora Europea (Ian Charleson Hedge - 1972)
A revision of Salvia in Africa and the Canary Islands. (Ian Hedge - 1974)
Aizoaceae (Ian Charleson Hedge, Jennifer M. Lamond - 1975)
Molluginaceae (Ian Charleson Hedge, Jennifer M. Lamond - 1975)
Iridaceae: Aizoaceae (Karl Heinz Rechinger, Per Wendelbo, Brian Mathew, Ian Charleson Hedge, Jennifer M. Lamond, Jindrich Chrtek, Bohdan Křísa, Henriëtte Dorothea Schotsman, Harald Riedl - 1975)
Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, vol. 7, Labiatae. (Ian Hedge and P.H Davis) Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1982
Flora of Cyprus. Ian C Hedge (R.D. Meikle -editor), Kew Royal Botanic Gardens, 1985
Umbelliferae / I.C. Hedge editor, Karl Heinz Rechinger Hedge, Ian C. (Ian Charleson) 1987
Plant Taxonomy, Phytogeography and Related Subjects: Davis and Hedge Festschrift by P. H. Davis, Ian Charleson Hedge, Kit Tan and R.R. Mill (2 Nov 1989)
Chenopodiaceae (Ian Hedge) 1997
Labiatae (Ian Charleson Hedge, S. I. Ali, Yasin J. Nasir - 1990 )
Flora of Pakistan. No. 204, Chenopodiaceae (Heiko Freitag, Ian Charleson Hedge, S. M. H. Jafri) 2001
Cruciferae (Brassicaceae), Ian Hedge, The Forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department, 1997.
Field Guide Afghanistan Flora and Vegetation (Ian Hedge and Siegmar-Walter Breckle, 2010
== References ==
== External links ==
Has photo of Ian Hedge |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triatoma_carrioni | Triatoma carrioni | Triatoma carrioni is a blood-sucking bug and probable vector of the flagellate protozoan that causes Chagas disease. It was discovered by F. Larrousse in 1926.
Type: National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC.
Paratype M: FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro.
Type locality: Loja Province, Ecuador.
Distribution: South Ecuador, North Peru.
Biology: silvatic, rodent nests and opossum lodges; also peridomestic, and occasionally in houses.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Weight_of_These_Wings#:~:text=The%20album%20was%20certified%20Platinum,US%20as%20of%20August%202018. | The Weight of These Wings | The Weight of These Wings is the sixth studio album by American country music artist Miranda Lambert. It was released on November 18, 2016, via RCA Records Nashville. The album consists of two discs, with Disc 1 titled The Nerve, and Disc 2 titled The Heart. The album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Country Albums chart and No. 3 on the all-genre US Billboard 200 chart, and has been certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). In addition to winning Album of the Year at the 2017 ACM Awards, it is considered by several music publications as one of the best albums of the year. In 2020, the album was ranked at 480 on Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list.
== Background and music ==
In an August 2016 interview with Billboard, Lambert stated she had been working on the album for a year, which included writing and recording. She admitted she was nervous about her new music since she had mostly stayed quiet while writing it. Songwriter Luke Dick was one of the musicians who worked on the album. He co-wrote "Highway Vagabond" with Natalie Hemby and Shane McAnally. He found the line "I want to go somewhere nobody knows; and I want to know somewhere that nobody goes" while waiting at a deli and not willing to mix with other people. This became a road song with the word "vagabond" at the center, with a production sounding like country Siouxsie and the Banshees.
The album's content is about her divorce with Blake Shelton and her subsequent relationship with Anderson East.
== Release and promotion ==
The album was released on November 18, 2016, through RCA Records Nashville.
In support of her album, Lambert started the Highway Vagabond Tour. It started on January 26, 2017, in Evansville, Indiana and concluded on October 21, 2017, in White Springs, Florida. A rehearsal show occurred on January 24, 2017, two days before the tour started, at Joe's Bar in Chicago. Lambert first announced the tour in October 2016. Old Dominion and Aubrie Sellers served as opening acts. The tour marks Lambert's first solo tour dates in Europe (after previously playing shows in the UK as part of the C2C: Country to Country festival in 2016).
=== Singles ===
"Vice" was released as the album's lead single on July 18, 2016. In its first week it sold 64,000 copies and debuted (and peaked) at number 2 on the Hot Country Songs chart. It ultimately reached a peak of number 11 on the Country Airplay chart. As of March 2017, the song has sold 508,000 copies in the United States.
"We Should Be Friends" was released as the second single on December 12, 2016. It was a Top 30 hit on the Hot Country Songs and Country Airplay charts. "Tin Man" was released as the third single on April 3, 2017, immediately following Lambert's acoustic performance of the song on 52nd Academy of Country Music Awards. It peaked in the Top 20 of the Hot Country Songs chart, and the Top 30 of the Country Airplay chart.
"Keeper of the Flame" was released as the fourth single on April 16, 2018.
== Critical reception ==
The Weight of These Wings received widespread acclaim from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has an average score of 81 out of 100, which indicates "universal acclaim" based on 11 reviews. Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic rated the album at five out of five and in his review stated "It may have mainstream songs, but The Weight of These Wings isn't produced like a country-pop album, so it demands attention and rewards close listening." Paul Grein of HITS Daily Double predicted the album to be in contention for Album of the Year at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards.
The Weight of These Wings won the award for Album of the Year at the 2017 ACM Awards. It marks Lambert's fifth consecutive album to win the award, a record for any artist or group.
=== Accolades ===
== Awards ==
== Track listing ==
All tracks produced by Frank Liddell, Eric Masse, and Glenn Worf.
== Personnel ==
Credits adapted from AllMusic.
Vocals
Musicians
Production and imagery
== Commercial performance ==
The Weight of These Wings debuted at number one on the Billboard Country Albums chart and number three on the all-genre US Billboard 200 chart, moving 133,000 equivalent album units in its first week of release. It sold 122,000 copies, with the remainder of its unit total reflecting the album's streaming activity and track sales. It is Lambert's fifth straight album to debut in the top ten of the Billboard 200, following Platinum (number one, 2014), Four the Record (number three, 2011), Revolution (number eight, 2009) and Crazy Ex-Girlfriend (number six, 2007). In its second week of release, the album moved 36,000 units and fell to number nine.
Following the 52nd Academy of Country Music Awards on April 2, 2017, where Lambert won multiple awards and performed "Tin Man", the album moved 31,000 units, including 23,000 in pure sales, and jumped from number 192 to number 12 on the Billboard 200 chart. The album was certified Platinum on July 10, 2017, and it has sold 438,600 copies in the US as of August 2018.
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== Release history ==
Source: Amazon.com
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehbooba_Mufti | Mehbooba Mufti | Mehbooba Bur Mufti Sayed; (born 22 May 1959) is an Indian politician and leader of the Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party;(PDP), who served as the 9th chief minister of the erstwhile state Jammu and Kashmir from 4 April 2016 to 19 June 2018. She is the first female chief minister of Jammu and Kashmir. After the revocation of Article 370 of the constitution in August 2019, Mufti was detained without any charges at first and later under the Jammu and Kashmir Public Safety Act.
Mufti was the first woman to hold the office of chief minister in the Jammu and Kashmir. She formed a coalition government in Jammu and Kashmir jointly with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). She resigned in June 2018 after the BJP withdrew from the coalition.
Mufti was the president of the PDP and was a member of the Indian parliament, representing Anantnag in the 16th Lok Sabha before she was sworn in as the chief minister of the Jammu and Kashmir. She also represented Anantnag in the 14th Lok Sabha (2004–09) and has also been a Leader of Opposition in Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly.
== Early life ==
She is the daughter of Mufti Mohammad Sayeed and Gulshan Ara, born in 1959 in Akhran Nowpora, J&K, India. She graduated in English literature from Government College for Women in Jammu, and has a law degree from the University of Kashmir. Post 1989, she shifted to N. Delhi and joined the Bombay Mercantile Bank, after which she worked with East West Airlines, before moving back to J&K. Mehbooba Mufti married Javed Iqbal Shah in 1984, but they later divorced. Her Ex Husband is the first cousin of her father, Mufti Mohammad Sayeed. This means that, before their marriage, Mehbooba Mufti was Javed Iqbal Shah's niece in relation. She has two daughters, Iltija and Irtiqa. Her ex-husband is a political analyst, an animal-rights activist, and was briefly with National Conference party.
== Political career ==
When elections for the state assembly were held in 1996, Mehbooba became one of the most popular members elected from Bijbehara on an Indian National Congress ticket. Her father had returned to the Congress, which he had left in 1987, angry at the alliance that party had formed with its traditional rival in the state, the National Conference. She later served as the leader of the opposition in the assembly, taking on the government of chief minister Farooq Abdullah with asperity.
She resigned her assembly seat and went on to contest the parliamentary elections in 1999 from Srinagar, where she lost to incumbent member Omar Abdullah. She won the Pahalgam seat in the state assembly from South Kashmir, defeating Rafi Ahmed Mir, when assembly elections were held again in 2002. She was elected to the Lok Sabha from Anantnag seat in 2004 and 2014. She defeated Mirza Mehboob Beg who was the incumbent MP in 2014 Lok Sabha Elections.
After her father's death in January 2016, when he was heading the coalition government in Jammu and Kashmir, she took forward the same alliance with Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP), the second time the BJP and the PDP formed a government in Jammu and Kashmir. On 4 April 2016, she took the oath and became the first woman Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir.
On 25 June 2016, she won an Assembly seat in a by-election in Anantnag with the highest margin in any recent elections there and thereafter focussed on settling of Rohingyas.
On 19 June 2018, she resigned as chief minister of Kashmir. Her government had been an alliance between the Peoples' Democratic Party (PDP) and the BJP, but there was a rift in the alliance in February 2018, when two BJP ministers expressed public support for a man who was alleged to have raped and killed an eight-year-old girl in Kathua District. The BJP's National General Secretary, Ram Madhav, announced the end of the alliance between the BJP and the PDP, and said that it was because of the deteriorating security situation. Mehbooba and the state government had tried suspending security operations for Ramadan, but the militants had not reciprocated, and 30 people were killed during the ceasefire. So the BJP withdrew from the alliance with the PDP so that the Indian government could get tough with the militants. When the alliance between the PDP and the BJP ended, Mehbooba resigned as chief minister. Mehbooba said "the muscular policy will not work in Kashmir".
She contested 2019 Lok Sabha elections from Anantnag seat but lost it to Hasnain Masoodi of National Conference, and later also lost the 2024 Lok Sabha elections from Anantanag - Rajouri seat to Mian Altaf Ahmed Larvi of National Conference [1] with 2.3 lakh votes.
== Detention ==
On 5 August 2019, she was detained by the Central government. Her daughter Iltija Mufti took over her mother's Twitter account on the 46th day of detention. In November, Iltija Mufti wrote a letter to the Srinagar Deputy Commissioner to shift her mother to a place better equipped for the valley's winter.
In February 2020 she was further detained under the Jammu and Kashmir Public Safety Act. She was released on 13 October 2020.
On 25 November 2020, former Jammu and Kashmir chief minister and People's Democratic Party chief Mehbooba Mufti was detained by Jammu and Kashmir Police and was not allowed to visit South Kashmir's Pulwama to meet the family of senior PDP leader Waheed Para, who was arrested by the National Investigating Agency earlier that week.
Mufti said that her daughter Iltija Mufti has also been placed under house arrest.
== See also ==
Mehbooba Mufti ministry (2016–2018)
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official biographical sketch in Parliament of India website
State Assembly hall security remove opposition People's Democratic Party
Jolly, Asit (15 May 2017). "Mehbooba Mufti under Siege. Can She Stem the Rot?". India Today. pp. 30–38. ("Buffeted by Insurgency and Dissent within Her Party, She Needs All the Help She Can Get from a Reluctant Centre.") indiatoday.intoday.on 4 May 2017 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurie_Anderson#2000s | Laurie Anderson | Laura Phillips "Laurie" Anderson (born June 5, 1947) is an American avant-garde artist, musician and filmmaker whose work encompasses performance art, pop music, and multimedia projects. Initially trained in violin and sculpting, Anderson pursued a variety of performance art projects in New York City during the 1970s, focusing particularly on language, technology, and visual imagery. She achieved unexpected commercial success when her song "O Superman" reached number two on the UK singles chart in 1981.
Anderson's debut studio album Big Science was released in 1982 and has since been followed by a number of studio and live albums. She starred in and directed the 1986 concert film Home of the Brave. Anderson's creative output has also included theatrical and documentary works, voice acting, art installations, and a CD-ROM. She is a pioneer in electronic music and has invented several musical devices that she has used in her recordings and performance art shows.
== Early life and education ==
Laura Phillips Anderson was born in Chicago on June 5, 1947, and grew up in the nearby suburb Glen Ellyn, Illinois, one of eight children born to Mary Louise (née Rowland) and Arthur T. Anderson. Growing up, she spent weekends studying painting at the Art Institute of Chicago and played with the Chicago Youth Symphony.
She graduated from Glenbard West High School. She attended Mills College in California, and, after moving to New York in 1966, graduated in 1969 from Barnard College with a B.A. magna cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa, studying art history. In 1972, she obtained an M.F.A. in sculpture from Columbia University.
Her first performance-art piece — a symphony played on automobile horns — was performed in 1969. In 1970 she drew the underground comix Baloney Moccasins, which was published by George DiCaprio. In the early 1970s she worked as an art instructor and as an art critic for magazines such as Artforum, and illustrated children's books — the first of which was titled The Package (1971), a mystery story in pictures alone.
== Career ==
=== 1970s ===
Anderson performed in New York during the 1970s. One of her most-cited performances, Duets on Ice, which she conducted in New York and other cities around the world, involved her playing the violin along with a recording while wearing ice skates with the blades frozen into a block of ice; the performance ended only when the ice had melted away. Two early pieces, "New York Social Life" and "Time to Go", are included in the 1977 compilation New Music for Electronic and Recorded Media, along with works by Pauline Oliveros and others. Two other pieces were included on Airwaves, a collection of audio pieces by various artists. She also recorded a lecture for Vision, a set of artist's lectures released by Crown Point Press as a set of six LPs.
Many of Anderson's earliest recordings remain unreleased or were issued only in limited quantities, such as her first single, "It's Not the Bullet that Kills You (It's the Hole)". That song, along with "New York Social Life" and about a dozen others, was originally recorded for use in an art installation that consisted of a jukebox that played the different Anderson compositions, at the Holly Solomon Gallery in New York City. Among the musicians on these early recordings are Peter Gordon on saxophone, Scott Johnson on guitar, Ken Deifik on harmonica, and Joe Kos on drums. Photographs and descriptions of many of these early performances were included in Anderson's retrospective book Stories from the Nerve Bible (1993).
During the late 1970s, Anderson made a number of additional recordings that were either released privately or included on compilations of avant-garde music, most notably releases by the Giorno Poetry Systems label run by New York poet John Giorno, an early intimate of Andy Warhol. In 1978, she performed at the Nova Convention, a major conference involving many counter-culture figures and rising avant-garde musical stars, including William S. Burroughs, Philip Glass, Frank Zappa, Timothy Leary, Malcolm Goldstein, John Cage, and Allen Ginsberg. She also worked with comedian Andy Kaufman in the late 1970s.
=== 1980s ===
In 1980, Anderson was awarded an honorary doctorate from the San Francisco Art Institute. In 1982, she was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship for Creative Arts — Film. In 1987, Anderson was awarded an honorary doctorate in the fine arts from the University of the Arts in Philadelphia.
Anderson became widely known outside the art world in 1981 with the single "O Superman", originally released in a limited quantity by B. George's One Ten Records, which ultimately reached number two on the UK singles chart. The sudden influx of orders from the UK (prompted partly by British station BBC Radio 1 playlisting the record) led to Anderson signing a seven-album recording contract with Warner Bros. Records, which re-released the single.
"O Superman" was part of a larger stage work titled United States Live (1984) and was included on her debut studio album Big Science (1982). Prior to the release of Big Science, Anderson returned to Giorno Poetry Systems to record the collaboration album You're the Guy I Want to Share My Money With (1981); Anderson recorded one side of the double-LP set, with William S. Burroughs and John Giorno recording a side each, and the fourth side featured a separate groove for each artist. This was followed by the back-to-back releases of her albums Mister Heartbreak and United States Live (both 1984), the latter of which was a five-LP (and, later, four-CD) recording of her two-evening stage show at the Brooklyn Academy of Music. She also appeared in a television special produced by Nam June Paik broadcast on New Year's Day 1984, titled "Good Morning, Mr. Orwell".
She next starred in and directed the 1986 concert film Home of the Brave and also composed the soundtracks for the Spalding Gray films Swimming to Cambodia (1987) and Monster in a Box (1992). During this time, she also contributed music to Robert Wilson's Alcestis at the American Repertory Theater in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She also hosted the PBS series Alive from Off Center during 1987, after having produced the short film What You Mean We? for the series the year before. What You Mean We? introduced a new character played by Anderson: "The Clone", a digitally altered masculine counterpart to Anderson who later "co-hosted" with her when she did her presenting stint on Alive from Off Center. Elements of the Clone were later incorporated into the titular "puppet" of her later work, Puppet Motel. In that year, she also appeared on Peter Gabriel's fifth studio album So, co-writing and performing on the song "This is the Picture (Excellent Birds)". (The first version of "Excellent Birds" had been released on Mister Heartbreak.)
Release of Anderson's first post-Home of the Brave album, 1989's Strange Angels, was delayed for more than a year in order for Anderson to take singing lessons. This was due to the album being more musically inclined (in terms of singing) than her previous works. The single "Babydoll" was a moderate hit on the Modern Rock Tracks chart in 1989.
=== 1990s ===
In 1991, she was a member of the jury at the 41st Berlin International Film Festival. In the same year, Anderson appeared in The Human Face, a feature arts documentary directed by artist-filmmakers Nichola Bruce and Michael Coulson for BBC Television. Anderson was the presenter in this documentary on the history of the face in art and science. Her face was transformed using latex masks and digital special effects as she introduced ideas about the relationship between physiognomy and perception. Her varied career in the early 1990s included voice-acting in the animated film The Rugrats Movie (1998). In 1994, she created a CD-ROM titled Puppet Motel, which was followed by Bright Red, co-produced by Brian Eno, and another spoken-word album, The Ugly One with the Jewels (1995). This was followed by an appearance on the 1997 charity single "Perfect Day".
In 1996, Anderson performed with Diego Frenkel (La Portuária) and Aterciopelados for the AIDS benefit album Silencio=Muerte: Red Hot + Latin produced by the Red Hot Organization.
An interval of more than half a decade followed before her next album release. During this time, she wrote a supplemental article on the cultural character of New York City for the Encyclopædia Britannica and created multimedia presentations, including one inspired by Moby-Dick (Songs and Stories from Moby Dick, 1999–2000). One of the central themes in Anderson's work is exploring the effects of technology on human relationships and communication.
Starting in the 1990s, Anderson and Lou Reed, whom she had met in 1992, collaborated on recordings together. Reed contributed to the tracks "In Our Sleep" from Anderson's Bright Red (1994), "One Beautiful Evening" from Anderson's Life on a String (2001), and "My Right Eye" and "Only an Expert" from Anderson's Homeland (2010), which Reed also co-produced. Anderson contributed to the tracks "Call on Me" from Reed's collaborative project The Raven (2003), "Rouge" and "Rock Minuet" from Reed's Ecstasy (2000), and "Hang On to Your Emotions" from Reed's Set the Twilight Reeling (1996).
In late 1998, Artist Space, New York presented an exhibit of Anderson’s work from 1970s to 1980s, along with her 1990s work, Whirlwind.
=== 2000s ===
Life on a String appeared in 2001, by which time she signed a new recording contract with another Warner Music Group label, Nonesuch Records. Life on a String was a mixture of new works (including one song recalling the death of her father) and works from the Moby-Dick presentation. In 2001, she recorded the audiobook version of Don DeLillo's novella The Body Artist. Anderson went on tour performing a selection of her best-known musical pieces in 2001. One of these performances was recorded in New York City a week after the September 11 attacks, and included a performance of "O Superman". This concert was released in early 2002 as the double CD Live in New York.
In 2003, Anderson produced albums with French musicians La Jarry and Hector Zazou and also performed with them. Zazou's album Strong Currents (2003), which brought together well-known soloists, features her alongside Jane Birkin, Lori Carson and Irene Grandi, among others. She became NASA's first artist-in-residence in the same year, which inspired her performance piece The End of the Moon. In May 2004, she received an honorary doctorate from Columbia University. She was part of the team that created the opening ceremony for the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens and collaborated with choreographer Trisha Brown and filmmaker Agnieszka Wojtowicz-Vosloo on the multimedia project O Zlozony/O Composite for the Paris Opera Ballet which premiered at the Palais Garnier in Paris in December 2004. She mounted a succession of themed shows and composed a piece for Expo 2005 in Japan. In 2005, Anderson visited Russia's space program — the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centre and mission control — with the Arts Catalyst and took part in the Arts Catalyst's Space Soon event at the Roundhouse to reflect on her experiences.
In 2005, her exhibition The Waters Reglitterized opened at the Sean Kelly Gallery in New York City. According to the press release by Sean Kelly, the work is a diary of dreams and their literal recreation as works of art. This work uses the language of dreams to investigate the dream itself. The resulting pieces include drawings, prints, and high-definition video. The installation ran until October 22, 2005.
In 2006, Anderson was awarded a Residency at the American Academy in Rome. She narrated Ric Burns' Andy Warhol: A Documentary Film, which was first televised in September 2006 as part of the PBS American Masters series. She contributed a song to Plague Songs, a collection of songs related to the 10 Biblical plagues. Anderson also performed in Came So Far for Beauty, the Leonard Cohen tribute event held at the Point Theatre in Dublin, Ireland, on October 4–5, 2006. In November 2006, she published a book of drawings based on her dreams, titled Night Life.
Material from Homeland was performed at small work-in-progress shows in New York throughout May 2007 supported by a four-piece band with lighting and video visuals mixed live by Willie Williams and Mark Coniglio, respectively. A European tour of the Homeland work in progress included performances on September 28–29, 2007, at the Olympia Theatre, Dublin; on October 17–19 at the Melbourne International Arts Festival; and in Russia at the Moscow Dom Muzyky concert hall on April 26, 2008. The work was performed in Toronto, Canada, on June 14, 2008, with husband Lou Reed, making the "Lost Art of Conversation" a duet with vocals and guitar. Anderson's Homeland Tour performed at several locations across the United States as well, such as at the Ferst Center for the Arts, Atlanta, Georgia; The Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, New York City; and Harris Theater for Music and Dance in Millennium Park, Chicago, Illinois, co-presented by the Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago.
=== 2010s ===
In February 2010, Anderson premiered a new theatrical work, titled Delusion, at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Canada. This piece was commissioned by the Vancouver 2010 Cultural Olympiad and the Barbican Centre, London. Anderson was honored with the Women's Project Theater Woman of Achievement Award in March 2010. In May–June 2010, Anderson curated the Vivid Live festival in Sydney, together with Lou Reed. Her new studio album Homeland was released on June 22. She performed "Only an Expert" on July 15, 2010, on the Late Show with David Letterman, and her song "Gravity's Angel" was featured on the Fox reality television dance competition show So You Think You Can Dance the same day. She appears as a guest musician on several tracks from experimental jazz musician Colin Stetson's studio album New History Warfare Vol. 2: Judges (2011).
Anderson developed a theatrical work titled "Another Day in America". The first public showings of this work-in-progress took place in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, in January 2012 as part of Theatre Junction Grand's 2011–12 season and One Yellow Rabbit's annual arts festival, the High Performance Rodeo. Anderson was named the Inaugural Distinguished Artist-In-Residence at the Experimental Media and Performing Arts Center (EMPAC) at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York, in May 2012. In March 2013, an exhibition of Anderson's work entitled Laurie Anderson: Language of the Future, selected works 1971–2013 at the Samstag Museum was part of the Adelaide Festival of the Arts in Adelaide, South Australia. Anderson performed her Duets on Ice outside the Samstag on opening night.
Anderson received the Honorary Doctor of Arts from the Aalto University School of Arts, Design and Architecture in 2013. In June/July 2013, Anderson performed "The Language of the Future" and guest curated at the River to River Festival in New York City. In November 2013, she was the featured Guest of Honor at the B3 Biennale of the Moving Image in Frankfurt, Germany. In 2018, Anderson contributed vocals to a re-recording of the David Bowie song "Shining Star (Makin' My Love)", originally from Bowie's seventeenth studio album Never Let Me Down (1987). She was asked to join the production by producer Mario J. McNulty, who knew that Anderson and Bowie had been friends.
On February 10, 2019, at the 61st Annual Grammy Awards, held in Los Angeles, Anderson and the Kronos Quartet's Landfall won the Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music/Small Ensemble Performance. It was Anderson's first collaboration with the Kronos Quartet and her first Grammy Award, and was the second Grammy for Kronos. Inspired by her experience of Hurricane Sandy, Nonesuch Records said, "Landfall juxtaposes lush electronics and traditional strings by Kronos with Anderson's powerful descriptions of loss, from water-logged pianos to disappearing animal species to Dutch karaoke bars."
Chalkroom is a virtual reality work by Anderson and Taiwanese artist Hsin-Chien Huang in which the reader flies through an enormous structure made of words, drawings, and stories. To the Moon, a collaboration with Hsin-Chien Huang, premiered at the Manchester International Festival on July 12, 2019. A 15-minute virtual reality artwork, To the Moon allows audience members to explore a moon that features donkey rides and rubbish from Earth in a non-narrative structure. Alongside, a film shows the development of the new work.
=== 2020s ===
Anderson was appointed the 2021 Charles Eliot Norton Professor of Poetry at Harvard University and presented a series of six lectures titled Spending the War Without You: Virtual Backgrounds over two semesters.
In 2021, Anderson created a show on the second floor of the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington, D.C., titled "The Weather" and described by The New York Times as "a sort of nonretrospective retrospective of one of America's major, and majorly confounding, modern artists".
In mid-2023, Laurie Anderson created "Looking into a Mirror Sideways", an exhibit that highlights various different styles of her art techniques. It opened at the Moderna Museet in Stockholm, Sweden. Since opening, this artwork has been Anderson's biggest solo show in Europe.
While in Europe, Anderson teamed up with Sexmob, a New York jazz band. Sexmob and Anderson toured Europe where they performed multiple versions of her songs, but adding a twist to them all. This tour was seen as "an attempt at defying gravity, resisting the pull, [and] reverting the downward fall".
In 2024, Anderson withdrew from a guest professorship at the Folkwang University of the Arts in Essen, Germany, after university officials objected to her support of a "Letter Against Apartheid" organised by Palestinian artists, calling for "an immediate and unconditional cessation of Israeli violence against Palestinians".
In November 2024 Anderson staged United States V, a multimedia performance envisioned as a sequel to United States. The work was commissioned by Factory International and staged at their Aviva Studios venue in Manchester, England. It featured video appearances from Ai Weiwei as God and Anohni as an angel.
She is a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music.
== Inventions ==
Anderson has invented several experimental musical instruments that she has used in her recordings and performances. In 1977, she created a tape-bow violin that uses recorded magnetic tape on the bow instead of horsehair and a magnetic tape head in the bridge. In the late 1990s, she collaborated with Interval Research to develop an instrument she called a "talking stick", a six-foot-long (1.8 m) baton-like MIDI controller that can access and replicate sounds.
=== Tape-bow violin ===
The tape-bow violin is an instrument created by Laurie Anderson in 1977. It uses recorded magnetic tape in place of the traditional horsehair in the bow, and a magnetic tape head in the bridge. Anderson has updated and modified this device over the years. She can be seen using a later generation of this device in her film Home of the Brave during the Late Show segment in which she manipulates a sentence recorded by William S. Burroughs. This version of the violin used MIDI-based audio samples, triggered by contact with the bow.
=== Talking stick ===
The talking stick is a six-foot-long baton-like MIDI controller. It was used in the Moby-Dick tour in 1999–2000. She described it in program notes as follows:
The Talking Stick is a new instrument that I designed in collaboration with a team from Interval Research and Bob Bielecki. It is a wireless instrument that can access and replicate any sound. It works on the principle of granular synthesis. This is the technique of breaking sound into tiny segments, called grains, and then playing them back in different ways. The computer rearranges the sound fragments into continuous strings or random clusters that are played back in overlapping sequences to create new textures. The grains are very short, a few hundredths of a second. Granular synthesis can sound smooth or choppy depending on the size of the grain and the rate at which they're played. The grains are like film frames. If you slow them down enough, you begin to hear them separately.
=== Voice filters ===
A recurring motif in Anderson's work is the use of an electric pitch-shifting voice filter that deepens her voice into a masculine register, a technique that Anderson has referred to as "audio drag". Anderson has long used the resulting character in her work as a "voice of authority" or conscience, although she later decided that the voice had lost much of its authority and instead began using the voice to provide historical or sociopolitical commentary, as it is used on "Another Day in America", a piece from her seventh studio album Homeland (2010).
For much of Anderson's career, the voice was nameless or called the Voice of Authority, although as early as 2009 it was dubbed Fenway Bergamot at Lou Reed's suggestion. The cover of Homeland depicts Anderson in character as Bergamot, with streaks of black makeup to give her a moustache and thick, masculine eyebrows.
In "The Cultural Ambassador", a piece on her second live album The Ugly One with the Jewels (1995), Anderson explained some of her perspective on the character:
(Anderson:) I was carrying a lot of electronics so I had to keep unpacking everything and plugging it in and demonstrating how it all worked, and I guess I did seem a little fishy — a lot of this stuff wakes up displaying LED program readouts that have names like Atom Smasher, and so it took a while to convince them that they weren't some kind of portable espionage system. So I've done quite a few of these sort of impromptu new music concerts for small groups of detectives and customs agents and I'd have to keep setting all this stuff up and they'd listen for a while and they'd say: So um, what's this? And I'd pull out something like(Bergamot:) this filter, and say, now this is what I like to think of as the voice of authority. And it would take me a while to tell them how I used it for songs that were, you know, about various forms of control, and they would say, now why would you want to talk like that? And I'd look around at the SWAT teams, and the undercover agents, and the dogs, and the radio in the corner, tuned to the Super Bowl coverage of the war. And I'd say, take a wild guess.
== Personal life ==
Anderson moved to New York in 1966 and now lives in Tribeca. She met musician and songwriter Lou Reed in 1992, and was married to him from April 2008 until his death in 2013.
In October 2012, Hurricane Sandy destroyed archives documenting decades of Anderson's creative work, including photographs, performance props, audiovisual equipment, musical instruments, and other materials. This loss became the impetus for her book All the Things I Lost in the Flood (2018), where she reflects on her career and the ephemeral nature of art. Anderson's album Landfall was also inspired by Hurricane Sandy and won the Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music/Small Ensemble Performance in 2019.
Anderson is a long-time student of Buddhism and meditation. She first learned meditation on a retreat with the Insight Meditation Society in 1977. She has since become a student of Tibetan Nepali teacher Yongey Mingyur Rinpoche.
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
=== Spoken word albums ===
The Ugly One with the Jewels (1995)
Heart of a Dog (Soundtrack) (2015)
=== Live albums ===
United States Live (boxed set) (1984) US No. 192
Live in New York (2002)
=== Compilation albums ===
Talk Normal: The Laurie Anderson Anthology (2000)
=== Audio book ===
The Body Artist by Don DeLillo (2001)
=== Collaborations ===
Airwaves (1977 – One Ten Records); various artists compilation including three tracks by Anderson
You're the Guy I Want to Share My Money With with William S. Burroughs and John Giorno (1981 – Giorno Poetry Systems)
"This Is the Picture (Excellent Birds)" with Peter Gabriel (1986, So – Geffen / Charisma)
"Design for Living", with Nona Hendryx (1983), Nona, also with Gina Schock of the Go-Go's, Valerie Simpson of Ashford & Simpson, Tina Weymouth of Tom Tom Club and Talking Heads, Nancy Wilson of Heart, and former bandmate Patti LaBelle
"Diva" from Zoolook by Jean-Michel Jarre (1984 – Disques Dreyfus)
"Tightrope" and "Speak My Language" (1993; Faraway, So Close! Soundtrack – SBK Records / ERG)
A Chance Operation: The John Cage Tribute with text by John Cage (1993 – Koch International Classics)
"Enquanto Isso" with Marisa Monte (1994, Verde, anil, amarelo, cor de rosa e carvão – EMI-Odeon) (1994, Rose and Charcoal – Blue Note Records)
"Una hoja, una raiz (One Leaf, One Root)" with Diego Frenkel (La Portuária) and Aterciopelados (1996, Silencio=Muerte: Red Hot + Latin – H.O.L.A)
"Je me souviens" by Jean Michel Jarre (2000, Métamorphoses – Sony Music)
"Gentle Breeze" with Lou Reed (2004, Mary Had a Little Amp – a preschool education benefit CD – Epic)
"The Fifth Plague (the Death of Livestock)" (2006, Plague Songs – 4AD)
The Stone: Issue Three with John Zorn and Lou Reed (2008 – Tzadik)
"The Electrician" (2009, Music Inspired by the Film Scott Walker: 30 Century Man – Lakeshore)
Femina by John Zorn (2009 – Tzadik)
New History Warfare Vol. 2: Judges by Colin Stetson (2011 – Constellation)
"Rely on Me" with Jean Michel Jarre (2015, Electronica 1: The Time Machine – Columbia)
Landfall (2018) (with Kronos Quartet) (BE #146, NL #186, PT #36)
Songs from the Bardo (2019) (with Tenzin Choegyal and Jesse Paris Smith)
The Great Lakes Suite (2025), with Rheostatics
=== Singles ===
"O Superman" (1981) No. 28 AUS; No. 2 UK; BE (Vl) No. 19; IRL No. 11; NL No. 10; NZ No. 21
"Big Science" (1981)
"Sharkey's Day" (1984)
"Language Is a Virus" (1986) No. 96 AUS;
"Strange Angels" (1989)
"Babydoll" (1989) No. 7 US Modern Rock Tracks
"Beautiful Red Dress" (1990)
"In Our Sleep" (1994)
"Big Science 2" (2007)
"Mambo and Bling" (2008)
"Only an Expert" (2010)
The single "Sharkey's Day" was for many years the theme song of basic cable channel Lifetime. Anderson also recorded a number of limited-release singles in the late 1970s (many issued from the Holly Soloman Gallery), songs from which were included on a number of compilations, including Giorno Poetry Systems' The Nova Convention and You're the Guy I Want to Share My Money With. Over the years she has performed on recordings by other musicians such as Peter Gabriel, Lou Reed, and Jean-Michel Jarre. She also contributed lyrics to the Philip Glass album Songs from Liquid Days, and contributed a spoken-word piece to a tribute album in honor of John Cage.
== Music videos ==
Formal music videos have been produced for:
"O Superman"
"Sharkey's Day"
"This Is the Picture (Excellent Birds)"
"Language Is a Virus" (from Home of the Brave)
"Beautiful Red Dress"
In addition, in lieu of making another music video for her Strange Angels album, Anderson taped a series of one- to two-minute "Personal Service Announcements" in which she spoke about issues such as the U.S. government debt and the arts scene. Some of the music used in these productions came from her soundtrack of Swimming to Cambodia. The PSAs were frequently shown between music videos on VH1 in early 1990.
== Films ==
== Digital media ==
Puppet Motel (Macintosh CD-ROM, 1995) – collaboration with Hsin-Chien Huang.
== Legacy ==
In 2013, Dale Eisinger of Complex ranked United States as the third greatest work of performance art ever, with the writer arguing that Anderson is "able to ascertain just exactly the climate of life in the United States, without being so punctuated that it causes a standoff. Perhaps the zenith of this configuration was her multimedia performance, 'United States I – IV.' [...] [Anderson displays] her vast, incisive range of talents on the 'United States Live' recordings."
== Awards and nominations ==
== Television ==
Bei Bio – musical guest on German TV show, 1984
The New Show – musical guest, 1984
Saturday Night Live – musical guest, 1986
Alive from Off Center – host, 1987
Space Ghost Coast to Coast – guest 1996
Late Show with David Letterman – guest 2010
PBS Newshour —guest October 4, 2024
== Audiobooks ==
The Path to Tranquility by His Holiness the Dalai Lama – co-narrator, 1999
The Body Artist by Don DeLillo – sole narrator, 2001
Nothing in My Pockets – two-part sound diary recorded in 2003, orig. 2006 French radio broadcast, booklet with text and photography (Dis Voir, 2009) ISBN 978-2-914563-43-7 (also published in French)
== Bibliography ==
United States (HarperCollins, 1984) ISBN 0-06-091110-7
Empty Places (A Performance) (Harper Perennial, 1991) ISBN 978-0-06-096586-0
Stories from the Nerve Bible: A Twenty-Year Retrospective (HarperCollins, 1994) ISBN 0-06-055355-3
Dal vivo (Fondazione Prada, 1999) ISBN 88-87029-10-5
Night Life (Edition 7L, 2007) ISBN 3-86521-339-1
All the Things I Lost in the Flood (Rizzoli Electa, 2018) ISBN 0-8478-6055-8
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Golden, Barbara. "Conversation with Laurie Anderson". eContact! 12.2 – Interviews (2) (April 2010). Montréal: CEC.
Mutant, Mite. "Talking with Laurie Anderson". Mutant Renegade Zine #7, June 1996.
Nicom, John. "Homeland insecurity: Laurie Anderson takes uncompromising look at how America has changed". LJWorld.com. September 12, 2008.
"Laurie Anderson". Music Technology. Vol. 1, no. 9. July 1987. p. 75. ISSN 0957-6606. OCLC 24835173.
== External links ==
Official website
Laurie Anderson at AllMusic
Laurie Anderson discography at Discogs
Laurie Anderson at IMDb
"Talk Normal: The Laurie Anderson Anthology (Liner Notes)". Archived from the original on January 11, 2001.
Some Notes on Seeing: The Waters Reglitterized By Laurie Anderson for exhibition 2005
"Eclectic Laurie Anderson visits Ames". Archived from the original on August 18, 2003.
"NASA Art Program". Archived from the original on December 1, 1998.
Guardian interview.
A Life of Storytelling. An interview with Laurie Anderson, 2016 Video by Louisiana Channel
SoundCloud - Hear the world's sounds with Georgina Godwin
Advice to Young Artists. An interview with Laurie Anderson, 2016 Video by Louisiana Channel
Laurie Anderson on Self-Playing Violin, MoMA Audio
A Trip to the Moon. An interview with Laurie Anderson & Hsin-Chien Huang, 2018 Video by Louisiana Channel
60 Minutes profile, April 3, 2022
WTF with Marc Maron, March 20, 2023 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss_Prize | Carl Friedrich Gauss Prize | The Carl Friedrich Gauss Prize for Applications of Mathematics is a mathematics award, granted jointly by the International Mathematical Union and the German Mathematical Society for "outstanding mathematical contributions that have found significant applications outside of mathematics". The award receives its name from the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. With its premiere in 2006, it is to be awarded every fourth year, at the International Congress of Mathematicians.
The previous laureate was presented with a medal and a cash purse of EUR10,000 funded by the International Congress of Mathematicians 1998 budget surplus.
The official announcement of the prize took place on 30 April 2002, the 225th anniversary of the birth of Gauss. The prize was developed specifically to give recognition to mathematicians; while mathematicians influence the world outside of their field, their studies are often not recognized. The prize aims to honour those who have made contributions and effects in the fields of business, technology, or even day-to-day life.
== Laureates ==
== See also ==
Fields Medal
Chern Medal
List of mathematics awards
== References ==
"Statutes of the IMU Carl Friedrich Gauss Prize for Applications of Mathematics". Archived from the original on 2008-12-27. Retrieved 2009-02-05.
"New Prize in Science promotes Mathematics as a Key Technology" (Press release). International Mathematical Union. 2002-04-30. Archived from the original on 2009-05-30. Retrieved 2009-02-05. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobe_Bryant#:~:text=After%20two%20years%2C%20they%20moved,best%20childhood%20memories%20were%20made. | Kobe Bryant | Kobe Bean Bryant ( KOH-bee; August 23, 1978 – January 26, 2020) was an American professional basketball player. A shooting guard, he spent his entire 20-year career with the Los Angeles Lakers in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential basketball players in history, Bryant won five NBA championships and was an 18-time All-Star, four-time All-Star MVP, 15-time member of the All-NBA Team, 12-time member of the All-Defensive Team, the 2008 NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP), two-time NBA Finals MVP, and two-time scoring champion. He ranks fourth in league all-time regular season and postseason scoring. Bryant was posthumously named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team in 2021 and was a two-time inductee to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, as a player in 2020 and as a member of the 2008 U.S. Olympic team in 2025.
The son of NBA player Joe Bryant, Bryant was born in Philadelphia and partly raised in Italy. Recognized as the top American high school basketball player while at Lower Merion High School in the Philadelphia suburb of Ardmore, Bryant declared for the 1996 NBA draft and was selected by the Charlotte Hornets with the 13th pick; he was then traded to the Lakers. As a rookie, Bryant earned a reputation as a high-flyer by winning the 1997 Slam Dunk Contest and was named an All-Star by his second season. Despite his contentious relationship with teammate Shaquille O'Neal, the pair led the Lakers to three consecutive NBA championships from 2000 to 2002. In 2003, Bryant was charged with sexual assault. Charges were dropped after the accuser refused to testify, and a lawsuit was settled out of court, with Bryant issuing an apology and admitting to a sexual encounter he maintained was consensual.
After the Lakers lost the 2004 NBA Finals, O'Neal was traded and Bryant became the franchise's cornerstone. He led the NBA in scoring in the 2005–06 and 2006–07 seasons. On January 22, 2006, Bryant scored a career-high 81 points, the second most scored in a single NBA game behind Wilt Chamberlain's 100-point game. Bryant led the team to championships in 2009 and 2010, and was named NBA Finals MVP both times. He continued to be among the league's premier players through the 2012–13 season when he suffered a torn achilles tendon. The last years of his playing career were hampered by injuries and limited playing time. Bryant retired after the 2015–16 season, capping off his illustrious career with a 60-point performance in his final NBA game, leading the Lakers to a comeback victory over the Utah Jazz. In 2017, the Lakers retired both his Nos. 8 and 24, making Bryant the only player in NBA history to have multiple numbers retired by the same franchise.
The all-time leading scorer in Lakers history, Bryant was the first guard in NBA history to play 20 seasons. His 18 All-Star designations are the third most ever, and his four NBA All-Star Game MVP Awards are tied with Bob Pettit for the most in history. Bryant gave himself the nickname Black Mamba in the mid-2000s, and the epithet became widely adopted by the public. He won gold medals on the 2008 and 2012 U.S. Olympic teams. In 2018, Bryant won the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film for Dear Basketball (2017), becoming the only person to win both an Olympic gold medal and an Oscar.
In January 2020, Bryant and his 13-year-old daughter Gianna were among nine people who died in a helicopter crash in Calabasas, California. A number of tributes and memorials followed, and the All-Star Game MVP Award was renamed in Bryant's honor.
== Early life ==
Kobe Bean Bryant was born on August 23, 1978, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His mother, Pam Bryant (née Cox), is the sister of basketball player Chubby Cox, and his father, Joe Bryant, played eight seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He has two older sisters: Sharia and Shaya. His father named him after the Kobe beef from Japan, which he saw on a restaurant menu, whereas his middle name, Bean, was derived from his father's nickname "Jellybean". Bryant's family was Catholic and he was brought up with this faith.
Bryant started playing basketball at the age of three, and the Lakers were his favorite team when he was growing up. When Bryant was six, his father retired from the NBA and moved his family to Rieti in Italy to continue playing professional basketball. After two years, they moved first to Reggio Calabria, then to Pistoia and Reggio Emilia. Kobe became accustomed to his new lifestyle and learned to speak fluent Italian. He was especially fond of Reggio Emilia, which Kobe considered a loving place and where some of his best childhood memories were made. Kobe began to play basketball seriously while living in Reggio Emilia. His grandfather mailed him videos of NBA games for him to study. Another source of inspiration was animated European films about sports, from which Kobe learned more about basketball. From 1987 to 1989, his father played for Olimpia Basket Pistoia where he paired with former Detroit Pistons player Leon Douglas. Kobe worked at the games as a ball and mop boy and practiced shooting at halftime. Douglas said, "At every one of our games at halftime, it was the Kobe show. He'd get out there and get his shot up. We'd come out of the locker room at halftime and have to chase him off the court".
Bryant also learned to play soccer, and his favorite soccer team was A.C. Milan. During summers, Bryant returned to the United States to play in a basketball summer league. When he was 13, Bryant and his family moved back to Philadelphia, where he enrolled in the eighth grade at Bala Cynwyd Middle School.
=== High school (1992–1996) ===
Bryant earned national recognition during a spectacular high-school career at Lower Merion High School in Ardmore, located in the Philadelphia suburb of Lower Merion. He played on the varsity basketball team as a freshman. Bryant became the first freshman in decades to start for Lower Merion's varsity team, but the team finished with a 4–20 record. The following three years, the Aces compiled a 77–13 record, with Bryant playing all five positions. During his junior year, Bryant averaged 31.1 points, 10.4 rebounds, 5.2 assists, 3.8 blocks and 2.3 steals and was named Pennsylvania Player of the Year while also earning a fourth-team Parade All-American nomination, attracting attention from college recruiters in the process. Duke, Michigan, North Carolina and Villanova were at the top of his list. However, after high schooler Kevin Garnett went in the first round of the 1995 NBA draft, Bryant also began contemplating going directly to the pros.
At Adidas ABCD Camp, Bryant earned the 1995 senior MVP award while playing alongside future NBA teammate Lamar Odom. While in high school, then 76ers coach John Lucas invited Bryant to work out and scrimmage with the team, where he played one-on-one with Jerry Stackhouse. As a senior, Bryant led the Aces to their first state championship in 53 years. During the run, he averaged 30.8 points, 12 rebounds, 6.5 assists, 4 steals, and 3.8 blocked shots in leading the Aces to a 31–3 record. Bryant finished his high-school career as Southeastern Pennsylvania's all-time leading scorer at 2,883 points, surpassing both Wilt Chamberlain and Lionel Simmons.
Bryant received several awards for his outstanding performance during his senior year at Lower Merion. These included being named Naismith High School Player of the Year, Gatorade Men's National Basketball Player of the Year, a McDonald's All-American, a first-team Parade All-American and a USA Today All-USA First Team player. Bryant's varsity coach, Greg Downer, commented that he was "a complete player who dominates" and praised his work ethic, even as the team's top player. In 1996, Bryant took R&B singer Brandy to her Hollywood High senior prom. Ultimately, the 17-year-old Bryant decided to go directly into the NBA, becoming only the sixth player in NBA history to do so. His news was met with a significant publicity at a time when prep-to-pro NBA players were not very common (Kevin Garnett being the only exception in 20 years). His basketball skills and SAT score of 1080 would have ensured admission to any college Bryant chose, but he did not officially visit any campuses. In 2012, Bryant was honored as one of the 35 Greatest McDonald's All-Americans for his high school play as well as his later accomplishments.
== Professional career ==
=== 1996 NBA draft ===
Before the 1996 NBA draft, Bryant had worked out in Los Angeles, where he scrimmaged against former Lakers players Larry Drew and Michael Cooper and, according to then-Laker general manager Jerry West, "marched over these people."
The Lakers were looking to trade their starting center Vlade Divac for a player's draft rights to free up salary cap space to make an offer to free-agent center Shaquille O'Neal. Bill Branch, the Charlotte Hornets' head scout at the time, said that the Hornets agreed to trade their No. 13 pick to the Lakers the day before the draft. Before the trade agreement, the Hornets never considered drafting Bryant. During the draft, the Lakers told the Hornets whom to select minutes before the pick was made. Bryant was the first guard drafted directly out of high school. After the draft, the trade was put in jeopardy when Divac threatened to retire rather than be traded from Los Angeles. However, on June 30, Divac relented on his threat and the trade was made final on July 9, 1996, when the league's off-season moratorium ended. Since Bryant was still 17 at the time, his parents had to co-sign his contract with the Lakers until Bryant was able to sign his own when he turned 18 before the season began. Bryant signed a three-year rookie contract totaling $3.5 million.
=== Los Angeles Lakers (1996–2016) ===
==== Adjusting to the NBA (1996–1999) ====
Bryant debuted in the Summer Pro League in Long Beach, California, scoring 25 points in front of a standing-room-only crowd. Defenders struggled to get in front of him, and his performance excited West and Lakers coach Del Harris. Bryant scored 36 points in the finale and finished with averages of 24.5 points and 5.3 rebounds in four games. As a rookie in 1996–97, Bryant mostly came off the bench behind guards Eddie Jones and Nick Van Exel. At the time, he was the second-youngest player ever to play in an NBA game (18 years, 72 days) and also became the youngest NBA starter (18 years, 158 days). Initially, Bryant played limited minutes, but as the season continued, he began to see some more playing time.
By the end of the season, Bryant averaged 15.5 minutes a game. During the All-Star weekend, he participated in the Rookie Challenge and won the 1997 Slam Dunk Contest, becoming the youngest dunk champion at the age of 18. Bryant's performance throughout the year earned him a spot on the NBA All-Rookie Second Team with fellow bench teammate Travis Knight.
The Lakers advanced to the Western Conference semifinals in the playoffs against the Utah Jazz, when Bryant was pressed into a lead role at the end of Game 5. Byron Scott missed the game with a sprained wrist, Robert Horry was ejected for fighting with Utah's Jeff Hornacek, and Shaquille O'Neal fouled out with 1:46 remaining in the fourth quarter. Bryant shot four air balls at the end of the game; the Jazz won 98–93 in overtime to eliminate the Lakers 4–1. He first missed a game-winning two-point jump shot in the fourth quarter, and then misfired three three-point field goals in overtime, including two tying shots in the final minute. O'Neal commented that "[Bryant] was the only guy who had the guts at the time to take shots like that."
In Bryant's second season, he received more playing time and began to show more of his abilities as a talented young guard. As a result, Bryant's point averages more than doubled, from 7.6 to 15.4 points per game. He would see an increase in minutes when the Lakers "played small", which would feature Bryant playing small forward alongside the guards he would usually back up. Bryant was the runner-up for the NBA's Sixth Man of the Year Award, and through fan voting, he also became the youngest NBA All-Star starter in NBA history. Bryant was joined by teammates O'Neal, Van Exel, and Jones, making it the first time since 1983 that four players on the same team were selected to play in the same All-Star Game. Bryant's 15.4 points per game was the highest of any non-starter in the season.
The 1998–99 season marked Bryant's emergence as a premier guard in the league. With starting guards Van Exel and Jones traded, Bryant started every game for the lockout-shortened 50-game season. During the season, he signed a six-year contract extension worth $70 million. This kept Bryant with the Lakers until the end of the 2003–04 season. Even at an early stage of his career, sportswriters were comparing Bryant's skills to those of Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson. However, the playoff results were no better as the Lakers were swept by the San Antonio Spurs in the Western Conference Semifinals.
==== Three-peat (1999–2002) ====
Bryant's fortunes improved when Phil Jackson took over as coach of the Lakers in 1999. After years of steady improvement, Bryant became one of the premier shooting guards in the league, earning appearances in the league's All-NBA, All-Star, and All-Defensive teams. The Lakers became championship contenders behind the center-guard combination of Bryant and O'Neal. Jackson utilized the triangle offense that he implemented to win six championships with the Chicago Bulls; this offense would help both Bryant and O'Neal rise to the elite class of the NBA. Three championships were won consecutively in 2000, 2001, and 2002, further cementing this view.
Bryant was sidelined for six weeks prior to the start of the 1999–2000 season due to a hand injury that he had incurred during a preseason game against the Washington Wizards. When Bryant was back and playing over 38 minutes a game, he had an increase in all statistical categories during the 1999–2000 season. This included leading the team in assists per game and steals per game. The duo of O'Neal and Bryant backed with a strong bench led to the Lakers winning 67 games, tied for fifth-most in NBA history. This followed with O'Neal winning the MVP and Bryant being named to the All-NBA Second Team and All-NBA Defensive Team for the first time in his career (the youngest player to receive All-Defensive honors). While playing second fiddle to O'Neal in the playoffs, Bryant had some clutch performances, including a 25-point, 11-rebound, seven-assist, four-block game in Game 7 of the Western Conference Finals against the Portland Trail Blazers. He also threw an alley-oop pass to O'Neal to clinch the game and the series. In the 2000 Finals, against the Indiana Pacers, Bryant injured his ankle in the second quarter of Game 2 after landing on the Pacers' Jalen Rose's foot. Rose later admitted he placed his foot under Bryant intentionally. Bryant did not return to the game, and he also missed Game 3 due to the injury. In Game 4, Bryant scored 22 points in the second half and led the team to an overtime victory as O'Neal fouled out of the game. Bryant scored the winning shot to put the Lakers ahead 120–118. With a 116–111 victory in Game 6, the Lakers won their first championship since 1988.
Statistically, the 2000–01 season saw Bryant perform similarly to the previous year, but he averaged six more points per game (28.5). It was also the year when disagreements between Bryant and O'Neal began to surface. Once again, Bryant led the team in assists, with five per game. However, the Lakers only won 56 games, an 11-game drop-off from the previous year. The team responded by going 15–1 in the playoffs. They easily swept the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round. In the semifinals round, the Lakers swept the Sacramento Kings. In Game 4 against the Kings, Bryant recorded 48 points, 16 rebounds, and three assists in a 119–113 series-clinching victory. They swept the San Antonio Spurs in the Conference Finals to advance to the Finals, before losing their first game against the Philadelphia 76ers in overtime. They would go on to win the next four games and bring their second championship to Los Angeles in as many seasons. During the playoffs, Bryant played heavy minutes which brought his stats up to 29.4 points, 7.3 rebounds, and 6.1 assists per game. In the playoffs, teammate O'Neal declared Bryant the best player in the league. Bryant ended up making the All-NBA Second Team and All-NBA Defensive Team for the second year in a row. He was also voted to start in the NBA All-Star Game for the third year in a row (no game in 1999).
In the 2001–02 season, Bryant played 80 games for the first time in his career. On January 14, 2002, Bryant recorded a then career-high 56 points to go along with five rebounds and four assists in a 120–81 victory over the visiting Memphis Grizzlies. He continued his all-round play by averaging 25.2 points, 5.5 rebounds, and 5.5 assists per game. Bryant also had a career-high 46.9% shooting and once again led his team in assists. Bryant claimed his first All-Star MVP trophy after a 31-point performance in Philadelphia when he was loudly booed by fans as they had throughout the game, stemming from his earlier comment to a 76ers heckler during the Finals that the Lakers were "going to cut your hearts out." While making the All-NBA Defensive Team again, Bryant was also named to the All-NBA First Team for the first time in his career. The Lakers won 58 games that year and finished second in the Pacific Division behind in-state rival Sacramento Kings. Bryant was suspended for one game after he punched Reggie Miller of the Indiana Pacers after the Lakers' March 1, 2002, victory over the Pacers.
The road to the Finals would prove a lot tougher than the record run the Lakers had enjoyed the previous year. While they swept the Blazers and defeated the Spurs 4–1 in the first two rounds of the playoffs, the Lakers did not have home-court advantage against the Sacramento Kings. The series would stretch to seven games, the first time this had happened to the Lakers since the 2000 Western Conference Finals. However, the Lakers were able to beat their division rivals and make their third consecutive NBA Finals appearance. In the 2002 Finals against the New Jersey Nets, Bryant averaged 26.8 points, 51.4% shooting, 5.8 rebounds, 5.3 assists per game, which included scoring a quarter of the team's points. At age 23, he became the youngest player to win three championships. Bryant's play was notable and praised for his performance in the fourth quarter of games, specifically the last two rounds of the playoffs. This cemented Bryant's reputation as a "clutch player."
==== Coming up short (2002–2004) ====
In the first game of the 2002–03 season, Bryant recorded 27 points, 10 rebounds, five assists, and four steals in an 87–82 loss to the visiting Spurs. On November 1, he recorded a triple-double of 33 points, 15 rebounds, and 12 assists in a 108–93 victory over the Clippers. Bryant also set an NBA record for three-pointers in a game on January 7, 2003, when he made 12 against the Seattle SuperSonics. He averaged 30 points per game and embarked on a historic run, posting 40 or more points in nine consecutive games while averaging 40.6 in the entire month of February. Bryant also averaged 6.9 rebounds, 5.9 assists, and 2.2 steals per game, all career-highs to that point. He was once again voted to both the All-NBA and All-Defensive First Teams, and came in third place in voting for the MVP award. After finishing 50–32 in the regular season, the Lakers floundered in the playoffs and lost in the Western Conference semifinals in six games to the eventual NBA champions San Antonio Spurs.
The following season, the Lakers were able to acquire NBA All-Stars Karl Malone and Gary Payton to make another push at the NBA championship. Bryant was arrested for sexual assault before the season began. This caused him to miss some games due to court appearances or attend court earlier in the day and travel to play games later on the same day. In the final game of the regular season, the Lakers played the Portland Trail Blazers. Bryant made two buzzer-beaters to win the game and the Pacific Division title. At the end of the fourth quarter, Bryant made a three-pointer with 1.1 seconds left to send it into overtime. The game eventually went to a second overtime, in which Bryant made another three-pointer as time expired to narrowly lift the Lakers past the Blazers, 105–104.
With a starting lineup of O'Neal, Malone, Payton, and Bryant, the Lakers were able to reach the 2004 Finals. However, they were upset in five games by the Detroit Pistons, who won their first championship since 1990. In that series, Bryant averaged 22.6 points per game and 4.4 assists while shooting 35.1% from the field. Jackson's contract as coach was not renewed, and Rudy Tomjanovich took over. O'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat for Lamar Odom, Caron Butler, and Brian Grant. The following day, Bryant declined a six-year, $100 million offer to sign with the Los Angeles Clippers and re-signed with the Lakers on a seven-year, $136.4 million contract.
==== Scoring records and playoff upsets (2004–2007) ====
Bryant was closely scrutinized and criticized during the 2004–05 season with his reputation badly damaged from all that had happened over the previous year. A particularly damaging salvo came when Jackson wrote The Last Season: A Team in Search of Its Soul. The book detailed the events of the Lakers' tumultuous 2003–04 season and has several criticisms of Bryant. In the book, Jackson called Bryant "un-coachable." Midway through the season, Tomjanovich suddenly resigned as Lakers coach, citing the recurrence of health problems and exhaustion. Without him, stewardship of the remainder of the Lakers' season fell to career assistant coach Frank Hamblen. Bryant was the league's second-leading scorer at 27.6 points per game, but he was surrounded by a subpar supporting cast, and the Lakers went 34–48 and missed the playoffs for the first time in over a decade. The year signified a drop in his overall status in the NBA, as Bryant did not make the NBA All-Defensive Team and was also demoted to the All-NBA Third Team. During the season, Bryant also engaged in public feuds with Malone and Ray Allen.
The 2005–06 season marked a crossroads in Bryant's basketball career. Despite past differences with Bryant, Jackson returned to coach the Lakers. Bryant endorsed the move, and by all appearances, they worked well together the second time around, leading the Lakers back into the playoffs. Bryant's individual scoring accomplishments resulted in the finest statistical season of his career. On December 20, 2005, Bryant scored 62 points in three quarters against the Dallas Mavericks. Entering the fourth quarter, he had personally outscored the entire Mavericks team 62–61, the only time a player has done this through three quarters since the introduction of the shot clock. When the Lakers faced the Miami Heat on January 16, 2006, Bryant and Shaquille O'Neal made headlines by engaging in handshakes and hugs before the game, signifying a change in the feud that had festered between them. A month later, at the 2006 NBA All-Star Game, the two were seen laughing together.
On January 22, 2006, Bryant scored a career-high 81 points in a 122–104 victory over the Toronto Raptors. In addition to breaking the previous franchise record of 71 set by Elgin Baylor, Bryant's 81-point game was the second-highest point total in NBA history, surpassed only by Chamberlain's 100-point game in 1962. Whereas Chamberlain was fed repeatedly by teammates for inside shots in a blowout win, Bryant created his own shot—mostly from the outside—in a game which the Lakers trailed at halftime by 14 and did not pull away until the fourth quarter. Chamberlain, playing in an era when the games were paced faster and scoring opportunities were more plentiful, accounted for 59 percent of his team's points in Philadelphia's 169–147 victory, compared to Bryant scoring 66 percent of the Lakers' 122 points. That same month, he also became the first player since 1964 to score 45 points or more in four consecutive games, joining Chamberlain and Baylor as the only players to do so. For the month of January, Bryant averaged 43.4 points per game, the eighth highest single month scoring average in NBA history and highest for any player other than Chamberlain. By the end of the 2005–06 season, Bryant set Lakers single-season franchise records for most 40-point games (27) and most points scored (2,832). He won the league's scoring title for the first time by averaging 35.4 points per game, becoming just the fifth player in league history to average at least 35 in a season. Bryant finished in fourth place in the voting for the 2006 NBA Most Valuable Player Award but received 22 first place votes—second only to winner Steve Nash.
Later in the season, it was reported that Bryant would change his jersey number from 8 to 24 at the start of the 2006–07 season. Bryant's first high-school number was 24 before he switched to 33. After the Lakers' season ended, Bryant said on TNT that he wanted 24 as a rookie, but it was unavailable as it was worn by George McCloud, as was 33, retired with Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. Bryant wore 143 at the Adidas ABCD camp and chose 8 by adding those numbers. In the first round of the playoffs, the Lakers played well enough to reach a 3–1 series lead over the Phoenix Suns, culminating with Bryant's overtime-forcing and game-winning shots in Game 4. They came within six seconds of eliminating the second-seeded Suns in Game 6, but the Lakers lost that game 126–118 in overtime. Despite Bryant's 27.9 points per game in the series, the Lakers broke down and ultimately fell to the Suns in seven games. After scoring 50 points on 20 of 35 shooting in the Game 6 loss, Bryant was criticized for only taking three shots in the second half of the 121–90 Game 7 loss to Phoenix.
During the 2006–07 season, Bryant was selected to his ninth All-Star Game appearance, and on February 18, he logged 31 points, six assists, and six steals, earning his second career All-Star Game MVP trophy. Over the course of the season, Bryant became involved in a number of on-court incidents. On January 28, while attempting to draw contact on a potential game-winning jump shot, he flailed his arm, striking San Antonio Spurs guard Manu Ginóbili in the face with his elbow. Following a league review, Bryant was suspended for the subsequent game at Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks. The basis given for the suspension was that Bryant had performed an "unnatural motion" in swinging his arm backward. Later, on March 6, he seemed to repeat the motion, this time striking Minnesota Timberwolves guard Marko Jarić. The next day, the NBA handed Bryant his second one-game suspension. In his first game back on March 9, Bryant elbowed Kyle Korver in the face, which was retroactively re-classified as a Type 1 flagrant foul.
On March 16, Bryant scored a season-high 65 points in a home game against the Portland Trail Blazers, which helped end the Lakers seven-game losing streak. This was the second-best scoring performance of his 11-year career. The following game, Bryant recorded 50 points against the Timberwolves, after which he scored 60 points in a road win against the Memphis Grizzlies—becoming the second Laker to score three straight 50-plus point games, a feat not seen since Jordan last did it in 1987. The only other Laker to do so was Baylor, who also scored 50+ in three consecutive contests in December 1962. The next day, in a game against the New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets, Bryant scored 50 points, making him the second player in NBA history to have four straight 50-point games behind Chamberlain, who achieved it twice with streaks of five and seven. Bryant finished the year with a total of 10 50-plus point games, surpassed only by Chamberlain. Bryant also won his second straight scoring title that season. Throughout the 2006–07 season, Bryant's jersey became the top selling NBA jersey in the United States and China. A number of journalists have attributed the improved sales to Bryant's new number, as well as his continuing All-Star performance on the court. In the 2007 NBA playoffs, the Lakers were once again eliminated in the first round by the Phoenix Suns, 4–1.
==== Back on top (2007–2010) ====
On May 27, 2007, ESPN reported that Bryant stated that he wanted to be traded if Jerry West did not return to the team with full authority. Bryant later confirmed his desire for West's return to the franchise, but denied stating that he would want to be traded if that did not take place. However, three days later, on Stephen A. Smith's radio program, Bryant expressed anger over a Lakers "insider" who claimed that Bryant was responsible for Shaquille O'Neal's departure from the team, and publicly stated, "I want to be traded." Three hours after making that statement, Bryant stated in another interview that after having a conversation with head coach Jackson, he had reconsidered his decision and backed off his trade request. Bryant was later shown in an infamous amateur video saying that center Andrew Bynum should have been traded for All-Star Jason Kidd.
On December 23, 2007, Bryant became the youngest player (29 years, 122 days) to reach 20,000 points, in a game against the New York Knicks, in Madison Square Garden, after scoring 39 points to go along with 11 rebounds and eight assists. This record has since been broken by LeBron James. On March 28, Bryant scored a season-high 53 points to go along with 10 rebounds in a loss to the Memphis Grizzlies.
Despite an injury to his shooting hand's small finger, described as "a complete tear of the radial collateral ligament, an avulsion fracture, and a volar plate injury at the MCP joint" that occurred in a game on February 5, 2008, Bryant played all 82 games of the regular season instead of opting for surgery. Regarding his injury, Bryant stated, "I would prefer to delay any surgical procedure until after our Lakers season, and this summer's Olympic Games. But, this is an injury that myself [sic] and the Lakers' medical staff will just have to continue to monitor on a day-to-day basis."
Aided by the trade for All-Star Pau Gasol, Bryant led his team to a West-leading 57–25 record. The Lakers swept the Denver Nuggets in the first round and on May 6, 2008, Bryant was officially announced as the league MVP. He said, "It's been a long ride. I'm very proud to represent this organization, to represent this city." West, who was responsible for bringing Bryant to the Lakers, was on hand at the press conference to observe Bryant receive his MVP trophy from NBA commissioner David Stern. Stern stated, "Kobe deserved it. He's had just another great season. Doesn't surprise me one bit." In addition to winning his MVP award, Bryant was the only unanimous selection to the All-NBA team on May 8, 2008, for the third straight season and sixth time in his career. Bryant would then headline the NBA All-Defensive First Team with Kevin Garnett, receiving 52 points overall including 24 first-place nods, earning his eighth selection.
The Lakers finished the 2007–08 regular season with a 57–25 record, finishing first in the Western Conference and setting up themselves for a first-round contest against the Nuggets. In Game 1, Bryant, who said he made himself a decoy through most of the game, scored 18 of his 32 points in the final eight minutes to keep Los Angeles safely ahead. That made Denver the first 50-win team to be swept out of the first round of the playoffs since the Memphis Grizzlies fell in four games to the San Antonio Spurs in 2004. In the first game of the next round, against the Utah Jazz, Bryant scored 38 points as the Lakers beat the Jazz in Game 1. The Lakers won the next game as well, but dropped Games 3 and 4, even with Bryant putting up 33.5 points per game. The Lakers then won the next two games to win the semifinals. This set up a Western Conference Finals berth against the Spurs. The Lakers won the series in five games, sending themselves to the NBA Finals against the Boston Celtics. This marked the fifth time in Bryant's career, and the first time without O'Neal, that he made the NBA Finals. The Lakers then lost to the Celtics in six games.
In early September 2008, Bryant decided not to have surgery to repair his right pinkie. In the 2008–09 season, the Lakers opened the campaign by winning their first seven games. Bryant led the team to tie the franchise record for most wins to start the season going 17–2, and by the middle of December they compiled a 21–3 record. He was selected to his 11th consecutive All-Star Game as a starter, and was named the Western Conference Player of the Month for December and January in addition to being named Western Conference Player of the week three times. In a game against the Knicks on February 2, 2009, Bryant scored 61 points, setting a record for the most points scored at Madison Square Garden. During the 2009 NBA All-Star Game, Bryant tallied 27 points, four assists, four rebounds, and four steals and was awarded All-Star Game co-MVP with former teammate O'Neal. The Lakers finished the regular season with the best record in the West (65–17). Bryant was runner-up in the MVP voting behind James, and was selected to the All-NBA First Team and All-Defensive First Team for the seventh time in his career.
In the playoffs, the Lakers defeated the Utah Jazz in five games and the Houston Rockets in seven games in the opening two rounds. By finishing off the Denver Nuggets in the Conference Finals in six games, the Lakers earned their second straight trip to the NBA Finals. The Lakers defeated the Orlando Magic in five games. Bryant was awarded his first NBA Finals MVP trophy upon winning his fourth championship, achieving series averages of 32.4 points, 7.4 assists, 5.6 rebounds, 1.4 steals and 1.4 blocks. Bryant became the first player since West in the 1969 NBA Finals to average at least 32.4 points and 7.4 assists for a Finals series and the first since Jordan to average 30 points, five rebounds, and five assists for a title-winning team in the Finals. Bryant was the league's leading scorer throughout the 2000s decade, accumulating 21,065 points in regular season play between the 1999-00 and 2008–09 seasons.
During the 2009–10 season, Bryant made six game-winning shots including a buzzer-beating, one-legged three-pointer over Dwyane Wade on December 4, 2009, leading to the Lakers' narrow 108–107 victory over the Miami Heat. Bryant considered the shot "one of the luckiest he has made." A week later, Bryant suffered an avulsion fracture in his right index finger in a game against the Minnesota Timberwolves. Despite the injury, Bryant elected to continue playing, rather than take any time off to rest the injury. Five days after his finger injury, Bryant made another game-winning shot, after missing on an opportunity in regulation, this time against the Milwaukee Bucks in an overtime game. Bryant also became the youngest player (31 years, 151 days) to reach 25,000 points in his career during the season, surpassing Chamberlain. Bryant continued his dominant clutch plays making yet another game-winning three-pointer against the Sacramento Kings, and what would be the game-winning field goal against the Boston Celtics. The following day, Bryant surpassed West to become the all-time leading scorer in Lakers franchise history. After being sidelined for five games by an ankle injury, which also forced him to miss the 2010 NBA All-Star Game despite being the Western Conference's leading vote-getter, Bryant made his return and made another clutch three-pointer to give the Lakers a one-point lead with four seconds remaining against the Memphis Grizzlies. Two weeks later, he made his sixth game-winning shot of the season, against the Toronto Raptors.
On April 2, 2010, Bryant signed a three-year contract extension worth $87 million. He finished the regular season missing four of the final five games, due to injuries to his knee and finger. Bryant suffered multiple injuries throughout the season and missed nine games as a result. The Lakers began the playoffs as the No. 1-seed in the Western Conference against the Oklahoma City Thunder, eventually defeating them in six games. The Lakers swept the Utah Jazz in the second round and advanced to the Western Conference Finals, where they faced the Phoenix Suns. In Game 2, Bryant finished the game with 13 assists, setting a new playoff career-high; it was the most assists by a Laker in the playoffs since Magic Johnson had 13 in 1996. The Lakers went on to win the series in six games capturing the Western Conference Championship and advancing to the NBA Finals for a third straight season. In a rematch against the 2008 Champion Boston Celtics, Bryant, despite shooting 6-for-24 from the field, led the Lakers back from a 13-point third-quarter deficit in Game 7 to win the championship; he scored 10 of his game-high 23 points in the fourth quarter and finished the game with 15 rebounds, tying an NBA Finals record shared by Sam Jones and Tom Gola for rebounds by a shooting guard. Bryant won his fifth championship and earned his second consecutive NBA Finals MVP award. This marked the first time the Lakers won a Game 7 against the Celtics in the NBA Finals. Bryant said that this was the most satisfying of all of his five championships.
==== Chasing a sixth championship (2010–2013) ====
Bryant wanted a sixth championship to match Jordan's total. The Lakers started the 2010–11 season by winning their first eight games. In his ninth game of the season, playing against the Denver Nuggets, Bryant became the youngest player in NBA history to reach 26,000 career points. Bryant also recorded his first triple-double since January 21, 2009. On January 30, 2011, against the Celtics, Bryant became the youngest player to score 27,000 points. Two days later, Bryant became one of seven players with at least 25,000 points, 5,000 rebounds, and 5,000 assists. In Boston on February 10, Bryant scored 20 of his 23 points in the second half as the Lakers rallied from an early 15-point deficit for a 92–86 victory over the Celtics. It was the Lakers' first victory of the season against one of the league's top four teams, as they entered the game 0–5 in previous matchups and had been outscored by an average of 11 points. Bryant, selected to his 13th straight All-Star game after becoming the leading vote-getter, had 37 points, 14 rebounds, and three steals in the 2011 All-Star Game and won his fourth All-Star MVP, tying Hall of Famer Bob Pettit for the most All-Star MVP awards. During the season, Bryant moved from 12th to sixth place on the NBA all-time career scoring list, passing John Havlicek, Dominique Wilkins, Oscar Robertson, Hakeem Olajuwon, Elvin Hayes, and Moses Malone. Bryant finished the season averaging less than 20 shots a game, his fewest since the 2003–04 season.
On April 13, 2011, the NBA fined Bryant $100,000 for directing a gay slur at referee Bennie Adams in frustration in the previous day's game. The Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation praised the NBA's decision to fine Bryant, and the Human Rights Campaign said that Bryant's language was a "disgrace" and "distasteful." Bryant stated that he was open to discussing the matter with gay rights groups and wanted to appeal his fine. Bryant later apologized for the use of the word. Bryant and other Lakers appeared in a Lakers public service announcement denouncing his behavior. The team's quest for another three-peat was ended when they were swept by the Dallas Mavericks in the second round of the playoffs.
Bryant received experimental platelet-rich plasma therapy called Orthokine in Germany to treat the pain on his left knee and ankle, and Mike Brown replaced the retired Jackson as coach of the Lakers in the off-season. Bryant began the season playing with an injured wrist. On January 10, 2012, he scored 48 points against the Suns. "Not bad for the seventh-best player in the league," said Bryant, referring to a preseason ESPN ranking of the NBA's top players. He went on to score 40, 42, and 42 in his next three games. It was the sixth time in his career Bryant scored 40 or more points in four straight games, a feat exceeded only by Chamberlain (19 times). At the 2012 NBA All-Star Game, Bryant scored 27 points to pass Jordan as the career scoring leader in the All-Star Game. He also suffered a broken nose and a concussion in the third quarter of the All-Star Game after a hard foul from Dwyane Wade. In April, Bryant missed seven games with a bruised left shin. He returned three games before the end of the regular season. Bryant sat out the season finale against Sacramento, foregoing the chase for a possible third NBA scoring title, having needed 38 points to surpass Kevin Durant. The Lakers were knocked out of the playoffs by Durant and Oklahoma City in the second round of the playoffs, losing in five games in what would be Bryant's final postseason appearance.
In 2012–13, the Lakers acquired center Dwight Howard and point guard Steve Nash. On November 2, 2012, Bryant scored 40 points with two steals, and he passed Magic Johnson (1,724) as the Lakers career leader in steals. However, the Lakers lost the game to the Clippers and started the season 0–3 for the first time in 34 years and just the fourth time in franchise history. After starting the season 1–4, coach Brown was fired. He was replaced by Mike D'Antoni, whom Bryant knew as a child when Bryant's father was playing in Italy and D'Antoni was also a star player there. Bryant had grown close with D'Antoni during their time with Team USA. On December 5 against New Orleans, Bryant became the youngest player (34 years and 104 days) in league history to score 30,000 points, joining Hall of Famers Chamberlain, Jordan, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, and Karl Malone as the fifth player to reach that milestone. On December 18, in a narrow 101–100 victory over the Charlotte Bobcats, Bryant scored 30+ points in his seventh consecutive game, the longest streak by an NBA player after turning 34 years old; it was the fourth-longest such streak in his career. Bryant's streak would be snapped at 10 on December 28 in a 104–87 victory over the Portland Trail Blazers, when he scored 27 points, sitting out the whole fourth quarter. In a move to improve the team's defense, D'Antoni began having Bryant guard the opponent's best perimeter player; he was the primary defender on the Cavaliers' Kyrie Irving, who was held to 15 points. Bryant acknowledged he was a more focused defender after having a challenging defensive assignment as opposed to when Bryant played off the ball against weaker players. His defense disrupted opponents and freed Nash from unfavorable matchups.
Bryant was leading the league in scoring through much of the first 42 games. With a disappointing 17–25 start to the season, D'Antoni had Bryant became the primary facilitator on offense and Nash was moved off the ball and became more of a spot-up shooter. In the next three games, Bryant had at least 10 assists in three wins with a three-game total of 39 assists, the most in his career. Bryant missed a triple-double in each game with nine rebounds twice and eight in the other. In two crucial wins in March, he scored at least 40 points and had at least 10 assists in back-to-back games, becoming the first Laker to accomplish the feat since West in 1970. Bryant surpassed Chamberlain to become the fourth-leading scorer in league history in a March 30, 2013, victory over Sacramento.
With the Lakers fighting to secure the eighth and final playoff berth in the Western Conference, coupled with injuries on the team, Bryant began playing almost all 48 minutes each game. On April 10, 2013, he became the first player in NBA history to get 47 points, eight rebounds, five assists, four blocks, and three steals in a game. Two days later, Bryant suffered a torn Achilles tendon against the Golden State Warriors, ending his season. Bryant's injury came while he was playing seven consecutive quarters and at least 40 minutes for seven consecutive games. The 34-year-old Bryant was averaging his most minutes (38.6) in six years, and only Portland rookie Damian Lillard was averaging more minutes. Lakers general manager Mitch Kupchak had spoken to Bryant about his extensive playing time 10 days earlier, but Bryant insisted the minutes needed to continue given the Lakers' playoff push. He had surgery on April 13 to repair the tear, and it was estimated that he would miss six to nine months. Bryant ended the season with customary averages of 27.3 points, 5.6 rebounds, and 6 assists per game on 46.3% shooting. However, The New York Times called his leading of the Lakers back into playoff contention "perhaps some of the finest work of his career." He reached 40 points eight times during the season, and Bryant had 10 or more assists in his role as distributor 11 times. Bryant was dubbed "Magic Mamba" after the passing skills of Magic Johnson. Bryant's assists were the second-highest of his career and his field goal percentage was its highest since 2008–09. The Lakers finished the season at 45–37, good for seventh in the West. Playing without Bryant, the Lakers were swept in four games by the San Antonio Spurs in the first round of the playoffs.
==== Injury-plagued years (2013–2015) ====
Bryant resumed practicing in November 2013, after the 2013–14 season had already begun. On November 25, he signed a two-year contract extension with the Lakers at an estimated value of $48.5 million. Bryant remained the league's highest-paid player, although he accepted a discounted deal; Bryant had been eligible to receive an extension starting at $32 million per year. His contract became a polarizing topic, with detractors arguing that stars should take less money to allow their team more financial freedom, while supporters countered that the NBA's biggest stars were being paid less than their true value. Bryant resumed playing on December 8 after missing the season's first 19 games, being limited to nine points, although tying a team-high in assists and rebounds, with eight and four respectively, in 106–94 home loss to the Toronto Raptors. Nine days later, he matched his season high of 21 points in a 96–92 win over Memphis, but suffered a lateral tibial plateau fracture in his left knee that was expected to sideline him for six weeks. Bryant had played six games since returning from his Achilles injury, which included time at point guard after injuries to Nash, Steve Blake, and Jordan Farmar. Bryant was averaging 13.8 points, 6.3 assists, and 4.3 rebounds. Despite being sidelined, he was voted by fans to start in his 16th All-Star game. Bryant did not feel he was deserving of the selection, and some likened it to a career achievement award for his past performance. However, Bryant missed playing in the game, still hampered by his knee. On March 12, 2014, the Lakers ruled Bryant out for the rest of the season, citing his need for more rehab and the limited time remaining in the season. At the time, the team was 22–42 and tied for the worst record in the Western Conference. The Lakers finished 27–55 and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2005.
Bryant returned for the 2014–15 season, his 19th season with the Lakers, who had replaced D'Antoni with Bryant's former Lakers teammate, Byron Scott. On November 30, 2014, in a 129–122 overtime victory over the Toronto Raptors, Bryant recorded his 20th career triple-double with 31 points, 12 assists, and 11 rebounds. At age 36, Bryant became the oldest NBA player to achieve 30 points, 10 rebounds, and 10 assists in a game. On December 14, he became the NBA's third all-time leading scorer, passing Jordan (32,292) in a 100–94 victory over Minnesota. Bryant played in the first 27 games of the season, averaging team-highs with 26.4 points and 35.4 minutes per game while leading the league with 22.4 shots per game. However, Scott held him out for three straight games to rest after one of his worst performances of the season, when Bryant committed nine turnovers and scored 25 points on just 8-for-30 shooting in a 108–101 loss to Sacramento. He was suffering from soreness in his knees, feet, back, and Achilles tendons, and Scott planned to reduce Bryant's workload going forward as a result. Bryant had exceeded 40 minutes in a game thrice, and the coach blamed himself for overloading Bryant after he started the season in such great shape. For the season, Bryant had been shooting just 37 percent from the field, and the team's record was only 8–19. In his second game back after resting, Bryant had 23 points, 11 assists, and 11 rebounds in a 111–103 victory over Denver, and became just the third player in league history to record multiple triple-doubles in a season at age 36 or older. On January 21, 2015, Bryant suffered a rotator cuff tear in his right shoulder while driving baseline for a two-handed dunk against the New Orleans Pelicans. Though he was right-handed, Bryant returned to play in the game and ran the offense while shooting, dribbling, and passing almost exclusively with his left hand. Prior to the injury, Bryant had been rested in eight of 16 games. He underwent season-ending surgery for the injury, finishing the season averaging 22.3 points but shooting a career-low 37.3 percent, well below his 45.4 percent career mark to start the season. Bryant was expected to be sidelined for nine months with a return targeted toward the start of the 2015–16 season. The Lakers finished the season with a record of 21–61, surpassing the franchise record for most losses in a season that they had set the previous year.
==== Final season (2015–2016) ====
After recovering to play in the 2015–16 preseason, Bryant suffered a calf injury and missed the final two weeks of exhibition games. However, he played in the season opener to begin his 20th season with the Lakers, surpassing John Stockton's league record of 19 for the most seasons with the same team. On November 24, 2015, the Lakers fell to 2–12 after losing 111–77 to the Warriors. Bryant scored just four points in 25 minutes on 1-for-14 shooting, matching the worst-shooting game of his career in which he attempted at least five shots. A week later, Bryant played his last game against his hometown team, the Philadelphia 76ers, scoring a team-high 20 points in a 103–91 Lakers loss.
On November 29, 2015, Bryant announced via The Players' Tribune that he would be retiring at the end of the season. In his poem titled "Dear Basketball", Bryant wrote that he fell in love with the game at age six: "A love so deep I gave you my all/From my mind & body/To my spirit & soul." The 2015–16 season "is all I have left to give./My heart can take the pounding/My mind can handle the grind/But my body knows it's time to say goodbye./And that's OK./I'm ready to let you go." In a letter distributed to Lakers' fans before that evening's game against the Indiana Pacers, Bryant wrote: "What you've done for me is far greater than anything I've done for you. ... My love for this city, this team and for each of you will never fade. Thank you for this incredible journey."
At the time of his announcement, Bryant was second on the team in minutes (30.8) behind Jordan Clarkson and leading the team with 16.7 field goal attempts per game, while averaging just 15.7 points and shooting a career-low 31.5 percent. Bryant's free throw attempts had dropped from his career average, and his game had become over-reliant on pump fakes and long-range shots, making a league-worst 19.5 percent from three-point range while attempting seven a game, almost double his career average. In his press conference after the announcement, Bryant acknowledged his declining skills. He stated: "Even though I play like shit, I've worked really, really hard not to play like crap and I do everything I possibly can. And I feel good about that."
Bryant requested that opposing teams on the road not hold any on-court ceremonies in his honor or present him any gifts in public. Prior to announcing his retirement, Bryant had been steadfast about not wanting the fuss of a staged farewell tour, preferring to hear boos instead of cheers. However, Bryant was still honored around the league with video tributes and fan ovations, including arenas that historically jeered him such as TD Garden in Boston, Wells Fargo Center in Philadelphia, Moda Center in Portland, Sleep Train Arena in Sacramento, and Vivint Smart Home Arena in Salt Lake City. Previously, Bryant was respected but not beloved, and he was astonished at the cheers he was now receiving.
On February 3, Bryant made seven three-pointers and scored a then season-high 38 points, including 14 of the team's 18 points in the last 5:02 of the game, for a 119–115 victory over the Minnesota Timberwolves. The win ended a 10-game losing streak, and the Lakers averted establishing the longest losing streak in franchise history. He became just the fourth NBA player over 37 years old to log at least 35 points, five rebounds, and five assists in a game. Bryant was the leading overall vote-getter for the 2016 All-Star Game with 1.9 million votes, ahead of Stephen Curry's 1.6 million. Having moved to small forward that season, Bryant was selected as a frontcourt starter for the first time. Playing in his first All-Star game since 2013, Bryant had 10 points, six rebounds, and seven assists. West teammates offered to feed him the ball in an attempt to get him another All-Star MVP, but Bryant declined.
In his final game on April 13, in a 101–96 win against the against the Utah Jazz, Bryant scored an NBA season-high 60 points on 50 shots—the most in an NBA game in the past 30 seasons—while also outscoring the Jazz by himself 23–21 in the fourth quarter. He also set an NBA record for the most points by a player in his final regular season game. Bryant became the oldest player to score 60 or more points in a game at 37 years and 234 days old. The Lakers finished the season with a 17–65 record, their worst record in franchise history. After the game, he gave a prolonged speech in front of the Staples Center crowd and said:
I can't believe how fast 20 years went by. Man, this is crazy [...] and to be standing at center court with you guys, my teammates behind me, appreciating the journey that we've been on — we've been through our ups, been through our downs. I think the most important part is we all stayed together throughout. [...] Thank you guys for all the years of support. Thank you guys for all the motivation. Thank you for all the inspiration [...] What can I say? Mamba out.
== National team career ==
Bryant declined to play in the 2000 Olympics because he was getting married in the off-season. Bryant also decided not to play in the 2002 FIBA World Championship. He was originally selected for the FIBA Americas Championship in 2003, but withdrew after undergoing arthroscopic shoulder and knee surgeries. The following summer, Bryant had to withdraw from the Olympic team because of his sexual assault case. Along with LeBron James, Bryant was one of the first two players to be publicly named to the 2006–2008 U.S. preliminary roster in 2006 by Jerry Colangelo. However, he was once again sidelined after knee surgery and did not participate in the 2006 FIBA World Championship.
Bryant's United States national team career finally began in 2007. He was a member of the 2007 USA Men's Senior National Team and USA FIBA Americas Championship Team that finished 10–0, won gold and qualified the United States men for the 2008 Olympics. Bryant started in all 10 of the USA's FIBA Americas Championship games. He averaged 15.3 points, 2.9 assists, 2.0 rebounds, and 1.6 steals per game in the tournament.
On June 23, 2008, Bryant was named to the USA Men's Senior National Team for the 2008 Summer Olympics. This was his first time going to the Olympics. Bryant scored 20 points, including 13 in the fourth quarter, along with six assists, as Team USA defeated Spain 118–107 in the gold medal game on August 24, 2008, for its first gold medal in a worldwide competition since the 2000 Olympics. He averaged 15.0 points, 2.8 rebounds, and 2.1 assists while shooting .462 from the field in eight Olympic contests.
Bryant rejoined the national team for the 2012 Summer Olympics. After winning another gold medal, he decided to retire from the team. Bryant finished his national team career with a record of 26–0 across three tournaments, winning a gold medal each time.
== Player profile ==
Bryant primarily played as a shooting guard. He was listed at 6 feet 6 inches (1.98 m) and 212 pounds (96 kg), Bryant was often cited as one of the most dangerous scorers in the NBA. He has drawn frequent comparisons to Michael Jordan, after whom Bryant modeled his playing style. Like Jordan, Bryant became most known for shooting a fall-away jump shot. Chris Ballard of Sports Illustrated described another of Bryant's most famous moves as the "jab step-and-pause" in which Bryant jabbed his non-pivot foot forward to let the defender relax but instead of bringing the jab foot back, Bryant pushed off of it and drove around his opponent to get to the basket. Bryant also learned and practiced post moves through individual coaching sessions from Hakeem Olajuwon.
Bryant established a reputation for taking shots in the closing moments of tight games, even when he was double or triple-teamed, and was noted as one of the premier closers in the NBA. In a 2012 annual survey of NBA general managers, Bryant was selected for the 10th consecutive season as the player general managers would want to take a clutch shot with a game on the line. Bryant enjoyed being the villain, and reveled in being booed and then silencing the crowd with his play. Bryant's ability to make difficult shots has also drawn criticism of his shot selection. Throughout his career, Bryant was disparaged for being a selfish, high-volume shooter; he missed more field goal attempts in his career than any other player in NBA history, until LeBron James broke that record in 2024. Phil Jackson, who coached Bryant for many years, stated that Bryant "tends to force the action, especially when the game isn't going his way. When his shot is off, Kobe will pound away relentlessly until his luck turns." According to Bryant, "I would go 0 for 30 before I would go 0 for 9; 0 for 9 means you beat yourself, you psyched yourself out of the game."
In addition to his abilities on offense, Bryant also established himself as a standout defensive player. Bryant rarely drew charges when he played defense, which he believed spared his body and contributed to his longevity. However, some critics have suggested that Bryant's defensive accolades in his later years were based more on his reputation than his actual play.
Bryant was also lauded for his relentless work ethic, dubbed the "Mamba mentality." Throughout his first 17 seasons, Bryant's body was resilient, and he exhibited a high pain threshold while often playing through injuries. A fierce competitor, Bryant made opponents and teammates alike the objects of his scorn. Many players have considered him difficult to play with because of his high level of commitment and performance. According to sportswriter Mark Heisler of Forbes, "circa 2004–2007, Kobe was the most alienated superstar the NBA had ever seen." After the departure of Shaquille O'Neal, he led the Lakers to two NBA championships; during this period, Bryant became more of a mentor to his teammates than he had been earlier in his career. Bryant's longtime head coach Phil Jackson noted a big difference during his two Lakers coaching stints in Bryant's demeanor towards his teammates. In his earlier years, if Bryant talked to teammates it was usually "give me the damn ball." During the latter period, Bryant "embraced the team and his teammates, calling them up when we were on the road and inviting them out to dinner. It was as if the other players were now his partners, not his personal spear-carriers."
== NBA career statistics ==
=== Regular season ===
=== Playoffs ===
== Off the court ==
=== Personal life ===
Bryant was the youngest of three children. He grew up with two older sisters, Sharia and Shaya, and had close relationships with them his entire life.
In November 1999, 21-year-old Bryant met 17-year-old Vanessa Laine while she was working as a background dancer on the Tha Eastsidaz music video "G'd Up." Bryant was in the building and working on his debut album. They began dating and became engaged six months later in May 2000, while Laine was still a senior at Marina High School in Huntington Beach, California. To avoid media scrutiny, she finished high school through independent study. According to Vanessa's cousin Laila Laine, there was no prenuptial agreement. Laila said Bryant "loved her too much for one." They got married on April 18, 2001, at St. Edward the Confessor Catholic Church in Dana Point, California. The wedding was not attended by Bryant's parents, his two sisters, his longtime advisor and agent Arn Tellem, or his Laker teammates. Bryant's parents were opposed to the marriage for a number of reasons—including, reportedly, his marrying so young, especially to a woman who was not African-American. This disagreement resulted in an estrangement period of over two years, which ended when the couple's first daughter was born.
The Bryants' first daughter, Natalia, was born in January 2003. Due to an ectopic pregnancy, Vanessa suffered a miscarriage in the spring of 2005. Their second daughter, Gianna Maria-Onore (also referred to as "Gigi"), was born in May 2006. On December 16, 2011, Vanessa Bryant filed for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences, and the couple requested joint custody of their daughters. On January 11, 2013, Bryant and his wife announced via social media that they had called off their divorce. In early December 2016, Vanessa gave birth to their third daughter, and in January 2019, the Bryants announced they were expecting a fourth daughter, who was born in June 2019.
Bryant was a practicing Catholic. He said his faith and a priest helped him through difficult times, such as the period following his accusation of rape. A Catholic cantor said that she was inspired by Bryant's faith, and the respect that he showed her. Bryant and his family were regular attendees at Our Lady Queen of Angels Catholic Church in Newport Beach. He and his daughter, Gianna, received the Eucharist together just hours before they died.
Bryant was multilingual. He was fluent in English, Italian, and Spanish. Inspired by the codename for Uma Thurman's character in the Kill Bill films, Bryant assigned himself the nickname of "Black Mamba", citing a desire for his basketball skills to mimic the eponymous snake's ability to "strike with 99% accuracy at maximum speed, in rapid succession." During the 2012–13 season, Bryant began referring to himself as "vino" to describe how his play had been aging like a fine wine.
In January 2002, Bryant bought a Mediterranean-style house for $4 million, located on a cul-de-sac in Newport Coast, Newport Beach. He sold the house in May 2015.
In 2013, Bryant had a legal disagreement with an auction house over memorabilia from his early years that his parents had put up for auction. Bryant's parents received $450,000 from the auction house for the items, and contended Bryant had given them the rights to the items he had remaining in their home. However, Bryant's lawyers asked the auction house to return the items. Before the scheduled trial, a settlement was reached allowing the auction house the sale of less than 10% of the items. Bryant's parents apologized to him for the misunderstanding in a written statement, and appreciated the financial support he had given them over the years.
Bryant grew up a baseball fan and had been a long-time supporter of the Los Angeles Dodgers and Los Angeles Angels during his tenure with the Lakers. However, during the 2009 National League Championship Series when the Dodgers played his hometown Philadelphia Phillies, Bryant revealed to Craig Sager that he actually grew up a fan of their National League East archrivals, the New York Mets wanting to be like Darryl Strawberry and boasted that he still had a Ron Darling baseball card.
Bryant also was a lifelong fan of his hometown NFL team, the Philadelphia Eagles. Bryant was also a fan of soccer teams Barcelona, AC Milan, and Manchester City.
According to Forbes, at the time of his retirement, Bryant's $680 million in career earnings was the most ever by a team athlete during their playing career.
Bryant was a second cousin of his former Lakers teammate Cedric Ceballos.
==== Sexual assault case ====
In the summer of 2003, the sheriff's office of Eagle, Colorado, arrested Bryant in connection with an investigation of a sexual assault complaint filed by a 19-year-old hotel employee. Bryant had checked into The Lodge and Spa at Cordillera in Eagle County in advance of undergoing knee surgery nearby. The accuser stated that Bryant raped her in his hotel room the night before he was to have the procedure. Bryant admitted to an adulterous sexual encounter with his accuser but denied her sexual assault allegation. Bryant was charged on June 18, 2003.
The accusation had a negative impact on Bryant's reputation, and the public's perception of him plummeted; his endorsement contracts with McDonald's and Nutella were terminated. Sales for Bryant's replica jersey fell significantly. In September 2004, the assault case was dropped by prosecutors after the accuser decided not to testify at the trial. Afterward, Bryant agreed to apologize to her for the incident, including his public mea culpa: "Although I truly believe this encounter between us was consensual, I recognize now that she did not and does not view this incident the same way I did. After months of reviewing discovery, listening to her attorney, and even her testimony in person, I now understand how she feels that she did not consent to this encounter." The accuser filed a separate lawsuit against Bryant, which the two sides settled privately.
=== Endorsements ===
Before starting the 1996–97 season, Bryant signed a six-year contract with Adidas worth approximately $48 million. His first signature shoe was the Equipment KB 8. Bryant's other, earlier endorsements included deals with The Coca-Cola Company to endorse their Sprite soft drink, appearing in advertisements for McDonald's, promoting Spalding's new NBA Infusion Ball, Upper Deck, Italian chocolate company Ferrero SpA's brand Nutella, Russell Corporation, and appearing on his own series of video games by Nintendo. Many companies like McDonald's and Ferrero SpA terminated Bryant's contracts when rape allegations against him became public. A notable exception was Nike, Inc., who had signed Bryant to a five-year, $40–45 million contract just before the incident. They refused to use his image or market a new shoe of his for the year, but started promoting Bryant two years later, when his image had recovered. Bryant also resumed endorsement deals with The Coca-Cola Company, through their subsidiary Energy Brands, to promote their Vitamin Water brand of drinks. He was also the cover athlete for NBA '07: Featuring the Life Vol. 2 and appeared in commercials for the video games Guitar Hero World Tour (with Tony Hawk, Michael Phelps, and Alex Rodriguez) in 2008 and Call of Duty: Black Ops (alongside Jimmy Kimmel) in 2010.
In a 2008 video promoting Nike's Hyperdunk shoes, Bryant appears to jump over a speeding Aston Martin. The stunt was considered fake, and the Los Angeles Times said a real stunt would probably be a violation of Bryant's Lakers contract. After promoting Nike's Hyperdunk shoes, Bryant came out with the fourth edition of his signature line by Nike, the Zoom Kobe IV. In 2010, Nike launched another shoe, Nike Zoom Kobe V. In 2009, Bryant signed a deal with Nubeo to market the Black Mamba Collection, a line of sports/luxury watches ranging from $25,000 to $285,000. On February 9, 2009, he was featured on the cover of ESPN The Magazine—not for anything basketball related, but about his being a big fan of FC Barcelona. CNN estimated Bryant's endorsement deals in 2007 to be worth $16 million a year. In 2010, he was ranked third, behind Tiger Woods and Michael Jordan, in Forbes' list of the world's highest-paid athletes, with $48 million.
On December 13, 2010, Bryant signed a two-year endorsement deal with Turkey's national airline, Turkish Airlines; he appeared in a promotional film aired in over 80 countries, and appeared in digital, print and billboard advertising.
In September 2012, Bryant shot a commercial for Turkish Airlines with FC Barcelona star Lionel Messi. In the airline's latest commercial, the duo competes to win the attention of a young boy. In 2013, Forbes listed Bryant the fifth-highest paid sports star in the world behind Floyd Mayweather, Cristiano Ronaldo, LeBron James, and Lionel Messi.
Bryant appeared as the cover athlete for the following video games:
Kobe Bryant in NBA Courtside
NBA Courtside 2: Featuring Kobe Bryant
NBA Courtside 2002
NBA 3 on 3 Featuring Kobe Bryant
NBA '07: Featuring the Life Vol. 2
NBA 09: The Inside
NBA 2K10
NBA 2K17 (Legend Edition; Legend Edition Gold)
NBA 2K21 (Mamba Forever Edition)
NBA 2K24 (Kobe Bryant Edition and Black Mamba Edition)
Bryant was also one of the global ambassadors of the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup in China.
=== Music ===
In high school, Bryant was a member of a rap group called CHEIZAW, named after the Chi Sah gang in the martial arts film Kid with the Golden Arm. The group was signed by Sony Entertainment, but the company's ultimate goal was to eliminate the group and have Bryant record on his own. The label wanted to capitalize on Bryant's youth and NBA fame. He performed at a 1997 concert by Sway & King Tech and recorded a verse for a remix of Brian McKnight's "Hold Me." Bryant even appeared on Lakers teammate O'Neal's Respect, starting the track "3 X's Dope", though Bryant's name was not listed on the credits. Bryant's only credited appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 was as a featured rapper on Brian McKnight and Tone's single "Hold Me," which was released in 1998 and peaked at number 35 in January 1999.
Sony pushed Bryant from his roots of underground hip hop into a more radio-friendly sound. His debut album, Visions, was scheduled to release in the spring of 2000. The first single, "K.O.B.E'", featured supermodel Tyra Banks singing the hook. The single debuted in January 2000, and was performed at NBA All-Star Weekend that month, but it was not well received. Sony abandoned plans for the album, which was never released, and dropped Bryant later that year. The Sony president who originally signed Bryant had already left, and Bryant's other backers had mostly abandoned him. Afterward, Bryant co-founded an independent record label, Heads High Entertainment, but it folded within a year. In 1999, he appeared on a remix of "Say My Name" by Destiny's Child on the Maxi single version of the song.
In 2011, Bryant was featured in Taiwanese singer Jay Chou's single "The Heaven and Earth Challenge" (天地一鬥, pronounced "Tian Di Yi Dou"). The proceeds for downloads of both the single and ringtones were donated to impoverished schools for basketball facilities and equipment. The music video of the single also features Bryant. The song was also used by Sprite in its 2011 marketing campaign in China.
In 2009, American rapper Lil Wayne released a song called "Kobe Bryant." Similarly, in 2010, American rapper Sho Baraka released a song called "Kobe Bryant On'em", which was featured on his album Lions and Liars. In 2012, American rapper Chief Keef released "Kobe", a song paying tribute to Bryant. It was featured on his debut studio album, Finally Rich, as a part of the deluxe edition. For the NBA 2K21 soundtrack, Damian Lillard, under his stage name Dame D.O.L.L.A., released a tribute track also titled "Kobe", featuring Snoop Dogg and Derrick Milano.
=== Film and television ===
Bryant made his acting debut in 1996, appearing in an episode of Moesha. Bryant met the show's star, Brandy, earlier in the year at a Nike All-Star basketball game; a couple of months later, in May 1996, he was Brandy's date to her Hollywood High School senior prom. That year, Bryant guest starred as himself on an episode of Arli$$ (episode: "What About the Fans?") and Sister, Sister (episode: "Kid-Napped"). In 1997, Bryant appeared on an episode of Hang Time, followed by a guest appearance on the Nickelodeon sketch comedy series All That (1998). He was also the first choice for the role of Jesus Shuttlesworth in Spike Lee's 1998 film He Got Game, but turned down the role, saying "this summer is too big for me."
Bryant was the subject of Spike Lee's 2009 documentary film Kobe Doin' Work, which chronicled Bryant during the 2007–08 NBA season.
In 2018, Bryant became the first African-American to win the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film, and the first former professional athlete to be nominated for and win an Academy Award in any category, for his film Dear Basketball. Despite winning the Oscar, he was denied membership into the Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences due to his past sexual abuse case and their new set of standards of conduct within the recent MeToo movement. The film also won the Annie Award for Best Animated Short Subject and a Sports Emmy Award. The film was produced by Bryant's production company, Granity Studios. In addition to future animation projects, Bryant had been in talks with animator veteran Bruce Smith for the last six months before his death about starting his own animation studio.
Beginning in 2018, Bryant wrote, produced and hosted the television series Detail, which aired for multiple seasons on ESPN and ESPN+. It featured his insights into the game of basketball and in-depth analyzes of games and individual players. Bryant also appeared on MTV's Ridiculousness in 2019.
==== Filmography ====
=== Philanthropy ===
Bryant was the official ambassador for After-School All-Stars (ASAS), an American non-profit organization that provides comprehensive after-school programs to children in 13 US cities. Bryant also started the Kobe Bryant China Fund which partnered with the Soong Ching Ling Foundation, a charity backed by the Chinese government. The Kobe Bryant China Fund raises money within China earmarked for education and health programs. On November 4, 2010, Bryant appeared alongside Zach Braff at the Call of Duty: Black Ops launch event at the Santa Monica Airport, where they presented a $1 million check to the Call of Duty Endowment, an Activision-founded nonprofit organization that helps veterans transition to civilian careers after their military service has ended.
Bryant and his wife founded the Kobe and Vanessa Bryant Family Foundation (KVBFF). Its goals are "helping young people in need, encouraging the development of physical and social skills through sports and assisting the homeless." Bryant spoke of the injustice aimed at homeless people who are blamed for their situation, saying that homelessness should not be ignored or made a low priority. Bryant said he wanted more out of life than just a successful basketball career.
Bryant and his wife were also founding donors of the National Museum of African American History and Culture, with Bryant also donating his uniform that he wore in the 2008 NBA Finals, the year Bryant was named the league MVP. During his lifetime, Bryant granted over 200 requests for the Make-A-Wish Foundation.
=== Business ventures ===
Bryant established Kobe Inc. to own and grow brands in the sports industry. The initial investment was a 10% stake in the Bodyarmor SuperDrink company for $6 million in March 2014. The headquarters are in Newport Beach, California. With The Coca-Cola Company purchasing a minority stake in the company in August 2018, the valuation of Bryant's stake rose to approximately $200 million.
In 2013, Bryant launched a production company called Granity Studios, which developed different media, ranging from films to television shows and novels.
On August 22, 2016, Bryant and his business partner Jeff Stibel launched Bryant-Stibel, a venture capital firm focused on different businesses including media, data, gaming, and technology, with $100 million in funding. In 2018, Bryant and Sports Academy launched Mamba Sports Academy, a joint athletic-training business venture. The academy established locations in Thousand Oaks and Redondo Beach, California.
=== Books ===
On October 23, 2018, Bryant's book The Mamba Mentality: How I Play, with photographs and afterword by Andrew D. Bernstein, an introduction by Phil Jackson, and a foreword by Pau Gasol, was published by MCD / Farrar, Straus and Giroux. The book looks back on his career with photos and his reflections.
At the time of his death, Bryant was working with Brazilian author Paulo Coelho on a children's book aimed at inspiring underprivileged children. After Bryant's death, Coelho deleted the draft, saying in an interview that "it didn't make any sense to publish without him." He did not say how many pages had been written or whether the book had a title.
Bryant also co-wrote/produced several young adult novels through Granity Studios: The Wizenard Series: Training Camp, Legacy and the Queen, and Epoca: The Tree of Ecrof. A fourth novel, The Wizenard Series: Season One, was released posthumously in March 2020. The Wizarenard Series: Season One topped the New York Times middle-grade hardcover list.
== Death ==
=== Accident ===
At 9:06 a.m. Pacific Standard Time on January 26, 2020, a Sikorsky S-76 helicopter departed from John Wayne Airport in Orange County, California, with nine people aboard: Bryant, his 13-year-old daughter Gianna, six family friends including John Altobelli, and the pilot, Ara Zobayan. The helicopter was registered to the Fillmore-based Island Express Holding Corp., according to the California Secretary of State business database. The group was traveling to Camarillo Airport in Ventura County for a basketball game at Mamba Sports Academy in Thousand Oaks.
Due to light rain and fog that morning, the Los Angeles Police Department helicopters and most other air traffic were grounded. The flight tracker showed that the helicopter circled above Glendale, California, due to heavy air traffic in the area. At 9:30 a.m., Zobayan contacted the Hollywood Burbank Airport's control tower, notifying the tower of the situation, and was told he was "flying too low" to be tracked by radar. At that time, the helicopter experienced extreme fog and turned south towards the mountains. At 9:40 a.m., the helicopter climbed rapidly from 1,200 to 2,000 feet (370 to 610 m), flying at 161 knots (298 km/h; 185 mph).
At 9:45 a.m., the helicopter crashed into the side of a mountain in Calabasas, about 30 miles (48 km) northwest of downtown Los Angeles, and began burning. Bryant, his daughter, and the other seven occupants were all killed on impact. Initial reports indicated that the helicopter crashed in the hills above Calabasas in heavy fog. Witnesses reported hearing a helicopter struggling before crashing.
=== Investigations ===
On January 28, Bryant's identity was officially confirmed using fingerprints. The following day, the Los Angeles County Department of Medical Examiner-Coroner stated that the official cause of death for him and the eight others on the helicopter was blunt force trauma.
The Federal Aviation Administration, National Transportation Safety Board, and the FBI launched investigations into the crash.
The cause of the crash was hard to investigate, as the helicopter was not equipped with a black box. Over a year after the crash, on February 9, 2021, the NTSB declared that pilot Ara Zobayan probably became disoriented after flying into thick clouds. The five board members also said Zobayan, who also died in the crash, ignored his training and violated federal regulations during the 40-minute flight.
On February 28, 2023, Vanessa Bryant was awarded a $28.85 million settlement from Los Angeles County to conclude legal proceedings over graphic photos of the aftermath of the helicopter crash that were shared without the permission of the family. The figure includes the $15 million she was awarded from L.A. County in a 2022 civil trial, with "additional funds to settle potential claims from her daughters"—Natalia, 20, Bianka, 6, and Capri, 3. Chris Chester, a co-plaintiff who lost his 45-year-old wife and 13-year-old daughter in the crash, settled for $19.95 million.
=== Tributes and funeral services ===
On February 7, Bryant and his daughter were buried in a private funeral in Pacific View Memorial Park in the Corona del Mar neighborhood of Newport Beach, California. A public memorial service was held on February 24 (2/24, marking both Kobe's and Gianna's jersey numbers) at Staples Center (later Crypto.com Arena) with Jimmy Kimmel hosting. Speakers at the service included Vanessa, Jordan, and O'Neal, along with Phoenix Mercury guard Diana Taurasi and Geno Auriemma, Taurasi's coach at Connecticut, where Gianna had been aspiring to play.
The NBA had postponed the Lakers' game against the Clippers just two days after the accident on January 28—the first time an NBA game was postponed for any reason since the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing led to the postponement of a Celtics game. On January 30, the first game at Staples Center after the crash was played between the Clippers and the Sacramento Kings; the Clippers honored Bryant before the game, with Southern California native Paul George narrating a video tribute to Bryant. The next day, the Lakers played their first game after the crash against the Trail Blazers. Ahead of the game, the Lakers paid tribute to Bryant and all who lost their lives in the crash with a ceremony held just before tip-off, with Usher singing "Amazing Grace" and Boyz II Men singing the national anthem, while Wiz Khalifa and Charlie Puth reunited to perform "See You Again"—originally their tribute to Paul Walker after his death while filming Furious 7—at halftime. James also delivered a speech to the crowd before the game, and every player in the Lakers starting lineup was announced with Bryant's name. The game was the second-most-watched in ESPN history, averaging 4.41 million viewers. The first ever head-to-head meeting between Shaquille O'Neal and Yao Ming in 2003 was the only one with more viewers.
Also, beginning with the Spurs and the Raptors in their game in San Antonio on the day of the crash, teams paid tribute to Bryant at the start of their games with intentional on-court violations referring to his uniform numbers on their first possession—either a 24-second shot clock or an 8-second backcourt violation. On February 15, NBA commissioner Adam Silver announced that the All-Star Game MVP Award would be renamed to the NBA All-Star Game Kobe Bryant Most Valuable Player Award in Bryant's honor. In May 2020, the Mamba Sports Academy was renamed to Sports Academy out of respect for Bryant.
The 62nd Annual Grammy Awards went ahead as scheduled at Staples Center on the day of the crash, but included tributes by multiple artists and groups, including host Alicia Keys opening the show with a tribute speech in which she called Staples Center "the house that Kobe Bryant built" and joining Boyz II Men to sing "It's So Hard to Say Goodbye to Yesterday".
Bryant also appeared at the start of the In Memoriam segment of the 92nd Academy Awards following his Oscar in 2018 for Dear Basketball, and Spike Lee wore a suit in tribute to him at the ceremony. He was not included in the montages at the 2020 VMAs and Emmys, held later in the year. Fans were upset at the omission, especially as actors Naya Rivera and Chadwick Boseman had been featured prominently in both; after Rivera and Boseman's unexpected deaths in July and August 2020 respectively, the three young black celebrities were popularly compared.
The 2020 Pro Bowl was also played at Camping World Stadium in Orlando on the day of the crash, and before kickoff, NFC players who learned of Bryant's death conducted a prayer led by Seattle Seahawks quarterback Russell Wilson, while various on-field and PA tributes were made during the game.
In the 2020 WNBA draft, Gianna Bryant, Alyssa Altobelli, and Payton Chester were made honorary draft picks.
After the Lakers beat the Miami Heat in Game 6 of the 2020 NBA Finals to clinch the franchise's 17th NBA championship, rapper, Lakers fan and Long Beach native Snoop Dogg paid homage to Bryant and the Lakers with a full forearm tattoo. Bryant was posthumously inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 2021, with Vanessa delivering the acceptance speech on Bryant's behalf.
== Legacy ==
Bryant was called "one of the greatest players in the history of our game" by NBA commissioner Adam Silver, and The New York Times wrote that Bryant had "one of the most decorated careers in the history of the sport." Reuters called him "arguably the best player of his generation", while both Sporting News and TNT named him their NBA player of the decade for the 2000s. In 2008 and again in 2016, ESPN ranked Bryant the second-greatest shooting guard of all time after Jordan. In 2022, to commemorate the NBA's 75th Anniversary, The Athletic ranked their top 75 players of all time, and they named Bryant as the 10th-greatest player in NBA history and the second-highest shooting guard on the list, behind only Jordan. Many peer players—including Kevin Durant, Dirk Nowitzki, Dwyane Wade, and Derrick Rose—called Bryant their generation's version of Jordan. The Press-Enterprise described Bryant as "maybe the greatest Laker in the organization's history." He was the Lakers' all-time leading scorer, and his five titles are tied for the most in franchise history. Both numbers Bryant wore during his career, 8 and 24, were retired by the Lakers on December 18, 2017. In his first year of eligibility, Bryant was named a finalist for the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, weeks after his death, before being elected a couple of months later in April 2020. His formal induction was delayed until 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In October 2021, Bryant was honored as one of the league's greatest players of all time by being named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team. The team was honored during the 2022 NBA All-Star Game in Cleveland, with Bryant receiving one of the loudest cheers of the night.
With career averages of 25.0 points, 5.2 rebounds, 4.7 assists, and 1.4 steals per game, Bryant was considered one of the most complete players in NBA history. He is the fourth-leading scorer in league history with 33,643 points. Bryant was the first player in NBA history to have at least 30,000 career points and 6,000 career assists, and was one of only four players with 25,000 points, 6,000 rebounds, and 6,000 assists. He led the NBA in scoring during the 2005–06 and 2006–07 seasons. Bryant's 81-point performance against Toronto in 2006 was the second-highest in NBA history, behind only Chamberlain's 100. Bryant scored at least 50 points 24 times in his career, which is third in league history behind Jordan (31) and Chamberlain (118); six times Bryant scored at least 60. He was just the third player in NBA history to average 40 points in a calendar month, which Bryant accomplished four times. He was voted the league MVP in 2008 and led his team to the 2008 NBA Finals as the first seed in the Western Conference. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, Bryant won a gold medal as a member of the U.S. men's basketball team, occasionally referred to as "The Redeem Team." He won another gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics. Bryant led the Lakers to two more championships in 2009 and 2010, winning the Finals MVP award on both occasions.
Bryant was an 18-time All-Star, which ranks second behind only Kareem Abdul-Jabbar's and LeBron James' 19. Bryant was chosen a then-record 18 straight times, each time as a starter. On four occasions (2003, 2011, 2013, 2016), he was the leading vote-getter. Bryant was named the All-Star MVP four times, a record he shares with Bob Pettit. Bryant was selected to the All-NBA Team on 15 occasions, tied for the most with Abdul-Jabbar and Tim Duncan, and his 11 first-team honors are tied for the second-most with Karl Malone. Bryant was also a 12-time All-Defensive Team selection, trailing only Duncan's 15, and Bryant was named to the All-Defensive First Team nine times, tied with Jordan, Garnett, and Gary Payton for the most all time. He was the first guard to play 20 seasons in the NBA. Bryant also won the NBA Slam Dunk Contest in 1997 and was its youngest winner. In his career, Bryant scored 40-plus points in 121 games, and he recorded a triple-double 21 times.
During the 2020 NBA playoffs, the Lakers' players wore 'Black Mamba' jerseys in honor of Bryant. Designed by Bryant himself, the black jersey features a snakeskin pattern with yellow accents and 16 stars representing the team's 16 championships at the time. In a Game 2 victory over the Denver Nuggets in the Western Conference Finals, Anthony Davis made a buzzer-beating three-pointer and yelled Bryant's name, while the team was wearing the 'Black Mamba' jerseys. Following a Game 2 victory in the 2020 NBA Finals, LeBron James was asked about the jerseys and had this to say: "It's always special to represent someone that meant so much, not only to the game but also to the Lakers organization for 20-plus years. For us to honor him, being on the floor, this is what it's all about."
On January 26, 2022, coinciding with the second anniversary of his death, a statue of Bryant and his daughter Gianna was placed at the crash site in Calabasas. Later in February, the NBA redesigned the All-Star Game MVP trophy as part of the major redesign of the All-Star Weekend trophies in celebration of the league's 75th anniversary season.
On Kobe Bryant Day, August 24, in 2023, the Lakers stated that Bryant's statue outside of Crypto.com Arena would be unveiled on February 8, 2024, to honor his two numbers with the Lakers, 8 and 24, and 2 for the number of his daughter Gianna. The inspiration for the statue, based on an image of Bryant after his 81-point game, pointing a finger toward the sky, was requested by Bryant himself before his death. On August 2, 2024, the Lakers also unveiled a statue of Kobe and Gianna Bryant outside of Crypto.com Arena.
In February 2025, Donald Trump announced that Bryant would get a statue in the proposed National Garden of American Heroes.
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
McGrath, Ben (March 31, 2014). "The fourth quarter : Kobe Bryant confronts a long—and possibly painful—goodbye". The Sporting Scene. The New Yorker. Vol. 90, no. 6. pp. 38–49. Retrieved May 16, 2018.
== External links ==
Career statistics from NBA.com · Basketball Reference
Official website
Kobe Bryant at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Doodle | Google Doodle | A Google Doodle is a special, temporary alteration of the logo on Google's homepages intended to commemorate holidays, events, achievements, and historical figures. The first Google Doodle honored the 1998 edition of the long-running annual Burning Man event in Black Rock City, Nevada, and was designed by co-founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin to notify users of their absence in case the servers crashed. Early marketing employee Susan Wojcicki then spearheaded subsequent Doodles, including an alien landing on Google and additional custom logos for major holidays. Google Doodles were designed by an outside contractor, cartoonist Ian David Marsden until 2000, when Page and Brin asked public relations officer Dennis Hwang to design a logo for Bastille Day. Since then, a team of employees called Doodlers have organized and published the Doodles.
Initially, Doodles were neither animated nor hyperlinked—they were simply images with tooltips describing the subject or expressing a holiday greeting. Doodles increased in both frequency and complexity by the beginning of the 2010s. On October 31, 2000, the first animated Doodle celebrated Halloween. On May 21, 2010, the first interactive Doodle appeared later celebrating Pac-Man, and hyperlinks also began to be added to Doodles, usually linking to a search results page for the subject of the Doodle. By 2014, Google had published over 2,000 regional and international Doodles throughout its homepages, often featuring guest artists, musicians, and personalities. By 2024, the Doodlers team had created over 5,000 Doodles for Google's homepages around the world.
== Overview ==
In addition to celebrating many well-known events and holidays, Google Doodles celebrate artists and scientists on their birthdays. The featuring of Lowell's logo design coincided with the launch of another Google product, Google Maps. Doodles are also used to depict major events at Google, such as the company's own anniversary. The celebration of historic events is another common topic of Google Doodles including a Lego brick design in celebration of the interlocking Lego block's 50th anniversary. Some Google Doodles are limited to Google's country-specific home pages while others appear globally.
=== Common themes ===
Since the first Thanksgiving Doodle in 1998, many Doodles for holidays, events and other celebrations have recurred annually. These include:
Gregorian New Year's Day (2000–present)
Martin Luther King Jr. Day (2003; 2006–present)
Lunar New Year (2001; 2003–present)
Valentine's Day (2000–present; partial exception during certain Olympic years)
International Women's Day (2005; 2009–present)
Saint Patrick's Day (2000–2021; 2023–present)
Earth Day (2001–present)
Mother's Day (2000–present)
Father's Day (2000–present)
Juneteenth (2020–present)
U.S. Independence Day (2000–present)
Bastille Day (2000–present)
German Unity Day (2002–2003; 2006–2008; 2010–present)
Swiss National Day (2001–present)
Olympic Games (2000–present; partial exception in 2014)
Halloween (1999–present)
Hinamatsuri (2009–2012; 2014–2023)
U.S. Thanksgiving Day (1998–present)
Christmas Day (1999–present)
New Year's Eve (1999; 2011–present)
== Doodlers ==
Doodlers is Google's name for the illustrators, engineers and artists who design the Doodles. They have included artists like Ekua Holmes, Sophia Foster-Dimino, Lynnette Haozous, and Eric Carle.
== Notable doodles ==
In May 2010, on the 30th anniversary of the 1980 arcade game Pac-Man, Google unveiled worldwide their first interactive logo, a playable Pac-Man Google Doodle, created in association with Namco. Anyone who visited Google could play Pac-Man on the logo, which featured the letters of the word Google on the Pac-Man maze. The logo also mimicked the sounds the original arcade game made. The I'm Feeling Lucky button was replaced with an Insert Coin button. Pressing this once enabled the user to play the Pac-Man logo. Pressing it again added a second player, Ms. Pac-Man, enabling two players to play at once, controlled using the W, A, S, D keys, instead of the arrows as used by Player 1. Pressing it for a third time performed an I'm Feeling Lucky search. It was then removed on May 23, 2010, initially replacing Pac-Man with the normal logo. Later on that day, Google released a permanent site to play Google Pac-Man (accessed by clicking on top icon), due to the popular user demand for the playable logo. Pac-Man Doodle drew an estimated 1 billion players worldwide.
Since that time, Google has continued to post occasional interactive and video doodles:
=== 2010s ===
On June 8, 2010, composer Robert Schumann was celebrated with a Google Doodle for his 200th birthday.
On September 4, 2010, the Google logo was changed to an interactive Buckyball to celebrate the 25th anniversary of its discovery. The Buckyball, also known as Buckminsterfullerene C60, is a molecule made entirely of carbon and shaped like a geodesic dome.
On September 6, 2010, Google launched its fourth interactive Google Doodle. Google Instant – Particle Logo replaced its static logo with a JavaScript-based particle movement simulator where dynamic colored balls can be manipulated with the movement of the mouse cursor over the logo, or by shaking of the browser window. Unlike some other Google Doodles, this one is unclickable.
On September 7, 2010, another Google Instant family logo known as Keystroke Logo was released. A grayed-out colorless logo lit up with the standard Google colors as the first six letters of a search query were entered.
On October 8, 2010, Google ran its first video doodle, a short animation set to the music of "Imagine" to mark what would have been John Lennon's 70th birthday. Similarly, Freddie Mercury's would-be 65th birthday was celebrated on September 5, 2011, with an animated clip set to "Don't Stop Me Now".
On April 15, 2011, Google sported the first live-action video doodle, in commemoration of Charlie Chaplin's 122nd birthday. This doodle was a black and white YouTube video that, when clicked upon, started playing before redirecting to the usual Google search featuring the doodle's special occasion. All parts in this short film were played by the Google Doodle team, and special behind-the-scenes footage was to be found on the Google blog.
Google displayed an interactive electric guitar doodle starting June 9, 2011, to commemorate the 96th birthday of Les Paul (d. 2009). Apart from being able to hover the cursor over the doodle to strum the strings just like one of Les Paul's Gibson guitars, there was also a keyboard button, which when enabled allowed interaction with the doodle via the keyboard. The doodle still maintained some resemblance to the Google logo. In the U.S., the doodle also allowed the user to record a 30-second clip, after which a URL is created and can be sent to others. The doodle remained on the site an extra day due to popularity in the U.S. It now has its own page linked to the Google Doodles archives.
On January 18, 2012, for users in the United States, Google placed a censor bar on top of their logo to protest SOPA and PIPA.
On May 23, 2012, for what would have been instrument inventor and synthesizer pioneer Robert Moog's 78th birthday, the Doodle team pulled off their own feat of engineering: a fully playable and recordable Google logo resembling a vintage Minimoog Model D synthesizer. Electronic analog Moog Synthesizer timbre and tones would come to define a generation of music, featuring heavily in songs by The Beatles, The Doors, Stevie Wonder, Kraftwerk and many others. Much like the musical machines Bob Moog created, this doodle was synthesized from a number of smaller components to form a unique instrument. Mouse or computer keyboard was used to control the mini-synthesizer's keys and knobs and fiddle with oscillators and envelopes. Synthesizer doodle patched the keyboard into a 4-track tape recorder that could share songs.
On April 9, 2012, motion picture pioneer Eadweard Muybridge was celebrated in a Google doodle.
On June 21, 2012, Google celebrated what would have been Soviet singer-songwriter Viktor Tsoi's 50th birthday with a Google Doodle that shared resemblance with the Tsoi Wall.
On June 23, 2012, in commemoration of Alan Turing's 100th birthday, Google's logo became an interactive Turing Machine.
On August 8, 2012, Google displayed an interactive Basketball game for the 2012 Summer Olympics.
On September 13, 2012, Google created a doodle for Clara Schumann to commemorate her 193rd birthday.
On December 10, 2012, Google celebrated computing pioneer Ada Lovelace.
On January 2, 2013, Maurice Sendak was celebrated in a Google doodle inspired by his Where the Wild Things Are and In the Night Kitchen.
On November 23, 2013, Google's logo changed to a playable Doctor Who game in honor of the show's 50th anniversary.
On May 19, 2014, for the 40th anniversary of the Rubik's Cube, Google made an interactive virtual Rubik's Cube that people could try to solve.
On April 14, 2015, for the 155th anniversary of the Pony Express, Google made a playable 2D side-scrolling doodle game in which the player collects mail, avoids obstacles, and delivers up to 100 letters from California to Missouri.
On October 1, 2015, Annie Besant's 168th birthday was commemorated with a Doodle.
On December 17, 2015, a Google Doodle was featured honoring the 245th anniversary of Beethoven's date of birth. It features an interactive game to match the musical writing in correct order as it featured 4 levels.
On January 22, 2016, for the 151st birthday of Wilbur Scoville, creator of the Scoville Scale, Google made a playable doodle game in which the player plays as an ice cream cone throwing ice cream scoops at a variety of peppers to neutralize their heat. Gameplay is based on the timing of a mouse click or space bar press which rapidly increases in difficulty. The game includes 5 levels, each featuring a different type of pepper (Bell Pepper, Jalapeño Pepper, Cayenne Pepper, Ghost Pepper, and Trinidad Moruga scorpion) and a fun fact about the peppers along with their measured Scoville Heat Units.
On August 5, 2016, for the 2016 Summer Olympics, the Google app received an update for Android and iOS devices to include 7 mini games called Doodle Fruit Games featuring Strawberry, Blueberry, Coconut, Pineapple, and more. It lasted until August 21, with a new mini game every day. The game was accessible on the Google app by clicking on a play button.
On October 30, 2016, for Halloween, Google added a game series called Magic Cat Academy, featuring a cat named Momo fighting ghosts. To play, users had to click on a play button, and "draw" to kill the ghosts.
On February 11, 12, 13 and 14, 2017, for Valentine's Day, Google added a game featuring the endangered pangolin, an African and Asian mammal, that goes through four levels (one released each day), while collecting objects, and avoiding obstacles.
On 28 February 2017, Google celebrated humanitarian Edhi with a Google Doodle hailing his "super-efficient" ambulance service.
On May 9, 2017, a Google Doodle was featured honoring the 181st birthday of Ferdinand Monoyer. He was a French ophthalmologist who in 1872 introduced the dioptre, the reciprocal of focal length in metres, as a unit for lens power. Its use greatly simplifies calculations when combining lenses. He devised an eye chart where every row represents a different lens power, from smallest to largest. A close look at the Doodle may reveal to the reader a tribute to Monoyer: his name, hidden in the chart.
On June 22, 2017, to commemorate the 117th birthday of animator Oskar Fischinger, Google released an interactive fullscreen Doodle that let users create their own animations by tapping on the screen. The user could then choose to share it to social media. The game was accessible by tapping on 2 play buttons.
On August 11, 2017, the 44th anniversary of DJ Kool Herc's pioneering use of the hip hop break, the Google Doodle allowed users to use a double turntable to act as a hip-hop DJ.
On September 4, 2017, to commemorate the 83rd birthday of Russian baritone singer Eduard Khil, Google added a video doodle that featured an animated Eduard Khil singing "I am very glad, as I'm finally returning back home", known globally as the "Trololo" song.
On December 4, 2017, Google celebrated 50 years of kids' coding languages with an Interactive Doodle.
On December 8, 2017, Google commemorated the 287th birthday of biologist Jan Ingenhousz with a Doodle.
On January 29, 2018, Google celebrated Taiwanese singer Teresa Teng on what would have been her 65th birthday.
On May 3, 2018, Google celebrated the work of Georges Méliès by making a doodle that encompassed his famous work like A Trip to the Moon and The Impossible Voyage. The doodle is also the first google doodle that was shown in 360-degrees format, with the viewer being able to rotate the video to give them different points of view.
On May 16, 2018, Google celebrated Polish painter Tamara de Lempicka.
On June 10, 2018, Google celebrated the history of garden gnomes by releasing an interactive Doodle where the player can use a catapult to launch their clay gnomes into the furthest reach of their garden.
On September 15, 2018, for India, Google commemorated Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya's 158th Birthday, on which day India celebrates Engineer's day.
On September 21, 2018, a stop-motion video Google doodle celebrating Fred Rogers was created in collaboration with Fred Rogers productions, The Fred Rogers center, and BixPix entertainment.
On October 30, 2018, for Halloween, Google added a multiplayer game called Great Ghoul Duel, featuring two teams of ghosts racing to collect spirits and steal them from the other team. Games can support up to 8 players, and users could create custom invite links or match with random users across the globe. Great Ghoul Duel was the first Doodle to support multiplayer over the internet.
On November 6, 2018, for the United States elections, Google changed their logo to Go Vote.
On November 11, 2018, Google celebrated the 58th posthumous birthday of Christy Essien-Igbokwe, who was a Nigerian musician and actress.
On March 7, 2019, Google celebrated Olga Ladyzhenskaya, a Russian mathematician.
On March 21, 2019, Google celebrated German composer and musician Johann Sebastian Bach by creating the first Doodle that uses artificial intelligence to make music. When a button is pressed, the Doodle uses machine learning to harmonize a user-created melody into Bach's signature music style (or alternatively into a Bach 80s rock style hybrid if an amp on the right side is clicked).
On July 16–20, 2019, Google celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 Moon landing by NASA where Neil Armstrong became the first man on the Moon.
On August 12, 2019, for India, Google commemorated Vikram Sarabhai's 100th birthday. He is internationally regarded as the Father of the Indian Space Program.
On December 9–10, 2019, the interactive Google doodle game celebrated the Mexican card game Lotería.
=== 2020s ===
On March 20, 2020, near the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, Google honored Ignaz Semmelweis for pioneering the practice of hand washing. The Doodle animation specifically showcased how to properly and thoroughly wash one's hands.
Google also released several doodles in the following weeks thanking various industry workers who assisted people during the pandemic.
Some games were re-released for people staying at home during lockdown to play.
On April 22, 2020, in celebration of the 50th anniversary of Earth Day, a Doodle game was created in partnership with the Honeybee Conservancy, wherein a honeybee is guided by the player to pollinate flowers, while facts about the honeybee and its impact are shared between levels.
On May 20, 2020, Google celebrated the 61st birthday of Israel Kamakawiwo'ole, who is best known for his rendition of "Somewhere Over The Rainbow".
On May 21–22, 2020, the interactive Doodle celebrated the mbira as Zimbabwe's culture week begins.
On June 30, 2020, Google celebrated Marsha P. Johnson with a Google Doodle.[2]
On September 1, 2020, Google honored Jackie Ormes, known for being the first African-American woman cartoonist, along with being the creator of the Torchy Brown comic strip and the Patty-Jo 'n' Ginger panel. The Doodle animation showcased a slideshow of her career.
On October 30, 2020, a second installment to the Magic Cat Academy was made for Halloween. It had a similar gameplay, but a different setting (underwater) and focused on sea creatures such as the immortal jellyfish and the anglerfish.
On December 10, 2020, Google celebrated St Lucian economist, professor, and author W. Arthur Lewis.
On December 20, 2020, Google remembered the last surviving male Northern white rhinoceros, Sudan.
On December 30, 2020, Google celebrated Alaska native civil rights champion Elizabeth Peratrovich, who played an instrumental role in the 1945 passage of the first anti-discrimination law in the United States.
On January 15, 2021, Google honored James Naismith, the inventor of basketball. The Doodle animation showcases a person making a basket.
On March 10, 2021, Google honored Wu Lien-teh, depicting Wu Lien-teh assembling surgical masks and distributing them to reduce the risk of disease transmission.
On April 20, 2021, Google celebrated Luther Vandross on his 70th birthday with an animated Google Doodle that plays Vandross's song "Never Too Much".
On June 9, 2021, Google honored Shirley Temple with an animated depiction of her during her career as a child actress alongside her later service as a diplomat.
On July 23, 2021, Google released an RPG-style game called Doodle Champion Island Games, with artwork by Studio 4°C, to celebrate video gaming, Japanese folklore, and the 2020 Olympics in Tokyo.
On August 14, 2021, Google made a doodle of Derawar Fort to celebrate Pakistan's 75 Independence Day. According to Google, the fort symbolizes Pakistani adaptability and antiquity.
On September 2, 2021, Google made a doodle celebrating the 138th birthday of the Polish biologist Rudolf Weigl, known for developing the epidemic typhus vaccine.
On September 5, 2021, Olivia When made a doodle celebrating the 107th birthday of the Chilean poet Nicanor Parra, being visible in 15 countries, including Chile.
On September 6, 2021, Google made a doodle celebrating the 100th birthday of the Spanish writer Carmen Laforet, in which she appears reading a book on a balcony.
On September 8, 2021, Google made an 80-second illustrated video celebrating the 32nd birthday of Swedish DJ Tim Bergling, in which many people are enjoying his song "Wake Me Up".
On September 15, 2021, Google made five doodles celebrating independence day in various Central American countries such as Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, Panama was not included, because its independence date was not September 15.
On September 16, 2021, Magdiel Herrera made a doodle known as à la Mexicana celebrating Mexican independence day. It shows a china poblana, a pozole, a bell, a hat with a zarape, a cactus and an Aztec musician.
On September 17, 2021, Google did a doodle celebrating the birth of Michiyo Tsujimura, a Japanese biochemist known for her research on green tea and its nutritional benefits.
On September 18, 2021, Google made a doodle from the Chilean National Holidays shows in the center to a huemul, an animal representative of both the country and the national shield.
On September 25, 2021, Google celebrated American actor and activist Christopher Reeve.
On October 1, 2021, Roxie Vizcarra created a slideshow doodle celebrating US Chicano educator, boxer, poet, and activist Rodolfo Gonzales.
On November 1, 2021, Google celebrated Zuni native American fiber artist, weaver, and potter the late We'wha with an interactive doodle.
On November 4, 2021, Google celebrated Chinese-born, British American physicist and educator Charles K. Kao.
On November 8, 2021, Google celebrated Indian cell biologist Kamal Ranadive on her 104th birthday.
On November 12, 2021, Google celebrated Dutch painter Johannes Vermeer, who painted the Girl with a Pearl Earring in 1665.
On November 14, 2021, Google celebrated the 216th birthday of German pianist and composer Fanny Hensel.
On November 20, 2021, Google celebrated Creole classical musician and composer Edmond Dede.
On December 2, 2021, pioneering pointillist painter Georges Seurat was celebrated in a Google doodle.
On December 17, 2021, Google celebrated the 315th birthday of French mathematician, translator and physicist Émilie du Châtelet.
In January 2022, Google created a special Doodle that appears when one searches for the term Wordle, based on the online game which had risen to popularity the previous month. The Doodle mimics playing the game Wordle on the name Google.
On January 8, 2022, Google celebrated English cosmologist, author, and physicist Stephen Hawking.
On January 17, 2022, Google celebrated what would have been Betty White's 100th birthday (she died just weeks earlier on December 31, 2021) by having rose petals fall from the top of the screen and the phrase thank you for being a friend appear at the bottom when the user searches for her name, both references to her popular television role on The Golden Girls.
On January 26, 2022, Google celebrated the 124th birthday of Russian born, Polish avant-garde sculptor and art theoretician Katarzyna Kobro.
On February 9, 2022, Google celebrated athlete Toni Stone in honor of Black History Month.
On February 17, 2022, Google celebrated Dr. Michiaki Takahashi's 94th birthday with a doodle showing first the research phase, then a boy with chickenpox, a doctor giving the chickenpox vaccine, and ending with bottles of medicine and dots giving a graphical representation of the declining number of cases due to the vaccine.
On March 16, 2022, Google celebrated the 200th birthday of French painter Rosa Bonheur.
On April 12, 2022, Google celebrated Montserrat Caballe's 89th birthday.
On April 29, 2022, Google hit all the right notes by celebrating Toots Thielemans on what would be his 100th birthday.
On April 30, 2022, Google took you to U.S. Route 66 with a video doodle.
On May 2, 2022, Google celebrated the birthday of the black Canadian American engineer and inventor Elijah McCoy.
On May 19, 2022, Google celebrated Stacey Milbern and her legacy with a doodle in honor of Asian Pacific American heritage month on what would have been her 35th birthday.
On May 22, 2022, Google celebrated The Great Gama in honor of his 144th birthday.
On June 4, 2022, Google celebrated the inspiring life of Kiyoshi Kuromiya and the legacy of activism he left behind.
On June 6, 2022, Google celebrated Angelo Moriondo, the man who invented the espresso machine.
On June 17, 2022, Google celebrated British composer, teacher, and opera singer Amanda Aldridge.
On June 25, 2022, Google honored German diarist Anne Frank with a slideshow doodle.
On July 6, 2022, Google celebrated the 71st birthday of Native American stand-up comedian Charlie Hill.
On July 18, 2022, Google celebrated what would have been the 112th birthday of electronic music producer and physicist Oskar Sala.
On July 26, 2022, Google celebrated the steelpan with a video doodle.
On July 31 – August 1, 2022, the interactive Google doodle game celebrated petanque, a beloved French outdoor game played around the world.
On August 23, 2022, Google celebrated the 104th birthday of physicist and meteorologist Anna Mani.
On September 8, 2022, the date of Queen Elizabeth II's death, Google established a specialized grayscale Doodle in the United Kingdom and certain other Commonwealth nations, which comprised simply a colorless Google logo and a hyperlink to Queen Elizabeth II in honor of the late monarch. A dedicated page was established for the Doodle on Google's Doodle archive site, but it was not displayed in the normal listing.
For the date of Queen Elizabeth II's funeral on September 19, Google changed the aforementioned grayscale Doodle to black. This Doodle, as with the grayscale one established on her date of death, was also not displayed in the normal archive listing on Google's Doodle archive site.
On October 11, 2022, Google celebrated the musician and entertainer Tito Puente.
On October 30–31, 2022, Google re-released the Great Ghoul Duel multiplayer Doodle from 2018 with additional maps and achievements. The game was originally scheduled to be released 2021, but it was delayed due to server and designing difficulties.
On November 1, 2022, Google celebrated Indigenous North American stickball in honor of Native American heritage month.
On November 4, 2022, Google celebrated the West African dish jollof rice.
On November 21, 2022, Google celebrated the life of Marie Tharp with an interactive doodle.
On November 23, 2022, Google celebrated Mexican American actress Myrtle Gonzalez.
On December 1–2, 2022, the interactive Google doodle game celebrated the 82nd birthday of Jerry Lawson, one of the fathers of modern gaming.
On December 12, 2022, Google celebrated the life and innovative work of Maria Telkes, one of the first pioneers of solar energy.
On December 17, 2022, Google celebrated Ana Mercedes Hoyos, a distinguished Colombian artist.
On December 19, 2022, Google celebrated 17th century painter Judith Leyster's work.
On January 29–30, 2023, the interactive Google Doodle game celebrated bubble tea, also known as boba tea and pearl milk tea.
On February 8, 2023, Google celebrated Haitian American model and disability rights advocate Mama Cax.
On March 15, 2023, Google celebrated adobo, a way of cooking and a favorite Filipino dish.
On March 19, 2023, Google celebrated the 80th birthday of Mexican chemist Mario Molina.
On March 22, 2023, Google celebrated French mime artist Marcel Marceau.
On March 24, 2023, Google celebrated the 77th birthday of Kitty O'Neil, once crowned the fastest woman in the world.
On March 28, 2023, Google celebrated Justine Siegemund, a midwife who dared to challenge patriarchal attitudes in the 17th century.
On April 30, 2023, to commemorate 36 years since his first leading role in theatre, Google celebrated the life of British actor Alan Rickman.
On May 5, 2023, Google celebrated the life and work of Chinese American photographer, journalist, and activist Corky Lee.
On May 7, 2023, Google celebrated the 190th birthday of German composer and pianist Johannes Brahms.
On May 20–21, 2023, the interactive Google doodle celebrated Lake Xochimilco, a natural lake near Mexico City, Mexico.
On May 22, 2023, Google celebrated Barbara May Cameron, a photographer, poet, writer, and activist.
On June 9, 2023, the Google doodle video celebrated Willi Ninja, an iconic dancer and choreographer known as the Godfather of Voguing.
On June 10, 2023, Google celebrated scones, an afternoon tea treat in the United Kingdom.
On June 20, 2023, Google celebrated the Polish sculptor and artist Magdalena Abakanowicz.
On July 12–13, 2023, the interactive Google doodle game celebrated the Indian street food Panipuri, also widely known as golgappa.
On July 16, 2023, Google celebrated Indian American artist and printmaker Zarina Hashmi.
On July 17, 2023, Google celebrated the 204th birthday of American scientist and women's rights activist Eunice Newton Foote with a slideshow doodle.
On August 4, 2023, Google celebrated the life of Altina Schinasi, an American artist, designer, and inventor.
On September 15, 2023, Google celebrated Guatemalan American labor organizer, journalist, and activist Luisa Moreno.
On September 27, 2023, Google celebrated its 25th anniversary by showing a unique doodle that chronicles the evolution of the Google logo from 1997 to the present, ending with the current logo having the two "o"s in the logo turning into the numbers 25 in reference to Google's 25th anniversary, stylized as G25gle.
On September 29, 2023, Google celebrated the 89th birthday of psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi.
On September 30, 2023, Google celebrated deaf French educator and intellectual Ferdinand Berthier.
On October 2, 2023, Google celebrated the Appalachian trail with a slideshow doodle.
On October 17, 2023, Google celebrated the 118th birthday of Mexican American media pioneer, broadcaster, and community activist Raoul A. Cortez.
On October 20, 2023, Google celebrated the 122nd birthday of jazz singer Adelaide Hall in honor of UK black history month.
On October 31, 2023, Google celebrated Halloween by showcasing a Halloween slideshow poem.
On November 3, 2023, Google celebrated Chiricahua Apache sculptor, painter, and book illustrator Allan Houser.
On November 21, 2023, Google celebrated Chinese Australian surgeon Victor Chang.
On March 7, 2024, Google celebrated what would have been Mexican singer Lola Beltrán's 92nd birthday in an animated doodle.
On March 11, 2024, Google celebrated the flat white, a beloved coffee drink of steamed milk poured over a shot of espresso.
On April 8, 2024, Google celebrated the Solar eclipse of April 8, 2024.
On April 15, 2024, Google celebrated the life and legacy of Lebanese American writer Etel Adnan.
On April 20, 2024, Google celebrated the start of the 2024 NBA playoffs.
On May 1, 2024, Google celebrated Indian American poet Meena Alexander.
On May 14, 2024, Google celebrated the start of the 28th WNBA season.
On May 16, 2024, Google celebrated the 81st birthday of activist Hank Adams.
On May 23, 2024, Google celebrated chilaquiles, the beloved Mexican dish that has made its way into homes around the world.
On June 6, 2024, Google celebrated Chicana activist, feminist, and author Jeanne Cordova in honor of pride month.
On June 10, 2024, Google celebrated the Dragon Boat Festival.
On June 20, 2024, Google kicked off the Conmebol Copa America 2024 as the 48th installment of the Copa América Series.
On August 19, 2024, Google celebrated Welsh poet and deaf activist Dorothy Miles.
On September 9, 2024, Google celebrated S'more with a slideshow doodle.
On September 19, 2024, Google celebrated Cuban American silent film actor and activist Emerson Romero in honor of Hispanic heritage month. The doodle was canceled on September 15, 2024.
On September 25–26, 2024, the interactive Google Doodle game celebrated popcorn.
On October 19, 2024, Google celebrated the staurikosaurus, one of the oldest dinosaurs ever discovered
On October 24, 2024, the interactive Google Doodle game celebrated October's final half moon phase.
On October 30–31, 2024, a third installment to the Magic Cat Academy was made for Halloween. It also had similar gameplay, but a different setting (space) and focused across the layers of the atmosphere.
On November 15, 2024, Google celebrated the kayak in honor of Native American heritage month.
On November 21, 2024, the interactive Google Doodle game celebrated November's final half moon phase.
On November 28, 2024, Google celebrated the American holiday of Thanksgiving.
On December 16, 2024, Google celebrated the Independence Day of Kazakhstan.
On December 22, 2024, the interactive Google Doodle game celebrated December's final half moon phase.
On January 23, 2025, the interactive Google Doodle game celebrated January's final half moon phase.
On February 1, 2025, Google celebrated house music in honor of Black History Month.
On February 6, 2025, Google celebrated gumbo, a dish that might blur the lines between soup and stews, but has become a staple in Louisiana's cuisine.
On June 1, 2025, Google celebrated hyperpop in honor of pride month.
On September 15, 2025, Google celebrated salsa music in honor of Hispanic heritage month.
On September 27, 2025, Google celebrated its 27th anniversary with a doodle that uses the 1998 version of the Google logo in place of the current logo.
On October 30–31, 2025, the night before Halloween, a doodle featuring the Pac-Man game was revealed, but this time with Halloween motifs.
On November 1, 2025, a Google doodle was made celebrating Native American flutes during Native American heritage month.
== "Doodle 4 Google" competitions ==
Google holds competitions for school students to create their own Google doodles, referred to as Doodle 4 Google. Winning doodles go onto the Doodle4Google website, where the public can vote for the winner, who wins a trip to the Googleplex and the hosting of the winning doodle for 24 hours on the Google website.
The competition originated in the United Kingdom, and has since expanded to the United States and other countries. The competition was also held in Ireland in 2008. Google announced a Doodle 4 Google competition for India in 2009 and the winning doodle was displayed on the Google India homepage on November 14. A similar competition held in Singapore based on the theme "Our Singapore" was launched in January 2010 and the winning entry was chosen from over 30,000 entries received. The winning design was shown on Singapore's National Day on Google Singapore's homepage. It was held again in 2015 in Singapore and was themed "Singapore: The next 50 years".
== Controversy and criticism ==
On September 13, 2007, Google posted a doodle honoring author Roald Dahl on the anniversary of his birth, but this date coincided with the first day of the Jewish holiday of Rosh Hashanah, and Google was immediately criticized by members of the Jewish community for this decision, mainly because Dahl has been accused of anti-Semitism. Google removed the Doodle by 2:00 p.m. that day, and there remains no evidence of its existence in Google's official Doodle archive to this date.
In 2007, Google was also criticized for not featuring Doodles for American patriotic holidays, such as Memorial Day and Veterans Day. In that year, Google featured a logo commemorating Veterans Day.
In 2014, Google received some criticism for not honoring the 70th anniversary of the D-Day invasion with a Doodle and instead honoring Japanese Go player Honinbo Shusaku. In response to the criticism, Google removed that logo from their homepage and added a series of links to images of the invasion of Normandy.
On May 19, 2016, Google honored Yuri Kochiyama, an Asian-American activist and member of the Maoist-based black nationalist group Revolutionary Action Movement, with a Doodle on its main American homepage. This choice was criticized by conservative commentators due to some Kochiyama's controversial opinions, such as admiration for Osama bin Laden and Mao Zedong. U.S. Senator Pat Toomey called for a public apology from Google. Not like the anteriorly cited times, Google did not respond to any criticism, nor did it alter the presentation of the Doodle on its homepage or on the Doodle's dedicated page.
=== Gender and race ===
In 2014, a report published by SPARK Movement, an activist organization, stated that there was a large gender and race imbalance in the number of Doodles shown by Google, and that most Doodles were honoring white males. The report was widely reported in the media, and Google made a commitment to increase the proportion of women and racial minorities.
=== Religious holidays ===
Google typically abstains from referencing or celebrating religious holidays specifically in Doodles, or in cases when they do, religious themes and iconography are avoided. Google has acknowledged this as an official policy, stating in April 2018 that they "don't have Doodles for religious holidays", according to "current Doodle guidelines". Google further explained that Doodles may appear for some "non-religious celebrations that have grown out of religious holidays", citing Valentine's Day (Christianity), Holi (Hinduism), and Tu B'Av (Judaism) as examples, but the company does not include "religious imagery or symbolism" as part of those Doodles.
Google has been criticized for what has been perceived as its inconsistency regarding the implementation of its religious holiday policy, notably its lack of Doodles for major Christian holidays. Critics have pointed to its yearly recognition of the Jewish and Hindu festivals of Tu B'av and Holi, while Easter only received an official Doodle once in 2000 (and a themed homepage in 2019). Christmas is not specifically celebrated by name, although a Doodle with a seasonally festive and/or winter theme has always been present on December 25 since 1999. Since the mid-2010s, Google has also repeated their December 25 doodle on January 7, which is the date for Christmas in the Eastern Orthodox Church, but the word "Christmas" has never explicitly been used; the terminology "holidays" and "Eastern Europe" are used instead of "Christmas" or "Eastern Orthodox Church".
==== Easter ====
Google first created a Doodle for Easter in 2000, and did not acknowledge the holiday on its homepage again until 2019. In March 2013, Google was criticized for celebrating American activist Cesar Chavez on Easter Sunday with a Doodle instead of Easter.
In 2019, after an 18-year hiatus, Google presented an atypical "Doodle" for Easter, for the desktop version of their homepage only. Unlike what is seen in virtually all other Doodles, the Google logo itself was unaltered in the presentation of the Doodle, and users had to click on the "I'm Feeling Lucky" button where "Lucky" is replaced with an anthropomorphic Easter egg, which triggered a falling array of Easter-themed items such as eggs, bunnies, and hot cross buns. Some of these items were hyperlinked, leading to a detailed page about Easter customs. Google's official Doodle archive page originally contained an unlisted entry for the 2019 Easter Doodle, which has since been removed. Notably, the 2019 Easter-themed homepage was not visible from mobile devices unless the "Desktop mode" option was triggered on the mobile browser, leading to the majority of users not ever seeing the "Doodle". Danny Sullivan, technologist with Google involved with the Easter-themed homepage, responded to an inquiry about its absence on mobile by saying it was "hard to do the interactivity dependably [on mobile]".
In 2020, Google once again celebrated Easter atypically on its homepage, but not as a Doodle. An Easter egg was placed below the "Google Search" and "I'm Feeling Lucky" buttons, with hovertext indicating "Happy Easter". When clicked, the egg led to a search results page for "Easter". This is similar to how Memorial Day and Remembrance Day have been recognized by the company in the US.
== See also ==
Brand management
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official Website
Google Doodle's channel on YouTube
Google Doodle on Twitter |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriano_Garsia | Adriano Garsia | Adriano Mario Garsia (20 August 1928 – 6 October 2024) was a Tunisian-born Italian American mathematician who worked in analysis, combinatorics, representation theory, and algebraic geometry. He was a student of Charles Loewner and published work on representation theory, symmetric functions, and algebraic combinatorics. He and Mark Haiman made the n! conjecture. He is also the namesake of the Garsia–Wachs algorithm for optimal binary search trees, which he published with his student Michelle L. Wachs in 1977.
== Life ==
Born to Italian Tunisians in Tunis on 20 August 1928, Garsia moved to Rome in 1946.
As of 2023, he had 36 students and at least 200 descendants, according to the data at the Mathematics Genealogy Project. He was on the faculty of the University of California, San Diego. He retired in 2013 after 57 years at UCSD as a founding member of the Mathematics Department. At his 90 Birthday Conference in 2019, it was notable that he was the oldest principal investigator of a grant from the National Science Foundation in the country.
In 2012, he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society.
== Books by A. Garsia ==
Adriano M. Garsia, Topics in Almost Everywhere Convergence, Lectures in Advanced Mathematics Volume 4, Markham Publishing Co., Chicago, Ill., 1970. MR 0261253
Adriano M. Garsia, Martingale inequalities: Seminar Notes on Recent Progress, Mathematics Lecture Notes Series, W. A. Benjamin, Inc., Reading, Mass.-London-Amsterdam, 1973. MR 0448538
Adriano M. Garsia and Mark Haiman, Orbit Harmonics and Graded Representations, Research Monograph, to appear as part of the collection published by the Laboratoire de Combinatoire et d'Informatique Mathématique, edited by S. Brlek, Université du Québec à Montréal.
Adriano M. Garsia and Ömer Eğecioğlu, Lessons in Enumerative Combinatorics, Graduate Texts in Mathematics 290, Springer Nature, Switzerland AG, 2021. ISBN 978-3-030-71249-5. MR 4268536
== References ==
== External links ==
Adriano Garsia at the Mathematics Genealogy Project |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Caspar_F%C3%BCssli | Johann Caspar Füssli | Johann Caspar Füssli (3 January 1706 – 6 May 1782) was a Swiss portrait painter and art historian.
== Biography ==
Füssli was born in Zürich to Hans Rudolf Füssli, who was also a painter, and Elisabeth Schärer. He studied painting in Vienna between 1724 and 1731, and then became a portraitist in the courts of southern Germany.
In 1736, he returned to Zürich, where he painted members of the government and figures of the Enlightenment era such as Johann Jakob Bodmer and Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock. He also wrote and illustrated two dictionaries of Swiss painters and became well known as an art historian.
He married Elisabeth Waser, and they had 18 children. Four of them later became known as painters: Johann Heinrich ("Henry Fuseli", 1741–1825), Johann Kaspar (1743–1786), Elisabeth (1744–1780), and Anna (1749–1772). Johann Caspar Füssli died in Zürich in 1782.
== Publications ==
Geschichte und Abbildung der besten Mahler in der Schweitz ("History and Illustration of the Best Painters in Switzerland"), 1754–1757.
Geschichte der besten Künstler in der Schweitz ("History of the Best Artists in Switzerland"), 1769–1779.
== References ==
== External links ==
"Füssli, Johann Caspar" in German, French and Italian in the online Historical Dictionary of Switzerland.
"Füssli, Johann (Hans) Kaspar (Caspar) (der Ältere)". SIKART Lexicon on art in Switzerland. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Goodenough | John B. Goodenough | John Bannister Goodenough ( GUUD-in-uf; July 25, 1922 – June 25, 2023) was an American materials scientist, a solid-state physicist, and a Nobel laureate in chemistry. From 1986 he was a professor of Materials Science, Electrical Engineering and Mechanical Engineering, at the University of Texas at Austin. He is credited with
identifying the Goodenough–Kanamori rules of the sign of the magnetic superexchange in materials, with developing materials for computer random-access magnetic memory and with inventing cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries.
Goodenough was awarded the National Medal of Science, the Copley Medal, the Fermi Award, the Draper Prize, and the Japan Prize. The John B. Goodenough Award in materials science is named for him. In 2019, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry alongside M. Stanley Whittingham and Akira Yoshino; at 97 years old, he became the oldest Nobel laureate in history. From August 27, 2021, until his death, he was the oldest living Nobel Prize laureate.
== Personal life and education ==
John Goodenough was born in Jena, Germany, on July 25, 1922, to American parents, Erwin Ramsdell Goodenough (1893–1965) and Helen Miriam (Lewis) Goodenough. He came from an academic family. His father, a graduate student at Oxford when John was born, eventually became a professor of religious history at Yale. His brother Ward became an anthropology professor at the University of Pennsylvania. John also had two half-siblings from his father's second marriage: Ursula Goodenough, emeritus professor of biology at Washington University in St. Louis; and Daniel Goodenough, emeritus professor of biology at Harvard Medical School.
In his school years Goodenough suffered from dyslexia. At the time, dyslexia was poorly understood by the medical community, and Goodenough's condition went undiagnosed and untreated. Although his primary schools considered him "a backward student," he taught himself to write so that he could take the entrance exam for Groton School, the boarding school where his older brother was studying at the time. He was awarded a full scholarship. At Groton, his grades improved and he eventually graduated at the top of his class in 1940. He also developed an interest in exploring nature, plants, and animals. Although he was raised an atheist, he converted to Protestant Christianity in high school.
After Groton, Goodenough graduated summa cum laude from Yale, where he was a member of Skull and Bones. He completed his coursework in early 1943 (after just two and a half years) and received his degree in 1944, covering his expenses by tutoring and grading exams. He had initially sought to enlist in the military following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, but his mathematics professor convinced him to stay at Yale for another year so that he could finish his coursework, which qualified him to join the U.S. Army Air Corps' meteorology department.
After World War II ended, Goodenough obtained a master's degree and a Ph.D. in physics from the University of Chicago, the latter in 1952. His doctoral supervisor was Clarence Zener, a theorist in electrical breakdown; he also worked and studied with physicists, including Enrico Fermi and John A. Simpson. While at Chicago, he met Canadian history graduate student Irene Wiseman. They married in 1951. The couple had no children. Irene died in 2016.
Goodenough turned 100 on July 25, 2022. He died at an assisted living facility in Austin, Texas, on June 25, 2023, one month shy of what would have been his 101st birthday.
== Career and research ==
Over his career, Goodenough authored more than 550 articles, 85 book chapters and reviews, and five books, including two seminal works, Magnetism and the Chemical Bond (1963) and Les oxydes des metaux de transition (1973).
=== MIT Lincoln Laboratory ===
After his studies, Goodenough was a research scientist and team leader at the MIT Lincoln Laboratory for 24 years. At MIT, he was part of an interdisciplinary team responsible for developing random-access magnetic memory. His research focused on magnetism and on the metal–insulator transition behavior in transition-metal oxides. His research efforts on RAM led him to develop the concepts of cooperative orbital ordering, also known as a cooperative Jahn–Teller distortion, in oxide materials. They subsequently led him to develop (with Junjiro Kanamori) the Goodenough–Kanamori rules, a set of semi-empirical rules to predict the sign of the magnetic superexchange in materials; superexchange is a core property for high-temperature superconductivity.
=== University of Oxford ===
The U.S. government eventually terminated Goodenough's research funding, so during the late 1970s and early 1980s, he left the United States and continued his career as head of the Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory at the University of Oxford. Among the highlights of his work at Oxford, Goodenough is credited with significant research essential to the development of commercial lithium-ion rechargeable batteries. Goodenough was able to expand upon previous work from M. Stanley Whittingham on battery materials, and found in 1980 that by using LixCoO2 as a lightweight, high energy density cathode material, he could double the capacity of lithium-ion batteries.
Although Goodenough saw a commercial potential of batteries with his LiCoO2 and LiNiO2 cathodes and approached the University of Oxford with a request to patent this invention, it refused. Unable to afford the patenting expenses with his academic salary, Goodenough turned to UK's Atomic Energy Research Establishment in Harwell, which accepted his offer, but under the terms, which provided zero royalty payment to the inventors John B. Goodenough and Koichi Mizushima. In 1990, the AERE licensed Goodenough's patents to Sony Corporation, which was followed by other battery manufacturers. It was estimated, that the AERE made over 10 million British pounds from this licensing.
The work at Sony on further improvements to Goodenough's invention was led by Akira Yoshino, who had developed a scaled up design of the battery and manufacturing process. Goodenough received the Japan Prize in 2001 for his discoveries of the materials critical to the development of lightweight high energy density rechargeable lithium batteries, and he, Whittingham, and Yoshino shared the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their research in lithium-ion batteries.
=== University of Texas ===
From 1986, Goodenough was a professor at The University of Texas at Austin in the Cockrell School of Engineering departments of Mechanical Engineering and Electrical Engineering. During his tenure there, he continued his research on ionic conducting solids and electrochemical devices; he continued to study improved materials for batteries, aiming to promote the development of electric vehicles and to help reduce human dependency on fossil fuels. Arumugam Manthiram and Goodenough discovered the polyanion class of cathodes. They showed that positive electrodes containing polyanions, e.g., sulfates, produce higher voltages than oxides due to the inductive effect of the polyanion. The polyanion class includes materials such as lithium-iron phosphates that are used for smaller devices like power tools. His group also identified various promising electrode and electrolyte materials for solid oxide fuel cells. He held the Virginia H. Cockrell Centennial Chair in Engineering.
Goodenough still worked at the university at age 98 as of 2021, hoping to find another breakthrough in battery technology.
On February 28, 2017, Goodenough and his team at the University of Texas published a paper in the journal Energy and Environmental Science on their demonstration of a glass battery, a low-cost all-solid-state battery that is noncombustible and has a long cycle life with a high volumetric energy density, and fast rates of charge and discharge. Instead of liquid electrolytes, the battery uses glass electrolytes that enable the use of an alkali-metal anode without the formation of dendrites. However, this paper was met with widespread skepticism by the battery research community and remains controversial after several follow-up works. The work was criticized for a lack of comprehensive data, spurious interpretations of the data obtained, and that the proposed mechanism of battery operation would violate the first law of thermodynamics.
In April 2020, a patent was filed for the glass battery on behalf of Portugal's National Laboratory of Energy and Geology (LNEG), the University of Porto, Portugal, and the University of Texas.
=== Advisory work ===
In 2010, Goodenough joined the technical advisory board of Enevate, a silicon-dominant Li-ion battery technology startup based in Irvine, California. Goodenough also served as an adviser to the Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), a collaboration led by Argonne National Laboratory and funded by the Department of Energy. From 2016, Goodenough also worked as an adviser for Battery500, a national consortium led by Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) and partially funded by the U.S. Department of Energy.
== Distinctions and awards ==
Goodenough was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1976 for his work designing materials for electronic components and clarifying the relationships between the properties, structures, and chemistry of substances. He was also a member of the American National Academy of Sciences and its French, Spanish, and Indian counterparts. In 2010, he was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society. The Royal Society of Chemistry grants a John B. Goodenough Award in his honor. The Electrochemical Society awards a biannual John B. Goodenough Award of The Electrochemical Society.
Goodenough received the following awards:
Fermi Award (2009), alongside metallurgist Siegfried Hecker
National Medal of Science (2013), presented by U.S. President Barack Obama
Draper Prize in engineering (2014).
Welch Award in Chemistry (2017)
C.K. Prahalad Award (2017)
Copley Medal of the Royal Society (2019)
Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2019), alongside M. Stanley Whittingham and Akira Yoshino
Goodenough was 97 when he received the Nobel Prize. He remains the oldest person ever to have been awarded the prize.
== Works ==
=== Selected articles ===
=== Selected books ===
== See also ==
Junjiro Kanamori
Koichi Mizushima (scientist)
Rachid Yazami
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Faculty Directory at University of Texas at Austin
Array of Contemporary American Physicists
History of the lithium-ion battery, Physics Today, Sept. 2016
1 hour interview with John Goodenough on YouTube by The Electrochemical Society, October 5, 2016
Are Solid State Batteries about to change the world?, Joe Scott, November 2018, Goodenough and team research on more energy dense solid state Li-ion chemistry featured 3:35–12:45.
Pr John Goodenough's interview GOODENOUGH John B., 2001–05 – Sciences : histoire orale on École supérieure de physique et de chimie industrielles de la ville de Paris history of science website
John B. Goodenough on Nobelprize.org including the Nobel Lecture, "Designing Lithium-ion Battery Cathodes" (December 8, 2019) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shristi_Shrestha#:~:text=Shrestha%20is%20the%20first%20Miss,contestants%20for%20the%20Multimedia%20Award. | Shristi Shrestha | Shristi Shrestha (Nepali: सृष्टि श्रेष्ठ, ) is a Nepalese actress, model and beauty pageant titleholder who the winner of the Miss Nepal 2012 pageant.
== Career ==
=== Pageants ===
Shrestha represented her home district of Chitwan during the Miss Nepal 2012 beauty pageant as Miss Chitwan 2012. She went on to win the main title of Miss Nepal that year along with the Miss Confidence title.
Shrestha is the first Miss Nepal winner to reach the quarter-finals of Miss World; she finished in 20th place overall, achieved eighth place in Beach Beauty, and was one of the top ten contestants for the Multimedia Award. She also won the Public Choice Award during the Miss World pageant.
=== Acting ===
Her acting debut was in the Nepali film Gajalu, alongside Anmol K.C. On the stage, she made her debut as Ophelia in a production of William Shakespeare's Hamlet. This performance was staged at the Theatre Village in Kathmandu for one month, and was produced by the British Council. The play was directed by Gregory Thomson.
== Awards ==
Shrestha has received Best Debut Actor awards from the National Film Awards, the Kamana Film Awards, the Dcine Awards, and the FAAN Awards.
== Personal life ==
Shrestha is the seventh Young Conservation Ambassador for WWF Nepal and is involved with snow leopard conservation projects within the organization. She was in a relationship with Saugat Malla from 2016 to early 2023.
== Filmography ==
=== Music videos ===
=== Films ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Shristi Shrestha at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia#:~:text=In%20August%201997%20Nokia%20introduced,was%20eventually%20launched%20as%20ONdigital. | Nokia | Nokia Corporation is a Finnish multinational telecommunications, information technology, and consumer electronics corporation, originally established as a pulp mill in 1865. Nokia's main headquarters are in Espoo, Finland, in the Helsinki metropolitan area, but the company's actual roots are in the Tampere region of Pirkanmaa. In 2020, Nokia employed approximately 92,000 people across over 100 countries, did business in more than 130 countries, and reported annual revenues of around €23 billion. Nokia is a public limited company listed on the Nasdaq Helsinki and New York Stock Exchange. It was the world's 415th-largest company measured by 2016 revenues, according to the Fortune Global 500, having peaked at 85th place in 2009. It is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index.
The company has operated in various industries over the past 150 years. It was founded as a pulp mill and had long been associated with rubber and cables, but since the 1990s has focused on large-scale telecommunications infrastructure, technology development, and licensing. Nokia made significant contributions to the mobile telephony industry, assisting in the development of the GSM, 3G, and LTE standards. For a decade beginning in 1998, Nokia was the largest worldwide vendor of mobile phones and smartphones. In the later 2000s, however, Nokia suffered from a series of poor management decisions and soon saw its share of the mobile phone market drop sharply.
After a partnership with Microsoft and Nokia's subsequent market struggles, in 2014, Microsoft bought Nokia's mobile phone business, incorporating it as Microsoft Mobile. After the sale, Nokia began to focus more on its telecommunications infrastructure business and on Internet of things technologies, marked by the divestiture of its Here mapping division and the acquisition of Alcatel-Lucent, including its Bell Labs research organization. The company also experimented with virtual reality and digital health, the latter through the purchase of Withings. The Nokia brand returned to the mobile and smartphone market in 2016 through a licensing arrangement with HMD. Nokia continues to be a major patent licensor for most large mobile phone vendors. As of 2018, Nokia is the world's third-largest network equipment manufacturer.
The company was viewed with national pride by Finns, as its mobile phone business made it by far the largest worldwide company and brand from Finland. At its peak in 2000, Nokia accounted for 4% of the country's GDP, 21% of total exports, and 70% of the Nasdaq Helsinki market capital.
== History ==
=== 1865–1967 ===
Nokia's history dates from 1865, when mining engineer Fredrik Idestam established a pulp mill on the shores of the Tammerkoski rapids near the town of Tampere, Finland (then a Grand Duchy under Russian Empire's rule). A second pulp mill was opened in 1868 near the neighboring town of Nokia, where there were better hydropower resources. In 1871, Idestam, together with a friend Leo Mechelin, formed a shared company and called it Nokia Ab (in Swedish, Nokia Company being the English equivalent), after the site of the second pulp mill.
Idestam retired in 1896, making Mechelin the company's chairman; he expanded into electricity generation by 1902, which Idestam had opposed. In 1904, Suomen Gummitehdas (Finnish Rubber Works), a rubber business founded by Eduard Polón, established a factory near the town of Nokia and used its name.
In 1922, in the now independent Finland, Nokia Ab entered into a partnership with the Finnish Rubber Works and Kaapelitehdas (the Cable Factory), all now jointly under the leadership of Polón. The rubber company grew rapidly when it moved to the Nokia region in the 1930s to take advantage of the electricity supply, and the cable company soon did too.
Nokia at the time also made respirators for both civilian and military use, from the 1930s well into the early 1990s.
=== 1967–1988 ===
In 1967, the three companies – Nokia, Kaapelitehdas, and Finnish Rubber Works – merged to create a new Nokia Corporation, restructured into four major businesses: forestry, cable, rubber, and electronics. In the early 1970s, it entered the networking and radio industries. Nokia started making military equipment for Finland's defence forces (Puolustusvoimat), such as the Sanomalaite M/90 communicator in 1983, and the M61 gas mask first developed in the 1960s. Nokia was now also making professional mobile radios, telephone switches, capacitors and chemicals.
After Finland's trade agreement with the Soviet Union in the 1960s, Nokia expanded into the Soviet market. It soon widened trade, ranging from automatic telephone exchanges to robotics among others; by the late 1970s, the Soviet Union became a major market for Nokia, yielding high profits. The U.S. government became increasingly concerned of the possible export of items it deemed as high technology, such as digital telephone exchanges, to the Soviet Union in the 1980s. This led to Finland entering the Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls in 1987. This was a demonstration of Finland balancing between both sides, as it was neutral during the Cold War.
In 1977, Kari Kairamo became CEO and transformed the company's businesses. By this time, Finland was becoming what has been called "Nordic Japan". Under his leadership, Nokia acquired many companies, including television maker Salora in 1984, followed by Swedish electronics and computer maker Luxor AB in 1985, and French television maker Oceanic in 1987. This made Nokia the third-largest television manufacturer of Europe (behind Philips and Thomson). The existing brands continued to be used until the end of the television business in 1996.
In 1979, in a joint venture with Salora Oy, Nokia established Mobira, a mobile radio telephone manufacturer that would go on to become the foundation of Nokia's mobile phone business.
In 1981, Mobira launched the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) service, the world's first international cellular network and the first to allow international roaming. In 1982, Mobira launched the Mobira Senator car phone, Nokia's first mobile phone. At that time, the company had no interest in producing mobile phones, which the executive board regarded as akin to James Bond's gadgets: improbably futuristic and niche devices.
In 1984, Nokia acquired Mobira.
In 1987, Nokia acquired Schaub-Lorenz, the consumer operations of Germany's Standard Elektrik Lorenz (SEL), which included its "Schaub-Lorenz" and "Graetz" brands. It was originally part of American conglomerate International Telephone & Telegraph (ITT), and after the acquisition products were sold under the "ITT Nokia" brand, despite SEL's sale to Compagnie Générale d'Electricité (CGE), the predecessor of Alcatel, in 1986.
In 1987, Kaapelitehdas discontinued production of cables at its Helsinki factory after 44 years, effectively shutting down the sub-company.
On 1 April 1988, Nokia bought the Information Systems division of Ericsson, which had originated as the Datasaab computer division of Swedish aircraft and car manufacturer Saab. Ericsson Information Systems made Alfaskop terminals, typewriters, minicomputers and Ericsson-branded IBM compatible PCs. The merger with Nokia's Information Systems division—which since 1981 had a line of personal computers called MikroMikko—resulted in the name Nokia Data.
After all these acquisitions, Nokia's revenue base became US$2.7 billion.
CEO Kairamo killed himself on 11 December 1988.
=== 1988–2010 ===
Following Simo Vuorilehto's appointment as CEO, a major restructuring was planned. With 11 groups within the company, Vuorilehto divested industrial units he deemed as un-strategic. Nokian Tyres (Nokian Renkaat), a tyre producer originally formed as a division of Finnish Rubber Works in 1932, split away from Nokia Corporation in 1988. Two years later, in 1990, Finnish Rubber Works followed suit. In 1991, Nokia sold its computer division, Nokia Data, to UK-based International Computers Limited (ICL), the precursor of Fujitsu Siemens. Investors thought of this as financial trouble and Nokia's stock price sank as a result. Finland was now also experiencing its worst recession in living memory, and the collapse of the Soviet Union, a major customer, made matters worse.
Vuorilehto quit in January 1992 and was replaced by Jorma Ollila, who had been the head of the mobile phone business from 1990 and advised against selling that division. Ollila decided to turn Nokia into a "telecom-oriented" company, and he eventually got rid of divisions like the power business. This strategy proved to be very successful, and the company grew rapidly in the following years. Nokia's operating profit went from negative in 1991 to $1 billion in 1995 and almost $4 billion by 1999.
Nokia's first fully portable mobile phone after the Mobira Senator was the Mobira Cityman 900 in 1987. Nokia assisted in the development of the GSM mobile standard in the 1980s and developed the first GSM network with Siemens, the predecessor to Nokia Siemens Network. The world's first GSM call was made by Finnish prime minister Harri Holkeri on 1 July 1991, using Nokia equipment on the 900 MHz band network built by Nokia and operated by Radiolinja. In November 1992, the Nokia 1011 launched, making it the first commercially available GSM mobile phone.
Salora Oy as a Nokia subsidiary ended in 1989 when the division was merged into Nokia-Mobira Oy. The brand continued to be used for televisions until 1995.
On 12 June 1996, Nokia announced the sale of its television business to Canada/Hong Kong-based Semi-Tech Corporation. The television manufacturing plant in Germany closed down in September 1996. The sale included a factory in Turku and the rights to use the Nokia, Finlux, Luxor, Salora, Schaub-Lorenz, and Oceanic brands until the end of 1999. Some of these brands were later sold to other companies.
Nokia was the first to launch digital satellite receivers in the UK, announced in March 1997. In August 1997, Nokia introduced the first digital satellite receiver with Common Interface (CI) support. In 1998, Nokia became the chosen supplier to produce the world's first digital terrestrial television set-top boxes by British Digital Broadcasting (BDB), which was eventually launched as ONdigital.
In October 1998, Nokia overtook Motorola to become the best-selling mobile phone brand and in December, manufactured its 100 millionth mobile phone. A major reason why Nokia grew against its main competitors Motorola and Ericsson was that it managed to cater to the consumer youth market and fashion-oriented consumers, most significantly with the Nokia 5110 and 3210 handsets, which featured a large range of colourful and replaceable back covers called Xpress-on. One of the earliest fashion phones in 1992, from Swiss watchmaker Swatch, was based on Nokia's 101 handset. The company would also form the Vertu division, creating luxury mobile handsets.
In April 1996, Nokia claimed its 447Xav and 447K monitors to be the first with stereo speakers and a subwoofer. In May 1999, Nokia introduced their first wireless LAN products. In January 2000, ViewSonic acquired Nokia Display Products, the division making displays for personal computers. On 26 April 2001, Nokia partnered with Telefónica to supply DSL modems and routers in Spain.
In 1997, Nokia established a joint venture with Brazilian electronics firm Gradient where they were granted the license to manufacture variants of Nokia mobile phones locally under the Nokia and Gradient brand names.
In 1998, Nokia cofounded Symbian Ltd., led by Psion, to create a new operating system for PDAs and smart mobile phones as a successor of EPOC32. They released the Nokia 9210 Communicator running Symbian OS in 2001 and later that year created the Symbian Series 60 platform, later introducing it with their first camera phone, the Nokia 7650. Both Nokia and Symbian eventually became the largest smartphone hardware and software maker, respectively, and in February 2004, Nokia became the largest shareholder of Symbian Ltd. Nokia acquired the entire company in June 2008 and then formed the Symbian Foundation as its successor.
In 1998 alone, the company had sales revenue of $20 billion, making $2.6 billion profit. By 2000, Nokia employed over 55,000 people and had a market share of 30% in the mobile phone market, almost twice as large as its nearest competitor, Motorola. The company was operating in 140 countries as of 1999. It was reported at the time that some people believed Nokia to be a Japanese company. Between 1996 and 2001, Nokia's turnover increased fivefold, from €6.5 billion to €31 billion. Meanwhile, a Reader's Digest survey held near end 2000 showed that Nokia was the "most trusted brand in Europe", ranking better than Sony, Canon, and Nivea.
The company would then be known as a successful and innovative maker of camera phones. The Nokia 3600/3650 was the first camera phone on sale in North America in 2003. In April 2005, Nokia partnered with German camera optics maker Carl Zeiss AG. That same month, Nokia introduced the Nseries, which would become its flagship line of smartphones for the next six years. The Nokia N95 was introduced in September 2006, became highly successful, and was also awarded "best mobile imaging device" in Europe in 2007. Its successor the N82 featured a xenon flash, which helped it win the award of "best mobile imaging" device in Europe in 2008. The N93 in 2006 was known for its specialized camcorder and the twistable design that switches between clamshell and a camcorder-like position. They were also well known for the N8 with a high-resolution 12-megapixel sensor, in 2010; the 808 PureView with a 41-megapixel sensor, in 2012; and the Lumia 920 flagship, which implemented advanced PureView technologies, in 2012.
Nokia was one of the pioneers of mobile gaming due to the popularity of Snake, which came preloaded on many products. In 2002, Nokia attempted to break into the handheld gaming market with the N-Gage. Nokia's head of entertainment and media, Ilkka Raiskinen, once said, "Game Boy is for 10-year-olds", stating that N-Gage is more suited to a mature audience. However, the device was a failure, unable to challenge the dominant market leader, Nintendo. Nokia attempted to revive N-Gage as a platform for their S60 smartphones, which eventually launched in 2008.
In Q1 2004, Nokia's mobile phone handset market share steeply dropped to 28.9%, down from 34.6% a year earlier. However, by 2006, the company was steadily gaining again and in Q4 2007 reached its all-time high figure of 40.4%. Its smartphone market share in that quarter was 51%. Nokia was the largest vendor at the time in all regions bar North America.
Nokia launched mobile TV trials in 2005 in Finland with content provided by public broadcaster Yle. The services are based on the DVB-H standard. It could be viewed with the widescreen Nokia 7710 smartphone with a special accessory enabling it to receive DVB-H signals. Nokia partnered with Arqiva and O2 to launch trials in the UK in September 2005.
In 2005, Nokia developed a Linux-based operating system called Maemo, which shipped that year on the Nokia 770 Internet Tablet.
On 1 June 2006, Jorma Ollila became the company's chairman and retired as CEO, replaced by Olli-Pekka Kallasvuo.
In August 2007, Nokia introduced Ovi, an umbrella name for the company's new Internet services, which included the N-Gage platform and the Nokia Music Store. The Ovi Store faced stiff competition from Apple's App Store when it was introduced in 2008.
In October 2008, Nokia announced the Nokia 5800 XpressMusic, the first device to ship with the new touch-centric S60 5th Edition, also known as Symbian^1, the first iteration of the platform since the creation of the Symbian Foundation. In November 2008, Nokia announced it would end mobile phone sales in Japan because of low market share. Nokia's global mobile phone market share peaked in 2008 at 38.6 percent. The same year, Nokia announced the acquisition of Trolltech and its Qt software development. Qt was a central part of Nokia's strategy until 2011, and it was eventually sold in 2012.
Nokia briefly returned to the computer market with the Booklet 3G netbook in August 2009.
=== 2010–2014 ===
In late 2009 and in 2010, the music-focused Xseries and consumer-focused Cseries were introduced respectively. In April 2010, Nokia introduced its next flagship mobile device, the Nokia N8, which would be the first to run on Symbian^3. However, it was delayed for many months which tarnished the company's image, especially after the failure of its previous flagship N97 and tougher competition from Apple and the rising Google. On 10 September 2010, Olli-Pekka Kallasvuo was fired as CEO and it was announced that Stephen Elop from Microsoft would take Nokia's CEO position, becoming the first non-Finnish director in Nokia's history. It was claimed that investors pressed Nokia's board to recruit an outsider to shake up management and break from the traditional "Nokia way". Ollila had also announced that he would step down as Nokia chairman by 2012. On 11 March 2011, Nokia announced that it had paid Elop a $6 million signing bonus as "compensation for lost income from his prior employer", on top of his $1.4 million annual salary.
The old Symbian OS became completely open-source in February 2010. However, in November 2010 it was announced that the Symbian Foundation was closing and that Nokia would take back control of the Symbian operating system under closed licensing. By now, Nokia was the only remaining company using the platform, along with carrier NTT Docomo in Japan, after both Samsung and Sony Ericsson moved to Android. Meanwhile, in 2010 for Nokia's Linux ambitions, Nokia collaborated with Intel to form the MeeGo project, after the merger of Nokia's own Maemo and Intel's Moblin.
Nokia's Symbian platform that had been the leading smartphone platform in Europe and Asia for many years was quickly becoming outdated and difficult for developers after the advent of iOS and Android. To counter this, Nokia planned to make their MeeGo Linux operating system, under development, the company's flagship on smartphones. Shortly after Elop's CEO tenure began, the Nokia board green-lit him the ability to change the company's mobile phones strategy, including changing operating systems. Veteran Anssi Vanjoki, head of the smartphones division, left the company around this time. His final appearance was at Nokia World 2010 when the Nokia E7-00 and other Symbian^3 devices were introduced.
On 11 February 2011, Nokia announced a "strategic partnership" with Microsoft, under which it would adopt Windows Phone 7 as its primary operating system on smartphones, and integrate its services and platforms with its own, including Bing as search engine, and integration of Nokia Maps data into Bing Maps. Elop stated that Nokia chose not to use Android because of an apparent inability to "differentiate" its offerings, with critics also noting that his past ties to Microsoft may have also influenced the decision. Although the MeeGo "Harmattan"-based N9 was met with a highly positive reception in 2011, Nokia had already decided to end development on MeeGo and solely focus on its Microsoft partnership, although the CEO said that the N9's "innovations" will live on in the future, which eventually made their way on the Asha platform in 2013. After the announcement of the Microsoft partnership, Nokia's market share deteriorated; this was due to demand for Symbian dropping when consumers realized Nokia's focus and attention would be elsewhere.
The company posted a large loss for the second quarter of 2011 – only their second quarterly loss in 19 years. Nokia's first Windows Phone flagship was the Lumia 800, which arrived in November 2011. Falling sales in 2011, which were not being improved significantly with the Lumia line in 2012, led to consecutive quarters of huge losses. By mid-2012 the company's stock price fell below $2. CEO Elop announced cost-cutting measures in June by shedding 10,000 employees by the end of the year and the closure of the Salo manufacturing plant. The Finnish prime minister also announced that the government wouldn't subsidize the company from an emergency state fund. Around this time, Nokia started a new project codenamed "Meltemi", a platform for low-end smartphones. With the Microsoft alliance and under Elop's management, Nokia also had a renewed focus on the North American market where Nokia phones were, in stark contrast to the rest of the world, almost irrelevant for many years. This strategy began in January 2012 with the introduction of the Nokia Lumia 900 smartphone in partnership with U.S. carrier AT&T.
In March 2011, Nokia introduced a new corporate typeface called "Pure". On 1 August 2011, Nokia announced that it would adopt a new three-digit naming system for mobile phone products and stop using letters, effectively ending the Nseries, Eseries, and short-lived Cseries. That same day, the Nokia 500 was introduced with the new system. Nokia last used three-digit names on analogue phones in the 1990s.
When the Lumia 920 was announced in September 2012, it was seen by the press as the first high-end Windows Phone that could challenge rivals due to its advanced feature set. Elop said that the positive reaction to it had created a sense of hope and optimism in the company. The company was also making gains in developing countries with its Asha series, which were selling strongly. Although Nokia's smartphone sales and market share greatly increased throughout 2013, including in the North American market, it was still not enough to avoid financial losses. Ollila stepped down as chairman on 4 May 2012 and was replaced by Risto Siilasmaa.
In September 2013, Nokia announced the sale of its mobile and devices division to Microsoft. The sale was positive for Nokia to avoid further negative financial figures, as well as for Microsoft's CEO Steve Ballmer, who wanted Microsoft to produce more hardware and turn it into a devices and services company. The Nokia chairperson, Risto Siilasmaa, described the deal as rationally correct (in the best interests of Nokia shareholders), but emotionally difficult – experts agree that Nokia would have been in a cash crisis had it not sold the division to Microsoft. Analysts believe that Ballmer pushed for the buyout because of fears that Nokia was close to adopting Android and abandoning their alliance with Microsoft. Indeed, in January 2014 the Nokia X was introduced which ran on a customised version of Android. It was a surprising and somewhat odd launch coming just weeks away from the finalization of the Microsoft buyout. Others, including Ballmer's successor Satya Nadella, felt that Microsoft thought merging their software teams with Nokia's hardware engineering and designs would "accelerate" growth of Windows Phone. The sale was completed in April 2014, with Microsoft Mobile becoming the successor to Nokia's mobile devices division. Nokia also moved from its headquarters to another building complex located at Karaportti. At the time, Ballmer himself was retiring as Microsoft CEO and was replaced by Satya Nadella, who opposed the Nokia mobile phones purchase, along with chairman Bill Gates. The purchased assets from Nokia were eventually written-off by Microsoft in 2015.
By 2014, Nokia's global brand value according to Interbrand fell to 98th place, a sharp slide from the 5th place it was in 2009. Nokia's downfall in the mobile phone market has had different explanations from analysts, with many split about the CEO's decision to abandon its in-house operating system and adopting Windows Phone in 2011. Many researchers have concluded that Nokia suffered from deep internal rivalries within the management. Former employees claimed that the management became so swollen by the early success that they grew complacent over time. Some from the Symbian developing team have claimed that the company's upper management rejected hundreds of potential innovations during the 2000s that they proposed, including entirely rewriting Symbian's code. One former Nokia employee claimed that the company was run as a "Soviet-style bureaucracy".
In July 2013, Nokia bought Siemens' stake in the Nokia Siemens Networks joint venture for $2.2 billion, turning it into a wholly owned subsidiary called Nokia Solutions and Networks, until being rebranded as Nokia Networks soon after. During Nokia's financial struggles, its profitable networking division with Siemens provided much of its income; thus, the purchase proved to be positive, particularly after the sale of its mobile devices unit.
=== 2014–2016 ===
After the sale of its mobile devices division, Nokia focused on network equipment through Nokia Networks.
In October 2014, Nokia and China Mobile signed a US$970 million framework deal for delivery between 2014 and 2015.
On 17 November 2014, Nokia Technologies head Ramzi Haidamus disclosed that the company planned to re-enter the consumer electronics business as an original design manufacturer, licensing in-house hardware designs and technologies to third-party manufacturers. Haidamus stated that the Nokia brand was "valuable" but "is diminishing in value, and that's why it is important that we reverse that trend very quickly, imminently". The next day, Nokia unveiled the N1, an Android tablet manufactured by Foxconn, as its first product following the Microsoft sale. Haidamus emphasized that devices released under these licensing agreements would be held to high standards in production quality, and would "look and feel just like Nokia built it". Nokia CEO Rajeev Suri stated that the company planned to re-enter the mobile phone business in this manner in 2016, following the expiration of its non-compete clause with Microsoft.
According to Robert Morlino, the spokesman of Nokia Technologies, Nokia planned to follow the brand-licensing model rather than direct marketing of mobile devices due to the sale of its mobile devices division to Microsoft. The company took aggressive steps to revitalize itself, evident through its hiring of software experts, testing of new products and seeking of sales partners. On 14 July 2015, CEO Rajeev Suri confirmed that the company would make a return to the mobile phones market in 2016.
On 28 July 2015, Nokia announced OZO, a 360-degrees virtual reality camera, with eight 2K optical image sensors. The division behind the product, Nokia Technologies, claimed that OZO would be the most advanced VR film-making platform. Nokia's press release stated that OZO would be "the first in a planned portfolio of digital media solutions," with more technological products expected in the future. OZO was fully unveiled on 30 November in Los Angeles. The OZO, designed for professional use, was intended for retail for US$60,000; however, its price was decreased by $15,000 prior to release, and is listed on its official website as $40,000.
On 14 April 2015, Nokia confirmed that it was in talks with the French telecommunications equipment company Alcatel-Lucent regarding a potential merger. The next day, Nokia announced that it had agreed to purchase Alcatel-Lucent for €15.6 billion in an all-stock deal. CEO Rajeev Suri felt that the purchase would give Nokia a strategic advantage in the development of 5G wireless technologies. The acquisition created a stronger competitor to the rival firms Ericsson and Huawei, whom Nokia and Alcatel-Lucent had surpassed in terms of total combined revenue in 2014. Nokia shareholders hold 66.5% of the new combined company, while Alcatel-Lucent shareholders hold 33.5%. The Bell Labs division was to be maintained, but the Alcatel-Lucent brand would be replaced by Nokia. In October 2015, following approval of the deal by China's Ministry of Commerce, the merger awaited approval by French regulators. Despite the initial intent of selling the submarine cable division separately, Alcatel-Lucent later declared that it would not. The merger closed on 14 January 2016, but was not complete until 3 November 2016. From the acquisition, Nokia is now also the owner of the Alcatel Mobile phone brand, which continues to be licensed to TCL.
On 3 August 2015, Nokia announced that it had reached a deal to sell its Here digital maps division to a consortium of BMW, Daimler AG and Volkswagen Group for €2.8 billion. The deal closed on 3 December 2015.
=== 2016–2019 ===
On 26 April 2016, Nokia announced its intent to acquire French connected health device maker Withings for US$191 million. The company was integrated into a new Digital Health unit of Nokia Technologies. Nokia later wrote off the cost of the acquisition and in May 2018 the health unit was sold back to Éric Carreel, a Withings co-founder and former CEO.
On 18 May 2016, Microsoft Mobile sold its Nokia-branded feature phone business to HMD Global, a new company founded by former Nokia executive Jean-Francois Baril, and an associated factory in Vietnam to Foxconn's FIH Mobile subsidiary. Nokia subsequently entered into a long-term licensing deal to make HMD the exclusive manufacturer of Nokia-branded phones and tablets outside Japan, operating in conjunction with Foxconn. The deal also granted HMD the right to essential patents and featurephone software. HMD subsequently announced the Android-based Nokia 6 smartphone in January 2017. At Mobile World Congress, HMD additionally unveiled the Nokia 3 and Nokia 5 smartphones, as well as a re-imagining of Nokia's classic 3310 feature phone. Nokia has direct investments in the company, and they do have some input in the new devices.
On 28 June 2016, Nokia demonstrated for the first time a 5G-ready network. In February 2017 Nokia carried out a 5G connection in Oulu, Finland using the 5GTF standard, backed by Verizon, on Intel architecture-based equipment.
In July 2017, Nokia and Xiaomi announced that they have signed a business collaboration agreement and a multi-year patent agreement, including a cross-license to each company's cellular standard-essential patents. In that year, Nokia's brand value was ranked 188th by Brand Finance, a jump of 147 places from 2016. Its rise was attributed to its health portfolio and new mobile phones developed by HMD Global.
In January 2018, Nokia signed a deal with NTT Docomo, Japan's largest mobile operator, to provide 5G wireless radio base stations in the country by 2020. Later that month, Nokia announced the ReefShark line of 5G chipsets, claiming that it triples bandwidth to 84 Gbit/s. In March, Solidium, the investment arm of the Finnish Government, purchased a 3.3% stake in Nokia valued at €844 million. In May, Nokia announced that it had acquired a California-based IoT startup, SpaceTime Insight.
In January 2019, the Canadian government announced that it would provide $40 million to support Nokia's research on 5G technology. A 2019 study revealed that Nokia phones performed far better than rivals Samsung, LG, Xiaomi, and Huawei in updating to the latest version of Android. The study, made by Counterpoint Research, found that 96 percent of Nokia phones were either sent with or updated to the latest Android version since Pie was released in 2018. Nokia's competitors were found to be all around roughly the 80 percent range.
=== 2020–present ===
On 2 March 2020, Nokia announced Pekka Lundmark as its new CEO. Later that month, Nokia completed the acquisition of Elenion Technologies, a U.S.-based company focusing on silicon photonics technology to improve economics of advanced optical connectivity products.
On 27 May 2020, Sari Baldauf succeeded Risto Siilasmaa as chairwoman of the board of directors, and Kari Stadigh was appointed vice chair. In June, Nokia won a 5G contract worth approximately $450 million from Taiwan Mobile to build out the telecom operator's next-generation network as the sole supplier. In October, Nokia announced a contract with NASA to build a 4G mobile network for astronaut usage on the moon. The $14.1 million contract, through subsidiary Bell Labs, was expected to begin in 2022.
In 2020, Flipkart collaborated with Nokia to market Nokia-branded consumer products in India. These included televisions, a laptop and a range of air conditioners.
In April 2022, Nokia announced that it would exit the Russian market following the country's invasion of Ukraine. The company stated that the decision would not affect its financial outlook as Russia accounted for less than 2% of Nokia's net sales in 2021.
In February 2023, the company introduced a new logo for the first time in nearly 60 years to change its brand identity as people still associated the previous logo with mobile phones. The new logo was designed by Lippincott.
In December 2023, Nokia acquired Fenix Group to strengthen its wireless offering in the defense segment for an undisclosed amount. In the same month, Nokia announced a €185 million deal with Lumine Group to carve out its device management business (inherited from Alcatel-Lucent's purchase of Motive, Inc.) and its service management business (formerly Mformation). The deal completed in April 2024 and involved the transfer of around 500 Nokia employees.
In February 2024, the company announced that it was accelerating its carbon neutrality target by 10 years to 2040 after having previously committed to cutting its carbon footprint across emissions scopes in half by 2030 from a 2019 baseline.
In June 2024, Nokia acquired Infinera for $2.3 billion.
On 10 February 2025, Nokia announced that Pekka Lundmark would step down as president and CEO on 31 March and be succeeded by Justin Hotard.
In September 2025, Nokia announced an artificial intelligence-based partnership with Supermicro, focusing on integrated data center network products.
== Current operations ==
Nokia is a julkinen osakeyhtiö (public joint-stock company) listed on the Nasdaq Nordic/Helsinki and New York stock exchanges. Nokia has played a very large role in the economy of Finland, and it is an important employer in the country, working with multiple local partners and subcontractors. Nokia contributed 1.6% to Finland's GDP and accounted for about 16% of the country's exports in 2006.
Nokia comprises two business groups along with further subsidiaries and affiliated firms.
=== Nokia Networks ===
Nokia Networks is Nokia Corporation's largest division. It is a multinational data networking and telecommunications equipment company headquartered in Espoo, Finland, and is the world's third-largest telecoms equipment manufacturer, measured by 2017 revenues (after Huawei and Cisco). In the USA it competes with Ericsson on building 5G networks for operators, while Huawei Technologies and ZTE Corporation were effectively banned.
It has operations in around 150 countries.
Nokia Networks provides wireless and fixed network infrastructure, communications and networks service platforms and professional services to operators and service providers. It focuses on GSM, EDGE, 3G/W-CDMA, LTE and WiMAX radio access networks, supporting core networks with increasing IP and multiaccess capabilities and services.
The Nokia Siemens Networks (NSN) brand identity was launched at the 3GSM World Congress in Barcelona in February 2007 as a joint venture between Nokia (50.1%) and Siemens (49.9%), although it is now wholly owned by Nokia. In July 2013, Nokia bought back all shares in Nokia Siemens Networks for a sum of US$2.21 billion and renamed it to Nokia Solutions and Networks, shortly thereafter changed to simply Nokia Networks.
=== Nokia Technologies ===
Nokia Technologies is a division of Nokia that develops consumer products and licenses technology including the Nokia brand. Its focuses are imaging, sensing, wireless connectivity, power management and materials, and other areas such as the IP licensing program. It consists of three labs: Radio Systems Lab, in areas of radio access, wireless local connectivity and radio implementation; Media Technologies Lab, in areas of multimedia and interaction; and Sensor and Material Technologies Lab, in areas of advanced sensing solutions, interaction methods, nanotechnologies and quantum technologies. Nokia Technologies also provides public participation in its development through the Invent with Nokia program. It was created in 2014 following a restructuring of Nokia Corporation.
In November 2014, Nokia Technologies launched its first product, the Nokia N1 tablet computer. In July 2015, Nokia Technologies introduced a VR camera called OZO, designed for professional content creators and developed in Tampere, Finland. With its 8 synchronized shutter sensors and 8 microphones, the product can capture stereoscopic 3D video and spatial audio. Production of the OZO camera was discontinued in 2017, but the immersive audio software technologies continue under the Nokia OZO brand, still keeping Nokia in the virtual reality market.
On 31 August 2016, Ramzi Haidamus announced he would be stepping down from his position as president of Nokia Technologies. Brad Rodrigues, previously head of strategy and business development, assumed the role of interim president. On 30 June 2017, Gregory Lee, previously CEO of Samsung Electronics in North America, was appointed Nokia Technologies CEO and president.
=== Nokia Bell Labs ===
Nokia Bell Labs is a research and scientific development company that was once the R&D arm of the American Bell System. It became a subsidiary of Nokia Corporation after the takeover of Alcatel-Lucent in 2016.
In December 2023, Nokia announced plans for a new research facility in New Brunswick, New Jersey. The relocation from the 80-year-old Bell Labs facility at Murray Hill, New Jersey is expected to occur before 2028. The Murray Hill laboratories produced important innovations for AT&T Corp., Lucent Technologies, Alcatel-Lucent, and Nokia.
=== NGP Capital ===
NGP Capital (formerly Nokia Growth Partners) is a global venture capital firm, focusing on investments in the growth stage "Internet of things" (IoT) and mobile technology companies. NGP holds investments throughout the U.S., Europe, China and India. Their portfolio consists of companies in mobile technology including the sectors Connected Enterprise, Digital Health, Consumer IoT, and Connected Car. Following a $350 million funding for IoT companies in 2016, NGP manages $1 billion worth of assets.
Nokia had previously promoted innovation through venture sponsorships dating back to 1998 with Nokia Venture Partners, which was renamed BlueRun Ventures and spun off in 2005. The China arm of BlueRun Ventures became independent in 2010 and would be rebranded to Lanchi Ventures. Nokia Growth Partners (NGP) was founded in 2005 as a growth stage venture fund as a continuation of the early successes of Nokia Venture Partners. In 2017, the company was renamed to NGP Capital.
NGP's largest exits include GanJi, UCWeb, Whistle, Rocket Fuel, Swype, Summit Microelectronics and Netmagic.
=== Nuage Networks ===
Nuage Networks is a venture providing software-defined networking solutions. It was formed by Alcatel-Lucent in 2013 to develop a software overlay for automating and orchestrating hybrid clouds. It has been part of Nokia following their acquisition of Alcatel-Lucent in 2016. Throughout 2017 Nuage sealed deals with Vodafone and Telefónica to provide its SD-WAN architecture to their servers. BT had already been a client since 2016. A deal with China Mobile in January 2017 also used Nuage's software-defined networking technology for 2,000 public cloud servers at existing data centers in China, and another in October 2017 with China Pacific Insurance Company.
The company is based in Mountain View, California and the CEO is Sunil Khandekar.
=== Alcatel Mobile ===
Alcatel Mobile is a mobile phone brand owned by Nokia since 2016. It has been licensed since 2005 to Chinese company TCL when it was under the ownership of Alcatel (later Alcatel-Lucent) in a contract until 2024.
=== HMD Global ===
HMD Global is a mobile phone company based in Espoo, Finland. The Nokia brand has been licensed by former Nokia employees who founded HMD Global and introduced Nokia-branded Android-based devices to the market in 2017. Initially, Nokia had no investment in the company but retained some input in the development of its devices.
Nokia has 10.10% ownership in HMD Global after investing alongside Qualcomm and Google in 2020. In the 2020 financial report, FIH Mobile disclosed they have a 14.38% ownership in HMD Global. Finnish Nokia owns 10.10% of HMD Global, while other investors include Google, Qualcomm, and others with an undisclosed share in HMD.
=== Alcatel Submarine Networks ===
Alcatel Submarine Networks (ASN) is a provider of turnkey undersea network solutions. The business unit develops technology and offers installation services for optical submarine cable network links across the world's oceans.
Previously, Alcatel-Lucent Submarine Networks, also became part of Nokia in 2016. Nokia and ASN had added another cable ship to the fleet called, CS Ile d'Ouessant. The CS Ile d’Ouessant was purchased in 2019 and was originally built in 2011 as the CS Toisa Warrior. Additionally, in 2021, Nokia and ASN requested two cable ships for the fleet, the CS Ile d'Yeu and CS Ile de Molène.
Here is a list of the cable-laying fleet from Alcatel (6), to Alcatel-Lucent (6 and 7), though Nokia (8):
CS Ile d'Yeu (2001, 2021–Present) Built in 2001. Purchased in 2021 by Nokia ASN as two additional ships for a fleet of eight cable ships. (IMO 9230414)
CS Ile d'Molène (2006, 2021–Present) Built in 2006. Purchased in 2021 by Nokia ASN two additional ships for a fleet of eight cable ships. (IMO 9329928)
CS Ile d’Ouessant (2011, 2019–Present) Built in 2011 as the CS Toisa Warrior. Purchased by Nokia ASN in 2019. (IMO 9427108)
CS Ile d'Aix (1992, 2011–Present) Built in 1992, as the cable ship, CS Gulmar Badaro. Purchased by Alcatel-Lucent in 2011, renaming the ship as CS Ile de AIX.
CS Ile d' Brehat (2002–Present) Built in 2002. North route main lay of 4400 km for 2003 APOLLO route. Route clearance in 2015 for GTT Express.
CS Ile d' Sein (2001–Present) Built in 2001, Length: 140.36 m, Cable work in 2003 of routes Azores to Madeira and Madeira to Porto Santo.
CS Ile d' Batz (2001–Present) Built in 2001, 2003 APOLLO: Widemouth Bay, Bude, England to Brookhaven, USA and Lannion, France to Manasquan, USA, 2008 worked on TPE (Trans Pacific Express)
CS Ile d' Re (1983–Present) Built in 1983, in 2006 worked on the APNG 2 cable route from Sydney, Australia to Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. (OMS Group in August 2023 used MakaiLay software on ship, indication not part of ASN fleet.)
CS Stanelco 2 (1975, 2000-Unknown) Built in 1975, Constructed by Brattvag Skips. in Brattvag. Named coaster Siraholm. Renamed in 1982 by Standard Telefon og Kabelfabrik when converted to cable repair ship. Sold to Alcatel Contracting Norway A/S, Oslo in 2000. (IMO 7382469, MMSI 341082000) (NOT IN NOKIA FLEET COUNT AS OF 2021) (OMS Group in August 2023 used MakaiLay software on ship, indication not part of ASN fleet.)
CS Peter Faber 3 (1981) Built in 1981, 2003, provided old cable recovery in the Atlantic with ile de Sein. Optic Marine Services acquisition on 24 September 2019 of vessel continued ASN chartering the ship. (NOT IN NOKIA FLEET COUNT AS OF 2021) (Optic Marine Services Group in August 2023 used MakaiLay software on ship, indication not part of ASN fleet.)
CS Lodbrog (1985, 2000-Unknown) Built in 1985 as Spiegelberg and Tuzla. Later renamed in 1996 as Bolero. (IMO 8027808, MMSI: 354400000) Registered to Alcatel in 2000. (NOT IN NOKIA FLEET COUNT AS OF 2021) (OMS Group in August 2023 used MakaiLay software on ship, indication not part of ASN fleet.)
CS Heimdal (1983, 2000–2004) Built in 1983, 1988: Renamed FERRYMAR I. and reverted to MERCANDIAN ADMIRAL II. 2000: Converted to a repair and cable laying vessel and sold to Alcatel Submarine Networks Marine AS. 2003 performed repair of optical fiber in the Pacific Ocean, route between Japan and the United States, at almost 9,400 km deep. 2004: Sold to SEACOR Smit Offshore (Worldwide) Ltd, (SEACOR Marine (Asia) Pte Ltd (IMO 8207393, MMSI: 538002126) (SOLD IN 2004, NOT IN ALCATEL-LUCENT FLEET AS OF 2015)
== Corporate affairs ==
=== Business trends ===
The key trends for Nokia are (as of the financial year ending 31 December):
=== Corporate governance ===
The control and management of Nokia is divided among the shareholders at a general meeting and the Nokia Group Leadership Team (left), under the direction of the board of directors (right). The chairman and the rest of the Nokia Leadership Team members are appointed by the board of directors. Only the chairman of the Nokia Leadership Team can belong to both the board of directors and the Nokia Group Leadership Team. The Board of Directors' committees consist of the Audit Committee, the Personnel Committee, and the Corporate Governance and Nomination Committee.
The operations of the company are managed within the framework set by the Finnish Companies Act, Nokia's Articles of Association, and Corporate Governance Guidelines, supplemented by the board of directors' adopted charters. On 25 November 2019, Nokia announced that it would discontinue the role of Chief Operating Officer (COO) and distribute its functions to other company leaders. As a result, Chief Operating Officer Joerg Erlemeier decided to step down, effective 1 January 2020.
==== Former corporate officers ====
=== Stock ===
Nokia is a public limited liability company and is the oldest company listed under the same name on the Helsinki Stock Exchange, beginning in 1915. Nokia has had a secondary listing on the New York Stock Exchange since 1994. Nokia shares were delisted from the London Stock Exchange in 2003, the Paris Stock Exchange in 2004, the Stockholm Stock Exchange in 2007 and the Frankfurt Stock Exchange in 2012. Due to the acquisition of Alcatel-Lucent in 2015, Nokia listed its shares again on the Paris Stock Exchange and was included in the CAC 40 index on 6 January 2016 but later removed on 18 September 2017.
In 2007, Nokia had a market capitalization of €110 billion; by 17 July 2012 this had fallen to €6.28 billion, before increasing to €26.0 billion by 23 February 2015. Nokia's market cap at 2020 was 21.76 billion.
=== Corporate culture ===
Nokia's official corporate culture manifesto since the 1990s is called The Nokia Way. It emphasizes the speed and flexibility of decision-making in a flat, networked organization.
The official business language of Nokia is English. All documentation is written in English, and is used in official intra-company communication.
In 1992, Nokia adopted values that were defined with the key words respect, achievement, renewal and challenge. In May 2007, the company redefined its values after initiating a series of discussion across its worldwide branches regarding what the new values of the company should be. Based on the employee suggestions, the new values were defined as: Engaging You, Achieving Together, Passion for Innovation and Very Human. In August 2014, Nokia redefined its values again after the sale of its Devices business, using the original 1992 values again.
=== Headquarters ===
Nokia are based at Karaportti in Espoo, Finland, just outside capital Helsinki. It has been their head office since 2014 after moving from the purpose-built Nokia House in Espoo as part of the sale of the mobile phone business to Microsoft. The building in Karaportti was previously the headquarters of NSN (now Nokia Networks).
== Awards and recognition ==
In 2018, Nokia received the Leading Lights award for most innovative cable/video product and was named to Ethisphere's 2018 world's most ethical companies list.
== Logo history ==
== Controversies ==
=== NSN's provision of intercept capability to Iran ===
In 2008, Nokia Siemens Networks, a joint venture between Nokia and Siemens AG, reportedly provided Iran's monopoly telecom company with technology that allowed it to intercept the Internet communications of its citizens. The technology reportedly allowed Iran to use deep packet inspection to read and change the content of emails, social media, and online phone calls. The technology "enables authorities to not only block communication but to monitor it to gather information about individuals, as well as alter it for disinformation purposes".
During the post-election protests in Iran in June 2009, Iran's Internet access was reported to have slowed to less than a tenth of its normal speeds, which experts suspected was due to using of deep packet inspection.
In July 2009, Nokia began to experience a boycott of their products and services in Iran. The boycott was led by consumers sympathetic to the post-election protest movement and targeted companies deemed to be collaborating with the regime. Demand for handsets fell and users began shunning SMS messaging.
Nokia Siemens Networks asserted in a press release that it provided Iran only with a "lawful intercept capability solely for monitoring of local voice calls" and that it "has not provided any deep packet inspection, web censorship, or Internet filtering capability to Iran".
=== Nokia–Apple patent dispute ===
In October 2009, Nokia filed a lawsuit against Apple Inc. in the U.S. District Court of Delaware claiming that Apple infringed on 10 of its patents related to wireless communication including data transfer. Apple was quick to respond with a countersuit filed in December 2009 accusing Nokia of 11 patent infringements. Apple's general counsel, Bruce Sewell went a step further by stating, "Other companies must compete with us by inventing their own technologies, not just by stealing ours." This resulted in a legal battle between the two telecom majors with Nokia filing another suit, this time with the U.S. International Trade Commission (ITC), alleging Apple had infringed its patents in "virtually all of its mobile phones, portable music players and computers". Nokia went on to ask the court to ban all U.S. imports of the Apple products, including the iPhone, Macintosh and iPod. Apple countersued by filing a complaint with the ITC in January 2010.
In June 2011, Apple settled with Nokia and agreed to an estimated one time payment of $600 million and royalties to Nokia. The two companies also agreed on a cross-licensing patents for some of their patented technologies.
=== Alleged tax evasion in India ===
Nokia's Indian subsidiary was charged in January 2013 with non-payment of Indian Tax Deducted at Source and transgressing transfer pricing norms in India. The unpaid TDS of ₹30 billion, accrued during a course of six years, was due to royalty paid by the Indian subsidiary to its parent company.
=== Nokia 7 Plus data breach ===
In March 2019, news broke that the company's Nokia 7 Plus phones were allegedly sending personal user data to China over several months. According to investigators, the gadget sent unencrypted data packages including geographical location, SIM card number, and the phone's serial number to an unidentified Chinese server every time that "the phone was turned on, the screen activated or unlocked." The data was sufficient to follow the movements and actions of the phone in real time.
Nokia brand owner HMD Global denied any such transfers had taken place, stating that it was instead the result of an error in the packing process of the phone's software. The Finnish Office of the Data Protection Ombudsman launched an investigation into the matter on the assumption "that personal data has been transferred."
=== Xinjiang region ===
In 2020, the Australian Strategic Policy Institute accused at least 82 major brands, including Nokia, of being connected to forced Uyghur labor in Xinjiang.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Lamberg, Juha-Antti, et al. "The curse of agility: The Nokia Corporation and the loss of market dominance in mobile phones, 2003–2013." Business History 63.4 (2021): 574–605. online
David J. Cord (April 2014). The Decline and Fall of Nokia. Schildts & Söderströms. ISBN 978-951-52-3320-2.
Yves Doz; Keeley Wilson (November 2017). Ringtone: Exploring the Rise and Fall of Nokia in Mobile Phones. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-877719-9.
Martti Häikiö (October 2002). Nokia: The Inside Story. FT / Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-273-65983-9.
Michael Lattanzi; Antti Korhonen; Vishy Gopalakrishnan (January 2006). Work Goes Mobile: Nokia's Lessons from the Leading Edge. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-470-02752-5.
Christian Lindholm; Turkka Keinonen; Harri Kiljander (June 2003). Mobile Usability: How Nokia Changed the Face of the Mobile Phone. McGraw-Hill Companies. ISBN 0-07-138514-2.
Trevor Merriden (February 2001). Business The Nokia Way: Secrets of the World's Fastest Moving Company. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 1-84112-104-5.
Dan Steinbock (April 2001). The Nokia Revolution: The Story of an Extraordinary Company That Transformed an Industry. AMACOM Books. ISBN 0-8144-0636-X.
Dan Steinbock (May 2010). Winning Across Global Markets: How Nokia Creates Strategic Advantage in a Fast-Changing World. Jossey-Bass / Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-33966-4.
Carl-Gustav Lindén (April 2021). Kingdom of Nokia: How a Nation Served the Needs of One Company. Helsinki University Press. ISBN 978-952-369-032-5.
== External links ==
Official website
Business data for Nokia: |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/July_1982_lunar_eclipse#Eclipses_in_1982 | July 1982 lunar eclipse | A total lunar eclipse occurred at the Moon’s descending node of orbit on Tuesday, July 6, 1982, with an umbral magnitude of 1.7180. It was a central lunar eclipse, in which part of the Moon passed through the center of the Earth's shadow. A lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon moves into the Earth's shadow, causing the Moon to be darkened. A total lunar eclipse occurs when the Moon's near side entirely passes into the Earth's umbral shadow. Unlike a solar eclipse, which can only be viewed from a relatively small area of the world, a lunar eclipse may be viewed from anywhere on the night side of Earth. A total lunar eclipse can last up to nearly two hours, while a total solar eclipse lasts only a few minutes at any given place, because the Moon's shadow is smaller. Occurring about 1.2 days after apogee (on July 5, 1982, at 2:30 UTC), the Moon's apparent diameter was smaller. It was the longest total lunar eclipse since the 1859 eclipse.
== Visibility ==
The eclipse was completely visible over western and central North America, western South America, and Antarctica, seen rising over northwestern North America, Australia, and the western Pacific Ocean and setting over northeastern North America, eastern South America, and west and southern Africa.
== Eclipse details ==
Shown below is a table displaying details about this particular lunar eclipse. It describes various parameters pertaining to this eclipse.
== Eclipse season ==
This eclipse is part of an eclipse season, a period, roughly every six months, when eclipses occur. Only two (or occasionally three) eclipse seasons occur each year, and each season lasts about 35 days and repeats just short of six months (173 days) later; thus two full eclipse seasons always occur each year. Either two or three eclipses happen each eclipse season. In the sequence below, each eclipse is separated by a fortnight. The first and last eclipse in this sequence is separated by one synodic month.
== Related eclipses ==
=== Eclipses in 1982 ===
A total lunar eclipse on January 9.
A partial solar eclipse on January 25.
A partial solar eclipse on June 21.
A total lunar eclipse on July 6.
A partial solar eclipse on July 20.
A partial solar eclipse on December 15.
A total lunar eclipse on December 30.
=== Metonic ===
Preceded by: Lunar eclipse of September 16, 1978
Followed by: Lunar eclipse of April 24, 1986
=== Tzolkinex ===
Preceded by: Lunar eclipse of May 25, 1975
Followed by: Lunar eclipse of August 17, 1989
=== Half-Saros ===
Preceded by: Solar eclipse of June 30, 1973
Followed by: Solar eclipse of July 11, 1991
=== Tritos ===
Preceded by: Lunar eclipse of August 6, 1971
Followed by: Lunar eclipse of June 4, 1993
=== Lunar Saros 129 ===
Preceded by: Lunar eclipse of June 25, 1964
Followed by: Lunar eclipse of July 16, 2000
=== Inex ===
Preceded by: Lunar eclipse of July 26, 1953
Followed by: Lunar eclipse of June 15, 2011
=== Triad ===
Preceded by: Lunar eclipse of September 4, 1895
Followed by: Lunar eclipse of May 6, 2069
=== Lunar eclipses of 1980–1984 ===
This eclipse is a member of a semester series. An eclipse in a semester series of lunar eclipses repeats approximately every 177 days and 4 hours (a semester) at alternating nodes of the Moon's orbit.
The penumbral lunar eclipses on March 1, 1980 and August 26, 1980 occur in the previous lunar year eclipse set, and the penumbral lunar eclipses on May 15, 1984 and November 8, 1984 occur in the next lunar year eclipse set.
=== Saros 129 ===
This eclipse is a part of Saros series 129, repeating every 18 years, 11 days, and containing 71 events. The series started with a penumbral lunar eclipse on June 10, 1351. It contains partial eclipses from September 26, 1531 through May 11, 1892; total eclipses from May 24, 1910 through September 8, 2090; and a second set of partial eclipses from September 20, 2108 through April 26, 2469. The series ends at member 71 as a penumbral eclipse on July 24, 2613.
The longest duration of totality was produced by member 37 at 106 minutes, 24 seconds on July 16, 2000. All eclipses in this series occur at the Moon’s descending node of orbit.
Eclipses are tabulated in three columns; every third eclipse in the same column is one exeligmos apart, so they all cast shadows over approximately the same parts of the Earth.
=== Tritos series ===
This eclipse is a part of a tritos cycle, repeating at alternating nodes every 135 synodic months (≈ 3986.63 days, or 11 years minus 1 month). Their appearance and longitude are irregular due to a lack of synchronization with the anomalistic month (period of perigee), but groupings of 3 tritos cycles (≈ 33 years minus 3 months) come close (≈ 434.044 anomalistic months), so eclipses are similar in these groupings.
=== Inex series ===
This eclipse is a part of the long period inex cycle, repeating at alternating nodes, every 358 synodic months (≈ 10,571.95 days, or 29 years minus 20 days). Their appearance and longitude are irregular due to a lack of synchronization with the anomalistic month (period of perigee). However, groupings of 3 inex cycles (≈ 87 years minus 2 months) comes close (≈ 1,151.02 anomalistic months), so eclipses are similar in these groupings.
=== Half-Saros cycle ===
A lunar eclipse will be preceded and followed by solar eclipses by 9 years and 5.5 days (a half saros). This lunar eclipse is related to two total solar eclipses of Solar Saros 136.
== See also ==
List of lunar eclipses
List of 20th-century lunar eclipses
== Notes ==
== External links ==
NASA: Lunar Eclipses: Past and Future
1982 Jul 06 chart Eclipse Predictions by Fred Espenak, NASA/GSFC
Index to Five Millennium Catalog of Lunar Eclipses, -1999 to +3000 (2000 BCE to 3000 CE)
Eclipses: 1901 to 2000
Total Lunar Eclipse of 1982 July 06 Photo Gallery
Photo mideclipse
Vulcan Eclipse End of Totality 6 July 1982, by Jerry Lodriguss
== References ==
Bao-Lin Liu, Canon of Lunar Eclipses 1500 B.C.-A.D. 3000, 1992 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berta_Singerman | Berta Singerman | Berta Singerman Begun (Belarusian: Берта Сінгерман; 9 September 1901 – 10 December 1998), better known as Berta Singerman, was an Argentine singer and actress.
== Biography ==
Singerman was born in Minsk, then part of the Russian Empire into a Jewish family. She emigrated to Argentina with her parents when she was a little girl. From a young age, she performed dramatic works with her siblings and neighbours that she was responsible for directing. When she was eight she joined a company that made melodramas in Yiddish, and when she was ten years old she joined a cast that performed works of August Strindberg. At age 15, Singerman married Rubén Enrique Stolek, who became her manager and set her on a career of literary declamation. Her connections with highly regarded literary figures, including poet Alfonsina Storni and writer Horacio Quiroga, helped propel this career into international fame, and she was befriended by numerous writers and artists, including Pablo Neruda, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Gabriela Mistral and Alejo Carpentier. By the 1930s, Singerman was performing throughout the Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking world, including Spain, Mexico and Brazil, at times attracting huge crowds. Her career lasted into the 1980s.
== Selected filmography ==
Nothing More Than a Woman (1934)
== References ==
== External links ==
Media related to Berta Singerman at Wikimedia Commons |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Karlovi%C4%87#:~:text=Siege%20of%20Vienna.-,Death,Zagreb%2C%20under%20the%20great%20altar. | Ivan Karlović | Ivan Karlović (c. 1485 – 9 August 1531), also known as by his Latin name Johannes Torquatus, was the Count of Krbava. His life during critical periods of Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War was marked by constant efforts to stop Ottoman conquests of Croatia, during which he held position of Ban of Croatia twice: from 1521 to 1524 and again from 1527 to 1531. He was also one of the Croatian magnates who participated in 1527 Election in Cetin.
He was the last male descendant of the Kurjaković family from the noble tribe of Gusić, and after his death the estates were passed on to Nikola III Zrinski who married his sister Jelena Kurjaković. Karlović is also remembered in the folk poetry of Molise Croats.
== Early life ==
Ivan was born c. 1485 in Udbina, as the son of Karlo Kurjaković, and Dorothea Frankopan. After his father's death in 1493, he inherited vast estates of the family, including županijas Krbava, Odorje, Hotuča, Lapac, part of Lika and several fortified cities in near županijas, as well the title of the Count of Krbava. During his lifetime, in a similar fashion to other Croatian and European noblemen, he had an anachronistic tendency to trace his family ancestry to Roman patricians. In his case, to Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus, a thesis which was also wrongly argued by Miklós Istvánffy and Pavao Ritter Vitezović,. He and his sister Klara therefore named themselves as "Torkvat".
== History ==
At the time, his estates were on the first front of the Ottoman Empire expansion. In struggle against the Ottomans, he tried to rely on the help of: Hungarian-Croatian King, the House of Habsburg, Republic of Venice (by serving as their Condottiero) or even agreements of paying tribute with the Ottomans in 1506 and 1511. In 1500, he defeated Ottoman army near Gradac (today Gračac). In the Hungarian succession crisis, he supported Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor against Hungarian-Croatian King Vladislaus II of Hungary in 1506. Between 1505 and 1509 he owned town Mutnik and market town Belaj (today village Bilaj near Gospić). In 1508, he temporary fought against Maximilian I's army in the hinterland of Venice, when on return he successfully defended Mutnik from Croatian noblemen, and was possibly helped by the Ottoman forces. Between 1509 and 1524, he made several Condottieri contracts with Venice to defend the Republic's estates in Dalmatia. In 1510, refused to be one the military commanders in a campaign to free Dalmatia from Venetian authority, but due to lack of finances the war did not happen.
In 1513, as Vice-Ban and Captain of Croatia and Dalmatia (1512–1513), along with Petar Berislavić, then Ban of Croatia, and other noblemen he participated in Battle of Dubica. However, in 1514 the Ottomans raided his estates in Krbava and Lika, as well fought against in Bosnia. In 1517 and mid-1520s, as the situation for him was becoming ever more desperate, he tried to replace his estates with forts with those in Lombardia under Venetian authority. However, he was rejected with only a promise of financial help. In 1519, Stjepan Posedarski, a humanist, chaplain and envoy of Karlović from the Posedarski branch of the Gusić tribe, in the name of Karlović delivered anti-Ottoman speech Oratio Stephani Possedarski habita apud Leonem decimum pontificem maximum pro domino Ioanne Torquato comite Corbauie defensore Crouacie to Pope Leo X. In it, Karlović was represented as a true defender of his and other lands, in the name of faith, freedom, and survival, who is losing faith in defending the Holy Church and is asking for help. The speech was noted in the West but had little success. In 1520, as Petar Berislavić got killed in fight against the Ottomans in Plješivica mountain, Karlović was informed by Berislavić's surviving soldiers about Berislavić's death. Upon learning this in Udbina, Karlović assembled his men and went to Plješivica, where they managed to find late ban's severed head and decapitated body. His remains were then taken to nearby Bihać and subsequently to Veszprem.
In 1521, in the name of a group of Croatian nobility, he unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate with the Ottomans. In the same year was named as Ban of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia. He was trying to organize a defense against the Ottomans and decided to only engage in field battles as could not get support for the defense of royal towns. In that sense, he was not able to prevent the fall of Knin, fall of Skradin and Ostrovica Fortress. He regularly received military and financial aid from Archduke Ferdinand I, but not from his real monarch Hungarian-Croatian King Louis II. As he steadily impoverished due to permanent warfare and noblemen did not accept new taxes in order to the increase revenues in 1523, he resigned from the position of Ban in 1524.
In December 1526, he took part in Croatian Election in Cetin along with several other most important Croatian noble magnates. There, on 1 January 1527 Croatian nobility signed a charter by which they elected Ferdinand I from the House of Habsburg for a new King of Croatia, as they regarded him the only possible option which could help Croatians defend against the Ottoman invasions. The election was part of a succession crisis and civil war as lower nobility in Hungary and Slavonia chose to support John Zápolya. Karlović mostly remained neutral during the war, and after the death of Christoph Frankopan, he attempted to reconcile the former conflicting parties in 1530.
In 1527, along Ferenc Batthyány, was again appointed Ban of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia, which he remained until his death in 1531. As Ottomans conquered his forts of Obrovac, Udbina, Komić, and Mrsinj-grad, he received substitute estates of Medvedgrad, Lukavec and Rakovec in Turopolje from Ferdinand I. In 1528, near Belaj he commanded Croatian army with reinforced by Carniolan forces, which defeated several thousand Ottoman troops preparing to raid Carniola. In the next year, he led Croatian forces to help at 1529 Siege of Vienna.
== Death ==
Ivan Karlović died on 9 August 1531, in Medvedgrad. He was placed to rest in the Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Remete, Zagreb, under the great altar. As he did not have any descendants in marriage with the niece of cardinal Tamás Bakócz, according to the inheritance contract with Nikola III Zrinski from 1509, who married his sister Jelena Kurjaković, the estates were inherited by Zrinski family. At the time, Karlović had 22 forts and cities in three županijas and two župas. The most prominent of those were Udbina, Krbava, Kurjak-grad, Turan, Počitelj, Podlapčec (Podlapac), Mrsinj-grad, Lovinac, Gradac (Gračac), Novigrad, Zvonigrad, Zelengrad, Kličevac (Kličevica), Bag, Obrovac and Stari Obrovac.
His sister Jelena was mother of the future Ban of Croatia and Szigetvár hero, Nikola IV Zrinski. Karlović nephews Nikola and Ivan Zrinski in 1541 arranged to carve the inscription on his tombstone, saying "Sepultus genere Spectabilis militiaque praeditus magnificus dominus Torquatus, comes Corbaviae regnorumque Croatiae et Sclavoniae banus mole sub hac tegitur". This inscription, along with the coat of arms got lost over the centuries. In a 16th century Glagolithic document about his seal and coats of arms, described it to depict a goose on a shield, above them letters I. C., meaning Joannes Caroli. In 1736, Hungarian polymath Samuel Timon described the alleged coat of arms on the tombstone, and according to it, in 1802 Károly Wagner described the color, but they were inspired by 17th-century armorials like Opus Insignium Armorumque (1687–1688) by Johann Weikhard von Valvasor.
== Legacy ==
In the folk tradition, the fortified towns in ruin like Komić, Kozja Draga, and Mazin are still called as Karlovića dvori ("Karlović's palaces"). Karlović is the main character of the novel Ivan Hrvaćanin (1926) by Fran Binički.
=== Folk poetry ===
Karlović is also remembered in the folk poetry including bugarštica (for example Kad se Ivan Karlović vjerio za kćer kralja Budimskoga), and of the Molise Croats in Southern Italy, Burgenland Croats in Austria, and Bosniaks, probably the descendants of his former subjects. He is mentioned as Ivan or Jivan Karlović, Ive Karlovićev, Ivan Dovice, did Karlović, Karlo Vića, and Ivan Hrvaćanin. In Molise are preserved several fragmented variations of an old song in Shtokavian-Chakavian with Ikavian accent, while longer variation can be found in Chakavian with Ekavian-Ikavian accent.
He is generally featured as a noble and good master, tireless warrior against the Ottomans. On the other hand, in Molise has a negative connotation, depicted as being feared by girls picking flowers in a meadow. The story about girls being feared of intercourse with heroes is a common folk theme where heroes identity is less significant as the songs were preserved and performed in wedding customs. There his true identity was forgotten and possibly was related to the fear and danger during the Ottomans conquest, but his mention is indicative for the date of migration and ethnic identity of the community in Molise.
=== Comparison with Job ===
Due to the fact that he lost most of his personal holdings in defending Croatia, as well as inscription on his tombstone which quoted the biblical Book of Job, he is sometimes called "Job of Croatia".
== See also ==
Croatian nobility
List of noble families of Croatia
Twelve noble tribes of Croatia
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Sources ===
Croatian Encyclopedia (2011), Karlović, Ivan
Bošković-Stulli, Maja (2004), "Bugarštice", Narodna Umjetnost: Croatian Journal of Ethnology and Folklore Research (in Croatian), 41 (2), Institute of Ethonology and Folklore Research: 9–51 – via Hrčak - Portal znanstvenih časopisa Republike Hrvatske
Klaić, Vjekoslav (1898), "Rodoslovje knezova Krbavskih od plemena Gusić" [Genealogy of Counts of Krbava from the tribe of Gusić], Rad (in Serbo-Croatian) (49), Zagreb: JAZU: 191–214
Magaš, Damir; Brtan, Josip (2015), Prostor i vrijeme knezova Posedarskih: Zemljopisna obilježja i povijesni razvoj Općine Posedarje: Posedarje, Slivnica, Vinjerac, Podgradina, Islam Latinski, Ždrilo i Grgurice [The Space and the Time of Posedarski Counts: Geographic Features and Historic Development of Posedarje Municipality: Posedarje, Slivnica, Vinjerac, Podgradina, Islam Latinski, Ždrilo and Grgurice] (in Croatian), Zadar: Sveučilište u Zadru, Centar za istraživanje krša i priobalja, Odjel za geografiju, Hrvatsko geografsko društvo Zadar, ISBN 978-953-331-059-6
Majnarić, Ivan (2013), "Kurjakovići (Krbavski knezovi, Kurjaković Krbavski)", Croatian Biographical Lexicon (HBL) (in Croatian), Miroslav Krleža Lexicographical Institute
Mujadžević, Dino (2009), "Karlović, Ivan (Krbavski; Ivan Torkvat, Johannes Torquatus comes Corbauie, Zuan de Corbavia)", Croatian Biographical Lexicon (HBL) (in Croatian), Miroslav Krleža Lexicographical Institute
Perinić, Ana (2006), "Moliški Hrvati. Rekonstrukcija kreiranja i reprezentacije jednog etničkog identiteta", Etnološka tribina (in Croatian), 36 (29), Croatian Ethnological Society and Department of Ethnology and Cultural Anthropology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb: 91–106 – via Hrčak - Portal znanstvenih časopisa Republike Hrvatske
Sulejmanagić, Amer (2016). "Coins with Coats-of-Arms of the Croatian Clans of Kurjaković Krbavski (from the Gusić Clan) and Lapčani – Coins of Georg Ludwig Count of Sinzendorf from 1676". Numizmatičke Vijesti (in Croatian). 58 (69): 68–88 – via Hrčak - Portal znanstvenih časopisa Republike Hrvatske.
Šimunović, Petar (1984), "Sklavunske naseobine u južnoj Italiji i naša prva zapisana bugaršćica", Narodna Umjetnost: Croatian Journal of Ethnology and Folklore Research (in Croatian), 21 (1), Institute of Ethonology and Folklore Research: 54–68 – via Hrčak - Portal znanstvenih časopisa Republike Hrvatske
Other bibliography
Petar Grgec, Hrvatski Job šesnaestoga vijeka ban Ivan Karlović, 1932, Hrv. knjiž. društvo sv. Jeronima, Zagreb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953_Kathmandu_municipal_election | 1953 Kathmandu municipal election | Local elections to a municipal council for Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal, (Nepali: काठमाडौ नगरपालिका चुनाव सन् १९५३) were first held on September 9, 1953. Candidates nominated by the illegal Communist Party of Nepal got 50% of the total votes cast. Out of a total of 19 seats, six were won by communists, four by Nepali Congress, four by Praja Parishad, one by Gorkha Parishad and four by independents.
Amongst the elected communists was the chairman of the council, Janak Man Singh. However, his tenure became short. A jurisdictional dispute emerged between the municipal council and the national government. A no-confidence vote removed Singh from his office and the national government banned him from entering the municipal council office. Singh was arrested when attempting to enter the office, and was jailed.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compsibidion_circunflexum#:~:text=Compsibidion%20circunflexum%20is%20a%20species%20of%20beetle%20in%20the%20family%20Cerambycidae.%20It%20was%20described%20by%20Brazilian%20entomologist%20Ubirajara%20Martins%20in%201971 | Compsibidion circunflexum | Compsibidion circunflexum is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Brazilian entomologist Ubirajara Martins in 1971.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Ossawa_Tanner | Henry Ossawa Tanner | Henry Ossawa Tanner (June 21, 1859 – May 25, 1937) was an American artist who spent much of his career in France. He became the first African-American painter to gain international acclaim. Tanner moved to Paris, France, in 1891 to study at the Académie Julian and gained acclaim in French artistic circles. In 1923, the French government elected Tanner chevalier of the Legion of Honor.
== Early life ==
Henry Ossawa Tanner was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
His father Benjamin Tucker Tanner (1835–1923) became a bishop in the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), the first independent black denomination in the United States. He was educated at Avery College and Western Theological Seminary in Pittsburgh, and developed a literary career. In addition, he was a political activist, supporting abolition of slavery. Henry Tanner's mother Sarah Elizabeth Tanner may have been born into slavery in Virginia. Two different stories have emerged concerning her living in freedom; in one, her father drives the family from Winchester, Virginia to "the free state of Pennsylvania" in an ox cart. In the other, she escapes as a refugee to the North via the Underground Railroad. There she met and married Benjamin Tucker Tanner.
Tanner was the first of nine children; and two of his brothers, Benjamin and Horace, died in infancy. One of his sisters, Halle Tanner Dillon Johnson, was the first woman to be certified to practice medicine in Alabama. His parents gave him a middle name that commemorated the struggle at Osawatomie between pro- and anti-slavery partisans.
The family moved from Pittsburgh to Philadelphia when Tanner was a teenager. There his father became a friend of Frederick Douglass, sometimes supporting him, sometimes criticizing. Robert Douglass, Jr., a successful black artist in Philadelphia, was an early neighbor of the Tanner family, and Tanner wrote that he "used to pass and always stopped to look at his pictures in the window." When Tanner was about 13 years old, he saw a landscape painter working in Fairmount Park, where he was walking with his father. He decided that he wanted to be a painter.
== Education ==
Although many white artists refused to accept an African-American apprentice, in 1879 Tanner enrolled at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts in Philadelphia, becoming the only black student. His decision to attend the school came at a time when art academies increasingly focused on study from live models rather than plaster casts. Thomas Eakins, a professor at the Pennsylvania Academy, was one of the first American artists to promote new approaches to artistic education including increased study from live models, discussion of anatomy in classes of both male and female students, and dissections of cadavers to teach anatomy. Eakins's progressive approach to art education had a profound effect on Tanner. The young artist was one of Eakins' favorite students; two decades after Tanner left the Academy, Eakins painted his portrait.
At the Academy, Tanner befriended artists with whom he kept in contact throughout the rest of his life, most notably Robert Henri, one of the founders of the Ashcan School. During a relatively short time at the Academy, Tanner developed a thorough knowledge of anatomy and the skill to express his understanding of the weight and structure of the human figure on the canvas.
Tanner's artistic studies were disrupted by illness, which was reported in November 1881 and said to have persisted into the following summer, when Tanner spent time recovering in the Adirondack Mountains.
Tanner's teachers included Thomas Eakins (American realism, photography), Thomas Hovenden (American realism), Benjamin Constant (orientalist paintings and portraits, French academic) and Jean-Paul Laurens (history painting, French academic).
== Painting style ==
Tanner painted landscapes, religious subjects, and scenes of daily life in a realistic style that echoed that of Eakins. While works like The Banjo Lesson depicted everyday scenes of African American life, Tanner later painted religious subjects. It is likely that Tanner's father, a minister in the African Methodist Episcopal Church, was a formative influence for him.
Tanner was not limited to one specific approach to painting and drawing. His works reflect at times meticulous attention to detail and loose, expressive brushstrokes in others. Often both methods are employed simultaneously. Tanner was also interested in the effects that color could have in a painting. Warmer compositions such as The Resurrection of Lazarus (1896) and The Annunciation (1898) express the intensity and fire of religious moments, and the elation of transcendence between the divine and humanity. Other paintings emphasize cool hues, which became dominant in his work after the mid-1890s. A palette of indigo and turquoise—referred to as the "Tanner blues"—characterizes works such as The Three Marys (1910), Gateway (1912) and The Arch (1919). Works such as The Good Shepherd (1903) and Return of the Holy Women (1904) evoke a feeling of somber religiosity and introspection.
Tanner often experimented with light in his works, which at times adds symbolic meaning. In The Annunciation (1898), for example, the archangel Gabriel is represented as a column of light that forms, together with the shelf in the upper left corner, a cross.
== Issues of racism ==
Although Tanner gained confidence as an artist and began to sell his work, he faced racism working as a professional artist in Philadelphia. In his autobiography, The Story of an Artist's Life, Tanner described the burden of racism:
I was extremely timid and to be made to feel that I was not wanted, although in a place where I had every right to be, even months afterwards caused me sometimes weeks of pain. Every time any one of these disagreeable incidents came into my mind, my heart sank, and I was anew tortured by the thought of what I had endured, almost as much as the incident itself.
In the hope of earning enough money to travel to Europe, Tanner operated a photography studio in Atlanta during the late 1880s. The venture was unsuccessful. During this period Tanner met Bishop Joseph Crane Hartzell, a trustee of Clark College (now Clark Atlanta University). Hartzell and his wife befriended Tanner, became his patrons, and recommended him for a teaching job at the college. Tanner taught drawing at Clark College for a short period.
== 1891 ==
Tanner set out for Rome by way of Liverpool and Paris on the ship City of Chester on 4 January 1891. He found Paris to his liking and discovered the Académie Julian, where he began his studies in France. He also joined the American Art Students Club. Paris was a welcome escape for Tanner; within French art circles, race mattered little. Tanner discovered the Paris Salon and set a goal to get his artwork accepted.
== The Banjo Lesson ==
On a return visit to the United States in 1893, Tanner
presented, “The American Negro in Art,” an essay, at the World’s Congress on Africa in Chicago,
and painted The Banjo Lesson, one of his most recognized works that began as a series of sketches of Black people living in Appalachia. The painting shows an elderly black man teaching a boy, assumed to be his grandson, how to play the banjo. The image of a black man playing the banjo appears throughout American art of the late 19th century.
== Life in Paris ==
Except for occasional brief returns home, Tanner spent the rest of his life in Paris. He acclimated quickly to Parisian life, and became friends with Atherton Curtis. He was part of a community of artists in Mount Kisco, New York for six months in 1902, at the behest of Curtis, and returned the following winter.
In Paris, Tanner continued his studies under renowned artists such as Jean Joseph Benjamin Constant and Jean-Paul Laurens. With their guidance, he began to establish a reputation in France. He settled at the Étaples art colony in Normandy.
There he was introduced to many artists whose works would affect his approach to art. At the Louvre, he encountered and studied the works of Gustave Courbet, Jean-Baptiste Chardin and Louis Le Nain. These artists had painted scenes of ordinary people in their environment, and the influence in Tanner's work is noticeable. That of Courbet's The Stone Breakers (1850; destroyed) can be seen in the similarities in Tanner's The Young Sabot Maker (1895). Both paintings explore the themes of apprenticeship and manual labor.
Earlier, Tanner had painted marine scenes of man's struggle with the sea, but by 1895 he was creating mostly religious works. His shift to painting biblical scenes occurred as he was undergoing a spiritual struggle. In a letter he wrote to his parents on Christmas 1896, he stated, "I have made up my mind to serve Him [God] more faithfully." A transitional work from this period is the recently rediscovered painting of a fishing boat tossed on the waves, which is held by the Smithsonian American Art Museum.
Tanner's painting Daniel in the Lions' Den was accepted into the 1896 Salon. Later that year he painted The Resurrection of Lazarus (1896, Musée d'Orsay, Paris) that was purchased by the French government after winning the third-place medal at the 1897 Salon. Upon seeing The Resurrection of Lazarus, Rodman Wanamaker, an art critic and a "major patron of contemporary religious art," offered to pay all the expenses for Tanner to visit the Middle East. Wanamaker felt that any serious painter of biblical scenes needed to see the environment firsthand and that a painter of Tanner's caliber was well worth the investment. Tanner accepted Wanamaker's offer. For four months in 1897 and, again, for six months in 1898-1899, he trekked a popular tourist route through Palestine and North Africa, pitching his tent in the arid region.
Tanner did not exhibit at the Salon in 1907, due to eye strain, but in 1908 entered The Wise and Foolish Virgins which he worked on in 1906, 1907 and finished in 1908. Newspapers don't record a Salon entry for 1909; but he focused his 1908 energy on a one-man exhibition of his artwork in New York, and the 1909 papers continued to talk about that event. Tanner may have avoided displaying at the Salon 1910, 1911, 1912, and 1913.
In 1914, Tanner's mother died, World War I started, and he returned to the Paris Salon after "several years of absence," bringing his 1912 painting Christ in the House of Lazarus and Mary. He had remarked in 1910 "that he would not exhibit in the salon again as they had stuck his picture into a corner which everyone knows is almost an insult." French artists were upset over a U.S. tariff on their paintings, and said to be taking revenge in the Salon.
== Later years ==
During World War I, Tanner worked for the Red Cross Public Information Department, during which time he also painted images from the front lines of the war. His works featuring African-American troops were rare during the war. In 1923 the French state made him a knight of the Legion of Honour for his work as an artist.
Tanner met with fellow African-American artist Palmer Hayden in Paris circa 1927. They discussed artistic technique and he gave Hayden advice on interacting with French society. He was also an inspiration to other artists studying in France, including Hale Woodruff, Romare Bearden, and other artists associated with Black Abstractionism.
Several of Tanner's paintings were purchased by Atlanta art collector J. J. Haverty, who founded Haverty Furniture Co. and was instrumental in establishing the High Museum of Art. Tanner's Étaples Fisher Folk is among several paintings from the Haverty collection now in the High Museum's permanent collection.
Tanner died peacefully at his home in Paris, France, on May 25, 1937. He is buried at Sceaux Cemetery in Sceaux, Hauts-de-Seine, a suburb of Paris.
== Marriage and family ==
In 1899 he married Jessie Olsson, a Swedish-American opera singer. A contemporary, Virginia Walker Course, described their relationship as one of equal talents, but racist attitudes insisted the relationship was unequal:
Fan, did you ever hear of a miss [sic] Olsson of Portland? She has a beautiful voice I believe and came to Paris to cultivate it and she has married a darkey artist ... He is an awefully [sic] talented man but he is black. ... She seems like a well educated girl and really very nice but it makes me sick to see a cultivated woman marry a man like that. I don't know his work but he is very talented they say.
Jessie Tanner died in 1925, twelve years before her husband, and he grieved her deeply through the 1920s. He sold the family home in Les Charmes where they had been so happy together. They are buried next to each other in Sceaux, Hauts-de-Seine.
They had a son, Jesse, who survived Tanner at his death.
== Friends and colleagues ==
Tanner's friends and colleagues included Hermon MacNeil (sculptor), Hermann Dudley Murphy (landscapes), Paul Gauguin (synthetism), Myron G. Barlow (genre painting), Charles Hovey Pepper (Japanese style woodblocks). Charles Filiger (symbolist), Armand Séguin (Post-Impressionism), Jan Verkade (Post-Impressionism, Christian symbolist), Paul Sérusier (abstract art), and Gustave Loiseau (Post-Impressionism).
== Legacy ==
Tanner's work was influential during his career; he has been called "the greatest African American painter to date." The early paintings of William Edouard Scott, who studied with Tanner in France, show the influence of Tanner's technique. In addition, some of Norman Rockwell's illustrations deal with the same themes and compositions that Tanner pursued. Rockwell's proposed cover of the Literary Digest in 1922, for example, shows an older black man playing the banjo for his grandson. The light sources are nearly identical to those in Tanner's Banjo Lesson. A fireplace illuminates the right side of the picture, while natural light enters from the left. Both use similar objects as well such as the clothing, chair, crumpled hat on the floor. Some other major artists Tanner mentored include William A. Harper and Hale Woodruff.
Tanner's Sand Dunes at Sunset, Atlantic City (c. 1885; oil on canvas) hangs in the Green Room at the White House; it is the first painting by an African-American artist to have been purchased for the permanent collection of the White House. The painting is a landscape with a "view across the cool gray of a shadowed beach to dunes made pink by the late afternoon sunlight. A low haze over the water partially hides the sun." It was bought for $100,000 by the White House Endowment Fund during the Bill Clinton administration from Dr. Rae Alexander-Minter, grandniece of the artist.
His correspondence with Curtis between 1904 and 1937 is held at the Smithsonian Institution.
Tanner's work was included in the 2015 exhibition We Speak: Black Artists in Philadelphia, 1920s-1970s at the Woodmere Art Museum.
== Awards ==
1895, Atlanta, Cotton States and International Exposition: bronze medal for The Bagpipe Lesson.
1896, Salon: honorable mention for Daniel in the Lions' Den
1897, Salon: third class medal for Raising of Lazarus
1899, Philadelphia Academy of Fine Art: Walter Lippincott prize for Christ and Nicodemus on a Rooftop
1900, Paris Exposition: silver medal for Daniel in the Lions' Den
1901, Buffalo Exposition: silver medal for Daniel in the Lions' Den
1904, St. Louis Exposition: silver medal for Daniel in the Lions' Den
1906, Salon: second class medal for The Disciples at Emmaus
1906, Art Institute of Chicago, Norman Wait Harris silver medal for The Two Disciples at the Tomb
1915, Panama–Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco: gold medal for Christ at the Home of Lazarus (This link is to the study, not the final painting).
1922, France: Knighthood of the Legion of Honor for his efforts in World War I, part of the Red Cross
1927, New York, National Arts Club: bronze medal for Flight into Egypt (At the Gates)
1930, New York City, Grand Central Art Gallery: Walter L. Clark prize for Etaples Fisher Folk
== Exhibitions ==
1972: The Art of Henry Ossawa Tanner. Glen Falls, New York: The Hyde Collection.
1972: 19th Century American Landscape. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art.
1976: Two Centuries of Black American Art. Los Angeles County Museum of Art.
1989: Black Art Ancestral Legacy: The African Impulse in African-American Art. Dallas Museum of Art.
1993: Revisiting the White City: American Art at the 1893 World's Fair
2010: Henry Ossawa Tanner and his Contemporaries, Des Moines Art Center (December–February 2011).
2012: Henry Ossawa Tanner: Modern Spirit, Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia (January–April), then to Cincinnati Art Museum (May–September) and to Houston Museum of Fine Arts (October–January 2013)
== Selected works ==
Seascape-Jetty (c. 1876–78)
Pomp at the Zoo (1880). Private Collection
Joachim Leaving the Temple (c. 1882–1888). Baltimore Museum of Art
Boy and Sheep Lying under a Tree (1881). Private Collection (On display at the Philadelphia Museum of Art)
Sand Dunes at Sunset, Atlantic City (1886). Estate of Sadie T. M. Alexander (On permanent display at the White House)
The Bagpipe Lesson (1893). Hampton University Museum, Virginia
The Banjo Lesson (1893). Hampton University Museum, Virginia
The Thankful Poor (1894). Art Bridges
The Young Sabot Maker (1895). The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri
Daniel in the Lions' Den (1895). Los Angeles County Museum of Art
The Resurrection of Lazarus (1896). Musée d'Orsay, Paris
Bishop Benjamin Tucker Tanner (1897). Baltimore Museum of Art
Lions in the Desert (c. 1897–1900). Smithsonian American Art Museum
The Annunciation (1898). Philadelphia Museum of Art, W.P. Wilstach Collection
Moonlight Landscape (1898–1900). Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, VA.
The Good Shepherd (1903). Jane Voorhees Zimmerli Art Museum, Rutgers University
Return of the Holy Women (1904). Cedar Rapids Art Gallery, Iowa
Two Disciples at the Tomb (1905–06). Art Institute of Chicago
The Visitation (1909–10). Kalamazoo Institute of Arts
The Holy Family (1909–10). Muskegon Museum of Art, Michigan, Hackley Picture Fund
Moroccan Scene (about 1912). Birmingham Museum of Art, Alabama
Palace of Justice, Tangier (1912–13). Smithsonian American Art Museum
Scene in Cairo. Mabee-Gerrer Museum of Art, Shawnee, Oklahoma
=== Other works ===
See: List of paintings by Henry Ossawa Tanner with events in his life
== See also ==
African-American art
List of Orientalist artists
Orientalism
Realism (arts)
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Anna O. Marley, ed. Henry Ossawa Tanner: Modern Spirit (University of California Press: 2012).
Marcia M. Matthews, Henry Ossawa Tanner: American Artist (University of Chicago Press: 1995).
Kristin Schwain, Signs of Grace: Religion and American Art in the Gilded Age (Cornell University Press: 2007).
Will South, “A Missing Question Mark: The Unknown Henry Ossawa Tanner,” Nineteenth-Century Art Worldwide, vol. 8. issue 2 (Autumn 2009).
Judith Wilson, “Lifting ‘The Veil’: Henry O. Tanner’s The Banjo Lesson and The Thankful Poor,” Contributions in Black Studies: A Journal of African and Afro-American Studies, volume 9, article 4.
== External links ==
White House Biography
Springfield Museum of Art Biography
Ebony Society of Philatelic Events and Reflections Biography
Muskegon Museum of Art
Profile at PBS.org
Henry Ossawa Tanner: Modern Spirit (University of California Press, 2012)—the most complete scholarly publication to date produced in conjunction with the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts (PAFA), Tanner's alma mater
Biographical sketch and gallery at the Smithsonian American Art Museum
Art online
Moroccan Scene at the Birmingham Museum of Art
Archives of American Art
Henry Ossawa Tanner Papers
Alexander family papers relating to Henry Ossawa Tanner, 1912–1985
Gallery of images and letters from the PAFA archives Archived April 3, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
Henry Ossawa Tanner papers, 1860s–1978, bulk 1890–1937. Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savannah_Churchill#:~:text=Churchill%20later%20had%20two%20children,Jesse%20Johnson%20in%20Franklin%2C%20Ohio. | Savannah Churchill | Savannah Churchill (born Savannah Valentine Roberts; August 21, 1920 – April 19, 1974) was an American rhythm and blues singer in the 1940s and 1950s. She is best known for her number-one R&B single "I Want To Be Loved (But Only By You)."
== Life and career ==
Born to Creole parents Emmett Roberts and Hazel Hickman in Colfax, Louisiana, her family moved to Brooklyn, New York when she was three. Growing up, Churchill played violin and sang with the choir at St. Peter Claver Catholic Church and School in Brooklyn. She graduated from Brooklyn's Girls' High School.
In the 1930 and 1940 United States Censuses, Churchill and her parents are listed as Negro, as Louisiana Creoles were required to do at the time. Churchill never denied her African American ancestry even as she attained fame, and she appeared in black publications such as Jet magazine.
In 1939, Churchill quit her job as a waitress to pursue a singing career. She began singing at Small's Paradise in Harlem, earning $18 a week. Churchill performed with the Crystal Caraverns in Washington, D.C., and then toured with Edgar Hayes band in 1941.
Churchill's first recordings, including the risqué "Fat Meat Is Good Meat", issued on Beacon Records in 1942. These were followed the next year by recordings on Capitol with the Benny Carter Orchestra, including her first hit, "Hurry, Hurry".
In 1945, Churchill signed with Irving Berman's Manor Records, and that year "Daddy Daddy" peaked at No. 3 on the R&B chart. Two years later, she reached No. 1 on the R&B chart with "I Want To Be Loved (But Only By You)", which topped the charts for eight weeks. The record was billed as being with vocal group The Sentimentalists, who soon renamed themselves The Four Tunes. Subsequent recordings with The Four Tunes, including "Time Out For Tears" (No. 10 R&B, No. 24 pop) and "I Want To Cry", both in 1948, were also successful.
Billed as "Sex-Sational", Churchill performed to much acclaim, and appeared in the movies Miracle in Harlem (1948) and Souls of Sin (1949). The films feature African American casts.
From 1949, Churchill recorded with Regal, RCA Victor and Decca Records, recording the original version of "Shake A Hand", later a big hit for Faye Adams, also recording with the Ray Charles Singers.
By 1952, Churchill became one of the top box-office attractions at the Apollo Theater in Harlem, the Regal Theater in Chicago, the Howard Theater in Washington, D.C., and the Palladium in London. She toured widely with backing vocal group The Striders, including a visit to Hawaii in 1954.
In 1953, Churchill released gospel tunes on Decca Records. In 1956, she was one of the first artists signed to the Argo label, set up as a subsidiary to Chess Records.
Churchill's career ended in 1956 when, as she was singing on stage in a club, a drunken man fell on top of her from a balcony above, causing severe, debilitating injuries from which she would never fully recover. Although she did some recording in 1960, releasing her debut album Time Out For Tears on Jamie Records, her health declined greatly until her death from pneumonia in Brooklyn in 1974.
== Personal life ==
Savannah Churchill moved from Louisiana to Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn in New York with her mother Hazel Roberts and stepfather. She attended St. Peter Claver catholic school and later Girls High School. They had a house on Quincy Street that formerly had a carriage house with a horse stable in the back yard. Churchill later had two children with her first husband, David Churchill, who was killed in a car accident in 1941. On May 19, 1952, Churchill remarried, to Jesse Johnson in Franklin, Ohio.
== Discography ==
=== Chart singles ===
== Filmography ==
Miracle in Harlem (1948)
Souls of Sin (1949)
== References ==
== External links ==
Savannah Churchill Biography I
Savannah Churchill Biography II
Savannah Churchill Biography & Discography
Savannah Churchill press clippings 1943-1953
Savannah Churchill at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Amadeus_Mozart | Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart | Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (27 January 1756 – 5 December 1791) was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical period. Despite his short life, his rapid pace of composition and proficiency from an early age resulted in more than 800 works representing virtually every Western classical genre of his time. Many of these compositions are acknowledged as pinnacles of the symphonic, concertante, chamber, opera, and choral repertoires. Mozart is widely regarded as one of the greatest composers in the history of Western music, with his music admired for its "melodic beauty, its formal elegance and its richness of harmony and texture".
Born in Salzburg, Mozart showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood. At age five, he was already competent on keyboard and violin, had begun to compose, and performed before European royalty. His father, Leopold Mozart, took him on a grand tour of Europe and then three trips to Italy. At 17, he was a musician at the Salzburg court but grew restless and travelled in search of a better position. Mozart's fruitless journey in search of employment led him to Paris, Mannheim, Munich, and eventually back to Salzburg. During this time he wrote his five violin concertos, the Sinfonia Concertante, and Concerto for Flute and Harp, as well as sacred pieces and masses, the motet Exsultate Jubilate, and the opera Idomeneo, among other works.
While visiting Vienna in 1781, Mozart was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He stayed in Vienna, where he achieved fame but little financial security. During Mozart's early years in Vienna, he produced several notable works, such as the opera Die Entführung aus dem Serail, the Great Mass in C minor, the "Haydn" Quartets and a number of symphonies. Throughout his Vienna years, Mozart composed over a dozen piano concertos, many considered some of his greatest achievements. In the final years of his life, Mozart wrote many of his best-known works, including his last three symphonies, culminating in the Jupiter Symphony, the serenade Eine kleine Nachtmusik, his Clarinet Concerto, the operas The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, Così fan tutte and The Magic Flute and his Requiem. The Requiem was largely unfinished at the time of his death at age 35, the circumstances of which are uncertain and much mythologised.
== Life and career ==
=== Early life ===
==== Family and childhood ====
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born on 27 January 1756 to Leopold Mozart and Anna Maria, née Pertl, at Getreidegasse 9 in Salzburg. Salzburg was the capital of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, an ecclesiastical principality within the Holy Roman Empire, located in what is now Austria. He was the youngest of seven children, five of whom died in infancy. His elder sister was Maria Anna Mozart, nicknamed "Nannerl". Mozart was baptised the day after his birth, at St. Rupert's Cathedral in Salzburg. The baptismal record gives his name in Latinised form, as Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart. He generally called himself "Wolfgang Amadè Mozart" as an adult, but his name had many variants.
Wolfgang's father, Leopold Mozart, a native of Augsburg, then an Imperial Free City in the Holy Roman Empire, was a minor composer and an experienced teacher. In 1743, he was appointed as the fourth violinist in the musical establishment of Count Leopold Anton von Firmian, the ruling Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg. Four years later, he married Anna Maria in Salzburg. Leopold became the orchestra's deputy Kapellmeister in 1763. During the year of his son's birth, Leopold published a violin textbook, Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule, which achieved success.
When Nannerl was seven, she began keyboard lessons with her father, while her three-year-old brother looked on. Years later, after her brother's death, she reminisced:
He often spent much time at the clavier, picking out thirds, which he was ever striking, and his pleasure showed that it sounded good. ... In the fourth year of his age his father, for a game as it were, began to teach him a few minuets and pieces at the clavier. ... He could play it faultlessly and with the greatest delicacy, and keeping exactly in time. ... At the age of five, he was already composing little pieces, which he played to his father who wrote them down.
These early pieces, K. 1–5, were recorded in the Nannerl Notenbuch. There is some scholarly debate about whether Mozart was four or five years old when he created his first musical compositions, though there is little doubt that Mozart composed his first three pieces of music within a few weeks of each other: K. 1a, 1b, and 1c.
In his early years, Wolfgang's father was his only teacher. Along with music, he taught his children languages and academic subjects. The biographer Maynard Solomon notes that, while Leopold was a devoted teacher to his children, there is evidence that Mozart was keen to progress beyond what he was taught. His first ink-spattered composition and his precocious efforts with the violin were of his initiative and came as a surprise to Leopold, who eventually gave up composing when his son's musical talents became evident.
==== 1762–1773: Travel ====
While Wolfgang was young, his family made several European journeys in which he and Nannerl performed as child prodigies. These began with an exhibition in 1762 at the court of Prince-elector Maximilian III of Bavaria in Munich, and at the Imperial Courts in Vienna and Prague. A long concert tour followed, spanning three and a half years, taking the family to the courts of Munich, Mannheim, Paris, London, Dover, The Hague, Amsterdam, Utrecht, Mechelen and again to Paris, and back home via Zürich, Donaueschingen, and Munich. During this trip, Wolfgang met many musicians and acquainted himself with the works of other composers. A particularly significant influence was Johann Christian Bach, whom he visited in London in 1764 and 1765. When he was eight years old, Mozart wrote his first symphony, most of which was probably transcribed by his father.
The family trips were often challenging, and travel conditions were primitive. They had to wait for invitations and reimbursement from the nobility, and they endured long, near-fatal illnesses far from home: first Leopold (London, summer 1764), then both children (The Hague, autumn 1765). The family again went to Vienna in late 1767 and remained there until December 1768.
After one year in Salzburg, Leopold and Wolfgang set off for Italy, leaving Anna Maria and Nannerl at home. This tour lasted from December 1769 to March 1771. As with earlier journeys, Leopold wanted to display his son's abilities as a performer and a rapidly maturing composer. Wolfgang met Josef Mysliveček and Giovanni Battista Martini in Bologna and was accepted as a member of the famous Accademia Filarmonica. There exists a myth, according to which, while in Rome, he heard Gregorio Allegri's Miserere twice in performance in the Sistine Chapel. Allegedly, he subsequently wrote it out from memory, thus producing the "first unauthorised copy of this closely guarded property of the Vatican". However, both the origin and plausibility of this account are disputed.
In Milan, Mozart wrote the opera Mitridate, re di Ponto (1770), which was performed with success. This led to further opera commissions. He returned with his father twice to Milan (August–December 1771; October 1772 – March 1773) for the composition and premieres of Ascanio in Alba (1771) and Lucio Silla (1772). Leopold hoped these visits would result in a professional appointment for his son, and indeed ruling Archduke Ferdinand contemplated hiring Mozart, but owing to his mother Empress Maria Theresa's reluctance to employ "useless people", the matter was dropped and Leopold's hopes were never realised. Toward the end of the journey, Mozart wrote the solo motet Exsultate, jubilate, K.165.
=== 1773–1777: Employment at the Salzburg court ===
After finally returning with his father from Italy on 13 March 1773, Mozart was employed as a court musician by the ruler of Salzburg, Prince-Archbishop Hieronymus Colloredo. The composer had many friends and admirers in Salzburg and had the opportunity to work in many genres, including symphonies, sonatas, string quartets, masses, serenades, and a few minor operas.
Between April and December 1775, Mozart developed an enthusiasm for violin concertos, producing a series of five (the only ones he ever wrote), which steadily increased in their musical sophistication. The last three—K. 216, K. 218, K. 219—are now staples of the repertoire.
In 1776 he turned his efforts to piano concertos, culminating in the E♭ concerto K. 271 of early 1777, considered by critics to be a breakthrough work.
Despite these artistic successes, Mozart grew increasingly discontented with Salzburg and redoubled his efforts to find a position elsewhere. One reason was his low salary, 150 florins a year; Mozart longed to compose operas, and Salzburg provided only rare occasions for these. The situation worsened in 1775 when the court theatre was closed, especially since the other theatre in Salzburg was primarily reserved for visiting troupes.
Two long expeditions in search of work interrupted this long Salzburg stay. Mozart and his father visited Vienna from 14 July to 26 September 1773, and Munich from 6 December 1774 to March 1775. Neither visit was successful, though the Munich journey resulted in a popular success with the premiere of Mozart's opera La finta giardiniera.
=== 1777–1778: Journey to Paris ===
In August 1777 Mozart resigned his position at Salzburg and on 23 September ventured out once more in search of employment, with visits to Augsburg, Mannheim, Paris, and Munich.
Mozart became acquainted with members of the famous orchestra in Mannheim, the best in Europe at the time. He also fell in love with Aloysia Weber, one of four daughters of a musical family. There were prospects of employment in Mannheim, but they came to nothing, and Mozart left for Paris on 14 March 1778 to continue his search. One of his letters from Paris hints at a possible post as an organist at Versailles, but Mozart was not interested in such an appointment. He fell into debt and took to pawning valuables. The nadir of the visit occurred when Mozart's mother was taken ill and died on 3 July 1778. There had been delays in calling a doctor—probably, according to Halliwell, because of a lack of funds. Mozart stayed with Melchior Grimm at Marquise d'Épinay's residence, 5 rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin.
While Mozart was in Paris, his father was pursuing opportunities of employment for him in Salzburg. With the support of the local nobility, Mozart was offered a post as court organist and concertmaster. The annual salary was 450 florins, but he was reluctant to accept. By that time, relations between Grimm and Mozart had cooled, and Mozart moved out. After leaving Paris in September 1778 for Strasbourg, he lingered in Mannheim and Munich, still hoping to obtain an appointment outside Salzburg. In Munich, he again encountered Aloysia, now a very successful singer, but she was no longer interested in him. Mozart finally returned to Salzburg on 15 January 1779 and took up his new appointment, but his discontent with Salzburg remained undiminished.
Among the better-known works which Mozart wrote on the Paris journey are the A minor piano sonata, K. 310/300d, the "Paris" Symphony (No. 31), which were performed in Paris on 12 and 18 June 1778; and the Concerto for Flute and Harp in C major, K. 299/297c.
=== Vienna ===
==== 1781: Departure ====
In January 1781 Mozart's opera Idomeneo premiered with "considerable success" in Munich. The following March, Mozart was summoned to Vienna, where his employer, Archbishop Colloredo, was attending the celebrations for the accession of Joseph II to the Austrian throne. For Colloredo, this was simply a matter of wanting his musical servant to be at hand (Mozart indeed was required to dine in Colloredo's establishment with the valets and cooks). He planned a bigger career as he continued in the archbishop's service; for example, he wrote to his father:
My main goal right now is to meet the emperor in some agreeable fashion, I am absolutely determined he should get to know me. I would be so happy if I could whip through my opera for him and then play a fugue or two, for that's what he likes.
Mozart did indeed soon meet the Emperor, who eventually was to support his career substantially with commissions and a part-time position.
In the same letter to his father just quoted, Mozart outlined his plans to participate as a soloist in the concerts of the Tonkünstler-Societät, a prominent benefit concert series; this plan as well came to pass after the local nobility prevailed on Colloredo to drop his opposition.
Colloredo's wish to prevent Mozart from performing outside his establishment was in other cases carried through, raising the composer's anger; one example was a chance to perform before the Emperor at Countess Thun's for a fee equal to half of his yearly Salzburg salary.
The quarrel with the archbishop came to a head in May: Mozart attempted to resign and was refused. The following month, permission was granted, but in a grossly insulting way: the composer was dismissed literally "with a kick in the arse", administered by the archbishop's steward, Count Arco. Mozart decided to settle in Vienna as a freelance performer and composer.
The quarrel with Colloredo was more difficult for Mozart because his father sided against him. Hoping fervently that he would obediently follow Colloredo back to Salzburg, Mozart's father exchanged intense letters with his son, urging him to reconcile with their employer. Mozart passionately defended his intention to pursue an independent career in Vienna. The debate ended when Mozart was dismissed by the archbishop, freeing himself both of his employer and of his father's demands to return. Solomon characterizes Mozart's resignation as a "revolutionary step" that significantly altered the course of his life.
==== Early years ====
Mozart's new career in Vienna began well. He often performed as a pianist, notably in a competition before the Emperor with Muzio Clementi on 24 December 1781, and he soon "had established himself as the finest keyboard player in Vienna". He also prospered as a composer, and in 1782 completed the opera Die Entführung aus dem Serail ("The Abduction from the Seraglio"), which premiered on 16 July 1782 and achieved considerable success. The work was soon being performed "throughout German-speaking Europe", and thoroughly established Mozart's reputation as a composer.
Near the height of his quarrels with Colloredo, Mozart moved in with the Weber family, who had moved to Vienna from Mannheim. The family's father, Fridolin, had died, and the Webers were now taking in lodgers to make ends meet.
==== Marriage and children ====
After failing to win the hand of Aloysia Weber, who was now married to the actor and artist Joseph Lange, Mozart's interest shifted to the third daughter of the family, Constanze.
The courtship did not go entirely smoothly; surviving correspondence indicates that Mozart and Constanze briefly broke up in April 1782, over an episode involving jealousy: Constanze had permitted another young man to measure her calves in a parlour game. Mozart also faced a very difficult task getting permission for the marriage from his father.
The marriage took place in an atmosphere of crisis. Daniel Heartz suggests that eventually, Constanze moved in with Mozart, which would have placed her in disgrace by the mores of the time. Mozart wrote to Leopold on 31 July 1782, "All the good and well-intentioned advice you have sent fails to address the case of a man who has already gone so far with a maiden. Further postponement is out of the question." Heartz relates, "Constanze's sister Sophie had tearfully declared that her mother would send the police after Constanze if she did not return home [presumably from Mozart's apartment]." On 4 August, Mozart wrote to Baroness von Waldstätten, asking: "Can the police here enter anyone's house in this way? Perhaps it is only a ruse of Madame Weber to get her daughter back. If not, I know no better remedy than to marry Constanze tomorrow morning or if possible today."
The couple were finally married on 4 August 1782 in St. Stephen's Cathedral, the day before his father's consenting letter arrived in the mail. In the marriage contract, Constanze "assigns to her bridegroom five hundred gulden which ... the latter has promised to augment with one thousand gulden", with the total "to pass to the survivor". Further, all joint acquisitions during the marriage were to remain the common property of both.
The couple had six children, of whom only two survived infancy:
Raimund Leopold (17 June – 19 August 1783)
Karl Thomas Mozart (21 September 1784 – 31 October 1858)
Johann Thomas Leopold (18 October – 15 November 1786)
Theresia Constanzia Adelheid Friedericke Maria Anna (27 December 1787 – 29 June 1788)
Anna Maria (died soon after birth, 16 November 1789)
Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart (26 July 1791 – 29 July 1844)
=== 1782–1787 ===
In 1782 and 1783 Mozart became intimately acquainted with the work of Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel as a result of the influence of Gottfried van Swieten, who owned many manuscripts of the Baroque masters. Mozart's study of these scores inspired compositions in the Baroque style and later influenced his musical language, for example in fugal passages in Die Zauberflöte ("The Magic Flute") and the finale of Symphony No. 41 (Jupiter).
In 1783 Mozart and his wife visited his family in Salzburg. His father and sister were cordially polite to Constanze, but the visit prompted the composition of one of Mozart's great liturgical pieces, the Mass in C minor. Though not completed, it was premiered in Salzburg, with Constanze singing a solo part.
Mozart met Joseph Haydn in Vienna around 1784, and the two composers became friends. When Haydn visited Vienna, they sometimes played together in an impromptu string quartet. Mozart's six quartets dedicated to Haydn (K. 387, K. 421, K. 428, K. 458, K. 464, and K. 465) date from the period 1782 to 1785, and are judged to be a response to Haydn's Opus 33 set from 1781. Haydn wrote, "posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years" and in 1785 told Mozart's father: "I tell you before God, and as an honest man, your son is the greatest composer known to me by person and repute, he has taste and what is more the greatest skill in composition."
From 1782 to 1785 Mozart mounted concerts with himself as a soloist, presenting three or four new piano concertos in each season. Since space in the theatres was scarce, he booked unconventional venues: a large room in the Trattnerhof apartment building, and the ballroom of the Mehlgrube restaurant. The concerts were very popular, and his concertos premiered there are still firm fixtures in the repertoire. Solomon writes that during this period, Mozart created "a harmonious connection between an eager composer-performer and a delighted audience, which was given the opportunity of witnessing the transformation and perfection of a major musical genre".
With substantial returns from his concerts and elsewhere, Mozart and his wife adopted a more luxurious lifestyle. They moved to an expensive apartment, with a yearly rent of 460 florins. Mozart bought a fine fortepiano from Anton Walter for about 900 florins, and a billiard table for about 300. The Mozarts sent their son Karl Thomas to an expensive boarding school and kept servants. During this period Mozart saved little of his income.
On 14 December 1784 Mozart became a Freemason, admitted to the lodge Zur Wohltätigkeit ("Beneficence"). Freemasonry played an essential role in the remainder of Mozart's life: he attended meetings, a number of his friends were Masons, and on various occasions he composed Masonic music, e.g. the Maurerische Trauermusik.
==== 1786–1787: Return to opera ====
Despite the great success of Die Entführung aus dem Serail, Mozart did little operatic writing for the next four years, producing only two unfinished works and the one-act Der Schauspieldirektor. He focused instead on his career as a piano soloist and writer of concertos. Around the end of 1785, Mozart moved away from keyboard writing and began his famous operatic collaboration with the librettist Lorenzo Da Ponte. The year 1786 saw the successful premiere of Le nozze di Figaro in Vienna. Its reception in Prague later in the year was even warmer, and this led to a second collaboration with Da Ponte: the opera Don Giovanni, which premiered in October 1787 to acclaim in Prague, but less success in Vienna during 1788. The two are among Mozart's most famous works and are mainstays of operatic repertoire today, though at their premieres their musical complexity caused difficulty both for listeners and for performers. These developments were not witnessed by Mozart's father, who had died on 28 May 1787. His Symphony No. 38 premiered in Prague that year.
In December 1787, Mozart finally obtained a steady post under aristocratic patronage. Emperor Joseph II appointed him as his "chamber composer", a post that had fallen vacant the previous month on the death of Christoph Willibald Gluck. It was a part-time appointment, paying just 800 florins per year, and required Mozart only to compose dances for the annual balls in the Redoutensaal (see Mozart and dance). This modest income became important to Mozart when hard times arrived. Court records show that Joseph aimed to keep the esteemed composer from leaving Vienna in pursuit of better prospects.
In 1787 the young Ludwig van Beethoven spent several weeks in Vienna, hoping to study with Mozart. No reliable records survive to indicate whether the two composers ever met.
=== Later years ===
==== 1788–1790 ====
Toward the end of the decade, Mozart's circumstances worsened. Around 1786, he ceased to appear frequently in public concerts, and his income shrank. This was a difficult time for musicians in Vienna because of the Austro-Turkish War: both the general level of prosperity and the ability of the aristocracy to support music had declined. According to Solomon, in 1788, Mozart saw a 66% decline in his income compared to his best years in 1781.
By mid-1788, Mozart and his family had moved from central Vienna to the suburb of Alsergrund. Although it has been suggested that Mozart aimed to reduce his rental expenses by moving to a suburb, as he wrote in his letter to Michael von Puchberg, Mozart had not reduced his expenses but merely increased the housing space at his disposal. Mozart began to borrow money, most often from his friend and fellow mason Puchberg; "a pitiful sequence of letters pleading for loans" survives. Solomon and others have suggested that Mozart was suffering from depression, and it seems his musical output slowed. Major works of the period include the last three symphonies (Nos. 39, 40, and 41, all from 1788), and the last of the three Da Ponte operas, Così fan tutte, premiered in 1790.
Around this time, Mozart made some long journeys hoping to improve his fortunes, visiting Leipzig, Dresden, and Berlin in the spring of 1789 (see Mozart's Berlin journey), and Frankfurt, Mannheim, and other German cities in 1790.
==== 1791 ====
Mozart's last year was, until his final illness struck, a time of high productivity—and by some accounts, one of personal recovery. He composed a great deal, including some of his most admired works: the opera The Magic Flute; the final piano concerto (K. 595 in B♭); the Clarinet Concerto K. 622; the last in his series of string quintets (K. 614 in E♭); the motet Ave verum corpus K. 618; and the unfinished Requiem K. 626.
Mozart's financial situation, a source of anxiety in 1790, finally began to improve. Although the evidence is inconclusive, it appears that wealthy patrons in Hungary and Amsterdam pledged annuities to Mozart in return for the occasional composition. He is thought to have benefited from the sale of dance music written in his role as Imperial chamber composer. Mozart no longer borrowed large sums from Puchberg and began to pay off his debts.
He experienced great satisfaction in the public success of some of his works, notably The Magic Flute (which was performed several times in the short period between its premiere and Mozart's death) and the Little Masonic Cantata K. 623, premiered on 17 November 1791.
==== Final illness and death ====
Mozart fell ill while in Prague for the premiere, on 6 September 1791, of his opera La clemenza di Tito, which he wrote that year on commission for Emperor Leopold II's coronation festivities. He continued to work professionally for some time and conducted the premiere of The Magic Flute on 30 September. His health deteriorated on 20 November, at which point he became bedridden, suffering from swelling, pain, and vomiting.
Mozart was nursed in his final days by his wife and her youngest sister and was attended by the family doctor, Thomas Franz Closset. He was occupied by the task of finishing his Requiem. Evidence that he dictated passages to his student Franz Xaver Süssmayr is minimal.
Mozart died in his home on 5 December 1791(1791-12-05) (aged 35) at 12:55 am. The New Grove describes his funeral:
Mozart was interred in a common grave, in accordance with contemporary Viennese custom, at the St. Marx Cemetery outside the city on 7 December. If, as later reports say, no mourners attended, that too is consistent with Viennese burial customs at the time; later Otto Jahn (1856) wrote that Salieri, Süssmayr, van Swieten and two other musicians were present. The tale of a storm and snow is false; the day was calm and mild.
The expression "common grave" refers to neither a communal grave nor a pauper's grave, but an individual grave for a member of the common people (i.e., not the aristocracy). Common graves were subject to excavation after ten years; aristocrats' graves were not.
The cause of Mozart's death is not known with certainty. The official record of hitziges Frieselfieber ("severe miliary fever", referring to a rash that looks like millet seeds) is more a symptomatic description than a diagnosis. Researchers have suggested more than a hundred causes of death, including acute rheumatic fever, streptococcal infection, trichinosis, influenza, mercury poisoning, and a rare kidney ailment.
Mozart's modest funeral did not reflect his standing with the public as a composer, but memorial services and concerts in Vienna and Prague were well attended. In the period immediately after his death, his reputation rose substantially. Solomon describes an "unprecedented wave of enthusiasm" for his work; biographies were written first by Friedrich Schlichtegroll, Franz Xaver Niemetschek, and Georg Nikolaus von Nissen, and publishers vied to produce complete editions of his works.
== Appearance and character ==
Mozart's physical appearance was described by the tenor Michael Kelly in his Reminiscences: "a remarkably small man, very thin and pale, with a profusion of fine, fair hair of which he was rather vain". His early biographer Niemetschek wrote, "there was nothing special about [his] physique. ... He was small and his countenance, except for his large intense eyes, gave no signs of his genius." His facial complexion was pitted, a reminder of his childhood case of smallpox. Of his voice, his wife later wrote that it "was a tenor, rather soft in speaking and delicate in singing, but when anything excited him, or it became necessary to exert it, it was both powerful and energetic."
He loved elegant clothing. Kelly remembered him at a rehearsal: "[He] was on the stage with his crimson pelisse and gold-laced cocked hat, giving the time of the music to the orchestra." The surviving portraits suggest that Mozart often wore a powdered wig tied in a queue in line with the style of the 18th century for formal occasions.
Mozart usually worked long and hard, finishing compositions at a tremendous pace as deadlines approached. He often made sketches and drafts; unlike Beethoven's, these are mostly not preserved, as his wife sought to destroy them after his death.
Mozart lived at the centre of the Viennese musical world and knew a significant number and variety of people: fellow musicians, theatrical performers, fellow Salzburgers, and aristocrats, including some acquaintance with Emperor Joseph II. Solomon considers his three closest friends to have been Gottfried von Jacquin, Count August Hatzfeld, and Sigmund Barisani; others included his elder colleague Joseph Haydn, the singers Franz Xaver Gerl and Benedikt Schack, and the horn player Joseph Leutgeb. Leutgeb and Mozart carried on a kind of friendly mockery, often with Leutgeb as the butt of Mozart's practical jokes.
He enjoyed billiards, dancing, and kept pets, including a canary, a starling, a dog, and a horse for recreational riding. He had a startling fondness for scatological humour, which is preserved in his surviving letters, notably those written to his cousin Maria Anna Thekla Mozart around 1777–1778, and in his correspondence with his sister and parents. Mozart also wrote scatological music, a series of canons that he sang with his friends. He had an ear for languages, and having travelled all over Europe as a boy, was fluent in Latin, Italian, and French in addition to his native Salzburg dialect of German. He possibly also understood and spoke some English, having jokingly written "You are an ass" after his 19-year-old student Thomas Attwood made a thoughtless mistake on his exercise papers.
Mozart was raised a Catholic and remained a devout member of the Church throughout his life. He embraced some of the teachings of Freemasonry in 1784.
== Works, musical style, and innovations ==
=== Style ===
Mozart's music, like Haydn's, stands as an archetype of the Classical style. At the time he began composing, European music was dominated by the style galant, a reaction against the highly evolved intricacy of the Baroque. Progressively, and in large part at the hands of Mozart himself, the contrapuntal complexities of the late Baroque emerged once more, moderated and disciplined by new forms, and adapted to a new aesthetic and social milieu. Mozart was a versatile composer, and wrote in every major genre, including symphony, opera, the solo concerto, chamber music including string quartet and string quintet, and the piano sonata. These forms were not new, but Mozart advanced their technical sophistication and emotional reach. From his earliest years to his last, he composed a varied number of vocal works – concert arias, songs and canons. He almost single-handedly developed and popularised the Classical piano concerto. He wrote a great deal of religious music, including large-scale masses, as well as dances, divertimenti, serenades, and other forms of light entertainment.
The central traits of the Classical style are all present in Mozart's music. Clarity, balance, and transparency are the hallmarks of his work, but simplistic notions of its delicacy mask the exceptional power of his finest masterpieces, such as the Piano Concerto No. 24 in C minor, K. 491; the Symphony No. 40 in G minor, K. 550; and the opera Don Giovanni. Charles Rosen makes the point forcefully:
It is only through recognising the violence and sensuality at the centre of Mozart's work that we can make a start towards a comprehension of his structures and an insight into his magnificence. In a paradoxical way, Schumann's superficial characterisation of the G minor Symphony can help us to see Mozart's daemon more steadily. In all of Mozart's supreme expressions of suffering and terror, there is something shockingly voluptuous.
During his last decade, Mozart frequently exploited chromatic harmony. A notable instance is his String Quartet in C major, K. 465 (1785), whose introduction abounds in chromatic suspensions, giving rise to the work's nickname, the "Dissonance" quartet.
Mozart had a gift for absorbing and adapting the valuable features of others' music. His travels helped in the forging of a unique compositional language. In London as a child, he met Johann Christian Bach and heard his music. In Paris, Mannheim, and Vienna he met with other compositional influences, as well as the avant-garde capabilities of the Mannheim orchestra. In Italy, he encountered the Italian overture and opera buffa, both of which deeply affected the evolution of his practice. In London and Italy, the galant style was in the ascendent: simple, light music with a mania for cadencing; an emphasis on tonic, dominant, and subdominant to the exclusion of other harmonies; symmetrical phrases; and clearly articulated partitions in the overall form of movements. Some of Mozart's early symphonies are Italian overtures, with three movements running into each other; many are homotonal (all three movements having the same key signature, with the slow middle movement being in the relative minor). Others mimic the works of J. C. Bach, and others show the simple rounded binary forms turned out by Viennese composers.
As Mozart matured, he progressively incorporated more features adapted from the Baroque. For example, the Symphony No. 29 in A major K. 201 has a contrapuntal main theme in its first movement, and experimentation with irregular phrase lengths. Some of his quartets from 1773 have fugal finales, probably influenced by Haydn, who had included three such finales in his recently published Opus 20 set. The influence of the Sturm und Drang ("Storm and Stress") period in music, with its brief foreshadowing of the Romantic era, is evident in the music of both composers at that time. Mozart's Symphony No. 25 in G minor K. 183 is another excellent example.
Mozart would sometimes switch his focus between operas and instrumental music. He produced operas in each of the prevailing styles: opera buffa, such as Le nozze di Figaro, Don Giovanni, and Così fan tutte; opera seria, such as Idomeneo; and Singspiel, of which Die Zauberflöte is the most famous example by any composer. In his later operas, he employed subtle changes in instrumentation, orchestral texture, and tone colour, for emotional depth and to mark dramatic shifts. Here, his advances in opera and instrumental composing interacted: his increasingly sophisticated use of the orchestra in the symphonies and concertos influenced his operatic orchestration, and his developing subtlety in using the orchestra to psychological effect in his operas was in turn reflected in his later non-operatic compositions.
=== Köchel catalogue ===
For unambiguous identification of works by Mozart, a Köchel catalogue number is used. This is a unique number assigned, in regular chronological order, to every one of his known works. A work is referenced by the abbreviation "K." or "KV" followed by this number. The first edition of the catalogue was completed in 1862 by Ludwig von Köchel. It has since been repeatedly updated, as scholarly research improves knowledge of the dates and authenticity of individual works.
=== Instruments ===
Although some of Mozart's early pieces were written for harpsichord, he also became acquainted in his early years with fortepianos made by Regensburg builder Franz Jakob Späth. Later when Mozart was visiting Augsburg, he was impressed by Johann Andreas Stein's fortepianos and shared this in a letter to his father. On 22 October 1777 Mozart had premiered his triple-piano concerto, K. 242, on instruments provided by Stein. The Augsburg Cathedral organist Demmler was playing the first, Mozart the second and Stein the third part. In 1783, when he was living in Vienna, he purchased an instrument by Anton Walter. Leopold Mozart confirmed the attachment which Mozart had with his Walter fortepiano: "It is impossible to describe the hustle and bustle. Your brother's pianoforte has been moved at least twelve times from his house to the theatre or to someone else's house." Mozart's Walter piano is exhibited in the main hall of the Tanzmeisterhaus (the former Mozart family residence) in Salzburg.
== Influence ==
His most famous pupil was Johann Nepomuk Hummel, a transitional figure between the Classical and Romantic eras whom the Mozarts took into their Vienna home for two years as a child. More important is the influence Mozart had on composers of later generations. Ever since the surge in his reputation after his death, studying his scores has been a standard part of a classical musician's training.
Beethoven, Mozart's junior by fifteen years, was deeply influenced by his work, with which he was acquainted as a teenager. He is thought to have performed Mozart's operas while playing in the court orchestra at Bonn and travelled to Vienna in 1787 hoping to study with the older composer. Some of Beethoven's works have direct models in comparable works by Mozart, and he wrote cadenzas (WoO 58) to Mozart's D minor piano concerto K. 466.
Composers have paid homage to Mozart by writing sets of variations on his themes. Beethoven wrote four such sets (Op. 66, WoO 28, WoO 40, WoO 46). Others include Fernando Sor's Introduction and Variations on a Theme by Mozart (1821), Mikhail Glinka's Variations on a Theme from Mozart's Opera The Magic Flute (1822), Frédéric Chopin's Variations on "Là ci darem la mano" from Don Giovanni (1827), and Max Reger's Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Mozart (1914), based on the variation theme in the piano sonata K. 331. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, who revered Mozart, wrote his Orchestral Suite No. 4 in G, Mozartiana (1887), as a tribute to him. Albert Einstein said that "Mozart's music is so pure it seems to have been ever present in the universe."
== Notes and references ==
=== Notes ===
=== References ===
=== Sources ===
== Further reading ==
See Buch 2017 for an extensive bibliography
== External links ==
Homepage for the Salzburg Mozarteum Foundation
"Discovering Mozart". BBC Radio 3.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at IMDb
Digitized documents
Works by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at the Internet Archive
Works by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
"Mozart" Titles; Mozart as author at Google Books
Digital Mozart Edition Archived 18 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine (Internationale Stiftung Mozarteum)
"Mozart" titles from Gallica (in French)
From the British Library
Mozart's Thematic Catalogue Archived 7 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
Mozart's Musical Diary Archived 24 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine
Background information on Mozart and the Thematic Catalogue Archived 14 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine
Letters of Leopold Mozart und Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (in German) (Baden State Library)
Sheet music
Complete sheet music (scores) from the Neue Mozart-Ausgabe, International Mozarteum Foundation
Mozart scores from the Munich Digitization Center (MDZ)
Mozart titles from the University of Rochester
Free scores by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
Free scores by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)
Free typeset sheet music of Mozart's works from Cantorion.org
The Mutopia Project has compositions by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at the Musopen project |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Internationale_d%27Escrime#:~:text=Albert%20Feyerick%2C%20president%20of%20the,Switzerland%2C%20and%20the%20United%20States. | Fédération Internationale d'Escrime | The International Fencing Federation (Fédération Internationale d'Escrime) commonly known by the acronym FIE, is the international governing body of Olympic fencing. Today, its head office is at the Maison du Sport International in Lausanne, Switzerland. The FIE is composed of 155 national federations, each of which is recognized by its country's Olympic Committee as the sole representative of Olympic-style fencing in that country.
== History ==
The International Fencing Federation (Fédération Internationale d'Escrime) is the heir of the Société d'encouragement de l'escrime founded in France in 1882, which took part in the global movement of structuring sport. The first international fencing congress was held in Brussels, Belgium in 1897 at the instigation of the Fédération belge des cercles d'escrime, followed by another one in Paris in 1900. On this occasion the Société organised one of the first international fencing events; French, Italian, Spanish, and Belgian fencers attended the competition. Dissensions rapidly arose between épéeists and foilists, which held the majority at the Société. The third congress held in Brussels in 1905 voted the creation of an international fencing committee whose mission would be of fostering friendship amongst all fencers, establishing national rules, and supporting the organization of fencing competitions. The third congress also adopted the French rules as the basis for upcoming international competitions. New tensions appeared, this time between France and Italy, about the regulatory weapon grip. They led to the boycott by France of the fencing events of the 1912 Olympic Games.
A new international congress was called together in Ghent, Belgium, in July 1913. The main matter was the adoption of international regulations for each of the three weapons. The French rules were adopted in épée and foil; the Hungarian rules were chosen for sabre. Frenchman René Lacroix also campaigned for the creation of an international fencing federation.
The International Fencing Federation (Fédération Internationale d'Escrime) was founded on 29 November 1913, in the conference rooms of the Automobile Club de France in Paris. The nine founding nations were Belgium, Bohemia (now the Czech Republic), France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, and Norway. Albert Feyerick, president of the Federation of fencing clubs of Belgium, was elected as the first president. The FIE held its first congress on 23 June 1914, and accepted the adhesion of seven new countries: Austria, Denmark, Monaco, Romania, Russia, Switzerland, and the United States.
=== Presidency of Alisher Usmanov ===
Russian oligarch Alisher Usmanov was elected president of the FIE in 2008 with 66 votes to 61 for incumbent president René Roch. He was re-elected in 2012 and 2016. In 2021, Usmanov was re-elected by acclamation to a fourth term, for which he was congratulated by Vladimir Putin.
On 28 February 2022, in reaction to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the European Union blacklisted Usmanov, imposing an EU-wide travel ban on him and freezing all of his assets. The EU stated: "He has been referred to as one of Vladimir Putin's favourite oligarchs." Following the imposition of the sanctions on him, Usmanov announced on 1 March 2022, in an accusatory letter, that he was stepping down as FIE President. On 30 November 2024, he was re-elected to the office for another term.
=== Impact of the Russian invasion of Ukraine ===
In response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine in late February 2022, the FIE agreed with the European Fencing Confederation (EFC) to ban Russian and Belarusian fencers, and reallocated competitions that were due to be held in Russia and Belarus.
On 10 March 2023, the FIE became the first Olympic governing body to officially reinstate Russian and Belarusian athletes and officials, in time for the start of the qualification for the 2024 Summer Olympics. Protesting this decision, Denmark, France, Germany, and Poland cancelled upcoming World Cup fencing events to prevent Russians and Belarusians from participating.
In April 2023, it was revealed that the European Fencing Confederation had sent a critical letter to the FIE, outlining their opposition to the FIE's plans to strip the countries that had indicated they would not grant visas to Russians and Belarusians from hosting rights, and impose sanctions on them. In addition, the EFC approved in congress in June 2023 that no Russian or Belarusian coach or athlete may compete in an EFC competition, and that Russia and Belarus are suspended as members. Over 200 fencers also signed an open letter in which they objected to the FIE's decision to allow the return of Russian and Belarusian fencers as neutrals. In May 2023, the FIE decided to strip individual events at the 2023 European Games in Kraków-Małopolska of their Olympic qualifier status because the Polish organizers banned Russians from participating at the Games, and therefore they organized instead a separate European Championships in Plovdiv for individual events only where Russians were allowed to compete. The Nordic Fencing Union heavily criticized these decisions by the FIE.
=== Disqualification of Ukrainian world champion, and subsequent reversal ===
In July 2023, Ukrainian four-time individual world sabre champion Olga Kharlan was disqualified by the FIE at the World Fencing Championships. Kharlan defeated Russian Anna Smirnova 15-7. At the time, and since 1 July 2020 (and reconfirmed by FIE public notice in September 2020 and in January 2021), by public written notice the FIE had replaced its previous handshake requirement with a "salute" by the opposing fencers, and written in its public notice that handshakes were "suspended until further notice." Smirnova extended her hand to Kharlan, who in turn extended her saber in an offer to the Russian to tap blades. Kharlan said her choice of salute was meant as a sign of respect for her opponent, while still acknowledging the ongoing conflict between Ukraine and Russia. After a long delay during which Smirnova protested and sat on the strip for 45 minutes, Kharlan was ultimately black-carded and eliminated from the championship by FIE officials. The Russian had been allowed to compete as a neutral athlete. The Ukrainian delegation filed an appeal. The German Fencing Federation criticized the decision by the FIE and maintained that the very strict interpretation of the rules sent a fatal signal far beyond the world of fencing.
The FIE came under fire for its decision. Ukrainian tennis player Elina Svitolina called the FIE’s disqualification “disrespectful” towards Ukrainians. Mykhailo Podolyak, adviser to Ukraine president Volodymyr Zelensky, called the FIE decision "absolutely shameful," and posted a photo on his Twitter feed which appeared to show the Russian fencer smiling and flashing the victory sign with a Russian soldier, writing: "The photo features ... the Russian fencer.... As you can see, she openly admires the Russian army.... The [FIE] disqualified the Ukrainian representative for not shaking hands with the Russian." Kharlan said "This federation will never change." Team USA head coach Yury Gelman said that the FIE was the most corrupt federation in the world.
The IOC strongly disagreed with the FIE's actions. On 28 July at the behest of the Comité international olympique, the FIE reversed itself and cancelled its disqualification of Kharlan, making it possible for her to enter the team women's sabre event on 29 July, while at the same time arguing that "The FIE stands fully behind the penalty, which, after a thorough review, is in complete accordance and compliance with its official rules and associated penalties." Kharlan was also told by the IOC in an empathic letter on which the FIE president was copied that due to the circumstances she was being granted automatic qualification into the 2024 Paris Olympics, and that she should "[r]est assured that the IOC will continue to stand in full solidarity with the Ukrainian athletes and the Olympic community of Ukraine during these extremely difficult times." Subsequently, though the FIE had defended its position in its interim president's letter to Kharlan, Bruno Gares, the FIE's representative of the Executive Committee in the Rules Commission said that -- after the required salutes at the end of a bout -- handshakes would become optional, with a distance greeting permitted instead.
== Events ==
Competitions organized by the FIE include the senior World Championships and World Cup, the Junior World Championships and Junior World Cup, the Cadets World Championships, and the Veterans World Championships. The Zonal Championships recognised by the FIE are the Senior Zonal Championships and the
Junior Zonal Championships, but other competitions may be organized by the Zonal Confederations.
The FIE assists the International Olympic Committee in the organization of fencing events at the Summer Olympics. The number of events has been a matter of contention between the FIE and the CIO since the introduction of the women's sabre at the 1999 World Championships: since then, the World Championships feature twelve events: an individual and a team weapon for each of the three weapons, for men and for women. However, the CIO refuses to increase the number of Olympic medals allocated to fencing. After much dithering, the FIE decided to organize all six individual events, but only four team events, decided on a rotational basis. The two team events excluded from the Olympic programme, one for men and one for women, are included instead in the World Championships.
== People ==
=== Presidents of the FIE ===
A list of FIE presidents from 1913 to the present:
=== Athletes ===
== Continental federations ==
As of 2023, the FIE recognized 155 affiliated national federations.
Note: As of 7 July 2012, the Netherlands Antilles was still listed as an FIE Member nation, and 146 member nations were listed on the FIE's membership page. However, after the country was dissolved, it lost its National Olympic Committee status in 2011. At the 2012 Olympics, athletes from the former Netherlands Antilles were eligible to participate as independent athletes under the Olympic flag (no fencers competed).
== References ==
=== Sources ===
Ottogalli, Cécile; Six, Gérard; Terret, Thierry (2014). L'Histoire de l'escrime. 1913–2013, un siècle de Fédération internationale d'escrime. Biarritz: Atlantica. ISBN 978-2-7588-0485-7. FIE100.
== External links ==
Media related to Fédération Internationale d'Escrime at Wikimedia Commons
Official website
Olympics, FIE records
History of fencing
FIE calendar
Results of FIE competitions
FIE rules
FIE Magazines
FIE press releases |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahoo's_Fish_Taco | Wahoo's Fish Taco | Wahoo's Fish Taco is a U.S.-based restaurant chain that offers Mexican food mixed with Brazilian and Asian flavors. Categorized as a "fast casual restaurant", the quality and preparation time of its food is between that of a fast-food restaurant and a more formal restaurant. Wahoo's provides many vegetarian and some vegan options, such as tofu, banzai veggies and brown rice, and also provides a kids' meal menu. They serve wahoo fish in their tacos, as well as Mahi-mahi.
== History ==
Wahoo's was founded in Costa Mesa, California, in 1988 by Chinese-Brazilian brothers Eduardo "Ed" Lee, Renato "Mingo" Lee and Wing Lam, who mixed traditional Chinese and Brazilian flavors with dishes they encountered while traveling in Mexico. Their parents had fled to Brazil in the 1950s following the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War, and settled in São Paulo, opening a Chinese restaurant; their five sons were all born in Brazil. Their father, Cheong Lee, and the eldest brother came to the United States in 1964, and the rest of the family arrived in 1975, opening the Shanghai Pine Gardens restaurant on Balboa Island. Based on their experience working long hours at Shanghai Pine Gardens, the parents insisted that their five children should study medicine, law, or engineering; the eldest brother went to law school, the second brother studied medicine, and the third brother (Wing Lam) attended San Diego State University, initially studying engineering, but switching to finance after being placed on academic probation.
The first Wahoo's Fish Taco restaurant, located at 1862 Placentia Avenue in Costa Mesa, opened in November 1988, serving Baja California-style fish tacos. The three brothers (youngest of the five sons) were the main restaurant employees. Wing Lam recounted in 2011 that "back in the day, I took your order, ran to the kitchen, made it and delivered it to your table." The three brothers remain involved in daily operations, with Wing Lam staffing the chain's California-based food truck. The first restaurant was funded in part with US$30,000 the brothers received from their parents after selling Shanghai Pine Gardens.
Steve Karfaridis, the first manager of Wahoo's second location, in Laguna Beach, is now a partner in the business. The corporate headquarters are in Santa Ana, California. The three brothers are still involved with the company, with Wing Lam acting as the public face of the company, working in public relations and marketing. Projected sales in 2004 were US$35,000,000 (equivalent to $58,270,000 in 2024). By 2011, annual sales exceeded US$60,000,000 (equivalent to $83,870,000 in 2024).
=== Expansion ===
By 1994, Wahoo's had opened two additional locations, one each in Costa Mesa and Laguna Beach. The business permit for the fourth location in Huntington Beach, was delayed over a city code requirement to pay for 12 spaces in the city-owned Main Street parking garage, and an additional location was opened in Lake Forest in May 1994. By late 1995, Wahoo's had six locations in total, five in Orange County, California and one in Denver, Colorado. The Wahoo's that opened in Manhattan Beach in 1998 was the first Wahoo's in California outside Orange County. In 2001, Wahoo's had 22 locations and announced plans to open 40 more by 2006. By 2005, Wahoo's had 36 locations, including the original Costa Mesa restaurant.
Wahoo's has since expanded across California and has opened locations in Colorado, Hawaii, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey & Pennsylvania . In 2009, Wahoo's announced plans to add 100 franchise locations by 2014, but those plans have slowed. By Wahoo's 25-year anniversary in 2013, they had 64 restaurants in seven states, and would later that year go on to open Wahoo's first international restaurant in Tokyo, Japan.
=== California Love Drop ===
On April 12, 2020, Wahoo's delivered 300 meals to an Irvine hospital as part of California Love Drop, a collaboration between Lam and numerous partners to deliver meals to frontline workers during the COVID-19 pandemic. To date, the Love Drop has delivered over 11,000 meals.
== Marketing ==
From the outset, Wahoo's has targeted the surfing community by offering affordable prices and eclectic decor, which uses stickers and surfing equipment inside the restaurant. Wahoo's would cater corporate events for surf apparel companies and local surf contests to build word-of-mouth for its fish tacos. Similar strategies were used to build support in other "extreme" sports communities such as snowboarding, rock climbing, and cycling.
Wahoo's also built a strong youth following by naming a local "athlete of the week" and sponsoring a meal, which would inevitably be attended by the athlete's friends.
The fish tacos served by street vendors in Baja California were, in Lam's recollection, generally filled with unsaleable by-caught fish such as shark; the bycatch would be sold cheaply to street vendors, who sliced the fish into strips, deep fried the strips, and sold the fish in inexpensive tacos with cabbage and tomatoes. While attending San Diego State, Lam came up with the idea to replicate the fish tacos for an American audience, similar to the origin story told by Rubio's founder (and fellow Aztec alumnus) Ralph Rubio. The primary difference was the Wahoo's fish taco was prepared as his family would interpret the recipe: grilled meat, instead of fried, and beans without lard or bacon fat, with vegetarian and vegan options. The brothers' efforts to replicate street tacos with a healthy twist coincided with a renewed consumer interest in "fresh" Mexican cuisine, and Wahoo's has offered nutritional information from the start to cater to health-conscious consumers. In addition, Wahoo's has been credited as creating one of the earliest Asian-taco fusions.
Word-of-mouth from existing stores was sufficient when new Orange County locations were opened, but when Wahoo's expanded north into Manhattan Beach in Los Angeles County, the marketing effort reverted to advertising in local newspapers and schools.
== In popular culture ==
Author Earlene Fowler credits the original Wahoo's location as her office while she was writing her first novel.
January 9, 2013 was proclaimed Wahoo's Fish Taco Day in Costa Mesa to honor the chain's 25th founding anniversary.
Travis Barker, drummer for blink-182, opened a Wahoo's Fish Taco restaurant in Norco, California (co-owned with the Lee brothers) in 2004.
== Gallery ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
"Yahoo! for Wahoo's Fish Tacos". HB Magazine. April–May 2013. p. 32. Retrieved October 26, 2016.
Mayor's Award: Wahoos on YouTube
Do, Anh (May 16, 2015). "Fish tacos, flip-flops and sharks in suits". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved October 26, 2016.
=== Reviews ===
Mastre, Kristin (September 6, 2011). "Wahoo's Fish Tacos (review)". Feasting Fort Collins. Retrieved October 26, 2016.
Pierleoni, Allen (August 13, 2014). "First Impressions: Wahoo's Fish Taco in midtown". The Sacramento Bee. Retrieved October 27, 2016.
Elliott, Farley (August 2012). "Which Taco Chain Makes the Best Fish Tacos?". Serious Eats. Retrieved October 27, 2016. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson_Asiku | Jackson Asiku | Jackson "Action" Asiku (*21 October 1978) is a Ugandan-Australian amateur flyweight and professional feather/super featherweight boxer.
== Career ==
As an amateur, Asiku represented Uganda at the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and won a bronze medal, losing to eventual gold medal winner Richard Sunee of Mauritius. In 1999, he won a bronze medal at flyweight in Boxing at the All-Africa Games in Johannesburg, South Africa, losing to eventual silver medal winner Nacer Keddam of Algeria. In 2000, he took part, in the Summer Olympics in Sydney, Australia, losing to Arlan Lerio of the Philippines. During his amateur time, Asiku boxed in flyweight.
As a professional, Asiku won the Australian featherweight title, World Boxing Organization (WBO) Asia Pacific featherweight title, African Boxing Union (ABU) featherweight title, International Boxing Federation (IBF) Australasian featherweight title, International Boxing Organization (IBO) featherweight title, and Commonwealth featherweight title, and was a challenger for the International Boxing Federation (IBF) Pan Pacific featherweight title against Fahprakorb Rakkiatgym. His professional fighting weight varied from 123+1⁄2 lb (56.0 kg; 8 st 11.5 lb), i.e. featherweight to 129+3⁄4 lb (58.9 kg; 9 st 3.8 lb), i.e. super featherweight.
== References ==
== External links ==
Boxing record for Jackson Asiku from BoxRec (registration required)
Image - Jackson Asiku Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
Image - Jackson Asiku Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Costa_Rica | List of presidents of Costa Rica | The following article lists the presidents and heads of state of Costa Rica since Central American independence from Spain. From 1824 to 1838 Costa Rica was a state within the Federal Republic of Central America; since then it has been an independent nation.
== Heads of state of Costa Rica (1824–1848) ==
Liberal
Conservative
== Presidents of Costa Rica (1848–present) ==
Liberal
Conservative
Military
PP
PR
PRN
PUN
PLN
PUSC
PAC
PPSD
== Timeline ==
== See also ==
List of presidents of the Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica
List of presidents of the Supreme Court of Costa Rica
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Santuario | El Santuario | El Santuario is a town and municipality in the Antioquia Department, Colombia. It is part of the subregion of Eastern Antioquia. El Santuario was founded on 11 March 1765 by Captain Antonio Gómez de Castro. Its elevation is 2,150 meters above sea level, with an average temperature of 17 °C. The distance reference from Medellín city, the capital of Antioquia Department, is 57 km and it has a total area of 83.45 km². This town is well known for being the place where comedian Guillermo Zuluaga "Montecristo" and actor Crisanto Alonso Vargas "Vargasvil" were born. The more significant source of its economy is agriculture, mainly vegetables, beans, potatoes and legume cultivation.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psalidopus | Psalidopus | Psalidopus is a genus of shrimp placed in its own family, Psalidopodidae, and superfamily, Psalidopodoidea. It comprises three species, one in the western Atlantic Ocean, and two in the Indo-Pacific.
== Psalidopus barbouri ==
Psalidopus barbouri occurs on continental and insular slopes from Florida, the Bahamas and the Gulf of Mexico, to parts of the Caribbean Sea, perhaps extending as far south as Suriname. P. barbouri lives on steeply sloping soft muddy bottoms, sometimes mixed with sand, at depths of 400–800 m, where the temperature ranges from 6.1 to 10.0 °C (43.0 to 50.0 °F). Adults have a carapace length of 13–32 millimetres (0.51–1.26 in), with the total length of the animal, from the tip of the rostrum to the tip of the tail, being up to 5.5 times longer than the carapace.
== Psalidopus huxleyi ==
Psalidopus huxleyi occurs on continental and insular slopes across the Indian Ocean, including the Laccadive Sea, off southern India, the Andaman Sea and the Timor Sea, as well as in the western Pacific Ocean from southern Japan to the Philippines, the Sulu Sea, and the Celebes Sea. P. huxleyi lives on steeply sloping bottoms of various compositions and consistencies, at depths of 500–100 m, where the temperature ranges from 5.9 to 13.6 °C (42.6 to 56.5 °F). The carapace is 10–30 mm (0.39–1.18 in) long.
== Psalidopus tosaensis ==
Psalidopus tosaensis lives at greater depth (c. 2800 m) and lower temperature – 1.6 °C (34.9 °F) – than either of the other species of Psalidopus. Although it is geographically closer to P. huxleyi, it appears to be more closely related to P. barbouri.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Primeira_Liga#Clean_sheets | 2019–20 Primeira Liga | The 2019–20 Primeira Liga (also known as Liga NOS for sponsorship reasons) was the 86th season of the Primeira Liga, the top professional league for Portuguese association football clubs. The season started on 9 August 2019 and was finished on 26 July 2020.
Benfica were the defending champions, after winning their 37th league title in the previous season. Paços de Ferreira and Famalicão were promoted from the second-tier 2018–19 LigaPro, while Gil Vicente were promoted directly from the third-tier 2018–19 Campeonato de Portugal by court decision. They replaced Chaves, Nacional and Feirense, who were relegated to the 2019–20 LigaPro.
On 12 March 2020, the Liga Portuguesa de Futebol Profissional (LPFP) suspended the Primeira Liga due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal. Following the government's approval, the league resumed play on 3 June, with matches of the remaining ten matchdays taking place behind closed doors.
On 15 July 2020, Porto secured their 29th league title with two matches remaining after defeating Sporting CP 2–0 at home.
After the end of the season, on 26 July, Desportivo das Aves and Portimonense were relegated to the 2020–21 LigaPro. However, two days later, Desportivo das Aves and Vitória de Setubal were relegated to the 2020–21 Campeonato de Portugal by decision of the Liga Portuguesa de Futebol Profissional ("LPFP") after both clubs failed to meet the necessary requirements to obtain a licence for registration to participate in professional domestic competitions.
== Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic ==
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Portugal, on 10 March 2020, the LPFP announced that all fixtures on matchday 24 (6–8 March) would be played behind closed doors following the Portuguese government to suspend events in open spaces with more than 5,000 people, as well as events behind closed doors with more than 1,000 participants, until 3 April. Two days later, the LPFP suspended the Primeira Liga and LigaPro until further notice because of effects of the coronavirus pandemic in Portugal. The decision was taken following the Portuguese Football Federation ("FPF")'s announcement of suspending their own non-professional football and futsal competitions and also due to an emergency meeting between the Sindicato dos Jogadores Profissionais de Futebol ("SJPF"), the LPFP and the FPF to monitor the situation, in view of the proposal to suspend all sports competitions, which the SJPF added that in case of infection, there would be an aggravated loss. Shortly after, LPFP president Pedro Proença met with several presidents of Primeira Liga's clubs to assess the impact of the stoppage of professional championships due to the COVID-19 pandemic. He revealed a COVID-19 economic support plan to support the treasury of various clubs in the Primeira Liga and LigaPro. Afterwards, the LPFP announced the creation of an Economic Impact Monitoring Group that would be responsible for presenting measures to support the clubs that competed in the Primeira Liga and LigaPro. The FPF also opened a credit line to support the finances of non-professional football and futsal clubs in the amount of one million euros to minimize the effects of the pandemic on their finances.
On 28 April, Prime Minister of Portugal António Costa reunited with the presidents of the "Big Three" clubs in Portugal (S.L. Benfica, Sporting CP and FC Porto), the president of the FPF and the president of the LPFP to discuss the conditions of the return of football in Portugal. The reunion caused some controversy for some Primeira Liga clubs such as Braga and Vitória de Guimarães, who were not satisfied that only the "Big Three" clubs were the only ones invited to the discussion, and instead believed all Primeira Liga clubs should have been invited. Two days later, António Costa approved the return of the league, with all matches being resumed behind closed doors following the consent of the Portuguese Ministry of Health.
On 11 May, it was announced that several teams in the Primeira Liga had players tested positive for COVID-19, with Benfica having a player from its reserve team to be infected, followed by three players from Famalicão, Moreirense and Vitória de Guimarães that were sent home and were isolated from the rest of their respective teams. On 20 May, LPFP president Pedro Proença president proposed that following the restart of the league, the matches played should be shown on the free-to-air television station RTP in Portugal instead of the pay TV subscriptions, with the backing of the Portuguese government. However, this proposal caused some controversy with the league's main sponsor, NOS, and several other sponsors, as well as various other clubs in the league, most notably Benfica and Porto. This prompted rumours that Proença could be forced to end his term prematurely, rumours Proença later dismissed. Later that month, Benfica left the board of LPFP due to the controversy.
On 14 May, after a meeting of all clubs, five substitutions will be permitted, which was temporarily allowed by IFAB following a proposal by FIFA to lessen the impact of fixture congestion. On 22 May, the LPFP announced that the league would be resumed on 3 June. On 27 May, it was announced that one of the assistant referees for a league match between Benfica and Marítimo had tested positive for COVID-19, leading him to be replaced by another referee for the scheduled league match.
On 30 May, the LPFP approved a plan to resume the league, but during the reunion between all clubs of the league, Marítimo refused to accept the five substitutions rules, leading the rule to be accepted on 8 June by the LPFP despite Marítimo's refusal.
== Teams ==
Eighteen teams competed in the league – the top fifteen teams from the previous season, the two teams promoted from the LigaPro (Paços de Ferreira and Famalicão) and one team promoted directly from the third-tier Campeonato de Portugal (Gil Vicente).
Paços de Ferreira came back to the top division one season after being relegated, while Famalicão secured their return after a 25-year absence. Gil Vicente, having been relegated to the third-level of Portuguese football in the 2018–19 season, were reinstated in the Primeira Liga by court decision, five years after their last participation.
These three teams replaced Chaves, Feirense (both relegated after three years in the top flight), and Nacional (relegated one season after their promotion).
=== Stadia and locations ===
=== Personnel and sponsors ===
=== Managerial changes ===
== League table ==
=== Positions by round ===
The table lists the positions of teams after each week of matches. In order to preserve chronological evolvements, any postponed matches are not included to the round at which they were originally scheduled, but added to the full round they were played immediately afterwards.
=== Results ===
== Statistics ==
=== Top goalscorers ===
=== Hat-tricks ===
Notes
(H) – Home team(A) – Away team
=== Top assists ===
=== Clean sheets ===
=== Discipline ===
==== Player ====
Most yellow cards: 14
José Semedo (Vitória de Setúbal)
Most red cards: 2
João Afonso (Gil Vicente)
Sebastián Coates (Sporting CP)
José Semedo (Vitória de Setúbal)
Raul Silva (Braga)
Alex Telles (Porto)
Rafik Halliche (Moreirense)
==== Club ====
Most yellow cards: 102
Paços de Ferreira
Most red cards: 6
Famalicão
== Awards ==
=== Monthly awards ===
=== Annual awards ===
Annual awards were announced on 29 August 2020.
== Number of teams by district ==
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda_CL125 | Honda CL125 | The Honda CL125 was a scrambler motorcycle made by Honda from 1967 to 1974. Two different engines were used through the models life: 1967-1969: CL125A 124cc 2 cylinder 4-stroke, 1973-1974: CL125S 122cc 1 cylinder 4-stroke.
The CL125A was produced from 1967 to 1969 with a 124 cc 4-stroke engine and four-speed transmission. It was the smallest OHC twin cylinder four-stroke that Honda made, and was the smaller sibling to the 160, 175, 350 & 450 models.
In 1970, Honda released its venerable, light weight, 99 cc OHC single 2-valve upright engine. This was a direct challenge to the off-road market which was, at this time, dominated by the two-strokes. A sea wave of change was to quickly follow many of its CB, CL and SL based models.
In 1973, the first CL125S was manufactured using this new motor in its design, with a larger 122 cc piston (which produced more low-end torque but little gain in power) and a slightly larger piston/rod connecting pin. That helped push the dry weight of the bike down to 196 pounds (89 kg). This motorcycle was almost identical to the 1970 to 1973 CL100, that was really only a slight modification of the CB series produced at the same time. The modifications included; lower rear sprocket gearing, slightly more aggressive tires, shorter front fender, braced handlebar, high mount exhaust system and elimination of both the tachometer and center stand. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract:_The_Art_of_Design#Season_1_(2017) | Abstract: The Art of Design | Abstract: The Art of Design is a Netflix original documentary series highlighting artists in the field of design. It was released on Netflix on February 10, 2017. The series was created by former Wired editor-in-chief Scott Dadich.
The first season profiled illustrator Christoph Niemann, Nike shoe designer Tinker Hatfield, stage designer Es Devlin, architect Bjarke Ingels, automotive designer Ralph Gilles, graphic designer Paula Scher, photographer Platon, and interior designer Ilse Crawford.
In 2019, Netflix announced that the series had been renewed for a second season, which was released on September 25, 2019.
== Episodes ==
=== Season 1 (2017) ===
=== Season 2 (2019) ===
== References ==
== External links ==
Abstract: The Art of Design on Netflix
Abstract: The Art of Design at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yayoi_Kusama#Autobiography,_writing | Yayoi Kusama | Yayoi Kusama (草間 彌生, Kusama Yayoi; born 22 March 1929) is a Japanese contemporary artist who works primarily in sculpture and installation. She is also active in painting, performance, video art, fashion, poetry, fiction, and other arts. Her work is based in conceptual art and shows some attributes of feminism, minimalism, surrealism, art brut, pop art, and abstract expressionism, and is infused with autobiographical, psychological, and sexual content. She has been acknowledged as one of the most important living artists to come out of Japan, the world's top-selling female artist, and the world's most successful living artist. Her work influenced that of her contemporaries, including Andy Warhol and Claes Oldenburg.
Kusama was raised in Matsumoto, and trained at the Kyoto City University of Arts for a year in a traditional Japanese painting style called nihonga. She was inspired by American Abstract Impressionism. She moved to New York City in 1958 and was a part of the New York avant-garde scene throughout the 1960s, especially in the pop-art movement. Embracing the rise of the hippie counterculture of the late 1960s, she came to public attention when she organized a series of happenings in which naked participants were painted with brightly colored polka dots. She experienced a period in the 1970s during which her work was largely overlooked, but a revival of interest in the 1980s brought her art back into public view. Kusama has continued to create art in various museums around the world, from the 1950s onwards.
Kusama has been open about her mental health and has resided since the 1970s in a mental health facility. She says that art has become her way to express her mental problems. "I fight pain, anxiety, and fear every day, and the only method I have found that relieved my illness is to keep creating art", she told an interviewer in 2012. "I followed the thread of art and somehow discovered a path that would allow me to live."
== Biography ==
=== Early life: 1929–1949 ===
Yayoi Kusama was born on 22 March 1929 in Matsumoto, Nagano. Born into a family of merchants who owned a plant nursery and seed farm, Kusama began drawing pictures of pumpkins in elementary school and created artwork she saw from hallucinations, works of which would later define her career. Her mother was not supportive of her creative endeavors; Kusama would rush to finish her art because her mother would take it away to discourage her. Her mother was physically abusive, and she remembers her father as "the type who would play around, who would womanize a lot". She said her mother would often send her to spy on her father's extramarital affairs, which instilled within her a lifelong contempt for sexuality, particularly the male's lower body and the phallus: "I don't like sex. I had an obsession with sex. When I was a child, my father had lovers and I experienced seeing him. My mother sent me to spy on him. I didn't want to have sex with anyone for years ... The sexual obsession and fear of sex sit side by side in me." Her traumatic childhood, including her fantastic visions, can be said to be the origin of her artistic style.
When Kusama was ten years old, she began to experience vivid hallucinations which she has described as "flashes of light, auras, or dense fields of dots". These hallucinations included flowers that spoke to Kusama, and patterns in fabric that she stared at coming to life, multiplying, and engulfing or expunging her, a process which she has carried into her artistic career and which she calls "self-obliteration". Kusama's art became her escape from her family and her own mind when she began to have hallucinations. She was reportedly fascinated by the smooth white stones covering the bed of the river near her family home, which she cites as another of the seminal influences behind her lasting fixation on dots.
When Kusama was 13, she was sent to work in a military factory where she was tasked with sewing and fabricating parachutes for the Japanese army, then embroiled in World War II. Discussing her time in the factory, she says that she spent her adolescence "in closed darkness" although she could always hear the air-raid alerts going off and see American B-29s flying overhead in broad daylight. Her childhood was greatly influenced by the events of the war, and she claims that it was during this period that she began to value notions of personal and creative freedom. She attended Arigasaki High School.
She went on to study Nihonga painting at the Kyoto Municipal School of Arts and Crafts in 1948. Frustrated with this distinctly Japanese style, she became interested in the European and American avant-garde, staging several solo exhibitions of her paintings in Matsumoto and Tokyo in the 1950s.
=== Early success in Japan: 1950–1956 ===
By 1950, she was depicting abstract natural forms in watercolor, gouache, and oil paint, primarily on paper. She began covering surfaces—walls, floors, canvases, and later, household objects, and naked assistants—with the polka dots that became a trademark of her work.
The vast fields of polka dots, or "infinity nets", as she called them, were taken directly from her hallucinations. The earliest recorded work in which she incorporated these dots was a drawing in 1939 at age 10, in which the image of a Japanese woman in a kimono, presumed to be the artist's mother, is covered and obliterated by spots. Her first series of large-scale, sometimes more than 30 ft-long canvas paintings, Infinity Nets, were entirely covered in a sequence of nets and dots that alluded to hallucinatory visions.
On her 1954 painting Flower (D.S.P.S), Kusama has said:
One day I was looking at the red flower patterns of the tablecloth on a table, and when I looked up I saw the same pattern covering the ceiling, the windows, and the walls, and finally all over the room, my body and the universe. I felt as if I had begun to self-obliterate, to revolve in the infinity of endless time and the absoluteness of space, and be reduced to nothingness. As I realised it was actually happening and not just in my imagination, I was frightened. I knew I had to run away lest I should be deprived of my life by the spell of the red flowers. I ran desperately up the stairs. The steps below me began to fall apart and I fell down the stairs spraining my ankle.
=== New York City: 1957–1972 ===
After living in Tokyo and France, Kusama left Japan at the age of 27 for the United States. She has stated that she began to consider Japanese society "too small, too servile, too feudalistic, and too scornful of women". Before leaving Japan for the United States, she destroyed many of her early works. In 1957, she moved to Seattle, where she had an exhibition of paintings at the Zoe Dusanne Gallery. She stayed there for a year before moving on to New York City, following correspondence with Georgia O'Keeffe in which she professed an interest in joining the limelight of the city, and sought O'Keeffe's advice. During her time in the US, she quickly established her reputation as a leader in the avant-garde movement and received praise for her work from the anarchist art critic Herbert Read.
In 1961, she moved her studio into the same building as Donald Judd and sculptor Eva Hesse; Hesse became a close friend. In the early 1960s, Kusama began to create so-called soft sculptures by covering items such as ladders, shoes and chairs with white phallic protrusions. Despite the micromanaged intricacy of the drawings, she turned them out fast and in bulk, establishing a rhythm of productivity which she still maintains. She established other habits too, like having herself routinely photographed with new work and regularly appearing in public wearing her signature bob wigs and colorful, avant-garde fashions.
In June 1963, one of Kusama's soft sculpture pieces, a couch covered with phallus-like protrusions she had sewn, was exhibited at the Green Gallery. Included in the same exhibition was a papier-mache sculpture by Claes Oldenburg, who had not worked in soft sculpture. Kusama's piece received the most attention from attendees and critics, and by September Oldenburg was exhibiting sewn soft sculpture, some pieces of which were very similar to Kusama's; Oldenburg's wife apologized to Kusama at the exhibit. According to Fordham professor of art Midori Yamamura, Oldenburg likely was inspired by Kusama's work to use sewn pieces himself, pieces which made him an "international star". Kusama became depressed over the incident. A similar incident occurred soon after when Kusama exhibited a boat she had covered in soft sculpture, with photographs of the boat completely covering the walls of the exhibit space, which was very innovative. Andy Warhol remarked on the exhibit, and not long after covered the walls of an exhibit space with photos of a cow, for which he drew significant attention. Kusama became very secretive about her studio work. Helaine Posner, of the Neuberger Museum of Art, said it was likely some combination of sexism and racism that kept Kusama, who was creating work of equal importance to men who were using her ideas and taking the credit for them, from getting the same kinds of backing.
Since 1963, Kusama has continued her series of Mirror/Infinity rooms. In these complex infinity mirror installations, purpose-built rooms lined with mirrored glass contain scores of neon-colored balls, hanging at various heights above the viewer. Standing inside on a small platform, an observer sees light repeatedly reflected off the mirrored surfaces to create the illusion of a never-ending space.
During the following years, Kusama was enormously productive, and by 1966, she was experimenting with room-size, freestanding installations that incorporated mirrors, lights, and piped-in music. She counted Judd and Joseph Cornell among her friends and supporters. However, she did not profit financially from her work. Around this time, Kusama was hospitalized regularly from overwork, and O'Keeffe persuaded her own dealer Edith Herbert to purchase several works to help Kusama stave off financial hardship. She was not able to make the money she believed she deserved, and her frustration became so extreme that she attempted suicide.
In the 1960s, Kusama organized outlandish happenings in conspicuous spots like Central Park and the Brooklyn Bridge, often involving nudity and designed to protest the Vietnam War. In one, she wrote an open letter to Richard Nixon offering to have sex with him if he would stop the Vietnam war. Between 1967 and 1969, she concentrated on performances held with the maximum publicity, usually involving Kusama painting polka dots on her nude performers, as in the Grand Orgy to Awaken the Dead at the MoMA (1969), in which performers were instructed to embrace each other while engaging the sculptures around them at the Sculpture Garden of the Museum of Modern Art. During the unannounced event, eight performers under Kusama's direction removed their clothing, stepped nude into a fountain, and assumed poses mimicking the nearby sculptures by Picasso, Giacometti, and Maillol.
In 1968, Kusama presided over the happening Homosexual Wedding at the Church of Self-obliteration at 33 Walker Street in New York and performed alongside Fleetwood Mac and Country Joe and the Fish at the Fillmore East in New York City. She opened naked painting studios and a gay social club called the Kusama 'Omophile Kompany (kok). The nudity present in Kusama's art and art protests was severely shameful for her family; her high school removed her name from its list of alumni. This made her feel alone, and she attempted suicide again.
In 1966, Kusama first participated in the Venice Biennale for its 33rd edition. Her Narcissus Garden comprised hundreds of mirrored spheres outdoors in what she called a "kinetic carpet". As soon as the piece was installed on a lawn outside the Italian pavilion, Kusama, dressed in a golden kimono, began selling each individual sphere for 1,200 lire (US$2), until the Biennale organizers put an end to her enterprise. Narcissus Garden was as much about the promotion of the artist through the media as it was an opportunity to offer a critique of the mechanization and commodification of the art market.
During her time in New York, Kusama had a brief relationship with artist Donald Judd. She then began a passionate, platonic relationship with the surrealist artist Joseph Cornell. She was 26 years his junior – they called each other daily, sketched each other, and he would send personalized collages to her. Their lengthy association lasted until his death in 1972.
=== Return to Japan: 1973–1977 ===
In 1973, Kusama returned to Japan. Her reception from the Japanese art world and press was unsympathetic; one art collector recalled considering her a "scandal queen". She was in ill health, but continued to work, writing shockingly visceral and surrealistic novels, short stories, and poetry.
She became so depressed she was unable to work and made another suicide attempt, then in 1977, found a doctor who was using art therapy to treat mental illness in a hospital setting. She checked herself in and eventually took up permanent residence in the hospital. She has been living at the hospital ever since, by choice. Her studio, where she has continued to produce work since the mid-1970s, is a short distance from the hospital in Tokyo. Kusama is often quoted as saying: "If it were not for art, I would have killed myself a long time ago."
From this base, she has continued to produce artworks in a variety of media, as well as launching a literary career by publishing several novels, a poetry collection, and an autobiography. Her painting style shifted to high-colored acrylics on canvas, on an amped-up scale.
=== Revival: 1980s–present ===
Kusama's move to Japan meant she had to build a new career from scratch.
Her organically abstract paintings of one or two colors (the Infinity Nets series), which she began upon arriving in New York, garnered comparisons to the work of Jackson Pollock, Mark Rothko, and Barnett Newman. When she left New York she was practically forgotten as an artist until the late 1980s and 1990s, when a number of retrospectives revived international interest. Yayoi Kusama: A Retrospective was the first critical survey of Yayoi Kusama presented at the Center for International Contemporary Arts (CICA) in New York in 1989, and was organized by Alexandra Munroe.
Following the success of the Japanese pavilion at the Venice Biennale in 1993, a dazzling mirrored room filled with small pumpkin sculptures in which she resided in color-coordinated magician's attire, Kusama went on to produce a huge, yellow pumpkin sculpture covered with an optical pattern of black spots. The pumpkin came to represent for her a kind of alter-ego or self-portrait. The 2.5-meter-wide "Pumpkin", made of fiberglass-reinforced plastic, was installed in 1994 on a pier on Naoshima, Kagawa, becoming iconic as her profile grew in the following decades; it was reinstalled in 2022 after being destroyed by a typhoon a year earlier. Kusama's later installation I'm Here, but Nothing (2000–2008) is a simply furnished room consisting of table and chairs, place settings and bottles, armchairs and rugs, however its walls are tattooed with hundreds of fluorescent polka dots glowing in the UV light. The result is an endless infinite space where the self and everything in the room is obliterated.
The multi-part floating work Guidepost to the New Space, a series of rounded "humps" in fire-engine red with white polka dots, was displayed in Pandanus Lake. Perhaps one of Kusama's most notorious works, various versions of Narcissus Garden have been presented worldwide venues including Le Consortium, Dijon, 2000; Kunstverein Braunschweig, 2003; as part of the Whitney Biennial at Central Park, New York in 2004; and at the Jardin de Tuileries in Paris, 2010.
Kusama continued to work as an artist in her ninth decade. She has harkened back to earlier work by returning to drawing and painting; her work remained innovative and multi-disciplinary, and a 2012 exhibition displayed multiple acrylic-on-canvas works. Also featured was an exploration of infinite space in her Infinity Mirror rooms. These typically involve a cube-shaped room lined in mirrors, with water on the floor and flickering lights; these features suggest a pattern of life and death.
In 2015–2016, the first retrospective exhibition in Scandinavia, curated by Marie Laurberg, travelled to four major museums in the region, opening at Louisiana Museum of Modern Art in Denmark and continuing to Henie Onstad Kunstsenter Museum, Norway; Moderna Museet in Sweden, and Helsinki Art Museum in Finland. This major show contained more than 100 objects and large-scale mirror room installations. It presented several early works that had not been shown to the public since they were first created, including a presentation of Kusama's experimental fashion design from the 1960s.
In 2017, a 50-year retrospective of her work opened at the Hirshhorn Museum in Washington, DC. The exhibit featured six Infinity Mirror rooms, and was scheduled to travel to five museums in the US and Canada.
On 25 February 2017, Kusama's All the Eternal Love I Have for the Pumpkins exhibit, one of the six components to her Infinity Mirror rooms at the Hirshhorn Museum, was temporarily closed for three days following damage to one of the exhibit's glowing pumpkin sculptures. The room, which measures 13 square feet (1.2 m2) and was filled with over 60 pumpkin sculptures, was one of the museum's most popular attractions ever. Allison Peck, a spokeswoman for the Hirshhorn, said in an interview that the museum "has never had a show with that kind of visitor demand", with the room totalling more than 8,000 visitors between its opening and its temporary closure. While there were conflicting media reports about the cost of the damaged sculpture and how exactly it was broken, Allison Peck stated that "there is no intrinsic value to the individual piece. It is a manufactured component to a larger piece." The exhibit was reconfigured to make up for the missing sculpture, and a new one was to be produced for the exhibit by Kusama. The Infinity Mirrors exhibit became a sensation among art critics as well as on social media. Museum visitors shared 34,000 images of the exhibition to their Instagram accounts, and social media posts using the hashtag #InfiniteKusama garnered 330 million impressions, as reported by the Smithsonian the day after the exhibit's closing. The works provided the perfect setting for Instagram-able selfies which inadvertently added to the performative nature of the works.
Later in 2017, the Yayoi Kusama Museum opened in Tokyo, featuring her works.
On 9 November 2019, Kusama's Everyday I Pray For Love exhibition was shown at David Zwirner Gallery until 14 December 2019. The exhibition incorporated sculptures and paintings, and included the debut of her Infinity Mirrored Room – Dancing Lights That Flew Up To The Universe. The catalogue, published by David Zwirner books, contained texts and poems.
In January 2020, the Hirshhorn announced it would debut new Kusama acquisitions, including two Infinity Mirror Rooms, at a forthcoming exhibition called One with Eternity: Yayoi Kusama in the Hirshhorn Collection. The name of the exhibit is derived from an open letter Kusama wrote to then-President-elect Richard Nixon in 1968, writing: "let's forget ourselves, dearest Richard, and become one with the absolute, all together in the altogether."
In November 2021, a monumental exhibition offering an overview of Kusama's main creative periods over the past 70 years, with some 200 works and four Infinity Rooms (unique mirror installations) debuted in the Tel Aviv Museum of Art. The retrospective spanned almost 3,000 m2 across the museum's two buildings, in six galleries and included two new works from 2021: A Bouquet of Love I Saw in the Universe, and Light of the Universe Illuminating the Quest for Truth.
From late December 2022, the Hong Kong's M+ museum held a retrospective on Kusama's career entitled Yayoi Kusama: 1945 to Now. The exhibition, which showed until May 2023, was the largest retrospective of her art in Asia, not including her home country.
The Pérez Art Museum Miami held a showing of Kusama's work. Yayoi Kusama: LOVE IS CALLING was on view and accessible to the public throughout 2024.
In 2024, Kusama unveiled a new Infinity Mirror Room titled Infinity Mirrored Room – Beauty Described by a Spherical Heart as part of her solo exhibition Every Day I Pray for Love at the Victoria Miro Gallery in London. The installation featured mirrored spheres suspended within a darkened space, continuing Kusama’s exploration of repetition, reflection, and the dissolution of the self through immersive environments.
== Meaning and origins of her work ==
Curator Mika Yoshitake has stated that Kusama's works on display are meant to immerse the whole person into her accumulations, obsessions, and repetitions. These infinite, repetitive works were originally a way for Kusama to eliminate her intrusive thoughts. Claire Voon has described one of Kusama's mirror exhibits as being able to "transport you to quiet cosmos, to a lonely labyrinth of pulsing light, or to what could be the enveloping innards of a leviathan with the measles".
Creating these feelings amongst audiences was intentional. These experiences seem to be unique to her work because Kusama wanted others to sympathise with her in her troubled life. Bedatri D. Choudhury has described how Kusama not feeling in control throughout her life made her, either consciously or subconsciously, want to control how others perceive time and space when entering her exhibits. Art had become a coping mechanism for Kusama.
In 1962, Kusama created her work Accumulation of Stamps, 63. The medium used are pasted labels and ink on paper with dimensions of 23 3/4 x 29" (60.3 x 73.6 cm). The art was donated by Phillip Johnson to the Department of Drawings and Prints at the Museum of Modern Art. Kusama experienced hallucinations of flowers, dots, and nets during her childhood. These visions engulfed her surroundings, covering everything from ceilings to windows and walls. She saw the same pattern expand to encompass her body and the entire universe. Kusama's struggle with these hallucinations, which were linked to her mental illness, influenced her artistic style. To cope with her condition, Kusama adopted repeated forms in her art, using store-bought labels and stickers. She does not view her art as an end in itself but rather as a means to address her disability that originated in her childhood. The process of repetition, evident in her collages, reflects her artistic approach. Consequently, many of her artworks bear titles that include words like "accumulation" and "infinity".
Art critic for The Australian newspaper, Christopher Allen, called Kusama "one of the world's most determinedly vacuous artists".
== Works and publications ==
=== Performance ===
In Kusama's Walking Piece (1966), a performance that was documented in a series of eighteen color slides, Kusama walked along the streets of New York City in a traditional Japanese kimono while holding a parasol. The kimono suggested traditional roles for women in Japanese custom. The parasol, however, was made to look inauthentic, as it was actually a black umbrella, painted white on the exterior and decorated with fake flowers. Kusama walked down unoccupied streets in an unknown quest. She then turned and cried without reason, and eventually walked away and vanished from view.
This performance, through the association of the kimono, involved the stereotypes that Asian-American women continued to face. However, as an avant-garde artist living in New York, her situation altered the context of the dress, creating a cross-cultural amalgamation. Kusama was able to highlight the stereotype in which her white American audience categorized her, by showing the absurdity of culturally categorizing people in the world's largest melting pot.
=== Film ===
In 1968, Kusama and Jud Yalkut's collaborative work Kusama's Self-Obliteration won a prize at the Fourth International Experimental Film Competition in Belgium and the Second Maryland Film Festival and the second prize at the Ann Arbor Film Festival. The 1967 experimental film, which Kusama produced and starred in, depicted Kusama painting polka dots on everything around her, including bodies.
In 1991, Kusama starred in the film Tokyo Decadence, written and directed by Ryū Murakami, and in 1993, she collaborated with British musician Peter Gabriel on an installation in Yokohama.
=== Fashion ===
In 1968, Kusama established Kusama Fashion Company Ltd, and began selling avant-garde fashion in the "Kusama Corner" at Bloomingdale's. In 2009, Kusama designed a handbag-shaped cell phone entitled Handbag for Space Travel, My Doggie Ring-Ring, a pink dotted phone in accompanying dog-shaped holder, and a red and white dotted phone inside a mirrored, dotted box dubbed Dots Obsession, Full Happiness With Dots, for Japanese mobile communication giant KDDI Corporation's "iida" brand. Each phone was limited to 1,000 pieces.
In 2011, Kusama created artwork for six limited-edition lipglosses from Lancôme. That same year, she worked with Marc Jacobs (who visited her studio in Japan in 2006) on a line of Louis Vuitton products, including leather goods, ready-to-wear, accessories, shoes, watches, and jewelry. The products became available in 2012 at a SoHo pop-up shop, which was decorated with Kusama's trademark tentacle-like protrusions and polka-dots. Eventually, six other pop-up shops were opened around the world. When asked about her collaboration with Marc Jacobs, Kusama replied that "his sincere attitude toward art" is the same as her own. Louis Vuitton created a second set of products in 2023.
=== Writing ===
In 1977, Kusama published a book of poems and paintings entitled 7. One year later, her first novel Manhattan Suicide Addict appeared. Between 1983 and 1990, she finished the novels The Hustler's Grotto of Christopher Street (1983), The Burning of St Mark's Church (1985), Between Heaven and Earth (1988), Woodstock Phallus Cutter (1988), Aching Chandelier (1989), Double Suicide at Sakuragazuka (1989), and Angels in Cape Cod (1990), alongside several issues of the magazine S&M Sniper in collaboration with photographer Nobuyoshi Araki. Her most recent writing endeavor includes her autobiography Infinity Net published in 2003 that depicts her life from growing up in Japan, her departure to the United States, and her return to her home country, where she now resides. Infinity Net includes her poetry and photographs of her exhibitions. In October 2023, Kusama apologized for a number of racist comments against Black people in her writing.
=== Commissions ===
To date, Kusama has completed several major outdoor sculptural commissions, mostly in the form of brightly hued monstrous plants and flowers, for both public and private institutions, including Pumpkin (1994) for the Fukuoka Municipal Museum of Art; The Visionary Flowers (2002) for the Matsumoto City Museum of Art; Tsumari in Bloom (2003) for Matsudai Station, Niigata; Tulipes de Shangri-La (2003) for Euralille in Lille, France; Red Pumpkin (2006) for Naoshima Town, Kagawa; Hello, Anyang with Love (2007) for Pyeonghwa Park (now referred as World Cup Park), Anyang; and The Hymn of Life: Tulips (2007) for the Beverly Gardens Park in Los Angeles. In 1998, she realized a mural for the hallway of the Gare do Oriente subway station in Lisbon. Alongside these monumental works, she has produced smaller-scale outdoor pieces, including Key-Chan and Ryu-Chan, a pair of dotted dogs. All the outdoor works are cast in highly durable fiberglass-reinforced plastic, then painted in urethane to glossy perfection.
In 2010, Kusama designed a Town Sneaker styled bus, which she titled Mizutama Ranbu (Wild Polka Dot Dance) and whose route travels through her hometown of Matsumoto. In 2011, she was commissioned to design the front cover of millions of pocket London Underground maps; the result is entitled Polka Dots Festival in London (2011). Coinciding with an exhibition at the Whitney Museum of American Art in 2012, a 120-foot (37 m) reproduction of Kusama's painting Yellow Trees (1994) covered a condominium building under construction in New York's Meatpacking District. That same year, Kusama conceived her floor installation Thousands of Eyes as a commission for the new Queen Elizabeth II Courts of Law, Brisbane.
=== Select exhibitions ===
Rodenbeck, J. F. "Yayoi Kusama: Surface, Stitch, Skin". Zegher, M. Catherine de. Inside the Visible: An Elliptical Traverse of 20th Century Art in, of, and from the Feminine. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0-262-54081-0 OCLC 33863951
Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston, 30 January – 12 May 1996.
Kusama, Yayoi, and Damien Hirst. Yayoi Kusama Now. New York: Robert Miller Gallery, 1998. ISBN 978-0-944-68058-2 OCLC 42448762
Robert Miller Gallery, New York, 11 June – 7 August 1998.
Kusama, Yayoi, and Lynn Zelevansky. Love Forever: Yayoi Kusama, 1958–1968. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1998. ISBN 978-0-875-87181-3 OCLC 39030076
Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 8 March – 8 June 1998; three other locations through 4 July 1999.
Kusama, Yayoi. Yayoi Kusama. Vienna: Kunsthalle Wien, 2002. ISBN 978-3-852-47034-4 OCLC 602369060
Kusama, Yayoi. Yayoi Kusama. Paris: Les Presses du Reel, 2002. ISBN 978-0-714-83920-2 OCLC 50628150
Seven European exhibitions in France, Germany, Denmark, etc.; 2001–2003.
Kusama, Yayoi. Kusamatorikkusu = Kusamatrix. Tokyo: Kadokawa Shoten, 2004. ISBN 978-4-048-53741-4 OCLC 169879689
Mori Art Museum, 7 February – 9 May 2004; Mori Geijutsu Bijutsukan, Sapporo, 5 June – 22 August 2004.
Kusama, Yayoi, and Tōru Matsumoto. Kusama Yayoi eien no genzai = Yayoi Kusama: eternity-modernity. Tokyo: Bijutsu Shuppansha, 2005. ISBN 978-4-568-10353-3 OCLC 63197423
Tokyo Kokuritsu Kindai Bijutsukan, 26 October – 19 December 2004; Kyoto Kokuritsu Kindai Bijutsukan, 6 January – 13 February 2005; Hiroshima-shi Gendai Bijutsukan, 22 February – 17 April 2005; Kumamoto-shi Gendai Bijutsukan, 29 April – 3 July 2005; at Matsumoto-shi Bijutsukan, 30 July – 10 October 2005.
Applin, Jo, and Yayoi Kusama. Yayoi Kusama. London: Victoria Miro Gallery, 10 October – 17 November 2007. ISBN 978-0-955-45644-2 OCLC 501970783
Kusama, Yayoi. Yayoi Kusama. Gagosian Gallery, New York, 16 April – 27 June 2009; Gagosian Gallery, Beverly Hills, 30 May – 17 July 2009. ISBN 978-1-932-59894-0 OCLC 320277816
Morris, Frances, and Jo Applin. Yayoi Kusama. London: Tate Publishing, 2012. ISBN 978-1-854-37939-9 OCLC 781163109
Reina Sofia, Madrid, 10 May – 12 September 2011; Centre Pompidou, Paris, 10 October 2011 – 9 January 2012; Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, 12 July – 30 September 2012; Tate Modern (London), 9 February – 5 June 2012.
Kusama, Yayoi, and Akira Tatehata. Yayoi Kusama: I Who Have Arrived in Heaven. New York: David Zwirner, 2014. ISBN 978-0-989-98093-7 OCLC 879584489
David Zwirner Gallery, New York, 8 November – 21 December 2013.
Laurberg, Marie: Yayoi Kusama – In Infinity, Denmark: Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, 2015, Heine Onstadt, Oslo, 2016, Moderna Museum, Stockholm, 2016, and Helsinki Art Museum, 2016
David Zwirner Gallery, New York, 9 November – 14 December 2019.
Pérez Art Museum Miami. Yayoi Kusama: LOVE IS CALLING, 9 March 2023 – 11 February 2024.
National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia. Yayoi Kusama, 15 December 2024 – 21 April 2025
=== Illustration work ===
Carroll, Lewis and Yayoi Kusama. Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. London: Penguin Classics, 2012. ISBN 978-0-141-19730-2 OCLC 54167867
=== Chapters ===
Nakajima, Izumi. "Yayoi Kusama between abstraction and pathology". Pollock, Griselda, ed. Psychoanalysis and the Image: Transdisciplinary Perspectives. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Pub, 2006. pp. 127–160. ISBN 978-1-405-13460-6 OCLC 62755557
Klaus Podoll, "Die Künstlerin Yayoi Kusama als pathographischer Fall". Schulz R, Bonanni G, Bormuth M, eds. Wahrheit ist, was uns verbindet: Karl Jaspers' Kunst zu philosophieren. Göttingen, Wallstein, 2009. p. 119. ISBN 978-3-835-30423-9 OCLC 429664716
Cutler, Jody B. "Narcissus, Narcosis, Neurosis: The Visions of Yayoi Kusama". Wallace, Isabelle Loring, and Jennie Hirsh. Contemporary Art and Classical Myth. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate, 2011. pp. 87–109. ISBN 978-0-754-66974-6 OCLC 640515432
Gipson, Ferren. "Yayoi Kusama" in Women's Work, pp. 75–79, Frances Lincoln, 2022 ISBN 9-780711 264 656
=== Autobiography, writing ===
Kusama, Yayoi. A Book of Poems and Paintings. Tokyo: Japan Edition Art, 1977.
Kusama, Yayoi. Kusama Yayoi: Driving Image = Yayoi Kusama. Tokyo: PARCO shuppan, 1986. ISBN 978-4-891-94130-7 OCLC 54943729
Kusama, Yayoi, Ralph F. McCarthy, Hisako Ifshin. Violet Obsession: Poems. Berkeley: Wandering Mind Books, 1998. ISBN 978-0-965-33043-5 OCLC 82910478
Kusama, Yayoi, Ralph F. McCarthy. Hustlers Grotto: Three Novellas. Berkeley, California: Wandering Mind Books, 1998. ISBN 978-0-965-33042-8 OCLC 45665616
Kusama, Yayoi. Infinity Net: The Autobiography of Yayoi Kusama. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0-226-46498-5 OCLC 711050927
Kusama, Yayoï, and Isabelle Charrier. Manhattan Suicide Addict. Dijon: Presses du Réel, 2005. ISBN 978-2-840-66115-3 OCLC 420073474
=== Catalogue raisonné, etc. ===
Kusama, Yayoi. Yayoi Kusama: Print Works. Tokyo: Abe Corp, 1992. ISBN 978-4-872-42023-4 OCLC 45198668
Hoptman, Laura, Akira Tatehata, and Udo Kultermann. Yayoi Kusama. London: Phaidon Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-714-83920-2 OCLC 749417124
Kusama, Yayoi, and Hideki Yasuda. Yayoi Kusama Furniture by Graf: Decorative Mode No. 3. Tokyo: Seigensha Art Publishing, 2003. ISBN 978-4-916-09470-4 OCLC 71424904
Kusama, Yayoi. Kusama Yayoi zen hangashū, 1979–2004 = All Prints of Kusama Yayoi, 1979–2004. Tokyo: Abe Shuppan, 2006. ISBN 978-4-872-42174-3 OCLC 173274568
Kusama, Yayoi, Laura Hoptman, Akira Tatehata, Udo Kultermann, Catherine Taft. Yayoi Kusama. London: Phaidon Press, 2017. ISBN 978-0-714-87345-9 OCLC 749417124
Yoshitake, Mika, Chiu, Melissa, Dumbadze, Alexander Blair, Jones, Alex, Sutton, Gloria, Tezuka, Miwako. Yayoi Kusama : Infinity Mirrors. Washington, DC. ISBN 978-3-7913-5594-8. OCLC 954134388
== Exhibitions ==
In 1959, Kusama had her first solo exhibition in New York at the Brata Gallery, an artist's co-op. She showed a series of white net paintings which were enthusiastically reviewed by Donald Judd (both Judd and Frank Stella then acquired paintings from the show). Kusama has since exhibited work with Claes Oldenburg, Andy Warhol, and Jasper Johns, among others. Exhibiting alongside European artists including Lucio Fontana, Pol Bury, Otto Piene, and Günther Uecker, in 1962, she was the only female artist to take part in the widely acclaimed Nul (Zero) international group exhibition at the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam.
=== Exhibition list ===
1976: Kitakyushu Municipal Museum of Art
1983: Yayoi Kusama's Self-Obliteration (Performance) at Video Gallery SCAN, Tokyo
1993: Represented Japan at the Venice Biennale
1998: Love Forever: Yayoi Kusama,1958–1969, LACMA
1998 – 1999: Love Forever: Yayoi Kusama,1958–1969 - exhibit traveled to Museum of Modern Art, New York, Walker Art Center, Minneapolis and Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo)
2001 – 2003: Le Consortium – exhibit traveled to Japanese Culture House of Paris (French: Maison de la culture du Japon à Paris), Paris; Kunsthallen Brandts, Odense; Les Abattoirs, Toulouse; Kunsthalle Wien, Vienna; and Artsonje Center, Seoul
2004: KUSAMATRIX, Mori Art Museum, Tokyo
2004 – 2005: KUSAMATRIX traveled to Art Park Museum of Contemporary Art, Sapporo Art Park, Hokkaido); Eternity – Modernity, National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo (touring Japan)
2007: FINA Festival 2007. Kusama created Guidepost to the New Space, an outdoor installation for Birrarung Marr beside the Yarra River in Melbourne. In 2009, the Guideposts were re-installed at Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden, this time displayed as floating "humps" on a lake
2009: The Mirrored Years traveled to Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney, and City Gallery Wellington
2010: Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen purchased the work Infinity Mirror Room – Phalli's Field. As of 13 September of that year the mirror room is permanently exhibited in the entrance area of the museum
July 2011: Museo Reina Sofía, Madrid
2012: Tate Modern, London. Described as "akin to being suspended in a beautiful cosmos gazing at infinite worlds, or like a tiny dot of fluoresecent plankton in an ocean of glowing microscopic life", the exhibition features a retrospective spanning Kusama's entire career
30 June 2013 – 16 September 2013: MALBA, the Latinamerican Art Museum of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires
22 May 2014 – 27 June 2014: Instituto Tomie Ohtake, São Paulo
17 September 2015 – 24 January 2016: In Infinity, Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlebæk
12 June 2015 – 9 August 2015: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Theory, The Garage Museum of Contemporary Art, Moscow. This was Kusama's first solo exhibition in Russia
19 February 2016 – 15 May 2016: Yayoi Kusama – I uendeligheten, Henie Onstad Kunstsenter, Oslo
20 September 2015 – September 2016: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrored Room, The Broad, Los Angeles, California
12 June 2016 – 18 September 2016: Kusama: At the End of the Universe, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Houston, Texas
1 May 2016 – 30 November 2016: Yayoi Kusama: Narcissus Garden, The Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut
25 May 2016 – 30 July 2016: Yayoi Kusama: Sculptures, Paintings & Mirror Rooms, Victoria Miro Gallery, London
7 October 2016 – 22 January 2017: Yayoi Kusama: In Infinity, organised by the Louisiana Museum of Modern Art in cooperation with Henie Onstad Kunstsenter, Moderna Museet/ArkDes and Helsinki Art Museum HAM in Helsinki
5 November 2016 – 17 April 2017: Dot Obsessions – Tasmania, MONA: Museum of Old and New Art, Hobart
23 February 2017 – 14 May 2017: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrors, a traveling museum show originating at the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, DC
30 June 2017 – 10 September 2017: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrors, exhibition traveled to Seattle Art Museum
9 June 2017 – 3 September 2017: Yayoi Kusama: Life is the Heart of a Rainbow, National Gallery Singapore
October 2017 – January 2018: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrors, exhibition traveled to The Broad, Los Angeles, California
October 2017 – February 2018: Yayoi Kusama: All the Eternal Love I Have for the Pumpkins, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, Texas
November 2017 – February 2018: Yayoi Kusama: Life is the Heart of a Rainbow and Obliteration Room, Gallery of Modern Art, Brisbane, Brisbane
December 2017 – April 2018: Flower Obsession, Triennial, NGV, Melbourne
March 2018 – February 2019 Pumpkin Forever (Forever Museum of Contemporary Art), Gion-Kyoto
March 2018 – May 2018: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrors, exhibition traveled to Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario
May 2018 – September 2018: Yayoi Kusama: Life is the Heart of a Rainbow, Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art in Nusantara (Museum MACAN), Jakarta
July 2018 – September 2018: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrors, exhibition traveled to Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio
July 2018 – November 2018: Yayoi Kusama: Where The Lights In My Heart Go, exhibition traveled to DeCordova Sculpture Park and Museum, Lincoln, Massachusetts
26 July 2018 – Spring 2019: Yayoi Kusama: With All My Love for the Tulips, I Pray Forever (2011)
March 2019 – September 2019: Yayoi Kusama, Museum Voorlinden, Wassenaar
9 November 2019 – 14 December 2019: Yayoi Kusama: Everyday I Pray For Love, David Zwirner Gallery, New York
4 January 2020 – 18 March 2020: Brilliance of the Souls, Maraya, AlUla
4 April 2020 – 19 September 2020: Yayoi Kusama: One with Eternity: Yayoi Kusama in the Hirshhorn Collection, Washington, DC
31 July 2020 – 3 January 2021: STARS: Six Contemporary Artists from Japan to the World, Tokyo
10 April 2021 – 31 October 2021: Kusama: Cosmic Nature, New York Botanical Garden, New York
18 May 2021 – 28 April 2024: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirror Rooms, Tate Modern, London
15 November 2021 – 23 April 2022: Yayoi Kusama: A Retrospective, Tel Aviv Museum of Art
9 March 2023 – 11 February 2024: Yayoi Kusama: LOVE IS CALLING, Pérez Art Museum Miami, Florida
11 May 2023 – 21 July 2023: Yayoi Kusama: I Spend Each Day Embracing Flowers, David Zwirner Gallery, New York
14 September 2023 – 5 May 2024: Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirrored Room – Let's Survive Together, 2017, Memorial Art Gallery, Rochester, New York
15 December 2024 – 21 April 2025: Yayoi Kusama, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne
2 October 2025 – 2 March 2026: One with Eternity: Yayoi Kusama, Buffalo AKG Art Museum, Buffalo, New York
12 October 2025 – 25 January 2026: Yayoi Kusama, Fondation Beyeler, Riehen; 14 March 2026 – 2 August 2026, Museum Ludwig, Cologne; 11 September 2026 – 17 January 2027, Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam
=== Permanent Infinity Room installations ===
Infinity Dots Mirrored Room (1996), Mattress Factory, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Infinity Mirror Room fireflies on Water (2000), Musée des Beaux-Arts de Nancy, Nancy
You Who Are Getting Obliterated in the Dancing Swarm of Fireflies (2005), Phoenix Art Museum, Phoenix, Arizona
Gleaming Lights of the Souls (2008), Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlbaek, Fredensborg Municipality
The Souls of Millions of Light Years Away (2013), The Broad, Los Angeles, California
Infinity Dots Mirrored Room (2014), Bonte Museum, Jeju Island
The Spirits of the Pumpkins Descended into the Heavens (2015), National Gallery of Australia, Canberra
Hymn of Life (2015), Henie Onstad Kunstsenter, Oslo
Phalli's Field (1965/2016), Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam
Love is Calling (2013/2019), Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston, Boston, Massachusetts
Light of Life (2018), North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, North Carolina
Brilliance of the Souls (2019), Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art in Nusantara (Museum MACAN), Jakarta
Infinity Mirror Room – Let's Survive Forever (2019), Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario
Aftermath of Obliteration of Eternity (2009), Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Houston, Texas
== Peer review ==
Applin, Jo. Yayoi Kusama: Infinity Mirror Room – Phallis Field. Afterall, 2012. ISBN 9781846380914
Hoptman, Laura J., et al. Yayoi Kusama. Phaidon Press Limited, 2000. ISBN 978-0714839202
== Collections ==
Kusama's work is in the collections of museums throughout the world, including the Museum of Modern Art, New York; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles; Walker Art Center, Minneapolis; Phoenix Art Museum, Phoenix; Utah Museum of Fine Arts, Salt Lake City; Tate Modern, London; Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam; Centre Pompidou, Paris; Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto; and the National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo and in the City Museum of Art in her home town of Matsumoto entitled The Place for My Soul.[1]
== Recognition ==
Kusama's image is included in the iconic 1972 poster Some Living American Women Artists by Mary Beth Edelson.
In 2017, a fifty-year retrospective of Kusama's work opened at the Hirshhorn Museum in Washington, DC. That same year, the Yayoi Kusama Museum was inaugurated in Tokyo. Other major retrospectives of her work have been held at the Museum of Modern Art (1998), the Whitney Museum (2012), and the Tate Modern (2012). In 2015, the website Artsy named Kusama one of its top 10 living artists of the year.
Kusama has received many awards, including the Asahi Prize (2001); Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (2003); the National Lifetime Achievement Award from the Order of the Rising Sun (2006); and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Women's Caucus for Art. In October 2006, Kusama became the first Japanese woman to receive the Praemium Imperiale, one of Japan's highest honors for internationally recognized artists. She received the Person of Cultural Merit (2009) and Ango awards (2014). In 2014, Kusama was ranked the most popular artist of the year after a record-breaking number of visitors flooded her Latin American tour, Yayoi Kusama: Infinite Obsession. Venues from Buenos Aires to Mexico City received more than 8,500 visitors each day.
Kusama gained media attention for partnering with the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden to make her 2017 Infinity Mirror rooms accessible to visitors with disabilities or mobility issues; in a new initiative among art museums, the venue mapped out the six individual rooms and provided disabled individuals visiting the exhibition access to a complete 360-degree virtual reality headset that allowed them to experience every aspect of the rooms, as if they were actually walking through them.
According to Hanna Schouwink of David Zwirner Gallery speaking in 2018, Kusama is "officially the world's most successful living artist". Kusama was recognized as one of the Asia Game Changer awardees in 2023 by Asia Society for her actions that strengthened the bounds between Asia and the world.
== Art market ==
Kusama's work has performed strongly at auction: top prices for her work are for paintings from the late 1950s and early 1960s. As of 2012, her work has the highest turnover of any living woman artist. In November 2008, Christie's New York sold a 1959 white Infinity Net painting formerly owned by Donald Judd, No. 2, for US$5.1 million, then a record for a living female artist. In comparison, the highest price for a sculpture from her New York years is £72,500 (US$147,687), fetched by the 1965 wool, pasta, paint and hanger assemblage Golden Macaroni Jacket at Sotheby's London in October 2007. A 2006 acrylic on fiberglass-reinforced plastic pumpkin earned $264,000, the top price for one of her sculptures, also at Sotheby's in 2007. Her Flame of Life – Dedicated to Tu-Fu (Du-Fu) sold for US$960,000 at Art Basel/Hong Kong in May 2013, the highest price paid at the show. Kusama became the most expensive living female artist at auction when White No. 28 (1960) from her signature Infinity Nets series sold for $7.1 million at a 2014 Christie's auction.
== In popular culture ==
Superchunk, an American indie band, included a song called "Art Class (Song for Yayoi Kusama)" on its Here's to Shutting Up album.
In 1967, Jud Yalkut made a film of Kusama titled Kusama's Self-Obliteration.
In 2013, the British indie pop duo The Boy Least Likely To made song tribute to Kusama, writing a song specially about her. They wrote on their blog that they admire Kusama's work because she puts her fears into it, something that they themselves often do.
Magnolia Pictures released the biographical documentary by Heather Lenz, Kusama: Infinity, in 2018 and a DVD version in 2019.
Veuve Clicquot and Kusama created a limited-edition bottle and sculpture in September 2020.
Cyndi Lauper's 2024 Farewell Tour featured art by Kusama, including white sculptures and walls covered in Kusama's signature red polka dots. Lauper and background performers also dressed in matching white clothes with large red polka dots.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Yayoi Kusama Museum (English)
Yayoi Kusama at David Zwirner
Love Forever: Yayoi Kusama, 1958–1968, Museum of Modern Art
Yayoi Kusama and Georgia O'Keeffe, artnet, May 10, 2025
Smith, Roberta (3 November 2017). "Yayoi Kusama and the Amazing Polka dotted selfie made journey to greatness". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
How to Paint Like Yayoi Kusama on YouTube
Yayoi Kusama at the Museum of Modern Art
Women Artists and Postwar Abstraction | HOW TO SEE the art movement with Corey D'Augustine on YouTube (MoMA)
Phoenix Art Museum online Archived 28 January 2019 at the Wayback Machine
Earth is a polka dot. An interview with Yayoi Kusama Video by Louisiana Channel
"Yayoi Kusama" on YouTube, BBC Newsnight, 26 September 2012
Why Yayoi Kusama matters now more than ever on YouTube
"An Artist for the Instagram Age" by Sarah Boxer, The Atlantic, July/August 2017
Yayoi Kusama/artnet |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Kramer#:~:text=3%20Publications-,Career,Marine%20Biology%20in%20Rovinj%2C%20Croatia. | Gustav Kramer | Gustav Kramer (11 March 1910 – 19 April 1959) was a German zoologist and ornithologist who specialised in allometry. He described Xenopus laevis, the African clawed frog, for the first time in his doctoral thesis. Near the end of the 1940s, he discovered that birds can use the sun as a compass.
== Career ==
In 1933 Kramer did a study on Xenopus laevis in Berlin. At the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research, under Ludolf von Krehl, he worked on the metabolism of warm-blooded animals. After that, he worked as an assistant at German-Italian Institute of Marine Biology in Rovinj, Croatia. In 1941, he relocated to Naples to conduct a study on lizards, especially the Adriatic lizard. He studied the comparative morphological and genetic differences between mainland and island forms to draw conclusions about the lizard's speciation.
In 1948 Kramer headed a department of the Max Planck Institute for Marine Biology in Wilhelmshaven. There he conducted research on how birds are able to orient themselves over long distances. He constructed an apparatus that allowed him to test how animals react to the position of the sun by tricking the animals into thinking the sun was in a different position. With this experiment, he demonstrated that the direction of flight is dependent on the position of the sun in the sky. Because this ability requires an inner clock to measure the time of day, Kramer sought cooperation with Jürgen Aschoff. From 1 April 1958, Kramer worked with the emerging Aschoff Max Planck near Tübingen. He coined the word Zugunruhe, meaning migratory restlessness.
== Death ==
On 19 April 1959, while trying to remove young rock pigeons from their nests in the mountains of Calabria, he fell and was killed instantly. His two sons secured his body from the high-running mountain river Raganello.
The obituary written by Konrad Lorenz in the Journal of Ornithology stated: "his authorized worldwide fame as the initiator of experimental analytical orientation research" should not be forgotten.
== Publications ==
Untersuchungen über die Sinnesleistungen und das Orientierungsverhalten von Xenopus laevis Daud. Zool. Jahrb., Bd. 52, S. 629–676, Jena: Fischer 1933; zugl. Berlin, Phil. Diss.
Experiments on bird orientation. Ibis 94: 265-285 (1952)
== References ==
== External links ==
Literature by and about Gustav Kramer in the German National Library catalogue |
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