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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miroslav_Fiedler | Miroslav Fiedler | Miroslav Fiedler (7 April 1926 – 20 November 2015) was a Czech mathematician known for his contributions to linear algebra, graph theory and algebraic graph theory.
His article, "Algebraic Connectivity of Graphs", published in the Czechoslovak Math Journal in 1973, established the use of the eigenvalues of the Laplacian matrix of a graph to create tools for measuring algebraic connectivity in algebraic graph theory. Fiedler is honored by the Fiedler eigenvalue (the second smallest eigenvalue of the graph Laplacian), with its associated Fiedler eigenvector, as the names for the quantities that characterize algebraic connectivity. Since Fiedler's original contribution, this structure has become essential to large areas of research in network theory, flocking, distributed control, clustering, multi-robot applications and image segmentation.
== References ==
== External links ==
Home page at the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic.
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Miroslav Fiedler", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love_Is_Blind_(TV_series)#Season_3_(2022%E2%80%9323) | Love Is Blind (TV series) | Love Is Blind is a reality television franchise on Netflix created by Chris Coelen. It originated in the United States and has been reproduced in eleven countries around the world including Japan, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
The show claims to be an experiment that tests whether love is blind, and if people can fall in love based on personality, rather than apperance. Contestants talk to each other in private pods for 10 days, and can only see each other after they've gotten engaged in the pods. After that period, they spend time together, including with friends and family, and decide whether to get married.
Of the 120 couples formed across the different spin-offs of this show, 48 have said 'I do' at the altar. As of August 2025, 27 of these couples are still together. This gives the show and its engaged matches a 40% success rate with respect to getting married and a 58% chance of staying together after that.
== Format ==
The series follows an equal number of men and women hoping to find love. For 10 days, the men and women date each other in purpose-built "pods", small rooms where they can talk to each other by speaker but not see each other, except through a blue translucent barrier that allows no visual detail. The cast members are initially paired in a speed-dating format, but later can choose to have longer dates. The daters may extend a marriage proposal whenever they feel ready. A couple meets face-to-face only after a marriage proposal is accepted. The engaged couples then head to a couples' retreat at a resort for one week. During this trip, they spend time getting to know each other and have their first opportunity to be physically intimate. They also meet the other couples participating in the experiment. This format of choosing among suitors without being able to see them has been compared to The Dating Game.
After the couples' retreat, the engaged couples move together into an apartment complex where they live for the final three weeks of the experiment. At the apartments, they meet their partners' friends and families and learn more about their partners' lives, exploring issues such as finances, recreation, personal habits, and their ultimate primary residence. They also plan weddings to be held at the end of four weeks. During this wedding planning period, the women go wedding dress shopping and the men go suit shopping together, bringing a few friends or family members along. They also make choices such as the design and flavor of their wedding cake. At the altar, each participant decides whether to say "I do" and get legally married.
Each season also has a reunion special released after the final episode.
== International versions ==
The format created in United States has been adapted in several countries.
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Facebook_outage | 2021 Facebook outage | On October 4, 2021, at 15:39 UTC, the social network Facebook and its subsidiaries, Messenger, Instagram, WhatsApp, Mapillary, and Oculus, became globally unavailable for a period of six to seven hours. The outage also prevented anyone trying to use "Log in with Facebook" from accessing third-party sites.
During the outage, many users flocked to Twitter, Discord, Signal, and Telegram, resulting in disruptions on these sites' servers. The outage was caused by the loss of IP routes to the Facebook Domain Name System (DNS) servers, which were all self-hosted at the time. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) routing was restored for the affected prefixes at about 21:50, and DNS services began to be available again at 22:05 UTC, with application-layer services gradually restored to Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp over the following hour, with service generally restored for users by 22:50.
== Causes ==
Security experts identified the problem as a Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) withdrawal of the IP address prefixes in which Facebook's Domain Name System (DNS) servers were hosted, making it impossible for users to resolve Facebook and related domain names, and reach services. Effects were visible globally; for example, Swiss Internet service provider Init7 recorded a massive drop in internet traffic to the Facebook servers after the change in the Border Gateway Protocol.
Cloudflare reported that at 15:39 UTC, Facebook made a significant number of BGP updates, including the withdrawal of routes to the IP prefixes, which included all of their authoritative nameservers. This made Facebook's DNS servers unreachable from the Internet. By 15:50 UTC, Facebook's domains had expired from the caches in all major public resolvers. A little before 21:00 UTC, Facebook resumed announcing BGP updates, with Facebook's domain name becoming resolvable again at 21:05 UTC.
On October 5, Facebook's engineering team posted a blog post explaining the cause of the outage. During maintenance, a command was run to assess the global backbone capacity, and that command accidentally disconnected all of Facebook's data centers. While Facebook's DNS servers ran on a separate network, they were designed to withdraw their BGP routes if they could not connect to Facebook's data centers, making it impossible for the rest of the internet to connect to Facebook.
Facebook gradually returned after a team got access to server computers at the Santa Clara, California, data center and reset them. By about 22:45 UTC, Facebook and related services were generally available again.
== Impact ==
The outage cut off Facebook's internal communications, preventing employees from sending or receiving external emails, accessing the corporate directory, and authenticating to some Google Docs and Zoom services. The New York Times reported that employees were unable to access buildings and conference rooms with their security badges. The site Downdetector, which monitors network outages, recorded over 10 million problem reports – the largest number for an incident to date.
The Google Public DNS service also slowed down as a result of the outage, while users of Gmail, TikTok, and Snapchat also experienced slowdowns. CNBC reported that the outage was the worst experienced by Facebook since 2008. During the day of the outage, shares in the company dropped by nearly 5% and Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg's wealth fell by more than $6 billion. According to a report produced by Fortune and Snopes, Facebook lost at least $60 million in advertising revenue.
The outage had a major impact on people in the developing world, who depend on Facebook's "Free Basics" program, affecting communication, business and humanitarian work.
== Response ==
Facebook's chief technology officer, Mike Schroepfer, wrote an apology after the downtime had extended to several hours, saying, "Teams are working as fast as possible to debug and restore as fast as possible."
Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, a U.S. representative from New York, tweeted about the outage, asking people to share "evidence-based" stories on Twitter, making fun of Facebook's reputation for spreading factually questionable content. Twitter and Reddit also posted tweets on their official Twitter accounts commenting on the outage.
Users on both Twitter and Telegram reported a slowdown in response times, believed to be caused by people normally on Facebook services switching to those services.
Some media outlets highlighted the coincidence of Frances Haugen's testimony with that of the outage, although those two events are unrelated to each other.
== See also ==
Google services outages
Criticism of Facebook
== References ==
== External links ==
Why Did Facebook Go Down? – Computerphile, YouTube |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marais_Viljoen | Marais Viljoen | Marais Viljoen, (2 December 1915 – 4 January 2007) was a South African politician who served as the last ceremonial State President of South Africa from 4 June 1979 until 3 September 1984. Viljoen became the last of the ceremonial presidents of South Africa when he was succeeded in 1984 by Prime Minister P. W. Botha, who combined the offices into an executive state presidency.
== Early life ==
Viljoen was the youngest of six children of Magdalena Debora "Lenie" (de Villiers) and Gabriel Francois Viljoen. He was married on 20 April 1940 to Dorothea Maria Brink (17 September 1917 – 5 October 2005), with whom he had one daughter Elizabeth Magdalena (Elna) Viljoen.
After finishing school at Jan van Riebeeck High School in Cape Town, he went to work in the Post Office, and thereafter at the Afrikaans language newspaper, Die Transvaler, edited by Hendrik Verwoerd, who later became prime minister.
== Early political career ==
Viljoen was elected to the House of Assembly as MP for Alberton, near Johannesburg, as President of the Senate, and as acting State President from 21 August 1978 to 10 October 1978, when B.J. Vorster was briefly elected to the position. Viljoen was seen as a relatively-moderate member of the National Party, which instituted apartheid.
== State Presidency ==
After Vorster's resignation as a result of the Muldergate Scandal in 1979, Viljoen held the post of non-executive State President from 4 June 1979 until 3 September 1984. The State Presidency during this time was a ceremonial post, like that of the Governor-General, which it replaced in 1961.
Under the 1983 Constitution, the last under apartheid, the position of the State President was changed to a more powerful executive position. Viljoen retired and was replaced by P. W. Botha, who until 1984 had been the executive Prime Minister. After Viljoen had retired from public life, he continued to maintain an interest in politics.
== Depiction on a coin ==
He is depicted on the obverse of the 1985 1 Rand coin.
== Death ==
Viljoen died on 4 January 2007 of heart failure. He received a state funeral on 13 January 2007.
== Ancestry ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lygia_Pape#Later_career | Lygia Pape | Lygia Pape (7 April 1927 – 3 May 2004) was a Brazilian visual artist, sculptor, engraver, and filmmaker, who was a key figure in the Concrete movement and a later co-founder of the Neo-Concrete Movement in Brazil during the 1950s and 1960s. Along with Hélio Oiticica and Lygia Clark, she was an important artist in the expansion of contemporary art in Brazil and pushed geometric art to include aspects of interaction and to engage with ethical and political themes.
== Early life and career ==
Lygia Pape was born on 7 April 1927 in Nova Friburgo, Brazil. Pape studied philosophy at the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFTJ). Afterwards, she received an informal training in fine arts, and studied with Fayga Ostrower at the Museum of Modern Art, Rio de Janeiro.
== Concrete art ==
At age 20, Pape joined the concrete art movement. The term "concrete art" was coined by the Dutch artist Theo van Doesburg in 1930.
=== Tecelares Series ===
In the 1950s, Pape created her Tecelares Series. The Tecelares wood prints were originally seen purely as works of Concrete art because of their precise and geometric aesthetic. The woodblock prints are minimalistic; they feature planes of black ink and thin lines that reveal the white rice paper underneath. The production of the series seems straightforward: Pape incised the entire surface of the woodblock with thin lines, adding several non-orthogonal lines to create the appearance of distinct planes and the suggestion of movement and space in a work that would be otherwise flat and static.
In Tecelares, Lygia Pape used "weaving" as a metaphor to evoke handiwork and a connection to Brazil's traditional and indigenous culture. Pape spoke of how indigenous Brazilian cultures had used geometry to express fundamental concepts, like the concept of collective identity. Thus, for Lygia Pape, geometry did not represent industry or mechanization, but rather it expressed a transcendent idiom. Instead of using a gridded and rigid composition, Pape blended natural and organic patterns with incised lines that are intertwined to "warp and weft." Pape used simple materials, crafted minimally by her own hands, to incorporate expression into a work that is not expressionistic.
==== Sem Titulo [Untitled] (1959) ====
This 1959 artwork in the Tecelares series, takes the same woodblock carving technique and is incised by thin parallel lines which are disrupted by the non-orthogonal lines that cut across the print. The two horizontally oriented lines that cut across the print break up the continuity of the parallel lines, creating the illusion of a separate plain and thus, space.
Although Pape used a ruled edge and a compass to create the lines in Sem Título [Untitled] (1959), there are slight variations in the width of the lines, revealing that a hand rather than a machine made the forms. Additionally, the rice paper's delicacy had absorbed the ink, creating imprecise edges. The black ink of the woodprint's background also reveals the natural wood grain of the block print as one can see the porous marks of the wood between the incised lines on the print. So despite the woodprint's originally Concrete identity, Sem Título [Untitled] (1959), is now understood as a transitional piece from the Concrete movement into the Neo-Concrete, as it is infused with non-mechanical and "handmade" qualities that seem more expressive than mechanistic.
Untitled at the Museum of Modern Art, 1959
Untitled at the Museum of Modern Art, 1959
==== Sem Titulo [Untitled] (1960) ====
The 1960s version of Tecelares is even more organic and expressive than the earlier 1959 version. The print shows the grain of the woodblock even more overtly in the bottom portion of the print, while the top portion remains relatively muted. As in the other prints in this series, Sem Título [Untitled] (1960) is cut by diagonal lines that disrupt the continuity of the horizontal wood grain pattern, creating movement and distinct planes in the artwork, though they are considerably more subtle than the 1959 Sem Título [Untitled] print of the same series. Also similar to the 1959 print, the 1960 print has the same imprecise quality created by the feathering of the ink on the rice paper. It also has a very organic quality, which is produced through the patterns and swirls of the wood grain. Because of this organic pattern, this print seems to overtly oppose the mechanic properties associated with Concrete art.
Untitled from the series Weavings (Tecelares) at the Museum of Modern Art, 1960
== Grupo Frente ==
In 1952, at the age of 25, Pape met fellow Brazilian artists Hélio Oiticica, Ivan Serpa, and Aluísio Carvão. Together the quartet formed the Grupo Frente. The Grupo Frente organized a subtle movement that rejected the national painting style of Brazil. Grupo Frente began exploring abstract and concrete art styles that distanced themselves from overly political art. The group was united by their desire to reject modern Brazilian art. Grupo Frente was revolutionary for their studies in line, form, and color. Grupo Frente organized two solo exhibitions. Their first exhibition was at the Ibeu gallery in Rio in 1954, under the artist guidance of Ferreira Gullar. Their second exhibition was in 1955 at the Museum of Modern Art in Rio. Both exhibits highlighted non-traditional use of line, geometric shapes and color.
== Neo-Concrete Movement ==
After her involvement with the Grupo Frente Concrete artists, Pape transitioned into the short wave of Neo-Concrete art.
As scholar Adele Nelson suggested, the Grupo Ruptura artist Waldemar Cordeiro and the Grupo Frente Ferreira Gullar had a debate on each other's “inadequate and overzealous rigor in their respective approaches to geometric abstraction”, which promoted and inspired the former members of Grupo Frente including Lygia Pape to initiate the Neo-Concrete movement in 1959. Neo-Concrete Movement advocates for a more expressive and corporeal viewing experience than the “overly rational” art-making approach embraced by Grupo Ruptura.
In 1959 Pape was a signatory of the Neo-Concrete Manifesto, along with Lygia Clark and Helio Oiticica. In explaining her approach, Lygia Pape said:
My concern is always invention. I always want to invent a new language that's different for me and for others, too... I want to discover new things. Because, to me, art is a way of knowing the world... to see how the world is... of getting to know the world.
Pape specifically during her Neo-Concrete period was interested in the “proposal to ‘live the body.’” This phrase indicates Pape’s interest in how the physical body acts as our mediator for all sensual experiences. Pape sought to explore this idea of the body’s relation in space by creating multi-sensorial experiences in her artwork.
=== Livro da Criação [Book of Creation], (1959) ===
The sculpture/book/poem Livro da Criação [Book of Creation] is emblematic of the early Neo-Concrete works. The work consists of sixteen unbound cardboard "pages". The pages are 12 x 12 inches each and feature abstract images that are supposed to signify a significant moment in the creation of the world, such as the recession of water, the discovery of fire and agriculture, hunting, and navigation. As a Neo-concrete artist, Lygia Pape's Livro da Criação [Book of Creation] synthesizes reason and emotion. The participant is meant to have a phenomenological experience by handling the book. Each reading of the work might be different based on the individual's experiences. As Lygia Pape noted, "It's important to say that there are two plausible readings: for me it is the book of the creation of the world, but for others it can be the book of "creation." Through each person's experiences, there is a process of open structure through which each structure can generate its own reading."
== Later career ==
Later on in the 1960s and 1970s, Pape produced more videos and installations using sarcastic and critical metaphors against the Brazilian dictatorship. From the 1980s onward, these metaphors became more subtle.
Among the videos produced in this period, the seminal film made in 1975 by Pape, Eat Me, has evoked the interest in exploring the attraction and repulsion in gender and sexuality. The sensual movements of a female and a male mouth are presented in slow motion, which is referred to as an implication of a vagina as well as the actions of “sucking and expelling objects”, according to Claudia Calirman. Although Pape persisted that this work should not be viewed as a thesis, the film reveals sexism by “implicating the viewer in the objectification of women”.
Her artwork worked as a vehicle for existential, sensorial, and psychological life experiences, much of it based in geometry and relying on both the intellectual and physical participation of the viewer. A 1967 work, O Ovo, had installation participants crawl inside a cube-shaped structure of wooden boards covered in plastic film, and then push through the film to simulate the act of being born.
From 1972 to 1985, Pape taught semiotics at the School of Architecture at the Universidade Santa Úrsula in Rio de Janeiro, and was appointed professor in the School of Fine Arts of the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro in 1983 as well. In 1980 she received a master's degree in philosophy from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. In her teaching, Pape introduced her mostly middle and upper class students to the informal architecture of Rio de Janeiro's favelas, with particular focus on Maré. In her films, photography, and teaching of the 1970s and 1980s, Pape sought to investigate architectural forms and sociability of urban space in Rio de Janeiro.
In 1981 Pape received a Guggenheim Fellowship.
Pape's first retrospective exhibition was held in 2000, with a close focus on her print practice in chronological delineation. She viewed these works as “a generative source of her fifty-plus years of artistic creation”. When reinterpreting these artworks, Pape also adopted the form of photography with no surprise.
=== The Ttéias series ===
Of all of Pape's works, Ttéias (1979) is perhaps most emblematic of her artistic process. The Ttéias was first conceived in 1979, but it was not until the 1990s that it was produced in full scale. In 1978 Lygia Pape began to experiment arranging and rearranging metallic strings together with her students at the Parque Lage Gardens in Rio de Janeiro. Pape invented the word "Ttéias", which is a pun based on the Portuguese word for "web" ("teia") and for "a person or thing of grace" ("teteia"). This series consists of an immersive staging of semi-transparent prisms, which were created using gold thread. This piece blends realism and imaginary art, allowing the viewer to interpret Ttéias by walking through it.
== Death and legacy ==
Pape died on 3 May 2004 in Rio de Janeiro at age of 77.
Her work is in the collections of the Museum of Modern Art, the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, and the Tate,
Pape's work was included in the 2021 exhibition Women in Abstraction at the Centre Pompidou.
In 2025/2026 Pape was given her first solo exhibition in France, called Weaving Space, at the Pinault Collection, Bourse de Commerce.
== Select exhibitions ==
2000 Artur Barrio, Antonio Manuel, Lygia Pape, Museu Serralves, Porto
2002 Brazil: Body and Soul, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
2003 50. Biennale di Venezia
2009 Making Worlds, 53rd Biennale di Venezia, Venice
2009 Folder Museum of Modern Art, New York
2011 Lygia Pape: Magnetized Space, Serpentine Galleries, London
2011 Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid
2017 Lygia Pape: A Multitude of Forms, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; catalog ISBN 978-1-588-39616-7
2018 Lygia Pape: Ttéia 1, C, Moderna Museet, Stockholm
2022 Lygia Pape. The Skin of ALL, Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf
== Art market and estate ==
Pape did not work with a commercial gallery until later in life.
Projeto Lygia Pape, the artist's estate, was founded by the artist before her death in 2004 and is administered by her daughter Paula Pape. In 2017, Paula Pape filed a suit in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York against LG Electronics, several vendors of its mobile phones and Getty Images Korea alleging an infringement of copyright of her mother's 2003 sculpture TtEia 1, C in packaging materials, advertising and promotions for the K20 V mobile phone.
== References ==
== External links ==
Lygia Pape at Venice Biennale 2009 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_Hopf_Prize | Heinz Hopf Prize | The Heinz Hopf Prize is awarded every two years at ETH Zurich. The prize honours outstanding scientific work in the field of pure mathematics. It is named after the German mathematician Heinz Hopf (1894–1971), Professor of Mathematics at ETH from 1931 to 1965. The prize is awarded on the occasion of the Heinz Hopf Lectures that are given at ETH by the laureate.
The prize was awarded for the first time in October 2009.
== Laureates ==
== See also ==
List of mathematics awards
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Marie_Hullot#:~:text=He%20died%20on%20June%2019%2C%202019. | Jean-Marie Hullot | Jean-Marie Hullot (February 16, 1954 – June 17, 2019) was a French computer scientist and programmer who authored important programs for the original Macintosh, NeXTSTEP and Mac OS X platforms. These include SOS Interface for the Mac, which later became Interface Builder for NeXTSTEP (1985), and later still evolved into an important part of Mac OS X. He also helped to conceive iPhone, though did not play a significant role in its development, and led the iCal and iSync development teams for Mac OS X (2002).
== Education ==
In 1981, Jean-Marie Hullot received a Ph.D. in computer science from the University of Paris at Orsay, where his adviser was Gérard Huet.
== Career ==
He was a researcher at INRIA from 1979 to 1985, when he joined NeXT. In 1996 he co-founded RealNames, a URL translation service which closed in 2002. He worked as CTO of the application division at Apple Inc. from 2001 to 2005. He was the president and CEO of Fotopedia, a collaborative photo encyclopedia, and co-founder of The Iris Foundation, a nature conservancy organization.
He died on June 19, 2019.
== References ==
== External links ==
Jean-Marie Hullot - fotopedia
INRIA Archived 2010-01-29 at the Wayback Machine — appears to be outdated, as Hullot is not mentioned there (Jun 2014)
Interview, December 1999 (in French)
Ex-Apple Team To Launch Stealth Startup Fotonauts
Jean-Marie Hullot at DBLP Bibliography Server
UPDATED: Google begged Steve Jobs for permission to hire engineers for its new Paris office. Guess what happened next… |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clint_Ballard_Jr.#:~:text=In%20addition%20to%20recording%20several,composer%20Burt%20Bacharach%20with%20his | Clint Ballard Jr. | Clinton Conger Ballard Jr. (May 24, 1931 – December 23, 2008) was an American songwriter, singer, and pianist. He wrote two Billboard Hot 100 number one hits. The first was "Game of Love" by Wayne Fontana and The Mindbenders in 1965. The second was the 1975 hit, "You're No Good" by Linda Ronstadt (first sung by Dee Dee Warwick, covered by The Swinging Blue Jeans, Betty Everett and later recorded by Van Halen). He wrote two UK number one singles, recorded by Jimmy Jones ("Good Timin'", 1960) and The Hollies ("I'm Alive", 1965).
Ballard also pursued a solo singing career. With minor success he recorded under his own name, as well as under the pseudonym Buddy Clinton.
== Biography ==
When Ballard was three years old, he played the piano for KTSM, an El Paso radio station. When he was 11, he attended a musical program for gifted students at the University of North Texas. After serving in the US Army, he moved to New York and became a songwriter and a composer of musicals, including Come Back Little Sheba. His song, "Hey, Little Baby", was recorded by band leader Mitch Miller and became the theme of the 1958 World's Fair in Belgium.
Earlier in his career in 1957, Ballard 'discovered' the Kalin Twins and became their manager. Ballard wrote the Kalins' Decca debut single, "Jumpin' Jack". The follow-up, "When" made the US Top Ten and number one on the UK Singles Chart. After leaving the Kalins, in 1958, he wrote "Ev'ry Hour, Ev'ry Day of My Life", a hit for Malcolm Vaughan, and Frankie Avalon's Top Ten hit "Ginger Bread".
Ballard's own recording career was less successful. In addition to recording several singles under his own name without much success, in 1960 he adopted the alias Buddy Clinton to cut a two-sided single featuring the songs "Take Me to Your Ladder (I'll See Your Leader Later)" and "Joanie's Forever", both co-written by then-unknown composer Burt Bacharach with his writing partner Bob Hilliard.
Ballard wrote one of his most successful songs in 1963, "You're No Good", which was first recorded by Dee Dee Warwick. A competing version recorded by Betty Everett appeared weeks later and was a bigger hit, reaching the Top Ten of the US Billboard R&B chart. A year later, the British group The Swinging Blue Jeans also recorded "You're No Good". Linda Ronstadt's version hit number one on the Billboard chart in 1975.
Ballard's songs were often recorded by artists of the British Invasion. The Swinging Blue Jeans recorded "It Isn't There". In 1966, the Zombies recorded his "Gotta Get a Hold of Myself". Ballard wrote "I'm Alive" for The Hollies, which was number one in the UK Singles Chart in 1965. One of Ballard's best-known songs, "The Game of Love", was recorded by Manchester-based Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders in 1965. The single went hit number one in the US and peaked at number two in the UK. Ballard also wrote the subsequent Mindbenders' chart singles "It's Just a Little Bit Too Late" and "She Needs Love".
Ballard later wrote songs for the Ricky Nelson film, Love and Kisses. He also wrote a series of commercial jingles, including a theme for Greyhound Lines.
He died in Denton, Texas, in December 2008, two years after suffering a stroke.
He is not to be confused with fellow songwriters Russ Ballard, Glen Ballard or Hank Ballard.
== Songwriting credits ==
"A Cold, Cold Winter" – Walter Jackson
"A Miracle" – Gene McDaniels
"A Very Good Year for Girls" – Johnny Tillotson, Brian Poole & The Tremeloes
"Come Back Little Sheba" – Original cast of Little Sheba
"Come Out Dancin'" – Ricky Nelson
"Don't You Even Care (What's Gonna Happen to Me) – The Hollies
"Fiddle Around" – Jan and Dean
"Game of Love" – Wayne Fontana and The Mindbenders, Montrose
"Ginger Bread" – Frankie Avalon
"Good Timin'" – Jimmy Jones
"Gotta Get a Hold of Myself" – Michael Haslam, Dee Dee Warwick, The Zombies
"Hey Lulu" – Shane Fenton
"I'm Alive" – The Hollies, Syndicate of Sound, Gamma
"In The Rain" – Billy Eckstine
"In A Long White Room" (lyrics by Marty Charnin) (Nancy Wilson on 1969 Capitol album Nancy)
"It Isn't There" – The Swinging Blue Jeans, Johnny Burnette, George Maharis
"It's Better Than Nothing At All" – Louis Prima
"It's Just a Little Bit Too Late" – Wayne Fontana and The Mindbenders, The Druids
"It Would Still Be Worth It" – Connie Francis
"Je Revis" – Frank Alamo
"Journey's End" – Frankie Laine
"The Ladder of Love" - The Flamingos, Johnny Nash
"Little Bitty Girl" – Bobby Rydell
"My Precious Angel" – Jimmy Jones
"Now That You've Got Me (You Don't Seem to Want Me)" – The Swinging Blue Jeans
"Oh No!" – The Browns
"One of Us (Will Weep Tonight)" – Patti Page
"She Needs Love" – Wayne Fontana and The Mindbenders
"Speak Her Name" – David and Jonathan, Walter Jackson
"Stop Crying, Little Girl" – Arthur Prysock
"Sufferer" – Patti Drew
"There's Not a Minute" – Ricky Nelson
"You Ain't Right" – The Frost
"You're No Good" – Dee Dee Warwick, Betty Everett, The Swinging Blue Jeans, Linda Ronstadt, Wild Orchid, Weyes Blood, Van Halen, Michael Bolton
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakti_Mills_gang_rape#:~:text=the%20night%20of-,27%20August,-.%5B6%5D | Shakti Mills gang rape | The 2013 Mumbai gang rape, also known as the Shakti Mills gang rape, refers to the incident in which a 22-year-old photojournalist, who was interning with an English-language magazine in Mumbai, was gang-raped by five people, including a juvenile. The incident occurred on 22 August 2013, when she had gone to the deserted Shakti Mills compound, near Mahalaxmi in South Mumbai, with a male colleague on an assignment. The accused had tied up the victim's colleague with belts and raped her. The accused took photos of the victim during the sexual assault, and threatened to release them to social networks if she reported the rape. Later, an eighteen-year-old call centre employee reported that she too had been gang-raped, on 31 July 2013, inside the mills complex.
On 20 March 2014, a Mumbai sessions court convicted all five adult accused in both cases on 13 counts. On 4 April 2014, the court awarded the death penalty to the three repeat offenders in the photojournalist rape case. For the other two accused, one was awarded life imprisonment, while the other accused turned approver in the case. Two minors, one in each case, were tried by the Juvenile Justice Board separately. They were convicted on 15 July 2015, and sentenced to three years (including time in custody) in a Nashik reform school, the maximum punishment that a juvenile offender can receive under Indian law.
The Bombay High Court commuted the three death sentences to imprisonment for the remainder of their natural life on 25 November 2021.
== Incident ==
A 22-year-old photojournalist working in Mumbai was gang raped by five people at the Shakti Mills compound, where she had gone on assignment with a male colleague on 22 August 2013. According to the statements given to the police by the two victims, the photojournalist and her colleague left their office at 5:00 pm on an assignment to take some photographs of the deserted Shakti Mills compound. Five men tied up the male colleague and took turns raping the photojournalist while holding a broken beer bottle to her neck to keep her from shouting for help. The rapists then forced the victim to clean the crime scene, and took two photos of her on a cellphone, threatening to release the photos on social networks if she reported the attack.
Following the assault, the men brought her back to the place where her colleague was being held. They accompanied the survivor and her colleague to the railway tracks around 7:15 pm, where they were told to stay. When the criminals left, she informed her colleague that she had been raped six times by the five men and needed medical treatment. On reaching the Mahalaxmi station, her colleague contacted their boss and asked him to come. They went by taxi to Jaslok Hospital at Peddar Road. The victim called her mother and told her to meet her at the hospital. The survivor was bleeding profusely when she arrived at the hospital. She was immediately admitted and began undergoing medical treatment. She gave her statement to police on 26 August, and was discharged on the night of 27 August.
In a statement to the media from her hospital bed, the victim said, "I want no other woman in this city and country to go through such a brutal physical humiliation. Perpetrators should be punished severely as they have ruined my life. No punishment short of a life term will take away my pain and humiliation and physical abuse I underwent. Rape is not the end of life. I will continue fighting." The victim also expressed her eagerness to return to work, stating, "I want to join duty as early as possible." Nirmala Samant Prabhawalkar, a member of the National Commission for Women who met the victim at the hospital, stated: "She is recuperating from her injuries and trauma. She is still not completely out of trauma but she is composed."
On 3 September, a 19-year-old telephone operator with a private firm reported to authorities that she had been gang raped at the Shakti Mills compound by five men on 31 July 2013. Three of the men involved were also accused in the photojournalist's case. The victim had gone to the Shakti Mills compound with her boyfriend, where they were approached by the accused. Similar to the photojournalist case, the men tied and beat up the victim's male companion, before gang raping her. The two victims fled to Chhattisgarh following the incident, without reporting it, out of fear. Mumbai Police made the telephone operator undergo a "two-finger test", a check for a hymen as proof of sexual activity. This occurred despite a Maharashtra Government Resolution (GR) on 10 May 2013 which ordered that the test no longer be conducted stating, "The procedure (finger test) is degrading, crude and medically and scientifically irrelevant ... Information about past sexual conduct has been considered irrelevant."
== Arrests ==
As the report was received, Mumbai Police formed 20 teams and officers from 12 crime branch units and 16 police stations were involved in the case. Police detained 20 men after the victim lodged a complaint following the attack. All five accused in the photojournalist case were arrested by Mumbai Police in about 65 hours after the complaint was registered around 8:30 pm on 22 August. The accused in the gang rape of the photojournalist were Vijay Jadhav, Siraj Rehman Khan alias Sirju, Chand Shaikh, Mohamed Kasim Hafiz Sheikh alias Kasim, and Mohammed Salim Ansari. The accused in the gang rape of the telephone operator were Vijay Jadhav, Mohamed Kasim Hafiz Sheikh, Mohammed Salim Ansari, Mohammed Ashfaq Sheikh (26) and an unnamed minor.
Chand Shaikh was the first to be arrested. He was arrested in the early hours of 23 August from his residence in the Dhobi Ghat slum in Saat Raasta. He sold vegetables along with his grandmother for a living. Vijay Jadhav (aged 19) was the second accused to be arrested. He was sleeping at a video club at Dagad Chawl in Madanpura, when he was arrested by police at around 3:00 am on 24 August. He resided with a friend on Ramji Barucha Marg behind Dhobi Ghat at Agripada. His parents, two sisters and two brothers, stayed at a rented flat at Jai Ambe Park in Virar (East). He had previously been arrested in 2011 for breaking into a house. Siraj Rehman Khan alias Sirju (24) was arrested from a hideout in Govandi on 24 August based on information police obtained from interrogating Shaikh and Jadhav. He worked odd-jobs at shops for a living. Siraj Khan lived on a footpath near Dhobi Ghat at Agripada. His mother was dead, and he had no contact with his father. Siraj Rehman Khan was also an accused in another case in Thane. Television news reports claimed that Siraj Khan, had escaped from the Thane jail where the accused had been detained. This was confirmed by Special Public Prosecutor (SPP) Ujjwal Nikam who stated, "Siraj Rahman Khan, an accused in Shakti Mills gang-rape case of photojournalist, is untraceable." The report was later found to be incorrect.
Qasim Shaikh (21) was arrested at 3:30 am on 25 August, outside Nair Hospital in Agripada. Police received a tipoff at 2:30 am from the relative of a patient admitted at the hospital who identified the accused from police sketches. Following the crime, Qasim Shaikh had returned to his residence at Kalapani in Agripada. He began watching television, when he received a call from a police constable inquiring about his whereabouts. His mother claims that he changed his shirt after receiving the call, then took ₹50 from her and left the house. Salim Ansari (27), who police described as the chief planner of the crime, was the last to be arrested. He was arrested by Delhi Police on the Delhi-Haryana border at 11:00 am on 25 August. Ansari had hidden in Govandi following the crime, and fled to Delhi on a long-distance train that he probably boarded from Kurla. Ansari hid at a relative's house in the Bharat Nagar slum, and planned to flee to Nepal. He was arrested by police while out for a walk. An officer stated that he "seemed oblivious to the possibility of the police looking for him. He was calmly going towards his relative's place when a police team of four swooped down on him." The Times of India reported that Mumbai Police used mobile phone tracking to locate Ansari, and told Delhi Police where to find him. He was produced before a Delhi court, and brought back to Mumbai on 25 August.
== Trial ==
On 19 September 2013, the Mumbai crime branch filed charges against the four adults, and the report on charges against a minor delinquent was given to the juvenile court. The accused were charged under various sections of Indian Penal Code (IPC), including 376(d) for gang rape, 377 for unnatural offence, 120(b) for criminal conspiracy, sections 342 and 343 for wrongful restraint, section 506(2) for criminal intimidation and 34 for common intention and 201 for destruction of evidence. The sessions court ordered the prosecution to start trail proceedings in the case from 14 October 2013. The prosecution wanted to add a charge under section 67A of Information Technology Act (punishment for publishing or transmitting of material containing sexually explicit act in electronic form). This charge of section 67A is only against Ansari as he was the one who showed porn clips to survivor. Shalini Phansalkar-Joshi was the Principal Sessions judge of the fast track sessions court which hearing both cases. The court informed special public prosecutor Ujjwal Nikam that since the matter is on fast track, the trial should be completed within 60 days. The court further held that the trial in the case would run on regular basis.
On 14 October 2013, the first day of the trial, three panch (independent) witnesses gave their statements. The photojournalist's mother wept continuously during her two-hour deposition before the sessions court on 15 October. The photojournalist's boss also made his deposition the same day. The proceedings were held "in-camera" on the second and third days.
On 17 October, the 22-year-old photojournalist deposed in the court in front of four of her assaulters, and identified them during a four-hour deposition.
The telephone operator deposed before the court on 30 October. According to Nikam, "As the proceedings began in the morning, the girl started weeping. She was trembling. Assuming that she was afraid of the accused, the judge ordered that a partition be put up between them. She still could not stop weeping. I told the court that she is a brave girl and she would give her statement. After some time, she regained her composure. She said she would talk about her ordeal. She then recognised four of the five accused present in the court." The friend of the telephone operator who accompanied her to the mill when the gang rape occurred deposed before the court on 20 November 2013. On 13 January 2014, the photojournalist's male colleague testified before the court on-camera, and identified all the accused.
On 15 July 2014, Juvenile Justice Board convicted the two juvenile rapists involved in the crimes and sentenced them to three years at a Nashik reform school. The maximum punishment for a juvenile offender under Indian law is three years, which includes time in custody.
== Verdict and sentencing ==
On 20 March 2014, the sessions court convicted all five adult accused on 13 counts, including gang rape, destruction of evidence, wrongful restraint, assault, common intention, unnatural sex, criminal conspiracy of the IPC and certain Sections of the Information Technology Act. "These accused have a criminal tendency and should be awarded strictest of punishment, which will serve as a deterrent," special public prosecutor Ujjwal Nikam told the court. Vijay Jadhav, Mohammad Qasim Shaikh, and Mohammad Salim Ansari, were convicted in both the gang rape cases, while Siraj Khan and Mohammad Ashfaque Shaikh were found guilty in the photojournalist and telephone operator cases respectively.
On 21 March, the Mumbai sessions court awarded life sentences to four of the accused in the telephone operator case. Principal Sessions judge Shalini Phansalkar-Joshi said, "The manner in which the offence was committed reflects the depravity of the accused. The crime was not an impulsive act, but the premeditated outcome of a criminal conspiracy. They sexually ravished the girl and left her in a pathetic state. A proper signal has to be sent out to society. Even if in this case the accused are not reformed, others like them will be deterred. In some cases, mercy is justified. But in this case it would be misplaced and would be a mockery of justice".
Following the conviction of the three repeat offenders (Vijay Jadhav, Qasim, and Mohammed Salim Ansari) in both gang rapes, on 4 April prosecutor Nikam moved an application to add charges against them under section 376E of the IPC, which provides for the death sentence for repeated rape convictions. The section was introduced by the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act in 2013, in the aftermath of the 2012 Delhi gang rape. Demanding the death penalty, Nikam told the court, "The accused are sex-starved goons in shape of humans. They deserve maximum sentence. Any leniency shown to the accused would be a mockery of justice. Their crime has shocked collective consciousness."
On 4 April 2014, the court awarded the death penalty to the three repeat offenders in the photojournalist rape case. This was the first time that rapists in India were given death sentences under section 376E of the IPC. Siraj Khan, the other convict in the photojournalist case, was sentenced to life imprisonment.
Awarding the death penalty, the judge stated, "Mumbai gang-rape accused have least respect for law. They don't have potential for reformation as per facts of case. The suffering that gang-rape survivor and her family has undergone is unparalleled. Mumbai gang-rape accused were emboldened since law enforcing agencies hadn't caught them. If this is not the case where death sentence prescribed by law is not valid, which is? Exemplary and rarest of rare punishment is required in the case." The judge further added that the crime violated all rights of the survivor. Joshi further observed, "The gang-rape accused were not only enjoying the act of sexual assault but also the survivor's helplessness. It was executed in the most gruesome manner with no mercy or show of human dignity to the survivor. The accused were acting in pursuance of criminal conspiracy as judicially proved. The defence argued that the convicts were "deprived of basic fundamental rights" and that their poor socioeconomic status should be taken into consideration. However, citing judgments by the Supreme Court, the judge stated that "Conviction cannot be dependent on the social and the economic status of the victim or the accused and the race, caste, creed of the accused cannot be taken into consideration." Joshi ruled, "Depravity of their character is reflected from the fact that the accused enjoyed the act. They did not commit the crime under any duress or compulsion. They had enjoyed the act. This was a case, where the accused were completely unprovoked. The judge also rubbished the defence's claims that the victims had suffered no physical injuries. The judge question whether such submissions made it appear like the accused had "done some charity by letting her leave uninjured". The judge further ruled, "This court had an opportunity to understand the trauma as she recalled them at the time of her testimony in the court. Questions like whether she has suffered any injuries are irrelevant and her trauma cannot be overlooked. Her testimony and her mother's deposition in the court clearly tell how heinous the crime was." Rejecting the accused plea for leniency, the judge rule, "A defenseless, harmless victim was raped by the accused unprovoked ... This did not happen because of some momentary lapse." Applauding the victim for her courage, the court observed, "This case would have also gone unreported if the victim had not come ahead and complained to the police. She took a bold step and lodged the complaint. Because of her, this and the other crime [the telephone operator case] came to light."
=== Commutation of death penalty ===
On 25 November 2021, the Bombay High Court commuted the three death sentences to life imprisonment. A division bench of Justices Sadhana Jadhav and Prithviraj Chavan ruled, "While setting aside the sentence of death penalty, it may appear to the public at large that we play a counter majoritarian role. However, the Constitutional Courts are bound to take into consideration the judicial mandate not by considering just individual rights or the rights of the criminal, but to follow the procedure established by law. At the cost of reiteration, we would observe that Section 376E of the Indian Penal Code is not a substantive offence, but is a punishment contemplated for repeat offenders under section 376D, 376DA, 376DB of Indian Penal Code. We would not take a pedantic approach to mean that it contemplates commission of an offence after the first conviction as under section 75 of the Indian Penal Code. But it would mean that the sentence of death penalty may be awarded in a case which is tried after the first conviction for a similar offence." The Court also noted, "Death puts an end to the whole concept of repentance, any sufferings and mental agony".
The Court also observed, "Although the offence is barbaric and heinous, it cannot be said at the threshold that the accused deserve only death penalty and nothing less than that". However, the Court refused to permit any possibility of release stating, "We are of the opinion that in the facts of the present case, the convicts deserve the punishment of rigorous Imprisonment for life i.e. the whole of the remainder of their natural life in order to repent for the offence committed by them. The convicts in the present case do not deserve to assimilate with the society, as it would be difficult to survive in a society of such men who look upon women with derision, depravity, contempt and objects of desire. The conduct of the accused, and their bold confession to the survivor that she is not the first one to satisfy their lust, is sufficient to hold that there is no scope for reformation or rehabilitation. We therefore, feel that a sentence of rigorous imprisonment for the remainder of their natural life without any remission, parole or furlough would meet the ends of justice."
== Reactions ==
Then Samajwadi Party (SP) MLA Naresh Agarwal (now in BJP) sparked a controversy over the brutal Mumbai gang-rape, saying that women needed to pay attention to their clothes to avoid being raped. Agarwal also said that women should not be too influenced by television.
Reacting to the verdict, the mother of the telephone operator, stated, "They deserved death. If there was any harsher punishment than this, their crimes would merit that too. This crime is a blot on society. If rapists like them are set free, it will only encourage molesters and rapists, and send a wrong message to society. Also, it is necessary that equal urgency is shown in all rape and molestation cases. This incident has changed our lives. We live in a locality where word spreads very fast. Some of our neighbours have made our lives hell. They taunt us when we pass. While she has been struggling to overcome the trauma, the local boys have not been letting her do that. She is often chased by youths in the area. When we venture out for family functions, we feel the difference in our relatives' approach towards us." She also added that the quick conviction was only due to the proximity of the 2014 general elections.
On 10 April 2014, SP chief Mulayam Singh Yadav said, "When boys and girls have differences, the girl gives a statement that 'the boy raped me,' and that poor boy gets a death sentence." Referring to the Mumbai gang rape he stated, "... later they had differences, and the girl went and gave a statement that I have been raped. And then the poor fellows, three of them have been sentenced to death. Should rape cases lead to hanging? Boys are boys, they make mistakes. Two or three have been given the death sentence in Mumbai."
Complaints were filed against Yadav with the Election Commission and the National Commission for Women (NCW). His comments were denounced by the Indian media, women's groups, women's rights activists, public prosecutor in the Shakti Mills gang rape case Ujjwal Nikam, Bollywood celebrities, and a large section of Uttar Pradesh residents. The Times of India stated, "Even by his misogynistic standards, he [Yadav] seems to have sunk to a new low ... The change in the laws was brought on after months of selfless demonstration by citizens striving to bring about a change in India's social outlook. By terming rape as 'just another mistake boys make, Mulayam has just rendered a slap in the face of their effort. The parents of the 2012 Delhi gang rape victim strongly criticized Mulayam and asked people not to vote for his party in the next election. The victim's mother stated, "Raping a girl cannot be called a mistake, it is a crime. A leader who gives such a statement doesn't have any right to be in the power." The remarks were criticized by both Bharatiya Janata Party and Indian National Congress politicians, some of whom also demanded that Mulayam apologize for his statements. Rashtriya Janata Dal President Lalu Prasad Yadav criticized Mulayam stating, "He seems to have lost his mental balance. There is no place for rapists in the society. They deserve strong punishment." Political leaders like Raj Thackeray and then Prime Minister candidate Narendra Modi heavily condemned Yadav for insensitive comments and anti-women views while appearing on Aap Ki Adalat. Mulayam was defended by his daughter-in-law Dimple Yadav, wife of Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Akhilesh Yadav, who stated that such comments "are made by a lot of people and it happens at time." In the wake of a gang rape in Budaun district, Uttar Pradesh on 27 May 2014, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon criticised Mulayam Singh's statement saying, "We say no to the dismissive, destructive attitude of 'boys will be boys'." Following Yadav's comments, he and several Samajwadi Party leaders were labeled as "Supporters of Rape and Rapists".
The day following Yadav's comments, SP Maharashtra unit chief Abu Azmi told Mid-Day, "Any woman if, whether married or unmarried, goes along with a man, with or without her consent, should be hanged. Rape is punishable by hanging in Islam. But here, nothing happens to women, only to men. Even the woman is guilty. Girls complain when someone touches them, and even when someone doesn't touch them. It becomes a problem then ... If rape happens with or without consent, it should be punished as prescribed in Islam." He also said, "See, I don't know what context he said it in. But, at times, the wrong people are awarded the death penalty. Boys do it in josh (Hindi: excitement), but what can I say in this? The death sentence should be given. I won't speak against Islam." Azmi's comments were widely criticized in India.
== See also ==
2012 Delhi gang rape
2014 Badaun gang rape
Rape in India
Category:Rape in India
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tammy_Faye_Messner | Tammy Faye Messner | Tamara Faye Messner (née LaValley, formerly Bakker ; March 7, 1942 – July 20, 2007) was an American evangelist. She co-founded the televangelist program The PTL Club with her then-husband Jim Bakker in 1974. They had hosted their own puppet-show series for local programming in the early 1960s; Messner also had a career as a recording artist. In 1978, she and Bakker built Heritage USA, a Christian theme park.
During her career Messner was noted for her eccentric and glamorous persona, as well as for moral views that diverged from those of many mainstream evangelists, particularly her advocacy for LGBT persons and reaching out to HIV/AIDS patients at the height of the AIDS epidemic. She released three autobiographies during her lifetime, I Gotta Be Me in 1978, Tammy: Telling It My Way in 1996, and I Will Survive and You Will Too! in 2003.
Jim Bakker was indicted, convicted, and imprisoned on numerous counts of fraud and conspiracy in 1989, resulting in the dissolution of The PTL Club. She divorced Bakker in 1992, while he was in prison, and married Roe Messner. She was diagnosed with colon cancer in 1996, from which she suffered intermittently for over a decade before dying of the disease in 2007.
== Biography ==
=== 1942–1959: Early life ===
She was born Tamara Faye LaValley in International Falls, Minnesota, to Pentecostal preachers Rachel Minnie (née Fairchild; 1919–1992) and Carl Oliver LaValley, who married in 1941. Shortly after she was born, a painful divorce soured her mother against ministers, alienating her from the church. Both of her parents remarried, her mother to Fred Willard Grover, forming a large blended family, in which she was the eldest child.
=== 1960–1973: Marriage to Jim Bakker; early work ===
In 1960, she met Jim Bakker while they were students at North Central Bible College in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Tammy Faye worked in a boutique for a time while Jim found work in a restaurant inside a department store in Minneapolis. They were married on April 1, 1961. The next year, they moved to South Carolina, where they began their ministry together, initially traveling around the United States; Jim preached, while Tammy Faye sang songs and played the accordion. In 1970, she gave birth to their daughter Tammy Sue "Sissy" Bakker, and in 1975 gave birth to their son Jamie Charles Bakker.
Jim and Tammy Faye had been involved with television from the time of their departure from Minneapolis until they moved to the Charlotte area via Virginia Beach, Virginia, where they were founding members of The 700 Club. While in Portsmouth, they were hosts of the popular children's show Jim and Tammy. They then created a puppet ministry for children on Pat Robertson's Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN), which ran from 1964 to 1973.
=== 1974–1987: The PTL Club ===
Jim and Tammy Faye co-founded The PTL Club (Praise The Lord) in 1974, a televangelist Christian news program that they initially hosted in an abandoned furniture store in Charlotte. The series mixed "glitzy entertainment with down-home family values" and preached a "'prosperity gospel' which put a divine seal of approval on both the growing affluence of American evangelicals and the showy lifestyles of their television ministers." The PTL Club soon grew into its own network and a corporate enterprise within a year of its founding, generating $120 million annually in the 1970s. In 1978, the Bakkers used $200 million of PTL funds to build Heritage USA, a Christian retreat and theme park that, at the time, ranked alongside Disney World and Disneyland as one of the most popular theme parks in the United States.
Throughout the series, Tammy Faye provided a sentimental and emotive touch to stories, and also often sang Christian songs. She was also noted for her candid discussion of topics considered taboo amongst many of her Evangelist peers, ranging from penile implants to acceptance and compassion for the LGBT community.
At the height of the AIDS epidemic in the mid-1980s, she conducted an emotional interview with Steven Pieters, a gay Christian minister with AIDS on "Tammy's House Party," a segment of The PTL Club, during which they discussed his sexuality, coming out, diagnosis with AIDS, and the death of his partner. During the program, Tammy Faye addressed her viewership, saying: "How sad that we as Christians, who are to be the salt of the earth, we who are supposed to be able to love everyone, are afraid so badly of an AIDS patient that we will not go up and put our arm around them and tell them that we care." Throughout the AIDS epidemic, she advocated for viewers of The PTL Club to follow Christ and show compassion and pray for the ill, and also invited drug addicts onto the show to interview them about substance abuse. In 1987, it was reported that Tammy Faye was herself being treated for a prescription drug addiction.
Bakker's friend, the Reverend Mel White, commented on her presence on The PTL Club:
Her fans were people who grew up in a very fundamentalist tradition, not being able to wear make-up, or dance, or go out in public. So here comes Tammy, with her dyed hair and make-up, her ebullient spirit and outspoken ways with both men and women. She talked about sex, and flirted with Jimmy. She took on the caricature of an obedient wife, and blasted it. You have never seen Pat Robertson's wife, or Jerry Falwell's wife. They stay at home, doing what those wives do.
=== 1988–1995: Collapse of The PTL Club and aftermath ===
The Bakkers' control of PTL collapsed in 1987 after revelations that $287,000 had been paid from the organization to buy the silence of Jessica Hahn, who claims Jim Bakker raped her. In his 1997 book, I Was Wrong, Jim Bakker disputed Hahn's account, claiming that he was "set up" and that their sex was consensual. The revelations invited scrutiny of the Bakkers, and charges made about their opulent lives, including media reports of an air-conditioned doghouse at their Tega Cay, South Carolina, lakefront parsonage as well as gold-plated bathroom fixtures, dominated newscasts in the 1980s. When asked about her income, Tammy Faye told reporters in 1986: "We don't get what Johnny Carson makes, and we work a lot harder than him." The couple's Tega Cay home was later sold by the ministry and burned to the ground not long thereafter. Jim wrote in his book I Was Wrong that he watched the home burn on live television while incarcerated. The Charlotte Observer subsequently ran exposés of PTL's finances and management practices. PTL went bankrupt after being taken over by Lynchburg, Virginia-based Baptist televangelist Jerry Falwell, who offered to step in following the scandals in 1988.
Tammy Faye stood by Jim Bakker through the scandal, including several instances when she cried on camera. In 1989, Bakker was sentenced to 45 years in prison on 24 fraud and conspiracy counts (he served 5). In 1992, while Jim was in prison, Tammy Faye filed for divorce, saying in a letter to the New Covenant Church in Orlando, Florida: "For years I have been pretending that everything is all right, when in fact I hurt all the time... I cannot pretend anymore."
On October 3, 1993, she married property developer Roe Messner in Rancho Mirage, California, after he divorced his first wife. They moved to the Charlotte suburb of Matthews, North Carolina. Roe, who had a contracting business, Messner Enterprises in Andover, Kansas, had built much of Heritage USA as well as many large churches and had been a family friend to the Bakkers throughout the PTL years. Roe was the one who produced the money for the $265,000 payment to Hahn, later billing PTL for work never completed on the Jerusalem Amphitheater at Heritage USA. In the Bakkers' fraud trial, Roe Messner testified for Bakker's defense, saying that Bakker had no knowledge of the payment to Jessica Hahn, and that Falwell had sent him to the Bakker home in Palm Springs, California, to offer generous compensation "if he kept his mouth shut."
=== 1996–2007: Later life and illness ===
In 1996, Roe Messner was convicted of bankruptcy fraud, having claimed to owe nearly $30 million to over 300 creditors in 1990. As he faced sentencing in 1996, he said he could not afford to treat his prostate cancer because he lacked health insurance. He was sentenced to and served 27 months in prison.
With her first husband fresh out of jail and her current partner now serving his sentence, Tammy Faye was diagnosed with colon cancer in 1996, and she re-entered the public eye in a series of books, movies, and television appearances. That year she published her autobiography, Tammy: Telling It My Way, and co-hosted a TV talk show titled The Jim J. and Tammy Faye Show with Jim J. Bullock.
She appeared twice on The Drew Carey Show in 1996 and 1999, playing the mother of character Mimi Bobeck (Kathy Kinney), who was also known for wearing excessive amounts of makeup. On September 11, 2003, Messner published a new autobiography, I Will Survive... and You Will, Too!, in which she described her battles with cancer and her life with Roe Messner.
She was the subject of a documentary titled The Eyes of Tammy Faye (2000), narrated by RuPaul, and a follow-up film titled Tammy Faye: Death Defying (2004).
Despite her background in Christian fundamentalism, Messner became a gay icon after parting from PTL, appearing in Gay Pride marches with figures such as Lady Bunny and Bruce Vilanch. Unlike many American Christian fundamentalists, she "had long refused to denounce homosexuals" and publicly expressed compassion toward, and urged support for Americans with HIV/AIDS when it was still a much-feared and unknown disease. She was benevolently referred to as "the ultimate drag queen," and said in her last interview with Larry King that, "When I went – when we lost everything, it was the gay people that came to my rescue, and I will always love them for that."
In early 2004, she appeared on the second season of the VH1 reality television series The Surreal Life. The show chronicled a twelve-day period wherein she, Ron Jeremy, Vanilla Ice, Traci Bingham, Erik Estrada, and Trishelle Cannatella lived together in a Los Angeles house and were assigned various tasks and activities. Together, the six put on a children's play and managed a restaurant for a day. She also attended a book signing for her best-seller, I Will Survive... And You Will Too.
At the end of the show, Messner said she thought of Vanilla Ice and Trishelle Cannatella as her children and could relate to them deeply because she had similar feelings and problems when she was their age.
In July 2007, on more solid financial footing, the Messners relocated to Loch Lloyd, Missouri, a suburb of Kansas City. Jim Bakker had relocated his operations to Branson, Missouri, in 2003. She told Entertainment Tonight they had moved to the "dream house" to be closer to Roe's children and grandchildren from his first marriage.
== Death ==
Messner's 11 years with cancer were highly publicized. She was first diagnosed with colon cancer in March 1996, but later revealed she had endured bleeding for a year out of embarrassment at the prospect of seeing a male doctor. The disease went into remission by the end of that year.
In March 2004, Messner made an appearance on Larry King Live and announced that she had inoperable lung cancer and would soon begin chemotherapy. She continued to receive chemotherapy throughout mid-2004. In November 2004, also on Larry King Live, she announced that she was cancer-free once again. She described the details of her chemotherapy and continued to appear regularly on King's show.
A television documentary of her struggle with cancer was produced in 2004. It was on King's program again that she announced in July 2005 that her cancer had returned. In a March 2006 appearance on the show, she said she was continuing to suffer from lung cancer, which had reached stage 4, and that she was continuing to receive treatment for it. She also mentioned having difficulty swallowing food, suffering from panic attacks, and enduring substantial weight loss. As her health continued to worsen, a "Talk of the Town" article in an October 2006 issue of The New Yorker stated that she was dying in hospice care, and a December 2006 article in Walter Scott's column in Parade reported that her son Jay was "at a North Carolina hospice with his mom, [who is] gravely ill with colon cancer".
Messner was a guest by phone on Larry King Live in December 2006, and said that she was receiving hospice care in her home. She appeared in her son Jay's documentary series One Punk Under God, wherein they talked about her cancer treatments. In one episode, she required the use of oxygen in order to talk.
In May 2007, she issued a statement on her website saying that chemotherapy had stopped, and she urged her fans to continue to pray for her. The story was reported on NBC's The Today Show, and a feature in which fans and well-wishers could post get-well messages to Tammy was added to her website.
On July 18, 2007, Messner made her final appearance on Larry King Live. At the time, she said she weighed 65 pounds (29.5 kg) and was unable to eat solid food. Messner's husband later said that he believed she chose to do the interview to say a final goodbye to her fans.
Two days later, on July 20, 2007, Messner died at her home in Loch Lloyd, near Kansas City, Missouri, after an eleven-year bout with cancer. She was 65 years old. A family service was held on the morning of July 21, at the Messner family plot in Waldron, Kansas. The ceremony was officiated by Rev. Randy McCain, the pastor of Open Door Community Church in Sherwood, Arkansas. According to CNN, the family requested that King officially report the news of her death. Her remains were cremated and her ashes were returned to Waldron Cemetery where they were subsequently buried.
== In popular culture ==
In June 2006, a stage musical titled The Gospel According to Tammy Faye opened at the Cincinnati Fringe Festival and was subsequently developed as a larger professional production. The show features songs by J. T. Buck and a book by Fernando Dovalina. The musical is described as a fantasia which takes a balanced and fair look at its subject. The impetus for the show was provided by a lengthy interview that Messner gave the authors in March 2005. The musical aired in August 2006 in Portland, Oregon and Hood River, Oregon, and it was presented on stage at Houston's Alley Theatre at the end of July 2007 under direction of Les R. Wood. Industry readings presented by the Columbia Gorge Repertory Company were held at the Manhattan Theatre Club in December 2007, the cast including Tony nominee Sally Mayes and veteran Broadway performers William Youmans, Ken Land, Julie Foldesi, James T. Lane and Heather Parcells. The readings were directed by Mindy Cooper. Seth Farber provided musical direction.
Another musical following her life, titled Big Tent, debuted in May 2007, at off-Broadway's New World Stages, in New York City. The show features music and lyrics by Ben Cohn and Sean McDaniel, a book by Jeffery Self, and direction by Ryan J. Davis. A star-studded concert of songs from the show opened in February 2008, at New York's Metropolitan Room.
A play about her final hours, Tammy Faye's Final Audition by Merri Biechler, premiered at the Cincinnati Fringe Festival in June 2015. The play takes place in a fevered dream at the end of her life, wherein she enlists the men in her life for one final TV talk show audition.
A musical about the life of BeBe Winans, Born for This, debuted on June 25, 2018, at the Emerson Cutler Majestic Theatre in Boston, Massachusetts. Tammy Faye and Jim Bakker appear as supporting characters who give BeBe and his sister CeCe their first big break as singers on The PTL Club.
At one time, Broadway actress Kristin Chenoweth was planning a musical based on Messner's life.
In the 2021 movie The Eyes of Tammy Faye, based on the 2000 documentary of the same name, Jessica Chastain plays Tammy Faye, with Andrew Garfield as Jim. The Eyes of Tammy Faye opened on September 17, 2021. Chastain won a Critics Choice Award, a Screen Actors Guild Award, and the Academy Award for Best Actress.
British playwright James Graham also wrote the book for a new musical about Tammy Faye, with music by Elton John and lyrics by Jake Shears. The musical, titled Tammy Faye, opened in October 2022 at the Almeida Theatre in London, directed by Rupert Goold.
In Season 4 Episode 3 of Hulu's Only Murders in the Building, there is a pig named Hammy Faye Bakker, after Tammy Faye Bakker.
== Select discography ==
== Bibliography ==
I Gotta Be Me (1978), ISBN 978-0089221480
Run to the Roar (1985), ISBN 978-0892210732
Tammy: Telling It My Way (1996), ISBN 9780679445159
I Will Survive...and You Will Too! (2003), ISBN 9781585422425
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Bekkering, Denis (2018). American Televangelism and Participatory Cultures: Fans, Brands, and Play With Religious "Fakes". Palgrave Macmillan.
== External links ==
Tammy Faye Messner Interview at Archive of American Television
The Re-Invention of Tammy Faye: Former Christian Broadcasting Queen Has New Gay Following, National Public Radio All Things Considered, June 20, 2002
Interview of Tammy Faye Messner by Terry Gross, National Public Radio Fresh Air, January 15, 2004
Tammy Faye Bakker at IMDb
Tammy Faye Messner at Find a Grave |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosemarie_Trockel#Work | Rosemarie Trockel | Rosemarie Trockel (born 13 November 1952) is a German conceptual artist. She has made drawings, paintings, sculptures, videos and installations, and has worked in mixed media. From 1985, she made pictures using knitting-machines. She is a professor at the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf, in Düsseldorf in Nordrhein-Westfalen.
== Early life and education ==
Trockel was born on 13 November 1952 in Schwerte, in Nordrhein-Westfalen in West Germany. Between 1974 and 1978, she studied anthropology, mathematics, sociology and theology while also studying at the Werkkunstschule of Cologne, at a time when the influence of Joseph Beuys was very strong there.
In the early 1980s, Trockel met members of the Mülheimer Freiheit artist group founded by Jiří Georg Dokoupil and Walter Dahn, and exhibited at the women-only gallery of Monika Sprüth in Cologne.
== Work ==
Trockel's work often criticises the work of other artists, or artistic styles such as minimal art. In 1985, she began to make large-scale paintings produced on industrial knitting machines. These regularly featured geometric motifs or logos such as the Playboy Bunny or a hammer and sickle, and the trademark: Made in West Germany. During the 1980s, she also worked for the magazine Eau de Cologne, which was focused on the work of women artists.
In 1994, Trockel created the Frankfurter Engel monument for the city of Frankfurt. For Documenta in 1997, she and Carsten Höller collaborated on an installation in one of the exhibition's outbuildings. Since the late 1990s, she has worked extensively with clay and has also continued to produce both hand and machine knitted "paintings". Several of these paintings were exhibited in a retrospective, Post-Menopause, at the Museum Ludwig in Cologne in 2005.
Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, Trockel collaborated with Bottega Veneta designer Daniel Lee on the brand’s 2021 ad campaign
== Recognition ==
2011 – Wolf Prize
2011 – Goslarer Kaiserring
2004 – Wolfgang Hahn Prize
== Exhibitions ==
Trockel’s work was included in the Italian Pavilion in 2013 and represented Germany at the Venice Biennale in 1999; she participated in Documenta in 1997 and 2012. Other exhibitions include:
2005: Post-Menopause, Museum Ludwig, Cologne
2009: Rebelle: Art & Feminism 1969–2009, Museum voor Moderne Kunst Arnhem, Arnhem, Holland
2012–2013: Rosemarie Trockel: A Cosmos: Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia, Madrid; New Museum, New York; Serpentine Gallery, London; Kunst- und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Bonn
2015: Märzôschnee ûnd Wiebôrweh sand am Môargô niana më, Kunsthaus Bregenz, Bregenz, Austria
2018: The Same Different, Moderna Museet, Malmö, Sweden.
== Legacy ==
Trockel's students at Kunstakademie Düsseldorf have included Tea Jorjadze, Michail Pirgelis and Bettina Pousttchi.
== Art market ==
Trockel has been represented by Sprüth Magers and Gladstone.
== References ==
== Further reading == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aida_Garifullina | Aida Garifullina | Aida Emilevna Garifullina (Russian: Аида Эмилевна Гарифуллина, Tatar: Аида Эмил кызы Гарифуллина, romanized: Aida Emil qızı Ğarifullina; born on 30 September 1987) is a Russian lyric soprano of Tatar descent. She was the winner of the 2013 Operalia competition and has featured in a number of productions staged at the Mariinsky Theatre, St. Petersburg and the Vienna State Opera. She has a recording contract with Decca Records.
== Biography and musical career ==
=== Early career ===
Aida Garifullina was born in 1987 in a Tatar family in Kazan, the capital of the Republic of Tatarstan. Her father is Emil Damirovich Garifullin, and her mother is Layla Ildarovna Garifullina (a choir conductor), who is currently the Director of the Centre of Contemporary Music, n.a. Sofia Gubaidulina. From her early childhood Garifullina's musical development was influenced by her mother, who was instrumental in the development of her career. At the age of 18, Garifullina moved to Nuremberg, Germany to study music.
In 2007, she joined the Vienna University of Music and Performing Arts under Claudia Visca. Two years later Garifullina made her debut as Despina in the university production of Mozart's Così fan tutte. In 2010, she won the Muslim Magomayev's competition of singers in Moscow.
After graduating in 2011, she performed during the closing ceremony of the XXVI Summer Universiade in Shenzhen, and sang a duet with Alessandro Safina in Kazan.
In 2012, Garifullina sang at the opening of the Russian House at the XXX Summer Olympics in London. In London, she became acquainted with Valery Gergiev, the artistic director of the Mariinsky Theatre in St. Petersburg. In January 2013, she made her debut at the Mariinsky Theatre in the role of Susanna in Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro. She later added to her repertoire the roles of Gilda (Rigoletto) and Adina (L'elisir d'amore).
In July, as the Ambassador of the Universiade, she sang at the opening Ceremony of Summer Universiade 2013 in Kazan. She also performed at the closing ceremony of "Cultural Universiade" with the Mariinsky Theatre Orchestra. The performance was conducted by Valery Gergiev.
=== Operalia 2013 and subsequent career ===
Garifullina's career received a significant boost when she won first prize in Operalia 2013. At the contest, there were arias of Nanetta (Falstaff), Snow Maiden (The Snow Maiden), Susanna (Le nozze di Figaro), and Giulietta (I Capuleti e i Montecchi). In October she was awarded the title "Honored Artist of the Republic of Tatarstan" and a Commendation Certificate of the President of the Republic of Tatarstan.
During 2013 and 2014 she was featured in a number of prominent performances, alongside the likes of José Carreras, Plácido Domingo and Dmitry Hvorostovsky. In 2014 she performed at the Rosenblatt Recitals held at the Wigmore Hall, London. 2015 saw her sign a recording contract with Decca Records.
Since the beginning of the 2014/2015 season, she is an ensemble member of the Vienna State Opera. She portrayed the French-American soprano star Lily Pons and performed "The Bell Song" from Delibes' opera Lakmé in a downward-transposed key in the 2016 film Florence Foster Jenkins. In February 2017 she released a self-titled album on Decca, which contains 15 arias recorded with the ORF Radio-Symphony Orchestra directed by Cornelius Meister.
On 13 June 2018, Garifullina performed at the 2018 FIFA World Cup opening gala concert held at the Red Square in Moscow. She performed with Anna Netrebko, Juan Diego Florez and Placido Domingo and the Mariinsky Theatre Orchestra conducted by Valery Gergiev. On 14 June, Garifullina performed at the 2018 FIFA World Cup opening ceremony held at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow. She performed a duet of "Angels" with English pop singer Robbie Williams.
== Personal life ==
Garifullina has one sibling, a brother named Rem. Garifullina has a daughter, Olivia, born in 2016. She is known to have dated tennis player Marat Safin for a year or two from 2016 to 2017. Early in 2025, she secretly married the famous Russian singer Alexey Vorobyov and together they hosted Intervision 2025 held at the Live Arena in Novoivanovskoye near the city of Moscow, Russia, on 20 September 2025. Her voice coach for 2 years while studying in Vienna in 2007 was Claudia Visca, an American soprano. Her favorite well-known opera soprano is Anna Moffo.
== Repertoire ==
G. Donizetti – Don Pasquale, Norina
G. Donizetti – L'elisir d'amore, Adina
P. Eötvös – Tri sestri, Irina
C. Gounod − Roméo et Juliette, Juliette
F. Halévy – La Juive, Princess Eudoxie
W. A. Mozart – Così fan tutte, Despina
W. A. Mozart – Don Giovanni, Zerlina
W. A. Mozart – Le nozze di Figaro, Susanna
W. A. Mozart – Die Zauberflöte, Pamina
S. S. Prokofiev – War and Peace, Natasha Rostova
G. Puccini – La bohème, Mimi, Musetta
N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov – The Golden Cockerel, Queen of Shemakha
N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov – The Snow Maiden, The Snow Maiden
G. Rossini – L'italiana in Algeri, Elvira
P. I. Tchaikovsky - Yevgeny Onegin, Tatyana
G. Verdi – Un ballo in maschera, Oscar
G. Verdi – Falstaff, Nannetta
G. Verdi – Rigoletto, Gilda
G. Verdi - La Traviata, Violetta
== Selected discography ==
Aida Garifullina (2017)
== Awards and titles ==
"Best Female Vocalist in Classical Music" at the Russian National Music Awards (2015).
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Aida Garifullina biography at Opera Vivrà |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memeza | Memeza | Memeza is the thirteenth studio album recorded by South African singer Brenda Fassie released on 3 November 1998, the same day as Brenda's birthday. It was the best selling album in South Africa in 1998. The album went Platinum on the day of its release & sold over 100 000 in a week of its release. The album went to sell 700,000 copies in South Africa.
== Background ==
Memeza was released in 1997 by CCP Records in its physical form. EMI Digital re-released the album in its digital form in 2004. The music is characterised as largely pop/rock and Kwaito (a South African urban music style). Its themes range from tradition to marriage. Sello Twala and Brenda Fassie co-wrote all the songs for the album and Twala handled the production thereof.
== Track listing ==
"Qula"
"Sum' Bulala"
"Vuli Ndlela"
"Msindo"
"Memeza"
"Vuli Ndlela (Remix)"
"Qula (Remix)"
"Sum' Bulala (Remix)"
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Doyle_(transit_worker)#Relationship_with_Whitman | Peter Doyle (transit worker) | Peter George Doyle (June 1843 – April 19, 1907) was an Irish-born American transit worker, known for being an intimate companion of Walt Whitman from around 1865 to 1876, and to some extent to Whitman's death in 1892. Doyle also witnessed the assassination of Abraham Lincoln in 1865.
== Biography ==
Peter George Doyle was born in early June 1843 in Ireland to Peter George Doyle, a blacksmith, and Catherine Nash Doyle, the sixth of nine children. He was baptized on June 16, 1843, in Limerick. He moved with members of his family to Alexandria, Virginia, in 1853, travelling through Baltimore which they reached on May 10. Doyle was not well educated. He grew to be around 5 feet and 8 inches tall. Doyle's niece described him as "a homosexual".
Somewhere between 1856 and 1859 the Doyles moved to Richmond, Virginia, where Peter Sr. found employment at the Tredegar Iron Works. When the American Civil War broke out, Doyle enlisted in the Confederate States Army on April 25, 1861. He fought in several engagements of the war, including the Battle of Antietam, where he was wounded and he was discharged on November 7, 1862. He likely re-joined the army for a time in 1863 before deserting and fleeing North, where he was placed in a prison near Old Capitol Prison in April 1863. He was released on May 11 and began working at the Washington Navy Yard in Washington, D.C., holding a position there until 1865. After the war ended, he lived in Washington, D.C., and worked as a streetcar conductor for the Washington and Georgetown Railroad Company.
Doyle was an eyewitness to the assassination of Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theatre on April 14, 1865. Whitman later drew on Doyle's account of his experience.
=== Relationship with Whitman ===
Doyle first met Whitman in 1865 on a "cold, stormy night". Whitman was the only passenger on Doyle's streetcar at the time, and the two began talking. They became very close friends, corresponding regularly and frequently meeting. Whitman often rode Doyle's streetcar, they went on numerous hikes together, and wrote many letters, Whitman addressing Doyle as "boy" or "son", while Doyle signed his "Pete the Great". The historian Martin G Murray wrote that Doyle may have influenced Whitman's famous poem "O Captain! My Captain!", arguing that Whitman adopted a more conventional form to appeal to Doyle. The hero in Whitman's "Come Up From the Fields Father" is named "Pete" and according to Murray, Doyle may have inspired some of the poems or influenced Whitman's writing in the book Drum-Taps.
In May 1870, the two briefly traveled to New York City, where they saw the opera Poliuto. Whitman was known to abbreviate Doyle as "16.4" (P being the 16th letter of the alphabet and D the fourth) in his diary. Whitman may have begun to worry that he loved Doyle and Doyle did not reciprocate. Whitman wanted to live with Doyle, but Doyle initially refused as he was supporting his mother. By the end of 1870, Whitman was more confident in their relationship. In 1872 or 1873, Doyle began working on the Pennsylvania Railroad as a braker. After Whitman had a stroke in 1873, Doyle helped to nurse him. Doyle gradually grew unhappy with his job and continued to visit Whitman, even after he moved to Camden, New Jersey, in 1874. After 1876, the two wrote and visited each other much less.
Doyle met Richard Maurice Bucke, a promoter and early biographer of Whitman, in 1880. After 1885, he moved permanently to Philadelphia, where he was a member of the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks and joined the United Confederate Veterans. The last time Doyle and Whitman were in contact may have been 1889, though they likely met at least once after that. Whitman left Doyle his watch and Doyle visited Whitman's body after he died in 1892, though he was almost not allowed into the funeral. Doyle was friends with Horace Traubel and his wife Anne Traubel, as well as Gustave Percival Wiksell, Horace's friend or lover.
Whitman's letters to Doyle were published in 1895 as Calamus, A Series of Letters Written During the Years 1868-1880 by Walt Whitman To A Young Friend (Peter Doyle). The collection has generally been recognized as being of love letters, and received mixed reviews. After Whitman died, Doyle had a coat that Whitman had worn, saying it was like "Aladdin's lamp". For the rest of his life, Doyle was considered a celebrity by "friends and followers" of Whitman.
== Death and interment ==
Doyle died on April 19, 1907, in Philadelphia of uremia. He is buried in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C.
== Legacy ==
A portrait of Doyle and Whitman was taken around 1865 by M. P. Rice. It is the earliest known portrait of Whitman with someone else. Paraphrasing Thomas Gray's "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard", John Burroughs described Doyle as "a mute inglorious Whitman".
Doyle is considered possibly the most likely candidate for the love of Whitman's life. Whitman's biographer Justin Kaplan wrote in 1980 that "Whitman extended himself with Peter Doyle farther than he had with any other man and at greater risk to his psychic safety." Their relationship has been described as a "romantic friendship", though its exact nature is unknown.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Kaplan, Justin (1979). Walt Whitman: A Life. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-671-22542-1.
Loving, Jerome (1999). Walt Whitman: The Song of Himself. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22687-9.
Murray, Martin (July 1, 1994). ""Pete the Great": A Biography of Peter Doyle". Walt Whitman Quarterly Review. 12 (1): 1–51. doi:10.13008/2153-3695.1429. ISSN 0737-0679.
Reynolds, David S. (1995). Walt Whitman's America: A Cultural Biography. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-76709-6. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shai_(band)#Early_beginnings_and_formation | Shai (band) | Shai (pronounced "shy") is an American vocal R&B/soul quartet that rose to prominence in the 1990s. The group met and formed on the campus of Howard University, influenced by the vocal stylings of Boyz II Men, Jodeci, and Color Me Badd, among others. The group remains best known for their 1992 debut single "If I Ever Fall in Love," which peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100.
== History ==
=== Early beginnings and formation ===
Shai (a Swahili word meaning "personification of destiny") was formed on the campus of Howard University. In 1990, Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity brothers, Marc Gay, Carl Martin, and Darnell Van Rensalier invited fellow Howard University student Garfield Bright to join their a capella group after two other founding members departed. None of the members had professional singing experience and mostly performed in and around campus for fun, according to Gay.
The group came together seriously after winning a Howard University talent show.[1] From there, they decided to pursue a record deal in New York City but did not receive any offers. Martin later gave Paco Lopez, a local deejay at WPGC radio in DC metro, a demo cassette copy of "If I Ever Fall in Love," and he began promoting the single on the air. In September 1992, the group signed with Gasoline Alley/MCA Records and released their debut album later that year.
=== 1992-1993: If I Ever Fall In Love and Right Back at Cha ===
Shai released "If I Ever Fall in Love" as the first single from the debut album of the same title, which peaked at No. 2 in the U.S. and sold over two million copies. The next two releases from the platinum album, "Comforter" and "Baby I'm Yours", each peaked at No. 10 in the U.S.
At the insistence of the group members, the video for "Baby I'm Yours" was shot on the Howard University campus.[2] The female love interests, including future television host and model Ananda Lewis, and many of the extras were actual Howard students.
The group's next album release was Right Back at Cha, a remix album that largely consisted of new versions of their previous hits and a couple of new songs. A completely reworked version of their previous hit, "Baby I'm Yours," simply titled "Yours," was released as a single (US No. 63).
In 1993, the group won an NAACP Image Award (Outstanding New Artist), and they performed at Bill Clinton's inauguration along with Michael Jackson, Quincy Jones, Ray Charles, and Diana Ross, among others. Additionally, Shai appeared on The Arsenio Hall Show and The Tonight Show.
=== 1994-2001 ===
At the beginning of 1994, Shai made a guest appearance on the sitcom "Family Matters" in the episode, "Good Cop, Bad Cop", in a dream sequence.
The group released "The Place Where You Belong," from the Beverly Hills Cop III soundtrack. It was the group's final Top 40 single (No. 32 R&B). In late 1995, their follow-up album Blackface was released (No. 42 Pop & No. 15 R&B). It featured their final R&B Top 20 single "Come with Me" (US No. 43). The 1996 remix, "I Don't Wanna Be Alone" (featuring Jay-Z), peaked at No. 89 in the U.S. It was inspired by Belinda Carlisle's "Heaven Is a Place on Earth."
"Song For You" by Rick Braun, featuring Shai, peaked at No. 39 on the R&B chart in 2001.
As of 2025, Shai still performs with each other in various concerts and shows.
== Discography ==
=== Albums ===
=== Compilations ===
20th Century Masters – The Millennium Collection: The Best of Shai (2001)
If I Ever Fall in Love: The Best Of (3 re-recorded tracks from the original album) (2011)
If I Ever Fall in Love: Greatest Hits (same 3 tracks re-recorded with new members Dwayne Jones & George Spencer III) (2011)
In Concert (2018)
=== Singles ===
== Filmography ==
Video Personification: Vol. 1 (1993)
== Awards and nominations ==
NAACP Image Awards (1993), Outstanding new artist - winner
Soul Train Music Awards (1993), Best New R&B/Soul Artist - nominee
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gael_Garc%C3%ADa_Bernal | Gael García Bernal | Gael García Bernal (Spanish: [ɡaˈel ɣaɾˈsi.a βeɾˈnal]; born 30 November 1978) is a Mexican actor and filmmaker. He is known for his performances in the films Amores perros (2000), Y tu mamá también (2001), Bad Education (2004), The Motorcycle Diaries (2004), Babel (2006), Coco (2017), Old (2021), Cassandro (2023) and Magellan (2025). On television, he portrayed music conductor Rodrigo De Souza in the series Mozart in the Jungle (2014–2018), and starred as the titular character in the Disney+ special Werewolf by Night (2022).
García Bernal was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for his portrayal of a young Che Guevara in The Motorcycle Diaries in 2005, and in 2016 won his first Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedy for Mozart in the Jungle. He and fellow actor Diego Luna founded the production company Canana Films in Mexico City. In 2016, Time magazine named him in the annual Time 100 most influential people list. In 2020, The New York Times ranked him No. 25 in its list of the 25 Greatest Actors of the 21st Century.
== Early life ==
García Bernal was born in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico, the son of Patricia Bernal, an actress and former model, and José Ángel García, an actor and director. His stepfather is Sergio Yazbek, whom his mother married when García Bernal was young. He started acting at just one year old and spent most of his teen years starring in telenovelas. García Bernal and frequent collaborator Diego Luna were friends from childhood in Mexico City.
When he was fourteen, García Bernal taught indigenous people in Mexico to read, often working with the Huichol people. At the age of fifteen, he took part in peaceful demonstrations in support of the Zapatista uprising of 1994.
He began studying philosophy at UNAM, Mexico's national university but, during a prolonged student strike, he decided to take a sabbatical to travel around Europe. He then moved to London, and became the first Mexican accepted to study at the Central School of Speech and Drama. Bernal also attended the European Graduate School toward a master's in media and communication.
== Career ==
After García Bernal's success in soap operas, Mexican director Alejandro González Iñárritu offered García Bernal a part in his feature directorial debut, Amores perros (2000). The film won rave reviews, and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.
His next role was Alfonso Cuarón's Y tu mamá también (2001), which was a crossover success into American markets and gained him notice on the international stage, becoming the second-highest grossing Spanish language film in the United States. The next year, García Bernal went on to portray Argentine revolutionary Che Guevara in the 2002 TV miniseries Fidel and the morally troubled Father Amaro in the Mexican box-office record-breaker El crimen del Padre Amaro (2002). García Bernal again portrayed Che Guevara in The Motorcycle Diaries (2004), an adaptation of a journal the 23-year-old Guevara wrote about his travels across South America. The film broke the box office record set 3 years prior by Y tu mamá también, and garnered Bernal a BAFTA nomination in 2005 for Best Performance by an Actor.
He also did some theatre work, during this time, including a 2005 production of Bodas de Sangre, by Federico García Lorca, in the Almeida Theatre in London. García Bernal has worked for acclaimed directors including González Iñárritu, Pedro Almodóvar, Walter Salles, Alfonso Cuarón, Michel Gondry, and Iciar Bollaín, among others. He has taken on roles in English-language films, including the Gondry-directed The Science of Sleep and The King, for which he earned rave reviews.
García Bernal directed his first feature film, Déficit which was released in 2007. He was cast in the 2008 film Blindness, an adaptation of the 1995 novel of the same name by José Saramago, winner of the Nobel Prize, about a society suffering an epidemic of blindness. As in the novel, the characters have only descriptions, no names or histories; while director Fernando Meirelles said some actors were intimidated by the concept of playing such characters, "'With Gael,' he said, 'I never think about the past. I just think what my character wants.'" García Bernal again paired with Diego Luna in Rudo y Cursi directed by Carlos Cuarón.
García Bernal and Diego Luna own Canana Films. The company recently joined with Golden Phoenix Productions to produce a number of television documentaries about the unsolved murders of more than 300 women in the border city of Ciudad Juarez. In May 2010, García Bernal did a cameo appearance as himself playing Cristiano Ronaldo in Ronaldo: The Movie for the Nike advertisement, Write the Future.
In 2010, he co-directed with Marc Siver four short films in collaboration with Amnesty International. The tetralogy, called "Los Invisibles", is about migrants from Central America in Mexico, their journey and risks, their hopes, and what they can contribute to Mexico, the US and the world. He directed the movies, did the interviews and also narrates the four short movies. He starred in Even the Rain (2010), Spain's official entry for the 2011 Academy Awards.
García Bernal narrated Human Planet for Hispanic audiences, which premiered on Discovery en Español on 25 April 2011 and aired on Discovery Channel in Latin America on 12 May. For the third time García Bernal appeared with Diego Luna in the American Spanish-language comedy film Casa de mi padre, opposite Will Ferrell, where he played a feared drug lord. García Bernal's next projects included a film adaptation of José Agustín's Ciudades Desiertas and the Jon Stewart directorial biopic Rosewater, in which he portrayed Maziar Bahari to widespread critical acclaim. He was set to star in the 20th Century Fox reboot Zorro film called Zorro Reborn. The script is by Glen Gers, Lee Shipman, and Brian McGeevy.
In April 2014, he was announced as a member of the main competition jury at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival. In June 2014, he began production as the star of the dramatic comedy Zoom, directed by Pedro Morelli. In 2014, he was cast in the lead role of Rodrigo de Souza in the Amazon Studios comedy-drama television series Mozart in the Jungle. His performance in the show was met with rave reviews, earning him a Golden Globe Award in 2016.
In 2016, he starred in two movies that were submitted for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, Desierto (Mexico) and Neruda (Chile). In 2017, he was announced as a member of the U.S. Dramatic Jury at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival. That same year, he provided the voice of Héctor, an undead trickster and one of the main protagonists of the Pixar animated film Coco.
García Bernal founded The Ambulante Documentary Film Festival, which works to bring documentary films to places where they are rarely shown, and helped to create the Amnesty International Short Documentary Series Los Invisibles. For this work, he was awarded the Washington Office on Latin America's Human Rights Award in 2011.
In October 2019, García Bernal and Diego Luna announced they were joining the Creative Advisory Board for TV and Film development company EXILE Content along with Adam Grant.
In 2021, García Bernal starred in the M. Night Shyamalan thriller Old. In November 2021, Bernal was cast in the Disney+ special Werewolf by Night by Marvel Studios, based on the comics character of the same name.
In 2024, he starred alongside close friend and frequent collaborator Diego Luna in the Hulu original miniseries La Máquina as the eponymous character.
In 2025, García Bernal starred as Ferdinand Magellan in the epic historical drama film Magellan, which was directed by Lav Diaz; the film was an international co-production between the Philippines, Spain, Portugal, Taiwan, and France. The film premiered at the 2025 Cannes Film Festival and was announced as the Philippines' official submission for Best International Feature Film at the 98th Academy Awards.
== Personal life ==
García Bernal and Argentine actress Dolores Fonzi met on the set of Private Lives in 2001. On 8 January 2009 their son was born in Madrid, Spain. Their daughter was born on 4 April 2011 in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He divides his time between Buenos Aires and Mexico City.
He has been in a relationship with Mexican journalist Fernanda Aragonés since 2019. They had a child on 30 September 2021.
He has described himself as "culturally Catholic but spiritually agnostic".
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
== Awards ==
Ariel Award
BAFTA Awards
Cannes Film Festival
Golden Globe Awards
Goya Awards
Other honors
== Discography ==
=== Collaborations ===
=== Soundtracks ===
== Notes ==
== See also ==
Cinema of Mexico
== References ==
== External links ==
Gael Garcia Bernal on Twitter (in Spanish)
Gael García Bernal at IMDb
Gael García Bernal interview for Rudo & Cursi By Alastair Smart, Daily Telegraph, 8 July 2009
2014 Cannes Film Festival Screening |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niloufar_Bayani | Niloufar Bayani | Niloufar Bayani (Persian: نیلوفر بیانی; born 1986;) is an Iranian wildlife conservation biology researcher and activist. She was convicted in 2019 of espionage by Iranian authorities in a closed-door trial in Iran, and received a 10-year prison sentence.
== Early life and education ==
Niloufar Bayani was born in 1986 in Tehran, Iran. She graduated in 2009 from McGill University in Canada with a BSc degree in biology, and holds an MA degree in Conservation Biology from Columbia University.
== Career ==
After graduation, Bayani worked as a consultant and project adviser to United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) between 2012 and 2017.
In the summer of 2017, she joined the Persian Wildlife Heritage Foundation (PWHF), an Iranian environmental organization co-founded by Kavous Seyed-Emami and other Iranian environmentalists. PWHF is a not-for-profit organization supervised by a board of trustees and an executive board whose members are well versed in conservation strategies and natural resource management. In Iran, she worked on the wildlife projects, setting camera traps in seven provinces to monitor the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah.
== Arrest and imprisonment ==
Bayani was arrested in January 2018 by the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, on charges of espionage. Others arrested and imprisoned from PWHF included Seyed-Emami, Amir Hossein Khaleghi, Abdolreza Kouhpayeh, Hooman Jokar, Morad Tahabaz, Sam Rajabi, Sepideh Kashani, and Taher Ghadirian.
In 2019, Bayani wrote an open letter to Ayatollah Khamenei, describing her harsh treatment by her interrogators. On February 18, 2020, BBC Persia published letters that Bayani wrote from Evin Prison, in which she detailed the tortures she has to undergo. According to a report compiled by the BBC, she was separated and detained incommunicado for eight months and her interrogators tortured and threatened her with sexual assault. Bayani said that her interrogators showed her a photo of Seyed-Emami, whose body was found in his prison cell two days after his arrest with officials claiming he had committed suicide.
She was sentenced in 2020 without a lawyer and despite her claims.
On the occasion of Iranian New Year and Eid al-Fitr, Ayatollah Khamenei has agreed to pardon or commute the sentences of 2,127 convicts upon a proposal by Iranian Judiciary Chief Gholmhossein Mohseni-Ejei. Four environmentalists – Sepideh Kashani, Niloufar Bayani, Houman Jowkar, and Taher Ghadirain – are included in the amnesty. Niloufar Bayani was released on Monday 8 April 2024, 2266 days after she was arrested, after more than 6 years in prison, and is now free with her family.
== International pressure ==
On March 14, 2019, the European Parliament adopted a resolution in which it condemned the Iranian violations to human rights, freedom of expression, fair trial, freedom of the press, freedom of thought and freedom of religion. In particular, the document makes reference to the case of Bayani and the other environmentalists in point 14; by urging the Iranian authorities to release all the individuals unfairly detained in their prisons for allegedly commission of crimes.
The United Nation's Human Rights Council, on January 28, 2020, published a Report on the situation of human rights in Iran, which expresses the concern of the Special Rapporteur regarding condition of respect of the fundamental human rights. One paragraph of the document relates to the case of the eight detained environmentalists, among which there is Bayani. She is accused of "collaborating with the United States enemy state" and has also been condemned to refund the income received as a consultant and project adviser to United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) between 2012 and 2017. The Rapporteur invited the Iranian authorities to ensure the respect of the work pursued by the scientific community for the benefit of the Iranian country.
Scholars at Risk (SAR) is an international network of institutions and individuals that promotes academic freedom and protect scholars from academic freedom threats. SAR has been actively supporting Bayani, including by sending letters to public authorities in Iran, running advocacy seminars in universities, and conducting online activities via social networks.
== Iranian reactions ==
Following Bayani's revelation of the sexual and psychological harassment of the interrogators, the Tehran Prosecutor's Office denied the allegations, claiming that all the interrogation procedures had been videotaped, and linked the issue to accusations and planned actions on the eve of the election. It claimed that the judiciary was sensitive to the dignity of defendants, convicts, and prisoners.
The revelation of the behavior of the intelligence interrogators to Bayani was widely reported on social media. In a statement on Twitter, the Iranian reformist political activist Mostafa Tajzadeh called for the truth in Bayani's case, and for the punishment of the perpetrators of violence.
== See also ==
Ahmad Reza Jalali
Human rights in Iran
== References ==
== External links ==
Scholars at Risk - Niloufar Bayani |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Mat%C3%ADas | Don Matías | Don Matías is a municipality in Antioquia Department, Colombia. Part of the subregion of Northern Antioquia. Bordered to the north by the municipality of Santa Rosa de Osos, to the east by the municipalities of Santa Rosa de Osos and Santo Domingo, to the south by the municipality of Barbosa, and to the west by the municipality of San Pedro de los Milagros.
== History ==
Since 1624 the Don Matías territory was occupied by settlers from the city of Santa Fe de Antioquia. In 1750 the places San Andrés, Las Ánimas, Las Juntas, La Chorrera began to be populated, and today it forms the urban population.
This occupation was the result of new government policies by the crown of Borbón, which the visitor Mon y Velarde applied in Antioquia, seeking the establishment of agricultural colonies in the north of the province. Those who occupied the present territory of Don Matías were basically mazamorreros, independent miners, who were awarded the title of their plots.
The municipality has had three names: Azuero, San Antonio Infante and Don Matías. The latter, Don Matías was chosen in 1787 in honor of Don Matías Jaramillo, a man who had a rich mining settlement in the territory where the population now lives. The garment industry in the town was established in the 60s, thanks to the decentralization of manufacturing industries in the city of Medellín. In this way came to the township of Don Matías the industrial clothing company, which almost exclusively produced for a company called Caribou. Thus, the community found a source of employment, as the municipality for those years was basically agrarian.
A decade later garment factories began to emerge where those industrial garment company workers, having learned the trade, decided to start their own small industries. Today Don Matías has extensive national and international recognition. One of its main attractions is the Riogrande Dam.
== Demographics ==
The population was 14,208 at the 2018 census. In 2009, the total population was 19,458, with 12,663 inhabitants constituting the urban population and 6,795 counted as rural population. Literacy rate was 91.3% in 2005.
According to figures from the Government of Antioquia based on Quality of Life survey 2004 the prevailing socio-economic strata in the municipality of Don Matías is 2 (low) which includes 70.9% of all homes. It is followed by stratum 3 (medium-low) with a 23.3%. Then there is the stratum 1 (low-high) with 4.4% of homes. Finally there is the 4 (medium) including 1.4% of homes.
== Demography ==
According to figures presented by the DANE census 2005, the ethnic-racial composition of the township are
Whites & Mestizos (99.7%)
Afro-Colombians (0.2%)
Indigenous (0.1%)
== Economy ==
Livestock: Dairy Cattle, Pigs
Industry: Apparel
Timber
Don Matías bases its economy mostly on the textile and apparel industry, pigs and dairy cattle, and the timber industry.
== References ==
== External links ==
http://parroquiadonmatias.org |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Pitroda | Sam Pitroda | Satyanarayan Gangaram Pitroda, popularly known as Sam Pitroda (born 16 November 1942), is an Indian official, telecommunications engineer, and entrepreneur. He was born in Titlagarh, in the eastern Indian state of Odisha, into a Gujarati family. He served as an advisor to Rajiv Gandhi and Manmohan Singh during their respective tenures as the Prime Minister of India, as well as to the United Nations. He is the chairman of the Indian Overseas Congress.
== Early life and career ==
In 1966, he began working for GTE in Chicago. He is considered a pioneer of portable computing, as he invented the electronic diary in 1975.
He holds a master's degree in Physics and Electronics from Maharaja Sayajirao University (India) and a Master's in Electrical Engineering from the Illinois Institute of Technology (USA).
== Government Advisor ==
Between 2005 and 2009, he chaired the National Knowledge Commission in India and served as an advisor to Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in the area of Public Information Infrastructure and Innovations. Since 2010, he has been the chairman of the National Innovation Council.
== Return to India and later career ==
On a trip back to India in 1981, Pitroda was frustrated by how hard it was to call his family back in Chicago, and decided he could help modernize India's telecommunications system. In 1984, Pitroda was invited to return to India by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. On his return, he started the Center for Development of Telematics C-DOT, an autonomous telecom R&D organization. He had previously become a naturalized US citizen but renounced his US citizenship to take Indian citizenship again to work in the Indian Government.
In the 1990s Pitroda returned to Chicago to resume his business interests. In May 1995, he became the first chairman of WorldTel initiative of the International Telecommunication Union.
In 1993, Pitroda helped establish (with Darshan Shankar) the Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Tradition and The University of Trans-Disciplinary Health Sciences and Technology near Bangalore in India. The foundation promotes Ayurveda, India's traditional medicinal knowledge.
In October 2009, Pitroda was appointed as advisor to Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on Public Information Infrastructure and Innovations with the rank of Cabinet Minister.
In 1992, his biography Sam Pitroda: A Biography was published.
The Enforcement Directorate, on 15 April 2025, filed a chargesheet against him over his alleged involvement in the National Herald case.
== Awards ==
Dataquest gave Pitroda a lifetime achievement award in 2002.
In May 2010, the University of Illinois at Chicago college of medicine presented him an honorary degree.
The Government of India awarded him the Padma Bhushan in 2009 for his contribution to science and engineering.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Sam Pitroda Collected news and commentary at The Times of India
Biography of Sam Pitroda by Mayank Chaya |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_Mehretu#Recognition | Julie Mehretu | Julie Mehretu (born November 28, 1970) is an Ethiopian American contemporary visual artist, known for her multi-layered paintings of abstracted landscapes on a large scale. Her paintings, drawings, and prints depict the cumulative effects of urban sociopolitical changes.
== Early life and education ==
Mehretu was born in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in 1970, the first child of an Ethiopian college professor of geography and a Jewish American Montessori teacher. They fled the country in 1977 to escape political turmoil and moved to East Lansing, Michigan, for her father's teaching position in economic geography at Michigan State University.
A graduate of East Lansing High School, Mehretu received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Kalamazoo College in Kalamazoo, Michigan, and did a junior year abroad at Cheikh Anta Diop University (UCAD) in Dakar, Senegal, then attended the Rhode Island School of Design in Providence, Rhode Island, where she earned a Master of Fine Arts degree in 1997. She was chosen for the CORE program at the Museum of Fine Arts in Houston, a residency that provided a studio, a stipend, and an exhibition at the museum.
== Art career ==
Mehretu's canvases incorporate elements from technical drawings of various urban buildings and linear illustrations of urban efficiency, including city grids and weather charts. The pieces do not contain any formal, consistent sense of depth, instead utilizing multiple points of view and perspective ratios to construct flattened re-imaginings of city life. Her drawings are similar to her paintings, with many layers forming complex, abstracted images of social interaction on a global scale. The relatively smaller-scale drawings are opportunities for exploration made during the time between paintings.
In 2002, Mehretu said of her work:
I think of my abstract mark-making as a type of sign lexicon, signifier, or language for characters that hold identity and have social agency. The characters in my maps plotted, journeyed, evolved, and built civilizations. I charted, analysed, and mapped their experience and development: their cities, their suburbs, their conflicts, and their wars. The paintings occurred in an intangible no-place: a blank terrain, an abstracted map space. As I continued to work I needed a context for the marks, the characters. By combining many types of architectural plans and drawings I tried to create a metaphoric, tectonic view of structural history. I wanted to bring my drawing into time and place.
Emperial Construction, Istanbul (2004) exemplifies Mehretu's use of layers in a city's history. Arabic lettering and forms that reference Arabic script scatter around the canvas. In Stadia I, II, and III (2004) Mehretu conveys the cultural importance of the stadium through marks and layers of flat shape. Each Stadia contains an architectural outline of a stadium, abstracted flags of the world, and references to corporate logos.
Mogamma: A Painting in Four Parts (2012), the collective name for four monumental canvases that were included in dOCUMENTA (13), relates to 'Al-Mogamma', the name of the all purpose government building in Tahrir Square, Cairo, which was both instrumental in the 2011 revolution and architecturally symptomatic of Egypt's post-colonial past. The word 'Mogamma', however, means 'collective' in Arabic and historically, has been used to refer to a place that shares a mosque, a synagogue and a church and is a place of multi faith. A later work, The Round City, Hatshepsut (2013) contains architectural traces of Baghdad, Iraq, itself – its title referring to the historical name given to the city in ancient maps. Another painting, Insile (2013) built up from a photo image of Believers' Palace amid civilian buildings, activates its surface with painterly ink gestures, blurring and effacing the ruins beneath.
In 2007, the investment bank Goldman Sachs gave Mehretu a $5 million commission for a lobby mural. The resulting work Mural was the size of a tennis court and consisted of overlaid financial maps, architectural drawings of financial institutions, and references to works by other artists. Calvin Tomkins of the New Yorker called it "the most ambitious painting I've seen in a dozen years", and another commentator described it as "one of the largest and most successful public art works in recent times".
While best known for large-scale abstract paintings, Mehretu has experimented with prints since graduate school at the Rhode Island School of Design, where she was enrolled in the painting and printmaking program in the mid-1990s. Her exploration of printmaking began with etching. She has completed collaborative projects at professional printmaking studios across America, among them Highpoint Editions in Minneapolis, Crown Point Press in San Francisco, Gemini G.E.L. in Los Angeles, and Derrière L'Étoile Studios and Burnet Editions in New York City.
Mehretu was a resident of the CORE Program, Glassell School of Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, (1997–98) and the Artist-in-Residence Program at the Studio Museum in Harlem (2001). During a residency at the Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, in 2003, she worked with thirty high school girls from East Africa. In the spring of 2007 she was the Guna S. Mundheim Visual Arts Fellow at the American Academy in Berlin. Later that year, she led a monthlong residency program with 40 art students from Detroit public high schools.
During her residency in Berlin, Mehretu was commissioned to create seven paintings by the Deutsche Guggenheim; titled Grey Area (2008–2009), the series explores the urban landscape of Berlin as a historical site of generation and destruction. The painting Vanescere (2007), a black-and-white composition that depicts what appears to be a maelstrom of ink and acrylic marks, some of which are sanded away on the surface of the linen support, propelled a layering process of subtraction in the Grey Area series. Parts of Fragment (2008–09) and Middle Grey (2007–09) feature this erasing technique. Another in the series that was painted in Berlin, Berliner Plätze (2008–09), holds a phantom presence of overlapped outlines of nineteenth-century German buildings that float as a translucent mass in the frame. The art historian Sue Scott has this to say of the Grey Area series: "In these somber, simplified tonal paintings, many of which were based on the facades of beautiful nineteenth-century buildings destroyed in World War II, one gets the sense of buildings in the process of disappearing, much like the history of the city she was depicting." As Mehretu explains in Ocula Magazine, "The whole idea of 20th-century progress and ideas of futurity and modernity have been shattered, in a way. All of this is what is informing how I am trying to think about space."
In 2017, Mehretu collaborated with jazz musician and interdisciplinary artist Jason Moran to create MASS (HOWL, eon)]. Presented at Harlem Parish as part of the Performa 17 biennial, MASS (HOWL, eon) took the audience on an intensive tour of Mehretu's canvas while musicians played the composition by Moran.
Mehrhtu's first work in painted glass was installed in 2024. The 85 foot (26 m) tall artwork, Uprising of the Sun, is inspired by a quote from Barack Obama delivered in a speech at a memorial ceremony for the civil-rights-era
Selma marches. It was installed as a window in the museum tower of the Barack Obama Presidential Center.
Mehretu is a member of the Artists Committee of Americans for the Arts.
Mehretu has created the 20th BMW art car (BMW M Hybrid V8) in 2024. The car bore the number 20 for the 24h of Le Mans in 2024 and crashed early in the race. It was repaired overnight and finished.
== Recognition ==
In 2000, Mehretu was awarded a grant from the Foundation for Contemporary Arts Grants to Artists Award. She was the recipient of the 2001 Penny McCall Award and one of the 2005 recipients of the MacArthur Fellowship, often referred to as the "genius grant."
In 2013, Mehretu was awarded the Barnett and Annalee Newman Award, and in 2015, she received the US Department of State Medal of Arts from Secretary of State John Kerry. In 2020, Time magazine included Mehretu in its list of the 100 most influential people. In 2023, German automaker BMW selected Mehretu to paint its annual "art car" for entry at the 24 Hours of Le Mans race.
Art critic for The Australian newspaper Christopher Allen described Mehretu's work as "the last feeble gasp of an overhyped and exhausted New York art market".
Mehretu is included in Time's 100 Most Influential People of 2020. The following year, The New York Times described her as a "rare example of a contemporary Black female painter who has already entered the canon."
In 2023, she was one of two women artists whose work was among the top ten in contemporary auction sale price.
== Notable works in public collections ==
In 2016, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art commissioned Mehretu to create a diptych, with each massive painting flanking the staircase in the atrium which is accessible and free to the public. HOWL, eon (I, II) (2016-2017) was first exhibited to the public on September 2, 2017. To facilitate the creation of the scale of the diptych, Mehretu used a decommissioned church in Harlem as her studio to create. Throughout the creation of her piece, she collaborated with jazz pianist Jason Moran. HOWL, eon (I, II) is a political commentary on the history of the western United States' landscape, including the San Francisco Bay Area. The foundation of each work contains digitally abstracted photos from recent race riots, street protests, and nineteenth-century images of the American West.
== Exhibitions ==
In 2001, Mehretu participated in the exhibition Painting at the Edge of the World at the Walker Art Center. She later was one of 38 artists whose work was exhibited in the 2004-5 Carnegie International: A Final Look. She has participated in numerous group exhibitions, including one at the Center for Curatorial Studies, Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson (2000). Her work has appeared in Freestyle exhibition at the Studio Museum in Harlem (2001); The Americans at the Barbican Gallery in London (2001); White Cube gallery in London (2002), the Busan Biennale in Korea (2002); the 8th Baltic Triennial in Vilnius, Lithuania (2002); and Drawing Now: Eight Propositions (2002) at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Mehretu's work was also included in the "In Praise of Doubt" exhibition at the Palazzo Grassi in Venice in the summer of 2011 as well as dOCUMENTA (13) in Kassel in 2012. In 2014, she participated in The Divine Comedy: Heaven, Purgatory and Hell Revisited by Contemporary African Artists, curated by Simon Njami.
In 2021, the Whitney Museum of American Art devoted an entire floor to a retrospective of Mehretu's career. Mehretu's work is included in Every Sound Is a Shape of Time, a 2024 collections-based exhibition organized by the Pérez Art Museum Miami and curated by Franklin Sirmans, the museum director.
The first exhibition dedicated to Mehretu in Australia and the Asia-Pacific region, titled A Transcore of the Radical Imaginatory, was held by the Museum of Contemporary Art Australia, Sydney, from November 2024 to April 2025.
== Art market ==
Mehretu's painting Untitled 1 (2001) sold for $1.02 million at Sotheby's in September 2010. Its estimated value had been $600–$800,000. At Art Basel in 2014, White Cube sold Mehretu's Mumbo Jumbo (2008) for $5 million. In 2023, Michael Ovitz sold Mehretu's Walkers With the Dawn and Morning (2008) for $10.7 million, setting a new record both for the artist herself and any artist born in Africa.
In 2005, Mehretu's work was the object of the Lehmann v. The Project Worldwide case before the New York Supreme Court, the first case brought by a collector regarding their right to secure primary access to contemporary art. The case involved legal issues over her work and the right of first refusal contracts between her then-gallery and a collector. In return for a $75,000 loan by the collector Jean-Pierre Lehmann to the Project Gallery, made in February 2001, the gallery was to give Lehmann a right of first refusal on any work by any artist the gallery represented, and at a 30 per cent discount until the loan was repaid. Lehmann saw this loan as direct access to Mehretu's work, however, there were four other individuals who were also given right of first choice from the gallery's represented artists. The gallery sold 40 works by Mehretu during the period of the contract, with some offered for discounts of up to 40 percent. Lehmann saw that several Mehretu pieces available in the catalog of the Walker Art Center had been sold to collector Jeanne Greenberg Rohatyn, and suspected that the agreement was not being kept. He subsequently wrote Haye demanding $17,500, and, after no offer of Mehretu pieces was made, he filed suit. The case, eventually won by Lehmann, revealed to a wider public precisely what prices and discounts galleries offer various collectors on paintings by Mehretu and other contemporary artists – information normally concealed by the art world.
In October 2023, Mehretu broke the auction record for an African artist at Sotheby's Hong Kong, with her piece Untitled (2001), which sold for $9.32 million.
== Personal life ==
Mehretu lives in a two-story house in Harlem. She married artist Jessica Rankin in 2008, with whom she has two children, Cade Elias (born 2005) and Haile (born 2011); her mother-in-law is author and poet Lily Brett. The couple separated in 2014.
Mehretu maintains a studio in Chelsea near the Whitney Museum of American Art. In 2004, she co-founded – together with Lawrence Chua and Paul Pfeiffer – Denniston Hill, an artist residency on a 200-acre campus in Sullivan County, New York. She also worked from an old arms factory in Berlin in 2007 and the former St. Thomas the Apostle Church in Harlem from 2016 to 2017.
In October 2024, The Whitney Museum announced that Mehretu had donated more than two million dollars to its "Free 25 and Under" program that provides free access to museum guests under the age of twenty-five.
== References ==
== External links ==
Website of her gallery carlier | gebauer including CV and works Archived February 28, 2024, at the Wayback Machine
Julie Mehretu at Highpoint Center for Printmaking, Minneapolis
Julie Mehretu at Walker Art Center, Minneapolis
Julie Mehretu interviewed for Ethiopian Passages Archived September 27, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
2010 article including an image of Untitled 1 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_telescope#:~:text=The%20Gregorian%20telescope%20is%20a,in%201673%20by%20Robert%20Hooke. | Gregorian telescope | The Gregorian telescope is a type of reflecting telescope designed by Scottish mathematician and astronomer James Gregory in the 17th century, and first built in 1673 by Robert Hooke. James Gregory was a contemporary of Isaac Newton, and both often worked simultaneously on similar projects. Gregory's design was published in 1663 and pre-dates the first practical reflecting telescope, the Newtonian telescope, built by Sir Isaac Newton in 1668. However, Gregory's design was only a theoretical description, and he never actually constructed the telescope. It was not successfully built until five years after Newton's first reflecting telescope.
== History ==
The Gregorian telescope is named after the James Gregory design, which appeared in his 1663 publication Optica Promota (The Advance of Optics). Similar theoretical designs have been found in the writings of Bonaventura Cavalieri (Lo Specchio Ustorio (On Burning Mirrors), 1632) and Marin Mersenne (L'harmonie universalle, 1636). Gregory's early attempts to build the telescope failed, since he had no practical skill himself and could find no optician capable of actually constructing one. It was not until ten years after Gregory's publication, aided by the interest of experimental scientist Robert Hooke, that a working instrument was created. The early Scottish optician and telescope maker James Short built Gregorian telescopes with parabolic mirrors made from the highly reflective speculum metal.
== Design ==
The Gregorian telescope consists of two concave mirrors: the primary mirror (a concave paraboloid) collects the light and brings it to a focus before the secondary mirror (a concave ellipsoid), where it is reflected back through a hole in the centre of the primary, and thence out the bottom end of the instrument, where it can be viewed with the aid of the eyepiece.
The Gregorian design solved the problem of viewing the image in a reflector by allowing the observer to stand behind the primary mirror. This design of telescope renders an erect image, making it useful for terrestrial observations. It also works as a telephoto lens with its tube much shorter than the system's actual focal length.
The design was largely superseded by the Cassegrain telescope. It is still used for some spotting scopes because this design creates an erect image without the need for prisms. The Steward Observatory Mirror Lab has been making mirrors for large Gregorian telescopes at least since 1985.
In the Gregorian design, the primary mirror creates a real image before the secondary mirror. This allows for a field stop to be placed at this location, so that the light from outside the field of view does not reach the secondary mirror. This is a major advantage for solar telescopes, where a field stop (Gregorian stop) can reduce the amount of heat reaching the secondary mirror and subsequent optical components. The Solar Optical Telescope on the Hinode satellite is one example of this design.
For amateur telescope makers the Gregorian can be less difficult to fabricate than a Cassegrain because the concave secondary is Foucault-testable like the primary, which is not the case with the Cassegrain's convex secondary.
== Gallery ==
== Examples ==
The MeerKAT, the Green Bank Telescope, the Arecibo Observatory, and the Allen Telescope Array are all radio telescopes employing off-axis Gregorian optics.
The Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope, the Magellan telescopes, and the Large Binocular Telescope use Gregorian optics.
The Giant Magellan Telescope will also use Gregorian optics.
The NSF's Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope
== See also ==
List of telescope types
Giant Magellan Telescope
Gregor telescope at the Teide Observatory.
James Gregory Telescope at the university of St. Andrews
Large Binocular Telescope
James Short (mathematician)
== References ==
== External links ==
Gregorian reflecting telescope, Who was James Gregory, National Museums Scotland.
Kenyon College Archived 14 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castlebridge | Castlebridge | Castlebridge (Irish: Droichead an Chaisleáin) is a small town in County Wexford, Ireland, around 5 km north of Wexford town. It is just north of Wexford Harbour, on the R741 road. Castlebridge is a rapidly expanding suburb of Wexford Town: its population has almost tripled in 20 years, increasing from 783 in 1996 to a population of 1,840 in 2016.
== History ==
The namesake castle, that originally stood in the town, was dismantled to build buildings such as the Church of Ireland church, which is one of the oldest buildings in Castlebridge. The river that flows through Castlebridge is, contrary to popular belief, actually a canal that replaced the original river. It was dug out by hand to allow sailing cots that loaded up in the various docks of Castlebridge to get to Wexford Town more quickly.
Fr James Dixon, the first Catholic priest permitted to minister in Australia, was born in Castlebridge in 1758.
== Guinness Book of Records ==
Castlebridge is the founding place of the Guinness Book of World Records. On 10 November 1951, Sir Hugh Beaver, then the managing director of the Guinness Breweries, went on a shooting party in the North Slob, by the River Slaney in County Wexford, Ireland. He became involved in an argument over which was the fastest game bird in Europe, the golden plover or the red grouse (the former being correct). That evening at Castlebridge House, he realised that it was impossible to confirm in reference books whether or not the golden plover was Europe's fastest game bird. Beaver knew that there must be numerous other questions debated nightly in pubs throughout Ireland, but there was no book in the world with which to settle arguments about records. He realised then that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove popular.
In 2019, Diageo and the Pattison Group, who own the rights to the Guinness Book of Records, were described as being "really taken" with Castlebridge House, which has been left derelict, with feasibility studies now in operation by Wexford County Council amid interest by Diageo and the Pattison Group to assess the damage and plan for its eventual restoration, which, in collaboration with Diageo and the Pattison Group, is hoped to become a tourist attraction for the home of the Guinness Book of Records. This was further emphasised by the commencement of the first annual Castlebridge Record Makers Family Fun Festival in 2019, with exhibits on the history of the book and its importance to Castlebridge.
== Public transport ==
Wexford Bus operate an hourly service, route 877 "The Bridge Loop", to/from Wexford since February 2019 Mondays to Saturdays inclusive. Bus Éireann route 379 (Wexford - Gorey via Kilmuckridge and Courtown) serves Castlebridge on Mondays and Saturdays whereas route 380 (Wexford-Crossabeg-Wexford) serves Castlebridge on Fridays.
== Sport ==
The centre of Castlebridge contains a 60x30 foot handball alley. The handball club has produced a number of county and Irish champions and members have competed at World Championships in the United States. Nearby, opposite the Old School (now Castlebridge Community Centre), is the local soccer club, Bridge Rovers FC.
Patrick Breen, who lived in Castlebridge but was originally from Bannow in the south of the county, was the first Wexford person to become President of the Gaelic Athletic Association from 1924 until 1926. He was one of only two Wexford people who headed the Gaelic Athletic Association. He also founded the Irish Handball Council and the past pupils union of St. Peters College. He is buried in Castlebridge cemetery.
== Community ==
Community groups situated in the area include the Castlebridge Gospel Choir, which was founded in 2003. Local businesses include the Porter House, which was named 'Pub of the Year' in 2017, which has since closed down, several fast food restaurants, a local Londis supermarket, a furniture shop, antiques store and post office.
== See also ==
List of towns and villages in Ireland
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghulam_Ishaq_Khan#:~:text=After%20independence%20in%201947%2C%20Khan,which%20he%20held%20until%201955. | Ghulam Ishaq Khan | Ghulam Ishaq Khan (20 January 1915 – 27 October 2006), commonly known by his initials GIK, was a Pakistani bureaucrat, politician and statesman who served as the seventh president of Pakistan from 1988 to 1993. He previously served as chairman of the Senate from 1985 to 1988 under president Zia-ul-Haq, and assumed the presidency in accordance with the constitutional line of succession following Zia's death .
Raised in Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Khan graduated from Peshawar University and entered the Indian Civil Service, opting for Pakistan after the independence in 1947. Appointed the first chairman of the Water and Power Development Authority by President Ayub Khan in 1961, Ghulam Ishaq also served as Finance Secretary from 1966 to 1970. A year later, he was appointed Governor of the State Bank by President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, before being made Defence Secretary in 1975, assisting with Pakistan's atomic bomb programme. He was retained by President Zia-ul-Haq as Finance Minister in 1977, overseeing the country's highest GDP growth average. Elected Chairman of the Senate in 1985, Khan was elevated to the presidency after Zia's death in an air crash on 17 August 1988. He was elected president on 13 December, as the consensus candidate of the Islami Jamhoori Ittehad and Pakistan People's Party.
The oldest person to serve as president, Ghulam Ishaq Khan played a hawkish role against Communist Afghanistan, while relations with the United States deteriorated following the Pressler amendment. Domestically, Khan's term faced challenges: ethnic riots flared in Karachi, and Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto accused him of frustrating her government as part of an alliance with conservative opposition leader Nawaz Sharif and the post-Zia military establishment. Khan invoked the Eighth Amendment and dismissed Benazir's government after just 20 months, on charges of rampant corruption and misgovernance. Sharif was elected Prime Minister in 1990, but Khan dismissed his government on similar charges three years later. The Supreme Court overturned the dismissal, but the gridlock ultimately led to both men resigning in 1993. He was the founder of his namesake Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute.
Retiring from public service, Khan served as rector of the GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology in his native province, dying from pneumonia in 2006. He is viewed contentiously by Pakistani historians; he is credited with personal austerity, but criticized for wielding an autocratic presidency that ousted two governments.
== Early life and education ==
Ghulam Ishaq Khan was born in Ismail Khel, a rural locality on the outskirts of Bannu District, both villages in the North-West Frontier Province of the British Indian Empire, now Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. He was a Pashtun of the Bangash tribe. His family remains active in politics; his son-in-law is former federal minister Anwar Saifullah Khan while another son-in-law is former Sindh minister and advisor, Irfanullah Khan Marwat. A granddaughter of his, Samar Haroon Bilour, was married to Haroon Bilour of the ANP and another to Omar Ayub Khan, the grandson of former military dictator Ayub Khan and son of politician Gohar Ayub Khan.
After his schooling in Bannu, Khan first attended the Islamia College before making transfer to Peshawar University. He obtained double BSc, in Chemistry and in Botany.
Initially looking for a university job, Khan joined the Indian Civil Service in 1941, serving in various provincial assignments on behalf of British India. After independence in 1947, Khan opted for Pakistan and was assigned to the bureaucracy of the provincial government of North-West Frontier Province in 1947. He took over the provincial secretariat as the secretary of the irrigation department, which he held until 1955.
== Initial public service ==
In 1956, Khan was appointed in the provincial government of Sindh as the Home Secretary, but was later appointed Secretary of Department of Development and Irrigation by the Sindh government. In 1958, he was elevated to federal government level, and assigned to the secretariat control of the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), an appointment approved by the President Ayub Khan. Since 1958, Khan had been serving on the Board of Governors of the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA), before being elevated to chairman in 1961. As Chairman, he played a vital role in the construction and financial development of Mangla Dam and Warsak Dam.
In 1966, Khan left the chairmanship to be appointed the Federal Finance Secretary to the Government of Pakistan until 1970, which he relinquished to incoming Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. After Pakistan's loss to India in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, Khan was called to administer all retail and commercial services pertaining to the national economy tattered by war. In 1971, Bhutto appointed him Governor of State Bank of Pakistan when he was tasked to formulate and administer monetary and credit policy in accordance with Government policy with influence of socialism. In the latter position, he questioned the wisdom of many of the economic policies of then-Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto who was keen to intensify his nationalization and socialist influence in the financial institutions that marked the slow down of the economy.
== Defence Secretary (1975–77) ==
In 1975, Prime Minister Bhutto transferred him from Governor of the State Bank to the Ministry of Defence as Defence Secretary. It was a fortuitous move in that it brought him into close contact with the Pakistani military establishment and enabled him to closely manage the nuclear weapons program. Though an unusual assignment for a financial expert, this appointment made him a powerful bureaucrat in the country. During that time, Khan became closer to General Zia-ul-Haq and had later coveted for General Zia-ul-Haq's appointment as the chief of army staff.
As Defence Secretary, he helped manage Pakistan's atomic bomb project and had been directly associated with the program. Khan was a vehement supporter of the program and saw it as a "national priority". He backed the advocacy of theorist Abdul Qadeer Khan and helped establishing the Engineering Research Laboratories in Kahuta. He headed the Uranium Coordination Board (UCB) which consisted of AGN Kazi, Munir Ahmad and Agha Shahi. Khan recommended S A Nawab for the Hilal-i-Imtiaz medal in recognition of Nawab's work in establishing Khan Research Laboratories. Later, in the 1980s Khan helped consolidate the efforts at ERL under Lt. Gen. Zahid Ali Akbar as its first military director. He approved the survey by field officer, Brigadier Akbar in 1976. Khan also helped secure the funds for the ERL and lobbying for General Akbar's promotion as the Engineer-in-Chief in 1980. Khan cemented close relations with Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan and Munir Ahmad Khan, and remained Qadeer Khan's staunch loyal.
His involvement and support earned him the nickname "Mr Nuke" by the U.S. diplomats, while the new media dubbed him as "Baba Atom Bomb". On the contrary, Khan did not have the directorial role in the atomic bomb program until Munir Ahmad Khan retired. However, he maintained complete logistic and operational control over ERL project from the time of its inception using Major General S A Nawab who reported to Ghulam Ishaq at the Ministry of Defence. After Munir Ahmad Khan took retirement from Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC), President Ghulam Ishaq Khan eventually consolidated the entire program under the civic-military control, and supervised the classified projects of the program.
== Minister of Finance (1977–85) ==
After Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was ousted in a staged coup d'état in 1977, Khan played a crucial role in the event of stabilizing chief of army staff General Zia-ul-Haq, in Bhutto's capacity. After meeting with the military leadership at the JS HQ, Khan reportedly marked that: "this action was going to harm the country, but since it could not be reversed, they should do their best to salvage whatever they could." He was immediately elevated as Finance Minister by General Zia-ul-Haq, who acted as the Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA). A team of economic experts and technocrats were assembled in the management of Khan, giving him the authority over the Planning Commission, Economic Coordination Committee, and Executive Committee of the Space Research Council. Khan worked towards controlling the national economy while harnessing the damaged Private sector. In 1977, Khan endorsed General Haq's bid for becoming the President of Pakistan, who tightened the grip of martial law in the country.
In the 1980s, Khan backed the implementation of the economic Islamization by introducing the risk-free interest rate system as well as establishing the corporatization in the industrial sector. Khan managed the revenue collection and provided the modern shape in the state–owned enterprises (SOEs) that were established in a nationalization in the 1970s. His policies and economic expertise ultimately resulted in the improvement in GDP and GNP progress, helping Pakistan's economy become among the fastest-growing in South Asia.
He maintained his ties with the nuclear society and gave strong priority for the nuclear deterrence as channelling financial funds for the development of the atomic bomb projects. Khan gave tax free status to the Bank of Credit and Commerce International (BCCI). In 1983, Khan was among the invited secret dignitaries who witnessed the first Cold fission test, Kirana-I; along with attendees General Zahid Ali (E-in-C), General KM Arif (COAS), AVM MJ O'Brian (AOC)), and Munir Ahmad (Chair PAEC). In 1984, Khan supported the referendum for Islamization held by President Zia.
== Senate Chairman (1985–88) ==
After the non-partisan general elections held in 1985, Khan was succeeded by Mahbub ul Haq– an economist. Khan decided to participate in the upcoming indirect senate elections as an independent. In 1985, he became the Chairman of the Senate and remained intact in that capacity until 1988.
After the controversial and mysterious aviation accident occurred in Bahawalpur, Khan appeared on national television and announced the death of General Zia-ul-Haq. According to the Constitution of Pakistan, Khan was the second in the line of succession to the President of Pakistan. However, General Mirza Aslam Beg called out for the general elections in 1988. Until the elections, Khan served as an acting president in accordance with the Constitutional rules of succession.
== President of Pakistan (1988–93) ==
Reaching the mutual understanding with the leftist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), Khan participated in presidential elections on a PPP platform. Khan secured 608 votes in the elections, competing against four other candidates; he was also supported by the conservative IDA led by Nawaz Sharif. At the time of assuming the office of president, he became the oldest president of Pakistan.
As president, Khan was marred with political struggle with Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto who attempted for pushing the bill to reverse the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan. Furthermore, Khan was in a conflict with Prime Minister Bhutto in two areas; the appointment of the military chiefs of staff and the Justices of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. Khan consolidated his position in controlling the nuclear deterrence program, keeping all the control over its direction. Problems arose when Prime Minister Bhutto made contact with Munir Ahmad and Abdul Qadeer Khan over the program's direction, which frustrated Khan. Economic growth slowed down and introduction of the US Embargo on Pakistan caused a great economic panic in the country. In the 1990s, Khan and Bhutto failed to arrest the 30% fall in the value of ₨. from 21 to 30 to the US $.
Khan struggled to control the law and order in the country after witnessing the Soviet troops' withdrawal from Afghanistan. Although, he maintained an ally of the United States.
=== Judicial and military appointments ===
Soon after assuming the presidency, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan's conflict arise with Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto's invalid and inappropriate appointments in nation's court system, which were primarily political rather than meeting merit. Many of Benazir government's recommendations for judicial appointments were voided and the judicial appointments made by the President himself became a controversial issue in the nation.
The appointments of chiefs of staff in the command of the military was another issue where the President Khan was in conflict with the Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto in 1989. President Khan also confirmed Admiral Yastur-ul-Haq Malik as the Chief of Naval staff and raised no objections.
Although, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan confirmed the nomination of Admiral Iftikhar Ahmed Sirohey as Chairman joint chiefs and General Mirza Aslam Beg as chief of army staff in 1988, President Khan notably used his presidential powers to retain Admiral Sirohey as Chairman joint chiefs and defused any attempts made by Prime Minister Bhutto for General Beg as the new chairman joint chiefs to control the military.
In 1990, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan reportedly denied the term extension of General Mirza Aslam Beg despite Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif's urging. He also raised objections and further vetoed the appointment of Lieutenant-General Hamid Gul, former DG ISI, as Chief of Army Staff of Pakistan Army. Instead, he favoured appointing General Asif Nawaz as Chief of Army Staff. On the advice of Prime Minister Sharif, he confirmed Air Chief Marshal Farooq Feroze as Chief of Air Staff of Pakistan Air Force.
=== Dismissal of Bhutto and Sharif governments ===
As economic and law and order crises deepened, Khan used the Eighth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan to dismiss Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto's government over corruption charges and deteriorating law and order situation and called fresh elections. After holding the general elections in 1993, he supported Nawaz Sharif as the Prime Minister and his IDA government.
Problems with Sharif arose with the issue of reversing the Eighth Amendment when Sharif tried to pass the bill. Eventually, he used the same Amendment to dismiss Sharif's government on similar charges. However, Sharif retaliated by bringing a lawsuit against him in the Supreme Court of Pakistan. President Khan's attempt to use the Eighth Amendment was deemed illegal by the Court and Sharif was reinstated as the Prime Minister. The political deadlock persisted and after the joint intervention of the judiciary and the military, both Khan and Sharif were forced to resign.
== Philanthropy, retirement and death ==
In 1988, Khan founded the Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, which runs programmes in engineering, science and technology. The university was established with the financial support from the BCCI. He invited A Q Khan who took the professorship of physics and delegated Asghar Qadir, a PAEC mathematician, to take professorship in mathematics.
He again negotiated with the PPP for the presidency but eventually dropped as a candidate in favour of Farooq Leghari in general elections held in 1993. He retired from the national politics and avoided contact with international and domestic news media. He died on 27 October 2006, after a bout of pneumonia.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Ghulam Ishaq Khan Profile Archived 4 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Story of Pakistan
Ghulam Ishaq Khan taking oath as the President of Pakistan
In depth history of Khan's presidency
BBC News report of his death
"Ghulam Ishaq Khan passes away" Report on the Dawn Newspaper website
Chacko, Arun (31 January 1992). "With President Ghulam Ishaq Khan losing ground, new equations are being thrashed out". India Today. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Baker_Asvat#:~:text=He%20played%20for%20a%20team%20called%20The%20Crescents%20in%20Lenasia. | Abu Baker Asvat | Abu Baker Asvat (/ɑsfat/) (23 February 1943 – 27 January 1989), also known as Abu Asvat
or Abu nicknamed Hurley was a South African medical doctor who practised in Soweto in the 1970s and 1980s. A founding member of Azapo, Asvat was the head of its health secretariat, and involved in initiatives aimed at improving the health of rural black South Africans during Apartheid.
In 1989, Asvat was shot dead in his clinic, and he died in the arms of his nurse, Albertina Sisulu. His death has been linked to that of Stompie Seipei four weeks earlier, with allegations that Winnie Mandela (whose personal physician Asvat was) paid for his murder as part of a cover-up of Seipei's killing, being presented to South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission.
== Early life and family ==
Asvat was born in Fietas into Gujarati Indian family. His father was a migrant shopkeeper, and he had two brothers. After attending the local high school, Asvat travelled to South Asia for his tertiary education, spending time in East Pakistan and West Pakistan, completing his medical studies in Karachi. While in Karachi, Asvat was involved in the student politics, founded a student organisation affiliated to the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania (PAC), and hosted its cadres en route to China.
Asvat married his wife Zorah in 1977, and they had three children.
== Soweto surgery ==
After returning to South Africa when he completed his studies, Asvat obtained a post at Johannesburg's Coronation Hospital (now Rahima Moosa Mother and Child Hospital). He became increasingly politicised when observing the racism of the white senior staff, segregated facilities, and racially unequal pay and conditions. He was fired after he confronted a white pharmaceutical representative who refused to speak to black doctors.
Asvat took over a small surgery in Soweto from his brother, and soon established a thriving practice, often treating more than 100 patients a day, often on a pro bono basis. During the 1976 Soweto Uprising, Asvat treated numerous children who were shot by the police, and his surgery was guarded by residents of a nearby squatter camp. His activities made him known in political circles, and he soon came to be called "the people's doctor" in Soweto. Asvat also opened a creche and soup kitchen for residents of Soweto's informal settlements. In contrast to other township doctors, Asvat projected a humble image, and insisted on patients calling him "Abu". He used the methods of the Brazilian radical educationalist Paolo Freire to guide his work with grassroots communities.
== Black consciousness movement ==
Asvat was drawn to the black consciousness movement in the aftermath of the 1976 uprising, which represented the only above-ground resistance movement in Soweto, at the time, and he was attracted to Steve Biko's conception of blackness. He was an important link between Lenasia, the Indian township that he lived in, and neighbouring Soweto, discarding the racial and social taboos of the time. Asvat was beaten, and had his life threatened by a Special Branch policeman in 1978, as part of an ongoing campaign of harassment. Although committed to the Black Consciousness movement he was known to be non-sectarian and worked with a wide range of anti-apartheid forces.
Asvat received the first annual human rights award from The Indicator, a newspaper based in Lenasia. He emphasized in his speech, "Let us have social mingling. Let Soweto swarm Lenasia. Let Eldorado Park swarm Lenasia. Let Lenasia swarm Eldorado Park. Let Lenasia swarm Soweto. Then we will have put into practice what we preach. We can't wait until liberation because once liberation is on it is not going to be easy to mend the injustice and the oppression that this harsh system has done to the people in this country. We've got to start now in practical terms."
== Cricket ==
Asvat, a keen cricketer, was involved in the desegregation of the sport in the Transvaal. He played for a team called The Crescents in Lenasia.
He initially embraced an attempt by Ali Bacher in the late 1970s to allow black teams to compete at white grounds ("Normal Cricket"), however, he became disillusioned after realising that facilities at white cricket venues remained racially segregated. He co-founded the Transvaal Cricket Board (TCB), which rejected Bacher's "multi-racial" approach to the sport, which the TCB saw as perpetuating the racial divisions of apartheid, and instead embraced a "non-racial" vision, which rejected Apartheid racial divisions. The TCB organised successful boycotts against Normal Cricket initiatives, and the TCB league grew under Asvat's leadership.
Asvat voluntarily stepped down as leader of the TCB in 1981, but remained a cricketer for the rest of his life, playing for the Crescents, and organising a junior league in the late 1980s.
== Azapo Health Secretariat ==
In 1982, Azapo created the Community Health Awareness Project (Chap). As part of this initiative, Asvat and others would travel throughout South Africa on weekends, towing medically equipped caravans funded by Asvat, providing healthcare to neglected non-urban areas, sometimes treating between 150 and 500 patients in a weekend, and providing health lectures to groups of up to 6 000 people.
In 1984, as part of this project, he compiled a 20 page manual on basic healthcare. Thousands of copies were distributed, in English, Sotho, Northern Sotho and Zulu. He also worked with the Black Allied Mining and Construction Workers Union (BAMWCU) to expose conditions in South Africa's asbestos mining towns, where children played in exposed mine dumps, and asbestosis was common in mineworkers.
Asvat and his associates also traveled to the Vaal Triangle during unrest in there in 1984, to treat those hurt in the violence, and to document injuries inflicted by the apartheid security forces.
By the mid-1980s, Asvat was commonly quoted in major newspapers, and became a prominent voice in the anti-apartheid movement on health issues. In 1988, he criticised the apartheid government's handling of the emerging AIDS epidemic. He also had a regular column in The Sowetan where he answered readers' health questions.
== 1980s ==
Asvat hired anti-apartheid activist Albertina Sisulu to work as his nurse, in 1984. Sisulu was the wife of then-imprisoned ANC leader Walter Sisulu and a co-president of the United Democratic Front (UDF). Sisulu was unable to practice as a nurse due to banning orders placed on her by the apartheid government, however Asvat employed her, paid her when she was detained by the apartheid security forces, and allowed her to visit her husband at Robben Island frequently. Despite sharp political differences between the UDF and AZAPO, that erupted into violence-resulting in many deaths and injuries-Albertina Sisulu and Asvat continued working together, and treated casualties from both sides of the conflict.
Asvat became involved in the plight of Soweto squatters, and would rush into Soweto at night in order to assist those whose shacks were under threat by the Soweto Town Council (a structure created by the apartheid government), and the West Rand Administration Board (WRAB). His actions brought him into increasing conflict with these bodies. He would often arrange emergency alternative shelter in Lenasia, and would, occasionally feed or house displaced persons in his own home.
Asvat was elected president of the newly formed Lenasia-based People’s Education Committee (PEC), despite his Black Consciousness ideology differing from the pro-ANC views of the rest of the organisation. The PEC aimed to enable black youths to be educated after township schooling was severely disrupted in the aftermath of the 1976 riots. Among the programmes of the PEC, was a campaign to get black African children admitted to House of Delegates-run segregated Indian schools. This campaign attained some success, and by 1990, 15% of students in Lenasia came from the surrounding African areas.
During the 1986 State of Emergency in South Africa, and with Asvat underground, an attempt was made by unknown forces to fire-bomb his home in Lenasia. Eight months later, Asvat survived an attempted stabbing by two assailants at his surgery, where he was slightly wounded in the face. Albertina Sisulu raised the alarm with neighbours, while Asvat fended an assailant off. Asvat's wife was also routinely harassed by special branch police at home.
In 1988, a gunman pulled a weapon on Asvat, but fled when a patient entered the room. Also in 1988, the authorities decided to develop the squatter camp where Asvat's practice was situated in the "Chicken Farm" area of Soweto. However, Asvat refused to move, unless alternative accommodations were provided for his practice. He and Albertina Sisulu continued working in the practice, even when the authorities cut power to his surgery. Asvat eventually moved his practice to Rockville in Soweto, where he continued to be harassed by the Security Police.
== Murder ==
On the afternoon of 27 January 1989, two men arrived at Asvat's surgery, claiming to need treatment. Once admitted to the surgery by Albertina Sisulu, they drew a firearm and shot Asvat twice, killing him. Sisulu sat next to him as he died, as she waited for an ambulance, later telling Asvat's relatives that "My son died in my hands".
In the period immediately before the murder, Asvat became uncharacteristically fearful, and the night before his death, he drove home on a flat tyre, telling his wife that he thought that an unspecified 'they' were trying to set him up for attack. He appeared to be extremely distracted the night before his death, and made two attempts to see his lawyers the next morning.
Investigations into Asvat's murder led to two suspects, Zakhele Mbatha and Thulani Dlamini. They were sentenced to death, with the motive being described as robbery (the sentences were commuted following the abolition of the death penalty in South Africa). However, Asvat's family found that no money had been taken, and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission found that the police were negligent in hastily ascribing a motive of robbery to the attack, and for failing to thoroughly investigate the attack.
Within days of Asvat's killing, rumours began to circulate linking his death to Winnie Mandela. Asvat and Winnie Mandela had first made contact during one of Asvat's rural clinics in Brandfort, where she had been banished by the apartheid government. Asvat and Winnie Mandela established a soup kitchen and clinic, and he assumed responsibility for her care, with Asvat sometimes driving to Brandfort in the middle of the night to treat her. Mandela would regularly dine with the Asvat family after she returned to Soweto from Brandfort, and attended parties at the Asvat home.
Soon after Asvat's murder, Winnie Mandela gave an interview to a Sunday newspaper claiming that he was killed because he could corroborate (baseless) allegations that Methodist minister Paul Verryn had molested Stompie Seipei. However, media sources soon began to report on rumours that Asvat had been killed at the behest of Winnie Mandela, as he had examined the boy, and insisted that he be taken to hospital due to the severity of his injuries following the assaults by Mandela's security detail, thus making Asvat's death part of an alleged cover-up orchestrated by Winnie Mandela. In 2018 a new biography of Winnie Mandela by Fred Bridgland argued that she was behind the murder of Asvat.
The reasoning behind the Paul Verryn allegations allegedly came about after Kenny Kgase, one of four boys taken from minister Paul Verryn's manse and brought to Winnie Mandela's Diepkloof house by her Mandela United Football Club, escaped from Mandela's home in the absence of a guard and fled to the Methodist Church regional headquarters in Johannesburg. Once minister Paul Verryn arrived, he took Kgase to see a doctor, Martin Connell, who after treating extensive injuries, sheltered Kgase for a few weeks. Kgase told Verryn of the horrible state he had seen Stompie and how he had vanished from Winnie Mandela's house.
Thabiso Mono, another one of the kidnapped boys, said that Winnie Mandela had accused him and the others of allowing Paul Verryn to sleep with them, as well as accused Stompie Seipei of being a police informant. He recounted being beaten by Winnie and the United Football Club Guard.
Winnie Mandela ordered Katiza Cebekhulu to file a police report accusing Paul Verryn of molesting the kidnapped boys. In order to officially file a report, a certificate from a doctor who examined the boys was required. At Dr. Asvat's clinic, Cebekhulu stated "I made out Winnie shouting: ‘If you don’t cooperate, I’ll deal with you!" Cebekhulu and Winnie left without Dr. Asvat providing a medical certificate, which Cebekhulu said angered Winnie.
Years after the police report, Cebekhulu said he was ordered to show two youths, Zakhele Cyril Mbatha and Thulani Nicholas Dlamini, the location of Dr. Asvat's workplace.
=== Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) ===
One of Winnie Mandela's supporters, Katiza Cebekhulu, testified at the TRC that he had witnessed a "volcanic row" between Mandela and Asvat, after Asvat refused to back Mandela's (baseless) charges that Verryn had sodomised boys. The hearings were later adjourned amid claims by TRC lawyers that witnesses were intimidated on Winnie Mandela's orders.
Mbatha and Dlamini both claimed in testimony to the TRC that Winnie Mandela had paid them R20,000 (equivalent to $8,000 at the time), and that she provided them with a gun to kill Asvat. Both also claimed to have been intimidated by Mandela prior to testifying at the TRC. Mbatha also claimed that he had immediately implicated Mandela in the murder, but was forced by police to change his confession to the attack being a robbery, due to torture. It emerged that Dlamini's 1989 confession implicated Winnie Mandela, but it was not presented by the police to the court trying Mbatha and Dlamini, with the police justifying the suppression by arguing that the confession was "at odds" with their investigation. A group of men in combat fatigues associated with Winnie Mandela were accused by Mbata's lawyers of attempting to intimidate his family during a TRC hearing. Winnie Mandela's lawyer exposed inconsistencies in their testimony.
When Albertina Sisulu testified, she failed to corroborate an appointment card that would have placed Winnie Mandela at the surgery on the morning of the killing, claiming to have forgotten much about the day of the murder. When it was hinted at by a TRC commissioner that Sisulu did not want to be remembered in history as having implicated a comrade, she denied this.
One of the kidnapped boys, Thabiso Mono, when asked if he knew that Winnie Mandela had claimed to be in Brandfort on the day of the assaults on the boys, stated "I saw her. She was the person assaulting us with fists and hitting us with sjamboks."
During her own testimony to the commission, Madikizela-Mandela denied the allegations.
The final report of the TRC stated that the Commission was unable to verify the allegations implicating Winnie Mandela in the murder of Asvat, and criticised the police for too quickly jumping to the conclusion that the motive for the murder was robbery, and for not investigating the apparent connection between Cebekhulu and Dlamini's accounts of the killings, and it referred to Mbatha and Dlamini's (the murderers) testimonies as not being credible.
=== Subsequent developments ===
In January 2018, prior to Winnie Mandela's death, ANC MP Mandla Mandela, Nelson Mandela's grandson by his first wife, Evelyn Mase, called for Winnie Mandela's role in the Asvat and Sepei murders to be probed.
== Funeral ==
Asvat was buried in accordance with Muslim rites the day after he was murdered. Thousands of people, both African, and Indian, attended his funeral at Avalon Cemetery, and marchers in the funeral procession toyi-toyied and had sung struggle songs on arrival at his home prior to the funeral procession. Apartheid police who attempted to seize Azapo banners were driven off by Lenasia residents, and many women were present at his burial.
== Legacy ==
The section of the R554 road linking Soweto to Lenasia was renamed Abu Baker Asvat Drive by the post-apartheid government. A junior cricket tournament was instituted in Asvat's memory, in 2002. He was awarded the Order of Luthuli in Silver by President Cyril Ramaphosa in 2021.
== References ==
== External links ==
Winnie Mandela and the people's doctor
'Winnie hired me to kill Dr Asvat'
Transcript of TRC testimony of Ebrahim Asvat and Albertina Sisulu |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reputation_Stadium_Tour | Reputation Stadium Tour | The Reputation Stadium Tour was the fifth concert tour and the first all-stadium tour by the American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift, in support of her sixth studio album, Reputation (2017). It began in Glendale, Arizona, United States, on May 8, 2018, and concluded in Tokyo, Japan, on November 21, 2018. The tour encompassed 53 shows and visited 7 countries in total.
The set list consisted mostly of the songs from Reputation and some from Swift's other albums. The stage incorporated prominent snake motifs and imagery as decoration, reflecting the album's concept and Swift's public image. The main stage had a wedge-shaped display resembling a skyscraper under construction and was equipped with elaborate lighting, and two smaller B-stages were used for acoustic “surprise song” performances. The October 6, 2018, show at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, was recorded and released as a Netflix original concert film on December 31, 2018; it has since been removed from Netflix for unknown reasons.
Music critics commented that the production evoked Goth subculture and Broadway theatricality, praising the stage design, production, and wardrobe. They lauded Swift's showmanship and interactions with her audience that brought forth an exhilarating yet intimate experience. The Reputation Stadium Tour received 2.88 million attendees and grossed $345.6 million, becoming the highest-grossing US and North American tour upon completion. It was awarded Tour of the Year at the People's Choice Awards, American Music Awards, and iHeartRadio Music Awards.
== Background and development ==
Taylor Swift begаn the promotional cycle for her 2017 studio album Reputation with the release of the lead single "Look What You Made Me Do" on August 24. Concurrently, as reported by Billboard, Swift partnered with Ticketmaster for a "Verified Fan" program to prevent bots and ticket scalpers from purchasing concert tickets. The program, named "Taylor Swift Tix", allowed fans to purchase tickets in advance of the public on-sale by participating in activities such as buying Swift's music, streaming her videos, and engaging in miscellaneous "unique activities" to increase chances of getting a pre-sale access code. Reputation was released on November 10, 2017, to immediate commercial success: within first week of release, it sold over one million copies in the US and two million copies worldwide.
On November 13, 2017, Swift's management announced the first 27 dates across the US of the Reputation Stadium Tour; tickets went on sale to the general public on December 13. On November 27, Swift announced the first three UK dates. Two days later, thanks to overwhelming demand even before pre-sale began, Swift announced nine additional dates—three for the UK, five for the US, and one for Canada. On December 3, Swift announced five dates for Australasia. In January 2018, due to high demand, Swift added second dates in Santa Clara, Landover, Philadelphia, Minneapolis and Arlington and third dates in East Rutherford and Foxborough, totaling 40 shows for the tour's North American leg.
On March 1, 2018, Swift officially announced Camila Cabello and Charli XCX as the opening acts for the Reputation Stadium Tour. Cabello was previously speculated as the opening act as the shows for her Never Be the Same Tour did not coincide with Swift's tour dates; Portland's Live 95.5 also announced her in a sweepstake for the concert of June 22, 2018, at Wembley Stadium in London through a since-deleted post on Twitter, one day before Swift confirmed her as the opening act.
On May 7, 2018, the day before the tour kicked off at Glendale, Arizona, Swift invited 2,000 foster and adopted children to a private dress rehearsal. The following day, she announced two shows in Tokyo in partnership with Fujifilm Instax, with Charli XCX as the opening act. In September, Broods was announced as an opening act for the Oceania leg of the tour.
During the shows, Swift performed "surprise songs" as part of an acoustic segment at different concerts. The songs varied by venue and were taken from Swift's back catalog. A streaming-exclusive compilation playlist, Reputation Stadium Tour Surprise Song Playlist, was released to digital music platforms on November 30, 2018. The playlist was certified triple platinum in Brazil.
== Critical reception ==
Media publications and journalists gave the tour rave reviews and many of them deemed it one of the best tours of 2018. The concerts were complimented for Swift's on-stage persona and intimacy with the audience, the versatile set list and the transition between songs, production value, the stripped-down performances and wardrobe choices, with many commentators noting the Gothic visuals and costumes and Broadway theatricality of the show.
Stereogum's Chris DeVille deemed it a "hyper-maximalist" tour and "a perpetual gargantuan flex, a roving musical Infinity War that amplifies everything extra about her persona to an exponential scope" and added that it is designed to be "the biggest spectacle in all of summer entertainment". He also described the tour as "an oversized, high-tech touring Broadway production with a mostly tremendous soundtrack" and concluded that "when discussing the biggest artists of her [Swift's] generation, she's undeniably on the shortlist" and that the singer has ascended to the same "rarefied" tier as the "classic rock deities who've echoed across this venue [the Horseshoe] before her, able to keep commanding stadium status for the rest of her career". Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone named the tour as Swift's "most astounding tour yet" and complimented it for giving "it all the vibe of a mass communion" despite aiming for "maximum stadium-rock razzle-dazzle bombast". He observed the acoustic performances of Swift's fan-favorite deep cuts and dubbed them "a powerhouse performance that made all the different Taylors sound like part of the same story".
The Guardian's Bob Gordon thought that "...Ready for It?" is "an appropriate and compelling opener". He opined that Swift made a "striking entrance" with "no elevation or descent, simply walking out from behind a curtain bathed in brilliant white light, in what was a real 'now I'm here' moment, as Freddie Mercury would once have put it". Awarding the tour five stars, Roisin O'Connor of The Independent lauded the set-list and how it "transitions seamlessly from one song to another, crafted out of some of the best from Swift's canon". Also, she compared the tour to a Broadway show because the stage was "flooded with red lighting and dancers swing from trapeze with all the splendour of a Broadway show". Lydia Burgham of The Spinoff defined the tour's Auckland concert a "theatrical, mega-production that somehow also strips down to raw intimate moments". Commenting on the set list, she noted that Swift "had the crowd aching for more with the commencement of every song, thanks to seamless transitions". Burgham highlighted the intimacy of Swift's acoustic guitar and piano performances that proved Swift remained "integral to her singer-songwriter origins". Burgham summarized her review by stating that "there may not be an artist in this lifetime who quite manages to connect to thousands of people on a rainy night as well as Taylor Swift can – and that's the reputation she will be remembered for".
Variety's Chris Willman wrote that the show "had plenty of fierceness, especially in the early going" but also the "pre-decedent Taylor on the line… the guileless Swift we remember from two or three skins ago", and commended Swift for using her two hours on the stage to "paint a rewardingly holistic picture". Willman believed that, despite the huge production, "we're still left not so much with dragons or defensiveness but in the endearingly earnest presence of pop's most approachable superstar". He further remarked that the acoustic performance of "Dancing with Our Hands Tied" proved that Reputation worked acoustically as well, without the "Max Martin-izing". Randy Lewis of Los Angeles Times wrote that Swift gave "a master class in the constructive use of the modern technology that's allowed her to establish and nurture an exceptionally powerful connection with a massive audience." He underlined the use of light-up bracelets that allowed the attendees "to feel like participants, even collaborators, rather than passive observers" and appreciated the stage's resemblance to "a skyscraper in progress, with six crane-like contraptions stretching up above a wedge-like screen". Lewis summarized the show as "tightly structured for the most part, featuring elaborate production numbers that rely on video projection, eye-popping lighting and pyrotechnics, choreography and precisely coordinated interaction among the star, band, singers and dancers".
Reviewing for V magazine, Greg Krelenstein stated that Swift possesses "a rare gift of turning a stadium spectacle into an intimate setting", with the new persona the singer adopted on Reputation album cycle suiting itself "excellently to a show of this magnitude where she appears larger than life". He thought that Swift fully embraced her vast back catalog and praised her command of the stage—"whether plucking a guitar or leading an army of dancers" that showed that Swift's musical and performance evolution is an "absolute success". Krelenstein concluded that the pop star "delivers in every way to a mesmerized and devoted audience, re-defining what the modern stadium tour can be". Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic wrote that "there were many moments in the course Swift's performance that felt like she was playing to the back rows of the stadium by simply sharing with her fans", while complimenting the tour's production and Swift's connection with the crowd. Jim Harrington of The Mercury News asserted that the singer's vocal work and performance skills have improved over the years, and added that "her game is well-rounded enough that she can excel equally at every different aspect of the show." Chris Tuite of CBS San Francisco wrote: "The only thing more prominent than the singer herself during her current costume-change filled spectacle are the massive, vicious looking snakes that symbolically appear throughout the set." Michael Tritsch of 303 magazine raved that the tour "broke new ground and set the bar high for future stadium tours", burning "its way into the history books".
== Commercial performance ==
=== Ticket sales ===
After four days of sales through the Verified Fan platform and three days of sales to the general public that began December 13, the tour had already grossed $180 million from 33 dates in North America alone. Pollstar reported data supplied by the Gridiron Stadium Network, a consortium of NFL facilities that work together to book concerts at their buildings, which showed at least 35,000 tickets had been sold at ten of the stadiums on the route as of December 18. The tickets sold ranged from 35,419 at Heinz Field in Pittsburgh to a high of 48,039 at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia. With more than 47,000 tickets sold, it was reported the May 12, 2018, date at Levi's Stadium in Santa Clara was generating close to $9 million in ticket revenue, which prompted the addition of an extra date.
According to StubHub, the tour is the best-selling female tour in the United Kingdom in 2018.
=== Boxscore ===
The first seven shows of the tour grossed $54 million with 390,000 tickets sold, leading Swift to the top of Billboard's Hot Tours chart in June 2018. She performed to sold-out crowds of 59,157 in Glendale and 107,550 in Santa Clara (over two nights), grossing $7.21 million and $14 million respectively, while the Pasadena shows combined for a gross of nearly $16.3 million and Seattle accounted more than $8.6 million. The concerts in Louisville and Columbus, reported in July 2018, grossed $11.5 million with around 115,000 tickets sold, with the latter city having the highest gross and most tickets sold, with approximately 63,000 tickets and $6.6 million. These concerts led the singer once again to the top of Hot Tours chart.
== Records ==
The tour broke multiple venue attendance and grossing records. The opening show at University of Phoenix Stadium set new venue records in both gross and attendance, topping Metallica's $5.2 million gross from August 2017 by almost $2 million. With 59,157 tickets sold, Swift also broke the attendance record set by One Direction on their Where We Are Tour in 2014 by 2,633 seats. With a $14 million take from 107,550 sold tickets at Levi's Stadium, she topped her own gross and attendance counts set during the 1989 World Tour in 2015. With more than 118,000 fans in attendance at the Rose Bowl, the two-show run earned $16.2 million and set a new gross record for a single headliner at the venue, surpassing U2's 2017 record by over $467,000. Grossing records previously set by U2 as well were broken at Seattle's CenturyLink Field, where she topped their Joshua Tree Tour 2017 gross by $2.4 million, and Denver's Sports Authority Field at Mile High, where she surpassed the $6.6 million gross set by the band in 2011 during their 360° Tour by $1.2 million.
Swift made history by becoming the first ever female artist to headline Dublin's Croke Park twice, with reportedly 136,000 fans in attendance. Similarly, she became the first woman to headline three consecutive nights at MetLife Stadium and Gillette Stadium.
Following the 29th show in North America at Hard Rock Stadium in Miami, the tour had grossed $202.3 million in the continent ($191.1 million in the United States and $11.1 million in Canada), thus breaking Swift's own record of the highest-grossing North American tour by a female artist, previously held by the 1989 World Tour, with fewer dates. The tour eventually broke the overall record set by the Rolling Stones' A Bigger Bang Tour to become the highest-grossing tour in US and North American history, grossing $266.1 million, besting the Rolling Stones' $245 million gross. The Rolling Stones achieved their then-record from 70 American shows, while Swift did so with just 38 shows. Additionally, the Reputation Stadium Tour holds the Guinness World Record for 2018's highest-grossing tour by a female artist.
=== Honor ===
Mark Dayton, Governor of Minnesota (2011–2019), declared August 31, 2018, as "Taylor Swift Day" in the state in honor of Swift's two shows (August 31 and September 1) at the United States Bank Stadium in Minneapolis. He remarked that "through her personal and honest music, Taylor Swift has energized and inspired not only Minnesotans, but people all over the world, and is a positive influence on her fans through her example of truthfulness, grace, extensive philanthropy, and strength of character".
== Awards ==
== Set list ==
This set list is from the concert on May 8, 2018, in Glendale, Arizona. It is not intended to represent all shows throughout the tour.
=== Surprise songs ===
The following songs were performed by Swift as surprise songs:
=== Notes ===
At the first show in Landover, the second show in Philadelphia, the third show in East Rutherford, the third show in Foxborough, the second show in Minneapolis, the second show in Toronto, and the second show in Tokyo, Swift performed "So It Goes..." in place of "Dancing with Our Hands Tied".
At the second show in Philadelphia, Swift performed "Our Song" and "Wildest Dreams" a cappella after the levitating basket stage used during "Delicate" malfunctioned.
At the second show in East Rutherford, Swift performed "Clean" before the "Long Live" / "New Year's Day" medley.
=== Special guests ===
On select dates, Swift performed a duet with a special guest.
May 18, 2018 – Pasadena: "There's Nothing Holdin' Me Back" with Shawn Mendes
May 19, 2018 – Pasadena: "My My My!" with Troye Sivan; "Hands to Myself" with Selena Gomez
June 22, 2018 – London: "Slow Hands" with Niall Horan
June 23, 2018 – London: "Angels" with Robbie Williams
July 26, 2018 – Foxborough: "Curious" with Hayley Kiyoko
August 4, 2018 – Toronto: "Summer of '69" with Bryan Adams
August 25, 2018 – Nashville: "Tim McGraw" with Tim McGraw and Faith Hill
October 5, 2018 – Arlington: "The Middle" with Maren Morris
October 6, 2018 – Arlington: "Babe" with Sugarland
== Concert film ==
Taylor Swift: Reputation Stadium Tour is a concert film documenting the second performance at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, of the Reputation Stadium Tour. It was released on December 31, 2018, exclusively via Netflix for a limited time.
Swift announced on social media on her birthday, December 13, that the concert film would be released globally in partnership with Netflix on New Year's Eve. It was filmed on the last day of the North American leg of the tour. For their work on the film, Tamlyn Wright and Baz Halpin were nominated in the category "Variety, Reality or Event Special" at the 24th Art Directors Guild Annual Excellence in Production Design Awards. The film left Netflix on December 30, 2023, five years after its original release.
=== Critical reception ===
The film received widespread critical acclaim upon release, with many critics labeling the film as "immortalizing" and "unforgettable". Commentators praised the camerawork from director Paul Dugdale for documenting Swift's "stardom", the crowd's emotions, and the production involved in the concert. Rolling Stone's Rob Sheffield wrote that the film "immortalizes her best tour yet" and that the film shows off "the stadium-rocking spectacle without toning down any of her songs' one-on-one emotional intimacy". Describing the Netflix special as "the end of an era", Amanda Petrusich of The New Yorker opined that the film "will soon either be regarded as a museum piece or as a testament to Swift's era-defying longevity".
Billboard's Denis Warner stated that the film "illuminates the singer's power, dedication, and strength as an artist". He further stated that the film "allows you to get more of a feel of the singer as a performer – and experience just how delicately everything is staged" and appreciated Swift for giving "a gorgeous look into her [Swift's] world as one of today's greatest entertainers". Decider's Benjamin Smith called the film as an "intimate document of an impersonal event". He further expanded that Swift "will stand the test of time more than her fellow early 21st century pop queens", stating the reason "Taylor Swift is perhaps the only one who has figured out a way to turn her music into something more than mere pop". Complimenting Swift's connection with her fans, Nardin Saad of Los Angeles Times stated that "the 10-time Grammy-winner's star power is tantamount as evidenced" in the film.
Katie Collins of CNET opined that the film "serves as a reminder that no matter what else happens, Swift's stardom is perennial" and praised the film for "the divine showcase of the costumes, the dancing and especially Swift's own barely-contained effervescent joy at being on stage". She further complimented the camerawork, stating "closeups brought new insights" into the show. Nicholas Hautman of Us Weekly appreciated the camerawork for depicting "the fans hysterically crying and screaming in support of their idol". Writing for Uproxx, Chloe Gilke labelled the film as a "masterful documentation of the magical energy at a pop show" and as "a love letter to the audience at her shows, and to her fans", while stating that the film "honors the sacred joy of her [Swift's] performance that night, and the people who made it happen". She lauded the camerawork for capturing "the massive scope of the production from every angle," and the audio which "is crystal-clear and beautiful, with the crowd quieted down so viewers at home can hear Swift best."
=== Performances ===
Nineteen songs were performed in the following order in the film:
== Tour dates ==
== Personnel ==
Taylor Swift – lead vocals, guitar, piano
Band
Max Bernstein – guitar, keyboard
Matt Billingslea – drums
David Cook - musical director, keyboard
Amos Heller – bass, keyboard bass
Mike Meadows – guitar, keyboard, backing vocals
Paul Sidoti – guitar
Jeslyn Gorman – backing vocals
Kamilah Marshall – backing vocals
Melanie Nyema – backing vocals
Eliotte Woodford – backing vocals
Dancers
Maho Udo - dance captain
Grant Gilmore
Stephanie Mincone
Nadine Olmo
Toshi Davidson
Jake Kodish
Robert Green
Jake Landgrebe
Giuseppe Giofre
Mark Villaver
Christian Owens
Jazz Smith
Gracie Stewart
Maria Wada
Yorelis Apolinario
Christian Hendersen
== Notes ==
== See also ==
List of highest-grossing concert tours by women
List of original films distributed by Netflix
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website Events |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twisted_Timbers | Twisted Timbers | Twisted Timbers is a hybrid roller coaster built by American manufacturer Rocky Mountain Construction and located at Kings Dominion in Doswell, Virginia. It originally opened as a wooden coaster named Hurler in 1994, designed and manufactured by International Coasters, Inc, as an exact clone of Hurler at Carowinds. The ride closed for "extensive maintenance" in 2015 according to the park, which later teased in 2016 that Hurler was being replaced.
The park contracted Rocky Mountain Construction (also known as "RMC") to revamp the aging roller coaster, and in the process, the coaster was redesigned, and the wooden track was replaced with steel. The updated track utilizes the company's I-Box track technology, which allows for more aggressive elements and inversions. The roller coaster reemerged as "Twisted Timbers" on March 24, 2018, featuring three overbanked turns, three inversions, and twenty airtime moments. Twisted Timbers is also faster than its predecessor, reaching a maximum speed of 54 mph (87 km/h). It ranked third among new rides in 2018 in the annual Golden Ticket Awards from Amusement Today.
== History ==
In 2016, Kings Dominion began to tease that Hurler, a roller coaster which had been closed since 2015, would reopen in 2018. The park also alluded to an upcoming renovation and conversion by Rocky Mountain Construction with the message, "There's really more coming." On August 16, 2017, Kings Dominion confirmed Hurler would reemerge as Twisted Timbers, and open to the public in 2018. The official announcement came in a press release that featured promotional artwork for the ride, as well as ride specifications. Just like Wind Chaser at Kentucky Kingdom, the ride would feature a barrel roll drop.
The park scheduled a soft opening on March 22, 2018, for media and members of the enthusiast group American Coaster Enthusiasts, with a second soft opening scheduled the following day for season ticket holders. However, due to inclement weather on March 21, both planned soft openings were held on March 23. The grand opening to the public was held on March 24, 2018.
=== Construction ===
When Hurler closed in fall 2015, no signs of renovation were detected. However, on March 25, 2017, RMC I-Box track was spotted in a storage yard at the park. Amateur drone footage taken four days later revealed that track removal on the old structure had begun. On May 20, new wood and steel supports appeared on the old structure for the first time. Exactly one month later, the park tweeted the first in a series of teasers which set the ride's announcement date for August 16. On August 8, slightly over a week before the formal announcement and three days before ride details leaked onto social media, the ride's lift hill, its highest point, was topped off.
After a winter hiatus, the final track pieces and two custom trains were installed on February 17, 2018, with the signatures of the park's full-time employees placed on the final piece as an "Easter egg". Kings Dominion tested the completed attraction for the first time on February 21. On March 20, four days before the ride's scheduled grand opening, its two trains, one with a blue paint scheme and the other green, tested together.
== Theme ==
The ride takes place in the fictional Hanover Hill Orchard, a rustic apple orchard named after Hanover County, Virginia, where Kings Dominion is located. Signage throughout the queue provides the ride's backstory, stating that in 1950, a mysterious force destroyed the orchard and froze it in time. In the present day, a local businessman has ignored legends surrounding the orchard and reopened it to the public just as it appeared in the 1950s.
Guests are supposed to be touring the abandoned orchard, with the queue line weaving past mangled trees, flipped farm vehicles, and other evidence of the orchard's destruction. The station is themed to a partially destroyed apple shipping warehouse, and the trains resemble weathered 1937 Ford pickup trucks.
Along with the ride's opening in 2018, the surrounding area of the park's Candy Apple Grove section was rethemed to continue the 1950s orchard theme.
== Characteristics ==
Twisted Timbers, previously known as Hurler, is located in the Candy Apple Grove section of Kings Dominion. The roller coaster takes riders to a height of 111 feet (34 m) before entering a barrel roll inversion and dropping them 109 feet (33 m) down the first hill. It reaches a maximum speed of 54 mph (87 km/h), features twenty airtime moments with three overbanked turns, and takes riders through two additional inversions including a cutback and zero-g roll.
== Reception ==
In its debut year, Twisted Timbers placed third in the category of "Best New Ride for 2018" in the annual Golden Ticket Awards publication from Amusement Today, a trade newspaper that focuses on the amusement park industry. Twisted Timbers also ranked 38th on the same publication's list of top 50 steel roller coasters, with Amusement Today complimenting the characteristics of the newly-revamped coaster, saying it "features dramatic maneuvers, an abundance of airtime, inversions and a remarkable smoothness compared to its former life".
== Incidents ==
In June 2018, a woman was hit in the forehead by a mobile phone while riding Twisted Timbers. She was later taken to the hospital and received three stitches.
== See also ==
Hurler – a roller coaster at sister park Carowinds that shared the same former name
Steel Vengeance – a roller coaster at Cedar Point that underwent a similar conversion
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Twisted Timbers at the Roller Coaster DataBase
Twisted Timbers at Rocky Mountain Construction |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaths_of_Yuna_and_Minu_Jo#:~:text=In%20September%202022%2C%20Hakyung%20Lee,charged%20with%20the%20children's%20murder. | Deaths of Yuna and Minu Jo | In August 2022 the bodies of two children, Yuna and Minu Jo, were found in suitcases in Auckland, New Zealand. The suitcases were bought from the sale of an abandoned storage unit where the bodies are suspected to have been stored for multiple years. In September 2022, Hakyung Lee, the mother of the children, was arrested in South Korea. She was extradited to New Zealand, and has been charged with the children's murder. Her trial started on 8 September 2025. Following a two-week trial, Lee was convicted of murdering her two children on 23 September 2025. She was sentenced to life imprisonment on 26 November 2025.
== Hakyung Lee ==
=== Early life and family ===
The defendant, Hakyung Lee, who was born Ji Eun Lee, is the mother of the two victims, who were subsequently identified as Minu and Yuna Jo in September 2023. Lee migrated with her family from South Korea to New Zealand in 1993 at the age of 13. Following the death of her father in 1998, Lee returned to Korea for her university education at the age of 18 years. After two years in South Korea, she subsequently returned to New Zealand to study hospitality and met her future husband Ian Jo at a church, where she also served as a Sunday school teacher. In 2006, the couple married. The couple lived in an apartment before moving to a house in West Auckland.
Lee's daughter, Yuna Jo, was born in September 2009 while her son Minu Jo was born in March 2012. The son Minu had a speech impediment caused by cleft palate. The couple settled in a house in Papatoetoe following the birth of their children. The children attended Papatoetoe South School. According to teacher Mary Robinson, the children were well-behaved. She described Lee and Ian Jo as "caring parents" who were interested in their children's education. While Jo worked as a supervisor at Auckland Airport, Lee became a homestay mother for their two children.
=== Husband's death and mental health deterioration ===
In November 2017, Ian Jo died from cancer. Lee was grief-stricken following her husband's death and did not inform her children that their father had died. In the months following Jo's death, Lee became suicidal, isolated and allegedly insane. Lee also told her mother that she wanted herself and her children to die with her late husband. In December 2017, Lee took her children on a two-month holiday in South Korea, staying at luxury hotels and spending NZ$32,000. In April 2018, Lee also stayed at a Hilton hotel in Taupō. In May 2018, Lee and her children travelled to the Gold Coast in Australia where they stayed at another Hilton hotel. In mid June 2018, Lee and her two children visited Queenstown in the South Island where they stayed at a Hilton hotel and visited several restaurants. The children were last seen by relatives on 26 April 2018.
=== Children's deaths ===
According to Stuff and Radio New Zealand, the children last logged into Minecraft on 27 June 2018, where they each gained trophies. Minu was later found wearing underwear with "Wednesday" written on it. Lee killed her children around late June 2018 by serving them juice mixed with the antidepressant drug Nortriptyline. The children did not awake from their sleep. Following their deaths, she wrapped and hid their bodies inside suitcases in a storage unit. Due to the condition of their remains, the pathologist was unable to determine whether the children died from the drug or were incapacitated by the drug, and killed by other means. While both the prosecution and defence agree that Lee caused her children's deaths, they disagree on whether she was insane at the time.
=== Relocation to Korea ===
Following her children's deaths, Lee attempted suicide. While Lee said that she later regretted her actions, she claimed that she believed that she was doing the right thing at the time. Due to self loathing and guilt stemming from killing her children, Lee changed her name from Ji Eun Lee to Hakyung Lee. She returned to South Korea on a business class flight in July 2018. According to Stuff, Lee also spent money on beauty treatments in order to start a new life in Korea. While in Korea, Lee went to a clinic where she was diagnosed with depression and prescribed medication. In 2021, Lee began dating a man whom she met via a dating app. Lee described this relationship as traumatic and alleged that the man assaulted her.
In mid-June 2022, Lee's mother Choon Ja Lee learnt from her pastor that her daughter was a patient at a psychiatric ward of a South Korean hospital. Lee's mother subsequently visited her daughter in Korea. During their visit, Lee did not disclose the whereabouts of her children but asked her mother to buy her contact lenses, clothes and a phone. Following her return to New Zealand, Lee's mother was contacted by Police about the discovery of her grandchildren's remains.
== Discovery and investigation ==
On 11 August 2022, human remains were found in two suitcases in Moncrieff Ave, Clendon Park. The suitcases were bought by a family as part of a storage unit auction from Safe Store Papatoetoe. The family brought the suitcases home along with other household objects. They smelled something strange, opened one of the suitcase, discovered a body later identified as Minu Jo, then called the police. New Zealand Police confirmed the family who bought the suitcases were not connected to the children's deaths.
On 26 August, Police said the children may have been dead for up to four years. In late September 2023, interim name suppression of the children was lifted by Coroner Tania Tetitaha. Their names were Minu Jo, who was born in March 2012, and Yuna Jo, who was born in September 2009. At the time of their deaths, the children were aged about six and eight years respectively.
=== Arrest and extradition ===
On 22 August 2022, New Zealand Police confirmed that they were aware that the children's mother had returned to South Korea in 2018. On 15 September 2022 the arrest of the children's mother in Ulsan, South Korea was announced. New Zealand authorities commenced extradition proceedings through the South Korean court system. The woman was arrested by Korean police on suspicion of "crimes against humanity", and will face two murder charges in New Zealand.
In November 2022, the South Korean Minister of Justice Han Dong-hoon approved the suspect's extradition. Earlier, the Seoul High Court had approved the woman's extradition after she had granted written consent. On 29 November, the children's mother was extradited by South Korean authorities, who also submitted "significant pieces of evidence" to their New Zealand counterparts.
== Legal proceedings and trial ==
=== Pre-trial procedures ===
On 30 November 2022, the suspect appeared at the Manukau District Court in South Auckland where she entered no plea. She was remanded into custody and the identities of the suspect, her children, and an unidentified relative were suppressed. On 14 December, she pleaded not guilty and was remanded in custody. On 3 May 2023, during an administrative hearing she said "I'm going to prove my innocence". On 8 May, her lawyers argued for continued name suppression in the Court of Appeals.
On 19 July 2023, the suspect was identified as Hakyung Lee, the mother of the two children. The New Zealand Court of Appeal lifted name suppression, rejecting her lawyer Chris Wilkinson-Smith's argument that publishing her identity would result in extreme hardship, endanger her safety, and prejudice her ability to engage in court proceedings or medical assessments. Lee has denied murdering her children and has pleaded not guilty. On 25 September 2023, Coroner Tania Tetitaha lifted interim name suppression for the deceased children. In response to the lifting of name suppression, two New Zealand-based relatives applied to have their names and identifying details suppressed.
=== Arraignment ===
Lee's trial was scheduled to start on 29 April 2024, but for undisclosed legal reasons was postponed to 8 September 2025.
On 8 September 2025, Lee pleaded not guilty to two murder charges at the Auckland High Court. Justice Geoffrey Venning indicated that she would raise an insanity defence. She is representing herself with the assistance of two court-appointed lawyers Lorraine Smith and Chris Wilkinson Smith. The Crown was represented by solicitor Natalie Walker and prosecutors Jay Tausi and Jong Kim.
=== Opening arguments ===
On 9 September, trial proceedings opened with both the Crown and defence delivering their opening addresses. Walker told the court that a toxicology test of the remains of Yuna and Minu Jo had concluded that the children had died "by homicide of unspecified means associated with an antidepressant drug." Walker also told the court that Lee had been prescribed 60 Nortriptyline tablets in August 2017 after telling her doctor that she was struggling with sleeping difficulties. While both the Crown and defence agreed that Lee had caused her children's deaths and placed their remains in the suitcases inside the storage units, Walker disputed the defence argument that Lee was insane during and after her children's deaths. Walker argued that the defendant knew what she was doing was wrong, citing her behaviour following their deaths including hiring a storage unit, hiding their bodies, changing her name and returning to South Korea in July 2018 on a business class flight. She said that the Crown would be presenting evidence extracted from the children's PlayStation.
During the defence opening address, stand-by defence counsel Lorraine Smith argued that Lee was insane when she killed her two children. She told the court that Lee was driven into insanity by the loss of her husband to cancer in November 2017. The defendant became suicidal and isolated over the following months and came to believed that it was best for Yuna and Mino to die rather than face an "an unhappy and parentless future." Smith also gave a brief background into Lee's biography.
=== Trial evidence ===
The Crown summoned several witnesses including "Safe Store" staff member Shi-Hui Cong (Tracey), the children's former teacher Mary Robertson, Lee's brother-in-law Jimmy Sae Wook Cho, Cho's wife Bo Ram Lim, Lee's friend Gina Min, New Zealand Institute for Public Health and Forensic Science forensic toxicologist Helen Poulsen, the family's doctor Doctor Rama Velalagan, and the nurses Lin Ni, Kayleen Palatchie, and Natalie Woodward. Other key witnesses included Lee's mother Choon Ja Lee, forensic accountant Andrew Yoon, South Korean Detective Sergeant Sung Kyu Hwang, Detective Sergeant Ryan Singleton and digital forensic analyst Damian Govender.
The defence's sole witness was the psychiatrist Dr. Yvette Kelly, who argued that Lee met the criteria of insanity under Section 23 of the Crimes Act 1961. Kelly told the court that the defendant had confessed to killing her children by serving them juice with the anti-depressant drug Nortriptyline but argued that the defendant was legally insane at the time of the killings. In response, the Crown's rebuttal witness, forensic psychiatrist Erik Monasterio, presented evidence showing that Lee did not display symptoms of schizophrenia.
=== Closing arguments ===
On 22 September, the court heard closing arguments from both the Crown and defence. Prosecutor Walker argued that Lee was not insane when she killed her children, citing her actions following their deaths including changing her name, accessing a storage facility, cleaning and vacating her rental property, and booking a business-class flight to South Korea. She also pointed out that Lee had told several lies to her family, police and doctors about her children's deaths. Walker also argued that Lee had lied about her suicide attempts. She also cited Monasterio's testimony that the defendant did not display symptoms of psychosis or indicate that she was unaware that her actions were morally wrong.
Defence stand-by counsel Smith told the court that Lee had been mentally unwell throughout her life and that her mental state had deteriorated following the death of her husband. Smith said that Lee had made three previous suicide attempts including one following her father's death when she was 18 years old. She argued that Lee's mental health deteriorated in the seven months following the death of her husband. Consequently, Lee came to believed that the only solution was killing herself and her children. Smith argued that Lee's belief that she had caused her father and husband's death, and her son's cleft pallet demonstrated that she was "disconnected from reality."
=== Verdict ===
The jury began deliberating on 23 September. After three and half hours of deliberating, the jury convicted Lee of murdering her two children Yuna and Minu Jo. Justice Venning confirmed the verdict and remanded Lee into custody until her sentencing on 26 November. She was subsequently given a life sentence and would be eligible for parole after 17 years.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazimierz_Bartel | Kazimierz Bartel | Kazimierz Władysław Bartel (Polish pronunciation: [kaˈʑimjɛʐ vwaˈdɨswav ˈbartɛl]; English: Casimir Bartel; 3 March 1882 – 26 July 1941) was a Polish mathematician, freemason, scholar, diplomat and politician who served as 15th, 17th and 19th Prime Minister of Poland three times between 1926 and 1930 and a Senator of Poland from 1937 until the outbreak of World War II.
Bartel was appointed Minister of Railways between 1919 and 1920, in 1922–1930 he was a member of Poland's Sejm. After Józef Piłsudski's May Coup d'état in 1926, he became prime minister and held this post during three broken tenures: 1926, 1928–29, 1929–1930. Bartel was the Deputy Prime Minister between 1926–1928 and Minister of Religious Beliefs and Public Enlightenment, when Piłsudski himself assumed the premiership, however, Bartel was in fact "de facto" prime minister during this period as Piłsudski did not concern himself with the day-to-day functions of the cabinet and the government.
In 1930 upon giving up politics, Bartel returned to the university as professor of mathematics. In 1930 he became rector of the Lwów Polytechnic and was soon awarded an honorary doctorate and membership in the Polish Mathematical Association. In 1937 he was appointed a Senator of Poland and held this post until World War II.
After the Soviet invasion and occupation of eastern Poland, Bartel was allowed to continue lecturing at the Technical Institute. In 1940 he was summoned to Moscow and offered a seat in the Soviet parliament.
On 30 June 1941, in the course of Operation Barbarossa, the German Wehrmacht entered Lwów and began persecuting the local intelligentsia. Bartel was imprisoned two days later by the Gestapo and offered the top post in a Polish puppet government. His ultimate refusal of the German terms was taken as an act of treason by the Germans. By order of Heinrich Himmler, Bartel was murdered on 26 July 1941, shortly after the Massacre of Lwów professors had ended.
== Early life and studies ==
Kazimierz Władysław Bartel was born on 3 March 1882 in Lemberg, Austria-Hungary (later Lwów, Poland, now Lviv in Ukraine) as the son of Michał Bartel and Amalia Chadaczek. Growing up in a working-class family, he graduated from elementary school in Stryj. His railwayman father arranged Bartel to be an apprentice to fitter who taught in craft school. This allowed Bartel to continue his formal education while working as an apprentice.
After completing secondary school in 1901, Bartel studied mechanics at the Lwów Polytechnic in the Mechanical Engineering Department. He graduated summa cum laude in 1907 and soon started working for his alma mater as an assistant in descriptive geometry to Placyd Zdzisław Dziwinski. From 1908 to 1909, he also studied mathematics and philosophy at the Franciscan University in Lviv and at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. The travel grant to Munich allowed him to attend the lectures on art history by Karl Dochlemann and mathematics by Aurel Voss and Alfred Pringsheim.
Bartel returned to the Polytechnic and earned his doctor of technical sciences in 1909. His dissertation "O utworach szeregów i pęków inwolucyjnych" (Compositions series and involution pencils) allowed him to become one of the first title holders of such doctoral within Austria-Hungary. Bartel gave his habilitation thesis "O płaskich utworach inwolucji stopnia czwartego szeregu zerowego" (On planar products of involution of the fourth series of the zero degree) in 1912, then received the title of associate professor. Bartel became the chair of descriptive geometry after the retirement of Mieczysław Łazarski in 1911 due to blindness. Bartel attained the title of professor of mathematics at the Lwów Polytechnic in 1917.
Conscripted into the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I, after the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918 Bartel returned to Lwów, which became part of the newly established Second Polish Republic. In 1919, as commander of railway troops, he fought in the defence of the city against the Ukrainian siege. Meanwhile, Bartel wrote his first textbook on descriptive geometry and befriended and later supported Poland's future leader, marshal and commander-in-chief, Józef Piłsudski. Since May 1919 he served as the manager of the Armoured Trains Construction Management and Association. His numerous successes in this field led to Prime Minister Leopold Skulski appointing him the Minister of the Railway system of the Republic of Poland. Bartel met other significant and influential politicians and diplomats, most notably Prime Minister Wincenty Witos and Prime Minister Władysław Grabski. After the Polish–Soviet War of 1920, Bartel was nominated as a lieutenant colonel and was left in charge of the railway reserve officers and the Lwów militia. He was awarded a Virtuti Militari cross, a Polish distinction for valor, after the armed conflict.
In 1921, Bartel spent six months travelling to museums and galleries in France, Italy, Switzerland and Austria to research on art. Most of his holidays were spent likewise because of his interest stemming from Dochlemann's lectures. He accumulated a good personal archive of notes and photographs for this interest of his.
== Political and diplomatic career ==
In 1922, Bartel was elected a member of Poland's Sejm (parliament) and held that position until 1929. Initially, he was a member of the party PSL "Liberation", but he was not satisfied with the radicalization of the group. In March 1925 at the Congress of the Polish People's Party, he decided to adopt, among others, a reform without compensation. Bartel eventually left the party and the organisation in April 1925, along with Marian Zyndram-Kościałkowski and Bolesław Wysłouch and later founded the parliamentary "Labour Club". This organization quickly came under the direct influence of commander-in-chief Józef Piłsudski. Just before the May Coup of 1926, Bartel received an order from Marshal Piłsudski to prepare for a takeover as prime minister after the expected collapse of President Stanisław Wojciechowski and his government.
=== First term in office, first government (1926) ===
On 15 May 1926, after the resignation of the government led by Wincenty Witos and President Wojciechowski after the May Coup, Bartel was appointed by Marshal of the Sejm and the acting head of state Maciej Rataj as the prime minister of the Second Polish Republic, but Bartel later stated in his inauguration speech that he would be the head of government only until the election of a new president. His decision was possibly influenced by the fact that he suffered from kidney and stomach problems and was constantly in pain. One member of the parliament stated, "He was a cheerful and ambitious man, but always in pain. Even his opponents in the Sejm admitted that in personal relationships, it is extremely hard not to be in favour of a man like Bartel. As prime minister, he tried to aid every man possible, even the men and women that opposed his policies and the government, but he was not able to help himself, which led to his early decline in politics and diplomacy of the Polish Republic. He was of weak stature and of weak health and would hardly make a good impression on the public, especially the socialists or communists in the east and therefore, this would not make him an influential Prime Minister nor a diplomat supporting democracy."
Bartel's new government consisted mostly of people not connected with any political parties (four of those politicians already were occupied ministerial positions). Bartel was described as ideologically centrist: Prime Minister's newly established office was occupied by both the right-wing and left-wing leaders. Bartel himself took over the Ministry in turn and Piłsudski the Minister of War. Such a system churned mainly the Polish Socialist Party, which supported the May Coup. On 16 May 1926, Prime Minister Bartel made a statement in which he highlighted the principles of his policies. Bartel stated that the cabinet took power in accordance with the law, without any prejudice to the constitutional order. He also called for peace, hard work and dedication to the Polish nation. At the same time, he promised the immediate removal of incompetent and corrupt politicians from any high posts that could negatively influence the future economic growth of the Second Polish Republic. Bartel's closest personal advisor in politics and diplomacy was Marshal Józef Piłsudski, who was in favour of the new minister.
Bartel suggested that Ignacy Mościcki should become a candidate for the post of head of state (president), who was also a professor at the Lwów Polytechnic. Bartel's first government was one of the most active in the history of Poland; the politicians and members of parliament gathered every second day and on occasions everyday to discuss political matters. On 4 June 1926, Ignacy Mościcki was elected the president of the Second Polish Republic, and Bartel resigned along with the entire cabinet, but soon after being appointed, President Mościcki designated him again to become prime minister.
=== Second and third government (1926) ===
On 8 June 1926, three days after the Mościcki's designation, Bartel formed his second cabinet. On the same day, Józef Piłsudski sent a letter to the head office in which he outlined the conditions of re-entry to the parliament. After his second election, Bartel primarily focused on the restoration of the decree based on the organization of the highest military authorities from 7 January 1921, which enables the free management of the Ministry of War without the vote of the government and the parliament. On 9 June 1926, the decree was officially restored, however, another decree was adopted, which increased the power of the president or head of state over the ministry. Bartel met with representatives of the parliamentary clubs and highlighted in a conversation with them his commitment towards the parliamentary system but also pointed out a more concerning issue:the economic development of the country. At a private meeting with senators, he highlighted his determination and involvement in fighting against bureaucracy, the introduction of an apolitical army and the elimination of the Ministry of Public Works. He vividly stated that before the May Coupn there was no democracy and that Poland was ruled by an oligarchy, nobles and influential leaders of wealthy privately owned clubs and parties.
The supporters of Bartel and his government emphasized his efficiency when they managed the state. His opponents, however, saw it as a tool to limit the role of the Polish Parliament and accused him of deliberate dictatorship and control over the ministers in his "private parliament sittings" - the so-called Sejm Bartlowy (Bartel's Parliament). Bartel was appointed prime minister when Marshal Piłsudski undertook an attempt to communicate with the rebellious senators and members of the Sejm. Bartel himself was considered to be representative of the liberal tendencies in the party and a spokesman of the Sanacja movement. Otherwise the post of the head of government (Prime Minister) was taken by Kazimierz Świtalski or Walery Sławek, both of whom were considered to be uncompromising supporters of the conflict with the parliament.
Bartel's government contributed to a marked improvement in administration, which was primarily caused by the Prime Minister's organizational skills and knowledge. He created an efficient system of government action in connection with the Sejm and officials of lower rank: "The ministers of the previous governments generally considered themselves as autonomous rulers, which influenced the private interests of the members of different parties in charge. The government of Kazimierz Bartel was never focused or concentrated on any political ties and friendships. The officials of the Prime Minister were to validate the efficiency of each ministry. Each minister was responsible for the operation of his office and ministers could not engage in any political activities. Before his speech in the parliament on any topic, he had to submit the text to the Prime Minister himself for approval. Bartel demanded such procedures from every minister and senator of his cabinet and personally prepared the agenda for each meeting of the government and disallowed to discuss any topic without his permission or consent."
Bartel also tried to improve the situation of the Polish Jews and the Jewish minority around the country. He was determined to eliminate the remnants of regulations dating back to the times of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and Congress Poland, focused on the persecution of religious minorities, especially the Jews and the Gypsies. Bartel's cabinet announced that it is against such inhumane procedures and actions, and in 1927 the Prime Minister gave permission to adopt a law officially recognizing and granting rights to the Jewish communities. Bartel was also against enforcing certain laws to the nature of the economic sanctions imposed on the Jews.
On 2 August 1926, the Parliament adopted an amendment to the Constitution (the so-called "August Novella"), significantly strengthening the role of the president. On 20 September 1926 the Christian Democratic Party raised a vote against two ministers in the government of Bartel: Antoni Sujkowski and Kazimierz Młodzianowski. The party accused them of carrying out political purges in the state administration. Eventually, the vote was passed by the government, which forced Bartel and his cabinet to resign, but Marshal Piłsudski ordered President Mościcki to appoint Bartel as prime minister. Once more, that was not in violation of the Constitution, but the anti-parliamentarian speakers and the socialist politicians, confused with the frequent changes in the administration and the government, threatened the Sejm and even suggested a rebellion or another coup. The conflict made Bartel's third new cabinet last only four days.
On 30 September at the Belvedere palace in Warsaw, the council was holding a meeting in the study room, during which it was decided to dissolve the third government. Therefore, Bartel received the document on this subject, which for its validity required President Mościcki's signature. Meanwhile, the Senate immediately demanded that the parliament passes the budget cut policy proposed by the Upper House. Bartel told the Speaker of the Sejm Maciej Rataj, that in such a situation he will personally take the decree to Mościcki and ask for his signature. After the Sejm passed the budget cut policy, Bartel arrived at Mościcki's private residence, but to his surprise, Mościcki refused to sign the document allowing the dissolution. Instead, he ordered Bartel to terminate his employment. Bartel was once again forced to resign, but this time his cabinet would stay intact and his place would be taken by the marshal himself. The former prime minister was very bitter about this turn of events, despite the fact he went along with Piłsudski's and Rataj's plans. In its course, the Marshal warned that, in contrast to the previous government, he will not be "competing" with the ministers and if necessary he will use force if the members would not agree to his radical policies.
=== Collaboration with Piłsudski's Council ===
Following his resignation, Bartel was to become the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Religious Denominations and Public Enlightenment in Piłsudski's own, private council that operated in case of any unexpected conflict with the current operating government. The Marshal did not devote much attention towards his cabinet, focusing primarily on military and foreign policies. It was Kazimierz Bartel that was to replace the Marshal and take over his duties if absent and become the Speaker of the Sejm. He often spoke, as a representative of the government, on matters related to the budget and finances. These topics were possibly the main subject of a dispute between the "Piłsudskites" and the parliamentary opposition.
After the elections in March 1928, Piłsudski decided that Bartel should be appointed to the position of Speaker of the Sejm. On 27 March the "Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government" (BBWR), an ostensibly non-political organization that existed from 1928 to 1935, closely affiliated with Józef Piłsudski and his Sanacja movement, declared Bartel's candidacy. However Piłsudski's plan to place Bartel in charge of the Sejm and nominate him as Marshal Speaker failed, because the senators and members of parliament decided to choose Ignacy Daszyński of the Polish Socialist Party as the Marshal of the Sejm instead. In protest, following the results of the vote, the members and supporters of the parliamentary BBWR party left the room.
The year 1928 also marked the release of Bartel's first book "Perspektywa Malarska". It dealt with the basic theory of perspective and its extension to architecture and art. It was published by Ksiaznica-Atlas, a publisher in Lwów who provided the negatives for the German translation published by B.G. Teubner in 1934.
=== Second term in office (1928–1929) ===
As soon as the new government was formed without Bartel as its head, Józef Piłsudski, temporarily serving as Prime Minister of the country, resigned. He decided, however, that his position will be taken over by Bartel, considered his most trusted and most loyal friend and supporter among the members of the party, although this change was only formal – Bartel was already responsible for leading the ongoing work of the Council of Ministers, even if he was not the Head of Cabinet. Piłsudski's decision greatly dissatisfied the senators of parliament, who would simply demonstrate their anger by not participating in the sessions and sittings of the Sejm. Some politicians dared to even throw rotten food at the ministers that were leaving the voting chamber. The situation worsened in the upcoming months and some ministers raised concerns about their safety, as some demonstrators, often made up of ordinary citizens working on the behalf of the party, tended to physically abuse officials travelling from their homes to the newly constructed government building located on Wiejska Street in Warsaw. Similar events occurred during the inauguration of the first President of the Second Polish Republic, Gabriel Narutowicz, in December 1922. The politicians and ministers were advised to travel with guards, police or at least a weapon that they could defend themselves with, however, the use of weapons may have strengthened the unity of the opposition and of the demonstrators that could use this as an act of violence against the common people and a violation of social democracy.
After the beginning of the so-called "Czechowicz affair" in which the opposition discovered that the Chancellor of the Exchequer Gabriel Czechowicz, a strong admirer of Piłsudski, passed 8 million Polish złoty from the state budget for the BBWR campaign between 1927 and 1928, on 12 February 1929 the members of an anti-Sanacja movement have requested to place both Czechowicz and Bartel before the State Tribunal (Court). In protest against this decision, Kazimierz Bartel informed the press of his intention to resign. He also stated that in his opinion the Czechowicz affair was caused by the Parliament and its senators rather than by the doings of one politician. On 13 April 1929 Bartel ordered his government to resign. He was replaced by Kazimierz Świtalski, a stubborn and self-centred man considered to be the cause of relentless struggle with the parliamentary opposition. The following months were marked by disputes between the newly formed government and the Sejm. Bartel's new cabinet began operating on 5 November 1929, however, its first sitting occurred in December on the orders of President Mościcki. After this, the Parliament adopted a motion of no confidence against Świtalski's Cabinet. Kazimierz Bartel became the prime minister once again.
=== Third term in office (1929–1930) ===
On 29 December 1929, Bartel was chosen for the third time to be prime minister and formed his fifth government and cabinet, however, he performed his duties with large uncertainties, mainly due to poor health. He had a kidney illness and had a ureterolithotomy with help from Tadeusz Pisarski, a urologist he befriended during their conscription in the army. He also suffered from depression and anxiety probably due to the constant disputes with the Sejm and its senators. On 10 January he appeared at a meeting with members of parliament, declaring his willingness to cooperate with the senators and the Sejm, saying "I come with good will and determination gentlemen!" Bartel initially managed to establish cooperation with the Sejm, which resulted in the stabilization of the entire situation and conflict. Later, however, the relations between the cabinet and the parliament deteriorated again. The apogee of another dispute was a request for the adoption of no-confidence motion against the Minister of Labour and Social Welfare Aleksander Prystor. That was done primarily through the initiative of the Polish Socialist Party headed by Ignacy Daszyński and his supporters like Bolesław Limanowski, a Polish socialist politician, historian journalist and advocate of agrarianism who was the oldest member of the Polish Senate until his death in 1935 at the age of 99.
On 12 March Bartel gave a speech in the Senate sharply attacking the senators, which were "not able to fulfill the tasks set in order to control the state and the country and that their stubbornness and pride in themselves was an astonishing blow to both the economy and the policies of Poland." He also stated that "being a member of parliament is a profession. It does not require the members to acquire any skills and create new damaging campaigns, only to obey the ruling party. A man focused only on work and career often becomes a man in conflict with others, which entails long political consequences." Bartel believed that the motion of no confidence towards one member of the Senate was the lack of support of the entire government. On 15 March 1930, he decided to leave the office and his resignation was accepted by the president the next day. Soon, he also resigned from his parliamentary seat and left politics. Walery Sławek was appointed the new prime minister of Poland.
== Post-candidacy and return to university ==
After retiring from political life, he returned to the Technical University of Lwów (Polytechnic). In the same year he was elected rector of the university and held that office in the academic year of 1930/1931. He was also awarded an honorary doctorate and membership of the Polish Academy of Sciences: in the years 1930-1932 he was president of the Polish Mathematical Society. During this time he published his most important works, including a series of lectures on the perspective of European painting. It was the first such publication in the world. During his work at the Technical University of Lwów, he expressed strong opposition to plans focused on introducing the so-called "ghetto benches" for students of Jewish origin and ethnicity to separate them from Polish and Christian peers. His opinions, as well as other actions against anti-Semitic students, made Bartel the subject of numerous attacks including throwing eggs and rotten food at the professor or bringing a pig with the sign "Bartel" by Polish nationalists to the university grounds.
In 1932, he testified as a witness in the Brest trials, lasting from 26 October 1931 to 13 January 1932, held at the Warsaw Regional Court where leaders of the Centrolew, a "centre-Left" anti-Sanacja political opposition movement, were tried. In 1937, Bartel was appointed Senator of Poland by the President to replace the deceased Emil Bobrowski, and served until the outbreak of World War II. In the autumn of 1938, he was one of the signatories of a document addressed to President Mościcki, which called for the inclusion of representatives of the opposition to the government in connection with the threat of the country's independence. The document also postulated amnesty for politicians of the opposition, who were forced into exile or were imprisoned after the Brest trials. Bartel handed over a memorandum to Mościcki, however, Mościcki did not respond to the proposals. In February 1939 Bartel delivered a speech in the Senate, which has gained wide publicity in the country. In it, he sharply criticized the situation in universities and colleges around Poland; mentioned the widespread anti-Semitism there; and the failed organization of studies, subjects and courses.
== World War II ==
In September 1939, during the defence of Lwów just before the attack of the German troops, Bartel served as the head of the Civic Committee. When Lwów became occupied by the Soviet Union, he was allowed to continue his lectures at the Technical University. In July 1940 he was, along with several other politicians and professors, summoned to Moscow, where he took part in an All-Committee meeting of Universities of the Soviet Union. Conversations and topics mentioned mostly related scientific issues, and Bartel signed a contract with a publishing house to write a textbook of Science and Geometry for the schools of the Soviet Union. He also visited the scientific and cultural institutions like the Tretyakov Gallery and the Institute of Architecture in Moscow. There are some conflicting reports about whether during his stay in Moscow, the Soviets offered him political cooperation. According to some of his closest friends, Stalin issued a proposal for the creation of a new Polish government, but Bartel rejected it. As he wrote to his wife on 16 July 1941: "By listening to private conversations of the officers, I conclude that my position as Prime Minister may be resurrected, but what great duty this will be to control a split, communist country. In Moscow with Joseph Stalin, I had the pleasure of finding out new information from the West - Winston Churchill's speech addressed to Władysław Sikorski about Poland's supposed future."
One of the editions of "Paris' Historical Notebooks" described the content of the letter sent to the German Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It stated that Müller, the Deputy Head of the Security Police and Security Service (Reinhard Heydrich) believed that Bartel negotiated in early 1941 with the Soviet authorities about the establishment of a new nation that together with the Soviet Union was to declare war on Nazi Germany. Similar information can be found, among others, in a telegram sent by the Polish Chargé d'Affaires in Switzerland to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in London dating from 26 September 1940: "It's believed that Moscow professor Bartel has intention to create the Red Government of Poland." This information, however, was never proved to be true. Meanwhile, Maria Bartlowa, the wife of former prime minister, stated that her husband was talking only with the Soviets on the release of his new lecture book. It is also widely believed that Kazimierz Bartel never met Stalin in person.
The Prime Minister-in-exile stationing in London, General Władysław Sikorski, had plans to co-operate with Bartel and appoint him an ambassador. Sikorski recognized him as one of the few people from the former political circles who would agree to cooperate on the terms and conditions of the British government. On 19 June 1941 Bartel's candidacy was officially reported by Sikorski during a meeting of the Council of Ministers. The decision was motivated by the political loyalty of the former prime minister, as well as his successful efforts to preserve the Polish character of the Lwów Polytechnic under Soviet occupation. Sikorski, however, failed to find Bartel in the Soviet Union, and Stanisław Kot was appointed ambassador instead.
=== Arrest and death ===
On 30 June 1941, soon after the German invasion of the Soviet Union began, the Wehrmacht entered Lwów. Bartel was arrested on 2 July at a meeting with co-workers at the university. Thirty-six other colleagues in the faculty were arrested the next night. Bartel was taken initially to a Gestapo prison on Pelczyńska Street. There, as mentioned by inmate Antoni Stefanowicz, he was treated properly. The former prime minister was allowed to receive, send letters, and mathematical books and papers to his wife, and bring food from home. At the time, Bartel was not questioned, because there were some issues regarding the accusations made by the Gestapo. On 21 July, however, he was transferred to a prison at Łąckiego Street, where he was treated poorly. The guards called him a Commie-Jew, as reported by Stefanowicz, and the Nazi officials ordered Bartel to clean the boots of a Ukrainian Hilfsgestapo soldier. Stefanowicz reported that Bartel was mentally devastated and could not understand the essence of the tragedy.
According to some sources, the Nazi officials proposed the establishment of a Polish puppet government dependent on the Reich. Such information was given by Sikorski during a press conference in Cairo in November 1941 (on the way to Moscow). According to his version, Bartel refused and on the orders of Heinrich Himmler was executed on the 26 July 1941 at dawn. He was shot probably near Piaski Janowskie in the context of the Massacre of Lwów professors. Being barred from her daily delivery of food to her husband on Saturday, June 26, Bartel's wife learned of his death the following Monday.
According to one account, during the night of October 1943 the Sonderkommando composed of Jewish prisoners unearthed the bodies of the murdered Polish professors that were buried in a mass grave. It was carried out to remove the traces of the murder in connection with the approaching Soviet troops. On 9 October 1943, the corpses were piled. The prisoners were forced to take any personal belongings and clothes, including documents of Bartel and Tadeusz Ostrowski. Later the pile of corpses was set on fire, and in the following days, the Sonderkommando scattered the ashes on the surrounding fields.
In 1966, on the 25th anniversary of the execution of Lwów professors, a plaque with the names of the victims of Nazism was placed on the church of St. Francis of Assisi in Kraków. Next to the memorial there is also a separate epitaph in honour of Bartel.
== After death ==
Knowing the importance that Bartel gave to his work on perspective, his wife saved his manuscript after his death by pleading with the Nazi officials. Bartel's library of books was either shipped to Germany with some pieces of furniture, or burned with his personal papers.
Bartel's second book was supposed to be published first in German by B. G. Teubner, who would provide Ksiaznica-Atlas the negatives for the Polish edition. However, the war delayed the printing and ultimately led to the destruction of all materials. In the 1950s, this second book was reconstructed by Professor F. Otto of the University of Gdansk using the surviving manuscript and the printer's proofs which Teubner had sent for Bartel's approval. It dealt with analyzing pictures geometrically, the artistic reconstruction of geometric structures exhibited in pictures, and tracing art history using the tenets of his theory of perspective. A uniform series was released by Polskie Wydawnictwo Naukowe, the second book in 1958 and the first volume in 1960.
== Honours and awards ==
He was decorated with, among others, the Order of the White Eagle (1932) for outstanding achievements, the French Legion of Honour (class I), the Cross of Valour, the Cross of Independence and the Silver Cross of the Virtuti Militari (1922).
== References ==
== External links ==
Rzuty cechowane Archived 28 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine
Nürnberg. Crimes against humanity (Volume 5) (Russian) Нюрнбергский процесс. Преступления против человечности (том 5) Москва "Юридическая литература" 1991 ISBN 5-7260-0625-9 (part related to murder of Kazimierz Bartel and his colleagues)
Author profile in the database zbMATH |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahoo%27s_Fish_Taco | Wahoo's Fish Taco | Wahoo's Fish Taco is a U.S.-based restaurant chain that offers Mexican food mixed with Brazilian and Asian flavors. Categorized as a "fast casual restaurant", the quality and preparation time of its food is between that of a fast-food restaurant and a more formal restaurant. Wahoo's provides many vegetarian and some vegan options, such as tofu, banzai veggies and brown rice, and also provides a kids' meal menu. They serve wahoo fish in their tacos, as well as Mahi-mahi.
== History ==
Wahoo's was founded in Costa Mesa, California, in 1988 by Chinese-Brazilian brothers Eduardo "Ed" Lee, Renato "Mingo" Lee and Wing Lam, who mixed traditional Chinese and Brazilian flavors with dishes they encountered while traveling in Mexico. Their parents had fled to Brazil in the 1950s following the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War, and settled in São Paulo, opening a Chinese restaurant; their five sons were all born in Brazil. Their father, Cheong Lee, and the eldest brother came to the United States in 1964, and the rest of the family arrived in 1975, opening the Shanghai Pine Gardens restaurant on Balboa Island. Based on their experience working long hours at Shanghai Pine Gardens, the parents insisted that their five children should study medicine, law, or engineering; the eldest brother went to law school, the second brother studied medicine, and the third brother (Wing Lam) attended San Diego State University, initially studying engineering, but switching to finance after being placed on academic probation.
The first Wahoo's Fish Taco restaurant, located at 1862 Placentia Avenue in Costa Mesa, opened in November 1988, serving Baja California-style fish tacos. The three brothers (youngest of the five sons) were the main restaurant employees. Wing Lam recounted in 2011 that "back in the day, I took your order, ran to the kitchen, made it and delivered it to your table." The three brothers remain involved in daily operations, with Wing Lam staffing the chain's California-based food truck. The first restaurant was funded in part with US$30,000 the brothers received from their parents after selling Shanghai Pine Gardens.
Steve Karfaridis, the first manager of Wahoo's second location, in Laguna Beach, is now a partner in the business. The corporate headquarters are in Santa Ana, California. The three brothers are still involved with the company, with Wing Lam acting as the public face of the company, working in public relations and marketing. Projected sales in 2004 were US$35,000,000 (equivalent to $58,270,000 in 2024). By 2011, annual sales exceeded US$60,000,000 (equivalent to $83,870,000 in 2024).
=== Expansion ===
By 1994, Wahoo's had opened two additional locations, one each in Costa Mesa and Laguna Beach. The business permit for the fourth location in Huntington Beach, was delayed over a city code requirement to pay for 12 spaces in the city-owned Main Street parking garage, and an additional location was opened in Lake Forest in May 1994. By late 1995, Wahoo's had six locations in total, five in Orange County, California and one in Denver, Colorado. The Wahoo's that opened in Manhattan Beach in 1998 was the first Wahoo's in California outside Orange County. In 2001, Wahoo's had 22 locations and announced plans to open 40 more by 2006. By 2005, Wahoo's had 36 locations, including the original Costa Mesa restaurant.
Wahoo's has since expanded across California and has opened locations in Colorado, Hawaii, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey & Pennsylvania . In 2009, Wahoo's announced plans to add 100 franchise locations by 2014, but those plans have slowed. By Wahoo's 25-year anniversary in 2013, they had 64 restaurants in seven states, and would later that year go on to open Wahoo's first international restaurant in Tokyo, Japan.
=== California Love Drop ===
On April 12, 2020, Wahoo's delivered 300 meals to an Irvine hospital as part of California Love Drop, a collaboration between Lam and numerous partners to deliver meals to frontline workers during the COVID-19 pandemic. To date, the Love Drop has delivered over 11,000 meals.
== Marketing ==
From the outset, Wahoo's has targeted the surfing community by offering affordable prices and eclectic decor, which uses stickers and surfing equipment inside the restaurant. Wahoo's would cater corporate events for surf apparel companies and local surf contests to build word-of-mouth for its fish tacos. Similar strategies were used to build support in other "extreme" sports communities such as snowboarding, rock climbing, and cycling.
Wahoo's also built a strong youth following by naming a local "athlete of the week" and sponsoring a meal, which would inevitably be attended by the athlete's friends.
The fish tacos served by street vendors in Baja California were, in Lam's recollection, generally filled with unsaleable by-caught fish such as shark; the bycatch would be sold cheaply to street vendors, who sliced the fish into strips, deep fried the strips, and sold the fish in inexpensive tacos with cabbage and tomatoes. While attending San Diego State, Lam came up with the idea to replicate the fish tacos for an American audience, similar to the origin story told by Rubio's founder (and fellow Aztec alumnus) Ralph Rubio. The primary difference was the Wahoo's fish taco was prepared as his family would interpret the recipe: grilled meat, instead of fried, and beans without lard or bacon fat, with vegetarian and vegan options. The brothers' efforts to replicate street tacos with a healthy twist coincided with a renewed consumer interest in "fresh" Mexican cuisine, and Wahoo's has offered nutritional information from the start to cater to health-conscious consumers. In addition, Wahoo's has been credited as creating one of the earliest Asian-taco fusions.
Word-of-mouth from existing stores was sufficient when new Orange County locations were opened, but when Wahoo's expanded north into Manhattan Beach in Los Angeles County, the marketing effort reverted to advertising in local newspapers and schools.
== In popular culture ==
Author Earlene Fowler credits the original Wahoo's location as her office while she was writing her first novel.
January 9, 2013 was proclaimed Wahoo's Fish Taco Day in Costa Mesa to honor the chain's 25th founding anniversary.
Travis Barker, drummer for blink-182, opened a Wahoo's Fish Taco restaurant in Norco, California (co-owned with the Lee brothers) in 2004.
== Gallery ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
"Yahoo! for Wahoo's Fish Tacos". HB Magazine. April–May 2013. p. 32. Retrieved October 26, 2016.
Mayor's Award: Wahoos on YouTube
Do, Anh (May 16, 2015). "Fish tacos, flip-flops and sharks in suits". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved October 26, 2016.
=== Reviews ===
Mastre, Kristin (September 6, 2011). "Wahoo's Fish Tacos (review)". Feasting Fort Collins. Retrieved October 26, 2016.
Pierleoni, Allen (August 13, 2014). "First Impressions: Wahoo's Fish Taco in midtown". The Sacramento Bee. Retrieved October 27, 2016.
Elliott, Farley (August 2012). "Which Taco Chain Makes the Best Fish Tacos?". Serious Eats. Retrieved October 27, 2016. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brewster_F2A_Buffalo | Brewster F2A Buffalo | The Brewster F2A Buffalo is an American fighter aircraft which saw service early in World War II. Designed and built by the Brewster Aeronautical Corporation, it was one of the first U.S. monoplanes with an arrestor hook and other modifications for aircraft carriers. The Buffalo won a competition against the Grumman F4F Wildcat in 1939 to become the U.S. Navy's first monoplane fighter aircraft. Although superior to the Grumman F3F biplane it replaced, and the early F4Fs, the Buffalo was largely obsolete when the United States entered the war, being unstable and overweight, especially when compared to the Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero.
Several nations, including Finland, Belgium, Britain and the Netherlands, ordered the Buffalo. The Finns were the most successful with their Buffalos, flying them in combat against early Soviet fighters with excellent results. During the Continuation War of 1941–1944, the B-239s (de-navalized F2A-1s) operated by the Finnish Air Force proved capable of engaging and destroying most types of Soviet fighter aircraft operating against Finland at that time, and claimed in the first phase of that conflict 32 Soviet aircraft shot down for every B-239 lost, producing 36 Buffalo "aces".
In December 1941, Buffalos operated by both British Commonwealth (B-339E) and Dutch (B-339C/D) air forces in South East Asia suffered severe losses in combat against the Japanese Navy's A6M Zero and the Japanese Army's Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar". The British attempted to lighten their Buffalos by removing ammunition and fuel and installing lighter guns to improve performance, but it made little difference. After the first few engagements, the Dutch halved the fuel and ammunition load in the wings, which allowed their Buffalos (and their Hurricanes) to stay with the Oscars in turns.
The Buffalo was built in three variants for the U.S. Navy: the F2A-1, F2A-2 and F2A-3. (In foreign service, with lower horsepower engines, these types were designated B-239, B-339, and B-339-23 respectively.) The F2A-3 variant saw action with United States Marine Corps (USMC) squadrons at the Battle of Midway. Shown by the experience of Midway to be no match for the Zero, the F2A-3 was derided by USMC pilots as a "flying coffin". Indeed, the F2A-3s performance was substantially inferior to the F2A-2 variant used by the Navy before the outbreak of the war despite detail improvements.
== Design and development ==
=== United States Navy ===
In 1935, the U.S. Navy issued a requirement for a carrier-based fighter intended to replace the Grumman F3F. The Brewster XF2A-1 monoplane, designed by a team led by Dayton T. Brown, was one of two aircraft designs that were initially considered. The XF4F-1 had a double-row radial engine but was a biplane like the F3F. The U.S. Navy competition was re-opened to allow another competitor, the NF-1, a navalized Seversky P-35, but it was eliminated because the prototype could not exceed 267 mph (430 km/h). The XF2A-1 first flew on 2 December 1937 and early test results showed it was far in advance of the Grumman biplane entry. While the XF4F-1 did not enter production, it later re-emerged as a monoplane, the Wildcat.
The Buffalo was manufactured at the Brewster Building in Long Island City, New York. The new Brewster fighter had a modern look with a stubby fuselage, mid-set monoplane wings and a host of advanced features. It was all-metal, with flush-riveted, stressed aluminum construction, although control surfaces were still fabric-covered. The XF2A-1 also featured split flaps, a hydraulically operated retractable main undercarriage (and partially retractable tailwheel), and a streamlined framed canopy. As was common at this time, the aircraft lacked self-sealing fuel tanks and pilot armor. Fuel capacity was only 160 US gal (610 L; 130 imp gal), stored in the fuselage. Powered by a 950 hp (710 kW) single-row Wright R-1820-22 Cyclone radial engine, it had a good initial climb rate of 2,750 ft/min (840 m/min) and a top speed of 277.5 mph (446.6 km/h). The aircraft was then tested in 1938 in the Langley Research Center full-scale wind tunnel, where it was determined that certain factors were contributing to parasitic drag. Based on the tests, improvements were made to the cowling streamlining and carburetor and oil cooler intakes, and the Buffalo's speed rose to 304 mph (489 km/h) at 16,000 ft (4,900 m) without any increase in power. Other manufacturers took notice of this 10 percent increase in speed and efficiency, and wind tunnel tests became standard procedure in the US. With only a single-stage supercharger, high-altitude performance fell off rapidly. Fuselage armament was one fixed .50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine gun with 200 rounds and one fixed .30 in (7.62 mm) AN Browning machine gun with 600 rounds, both in the nose. The Navy awarded Brewster Aeronautical Corporation a production contract for 54 aircraft, the F2A-1s.
Service testing of the XF2A-1 prototype began in January 1938 and in June, production started on the F2A-1. They were powered by 940 hp (700 kW) Wright R-1820-34 engines and had larger fins. The added weight of two additional .50 in (12.7 mm) Browning wing guns and other equipment specified by the Navy for combat operations reduced the initial rate of climb to 2,600 ft/min (790 m/min). Plagued by production difficulties, Brewster delivered only 11 F2A-1 aircraft to the Navy; the remainder of the order was later diverted to the Finnish Air Force in modified form under the export designation Model 239.
A later variant, the F2A-2, of which 43 were ordered by the U.S. Navy, included a more powerful R-1820-40 engine, a better propeller, and integral flotation gear, while still lacking pilot armor and self-sealing tanks. The increase in engine power was welcomed, but to some extent offset by the increased loaded weight (5,942 lb (2,695 kg)) of the aircraft; while top speed was increased to a respectable 323 mph (520 km/h) at 16,500 ft (5,000 m), initial climb rates dropped to 2,500 ft/min (760 m/min). Both the F2A-1 and the F2A-2 variants of the Brewster were liked by early Navy and Marine pilots, including Pappy Boyington, who praised the good turning and maneuvering abilities of the aircraft: "the early models, before they weighed it all down with armor plate, radios, and other [equipment] ... were pretty sweet little ships. Not real fast, but the [early F2As] ... could turn and roll in a phone booth". This might reasonably have been expected with the low wing loading in earlier variants, which was comparable with the Mitsubishi A6M Zero's lb/sq ft.
The F2A-3 was the last version of the Buffalo to enter service with the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps. A total of 108 examples were ordered in January 1941. By this time, the Navy had become disenchanted with the Buffalo, and had become especially annoyed at Brewster Aeronautical Corporation's frequent production delays and its frequent management difficulties. This order was seen more as a way of keeping Brewster's production lines running; they would eventually build Corsair fighters for the Navy as well as Buccaneer/Bermuda dive bombers.
The F2A-3s were conceived as long range reconnaissance fighters with new wet wings with self-sealing features and larger fuselage tanks which provided increased fuel capacity and protection, but this also increased the aircraft weight by more than 500 lb (230 kg). The wing and enlarged fuselage tank carried an additional 80 U.S. gal (300 L) of fuel; at 6 lb/U.S. gal (0.72 kg/L), the fuel alone weighed nearly 500 lb (230 kg). The addition of armor plating for the pilot and increased ammunition capacity further increased the aircraft's weight, resulting in a reduced top speed and rate of climb, while substantially degrading the Brewster's turning and maneuvering capability. The Navy found that the added weight of the F2A-3 also aggravated the problem of landing gear failure during carrier landings. However, the −40 two-speed supercharged Cyclone engine in the F2A-3 was an excellent "cruising" engine, and as such the F2A-3 had some value and saw initial service on the carriers Saratoga and Lexington.
Even in late 1940 it was apparent that the Buffalo was rapidly becoming obsolete. It badly needed a more powerful engine and an enlarged wing (to offset the increased weight), but the limits of the airframe had been reached, making installation of a larger engine impossible. Soon after deliveries of the F2A-3 began, the Navy decided to eliminate the type altogether. However, a project was begun to replace the wing-mounted .50 M2 machine guns with two M2 20mm cannons. At least eight sets of wings were completed, and at least one F2A-3 was fitted with them. By then considered a second line aircraft, some were transferred to the U.S. Marine Corps, which deployed two F2A-3 squadrons to the Pacific, one at Palmyra Atoll, and another at Midway Island. Those which still remained on board aircraft carriers narrowly missed a combat opportunity when a relief mission was dispatched to Wake Island, but the relief force was withdrawn before completing the mission. Shortly thereafter, F2A-3s still in naval service were transferred to training squadrons for use as advanced trainers.
== Operational history ==
The first unit to be equipped with the F2A-1 was Lt. Cdr. Warren Harvey's VF-3, assigned to USS Saratoga air group. On 8 December 1939, VF-3 received 10 of the 11 Buffalos delivered to the U.S. Navy. The remaining 43 F2A-1s were declared surplus (to be replaced with an equal number of the improved F2A-2s) and sold to Finland. Ralph Ingersoll wrote in late 1940 after visiting Britain that the Buffalo and other American aircraft "cannot compete with either the existing British or German fighters", so Britain used them "either as advanced trainers --or for fighting equally obsolete Italian planes in the Middle East. That is all they are good for". Even the Eagle Squadrons' American pilots used Hawker Hurricanes instead of the Buffalo. Early in the war all modern monoplane fighter types were in high demand, however. Consequently, the United Kingdom, Belgium, and the Netherlands East Indies purchased several hundred export models.
=== Finland ===
In April 1939, the Finnish government contacted the Roosevelt administration, requesting the supply of modern combat aircraft as quickly as possible. On 17 October, the Finnish Embassy in Washington, D.C., received a telegram clearing the purchase of fighter aircraft. The only strict requirements laid down by Finnish authorities were that the aircraft be already operational and able to use 87-octane fuel. Part of an F2A-1 shipment – 44 aircraft originally intended for the US Navy – was diverted to Finland, by the US State Department, after the USN agreed to instead accept a later shipment of F2A-2 variants.
On 16 December, the Finnish government signed a contract to purchase 44 aircraft: a F2A-1 variant designated Model B-239E by Brewster. Unlike other fighters already in service, the F2A-1 and B-239E lacked self-sealing fuel tanks and cockpit armor. However, the B-239E was built with a more powerful engine than the F2A-1, in the form of the Wright R-1820-G5, producing 950 hp (710 kW), and the capacity to carry four machine guns (rather than the two carried by the F2A-1). The B-239E was also "de-navalized" before shipment: equipment such as tailhooks and life raft containers were removed. The upgraded engine and slightly reduced net weight (i.e. from the omitted armor and de-navalization) resulted in an improved power-to-weight ratio and better general performance.
In four batches the B-239E was shipped initially to Bergen, in Norway, in January and February 1940 from New York City. The crated fighters were then sent by railway to Sweden and assembled by SAAB at Trollhättan, northeast of Gothenburg.
After delivery of the B-239E, the Finnish Air Force added armored backrests, metric flight instruments, the Väisälä T.h.m.40 gunsight, and four .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns. The top speed of the Finnish B-239s, as modified, was 297 mph (478 km/h) at 15,675 ft (4,778 m), and their loaded weight was 5,820 lb (2,640 kg).
In February 1940, pilot Lieutenant Jorma "Joppe" Karhunen flight-tested the first B-239 to become operational in Finland. Unfamiliar with the aircraft, he burned out the engine while flying very low at high speed; crashing on a snow-covered field, damaging the propeller and some belly panels. Initially unimpressed, the Finns later witnessed a demonstration by a Brewster test pilot, who was able to stay on the tail of a Finnish Fiat G.50 Freccia fighter from Italy; although the Fiat fighter was faster in level flight, the Brewster could out-turn it.
None of the B-239E fighters saw combat in the Winter War (1939–1940). However, five of the six delivered during the war became combat-ready before it ended.
The B-239E was never referred to by the name Buffalo in Finland; it was known simply as the Brewster, or by the nicknames Taivaan helmi ("sky pearl") or Pohjoisten taivaiden helmi ("pearl of the northern skies"). Other nicknames were Pylly-Valtteri (lit. "butt-walter"), Amerikanrauta ("American hardware" or "American car") and Lentävä kaljapullo ("flying beer-bottle"). The total of 44 examples of the B-239E fighters used by the FAF received serial numbers BW-351 to BW-394.
Finnish pilots regarded the B-239E as being easy to fly, or in the words of ace Ilmari Juutilainen, a "gentlemen's travelling [or touring] plane". The Buffalo was also popular within the FAF because of its relatively long range and good maintenance record. This was in part due to the efforts of the Finnish mechanics, who solved a problem that plagued the Wright Cyclone engine by inverting one of the piston rings in each cylinder, which had a positive effect on reliability. The cooler weather of Finland also helped, because the engine was prone to overheating as noted in tropical Pacific use. The Brewster Buffalo earned a reputation in Finnish Air Force service as one of its more successful fighter aircraft, along with the Fiat G.50, which scored an unprecedented kill-loss ratio of 33-1.
In service from 1941 to 1945, Buffalos of Lentolaivue 24 (Fighter Squadron 24) claimed 477 Soviet Air Force warplanes destroyed, with the combat loss of just 19 Buffalos, an outstanding victory ratio of 26:1.
During the Continuation War, Lentolaivue 24 (Fighter Squadron 24) was equipped with the B-239s until May 1944, when the Buffalos were transferred to Hävittäjälentolaivue 26 (Fighter Squadron 26). Most of the pilots of Lentolaivue 24 were Winter War combat veterans. This squadron claimed a total of 459 Soviet aircraft with B-239s, while losing 15 Buffalos in combat.
The Brewsters had their baptism by fire in Finland on 25 June 1941, when a pair of Buffalos from 2/LLv24, operating from Selänpää airfield (ICAO:EFSE) intercepted 27 Soviet Tupolev SBs from 201st SBAP near Heinola. Five SBs were claimed as downed. Subsequent attacks were repelled by LLv24 pilots who, by dusk, had flown 77 sorties.
Many Finnish pilots racked up enormous scores by using basic tactics against Soviet aircraft. The default tactic was the four-plane "parvi" (swarm), with a pair flying lower as bait, and a higher pair to dive on enemy interceptors. The Soviet Air Force was never able to counter this tactic. The top-scoring B-239 pilot was Hans Wind, with 39 kills. Lt Hans Wind, with six other Buffalos of LeLv 24, intercepted some 60 Soviet aircraft near Kronstad. Two Soviet Pe-2 bombers, one Soviet Hawker Hurricane fighter, and 12 I-16s were claimed for the loss of just one B-239 (BW-378). After evaluation of claims against actual Soviet losses, aircraft BW-364 was found to have been used to achieve 42½ kills in total by all pilots operating it, possibly making it the highest-scoring fighter airframe in the history of air warfare. The top scoring Finnish ace, Ilmari Juutilainen, scored 34 of his 94½ kills in B-239s, including 28 in BW-364.
During the Continuation War, a lack of replacements led the Finns to develop a copy of the Buffalo built from non-strategic materials such as plywood, however the Humu, as they called it, was already obsolete and only a single prototype was built. By late 1943, the lack of spares, wear-and-tear, and better Soviet fighters and training greatly reduced the effectiveness of Finnish B-239s, though LeLv 26 pilots would still claim some 35 victories against Soviet aircraft in mid-1944. The last victory by a Buffalo against Soviet aircraft was claimed over the Karelian Isthmus on 17 June 1944.
From 1943, Finland's air force received Messerschmitt Bf 109Gs from Germany, and this much-superior fighter re-equipped most Finnish Air Force fighter squadrons.
After Finland signed an armistice with the Soviet Union in September, 1944, they had to drive Finland's former ally, Nazi Germany out of the country during the "Lapland War". The only clash with the Luftwaffe took place on 3 October 1944 when HLeLV 26 intercepted Junkers Ju 87s, claiming two, the last victories to be made by Brewster pilots in World War II. By the end of the war in Lapland, only eight B-239s were left.
Five B-239s continued to fly until 1948, with last flights of Brewsters by the Finnish Air Force on 14 September 1948, when they were stored until scrapped in 1953.
=== Belgium ===
Just before the start of the war, Belgium sought more modern aircraft to expand and modernize its air force. Belgium ordered 40 Brewster B-339 aircraft, a de-navalized F2A-2, fitted with the Wright R-1820-G-105 engine approved for export use. The G-105 engine had a power output of 1,000 hp (745.7 kW) (peak) on takeoff, some 200 hp (150 kW) less than the engine fitted to the U.S. Navy F2A-2. The arrestor hook and liferaft container were removed, and the aircraft was modified with a slightly longer tail.
Only one aircraft reached France by the time Germany launched its Blitzkrieg in the West on 10 May 1940. The Buffalo was later captured intact by the Germans, and it was partially rediscovered near Darmstadt in 1945.
Six more Belgian Brewsters were offloaded at the French Caribbean island of Martinique and languished on a coastal hillside, never to be flown. The rest of the order went to the RAF.
=== British Commonwealth (Malaya) ===
Facing a shortage of combat aircraft in January 1940, the British Purchasing Commission was established to acquire U.S. aircraft that would help supplement domestic production. Among the U.S. fighter aircraft that caught the Commission's attention was the Brewster. The remaining 32 B-339 aircraft ordered by the Belgians, suspended at the fall of France, were passed on to the United Kingdom. Appraisal by Royal Air Force acceptance personnel criticized it on numerous points including inadequate armament and lack of pilot armor, poor high-altitude performance, engine overheating, maintenance issues, and cockpit controls, while it was praised for its handling, roomy cockpit, and visibility. With a top speed of about 323 mph (520 km/h) at 21,000 ft (6,400 m), but with fuel starvation issues over 15,000 ft (4,600 m), it was considered unfit for duty in western Europe. Still desperately in need of fighter aircraft in the Pacific and Asia for British and Commonwealth air forces, the UK ordered an additional 170 aircraft under the type specification B-339E.
Delivery and assembly of the Buffalos in Singapore took place in the spring of 1941. The first Buffalo units (Nos 67 and 243 Squadron RAF) were formed at RAF Kallang in March 1941.
The B-339E, or Brewster Buffalo Mk I as it was designated in British service, was initially intended to be fitted with an export-approved Wright R-1820-G-105 Cyclone engine with a 1,000 hp (745.7 kW) (peak takeoff) power. The Brewster aircraft delivered to British and Commonwealth air forces were significantly altered from the B-339 type sold to the Belgium and French forces in accordance with their purchase order. The Brewster factory removed the Navy life raft container and arrestor hook, while adding many new items of equipment, including a British Mk III reflector gun sight, a gun camera, a larger fixed pneumatic tire tail wheel, fire extinguisher, engine shutters, a larger battery, and reinforced armor plating and armored glass behind the canopy windshield.
The Brewster Model B-339E, as modified and supplied to Great Britain was distinctly inferior in performance to the F2A-2 (Model B-339) from the original order. It had a less powerful (1,000 hp (745.7 kW)) engine compared to the F2A-2's 1,200 hp (890 kW) Cyclone, yet was substantially heavier due to all of the additional modifications by some 900 lb (410 kg). The semi-retractable tail wheel had been exchanged for a larger fixed model, which was also less aerodynamic. Top speed was reduced from 323 to 313 mph (520 to 504 km/h) at combat altitudes.
In its original form, the B-339 had a theoretical maximum speed of 323 mph (520 km/h) at a rather unrealistic 21,000 ft (6,400 m), but fuel starvation problems and poor supercharger performance at higher altitudes meant that this figure was never achieved in combat; the B-339E was no different in this regard. Its maneuverability was severely impaired (the aircraft was unable to perform loops), and initial rate of climb was reduced to 2,300 ft/min (700 m/min). The Wright Cyclone 1890-G-105 engine designated for use in the Buffalo Mk I was in short supply; many aircraft were fitted with secondhand Wright engines sourced from Douglas DC-3 airliners and rebuilt to G105 or G102A specifications by Wright. In service, some effort was made by at least one Brewster squadron to improve the type's sluggish performance; a few aircraft were lightened by some 1,000 lb (450 kg) by removing armor plate, armored windshields, radios, gun camera, and all other unnecessary equipment, and by replacing the .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns with .303 in (7.7 mm) machine guns. The fuselage tanks were filled with a minimum of fuel, and run on high-octane aviation petrol where available. At Alor Star airfield in Malaya, the Japanese captured over 1,000 barrels (160 m3) of high-octane aviation petrol from British forces, which they promptly used in their own fighter aircraft.
Many of the pilots assigned the Buffalo lacked adequate training and experience in the type. A total of 20 of the original 169 Buffalos were lost in training accidents during 1941. By December 1941, approximately 150 Buffalo B-339E aircraft made up the bulk of the British fighter defenses of Burma, Malaya and Singapore. The two RAAF, two RAF, and one RNZAF squadrons, during December 1941 – January 1942, were beset with numerous problems, including poorly built and ill-equipped aircraft. Aviation historian Dan Ford characterized it as, "The performance... was pathetic." Inadequate spare parts and support staff, airfields that were difficult to defend against air attack, lack of a clear and coherent command structure, a Japanese spy in the Army air liaison staff, antagonism between RAF and RAAF squadrons and personnel, and inexperienced pilots lacking appropriate training would lead to disaster. Although the Mk I had .50-inch guns, many aircraft were equipped with .303 Browning mounts and electric firing solenoids, which tended to fail in service. Moreover, according to Flight Lieutenant Mowbray Garden of 243 Squadron RAF, the Buffalos were supplied with only armour-piercing ammunition and no incendiary; Japanese aircraft lacked armor and self-sealing fuel tanks in the early years of the war, a fact unknown to the Allies at the time.
When the Japanese invaded northern Malaya on 8 December 1941, the B-339E initially performed adequately. Against the Nakajima Ki-27 "Nate", the overloaded Brewsters could at least hold their own if given time to get to altitude, and at first achieved a respectable number of kills. However, the appearance of ever greater numbers of Japanese fighters, including markedly superior types such as the Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar" soon overwhelmed the Buffalo pilots, both in the air and on the ground. Another significant factor was the Brewster engine's tendency to overheat in the tropical climate, which caused oil to spray over the windscreen, usually forcing an aborted mission and greatly complicating attempts to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft. In the end, more than 60 Buffalo Mk I (B-339E) aircraft were shot down in combat, 40 destroyed on the ground, and approximately 20 more destroyed in accidents. Only about 20 Buffalos survived to reach India or the Dutch East Indies. The last airworthy Buffalo in Singapore flew out on 10 February, five days before the island fell.
It is not entirely clear how many Japanese aircraft the Buffalo squadrons shot down, although RAAF pilots alone managed to shoot down at least 20. Eighty were claimed in total, a ratio of kills to losses of just 1.3 to 1. Additionally, most of the Japanese aircraft shot down by the Buffalos were bombers. The Hawker Hurricane, which fought in Singapore alongside the Buffalo from 20 January, also suffered severe losses from ground attack; most were destroyed. The Fleet Air Arm also used the Buffalo in the Mediterranean in the Battle of Crete in early 1941.
The Brewster Mark I produced four Commonwealth aces: Geoff Fisken, Maurice Holder, A. W. B. (Alf) Clare and R. D. (Doug) Vanderfield. New Zealander Fisken, the top-scoring pilot, later flew RNZAF P-40s and became the highest-scoring Commonwealth pilot within the Pacific theatre.
==== Japanese invasion of Burma ====
No. 67 Squadron RAF was originally formed in Singapore before their redeployment to Burma in October 1941. They were equipped with thirty Buffalos inherited from 60 Squadron RAF at Mingaladon; the aircraft they received in Singapore were passed on to 488 Squadron RNZAF. They were joined by Curtiss P-40 fighters of the American Volunteer Group (Flying Tigers). AVG crews were initially impressed with the Buffalo, some even urging General Claire Chennault to trade a squadron of P-40s for Buffalos. In response, Chennault arranged a mock dogfight between both fighters, with 1st Lieutenant Erik Shilling flying the P-40 and Squadron Leader Jack Brandt flying the Buffalo. Over their training base in Toungoo, the P-40 proved to be superior to the Buffalo. When Shilling and Brandt met again fifty years later, the RAF pilot said, "how I wish I could have swapped my aircraft for yours".
The squadron first saw action on 23 December 1941, when 15 Buffalos intercepted a formation of 42 Ki-21 heavy bombers, 27 Ki-30 light bombers and 30 Ki-27 fighters during a daylight raid on Rangoon. Together with twelve P-40s, they claimed 13 bombers destroyed and seven probable; four P-40s including two pilots were lost while all the Buffalos returned safely. Nevertheless, the Japanese succeeded in bombing Rangoon, its port facilities and RAF Mingaladon, inflicting extensive damage and casualties.
The Buffalos and P-40s carried out air defenses over Rangoon and Mingaladon as well as strafing missions on Japanese airfields. Like Malaya and Singapore, lack of effective early warning systems greatly hampered British and AVG efforts to defend Burma from air raids. Reports of Japanese aircraft performance from the Malayan Campaign prompted Buffalo pilots in Burma to employ different tactics; according to Flight Sergeant Vic Bargh, "come in from above, or at the same level at the very least, then dive away before they got onto you, because if they did get onto you, well, you were shot down". One of the Buffalo's final victories of the Burma Campaign was claimed by Bargh; he found the wreckage of the bomber and had his picture taken with it as proof.
The IJAAF secured air superiority over Rangoon by early February 1942, and with the situation on the ground rapidly deteriorating, No. 67 Squadron withdrew north to Toungoo. On 13 February, the squadron moved further north to Magwe with only eight Buffalos, where they continued to carry out reconnaissance flights as well as escorting Westland Lysanders on ground attack missions. The Buffalo flew its last combat sortie with the RAF on 5 March, escorting Hawker Hurricanes and Bristol Blenheims for an attack on a Japanese airbase in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Only six Buffalos remained when the squadron withdrew to Calcutta, India on 11 March to re-equip with Hurricanes. They were swiftly relegated to training duties, though two were briefly acquired by No. 146 Squadron RAF in early April, one of which was regularly flown by Squadron Leader Count Manfred Czernin. No. 67 Squadron claimed 27 Japanese aircraft destroyed; eight Buffalos were shot down and eight pilots were killed. For their actions, Squadron Leader Jack Brandt and Flight Lieutenant Colin Pinckney were awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (the latter posthumously), while Sergeant Gordon Williams received the Distinguished Flying Medal.
=== Netherlands East Indies ===
The Militaire Luchtvaart van het Koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch Leger ("Military Air Service of the Royal Netherlands East Indian Army", ML-KNIL) had ordered 144 Brewster B-339C and D and B-439 models, the former with rebuilt Wright G-105 engines supplied by the Dutch and the latter two with new 1,200 hp (890 kW) Wright R-1820-40 engines purchased from Wright by Brewster. By the time the Pacific War broke out, only about 30 Buffalos had entered service in the Dutch East Indies. In total, 72 Buffalos were delivered to the Netherlands East Indies before deliveries were diverted to the RAAF. A small number served briefly at Singapore before being withdrawn for the defense of Borneo and Java.
As the Brewster B-339 aircraft used by the ML-KNIL were lighter than the modified B-339E Brewster Mark Is used by British, Australian, and New Zealand air forces, they were able to successfully engage the Japanese Army Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar", although both the "Oscar" and the Japanese Navy's A6M Zero still out-climbed the B-339 at combat altitudes (the Zero was faster as well). After the first few engagements, the Dutch halved the fuel and ammo load in the wing, which allowed their Buffalos (and their Hurricanes) to stay with the Oscars in turns. In February 1942 they received new model gunsights. Around the same time the Dutch started to use tracer ammunition as well. These two improved their hit ratio. Still, their lack of heavy machine guns (.50") meant their success rate wasn't as high as it could have been.
Apart from their role as fighters, the Brewster fighters were also used as dive bombers against Japanese troopships. Although reinforced by British Commonwealth Buffalo Mk I (B-339E) aircraft retreating from Malaya, the Dutch squadrons faced superior numbers in the air, usually odds of one against two or three. Timely early warning from British radar would have countered this deficit, especially in avoiding unnecessary losses from raids on airfields, but the British government had decided too late to send these: the first British radar stations became operational only towards the end of February.
In a major engagement above Semplak on 19 February 1942, eight Dutch Brewster fighters intercepted a formation of about 35 Japanese bombers with an escort of about 20 Zeros. The Brewster pilots destroyed 11 Japanese aircraft and lost four Brewsters; two Dutch pilots died.
Only four airworthy Buffalos remained on 7 March. Capt. Jacob van Helsdingen led this flight on its final sortie that day, and was credited with a Zero before he was killed. This made him and Lt. August Deibel the most successful Dutch pilots on the Buffalo with three victories each. Altogether, 17 ML-KNIL pilots were killed, and 30 aircraft shot down; 15 were destroyed on the ground, and several were lost to misadventure. Dutch pilots claimed 55 enemy aircraft destroyed.
=== USAAF/RAAF in Australia ===
Following the surrender of the Netherlands East Indies on 8 March 1942, a shipment of 17 Brewster B339-23 fighters ordered for the ML-KNIL was diverted to the US Fifth Air Force in Australia.
All of these Buffalos were subsequently lent to the RAAF, which gave them the serial number prefix A51–. They were used mainly for air defence duties outside frontline areas, photo-reconnaissance and as mock targets in gunnery training. They served with 1 PRU, 24 Sqn, 25 Sqn, 85 Sqn and the Air Gunnery Training School, at RAAF Williamtown.
Between August 1942 and November 1943, 10 of these Buffalos constituted the air defense force for Perth, Western Australia, while assigned to 25 and 85 Sqns at RAAF Pearce and RAAF Guildford.
In 1944, all of the surviving aircraft were transferred to the USAAF.
=== U.S. Marine Corps ===
At Midway Island, United States Marine Corps fighter squadron VMF-221 operated a mixed group of 20 Brewster F2A-3 Buffalos and seven Grumman F4F-3 Wildcats. They were originally assigned to USS Saratoga as part of a relief force bound for Wake Island, but were diverted to Midway instead after the force was controversially recalled on 22 December 1941. Wake Island fell on the following day. The squadron first saw action on 10 March 1942 when a Kawanishi H8K "Emily" flying boat was shot down by Captain James L. Neefus near Midway, the Buffalo's first kill in U.S. service.
From February - April 1942 the rebuilt squadron VMF-211 (most of which had been lost in the Battle of Wake Island) was re-equipped with F2A-3s and was ferried by the escort carrier Long Island to Palmyra Atoll, where it remained until recalled in July of that year, ferrying their aircraft to land on Long Island to return to Hawaii to re-equip with F4F-4s.
During the Battle of Midway in 1942, VMF-221 was destined to participate in one of the few aerial combats involving the Buffalo in U.S. military service. The initial Buffalo interception of the first Japanese air raid was led by Major Floyd B. Parks, whose 13-aircraft division did not fly in paired flights of mutually supporting aircraft. After attacking a formation of 30–40 Aichi D3A1 "Val" dive bombers escorted by 36 Zeros, the Marines, flying in two divisions of aircraft, downed several Japanese bombers before the escorting Zeros reacted; a furious dogfight developed. Thirteen out of 20 Buffalos were lost; of the six Wildcats, only two remained flyable at the end of the mission. The losses included the Marine air commander, Major Parks, who bailed out of his burning Buffalo, only to be strafed by Zeros after parachuting into the sea.
The Marine pilots who managed to shake off the Zeros used high speed split-s turns or very steep dives. These maneuvers were later found to be the best means to evade pursuit by the highly maneuverable Japanese fighters. One F2A-3 pilot, Marine Captain William Humberd, dove away from his pursuers, then attacked a Zero in a head-on pass, shooting his opponent down. In the battle, some F2A-3s suffered from inoperative guns. The nose-mounted guns' occasional failure to fire was noticed by other users as well; the phenomenon may have been caused by frayed electrical wires in the mechanism that synchronized the nose guns with the propeller. Other Buffalos had not been fitted with plate armor behind the pilot, making them vulnerable to even a single bullet or shell. Losses were aggravated due to the Japanese practice of strafing pilots who had bailed out. Second Lt. Charles S. Hughes, whose Buffalo was forced to retire at the start of the raid due to engine trouble, had a ringside view of the aerial combat:
The Zeros came in strafing immediately afterward. I saw two Brewsters trying to fight the Zeros. One was shot down and the other was saved by ground fires covering his tail. Both looked like they were tied to a string while the Zeros made passes at them.
Second Lt. Charles M. Kunz reported that after successfully downing two Val bombers, he was attacked by Japanese fighters:
I was at an altitude of about 9,000 ft, and shoved over in a dive trying to shake the plane on my tail until I was about 20 feet from the water. I was making radical turns hoping the pilot couldn't get steadied on me. I glanced out of the rear and saw that it was a Zero fighter. I continued flying on a rapid turning course at full throttle when I was hit in the head by a glancing bullet. After he fired a few short bursts he left as I had been in a general direction of 205 degrees heading away from the island. My plane was badly shot up... In my opinion, the Zero fighter has been far underestimated. I think it is probably one of the finest fighters in the present war. As for the F2A-3, (or Brewster trainer), it should be in Miami as a training plane, rather than used as a first-line fighter.
Claire Chennault's report on the Zero and air combat reached Washington in 1941, where it was disseminated to aviation forces of the U.S. Army and Navy. This information, along with the development of two-plane mutual defensive formations and tactics, were incorporated into U.S. and Marine Corps air combat training doctrine by some prescient U.S. commanders, including Lieutenant Commander "Jimmy" Thach. The Thach Weave was developed for use by Wildcat pilots against the Zero and was later adopted by other Wildcat squadrons in the Pacific.
With the emergence of new tactics for the F4F-3 and F4F-4 Wildcat, the Battle of Midway marked the end of the Buffalo in both U.S. Navy and Marine Corps fighting squadrons. Surviving F2A-3 aircraft were transported to the U.S. mainland, where they were used as advanced trainers. The introduction in late 1943 of vastly superior American carrier-borne fighters such as the F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair soon relegated the Brewster F2A-3 to a distant memory.
== Buffalo aces ==
The Finnish Air Force produced 36 Buffalo aces. The top three were Capt. Hans Wind, with 39 Buffalo air victories (out of 75), WO Eino Ilmari Juutilainen, with 34 (out of 94) and Capt. Jorma Karhunen, with 25.5 (out of 31.5). First Lt Lauri Nissinen also had victories in the type (22.5 out of 32.5).
The non-Finnish Buffalo aces were: Geoff Fisken (RNZAF), with six air victories, and Doug Vanderfield (RAAF) with five individual kills, plus one shared. Alf Clare (RAAF) and Maurice Holder (RAF) had five victories each.
== Variants ==
XF2A-1
Prototype
F2A-1
(with Wright R-1820-34 Cyclone engine and two guns above engine cowling, plus two optional guns in the wings) for the United States Navy, 11 built
F2A-2
(with Wright R-1820-40 Cyclone engine and four guns) for the United States Navy and Marines, 43 built
F2A-3
Improved F2A-2 for the United States Navy with larger fuel tank, heavier armour, and provision to carry two underwing 100 lb (45 kg) bombs, 108 built
XF2A-4
One converted from an F2A-3
B-239
Export version of the F2A-1 for Finland (with Wright R-1820-G5 Cyclone engines and four guns), 44 built
B-339B
Export version for Belgium, 40 built (only two delivered to Belgium, the rest to the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm)
B-339C
Export version for the Netherlands East Indies with Wright GR-1820-G105 Cyclone engines; 24 built
B-339D
Export version for the Netherlands East Indies with 1,200 hp (890 kW) Wright R-1820-40 Cyclone engines; 48 built (47 delivered to Dutch East Indies)
B-339E
Export version of the F2A-2 for the Royal Air Force with Wright GR-1820-G105 Cyclone engines as the Buffalo Mk I; 170 built (also used by the RAAF and RNZAF)
B-339-23 a.k.a. B-439
Export version of the F2A-3 for the Netherlands East Indies with 1,200 hp (890 kW) Wright GR-1820-G205A engines; 20 built (17 later to the RAAF, some used by the USAAF)
== Operators ==
Australia
Royal Australian Air Force
No. 21 Squadron RAAF
No. 24 Squadron RAAF
No. 25 Squadron RAAF (ex-Dutch)
No. 43 Squadron RAAF
No. 85 Squadron RAAF (ex-25 Sqn.)
No. 453 Squadron RAAF
No. 452 Squadron RAAF
No. 1 PRU RAAF (ex-Dutch, Photo Reconnaissance Unit)
Finland
Finnish Air Force
No. 24 Squadron (1941–1944)
No. 26 Squadron (1944–1945)
Japan
Captured Buffalos were repaired and test flown, both in Japanese markings, and – starring in recreated combat footage – in incorrect RAF markings.
Netherlands
Militaire Luchtvaart KNIL
Vliegtuiggroep IV, 3e Afdeling (3-VLG-IV: 3rd Squadron, IV Group)
Vliegtuiggroep V, 1e Afdeling (1-VLG-V)
Vliegtuiggroep V, 2e Afdeling (2-VLG-V, helped defend Singapore)
Vliegtuiggroep V, 3e Afdeling (3-VLG-V)
New Zealand
Royal New Zealand Air Force
No. 488 Squadron RNZAF
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force
No. 60 Squadron RAF
No. 67 Squadron RAF (ex-60 Sqn., most pilots were RNZAF)
No. 71 Squadron RAF
No. 146 Squadron RAF (ex-67 Sqn.)
No. 243 Squadron RAF (most pilots were RNZAF)
Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm
711 Naval Air Squadron
759 Naval Air Squadron
760 Naval Air Squadron
804 Naval Air Squadron
805 Naval Air Squadron
813 Naval Air Squadron
885 Naval Air Squadron
USA
United States Army Air Forces
5th Air Force, Australia (ex-Dutch)
United States Marine Corps
VMF-111, based at Camp Kearney, Calif.
VMF-112, based at Camp Kearney, Calif.
VMD-2
VMF-211, based at Palmyra Atoll
VMF-212, based at MCAS Ewa
VMF-213, based at MCAS Ewa
VMF-214, based at MCAS Ewa
VMF-221, used in Battle of Midway
VMF-222, based at MCAS Ewa
VMF-224
VMO-251
United States Navy
VF-2
VF-3
VF-9
VJ-5
VJ-6
VS-201
Training Units at NAS Pensacola and NAS Miami
== Surviving aircraft and replicas ==
Only export models of the Buffalo are preserved. There is currently a complete Finnish B-239 (BW-372), a VL Humu variant (HM-671 at the Central Finland Aviation museum), and two replicas – one in ML-KNIL markings and the other in U.S. Navy markings.
Finnish B-239 (serial no. BW-372) flown by Lt. Lauri Pekuri was damaged by a Soviet Hawker Hurricane and crashed in 1942 on Lake Big Kolejärvi, about 31 mi (50 km) from Segezha, Russia and was rediscovered in 1998 and is now on display at the Keski-Suomen Ilmailumuseo (Aviation Museum of Central Finland). The Finnish museum also has components from FAF BW-393.
In June 2012, divers discovered the partial wreckage of a Buffalo in shallow water just off Midway Atoll. The aircraft had been ditched during February 1942, after an aborted landing attempt in bad weather by 1st Lt Charles W. Somers Jr., USMC (later Colonel, USMC Ret). Officials at the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, where the wreckage was found, have not decided whether to recover any of the parts or leave them in place.
In July 2008, a static full-scale replica B-339C was completed by the Cradle of Aviation Museum in Long Island, New York. The aircraft carries the markings of an ML-KNIL fighter flown by Lt. Gerard Bruggink (two kills). It was built for the Militaire-Luchtvaartmuseum (Military Aviation Museum) at Soesterberg, the Netherlands. The Cradle of Aviation Museum houses a static full-scale replica/model F2A-2, carrying the markings of unit "201-S-13" from VS-201, aboard USS Long Island.
== Specifications (F2A-3) ==
Data from United States Navy Aircraft since 1911General characteristics
Crew: one
Length: 26 ft 4 in (8.03 m)
Wingspan: 35 ft 0 in (10.67 m)
Height: 12 ft 0 in (3.66 m)
Wing area: 209 sq ft (19.4 m2)
Airfoil:
Root: NACA 23018
Tip: NACA 23009
Empty weight: 4,732 lb (2,146 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 7,159 lb (3,247 kg)
Powerplant: 1 × Wright R-1820-40 Cyclone 9 9-cyl air-cooled radial piston engine, 1,200 hp (890 kW)
Propellers: 3-bladed
Performance
Maximum speed: 321 mph (517 km/h, 279 kn)
Cruise speed: 161 mph (259 km/h, 140 kn)
Range: 965 mi (1,553 km, 839 nmi)
Service ceiling: 33,200 ft (10,100 m)
Rate of climb: 2,440 ft/min (12.4 m/s)
Armament
Guns: * 2 × 0.50 in (12.7 mm) nose-mounted M2 Browning machine guns
2 × 0.50 in (12.7 mm) wing-mounted M2 Browning machine guns
Bombs: * 2 × bombs on underwing racks.
== See also ==
Related development
VL Humu
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
CAC Boomerang
Grumman F4F Wildcat
Hawker Sea Hurricane
Mitsubishi A6M Zero
Polikarpov I-16
Related lists
List of United States Navy aircraft designations (pre-1962)
List of military aircraft of the United States
List of fighter aircraft
List of aircraft of World War II
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
Arena, Nino. I caccia a motore radiale Fiat G.50 (in Italian). Modena: Mucchi editore, 1996. NO ISBN
Boer, P.C. The Loss of Java. Singapore: NUS Press, 2011. ISBN 978-9971695132.
Boer, P.C. Het Verlies van Java (in Dutch). Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw, 2006. ISBN 90-6707-599-X.
Byk, Gary. Buffalo Down Under: The Modeller's Guide to Australia's Inherited Fighter. Glen Waverly, Victoria, Australia: Red Roo Models Publication, 1998.
Cull, Brian, Paul Sortenhaug and Mark Haselden. Buffaloes over Singapore: RAF, RAAF, RNZAF and Dutch Brewster Fighters in Action over Malaya and the East Indies 1941–1942. London: Grub Street, 2003. ISBN 1-904010-32-6.
Dann, Richard S/Ginter, Steve. Brewster F2A Buffalo and Export Variants. Simi Valley, CA: Ginter Publications, 2017. ISBN 978-0-9968258-6-3.
Dennis, Peter et al. The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History. Melbourne: Oxford University Press Australia & New Zealand, 2008 (Second edition). ISBN 978-0-19-551784-2.
Drendel, Lou. U.S. Navy Carrier Fighters of World War II. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1987. ISBN 0-89747-194-6
Ford, Daniel. "The Sorry Saga of the Brewster Buffalo". Air&Space/Smithsonian, July 1996. Expanded and revised digital edition, Warbird Books, 2013.
Gerdessen, F. "Talkback". Air Enthusiast. No. 13, August–November 1980. p. 78. ISSN 0143-5450
Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. "Brewster F2A Buffalo". WW2 Fact Files: US Navy and Marine Corps Fighters. London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1976, pp. 5–15. ISBN 0-356-08222-9.
Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. "Brewster's Benighted Buffalo". Air Enthusiast Quarterly, No. 1, n.d., pp. 66–83. ISSN 0143-5450
Horn, Steve. "The Second Attack on Pearl Harbor: Operation K And Other Japanese Attempts to Bomb America in World War II". Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2005. ISBN 978-1-59114-388-8.
Huggins, Mark. "Falcons on Every Front: Nakajima's KI-43-I Hayabusa in Combat." Air Enthusiast, Issue 131, September/October 2007.
Keskinen, Kalevi, Kari Stenman and Klaus Niska. Brewster B-239 ja Humu (in Finnish). Espoo, Finland: Tietoteos, 1977. ISBN 951-9035-16-8. Expanded and revised edition published in two parts:
Brewster Model 239: Suomen Ilmavoimien Historia 1A. Espoo, Finland: Kari Stenman Publishing, 2005. ISBN 952-99432-3-7.
Brewster Model 239: Suomen Ilmavoimien Historia 1B. Espoo, Finland: Kari Stenman Publishing, 2005. ISBN 952-99432-4-5.
Lamp, C. O. The Flying Tigers Poke Payoff: They Saved China. iUniverse, 2007. ISBN 978-0-595-86785-1.
Lawrence, Joseph (1945). The Observer's Book Of Airplanes. London and New York: Frederick Warne & Co.
Ledet, Michel (April 2002). "Des avions alliés aux couleurs japonais" [Allied Aircraft in Japanese Colors]. Avions: Toute l'Aéronautique et son histoire (in French). No. 109. pp. 17–21. ISSN 1243-8650.
Lundstrom, John B. The First Team: Pacific Naval Air Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2005. ISBN 978-1-59114-471-7.
Maas, Jim. F2A Buffalo in action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1988. ISBN 0-89747-196-2.
Moran, Jim. Wake Island 1941: A Battle to Make the Gods Weep (Osprey Campaign 144). Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2011. ISBN 978-1-849086-035.
Morareau, Lucien (September 1998). "Les oubliées des Antilles" [The Forgotten Ones of the Antilles]. Avions: Toute l'aéronautique et son histoire (in French). No. 66. pp. 30–37. ISSN 1243-8650.
Neulen, Hans Werner. In the Skies of Europe. Ramsbury, Marlborough, UK: The Crowood Press, 2000. ISBN 1-86126-799-1.
O'Leary, Michael. United States Naval Fighters of World War II in Action. Poole, Dorset, UK: Blandford Press, 1980. ISBN 0-7137-0956-1.
Pacco, John. "Brewster B-339" Belgisch Leger/Armee Belge: Het militair Vliegwezen/l'Aeronautique militaire 1930–1940 (in French). Artselaar, Belgium: J.P. Publications, 2003, pp. 70–71. ISBN 90-801136-6-2.
Raunio, Jukka. Lentäjän näkökulma 2 – Pilot's viewpoint 2 (in Finnish). Self-published, 1993. ISBN 951-96866-0-6.
Shores, Christopher. The Brewster Buffalo (Aircraft in Profile 217). Windsor, Berkshire, UK: Profile Publications Ltd., 1971.
Stanaway, John. Nakajima Ki.43 "Hayabusa": Allied Code Name "Oscar". Bennington, Vermont: Merriam Press, 1998. ISBN 978-1-57638-141-0.
Stenman, Kari and Andrew Thomas. Brewster F2A Buffalo Aces of World War 2 (Aircraft of the Aces). Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2010. ISBN 978-1-84603-481-7.
Stenman, Kari and Kalevi Keskinen. Finnish Aces of World War 2. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1998. ISBN 978-1-85532-783-2.
Stenman, Kari. Lentolaivue 24. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2001. ISBN 1-84176-262-8.
Swanborough, Gordon and Peter M. Bowers. United States Navy Aircraft since 1911. London: Putnam, Second Edition, 1976. ISBN 0-370-10054-9.
Taylor, John W.R. "Brewster F2A Buffalo." Combat Aircraft of the World from 1909 to the present. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969. ISBN 0-425-03633-2.
Wheeler, Barry C. The Hamlyn Guide to Military Aircraft Markings. London: Chancellor Press, 1992. ISBN 1-85152-582-3.
Winchester, Jim. "Brewster Buffalo." The World's Worst Aircraft: From Pioneering Failures to Multimillion Dollar Disasters. London: Amber Books Ltd., 2005. ISBN 1-904687-34-2.
Wixey, Ken. A Rotund New Yorker: Brewster's Embattled Buffalo. Air Enthusiast 105, May/June 2003, pp. 26–40. ISSN 0143-5450
Zbiegniewski, Andre R. Brewster F2A Buffalo (bilingual Polish/English). Lublin, Poland: Kagero, 2003. ISBN 83-89088-14-2.
== External links ==
Manual: (1939) AP 1806A – Pilot's Notes – The Buffalo I Aeroplane – Wright Cyclone GR. 1820 G. 105A Engine
Squadron Leader W.J. Harper, 1946, "Report on NO. 21 and NO. 453 RAAF squadrons" (transcribed by Dan Ford for Warbird's Forum.)
Brewster F2A-3 Buffalo
Finnish Buffalo BW372 recovery |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanele_Muholi#Publication | Zanele Muholi | Zanele Muholi (born 1972) is a South African artist and visual activist working in photography, video, and installation. Muholi's work focuses on race, gender and sexuality with a body of work that dates back to the early 2000s, documenting and celebrating the lives of South Africa's Black lesbian, gay, transgender, and intersex communities. Muholi is non-binary and uses they/them pronouns, explaining that "I'm just human".
Muholi has described themselves as a visual activist as opposed to an artist. They are dedicated to increasing the visibility of black lesbian, gay, transgender, and intersex people. They researched and documented the stories of hate crimes against the LGBTQI community in order to bring forth the realities of "corrective rape," assault, and HIV/AIDS, to public attention.
Muholi was shortlisted for the Deutsche Börse Photography Prize in 2015. They received an Infinity Award from the International Center of Photography in 2016, a Chevalier de Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in 2016, and an Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society in 2018.
Muholi had a retrospective exhibition on at Maison européenne de la photographie in Paris from 1 February to 25 May 2023. Their work was also shown that year at Mudec-Museo delle Culture in Milan, from 31 March through 30 July 2023, showcasing 60 self-portraits in black and white chosen especially for Mudec.
== Early life and education ==
Zanele Muholi was born and raised in Umlazi, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal. Their father was Ashwell Tanji Banda Muholi and their mother was Bester Muholi. They are the youngest of eight children. Muholi's father died shortly after their birth, and their mother was a domestic worker who had to leave her children to work for a white family during apartheid in South Africa. Muholi was raised by an extended family.
Muholi completed an Advanced Photography course at the Market Photo Workshop in Newtown, Johannesburg in 2003, and held their first solo exhibition at the Johannesburg Art Gallery in 2004. In 2009 they were awarded their Master of Fine Arts degree in Documentary Media from Ryerson University in Toronto. Their thesis mapped the visual history of black lesbian identity and politics in post-Apartheid South Africa.
On 28 October 2013, they were appointed Honorary Professor – video and photography at the University of the Arts Bremen in Germany.They were appointed Honorary Professor – video and photography at the University of the Arts Bremen in Germany.
== Photography ==
Muholi's photography has been compared to the way W.E.B. DuBois subverted the typical representations of African Americans. Both Muholi and Du Bois have created an archive of photos, working to dismantle dominant, pre-existing perceptions of the subjects they chose to photograph. Muholi views their work as collaborative, referring to the individuals they photograph as "participants" rather than as subjects. With the term "participants" Muholi allows their participants to collaborate on poses instead of Muholi placing them in positions. Seeking to empower their subjects, Muholi often invites participants to speak at events and exhibitions, adding the participant's voice to the conversation. Through their artistic approach they hope to document the journey of the African queer community as a record for future generations. They try to capture the moment without negativity or focusing on the prevalent violence, portraying the LGBTQI community as individuals and as a whole to encourage unity. Thus, their work can be considered documentative, recording the overall community LGBTI of South Africa and their challenges, and at times, more specifically the struggle of black lesbians. Before 1994, black lesbian voices were excluded from the making of a formal queer movement. Muholi's efforts of creating a more positive visualization of LGBTI Africans combats the homophobic-motivated violence that is prevalent in South Africa today, especially in the case of black lesbians. While black women's bodies appear frequently throughout sexualized pop-culture, black lesbians are viewed (through the lens of the patriarchy and heteronormativity) as undesirable. This negative view of homosexuals in Africa lead to violence, such as murder and rape, and rejection from their families. Muholi's Zukiswa (2010), shows an African lesbian woman making eye contact with the viewer, displaying an unwavering gaze of confidence, self-awareness, and determination. This example encourages awareness, acceptance, and positivity with the queer community as well as South Africa.
Although Muholi became known as a photographer who engaged with the then-invisible lives of black lesbians in South Africa, they began to recognize this idea of "gender within gender." In 2003, and their sense of community definitively began to include trans people. Muholi was employed as a photographer and reporter for Behind the Mask, an online magazine on LGBTI issues in Africa.
Muholi first received global attention from the art world in 2012 at Documenta, a world-famous exhibition of modern and contemporary art in (Germany), for a series of portraits of lesbians and transgender participants titled: Faces and Phases. The photos were also exhibited at Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam.
=== Visual Sexuality: Only Half the Picture (2004) ===
Muholi launched their visual activism through their first solo exhibition entitled Visual Sexuality: Only Half the Picture, at the Johannesburg Art Gallery in 2004. This exhibition featured photographs of survivors of rape and hate crimes as well as an image of a rape and an assault case number. The artist explicitly captures the images as to not reveal the person's gender. The viewer may only have access to an above the knee, and hip shot with hands over the genital region. In contrast to their later exhibitions, the people in these images remain anonymous. Although homosexuality is technically protected legally under the South African government, many individuals do not exercise their legal rights publicly in fear of violent backlash. There is also a reluctance to report cases of hate crimes since officials will often ridicule the victim and nothing will be accomplished. This is a systematic use of violence and oppression. In Only Half the Picture series, the artist was able to give LGBT people a voice without ousting their anonymity. Their work is mostly about bringing visibility of queer people in the black community.
=== Faces and Phases (2006–ongoing) ===
In 2006, Muholi began their Faces and Phases project, a series of around three hundred portraits of lesbians, shot in front of plain or patterned backgrounds. The project began in 2006 when Muholi photographed activist and friend Busi Sigasa. Sigasa is a survivor of corrective rape and contracted HIV from the attack. Muholi's concern for their participant's safety dictated that all pictured individuals be of age and fully out. Faces and Phases mocks the "art-in-service-to-science" narrative engrained in colonial images. 18th century botany imagery shows various plants plucked from their natural environment therefore erasing any social or cultural context. This practice emphasizes Western discovery of an object without acknowledging its longstanding existence. According to Susan Kart at Grove Art Online, this project "documents victims of sexual assault and hate crimes, the wedding images share moments of victory, acceptance, and joy for LGBTI families." In Faces and Phases, Muholi utilizes this history and compares it to the representation of LGBTI in South Africa. Black queer individuals have increased dramatically in national representation but this is still an erasure of important context. These individuals are represented in the same way as the botanical prints. There is increased visibility for Western consumption but no attention is paid to the suffering and systematic oppression these individuals face in post-apartheid South Africa. Muholi challenges this in their series by providing names, dates, locations, and representing the participants within a public sphere.
In June 2014, Muholi was back at their alma mater, showing Faces and Phases at the Ryerson Image Centre as part of WorldPride. In the same month they showed at the Singapore International Arts Festival's O.P.E.N. where they also spoke on legacies of violence.
=== Innovative Women (2009) ===
In 2009, the Innovative Women exhibition was shown in South Africa in the cities of Durban and Cape Town. It was curated by painter Bongi Bhengu and features their work as well as 9 other artists including Muholi and photographer Nandipha Mntambo. In August 2009, the Minister of Arts and Culture Lulu Xingwana walked out of the exhibition due to Muholi's photography, calling it immoral, offensive and going against nation-building. In their response Muholi said "It's paralysing. I expected people to think before they act, and to ask questions. I wanted to create dialogue."
=== Trans(figures) (2010–2011) ===
Their Trans(figures) (2010–2011) project embraces lesbian and trans life. The portraits are taken in urban and rural settings in South Africa and internationally.
=== Of Love & Loss (2014) ===
Muholi's 2014 exhibition, Of Love & Loss, focused on the violence and hate crimes experienced by members of the LGBTQIA communities in South Africa. Juxtaposing images of weddings and funerals, the show included photographs, video works and installation elements. An element of autobiography featured images of Muholi and their partner. This exhibition furthermore exemplifies why Muholi calls themself a visual activist rather than an artist and it shows their battle scars. They bring these harsh issues into light with such powerful contrast, as a way to show resistance. Muholi calls this as just one of their many responsibilities, and these harsh and cruel realities cannot be ignored.
=== Brave Beauties (2014) ===
A series focusing on capturing the portraits of trans women, Brave Beauties was shot outside the studio and on location throughout South Africa. This "mobile studio" was a further expression of Muholi's celebration of LGBTQIA visibility as equal citizens of their country, an embrace of artistic freedom and a gesture of rejecting the limitations that studios can present. While on show at the Stevenson Gallery in Cape Town, an "activist wall" encouraged the participants to write directly on the gallery walls about their experiences, stories and vision. A gesture of destabilization, the activist wall was another expression of Muholi's desire to empower the participants in their work.
=== Isibonelo/Evidence (2015) ===
In 2015, Muholi presented 87 works in their solo Isibonelo/Evidence at the Brooklyn Museum. The meaning of the show's title, in which "Isibonelo" roughly translates from Zulu to "evidence," referred to its contents, which were split into three main sections separated on three walls. The first featured a decade-long chronology of hate crimes in South Africa, and faced the second, which was covered in handwritten messages from members of the LGBTQIA communities. The third and final wall consisted of portraits, including one of Muholi themself.
=== Somnyama Ngonyama ("Hail the Dark Lioness") (2012–present) ===
In 2014 Muholi began working on 365 self portraits for the series Somnyama Ngonyama. The portraits are alter egos, often with a Zulu name.That Muholi turned the camera towards themselves in this series is a departure from their previous work. Muholi explains, “I needed it to be my own portraiture. I didn't want to expose another person to this pain. I was also thinking about how acts of violence are intimately connected to our faces. Remember that when a person is violated, it frequently starts with the face: it’s the face that disturbs the perpetrator, which then leads to something else. Hence the face is the focal point in the series: facing myself and facing the viewer, the camera, directly.”
For most of the pieces in the collection Muholi exaggerated the darkness of their skin tone to reclaim their blackness from its performance by "privileged others." This, academic and critic Nomusa Makhubu explains, is in reference to the appropriation of blackness in minstrel performance. Of this series, the writer and cultural historian Maurice Berger has this to say: "The self-portraits function on various levels and pay homage to the history of black women in Africa and beyond, the dark lionesses of the book’s title. They reimagine black identity in ways that are largely personal but inevitably political. And they challenge the stereotypes and oppressive standards of beauty that often ignore people of color."
This series had a debut exhibition at Yancey Richardson Gallery in New York in 2015. It was shown in London in 2017 and in Times Square in New York City as digital billboards during the city's autumn 2017 Performa Biennial festival. Previews in Muholi's New York gallery were sold out. The photos were published in a 2018 book published by Aperture. In 2019 Muholi won the Photography Book award from the Kraszna-Krausz Foundation for Somnyama Ngonyama. Hail, the Dark Lioness.
== Activism ==
In 2002, Muholi co-founded the Forum for the Empowerment of Women (FEW), a black lesbian organization dedicated to providing a safe space for women to meet and organize.
=== Inkanyiso (2009) ===
In 2006 Zanele Muholi conceptualized a platform that promoted Queer Activism = Queer media. With the intention of a flexible and unique source of information for art advocacy. In 2009, Muholi founded Inkanyiso ("illuminate" in Zulu), a non-profit organisation concerned with queer visual activism. In 2009, Muholi registered the non-profit organization with Department of Social Services (NPO 073–402). It is involved with visual arts and media advocacy for and on behalf of the LGBTI community. The organization's vision statement is "Produce. Educate. Disseminate."
=== Women's Mobile Museum (2018) ===
In 2018, Muholi collaborated with photographer Lindeka Qampi, and the Philadelphia Photo Arts Center (PPAC), to create and mentor a cohort of women artists in Philadelphia. Called the Women's Mobile Museum, the collaborative project culminated in a special exhibition at the PPAC featuring works by the participating artists. According to art critic Megan Voeller: "For nearly nine months, they underwent a professional boot camp at PPAC, starting with technical workshops in digital camerawork, lighting and Photoshop and progressing to assembling and promoting an exhibition."
=== Somnyama Ngonyama (2021) ===
In 2021, Muholi produced a colouring book of their exhibition Somnyama Ngonyama to engage South-African children who are categorised as youth until the age of 35, as a result of the apartheid. Workshops teaching photography and painting were organised in parallel to provide the opportunity of an art education to underprivileged regions. The matter is of personal concern to the artist as someone who grew up under similar circumstances faced with conditions that they are still trying to 'break through' today. 'My activism now focuses on education and building arts infrastructure in places that are rural or still considered peripheral,' Muholi tells Ocula Magazine.
== Documentaries ==
In 2010, Muholi co-directed their documentary Difficult Love, which was commissioned by SABC. Difficult Love provides a look into Muholi's life and the lives, loves and struggles of other black lesbians in South Africa. In the documentary Muholi presents the stories and people that inspired them to create their images. It has shown in South Africa, USA, Spain, Sweden, UK, Amsterdam, Paris (Festival Cinefable) and Italy. In 2013, Muholi co-directed a documentary called We Live in Fear, released by Human Rights Watch.
== Attacks and robberies ==
On 20 April 2012, Muholi's flat in Vredehoek was robbed, with over twenty primary and back-up external hard drives containing five years' worth of photos and video being stolen with their laptop. Photos contained therein include records of the funerals of Black South African lesbians murdered in hate crimes. Nothing else was stolen, raising suspicions that Muholi's recordings of Black lesbian life was targeted. Muholi was overseas at the time of the robbery. This effectively erased the previous five years of Muholi's work. A few weeks later they said, "I'm still traumatized by the burglary" and, "It's hard to fall asleep in this place, which is now a crime scene, as I dealt with many crime scenes before."
In July 2017, a collaborator of Muholi's, Sibahle Nkumbi, was pushed down a staircase in Amsterdam by their Airbnb host while visiting the Netherlands to cover the opening of Muholi's exhibition at the Stedelijk Museum. Nkumbi was hospitalised, sustaining a concussion and substantial bruising. Video footage of the confrontation subsequently went viral, and the host was charged with attempted manslaughter.
== Publication ==
Zanele Muholi: Only Half The Picture. Cape Town: Michael Stevenson, 2006. ISBN 0-620361468.
Faces and Phases. Munich; Berlin; London; New York: Prestel, 2010. ISBN 978-3-7913-4495-9.
Zanele Muholi. African Women Photographers #1. Granada, Spain: Casa África/La Fábrica, 2011. ISBN 978-8-4150-3466-7.
Faces + Phases 2006–14. Göttingen, Germany: Steidl, 2014. ISBN 978-3-86930-807-4.
Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness. Renée Mussai (author), Zanele Muholi (photographer), et al., New York: Aperture, 2018, ISBN 978-1597114240.
== Exhibitions ==
=== Solo exhibitions ===
2004: Visual Sexuality, as part of Urban Life (Market Photo Workshop exhibition), Johannesburg Art Gallery, Johannesburg, South Africa
2006: Vienna Kunsthalle project space, Vienna: Slide Show
2014: Faces and Phases, Massimadi Festival, Montreal, Canada
2015: Zanele Muholi: Vukani/Rise, Open Eye Gallery, Liverpool, England
2015: Somnyama Ngonyama, Yancey Richardson, New York, NY, USA
2017: Zanele Muholi, Stedelijk, Amsterdam
2017: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness, Autograph ABP, London
2017: Zanele Muholi Homecoming: Durban Art Gallery, Durban, South Africa
2018: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness Spelman College Museum of Art, Atlanta, GA, USA
2019: Zanele Muholi: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness Colby College Museum of Art, Maine, USA
2019: Somnyama Ngonyama, Hail the Dark Lioness, Seattle Art Museum, WA, USA
2020/21: Zanele Muholi, Tate Modern, London (delayed opening) – their biggest solo exhibition to date
2022: Being Muholi: Portraits as Resistance, Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston, MA
2022: Zanele Muholi, National Gallery of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
2023: Maison européenne de la photographie, Paris
2023: Muholi: A Visual Activist, Museo delle culture (Milano), Milan, Italy
2023: Zanele Muholi, Kunstmuseum Luzern, Luzern, Switzerland
2024: Zanele Muholi: Eye Me, San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, CA
2024: Zanele Muholi, Tate Modern, London
=== Group exhibitions ===
2011: Figures & Fictions: Contemporary South African Photography, Victoria and Albert Museum, London, England
2016: Systematically Personae at the FotoFocus Biennal, National Underground Railroad Freedom Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
2017: Art/Afrique, Louis Vuitton Foundation, Paris, France
2018: Half the Picture: A Feminist Look at the Collection, Brooklyn Museum, New York, NY, USA
2018: Legacy of the Cool: A Tribute to Barkley L. Hendricks, MassArt Art Museum (MAAM), Boston, MA, USA
2019: Yithi Laba. A group exhibition by Lindeka Qampi, Neo Ntsoma, Zanele Muholi, Ruth Seopedi Motau and Berni Searle at Market Photo Workshop, Johannesburg, South Africa
2019: 58th Venice Biennale curated by Ralph Rugoff
2020: Radical Revisionists: Contemporary African Artists Confronting Past and Present, Moody Center for the Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2020: Through an African Lens: Sub-Saharan Photography from the Museum's Collection, The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Houston, TX, USA
2020: Crossing Views, Fondation Louis Vuitton, Paris, France
2020: African Cosmologies: Fotofest Biennial 2020, Houston, Texas, USA
2020: Sydney Biennale 2020, Sydney Australia
2021: Afro-Atlantic Histories, The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2021: Interior Infinite, The Polygon Gallery, Vancouver, Canada
2021: THIS IS NOT AFRICA – UNLEARN WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED, ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, Denmark; Red Clay, Ghana
2022: Afro-Atlantic Histories, LACMA, Los Angeles, California, USA
2022: Afro-Atlantic Histories, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C., USA
2022: Fire Figure Fantasy: Selections from ICA Miami’s Collection, ICA Miami, Miami, FL, USA
2022: A Gateway to Possible Worlds, Centre Pompidou-Metz, Metz, France
2022: The Work of Love, the Queer of Labor, Pratt Manhattan Gallery, New York, NY, USA
2022: Facing Claude Cahun & Marcel Moore Peel Art Gallery Museum and Archives, Brampton, ON, Canada
2023: Facing Claude Cahun & Marcel Moore Peel Art Gallery Museum and Archives, Brampton, ON, Canada
2023: Black Venus, Fotografiska, New York, NY
2023: Museu de l’art Prohibit, Barcelona, Spain
2023: La Cinquième Saison (The Fifth Season), Jardin des Tuileries, Paris, France
2023: Love & Anarchy, Nasher Museum of Art at Duke University, Durham, NC
2023: Imagining Black Diasporas: 21st Century Art and Poetics, LACMA, Los Angeles, CA
2023: Africa Fashion, Brooklyn Museum, New York, USA
2023: Black Venus: Reclaiming Black Women in Visual Culture, Somerset House, London, UK
2023: Youth vs. Crisis: A Generation in Search of a Future, Kunsthalle Bremen, Bremen, Germany
2023: A Gateway to Possible Worlds, Centre Pompidou-Metz, Metz, France
2023: Coyote Park: I Love You Like Mirrors Do, Leslie-Lohman Museum of Art, New York, NY
2023: Trace – Formations of Likeness: Photography and Video from The Walther Collection, Haus der Kunst, Munich, Germany
2023: Lente Africana; fotografia subsahariana de la colleción del Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, TX, USA
2023: Museo de Arte Miguel Urrutia, Bogotá, Colombia
2023: Nudes – Art from the Tate, LWL Museum for Art and Culture, Münster, Germany
2023: Photography Real and Imagined, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia
2023: Afro-Atlantic Histories, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, TX, USA
2023: This is Me, This is You. The Eva Felten Photography Collection, Museum Brandhorst, Munich, Germany
2023: Dawn of Humanity: Art in Periods of Upheaval, Kunstmuseum Bonn, Bonn, Germany
2023: Corps à corps: Histoire(s) de la photographie, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France
2023: Veneradas y Temidas: El poder femenino en el arte y las creencias, CaixaForum Madrid, Madrid, Spain
2024: Photography Real and Imagined, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia Afro-Atlantic Histories, Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, TX, USA
2024: Dawn of Humanity: Art in Periods of Upheaval, Kunstmuseum Bonn, Bonn, Germany Corps à corps: Histoire(s) de la photographie, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France
2024: This is Me, This is You. The Eva Felten Photography Collection, Museum Brandhorst, Munich, Germany
2024: Turning the Page, Pier 24 Photography, San Francisco, CA
2024: Veneradas y Temidas: El poder femenino en el arte y las creencias, CaixaForum Madrid, Madrid, Spain; CaixaForum Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; CaixaForum Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain; CaixaForum Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
=== Curated exhibitions ===
2016: Co-curated a show at Rencontres d'Arles photography festival, Arles, France
== Awards ==
2005: Tollman Award for the Visual Arts
2006: BHP Billiton/Wits University Visual Arts Fellowship
2009: Thami Mnyele Residency in Amsterdam
2009: Ida Ely Rubin Artist-in-Residence at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
2009: Fondation Blachère award at African Photography Encounters (Rencontres Africaines de la Photographie, Biennale Africaine de la photographie) in Bamako, Mali
2009: Fanny Ann Eddy accolade from IRN-Africa for their outstanding contributions to the study of sexuality in Africa
2012: Civitella Ranieri Fellowship by the Civitella Ranieri Foundation, Italy
2013: Freedom of Expression award by Index on Censorship
2013: Glamour Magazine named them Campaigner of the Year
2013: Winner of the Fine Prize for the 2013 Carnegie International
2013: Prince Claus Award
2013: Feather Award (South Africa's LGBTI Awards)
2015: Shortlisted for the Deutsche Börse Photography Prize for Faces and Phases 2006–2014
2015: Light Work Artist-in-Residence Program, Syracuse, NY, USA
2016: Infinity Award for Documentary and Photojournalism from the International Center of Photography, New York, NY, USA
2016: Africa's Out! Courage + Creativity Award
2016: Outstanding International Alumni Award from Ryerson University
2017: Mbokodo Award (Visual Art) for South African Women in the Arts
2017: Chevalier de Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (Knighthood of the Order Arts and Letters)
2018: Honorary Fellowship of the Royal Photographic Society, Bath, England
2019: Rees Visionary Award, Amref Health Africa, New York, USA
2019: Lucie Humanitarian Award
2019 Kraszna-Krausz Foundation Best Photography Book Award
== Collections ==
Muholi's work is held in the following public collections:
Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL (7 prints)
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York (3 prints as of October 2018)
Museum of Modern Art, New York (6 prints as of March 2019)
Williams College Museum of Art, Williamstown, MA (1 featured print as of March 2019)
North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, NC
Nasher Museum of Art, Durham, NC (2 prints as of March 2019)
Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, OH
Tate Modern, London (15 pieces)
Minneapolis Institute of Art, Minneapolis, MN (3 prints as of August 2020)
National Museum of Women in the Arts
== References ==
== External links ==
"My year as a dark lioness – in pictures " – a gallery of photographs in The Guardian
"Zanele Muholi: Mobile Studio" from Art21
Zanele Muholi at Stevenson Gallery, Cape Town, South Africa
Zanele Muholi at Yancey Richardson Gallery, New York, New York, USA
Zanele Muholi at La MEP, Paris, France |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women%27s_firsts#:~:text=2013%3A%20Meredith%20Novack%20became%20the,the%20Auau%20Channel%20in%20Hawaii. | List of women's firsts | This is a list of women's firsts noting the first time that a woman or women achieved a given historical feat. A shorthand phrase for this development is "breaking the gender barrier" or "breaking the glass ceiling." Other terms related to the glass ceiling can be used for specific fields related to those terms, such as "breaking the brass ceiling" for women in the military and "breaking the stained glass ceiling" for women clergy.
Inclusion on the list is reserved for achievements by women that have significant historical impact.
== Aviation and aerospace ==
== Bureaucrat ==
Asha Attri - First women bureaucrat in Punjab.
== Computing ==
== Dentistry ==
== Education ==
== Exploration ==
== General business ==
1500s: Philippine Welser, first European female billionaire.
1889: Anna Bissell, first female CEO in the United States of America.
1903: Maggie L. Walker, first African-American woman to charter a bank.
1908: Clara Hammerl, first woman to lead a Spanish financial institution.
1915: Helena Rubinstein, first woman to found a cosmetics company.
1945: Ruth Handler, first female president of a major toy company.
1961: Katherine Graham, first female to lead a Fortune 500 company.
1992: Alice Walton, first female decabillionaire.
1999: Andrea Jung, first female CEO of a MLM company.
1999: Carly Fiorina, first female head of a Fortune 20 company.
2000: Martha Stewart, first self-made female American billionaire.
2003: Oprah Winfrey, first female African-American billionaire.
2013: Mary Barra, first female CEO of a major car manufacturer.
2019: Kylie Jenner, first female billionaire under 30.
2020: Rania Llewellyn, first female bank CEO in Canada.
2021: Kathryn Farmer, first female CEO of a major railroad.
== Healthcare ==
Gertrude Stanton - first woman licensed to practice optometry in the U.S.
== History ==
1st century AD: Ban Zhao and Pamphile of Epidaurus – first female historians in Han China and the Roman Empire respectively.
María del Pilar Fernández Vega – first female museum curator in Spain, National Archaeological Museum (Madrid).
== International bodies ==
1950: Geronima Pecson – first Filipino and first woman elected to the executive board of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
1981: Jeane Kirkpatrick – First woman to serve as US Ambassador to the United Nations.
2021: Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala became the first female Director-General of the World Trade Organization.
== Journalism ==
1918: Minna Lewinson – first woman to win a Pulitzer Prize for journalism in any category.
1936: Anne O'Hare McCormick – first woman appointed to the editorial board of the Times.
1946: Katharine Graham – first female publisher of a major newspaper in the United States, The Washington Post.
1962: Ellene Mocria – first female radio newscaster and producer in Ethiopia.
1973: Linda Carter Brinson – first female assistant national editor at The Baltimore Sun.
2002: Linda Carter Brinson – first female editorial page editor at the Winston-Salem Journal.
2004: Catherine Pepinster – first woman to be editor of British newspaper The Tablet in its 175-year history.
== Law ==
== Library science ==
== Mathematics ==
== Military ==
== Nobel Prizes ==
1903: Marie Sklodowska-Curie, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Physics; she shared the prize with Antoine Henri Becquerel and Pierre Curie. First woman to win a Nobel Prize.
1905: Baroness Bertha Sophie Felicita von Suttner, first woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize.
1909: Selma Lagerlöf, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Literature.
1911: Marie Sklodowska-Curie, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. First person (and only woman to date) to win two Nobel Prizes. Only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different sciences.
1947: Gerty Cori, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; she shared the prize with Carl Ferdinand Cori and Bernardo Alberto Houssay. Although born in Prague, Gerty Cori is considered the first American woman to win a Nobel Prize in medicine. She had become a U.S. citizen in 1928.
1983: Barbara McClintock, first woman to win an unshared Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
2009: Elinor Ostrom, first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Economics, and the first American woman to do so; she shared the prize with Oliver E. Williamson.
== Politics ==
Historic firsts for women as heads of state or government:
Yevgenia Bosch, Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1918), sometimes considered the first modern female leader of a national government. She held the position of Minister of Interior and Acting Leader of the People's Secretariat of Ukraine, one of a number of competing ruling bodies in the Ukrainian People's Republic, the predecessor of Soviet Ukraine.
Khertek Anchimaa-Toka, Tuvan People's Republic (1940–1944): The first female head of state (Chairperson of the Presidium of the Little Khural) of a partially recognized country.
Sukhbaataryn Yanjmaa, Mongolia (1953–1954): The first female acting head of state (Chairperson of the Presidium of the State Great Khural).
Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Ceylon, now Sri Lanka (1960–1965): The first elected female prime minister (head of government) of a sovereign country. She served again 1970–77 and 1994–2000; in total she served for 17 years.
Indira Gandhi, India (1966–1977): The first female prime minister of a present-day G20 country. She served again 1980–1984.
Soong Ching-ling, China (1968–1972): The first female acting co-head of state (Co-Chairperson). She later served as Honorary President for 12 days in 1981.
Golda Meir, Israel (1969–1974): The first female prime minister in the Middle East.
Isabel Perón, Argentina (1974–1976): The first (appointed) female president, head of state and head of government.
Elisabeth Domitien, Central African Republic (1975–1976): The first (appointed) female prime minister of an African country.
Margaret Thatcher, United Kingdom (1979–1990): The first female prime minister of a G7/P5 country and the first female prime minister of a sovereign European country.
Eugenia Charles, Dominica (1980–1995): The longest continuously serving female prime minister.
Vigdís Finnbogadóttir, Iceland (1980–1996): The first democratically directly elected female president. With a presidency of exactly sixteen years, she also remains the longest-serving elected female head of state of any country to date.
Jeanne Sauvé, Canada (1984–1990): The first female head of state in North America.
Corazon Aquino, Philippines (1986–1992): The first female president in Southeast Asia.
Benazir Bhutto, Pakistan (1988–1990): The first female prime minister of any Muslim majority country. She served again 1993–96.
Kim Campbell, Canada (1993): The first female head of government in North America.
Tansu Çiller, Turkey (1993–1996): The first elected Muslim female prime minister in Europe.
Chandrika Kumaratunga, Sri Lanka (1994–2000): The first time that a nation possessed a female president (Chandrika Kumaratunga) and a female prime minister (Sirimavo Bandaranaike) simultaneously. This also marked the first time that a female prime minister (Sirimavo Bandaranaike) directly succeeded another female prime minister (Chandrika Kumaratunga).
Ruth Perry, Liberia (1996–1997): The first (appointed) female head of state in Africa. Carmen Pereira of Guinea-Bissau and Sylvie Kinigi of Burundi had previously acted as head of state for 2 days and 101 days respectively.
Mary McAleese, Ireland (1997–2011): The first time that a female president directly succeeded another female president, Mary Robinson.
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Liberia (2006–2018): Africa's first elected female head of state.
Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir, Iceland (2009–2013): As prime minister, she was the world's first openly lesbian world leader, first female world leader to wed a same-sex partner while in office.
Elizabeth II, United Kingdom (1952–2022): In 2015, she became the longest-reigning queen regnant and female head of state in world history. In 2016, she became the longest currently serving head of state and longest currently reigning monarch.
Ursula von der Leyen, European Union (2019–present): The first woman to be appointed President of the European Commission.
Kamala Harris, United States (2021–2025): The first woman to be inaugurated as Vice President of the United States in American history.
Sandra Mason, Barbados (2021–present): The first time that a country's first president was female (Barbados has not had a male president to date).
Giorgia Meloni, Italy (2022–present): The first woman to be elected in Italy as head of government.
Claudia Sheinbaum, Mexico (2024–present): The first woman to be elected president.
Sanae Takaichi became the first female president of the LDP on 4 October 2025 (and is therefore likely to become Japan's first woman prime minister).
Sanae Takaichi (2025–present) elected Prime Minister of Japan.
== Racing ==
1949: Sara Christian became the first woman to race in NASCAR.
1976: Janet Guthrie became the first woman to qualify and compete in the Indianapolis 500
1977: Janet Guthrie became the first woman to qualify and compete in the Daytona 500
1989: Shawna Robinson became the first woman to win a NASCAR-sanctioned stock car race, winning in the Charlotte/Daytona Dash Series at New Asheville Speedway.
2005: Danica Patrick became the first woman to lead the Indianapolis 500
2008: Danica Patrick became the first woman to win an Indy Car Series race.
2013: Danica Patrick became the first woman to race a complete full-time NASCAR Monster Energy Cup Series schedule.
2013: Danica Patrick became the first woman to win a pole position for NASCAR Monster Energy Cup Series in the 2013 Daytona 500.
2013: Danica Patrick became the first woman to lead the Daytona 500.
== Religion ==
1935: Regina Jonas first woman to be ordained as a rabbi.
1980: Marjorie Matthews, first woman to become a bishop of the United Methodist Church.
1989: Barbara Harris, first woman ordained a bishop in the Anglican Communion.
1992: First women ordained as priests in the Anglican Church of Australia.
March 12, 1994: The first women were ordained as Church of England priests; 32 women were ordained together.
1996: On 21 December 1996 Gloria Shipp was the first Aboriginal woman ordained as priest in the Anglican Church of Australia
2000: Denise Wyss, first woman to be ordained as a priest in the Old Catholic Church.
2003: Alison Elliot was elected the first female moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. She chaired the General Assembly the following year.
2006: Katharine Jefferts Schori, first female presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church in the United States.
2008: Kay Goldsworthy, first female consecrated bishop in Australia; she was made a bishop of the Anglican Church of Australia.
2014: Libby Lane, first female consecrated bishop in the Church of England.
2021: Sister Nathalie Becquart, first woman appointed as undersecretary to the Synod of Bishops.
2023: Maria Kubin, first female consecrated bishop in the Old Catholic Church in Austria.
2025: Sarah Mullally named the 106th Archbishop of Canterbury, the first woman to become the spiritual leader of the Church of England.
2025: Katrina Foster, first woman bishop of the Metropolitan New York Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
== Science and Technology ==
== Sports ==
August 6, 1926: Gertrude Ederle, first woman to swim across the English Channel.
1937: Grace Hudowalski was the ninth person and first woman to climb all 46 of the Adirondack High Peaks.
1940s: Lois Fegan Farrell became the first female reporter to cover a professional hockey team in America.
1960: Mary McGee becomes the first official female motorcycle racer in the United States by earning a license from the Federation Internationale de Motocyclisme. She is also the first woman to compete in the Baja 500 off-road race.
1960: Wilma Rudolph, track and field champion, became the first American woman to win three gold medals in the Rome Olympics. She elevated women's track to a major presence in the United States. As a member of the black community, she is also regarded as a civil rights and women's rights pioneer. Along with other 1960 Olympic athletes such as Cassius Clay (who later became Muhammad Ali), Rudolph became an international star due to the first international television coverage of the Olympics that year.
1967: Drahşan Arda (born 1945) is a Turkish former association football referee. She was confirmed as the world's first female football referee by FIFA cockart.
November 27, 1968: Penny Ann Early, first woman to play major professional basketball, in an ABA game (Kentucky Colonels vs. Los Angeles Stars).
August 15, 1970: Patricia Palinkas, first woman to play professionally in an American football game.
January 1, 1972 – Women were officially welcomed into the United States Polo Association with Sue Sally Hale becoming the first female member.
May 16, 1975: Junko Tabei, first woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest.
1993: Lynn Hill does the first free ascent (FFA) of the 3,000-foot Nose Route on El Capitan (5.14a/b); one of the biggest prizes in big wall climbing.
1993: Halli Reid became the first woman to swim across Lake Erie, swimming from Long Point, Ontario, to North East, Pennsylvania, in 17 hours.
1994: Catherine Destivelle becomes the first woman to complete the winter free solo of the "north face trilogy of the Eiger, the Grandes Jorasses, and the Matterhorn.
October 18, 1997: Liz Heaston, first female to play and score in a college football game, kicking two extra points in the 1997 Linfield vs. Willamette football game.
December 26, 2008: Sarah Thomas, first woman to officiate an NCAA football bowl game.
2009: Kei Taniguchi becomes the first woman to win the Piolet d'Or (Golden Ice Axe), the "Oscar" of Mountaineering.
September 4, 2009: Carolynn Sells became the first woman to win a solo motorcycle race on the Snaefell Mountain Course in the Isle of Man when she won the Ultra Lightweight race at the 2009 Manx Grand Prix.
May 17, 2010, Edurne Pasaban became the first woman to climb all of the fourteen eight-thousander peaks in the World.
May 4, 2012: Rosie Napravnik became the first woman jockey to win the Kentucky Oaks, riding Believe You Can.
August 9, 2012: Shannon Eastin becomes the first woman to officiate a National Football League game in a pre-season matchup between the Green Bay Packers and the San Diego Chargers.
2012: Anna Wardley, from England, became the first person to complete a solo swim around Portsea Island recognized by the British Long Distance Swimming Association.
May 31, 2013: Lydia Nsekera became the first female FIFA Executive Committee member.
May 18, 2013: Rosie Napravnik places third in the Preakness Stakes on Mylute, making her the first woman to have ridden in all three Triple Crown races. On June 8, 2013, she rode the filly Unlimited Budget to a 6th-place finish in the 2013 Belmont, becoming the first woman to ride all three Triple Crown races in the same year.
June 2013: Ashley Freiberg became the first woman to claim an overall GT3 Cup Challenge victory in North America, winning the Porsche IMSA GT3 Cup Challenge.
September 23, 2013: Sarah Outen arrived in a small harbor on the Aleutian island of Adak, and thus became the first person to row solo from Japan to Alaska, as well as the first woman to complete a mid-Pacific row from West to East.
2013: Davie Jane Gilmour became the first woman to lead the board of directors for Little League.
2013: UFC 157, which took place in February, featured not only the first women's fight in UFC history but also the first UFC event to be headlined by two female fighters (Ronda Rousey and Liz Carmouche).
2013: On her fifth attempt and at the age of 64, Diana Nyad became the first person confirmed to swim from Cuba to Florida without the protection of a shark cage, swimming from Havana to Key West.
2013: Scotland's solicitor general, Lesley Thomson, became the first woman to be appointed to Scottish Rugby's board.
2013: Anna Wardley, from England, became the first woman to swim non-stop around the Isle of Wight.
2013: Peggy O'Neal, an American-born lawyer, became the first woman in the Australian Football League to hold the position of club president, being chosen as the president of the Richmond Football Club.
2013: Tracey Gaudry became the first woman appointed as vice president of the Union Cycliste Internationale.
2013: Adel Weir, former world number 53 from South Africa, became the first ever female squash coach hire at the Qatar Squash Federation.
2013: Maria Toor, a squash player from South Waziristan, became the winner of the first ever women's event in the Nash Cup in Canada by beating Milou van der Heijden of the Netherlands 13–11, 11–3, 11–9.
2013: Tatyana McFadden became the first athlete to win six gold medals at a championships during the 2013 IPC Athletics World Championships in Lyon. She claimed gold in every event from the 100 meters through to the 5,000 meters.
2013: Tatyana McFadden won the Boston, Chicago, London, and New York marathons in 2013. This makes her the first person – able-bodied or otherwise – to win the four major marathons in the same year. She also set a new course record for the Chicago Marathon (1 hour, 42 minutes, 35 seconds).
2013: Denise Fejtek became the first woman to complete the "Peak to Heat Double" – the combination of summiting Mount Everest and finishing the Ironman Triathlon World Championship in Kona, Hawaii. She reached the Everest Summit on May 23, 2010, and finished the Hawaii Ironman in October 2013.
2013: Sonya Baumstein became the first person to stand-up paddleboard across the Bering Strait.
2013: Meredith Novack became the fastest person, and first woman, to pull a double crossing of the Auau Channel in Hawaii. Her time was 11 hours and one minute.
2013: Rosie Napravnik won 17 races to become the first woman to capture the leading rider title at Keeneland.
2013: Olivia Prokopova became the first woman to win the World Crazy Golf Championship.
2013: Mia Hamm became the first woman inducted into the World Football Hall of Fame in Pachuca, Mexico.
2013: Emily Bell became the first woman to kayak the length of Britain.
2013: Casey Stoney became the first female member of the Professional Footballers' Association's management committee.
2013: Jodi Eller became the first woman to complete the 1,515-mile Florida Circumnavigational Saltwater Paddling Trail.
2013: On March 1, 2013, Privateers owner and president Nicole Kirnan served as the team's coach for the first time, making her the first woman to coach a professional hockey team in the United States.
2014: Torah Bright became the first woman to qualify for three snowboard disciplines at a Winter Olympics, specifically snowboard cross, halfpipe and slopestyle.
2014: Ashley Freiberg became the first woman to win an overall race in Continental Tire Challenge History when she won the Continental Tire SportsCar Challenge. Her co-driver was Shelby Blackstock.
2014: The first women competed in ski jumping at the Olympics.
2014: Jennifer Welter became the first female non-kicker or placekick-holder to play in a men's pro football game; she played running back for the Texas Revolution.
2014: Abbey Holmes became the first woman to kick 100 goals in one regular season of Australian Rules football.
2014: Annabel Anderson, from New Zealand, became the first woman to cross Cook Strait standing on a paddleboard.
2014: Peta Searle became the first woman appointed as a development coach in the Australian Football League when she was chosen by St Kilda as a development coach.
2014: 16-year-old Katie Ormerod, from Britain, became the first female snowboarder to land a backside double cork 1080.
2014: Shelby Osborne became the first female defensive back in American football when she was drafted by Campbellsville University in Kentucky.
2014: Amélie Mauresmo became the first woman to coach a top male tennis player (specifically, Andy Murray).
2014: Corinne Diacre became the first woman to coach a men's professional soccer team (Clermont Foot) in a competitive match in France on August 4, 2014, her 40th birthday.
2014: Cecilia Brækhus, from Norway, became the first Norwegian and the first woman to hold all major world championship titles in her weight division (welterweight) in boxing.
2014: On August 15, 2014, Mo'ne Davis was the first girl in Little League World Series history to pitch a winning game for the Taney Dragons and earned the win, and she was also the first girl to pitch a shutout in Little League postseason history.
2014: Amy Hughes, from England, ran 53 marathons in 53 days, thus setting the record for the most marathons run on consecutive days by any person, male or female.
2015: Jennifer Welter became the first woman hired to coach in men's pro football when the Texas Revolution of the Champions Indoor Football league announced that Welter was hired to coach linebackers and special teams.
2019: G. S. Lakshmi, former Indian cricketer, becomes the first female ICC match referee
2021: First African-American female full-time NFL coach (Washington Football Team); Jennifer King.
== See also ==
(History Portal is a "main page" linking to broader history topics.)
Aerial Nurse Corps of America - composed entirely of women pilots, ANCOA is regarded as the beginning of flight nurses and Air Ambulances.
Early Australian female aviators
List of American women's firsts - women's firsts specific to the U.S.
List of inventions and discoveries by women - inventions and discoveries in which women played a primary role
Timeline of women in photography - includes historic firsts for women in photography (as an art and in journalism)
Women in India §Timeline of women's achievements in India - section includes historic firsts for women in India
Women's history – Study of women's role in history
First woman (disambiguation link?)
== Further reading ==
Timeline of Women in World History, britannica.com, 2015 (archived January 18, 2015).
Nine things you didn't know were invented by women BBC, 4 September 2017
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_UEFA_Champions_League_final | 2010 UEFA Champions League final | The 2010 UEFA Champions League final was an association football match played at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, home of Real Madrid, on 22 May 2010, to determine the winners of the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League. It was the first Champions League final to be played on a weekend, rather than the traditional Wednesday. The match was won by Inter Milan, who beat Bayern Munich 2–0 to complete the treble, a feat never before achieved by any team from either Italy or Germany. The refereeing team came from England and was led by Howard Webb.
The win gave Inter their third European Cup title, and their first since 1965; moreover, it was their first appearance in the final since 1972, and they were the first Italian team to appear since A.C. Milan won the competition in 2007. Meanwhile, Bayern had won the competition as recently as 2001 – their most recent final appearance – although they were the first German side to reach the final since Bayer Leverkusen in 2002. The 2010 final was the first not to feature an English side since Porto beat Monaco in 2004, due to Manchester United being knocked out by Bayern Munich in the quarter-finals on away goals. The Santiago Bernabéu Stadium had hosted three European Cup finals: in 1957, 1969 and 1980.
As the winners, Inter played against 2009–10 UEFA Europa League winners Atlético Madrid in the 2010 UEFA Super Cup, and also entered the semi-finals of the 2010 FIFA Club World Cup. The match was Inter's last game under the management of Jose Mourinho as he would move to Real Madrid for 2010-11 season
== Background ==
Prior to the 2010 final, Bayern Munich and Inter Milan had met four times in European competition. In those four matches, Bayern held the edge with two wins to Inter's one; the other match finished as a draw. The first meeting between the two sides took place in the third round of the 1988–89 UEFA Cup; Inter won 2–0 the first match at the Olympiastadion in Munich, but Bayern responded with a 3–1 win at the San Siro two weeks later to go through on the away goals rule. They were next drawn together in Group B of the 2006–07 UEFA Champions League, along with Spartak Moscow and Sporting CP. The first match between Bayern and Inter was played at the San Siro, where Bayern won 2–0; the return match finished as a 1–1 draw.
Both teams went into the final chasing the treble, an achievement never before reached by teams from their respective countries; Inter came closest in 1965, when they won the Serie A and the European Cup but lost 1–0 to Juventus in the Coppa Italia final. Bayern Munich claimed their 22nd Bundesliga title on the last day of the season with a 3–1 win away to Hertha BSC on 8 May 2010, before claiming their eighth domestic Double with a 4–0 win over Werder Bremen in the 2010 DFB-Pokal Final on 15 May. Meanwhile, Inter beat Roma 1–0 for their sixth Coppa Italia on 5 May, and then won their fifth Serie A title in a row and their second Double on 16 May with a 1–0 win away to relegated Siena. With both teams having secured domestic Doubles going into the final, it was guaranteed that the Treble would be won for the second year in a row, following Barcelona's success in 2008–09.
The managers of both teams had won the Champions League before: Bayern manager Louis van Gaal won the competition with Ajax in 1995, while Inter's José Mourinho was manager of Porto's 2004 side. The winning manager would therefore become only the third in European Cup history to win as manager of two clubs, following in the footsteps of Ernst Happel (Feyenoord in 1970 and Hamburger SV in 1983) and Ottmar Hitzfeld (Borussia Dortmund in 1997 and Bayern Munich in 2001).
== Venue ==
The Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid was selected as the venue for the 2010 UEFA Champions League final at a meeting of the UEFA Executive Committee in Vaduz, Liechtenstein, on 28 March 2008. The committee – who selected the venue for the 2010 UEFA Europa League Final at the same meeting – based their decision on a number of criteria, including stadium capacity, facilities and security. It had been decided that the final would be played on a Saturday for the first time in Champions League history at the UEFA Executive Committee's meeting in Lucerne, Switzerland, on 30 November 2007.
The stadium was opened in 1947 following the election of Santiago Bernabéu as the president of Real Madrid. Upon construction, the stadium had a maximum capacity in excess of 75,000, but this was increased to 125,000 with the addition of a fourth stand in 1954. The stadium was chosen as one of two venues for matches at the 1964 European Nations' Cup, hosting both of the Spain team's matches, including their 2–1 win over the Soviet Union. In preparation for the 1982 FIFA World Cup, FIFA requirements forced renovations to the stadium, adding a canopy to three of the four stands and reducing the capacity to 90,800. The stadium hosted all three Group B matches and the final of the 1982 World Cup. Conversion to an all-seater stadium in 1998 further reduced capacity to just over 75,000, but the most recent expansion in 2006 increased capacity to just over 80,000. Only around 75,000 seats, however, were available for the 2010 final.
The stadium had hosted three European Cup finals: in 1957, 1969 and 1980. Real Madrid themselves won the 1957 final – their second of five consecutive wins – beating Fiorentina 2–0 in front of 120,000 spectators, the second highest attendance in a European Cup final. A.C. Milan won the next final at the stadium, beating Ajax 4–1 in 1969, and Nottingham Forest won 1–0 against Hamburger SV in the most recent final in Madrid in 1980.
== Route to the final ==
Note: In all results below, the score of the finalist is given first (H: home; A: away).
== Pre-match ==
=== Identity ===
The unique visual identity of the 2010 final was revealed at a special ceremony at Madrid's Ciudad del Fútbol Español on 20 November 2009. In attendance at the ceremony were final ambassador Emilio Butragueño, Royal Spanish Football Federation president Ángel María Villar Llona and UEFA's competitions director Giorgio Marchetti. UEFA has given the Champions League final a unique visual identity every year since 1999, in order to give "a distinctive flavour of the host city". The logo features the UEFA Champions League trophy at its core, surrounded by elements of the Champions League "starball" logo, the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium and the Puerta de Alcalá. The logo was designed to capture "the cultural and 'fiesta' aspects which Madrid is famed for".
=== Ticketing ===
Although the usual capacity of the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium was over 80,000, the net capacity for the 2010 Champions League final was around 75,000. The two finalists were each allocated 21,000 tickets, with a further 11,000 tickets being made available to the general public. Applications for those tickets were opened on 8 March 2010 and ran until 19 March; recipients were determined by a random lottery. These figures included a certain number of tickets set aside specifically for children; 2,000 tickets from each club's allocation went to children and their accompanying adults, as did 1,000 tickets from the general public's allocation. Finally, 500 tickets were reserved for children taking part in the activities at the UEFA Champions Festival in the week leading up to the final.
A ticketing launch event was held in Madrid on 5 March 2010, at which the ticketing concept for the final was announced. The event was also used to promote the start of ticket sales for the match, and was attended by the ambassador for the final, Emilio Butragueño, the president of the Community of Madrid, Esperanza Aguirre, and representatives from UEFA, the Royal Spanish Football Federation and the host club, Real Madrid. At the event, Aguirre was presented with the first ticket for the final by Real Madrid players Cristiano Ronaldo and Raúl.
=== Related events ===
A trophy handover ceremony was held at the Palacio de Cibeles in Madrid on 16 April 2010, when Johan Cruyff and Joan Laporta – as representatives of the 2009 champions, Barcelona – returned the UEFA Champions League Trophy to UEFA president Michel Platini. Platini then handed the trophy to Royal Spanish Football Federation president Ángel María Villar Llona and Alberto Ruiz-Gallardón, the mayor of Madrid, so that it might be put on display in the city until the day of the final. Real Madrid president Florentino Pérez, players Raúl, Kaká and Cristiano Ronaldo, and final ambassador Emilio Butragueño were also present at the ceremony.
=== Match ball ===
The official match ball for the 2010 Champions League final, the Adidas Finale Madrid, was unveiled on 9 March 2010. It was the tenth ball to use the "Starball" design that had become synonymous with the UEFA Champions League. Each of the stars on the ball featured an element of the logos of each of the last 10 Champions League finals, drawn in gold. In reference to the colours of the Spanish flag, each gold star has a red border, while the base colour of the ball referred to the white of Real Madrid's kit. The ball retained the "goosebump" texture of the previous two versions, but the panel configuration was changed for the Finale Madrid, with the panels following the star pattern on the ball.
=== Officials ===
The referee for the 2010 UEFA Champions League final was Howard Webb, representing The Football Association of England. Webb became an international referee in 2005, and took charge of his first UEFA Champions League match in the August of that year, when he officiated the match between Haka and Vålerenga in the second qualifying round. His first appointment in the Champions League proper came a year later with the group stage encounter between Steaua București and Lyon on 26 September 2006. Prior to the 2010 final, he had refereed a further 17 Champions League matches and nine UEFA Cup matches. He was also a referee at UEFA Euro 2008, the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup, and he was selected to be England's representative at the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
As usual, the referee was supported by assistant referees and a fourth official from the same country; in the 2010 final, Howard Webb was assisted by Darren Cann and Mike Mullarkey, with Martin Atkinson as the fourth official.
=== Team selection ===
The Inter team that began the game featured no Italian players in the starting line-up, while Bayern started the game with five Germans, all internationals named in the provisional German squad for the 2010 World Cup. Franck Ribéry was a notable absence for Bayern, serving a three-match suspension after being sent off in the first leg of the semi-final against Lyon for a foul on Lisandro López, while Inter were without midfielder Thiago Motta, who was serving a two-match suspension.
=== Opening ceremony ===
The 2010 Champions League final officially opened with the UEFA Champions Festival on 15 May 2010. The festival was held at Madrid's Parque del Retiro and ran for the entire week leading up to the final. It featured several events and exhibitions for fans to take part in; as well as being able to play on public-use mini-pitches, fans were able to meet famous faces from European football and explore the history of the Champions League. On the day of the final, the festival culminated with a match between former Spanish players and other European ex-professionals.
The UEFA Champions League Anthem was performed by Peruvian tenor Juan Diego Flórez.
== Match ==
=== Summary ===
The match was won 2–0 by Inter. Inter employed a counter-attacking strategy that saw them have less possession than Bayern, but Inter were able to comfortably defend their lead. Both goals were scored by Diego Milito, in the 35th and 70th minutes. Milito's first was scored following a long clearance by Inter goalkeeper Júlio César flicked down by Milito to Wesley Sneijder, who returned the pass to Milito to score. Milito's second goal came after he collected a pass from Samuel Eto'o and beat Daniel Van Buyten with the ball. Milito was substituted shortly before the end of the match, allowing him to be applauded by the Inter supporters. After the match, Milito stated the win brought "incredible happiness" and claimed his side deserved its victory. Bayern captain Mark van Bommel conceded Inter was the "most effective team", referring to the success of Inter's counter-attacking tactics. José Mourinho revealed after the match that he would likely resign from Inter to pursue the goal of being the first manager to win the Champions League with three clubs. Reports had linked him with a move to Real Madrid.
=== Details ===
=== Statistics ===
== Post-match ==
As a result of Inter's victory, Italy held onto its position in the top three of the UEFA country coefficient rankings and would therefore retain its fourth berth in the 2010–11 UEFA Champions League. If Bayern had won or the match had gone to penalties, Germany would have overtaken Italy and received an extra entry in 2010–11. Having beaten Roma both in the 2010 Coppa Italia Final and to the 2009–10 Serie A title, Inter won the treble for the first time in Italian football history.
Despite winning the treble, José Mourinho resigned as manager of Inter on 28 May to take over from Manuel Pellegrini as manager of Real Madrid, citing a desire to become the first manager to win the Champions League with three clubs. However, he was unable to accomplish this feat, being eliminated in three successive semi-finals before returning to his former club Chelsea in June 2013, with Carlo Ancelotti replacing him at Real Madrid (who went on to win the club's tenth title in his first season).
As winners of the Champions League, Inter played in the 2010 UEFA Super Cup against 2009–10 UEFA Europa League winners Atlético Madrid. They lost the match 2–0, with goals from José Antonio Reyes and Sergio Agüero. They also took part in the 2010 FIFA Club World Cup, entering at the semi-final stage. There they beat 2010 AFC Champions League winners Seongnam Ilhwa Chunma 3–0 to reach the final against 2010 CAF Champions League winners TP Mazembe, whom they also beat 3–0 to take the title.
== See also ==
2009–10 FC Bayern Munich season
2009–10 Inter Milan season
2010 UEFA Europa League final
2010 UEFA Women's Champions League final
FC Bayern Munich in international football
Inter Milan in international football
== References ==
== External links ==
2009–10 UEFA Champions League, UEFA.com
Full Time Report, UEFA.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_for_Soil_Mechanics_and_Geotechnical_Engineering | International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering | The International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE) is an international professional association, presently based in London, representing engineers, academics and contractors involved in geotechnical engineering. It is a federation of 90 member societies representing 91 countries around the world, which together give it a total of some 21,000 individual members. There are also 43 corporate associates from industry. The current ISSMGE President is Dr Marc Ballouz.
== History ==
The ISSMGE originated in the International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, held in June 1936 at Harvard University as one of many events held to mark the university's 300th anniversary. Arthur Casagrande of the Harvard faculty gained university support for an international conference on soil mechanics and successfully persuaded Karl Terzaghi, who was then working in Vienna, to preside. The conference attracted 206 delegates from 20 countries. The success of the five-day conference led participants to decide to establish a quadrennial International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering (ICSMFE) as a permanent institution. An executive committee was set up, with Terzaghi as the first president, Casagrande as its first secretary, and Philip Rutledge, also of Harvard, as treasurer. Due to World War II, the second ICSMFE was not held until June 1948. The 1948 conference, held in Rotterdam, had 596 delegates. After the third ICSMFE was held five years later in Zurich in 1953, the organization settled into a pattern of meeting every four years. In the meantime, a first regional conference was held in Australasia in 1952.
Terzaghi was first president of the ICSMFE, serving until 1957 when he was succeeded by Alec Skempton. Casagrande succeeded Skempton, holding the presidency from 1961 to 1965.
A steering committee was established in 1981, and it became the Board in 1985. This meets annually; the Council meets every two years.
The current name, the International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, was adopted in 1997.
ISSMGE membership has increased through its history. There were 32 member societies and 2500 individual members by 1957, 50 societies and 11,500 individuals in 1977, and 71 societies and 16,500 individuals in 1998. As of 2012, ISSMGE's reported membership totaled 19,000 individuals in 90 countries.
ISSMGE is a member of the Federation of International Geo-Engineering Societies (FedIGS).
=== ISSMGE Presidents and Secretaries-General ===
The ISSMGE Presidents over its history are as follows:
The secretaries general have been as follows:
== Activities ==
The ISSMGE organises conferences on subjects including deep foundations, earthquake engineering and underground construction. Its main events continue to be the quadrennial International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (ICSMGE), plus five quadrennial regional conferences, Young Geotechnical Engineers' Conferences, and specialist international conferences, symposia and workshops.
In addition to a bimonthly bulletin and various technical committee reports, the society publishes an official scientific journal in collaboration with Geoengineer.org, the International Journal of Geoengineering Case Histories. This is a peer-reviewed online journal that presents reports of observations and data collected in the practice of geotechnical engineering, earthquake engineering, environmental geotechnics, and engineering geology.
== References ==
== External links ==
ISSMGE website
Federation of International Geo-Engineering Societies |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastriya_Swatantra_Party#:~:text=The%20party%20was%20formally%20registered,circle%20as%20its%20election%20symbol. | Rastriya Swatantra Party | The Rastriya Swatantra Party (Nepali: राष्ट्रिय स्वतन्त्र पार्टी, lit. 'National Independence Party', abbr. RSP) is a centrist political party in Nepal. The party was running as a coalition partner in Prachanda-led government with four cabinet ministries from 6 March 2024 to 12 July 2024.
Previously, it remained as a junior ally in the Prachanda-led government from 26 December 2022 until 5 February 2023. The party was announced by Rabi Lamichhane in June 2022 and registered with the Election Commission of Nepal on 1 July 2022, ahead of the 2022 Nepalese general election. The RSP was the fourth-largest national party in Nepal following the 2022 election.
== History ==
=== Formation-present ===
On 16 June 2022, Rabi Lamichhane resigned as managing director of Galaxy 4K television and announced that he would be contesting in the 2022 general elections for a seat at the House of Representatives. On 21 June 2022, he announced the formation of Rastriya Swatantra Party along with a 21-member central committee. The party was formally registered in the Election Commission on 1 July 2022 with Rabi Lamichhane as the founding president and a bell inside a circle as its election symbol.
The party fielded FPTP candidates in 131 constituencies and submitted a closed list of prospective 107 PR lawmakers for seats of House of Representatives amidst the 2022 general elections. The party did not field any candidates for provincial assemblies. The party selected candidates through primary elections. While the party emerged as the fourth-largest party in the House of Representatives, it secured victory in seven constituencies of which four were in Kathmandu, one in Lalitpur and two in Chitwan. It received 10.70% of the party list vote and became one of the seven national parties in the Federal Parliament. The party was allotted with 13 seats through the proportional representation system, bringing their total parliamentary strength in the House of Representatives to 20. Later the party won Tanahun 1 constituency where the party fielded Swarnim Wagle who later advocated in parliament for decreasing the number of army in country.
Party president Rabi Lamichhane fled from the Nakkhu jail during the 2025 Nepalese Gen Z protests later to which he gave justification that it was per the decision of Ministry of Home Affairs. Later the credibility was rejected by the prison administration while he faced mass criticism for indirectly promoting prisoned criminals to run away from prison. Party leaders remained divided on dissolving the parliament where leaders including Sobita Gautam condemned possibility of any such moves. Party joint general secretary and former MP Sumana Shrestha resigned from the post and later from party membership on 14 September 2025 in the awake of protests citing culture of leader worship in the party. Later party chief whip Santosh Pariyar left the party to form Pragatisheel Loktantrik Party citing that development of a personality could never lead to development of Nation.
== Organization ==
The party had announced that it would have no sister organizations and only have members, not cadres. It had also announced that primary elections would be held to select candidates for elections from the party.
== Ideology ==
The party supports constitutional socialism, market socialism, progressivism, political pragmatism, participatory democracy, economic liberalism and political freedom. The party has been described as centrist by different members within the party.
== Ministry responsible ==
=== Under Dahal Cabinet ===
==== From 6 March 2024 to 12 July 2024 ====
==== From 17 January 2023 to 5 February 2023 ====
== Policy platform ==
=== Natural order of the economy ===
The party endorses a "capitalistic" economy policy with individual rights. Industrial and commercial activities are off-limits to the government, which cannot interfere with economic relations between individuals, groups, classes, or entire nations. The party supports the idea that economic freedom will drive the economy to the prosperity and so does the planning and interference by the government disrupt the economy and have adverse effects.
=== Electoral reform ===
It also supports the introduction of recall elections, the right to reject and a provision for absentee ballots. The party also supports a directly elected prime minister and directly elected chief ministers for the seven provinces of Nepal.
The party in its manifesto for the 2022 elections also supported the idea of a non-partisan president elected by an expanded electoral college which would incorporate elected representatives from ward chairs to federal lawmakers and also touted the idea of the chairman of the National Assembly acting as the de facto vice-president. The party also seeks to end political appointments in constitutional bodies and has called for the Constitutional Council to be scrapped and for appointments to constitutional bodies be recommended by the National Assembly and confirmed by the House of Representatives instead. The party has also called for the dissolution of provincial assemblies, district co-ordination committees and has stood in favour of a provincial council which would be elected by the heads of local governments in the province. The party chair Rabi Lamichhane did not cast his vote at the 2022 provincial elections.
=== Economic and social welfare ===
The party sees the private sector, co-operatives and the public sector as the three pillars of the economy. The party favors competition and seeks to establish a growing role of the private sector as an alternative to the public sector in order to deliver services to the people and for economic growth. The party wants to end income tax for people in the lowest octile of earners in the country. The party also seeks to establish food banks in every ward in the country and to guarantee nutrition assistance for people living under the poverty line by issuing them ration cards. The party also seeks to expand the current social welfare system and to include private insurance companies in the social welfare system.
=== Healthcare ===
The party supports the establishment of a single-payer healthcare system and the establishment of at least one laboratory and a 750-bed hospital in each of the seven provinces, a 50 to 100-bed hospital in each of the 77 districts, a 6 to 25-bed hospital in each local unit and a clinic in each ward in the country. The party also wants to establish a centralized national ambulance service, health and quality assurance accreditation board, a food and drug department, a central disease board and a health innovation & development board. The party also wants to create a health workers act for public healthcare workers.
=== Corruption ===
The party seeks to crackdown on corruption by introducing a Whistleblower Protection Act to protect whistleblowers and by establishing an Anti-Corruption Police under the Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority.
=== Women and sexual minorities ===
The party has also called for the establishment of shelters for victims of abuse and the creation of a fund to help victims of human trafficking, domestic violence and acid attack victims. The party also seeks to promote entrepreneurship among women and sexual minorities by establishing funds for businesses where at least sixty percent of the shareholders or employees are female or of a sexual minority group.
== Electoral performance ==
=== 2022 general election ===
The party nominated 131 candidates for the First Past the Post seats for the 2022 Nepalese general election.
== Leadership ==
=== Party Chairman ===
Rabi Lamichhane (2023–present)
=== Deputy Chairman ===
Dol Prasad Aryal (2023–present) (acting chairman)
Swarnim Wagle (2023–present)
=== Joint Secretary ===
Sumana Shrestha (2023-2025)
Deepak Bohara (2025–present)
=== Deputy Leader of the Parliamentary Party ===
Biraj Bhakta Shrestha (2023–present)
=== Chief Whip ===
Santosh Pariyar (2023–present)
=== General secretary ===
Mukul Dhakal (June 2022- July 2024)
Kabindra Burlakoti (July 2024–present)
=== Spokesperson ===
Manish Jha (2023–present)
=== List of Deputy Prime Ministers ===
== Members of Parliament ==
=== Pratinidhi Shabha (2022-dissolution) ===
This MPs list is based on the order of power holdings within the party and ministry level and length of presence in the meeting of house of representatives.
== See also ==
Politics of Nepal
Ujyaalo Nepal Party
Pragatisheel Loktantrik Party
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_Industry_Medal#:~:text=Orrefice%2C%20Dow-,1984%20James%20Affleck,-%2C%20American%20Cyanamid | Chemical Industry Medal | The Chemical Industry Medal is an annual American award given to an industrial chemist by the Society of Chemical Industry America (SCI America). The medal has been awarded since 1933, when it replaced the Grasselli Medal. It was initially given to "a person making a valuable application of chemical research to industry. Primary consideration shall be given to applications in the public interest." As of 1945, the criterion became "a person who ... has rendered conspicuous service to applied chemistry." More recently it has been awarded "for contributions toward the growth of the chemical industry."
== Recipients ==
Source: SCI Chemical Industry Medal Past Winners
1933 James G. Vail, Philadelphia Quartz Company
1934 Floyd G. Metzger, Air Reduction
1935 Edward R. Weidlein, Mellon Institute
1936 Walter S. Landis, American Cyanamid
1937 Evan J. Crane, Chemical Abstracts
1938 John V. N. Dorr, Dorr
1939 Robert E. Wilson, Standard Oil of Indiana, PanAmerican Petroleum
1941 Elmer K. Bolton, Dupont
1942 Harrison Howe, ACS
1943 John Grebe, Dow
1944 Bradley Dewey, Dewey & Almy
1945 Sidney Dale Kirkpatrick, Chemical & Metallurgical
1946 Willard H. Dow, Dow Chemical
1947 George W. Merck, Merck
1948 James A. Rafferty, Union Carbide
1949 William B. Bell, American Cyanamid
1950 William M. Rand, Monsanto
1951 Ernest W. Reid, Corn Products
1952 J. R. Donald, Crawford H. Greenewalt, Dupont
1953 Charles S. Munson, Air Reduction
1954 Ernest H. Volwiler, Abbot
1955 Joseph George Davidson, Union Carbide
1956 Robert Lindley Murray, Hooker Electrochemical
1957 Clifford Rassweiler, Johns Manville
1958 Fred J. Emmerich, Allied
1959 Harry B. Mcclure, Union Carbide
1960 Hans Stauffer, Stauffer
1961 William Edward Hanford, Olin Mathieson
1962 Kenneth H. Klipstein, American Cyanamid
1963 Max Tishler, Merck
1964 Leland I. Doan, Dow
1965 Ralph Connor, Rohm and Haas
1966 Monroe E. Spaght, Shell
1967 Chester M. Brown, Allied
1968 Harold W. Fisher, Standard Oil of New Jersey
1969 Charles B. McCoy, Dupont
1970 William H. Lycan, Johnson & Johnson
1971 Carroll A. Hochwalt, Thomas & Hochwalt, Monsanto
1972 Jesse Werner, Gaf
1973 Ralph Landau, Scientific Design
1974 Carl Gerstacker, Dow
1975 Leonard P. Pool, Air Products & Chemicals
1976 Harold E. Thayer, Mallinckrodt
1977 F. Perry Wilson, Union Carbide
1978 Jack B. St. Clair, Shell
1979 Irving S. Shapiro, Dupont
1980 Edward Donley, Air Products
1981 Thomas W. Mastin, Lubrizol
1982 H. Barclay Morley, Stauffer
1983 Paul Oreffice, Dow
1984 James Affleck, American Cyanamid
1985 Louis Fernandez, Monsanto
1986 Edward G. Jefferson, Dupont
1987 Edwin C. Holmer, Exxon
1988 Vincent L. Gregory Jr., Rohm and Haas
1989 Richard E. Heckert, Dupont
1990 George J. Sella Jr., American Cyanamid
1991 Dexter F. Baker, Air Products
1992 H. Eugene McBrayer, Exxon
1993 W. H. Clark, Nalco
1994 Keith R. McKennon, Dow Corning
1995 Robert D. Kennedy, Union Carbide
1996 John W. Johnstone Jr., Olin
1997 J. Roger Hirl, Occidental Chemical
1998 Edgar S. Woolard, Jr., Dupont
1999 J. Lawrence Wilson, Rohm and Haas
2000 Vincent A. Calarco, Crompton
2001 William S. Stavropoulos, Dow Chemical
2002 Earnest W. Deavenport Jr., Eastman Chemical
2003 Whitson Sadler, Solvay
2004 Thomas E. Reilly, Reilly Industries
2005 Daniel S. Sanders, ExxonMobil & Company
2006 Jon Huntsman, Sr., Huntsman Corporation
2007 Raj Gupta, Rohm and Haas
2008 Dennis H. Reilley, Praxair
2009 Jeffrey M. Lipton, Nova Chemicals
2010 Michael E. Campbell, Arch Chemicals, Inc
2011 J. Brian Ferguson, Eastman Chemical
2012 David N. Weidman, Celanese
2013 Andrew Liveris, Dow Chemical
2014 Sunil Kumar, International Speciality Products
2015 Stephen D. Pryor, President of ExxonMobil Chemical
2016 James L. Gallogly, LyondellBasell
2017 Andreas C. Kramvis, Honeywell
2018, Cal Dooley, American Chemistry Council
2019, Neil A. Chapman, Exxon Mobil Corporation
2020, Christopher D. Pappas, Trinseo
2021, Craig Rogerson, Hexion
2022, Mark Vergnano, Chemours
2023, Bhavesh (Bob) Patel, W.R. Grace & Co.
2024, John J. Paro, Hallstar
2025, Albert Chao and James Chao, Westlake Corporation
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== External links ==
SCI Chemical Industry Medal Past Winners
Society of Chemical Industry
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelia_Parker#:~:text=Cornelia%20Parker's%20first%20solo%20museum,Tate%20Britain%20in%20May%202022. | Cornelia Parker | Cornelia Ann Parker (born 14 July 1956) is an English visual artist, best known for her sculpture and installation art.
== Life and career ==
Parker was born in 1956 in Cheshire, England. Her childhood with a mentally fragile mother and a violent father had a strong influence on her. Her German mother was a nurse in the Luftwaffe during the Second World War; her British grandfather fought in the Battle of the Somme in the First World War.
Parker studied at the Gloucestershire College of Art and Design (1974–1975) and Wolverhampton Polytechnic (1975–1978). She received her MFA from Reading University in 1982 and honorary doctorates from the University of Wolverhampton in 2000, the University of Birmingham (2005), the University of Gloucestershire (2008) and the University of Manchester (2017).
In 1997, Parker was shortlisted for the Turner Prize along with Christine Borland, Angela Bulloch, and Gillian Wearing (who won the prize). She was Honorary Professor at the University of Manchester 2015–2018 and between 2016 and 2019 was Visiting Fellow at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. She was appointed Honorary Fellow at Trinity Hall, Cambridge in 2020.
Cornelia Parker's first solo museum exhibition was at the Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston in 2000. In 2019 she had a survey exhibition at MCA Sydney. A major survey exhibition of her work opened at Tate Britain in May 2022.
She has one daughter, Lily, with her former husband Jeff McMillan, and lives and works in London.
== Work ==
Parker is best known for large-scale installations such as Cold Dark Matter: An Exploded View (1991) – first shown at the Chisenhale Gallery in Bow, East London – for which she had a garden shed blown up by the British Army and suspended the fragments as if suspending the explosion process in time. In the centre was a light which cast the shadows of the wood dramatically on the walls of the room. This inspired an orchestral composition of the same name by Joo Yeon Sir.
In contrast, in 1997 at the Turner Prize exhibition, Parker exhibited Mass (Colder Darker Matter) (1997), suspending the charred remains of a church that had been struck by lightning in Texas. Eight years later, Parker made a companion piece "Anti-Mass" (2005), using charcoal from a black congregation church in Kentucky, which had been destroyed by arson. Hanging Fire (Suspected Arson) (1999) is another example of Parker's suspended sculptures, featuring charred remains of an actual case of suspected arson.
The Maybe (1995) at the Serpentine Gallery, London, was a performance piece conceived by Tilda Swinton, who lay, apparently asleep, inside a vitrine. She asked Parker to collaborate with her on the project, and to create an installation in which she could sleep. Swinton's original idea was to lie in state as Snow White in a glass coffin, but through the collaboration with Parker the idea evolved into her appearing as herself and not as an actor posing as a fictional character. Parker filled the Serpentine with glass cases containing relics that belonged to famous historical figures, such as the pillow and blanket from Freud's couch, Mrs. Simpson's ice skates, Charles Dickens' quill pen and Queen Victoria's stocking. A version of the piece was later re-performed in Rome (1996) and then MoMA, New York (2013) without Parker's involvement.
Avoided Object is an ongoing series of smaller works which have been developed in liaison with various institutions, including the Royal Armouries, British Police Forces, Colt Firearms and Madame Tussauds.
Parker has made other interventions involving historical artworks. In 1998 in her solo show at the Serpentine Gallery she exhibited the backs of Turner paintings (Room for Margins) as works in their own right, she wrapped Rodin's The Kiss sculpture in Tate Britain with a mile of string (2003) as her contribution to the 2003 Tate Triennial Days Like These at Tate Britain. The intervention was titled The Distance (A Kiss With String Attached). She re-staged this piece as part of her mid-career retrospective at the Whitworth Art Gallery, Manchester, in 2015 and at Tate Britain in 2022.
Subconscious of a Monument (2005) is composed of fragments of dry soil suspended on wires from the gallery ceiling. These lumps are the now-desiccated clay which was removed from beneath the Leaning Tower of Pisa in order to prevent its collapse.
These "avoided" objects have often had their identities transformed by being burned, shot, squashed, stretched, drawn, exploded, cut, or simply dropped off cliffs. Cartoon deaths have long held a fascination for Parker: "Tom being run over by a steamroller or Jerry riddled with bullet holes." Sometimes the object's demise has been orchestrated, or it may have occurred accidentally or by natural causes. According to Parker:They might be 'preempted' objects that have not yet achieved a fully formed identity, having been plucked prematurely from the production line like Embryo Firearms 1995. They may not even be classified as objects: things like cracks, creases, shadows, dust or dirt The Negative of Whispers 1997: Earplugs made with fluff gathered in the Whispering Gallery, St Paul's Cathedral). Or they might be those territories you want to avoid psychologically, such as the backs, underbellies or tarnished surfaces of things."Another example of this work is Pornographic Drawings (1997), using ink made by the artist who used solvent to dissolve (pornographic) video tape, confiscated by HM Customs and Excise.
I resurrect things that have been killed off... My work is all about the potential of materials—even when it looks like they've lost all possibilities.
In 2009, for the opening of Jupiter Artland, a sculpture park near Edinburgh, Parker created a firework display titled Nocturne: A Moon Landing containing a lunar meteorite. Therefore, the moon "landed on Jupiter". The following year Parker made Landscape with Gun and Tree for Jupiter Artland, a nine-metre-tall cast iron and Corten steel shotgun leaning against a tree. It was inspired by the painting Mr and Mrs Andrews by Thomas Gainsborough, where Mr Andrews poses with a gun slung over his arm. The shotgun used in the piece is a facsimile of the one owned by Robert Wilson, one of the founders of Jupiter Artland.
For the Folkestone Triennial in 2011, Parker created The Folkestone Mermaid, her version of one of the popular tourist attractions in Copenhagen, The Little Mermaid. Through a process of open submission, Parker chose Georgina Baker, 38 year old mother of two, Folkestone born and bred. Unlike the idealised Copenhagen version, this is a life-size, life-cast sculpture, celebrating womankind.
To celebrate the 800th anniversary of Magna Carta, Parker created Magna Carta (An Embroidery), a hand-embroidered representation of the Wikipedia article on Magna Carta as it was on 15 June 2014, completed in 2015. Embroiderers included members of the Embroiderers Guild, HM prisoners, Peers, MP's, judges, human rights lawyers, a US ambassador and his staff, and various public figures including Edward Snowden, Julian Assange, Jimmy Wales, Jarvis Cocker and Doreen Lawrence.
Whilst Magna Carta (An Embroidery) was on display at the British Library, Parker presented One More Time, a Terrace Wires commission for St Pancras International Station, London, co-presented by HS1 Ltd. and the Royal Academy of Arts.
In 2016 Parker became the first female artist to be commissioned to create a new work for the Roof Garden of the Met in New York. Transitional Object (PsychoBarn) is a scaled-down replica of the house from the 1960 Hitchcock film Psycho and was constructed using a salvaged red barn.
Parker continued her work as a curator for the Found exhibition for The Foundling Museum, which incorporated sixty-eight artists from an array of creative disciplines, as well as contributing her own piece, A Little Drop of Gin. This limited-edition print, nicknamed 'mother's ruin', was a photogravure using a 1750s gin glass and droppings of gin. Parker was named Artist of the Year in the 2016 Apollo Awards for her involvement and contributions in the art world.
Parker appeared in the BBC Four television series What Do Artists Do All Day?, a BBC Scotland production, first broadcast in 2013. In the programme she talks about her life and work. In May 2015, Parker was included in the Brilliant Ideas series broadcast by Bloomberg TV in which she reveals her inspirations and discusses some of her best-loved works. In summer 2016, BBC One broadcast "Danger! Cornelia Parker" as part of the TV series Imagine. In autumn 2016 she was included in Gaga for Dada, a programme to mark the 100th anniversary of Dada, presented by Vic Reeves. She also contributed to the BBC Four production Bricks! broadcast on 21 September 2016, marking the 40th anniversary of Carl Andre's sculpture Equivalent VIII, better known as "The Tate Bricks".
On 1 May 2017 Parker was chosen as the official election artist for the 2017 United Kingdom general election; she was the first woman to take on that role.
In 2017, Parker made a series of blackboard drawings with the collaboration of 5- to 10-year-old schoolchildren from Torriano Primary School. The children were asked by the artist to copy out news headlines collected from various UK and US newspapers. "At that age, children have a barely formed view of the news and world affairs—they don't yet have a vote, but the political turmoil unfolding in their young lives will have a profound effect on their futures."
In November 2019 Parker opened her first major retrospective exhibition in Australia at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney for the Tenth Sydney International Art Series.
In May 2022 Parker exhibited 100 artworks at Tate Britain in her largest solo exhibition to date. She showed several of her films, Chomskian Abstract 2007, Made in Bethlehem 2012, War Machine 2015, American Gothic 2016, Left, Right & Centre 2017, Election Abstract 2018, Thatcher’s Finger 2018 and Flag 2022. Tabish Khan, reviewing the exhibition for Culture Whisper, said "Conceptual art can often be seen as abstruse but Cornelia Parker is able to make it accessible and playful, yet she also adds a level of intelligent rigour to her work that challenges us to think about the wider world we live in. It’s precisely what conceptual art should be."
In May 2023, her photograph "Snap" was used as the cover artwork for the Peter Gabriel song "Four Kinds of Horses".
In November 2024, Parker's glass rendition of the chandelier featured in Van Eyck's The Arnolfini Portrait was suspended in the Procuratie Vecchie in St Mark's Square, Venice. This work was created as part of Murano Illumina il Mondo (“Murano Lights Up the World”) and was the first time in living memory that artworks were permitted to be displayed in the colonnade.
== Curatorial ==
In 2011 Parker curated an exhibition titled Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain for the Collections Gallery at the Whitechapel Gallery in London using selected works from the Government Art Collection arranged as a colour spectrum.
For the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition in 2014, Parker curated the Black and White Room which included a number of well-known artists who she thought should be future Royal Academicians.
In 2016, as part of her Hogarth Fellowship at the Foundling Museum, Parker curated a group exhibition titled FOUND presenting works from over sixty artists from a range of creative disciplines, asked to respond to the theme of "found", reflecting on the museum's heritage.
== Honours and recognition ==
In 2010 Parker was elected to the Royal Academy of Arts, London and appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2010 Birthday Honours. In 2000, 2005 and 2008 and 2017 she received Honorary Doctorates from the Universities of Wolverhampton, Birmingham, and Gloucestershire and Manchester respectively.
Parker won the Artist of the Year Apollo Award in 2016. Other shortlisted artists were Carmen Herrera, David Hockney, Ragnar Kjartansson, Jannis Kounellis and Helen Marten.
Parker was named the official Election Artist for the 2017 general election in the United Kingdom. In this role she observed the election campaign leading up to the vote on 8 June, and was required to produce a piece of art in response. Parker created two films and a series of 14 photographic works as a result of this commission, which were previewed on BBC Newsnight on 2 February 2018 and made available online via the UK Parliament website prior to an exhibition in Westminster Hall.
She was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2022 Birthday Honours for services to the arts.
== Politics ==
In politics, prior to the 2015 general election, she was one of several celebrities who endorsed the parliamentary candidacy of the Green Party's Caroline Lucas.
== See also ==
Art of the United Kingdom
Book Works
== References ==
== External links ==
Tate: Cold Dark Matter: An Exploded View
Tate: Cornelia Parker: Talking Art Cornelia Parker interviewed by writer and curator Lisa LeFeuvre. 31 May 2008
Tateshots: Cornelia Parker's 'Folkestone Mermaid' The artist talks about her work for Folkestone Triennial 2011. 23 June 2011
Sculptor and Artist Cornelia Parker (video)
IMAGINE: DANGER! Cornelia Parker First Broadcast July 2016, the artist discusses her work with Alan Yentob |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeanne_Clare_Adams | Jeanne Clare Adams | Jeanne Clare Adams (June 15, 1921 – April 21, 2007) was an American computer scientist. She was Chairman of the ANSI X3J3 Fortran Standards Committee that "developed the controversial Fortran 8X proposal".
She graduated with a BS in economics from the University of Michigan in 1943, and an MS in telecommunications and electrical engineering from the University of Colorado in 1979. From 1943-1946 she worked as a systems analyst for the Army Air Corps and from 1947-1949 as a research statistician at Harvard University. Her longest held position was at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado, from 1960 to 1981, serving from 1984 to 1997 as deputy head of the Computing Division. Adams was also chair of the International Standards Organization Committee on Programming Languages (TC97/SC5), now ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 7 and the ANSI Fortran Standards Committee (X3J3). Adams wrote reference manuals for computer equipment such as the CYBER 205.
== Selected publications ==
Adams, Jeanne C., Walter S. Brainerd, and Charles H. Coldberg, Programmer's Guide to Fortran 90, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1990.
Adams, Jeanne C., Walter S. Brainerd, J. Martin, B. Smith, and J. Wagener, Fortran 90 Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1992.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerium | Cerium | Cerium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ce and atomic number 58, and is a soft, ductile, and silvery-white metal that tarnishes when exposed to air. Cerium is the second element in the lanthanide series, and while it often shows the oxidation state of +3 characteristic of the series, it also has a stable +4 state that does not oxidize water. It is considered one of the rare-earth elements. Cerium has no known biological role in humans but is not particularly toxic, except with intense or continued exposure.
Despite always occurring in combination with the other rare-earth elements in minerals such as those of the monazite and bastnäsite groups, cerium is easy to extract from its ores, as it can be distinguished among the lanthanides by its unique ability to be oxidized to the +4 state in aqueous solution. It is the most common of the lanthanides, followed by neodymium, lanthanum, and praseodymium. Its estimated abundance in the Earth's crust is 68 ppm.
Cerium was the first of the lanthanides to be discovered, in Bastnäs, Sweden. It was discovered by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger in 1803, and independently by Martin Heinrich Klaproth in Germany in the same year. In 1839 Carl Gustaf Mosander separated cerium(III) oxide from other rare earths, and in 1875 William Francis Hillebrand became the first to isolate the metal. Today, cerium and its compounds have a variety of uses: for example, cerium(IV) oxide is used to polish glass and is an important part of catalytic converters. Cerium metal is used in ferrocerium lighters for its pyrophoric properties. Cerium-doped YAG phosphor is used in conjunction with blue light-emitting diodes to produce white light in most commercial white LED light sources.
== Characteristics ==
=== Physical ===
Cerium is the second element of the lanthanide series. In the periodic table, it appears between the lanthanides lanthanum to its left and praseodymium to its right, and above the actinide thorium. It is a ductile metal with a hardness similar to that of silver. Its 58 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Xe]4f15d16s2, of which the four outer electrons are valence electrons. The 4f, 5d, and 6s energy levels are very close to each other, and the transfer of one electron to the 5d shell is due to strong interelectronic repulsion in the compact 4f shell. This effect is overwhelmed when the atom is positively ionised; thus Ce2+ on its own has instead the regular configuration [Xe]4f2, although in some solid solutions it may be [Xe]4f15d1. Most lanthanides can use only three electrons as valence electrons, as afterwards the remaining 4f electrons are too strongly bound: cerium is an exception because of the stability of the empty f-shell in Ce4+ and the fact that it comes very early in the lanthanide series, where the nuclear charge is still low enough until neodymium to allow the removal of the fourth valence electron by chemical means.
Cerium has a variable electronic structure. The energy of the 4f electron is nearly the same as that of the outer 5d and 6s electrons that are delocalized in the metallic state, and only a small amount of energy is required to change the relative occupancy of these electronic levels. This gives rise to dual valence states. For example, a volume change of about 10% occurs when cerium is subjected to high pressures or low temperatures. In its high pressure phase (α-Cerium), the 4f electrons are also delocalized and itinerate, as opposed to localized 4f electrons in low pressure phase (γ-Cerium). It appears that the valence changes from about 3 to 4 when it is cooled or compressed.
=== Chemical properties of the element ===
Like the other lanthanides, cerium metal is a good reducing agent, having standard reduction potential of E⦵ = −2.34 V for the Ce3+/Ce couple. It tarnishes in air, forming a passivating oxide layer like iron rust. A centimeter-sized sample of cerium metal corrodes completely in about a year. More dramatically, metallic cerium can be highly pyrophoric:
Ce + O2 → CeO2
Being highly electropositive, cerium reacts with water. The reaction is slow with cold water but speeds up with increasing temperature, producing cerium(III) hydroxide and hydrogen gas:
2 Ce + 6 H2O → 2 Ce(OH)3 + 3 H2
=== Allotropes ===
Four allotropic forms of cerium are known to exist at standard pressure and are given the common labels of α to δ:
The high-temperature form, δ-cerium, has a bcc (body-centered cubic) crystal structure and exists above 726 °C.
The stable form below 726 °C to approximately room temperature is γ-cerium, with an fcc (face-centered cubic) crystal structure.
The DHCP (double hexagonal close-packed) form β-cerium is the equilibrium structure approximately from room temperature to −150 °C.
The fcc form α-cerium is stable below about −150 °C; it has a density of 8.16 g/cm3.
Other solid phases occurring only at high pressures are shown on the phase diagram.
Both γ and β forms are quite stable at room temperature, although the equilibrium transformation temperature is estimated at 75 °C.
At lower temperatures the behavior of cerium is complicated by the slow rates of transformation. Transformation temperatures are subject to substantial hysteresis and values quoted here are approximate. Upon cooling below −15 °C, γ-cerium starts to change to β-cerium, but the transformation involves a volume increase and, as more β forms, the internal stresses build up and suppress further transformation. Cooling below approximately −160 °C will start formation of α-cerium but this is only from remaining γ-cerium. β-cerium does not significantly transform to α-cerium except in the presence of stress or deformation. At atmospheric pressure, liquid cerium is more dense than its solid form at the melting
point.
=== Isotopes ===
All nuclear data not otherwise stated is from the standard source:
Naturally occurring cerium is made up of four isotopes: 136Ce (0.19%), 138Ce (0.25%), 140Ce (88.45%), and 142Ce (11.11%). All are observationally stable, though the light isotopes 136Ce and 138Ce are theoretically expected to undergo double electron capture to isotopes of barium, and the heaviest isotope 142Ce is expected to undergo double beta decay to 142Nd or alpha decay to 138Ba. Thus, 140Ce is the only theoretically stable isotope. None of these decay modes have yet been observed, though the double beta decays of 136Ce, 138Ce, and 142Ce have been experimentally searched for. The current experimental limits for their half-lives are about 1×1017, 4×1017, and 3×1018 years - all short compared to known double-beta half-lives.
All other cerium isotopes are synthetic and radioactive. The most stable of them are 144Ce with a half-life of 284.9 days, 139Ce with a half-life of 137.6 days, and 141Ce with a half-life of 32.5 days. All other radioactive cerium isotopes have half-lives under four days, and most of them have half-lives under ten minutes. The isotopes between 140Ce and 144Ce inclusive occur as fission products of uranium. The primary decay mode of the isotopes lighter than 140Ce is inverse beta decay or electron capture to isotopes of lanthanum, while that of the heavier isotopes is beta decay to isotopes of praseodymium. Some isotopes of neodymium can alpha decay or are predicted to decay to isotopes of cerium.
== Compounds ==
Cerium exists in two main oxidation states, Ce(III) and Ce(IV). This pair of adjacent oxidation states dominates several aspects of the chemistry of this element. Cerium(IV) aqueous solutions may be prepared by reacting cerium(III) solutions with the strong oxidizing agents peroxodisulfate or bismuthate. The value of E⦵(Ce4+/Ce3+) varies widely depending on conditions due to the relative ease of complexation and hydrolysis with various anions, although +1.72 V is representative. Cerium is the only lanthanide which has important aqueous and coordination chemistry in the +4 oxidation state.
=== Halides ===
Cerium forms all four trihalides CeX3 (X = F, Cl, Br, I) usually by reaction of the oxides with the hydrogen halides. The anhydrous halides are pale-colored, paramagnetic, hygroscopic solids. Upon hydration, the trihalides convert to complexes containing aquo complexes [Ce(H2O)8-9]3+. Unlike most lanthanides, Ce forms a tetrafluoride, a white solid. It also forms a bronze-colored diiodide, which has metallic properties. Aside from the binary halide phases, a number of anionic halide complexes are known. The fluoride gives the Ce(IV) derivatives CeF4−8 and CeF2−6. The chloride gives the orange CeCl2−6.
=== Oxides and chalcogenides ===
Cerium(IV) oxide ("ceria") has the fluorite structure, similarly to the dioxides of praseodymium and terbium. Ceria is a nonstoichiometric compound, meaning that the real formula is CeO2−x, where x is about 0.2. Thus, the material is not perfectly described as Ce(IV). Ceria reduces to cerium(III) oxide with hydrogen gas. Many nonstoichiometric chalcogenides are also known, along with the trivalent Ce2Z3 (Z = S, Se, Te). The monochalcogenides CeZ conduct electricity and would better be formulated as Ce3+Z2−e−. While CeZ2 are known, they are polychalcogenides with cerium(III): cerium(IV) derivatives of S, Se, and Te are unknown.
=== Cerium(IV) complexes ===
The compound ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) (NH4)2[Ce(NO3)6] is the most common cerium compound encountered in the laboratory. The six nitrate ligands bind as bidentate ligands. The complex [Ce(NO3)6]2− is 12-coordinate, a high coordination number which emphasizes the large size of the Ce4+ ion. CAN is a popular oxidant in organic synthesis, both as a stoichiometric reagent and as a catalyst. It is inexpensive, stable in air, easily handled, and of low toxicity. It operates by one-electron redox. Cerium nitrates also form 4:3 and 1:1 complexes with 18-crown-6 (the ratio referring to that between the nitrate and the crown ether). Classically, CAN is a primary standard for quantitative analysis. Cerium(IV) salts, especially cerium(IV) sulfate, are often used as standard reagents for volumetric analysis in cerimetric titrations.
Due to ligand-to-metal charge transfer, aqueous cerium(IV) ions are orange-yellow. Aqueous cerium(IV) is metastable in water and is a strong oxidizing agent that oxidizes hydrochloric acid to give chlorine gas. In the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, cerium oscillates between the +4 and +3 oxidation states to catalyze the reaction.
=== Organocerium compounds ===
Organocerium chemistry is similar to that of the other lanthanides, often involving complexes of cyclopentadienyl and cyclooctatetraenyl ligands. Cerocene (Ce(C8H8)2) adopts the uranocene molecular structure. The 4f electron in cerocene is poised ambiguously between being localized and delocalized and this compound is considered intermediate-valent.
Alkyl, alkynyl, and alkenyl organocerium derivatives are prepared from the transmetallation of the respective organolithium or Grignard reagents, and are more nucleophilic but less basic than their precursors.
== History ==
Cerium was discovered in Bastnäs in Sweden by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger, and independently in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, both in 1803. Cerium was named by Berzelius after the asteroid Ceres, formally 1 Ceres, discovered two years earlier. Ceres was initially considered to be a planet at the time. The asteroid is itself named after the Roman goddess Ceres, goddess of agriculture, grain crops, fertility and motherly relationships.
Cerium was originally isolated in the form of its oxide, which was named ceria, a term that is still used. The metal itself was too electropositive to be isolated by then-current smelting technology, a characteristic of rare-earth metals in general. After the development of electrochemistry by Humphry Davy five years later, the earths soon yielded the metals they contained. Ceria, as isolated in 1803, contained all of the lanthanides present in the cerite ore from Bastnäs, Sweden, and thus only contained about 45% of what is now known to be pure ceria. It was not until Carl Gustaf Mosander succeeded in removing lanthana and "didymia" in the late 1830s that ceria was obtained pure. Wilhelm Hisinger was a wealthy mine-owner and amateur scientist, and sponsor of Berzelius. He owned and controlled the mine at Bastnäs, and had been trying for years to find out the composition of the abundant heavy gangue rock (the "Tungsten of Bastnäs", which despite its name contained no tungsten), now known as cerite, that he had in his mine. Mosander and his family lived for many years in the same house as Berzelius, and Mosander was undoubtedly persuaded by Berzelius to investigate ceria further.
The element played a role in the Manhattan Project, where cerium compounds were investigated in the Berkeley site as materials for crucibles for uranium and plutonium casting. For this reason, new methods for the preparation and casting of cerium were developed within the scope of the Ames daughter project (now the Ames Laboratory). Production of extremely pure cerium in Ames commenced in mid-1944 and continued until August 1945.
== Occurrence and production ==
Cerium is the most abundant of all the lanthanides and the 25th most abundant element, making up 68 ppm of the Earth's crust. This value is the same of copper, and cerium is even more abundant than common metals such as lead (13 ppm) and tin (2.1 ppm). Thus, despite its position as one of the so-called rare-earth metals, cerium is actually not rare at all. Cerium content in the soil varies between 2 and 150 ppm, with an average of 50 ppm; seawater contains 1.5 parts per trillion of cerium. Cerium occurs in various minerals, but the most important commercial sources are the minerals of the monazite and bastnäsite groups, where it makes up about half of the lanthanide content. Monazite-(Ce) is the most common representative of the monazites, with "-Ce" being the Levinson suffix informing on the dominance of the particular REE element representative. Also the cerium-dominant bastnäsite-(Ce) is the most important of the bastnäsites. Cerium is the easiest lanthanide to extract from its minerals because it is the only one that can reach a stable +4 oxidation state in aqueous solution. Because of the decreased solubility of cerium in the +4 oxidation state, cerium is sometimes depleted from rocks relative to the other rare-earth elements and is incorporated into zircon, since Ce4+ and Zr4+ have the same charge and similar ionic radii. In extreme cases, cerium(IV) can form its own minerals separated from the other rare-earth elements, such as cerianite-(Ce) and (Ce,Th)O2.
Bastnäsite, LnIIICO3F, is usually lacking in thorium and the heavy lanthanides beyond samarium and europium, and hence the extraction of cerium from it is quite direct. First, the bastnäsite is purified, using dilute hydrochloric acid to remove calcium carbonate impurities. The ore is then roasted in the air to oxidize it to the lanthanide oxides: while most of the lanthanides will be oxidized to the sesquioxides Ln2O3, cerium will be oxidized to the dioxide CeO2. This is insoluble in water and can be leached out with 0.5 M hydrochloric acid, leaving the other lanthanides behind.
The procedure for monazite, (Ln,Th)PO4, which usually contains all the rare earths, as well as thorium, is more involved. Monazite, because of its magnetic properties, can be separated by repeated electromagnetic separation. After separation, it is treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earths. The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with sodium hydroxide to pH 3–4. Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed. After that, the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths to their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid, but cerium oxide is insoluble in HNO3 and hence precipitates out. Care must be taken when handling some of the residues as they contain 228Ra, the daughter of 232Th, which is a strong gamma emitter.
== Applications ==
Cerium has two main applications, both of which use CeO2. The industrial application of ceria is for polishing, especially chemical-mechanical planarization (CMP). In its other main application, CeO2 is used to decolorize glass. It functions by converting green-tinted ferrous impurities to nearly colorless ferric oxides. Ceria has also been used as a substitute for its radioactive congener thoria, for example in the manufacture of electrodes used in gas tungsten arc welding, where cerium as an alloying element improves arc stability and ease of starting while decreasing burn-off.
=== Gas mantles and pyrophoric alloys ===
The first use of cerium was in gas mantles, invented by Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach. In 1885, he had previously experimented with mixtures of magnesium, lanthanum, and yttrium oxides, but these gave green-tinted light and were unsuccessful. Six years later, he discovered that pure thorium oxide produced a much better, though blue, light, and that mixing it with cerium dioxide resulted in a bright white light. Cerium dioxide also acts as a catalyst for the combustion of thorium oxide.
This resulted in commercial success for von Welsbach and his invention, and created great demand for thorium. Its production resulted in a large amount of lanthanides being simultaneously extracted as by-products. Applications were soon found for them, especially in the pyrophoric alloy known as "mischmetal" composed of 50% cerium, 25% lanthanum, and the remainder being the other lanthanides, that is used widely for lighter flints. Usually iron is added to form the alloy ferrocerium, also invented by von Welsbach. Due to the chemical similarities of the lanthanides, chemical separation is not usually required for their applications, such as the addition of mischmetal to steel as an inclusion modifier to improve mechanical properties, or as catalysts for the cracking of petroleum. This property of cerium saved the life of writer Primo Levi at the Auschwitz concentration camp, when he found a supply of ferrocerium alloy and bartered it for food.
=== Pigments and phosphors ===
The photostability of pigments can be enhanced by the addition of cerium, as it provides pigments with lightfastness and prevents clear polymers from darkening in sunlight. An example of a cerium compound used on its own as an inorganic pigment is the vivid red cerium(III) sulfide (cerium sulfide red), which stays chemically inert up to very high temperatures. The pigment is a safer alternative to lightfast but toxic cadmium selenide-based pigments. The addition of cerium oxide to older cathode-ray tube television glass plates was beneficial, as it suppresses the darkening effect from the creation of F-center defects due to the continuous electron bombardment during operation. Cerium is also an essential component as a dopant for phosphors used in CRT TV screens, fluorescent lamps, and later white light-emitting diodes. The most commonly used example is cerium(III)-doped yttrium aluminium garnet (Ce:YAG) which emits yellow light (530–540 nm) and also behaves as a scintillator.
=== Other uses ===
Cerium salts, such as the sulfides Ce2S3 and Ce3S4, were considered during the Manhattan Project as advanced refractory materials for the construction of crucibles which could withstand the high temperatures and strongly reducing conditions when casting plutonium metal. Despite desirable properties, these sulfides were never widely adopted due to practical issues with their synthesis. Cerium is used as alloying element in aluminium to create castable eutectic aluminium alloys with 6–16 wt.% Ce, to which other elements such as Mg, Ni, Fe and Mn can be added. These Al-Ce alloys have excellent high temperature strength and are suitable for automotive applications (e.g. in cylinder heads). Other alloys of cerium include Pu-Ce and Pu-Ce-Co plutonium alloys, which have been used as nuclear fuel.
Cerium oxide can be used in catalytic converters to increase the efficiency of oxidation of CO and NOx emissions during low-oxygen conditions in the exhaust gases from motor vehicles.
== Biological role and precautions ==
The early lanthanides have been found to be essential to some methanotrophic bacteria living in volcanic mudpots, such as Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum: lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium are about equally effective. Cerium is otherwise not known to have biological role in any other organisms, but is not very toxic either; it does not accumulate in the food chain to any appreciable extent. Because it often occurs together with calcium in phosphate minerals, and bones are primarily calcium phosphate, cerium can accumulate in bones in small amounts that are not considered dangerous.
Cerium nitrate is an effective topical antimicrobial treatment for third-degree burns, although large doses can lead to cerium poisoning and methemoglobinemia.
Like all rare-earth metals, cerium is of low to moderate toxicity. A strong reducing agent, it ignites spontaneously in air at 65 to 80 °C. Fumes from cerium fires are toxic. Cerium reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas, and thus cerium fires can only be effectively extinguished using class D dry powder extinguishing media. Workers exposed to cerium have experienced itching, sensitivity to heat, and skin lesions. Cerium is not toxic when eaten, but animals injected with large doses of cerium have died due to cardiovascular collapse. Cerium is more dangerous to aquatic organisms because it damages cell membranes; it is not very soluble in water and can cause environmental contamination.
Cerium oxide, the most prevalent cerium compound in industrial applications, is not regulated in the United States by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) as a hazardous substance. In Russia, its occupational exposure limit is 5 mg/m3. Elemental cerium has no established occupational or permissible exposure limits by the OSHA or American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, though it is classified as a flammable solid and regulated as such under the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals. Toxicological reports on cerium compounds have noted their cytotoxicity and contributions to pulmonary interstitial fibrosis in workers.
== References ==
== Bibliography ==
Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. doi:10.1016/C2009-0-30414-6. ISBN 978-0-08-037941-8. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipilotti_Rist#Recognition | Pipilotti Rist | Pipilotti Elisabeth Rist, birth name Elisabeth Charlotte Rist (born 21 June 1962 in Grabs) is a Swiss visual artist best known for creating experimental video art and installation art. Her work is often described as surreal, intimate, abstract art, having a preoccupation with the female body.
Rist's work is known for its multi-sensory qualities, with overlapping projected imagery that is highly saturated with color, paired with sound components that are part of a larger environment with spaces for viewers to rest or lounge. Rist's work often transforms the architecture or environment of a white cube gallery into a more tactile, auditory and visual experience.
== Early life and education ==
Pipilotti Rist was born in the Rhine Valley of Switzerland. Her father was a physician and her mother a teacher. She started going by "Pipilotti", a combination of her childhood nickname "Lotti" and her childhood hero, Astrid Lindgren's character Pippi Longstocking, in 1982. Prior to studying art and film, Rist studied theoretical physics in Vienna for one semester.
From 1982 to 1986 Rist studied commercial art, illustration, and photography at the University of Applied Arts Vienna in Vienna. She later studied video at the Basel School of Design, Switzerland. From 1988 through 1994, she was member of the music band and performance group Les Reines Prochaines. In 1997, her work was first featured in the Venice Biennial, where she was awarded the Premio 2000 Prize. From 2002 to 2003, she was invited by Professor Paul McCarthy to teach at UCLA as a visiting faculty member. From summer 2012 through to summer 2013, Rist spent a sabbatical in Somerset.
== Artwork ==
During her studies, Rist began making super 8 films. Her works generally last only a few minutes, borrowing from mass-media formats such as MTV and advertising, with alterations in their colors, speed, and sound. Her works generally treat issues related to gender, sexuality, and the human body.
Her colorful and musical works transmit a sense of happiness and simplicity. Rist's work is regarded as feminist by some art critics. Her works are held by many important art collections worldwide.
In I'm Not The Girl Who Misses Much (1986) Rist dances in front of a camera in a black dress with uncovered breasts. The images are often monochromatic and fuzzy. Rists repeatedly sings "I'm not the girl who misses much", a reference to the first line of the song "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" by the Beatles. As the video approaches its end, the image becomes increasingly blue and fuzzy and the sound stops.
Rist achieved notoriety with Pickelporno (Pimple porno) (1992), a work about the female body and sexual excitation. The fisheye camera moves over the bodies of a couple. The images are charged by intense colors, and are simultaneously strange, sensual, and ambiguous.
Sip my Ocean (1996) is an audio-video installation projected as a mirrored reflection on two adjoining walls, duplicating the video as sort of Rorschach inkblots. Besides a television and tea-cups other domestic items can be seen sinking slowly under the ocean surface. The video is intercut with dreamlike frames of bodies swimming underwater and other melancholic images such as colourful overlays of roses across the heavens. Slightly abstract and layered the visuals invite the viewer to reveal its depth beneath the surface. Accompanying the video is Rist singing Chris Isaak's "Wicked Game". Her voice is starting of sweetly but becomes gradually out of synchronicity with the song, ending in the shrieking chorus of “No, I don’t wanna fall in love”. Rist breaks the illusion of synchronicity in the video with the asynchrony of the audio and captures the human longing for and impossibility of being totally in tune with somebody else.
Ever Is Over All (1997) shows in slow-motion a young woman walking along a city street, smashing the windows of parked cars with a large hammer in the shape of a tropical flower. At one point a police officer greets her. The audio video installation has been purchased by the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.
Rist's nine video segments titled Open My Glade were played once every hour on a screen at Times Square in New York City, a project of the Messages to the Public program, which was founded in 1980.
“I want to see how you see – a portrait of Cornelia Providori” (2003) is an audio-visual work spanning 5:16. The sound was created in collaboration with Andreas Guggisberg, with whom Rist often works with. The main subject is the dialectical tension between macro and micro and how the continents are mirrored on the human body. The technical components are two to four layers of edited images, intricately cut and stacked on top of each other.
Pour Your Body Out was a commissioned multimedia installation organized by Klaus Biesenbach and installed in the atrium of the Museum of Modern Art in early 2009. In an interview with Phong Bui published in The Brooklyn Rail, Rist said she chose the atrium for the installation "because it reminds me of a church's interior where you’re constantly reminded that the spirit is good and the body is bad. This spirit goes up in space but the body remains on the ground. This piece is really about bringing those two differences together."
Her first feature film, Pepperminta, had its world premiere at the 66th Venice International Film Festival in 2009. She summarized the plot as "a young woman and her friends on a quest to find the right color combinations and with these colors they can free other people from fear and make life better.”
When interviewed by The Guardian for a preview of her 2011 exhibition at London's Hayward gallery, Rist described her feminism: "Politically," she says, "I am a feminist, but personally, I am not. For me, the image of a woman in my art does not stand just for women: she stands for all humans. I hope a young guy can take just as much from my art as any woman."
Rist has likened her videos to that of women's handbags, hoping that they'd have “room in them for everything: painting, technology, language, music, lousy flowing pictures, poetry, commotion, premonitions of death, sex, and friendliness."
== Personal life ==
Rist lives and works in Zurich, Switzerland with her partner Balz Roth, an entrepreneur. The couple has a son, Himalaya.
== Collections ==
Rist's work is held in the permanent collections of museums and galleries including the Museum of Modern Art, the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, the San Francisco MoMA, and the Utrecht Centraal Museum. Her installation, TV-Lüster, is on permanent display at the Kunstmuseum St. Gallen.
== Influence on other artists ==
Ever Is Over All was referenced in 2016 by Beyoncé in the film accompanying her album Lemonade in which the singer is seen walking down a city street smashing windows of parked cars with a baseball bat.
== Works ==
=== Architectural Art and Public Art ===
since 1995: Flying Room. Video projection on the ceiling of the UBS entrance hall, Buchs, St. Gallen
2000 and 2017: Open my Glade. Video installation on Times Square, New York
since 2001: Ein Blatt im Wind (A Leaf in the Wind). Swiss Embassy Berlin, Germany
since 2005: Stadtlounge (City lounge). Square and street design in St. Gallen, cooperation with Carlos Martinez
since 2010: Ceiling installation in the restaurant Le Loft on 18th floor of the Sofitel Hotel (Nouvel Tower), Vienna
since 2014: Münsteranerin. Permanent video installation in the entrance area of the Museum für Kunst und Kultur in Münster, Germany
since 2016: Monochrome Rose. Streetcar train in pink, Geneva
since 2020: Tastende Lichter (Inching lights). Permanent video installation on the façade of Kunsthaus Zürich
=== Audio and Video art ===
1986: I’m Not The Girl Who Misses Much
1988: Das Zimmer (1994/2000)(Entlastungen) Pipilottis Fehler
1992/1999: Eine Spitze in den Westen – ein Blick in den Osten (bzw. N-S) (A Peek Into The West – A Look Into The East)
1992: Pickelporno
1993: Blutraum (Blood room)
1993: Eindrücke verdauen (Digesting Impressions)
1993: Schminktischlein mit Feedback (Little Make-Up Table With Feedback)
1993: TV-Lüster
1994/99: Cintia
1994/2000/2007: Das Zimmer (The Room)
1994: Selbstlos im Lavabad
1994: Yoghurt On Skin – Velvet On TV
1995: Search Wolken / Suche Clouds (elektronischer Heiratsantrag) (Search Wolken / Such Clouds (Electronic Marriage Proposal))
1996: Sip My Ocean (Schlürfe meinen Ozean)
1997: Ever Is Over All
1998: Blauer Leibesbrief (Blue Bodily Lettre)
1999/2001, 2007, 2009: Kleines Vorstadthirn (Small Suburb Brain)
1999: Himalaya Goldsteins Stube (Himalaya Goldstein’s Living Room)
2000: Öffne meine Lichtung (Open my Glade (Flatten))
2000: Himalaya’s Sister’s Living Room
2000: Peeping Freedom Shutters for Olga Shapir
2000/2001: Supersubjektiv (Super Subjective)
2001/2005: Wach auf (Despierta)
2001: Expecting
2002: Der Kuchen steht in Flammen (The Cake is in Flames)
2003: Apfelbaum unschuldig auf dem Diamantenhügel (Apple Tree Innocent On Diamond Hill) (Manzano inocente en la colina de diamantes)
2004: Herz aufwühlen Herz ausspülen (Stir Heart Rinse Heart)
2005: Eine Freiheitsstatue für Löndön (A Liberty Statue for Löndön)
2005: Homo Sapiens Sapiens
2006: Celle selbst zu zweit, by Gutararist aka Gudrun Gut & Pipilotti Rist
2007: Ginas Mobile (Gina’s Mobile)
2008: Erleuchte (und kläre) meinen Raum (Enlight My Space )
2011: Cape Cod Chandelier
2014: Worry Will Vanish Horizon
2015: Wir verwurzeln (Seelenfarben)
2016: Pixelwald
2016: 4th Floor To Mildness
2017: Caressing Dinner Circle (Tender Roundelay Family) 5er table
2018: Sparkling Pond, Bold-Coloured Groove & Tender Fire (Please Walk In And Let The Colors Caress You)
2020: Fritzflasche (The Bottle of Fritz)
2023: Hand Me Your Trust
=== Feature Film ===
2009: Pepperminta
== Recognition ==
1997 – Renta Preis of the Kunsthalle Nürnberg
1998 – Nomination for the Hugo Boss Prize
1999 – Wolfgang Hahn Prize
2003 – Honorary Professorship from Berlin University of the Arts
2006 – Guggenheim Museums Young Collector's Council Annual Artist's Ball honouring Pipilotti Rist
2007 – St. Galler Kulturpreis der St. Gallischen Kulturstiftung
2009 – Special Award, Seville European Film Festival
2009 – Joan Miró Prize, Barcelona
2009 – Best Exhibition Of Digital, Video, or Film: "Pour Your Body Out (7354 Cubic Meters)" at Museum of Modern Art, New York. 26th annual awards, The International Association of Art Critics (AICA)
2010 – Cutting the Edge Award, Miami International Film Festival
2011 – Best Architects '11 Award
2012 – Bazaar Art, International Artist of the Year, Hong Kong, China
2013 – Zurich Festival Prize, Zürcher Festpiele
2014 – Baukoma Awards for Marketing and Architecture, Best Site Development
2021 – Elected Honorary Royal Academician (HonRA) on 9 September 2021
2024 – Culture Prize of the Canton of Zürich
== Further reading ==
Pipilotti Rist: Pixel Forest (2016). Editors: Massimiliano Gioni and Margot Norton. Contributors: Pipilotti Rist, Bice Curiger, Joan Jonas, Gloria Sutton, Juliana Engberg, Lisa Phillips. London, New York: Phaidon Press. ISBN 9780714872766.
Grosenick, Uta; Riemschneider, Burkhard, eds. (2005). Art Now (25th anniversary ed.). Köln: Taschen. pp. 272–275. ISBN 9783822840931. OCLC 191239335.
Phelan, Peggy, Hans Ulrich Obrist, and Elisabeth Bronfen. Pipilotti Rist. London, New York: Phaidon, 2001. ISBN 0714839655
Ravenal, John B. Outer & Inner Space: Pipilotti Rist, Shirin Neshat, Jane & Louise Wilson, and the History of Video Art. Richmond, VA: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 2002. ISBN 0917046617
Söll, Änne. Pipilotti Rist. Cologne: DuMont, 2005. ISBN 978-3832175788
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Pipilotti Rist at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana | Ghana | Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated with the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d'Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to the east. Ghana covers an area of 239,567 km2 (92,497 sq mi), spanning diverse ecologies, from coastal savannas to tropical rainforests. With over 35 million inhabitants, Ghana is the thirteenth-most populous country in Africa, and the second-most populous country in West Africa specifically. The capital and largest city is Accra.
The earliest kingdoms to emerge in Ghana were Bonoman in the south and the Kingdom of Dagbon in the north, with Bonoman existing in the area during the 11th century. The Asante Empire and other Akan kingdoms in the south emerged over the centuries. Beginning in the 15th century, the Portuguese Empire, followed by other European powers, contested the area for trading rights, until the British ultimately established control of the coast by the 19th century. Following more than a century of colonial resistance, the current borders of the country took shape, encompassing four separate British colonial territories: Gold Coast, Ashanti, the Northern Territories, and British Togoland. These were unified as an independent dominion within the Commonwealth of Nations. On 6 March 1957 Ghana became the first colony in Sub-Saharan Africa to achieve sovereignty. Under President Kwame Nkrumah, it became influential in decolonisation efforts and the Pan-African movement.
Ghana is a multi-ethnic country with diverse linguistic and religious groups; while the Akan are the largest ethnic group, they constitute a plurality. Most Ghanaians are Christians (71.3%); almost a fifth are Muslims; a tenth practise traditional faiths or report no religion. Ghana is a unitary constitutional democracy led by a president who is head of state and head of government. For political stability in Africa, Ghana ranked seventh in the 2022 Ibrahim Index of African Governance and fifth in the 2024 Fragile States Index. Since 1993, it has maintained one of the freest and most stable governments on the continent, and performs relatively well in healthcare, economic growth, and human development. It has a significant influence in West Africa and Africa as a whole. Ghana is highly integrated in international affairs, being a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the African Union, and a member of the Economic Community of West African States, the Group of 24 and the Commonwealth of Nations.
== Etymology ==
=== The Empire of Ghana ===
The name Ghana comes from Wagadu, an empire in west Africa from the 3rd to 12th centuries; Wagadu was termed Ghana by Arab traders involved in the trans-Saharan trade. Ghana is thought to originate from the title Kaya Maghan of the rulers of Wagadu, which translates as ruler of gold.
=== Adoption of Ghana in precolonial scholarship ===
The earliest attempt to associate the peoples of the Gold Coast with ancient Ghana had been made by Rev. J. B. Anaman around the turn of the twentieth century, who drew on D. W. Cooley's nineteenth-century interpretation of Arabic geographical sources to make an argument for a historical connection, he suggested an alternative derivation connecting the name to the Wangara. Lady Flora Shaw later compiled both Arabic and European writings to create detailed narratives of the kingdom. She presented it as a major African power comparable to contemporary Western European states
According to Jack Goody, the theory that the Akan peoples originated from the medieval Empire of Ghana was continuously promoted through the teachings of Rev. W. T. Balmer between 1907 and 1911, who instructed students that the Akan had migrated from the ancient kingdom located near the Upper Niger. Goody states that Balmer's hypothesis lacked linguistic and historical evidence, yet it later became influential among educated elites and nationalist intellectuals.
The hypothesis gained more popularity when it was introduced into educational institutions, primarily in Achimota, during the 1920s where it later spread to other schools. The theory was later publicized by J. B. Danquah's academic writings; he used Arabic and French translations to claim that the Akan migrated from the Upper Niger region. Danquah proposed that the term Ghana was a corruption of Akane or Akana and associated it with the ancient region of Akkad. Eva L. R. Meyerowitz expanded this rhetoric through a series of publications that sought to reconstruct early history. She claimed that Akan origins and culture came from areas in the Sahara and the Near East, and argued that Akan culture was not mainly black African, but could instead be considered Libya-Berber or connected to Mediterranean or Near Eastern cultures.
=== National acceptance and symbolic meaning ===
By the period leading to independence, the name "Ghana" was widely accepted and adopted as a symbol of precolonial prestige, cultural unity, and national legitimacy.
== History ==
=== Medieval kingdoms ===
The earliest kingdoms to emerge in Ghana were Bonoman in the south and the Kingdom of Dagbon in the north, with Bonoman existing in the area during the 11th century. From the 17th century, different Akan states began to emerge from what is believed to have been the Bonoman area, mainly based on gold trading. These states included Bonoman (Brong-Ahafo region), Adansi and Asante (Ashanti Region), Denkyira (Western North region), Mankessim Kingdom (Central region), Akyem and Akwamu (Eastern region). By the 19th century, the territory of the southern part of Ghana was included in the Asante Kingdom. The government of the Ashanti Empire operated first as a loose network and eventually as a centralised kingdom with a specialised bureaucracy centred in the capital city of Kumasi. Prior to Akan contact with Europeans, the Akan people created an economy based on principally gold and gold bar precious metals, which were traded with other states in Africa.
The Ga-Dangme migrated westward from south-western Nigeria. The Ewe, formerly known as Dogbo, migrated from Ketu (Benin) area with their Gbe-speaking kinsmen (Adja, Fon, Phla/Phera and Ogun/Gun) and, in transition, settled at Tado in Togo, and Dogbo Nyigbo in Benin Republic, with Nortsie (a walled town in present-day Togo) as their final dispersal point. Their dispersal from Nortsie was necessitated by the high-handed rule of King Agorkorli (Agɔ Akɔli), who was the reigning monarch of the tribe at that time. The Ewe in Ghana speak three principal dialects: Anlo (along the coast), Tongu (along the Volta river) and Ewedome (in the hill country side). The Ga-Dangme occupy the Greater Accra Region and parts of the Eastern Region, while the Ewe are found in the Volta Region as well as the neighbouring Togo, Benin Republic and Nigeria (around Badagry area).
=== European contact and colonialism ===
Akan trade with European states began after contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century. European contact was by the Portuguese people, who came to the Gold Coast region in the 15th century to trade. The Portuguese then established the Portuguese Gold Coast (Costa do Ouro), focused on the availability of gold. The Portuguese built a trading lodge at a coastal settlement called Anomansah (the perpetual drink), which they renamed São Jorge da Mina. In 1481, King John II of Portugal commissioned Diogo de Azambuja to build the Elmina Castle, which was completed in three years. By 1598, the Dutch had joined the Portuguese in the gold trade, establishing the Dutch Gold Coast (Nederlandse Bezittingen ter Kuste van Guinea – 'Dutch properties at the Guinea coast') and building forts at Fort Komenda and Kormantsi. In 1617, the Dutch captured the Elmina Castle from the Portuguese and Axim in 1642 (Fort St Anthony).
European traders had joined in gold trading by the 17th century, including the Swedes, establishing the Swedish Gold Coast (Svenska Guldkusten), and Denmark–Norway, establishing the Danish Gold Coast (Danske Guldkyst or Dansk Guinea). European traders participated in the Atlantic slave trade in this area. More than 30 forts and castles were built by the merchants. The Germans established the Brandenburger Gold Coast or Groß Friedrichsburg. In 1874, Great Britain established control over some parts of the country, assigning these areas the status of the British Gold Coast. Military engagements occurred between British colonial powers and Akan nation-states. The Kingdom of Ashanti defeated the British some times in the 100-year-long Anglo-Ashanti wars and eventually lost with the War of the Golden Stool in 1900. In the late 19th century, cocoa cultivation spread through the tropical forests, with the British administration actively supporting the growth of the commercial cocoa industry.
=== Transition to independence ===
In 1947, the newly formed United Gold Coast Convention led by "The Big Six" called for "self-government within the shortest possible time" following the 1946 Gold Coast legislative election. Kwame Nkrumah, a Ghanaian nationalist who led Ghana from 1957 to 1966 as the country's first prime minister and president, formed the Convention People's Party in 1949 with the motto "self-government now". The party initiated a "positive action" campaign involving non-violent protests, strikes and non-cooperation with the British authorities. Nkrumah was arrested and sentenced to one year imprisonment during this time. In the Gold Coast's 1951 general election, he was elected to Parliament and was released from prison. He became prime minister in 1952 and began a policy of Africanization.
At midnight on 6 March 1957, the Gold Coast, Ashanti, the Northern Territories, and British Togoland were unified as one single independent dominion within the British Commonwealth under the name Ghana. This was done under the Ghana Independence Act 1957. The current flag of Ghana, consisting of the colours red, gold, green, and a black star, dates back to this unification. On 1 July 1960, following the Ghanaian constitutional referendum and Ghanaian presidential election, Nkrumah declared Ghana a republic and assumed the presidency. 6 March is the nation's Independence Day, and 1 July is celebrated as Republic Day.
Nkrumah led an authoritarian regime in Ghana, as he repressed political opposition and conducted elections that were not free and fair. In 1964, a constitutional amendment made Ghana a one-party state, with Nkrumah as president for life of both the nation and its party. Nkrumah was the first African head of state to promote the concept of Pan-Africanism, which he had been introduced to during his studies at Lincoln University, Pennsylvania in the United States, at the time when Marcus Garvey was known for his "Back to Africa Movement". He merged the teachings of Garvey, Martin Luther King Jr. and the naturalised Ghanaian scholar W. E. B. Du Bois into the formation of 1960s Ghana. Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, as he became known, played an instrumental part in the founding of the Non-Aligned Movement, and in establishing the Kwame Nkrumah Ideological Institute to teach his ideologies of communism and socialism. His life achievements were recognised by Ghanaians during his centenary birthday celebration, and the day was instituted as a public holiday in Ghana (Founders' Day).
=== Operation Cold Chop and aftermath ===
The government of Nkrumah was subsequently overthrown in a coup by the Ghana Armed Forces, codenamed "Operation Cold Chop". This occurred while Nkrumah was abroad with Zhou Enlai in the People's Republic of China, on a mission to Hanoi, Vietnam, to help end the Vietnam War. The coup took place on 24 February 1966, led by Colonel Emmanuel Kwasi Kotoka and Brigadier Akwasi Afrifa. The National Liberation Council was formed, chaired by Lieutenant General Joseph A. Ankrah.
A series of alternating military and civilian governments, often affected by economic instabilities, ruled Ghana from 1966, ending with the ascent to power of Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings of the Provisional National Defence Council in 1981. These changes resulted in the suspension of the constitution in 1981 and the banning of political parties. The economy soon declined, so Rawlings negotiated a structural adjustment plan, changing many old economic policies, and growth recovered during the mid-1980s. A new constitution restoring multi-party system politics was promulgated in the presidential election of 1992, in which Rawlings was elected, and again in the general election of 1996.
In a tribal war in Northern Ghana in 1994, between the Konkomba and other ethnic groups, including the Nanumba, Dagomba and Gonja, between 1,000 and 2,000 people were killed and 150,000 people were displaced.
After the 2000 general election, John Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party became president of Ghana on 7 January 2001 and was re-elected in 2004, thus also serving two terms (the term limit) as president of Ghana and marking the first time under the fourth republic that power was transferred from one legitimately elected head of state and head of government to another.
Nana Akufo-Addo, the ruling party candidate, was defeated in a very close 2008 general election by John Atta Mills of the National Democratic Congress. Mills died of natural causes and was succeeded by Vice President John Mahama on 24 July 2012. Following the 2012 general election, Mahama became president in his own right, and Ghana was described as a "stable democracy". As a result of the 2016 general election, Nana Akufo-Addo became president on 7 January 2017. He was re-elected after a tightly contested election in 2020. Akufo-Addo's presidency finished in January 2025, and John Mahama, the current president of Ghana, succeeded him.
To combat deforestation, on 11 June 2021 Ghana inaugurated Green Ghana Day, with the aim of planting five million trees.
== Geography ==
Ghana lies on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa, a few degrees north of the Equator. It covers 238,540 km2 (92,101 sq mi) and has an Atlantic coastline of about 560 kilometres (350 miles). It is situated between latitudes 4°45′N and 11°N, and longitudes 1°15′E and 3°15′W. The Prime Meridian passes through Tema, near Accra, making Ghana the country closest to the intersection of the Prime Meridian and the Equator (0°, 0°), located offshore in the Atlantic.
Grasslands mixed with south coastal shrublands and forests dominate Ghana, with forest extending northward from the coast 320 kilometres (200 miles) and eastward for a maximum of about 270 kilometres (170 miles) with locations for mining of industrial minerals and timber. Ghana is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: Eastern Guinean forests, Guinean forest–savanna mosaic, West Sudanian savanna, Central African mangroves, and Guinean mangroves.
The White Volta River and its tributary Black Volta, flow south through Ghana to Lake Volta, the world's third-largest reservoir by volume and largest by surface area, formed by the hydroelectric Akosombo Dam, completed in 1965. The Volta flows out of Lake Volta into the Gulf of Guinea. The northernmost part of Ghana is Pulmakong and the southernmost part of Ghana is Cape Three Points.
=== Climate ===
The climate of Ghana is tropical, and there is wet season and dry season. Ghana sits at the intersection of three hydro-climatic zones. The eastern coastal belt is warm and comparatively dry, the south-west corner of Ghana is hot and humid, and the north of Ghana is hot and dry.
Climate change in Ghana is having significant impacts on the people of Ghana. Increasing temperatures and changes in rainfall, extreme weather, drought, wild fires, floods and sea-level rise are expected to negatively affect the country's infrastructure, hydropower production, food security, water supply, and coastal and agricultural livelihoods such as farming and fisheries. Ghana's economy will be impacted by climate change, due to its dependence on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, energy, and forestry. Diseases like malaria, dengue fever and cholera are predicted to increase due to changes in water conditions. Ghana signed the Paris Agreement in 2016. Ghana aims to avoid 64 million metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions by 2030, compared to a business-as-usual scenario for 2020–2030. The country has committed to net zero by 2060.
=== Relief and regions ===
The country consists of low coastal plains, forested hills in the centre, and savanna in the north. Its main geographical units are:
the Coastal Plain along the Gulf of Guinea,
the Ashanti uplands in the centre,
the Volta Basin in the east, dominated by Lake Volta,
the Northern Plains stretching to Burkina Faso.
The highest point is Mount Afadja (885 m) in the Akwapim-Togo Range.
=== Hydrology ===
The Volta River system dominates Ghana. Its main tributaries, the White Volta and Black Volta, converge in the north and flow into Lake Volta, one of the world's largest artificial reservoirs, created by the Akosombo Dam in 1965.
The Volta exits into the Gulf of Guinea east of Accra. Other important rivers include the Pra River, Ankobra River, and Tano River.
=== Extremities ===
The northernmost settlement in Ghana is Pulmakong near the Burkina Faso border, while the southernmost point is Cape Three Points.
== Politics ==
Ghana is a unitary presidential constitutional democracy with a parliamentary multi-party system that is dominated by two parties—the National Democratic Congress (NDC) and the New Patriotic Party (NPP). Ghana alternated between civilian and military governments until January 1993, when the military government gave way to the Fourth Republic of Ghana after presidential and parliamentary elections in late 1992. The 1992 constitution of Ghana divides powers among a commander-in-chief of the Ghana Armed Forces (President of Ghana), parliament (Parliament of Ghana), cabinet (Cabinet of Ghana), council of state (Ghanaian Council of State), and an independent judiciary (Judiciary of Ghana). The government is elected by universal suffrage after every four years.
Presidents in Ghana are limited to two four-year terms in office. Nana Akufo-Addo won the presidency in the general election in 2016, defeating incumbent John Mahama. He also won the 2020 election after the presidential election results were challenged at the Supreme Court by flagbearer of the NDC, John Mahama. Akufo-Addo's presidency concluded in January 2025, and he was succeeded by Mahama, the current president of Ghana.
The 2012 Fragile States Index indicated that Ghana is ranked the 67th-least fragile state in the world and the fifth-least fragile state in Africa. Ghana ranked 112th out of 177 countries on the index. Ghana ranked as the 64th-least corrupt and politically corrupt country in the world out of all 174 countries ranked and ranked as the fifth-least corrupt and politically corrupt country in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012 Transparency International Corruption Perception Index. Ghana was ranked seventh in Africa out of 53 countries in the 2012 Ibrahim Index of African Governance. The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African government, based on variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to its citizens. According to 2023 V-Dem Democracy indices Ghana is ranked 67th electoral democracy worldwide and 10th electoral democracy in Africa.
=== Foreign relations ===
Since independence, Ghana has been devoted to ideals of nonalignment and is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement. Ghana favours international and regional political and economic co-operation, and is an active member of the United Nations and the African Union.
Ghana has a strong relationship with the United States. Three recent U.S. presidents—Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama—and a Vice President—Kamala Harris—have made diplomatic trips to Ghana. Many Ghanaian diplomats and politicians hold positions in international organisations, including Ghanaian diplomat and former Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan, International Criminal Court Judge Akua Kuenyehia, as well as former President Jerry John Rawlings and former President John Agyekum Kufuor, who both served as diplomats of the United Nations.
In September 2010, President John Atta Mills visited China on an official visit. Mills and then-general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Hu Jintao marked the 50th anniversary of diplomatic ties between the two nations, at the Great Hall of the People. China reciprocated with an official visit in November 2011, by the vice-chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China, Zhou Tienong who visited Ghana and met with Ghana's president John Mahama. China recently became one of the top investing countries of Ghana, which predominantly focus on infrastructure, natural resources, and the manufacturing sector, have promoted economic growth, job creation, and technology transfer in Ghana. However, concerns regarding the sustainability of Chinese-financed projects, environmental impacts, and the lack of transparency in their investments call for a careful assessment of these collaborations. Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad met with Mahama in 2013 to hold discussions on strengthening the Non-Aligned Movement and also co–chair a bilateral meeting between Ghana and Iran at the Ghanaian presidential palace Flagstaff House.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) were integrated into Ghana's development agenda and the budget. According to reports, the SDGs were implemented through a decentralized planning approach. This allows for stakeholders' participation, such as in UN agencies, traditional leaders, civil society organizations, academia, and others. The 17 SDGs are a global call to action to end poverty among others, and the UN and its partners in the country are working towards achieving them. According to the President Nana Akufo-Addo, Ghana was "the first Sub-Saharan African country to achieve the goal of halving poverty, as contained in Goal 1 of the Millennium Development Goals".
=== Military ===
In 1957, the Ghana Armed Forces (GAF) consisted of its headquarters, support services, three battalions of infantry and a reconnaissance squadron with armoured vehicles. President Nkrumah aimed at rapidly expanding the GAF to support the United States of Africa ambitions. Thus, in 1961, 4th and 5th Battalions were established, and in 1964 6th Battalion was established, from a parachute airborne unit originally raised in 1963. Today, Ghana is a regional power and regional hegemon. In his book Shake Hands with the Devil, Canadian Forces commander Roméo Dallaire highly rated the GAF soldiers and military personnel.
The military operations and military doctrine of the GAF are conceptualised in the constitution, Ghana's Law on Armed Force Military Strategy, and Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre agreements to which GAF is attestator. GAF military operations are executed under the auspices and imperium of the Ministry of Defence. Although Ghana is relatively peaceful and is often considered being one of the least violent countries in the region, Ghana has experienced political violence in the past and 2017 has thus far seen an upward trend in incidents motivated by political grievances.
=== Law enforcement ===
The Ghana Police Service and the Criminal Investigation Department are the main law enforcement agencies, responsible for the detection of crime, maintenance of law and order and the maintenance of internal peace and security. The Ghana Police Service has eleven specialised police units, including a Militarized police Rapid deployment force and Marine Police Unit. The Ghana Police Service operates in 12 divisions: ten covering the regions of Ghana, one assigned specifically to the seaport and industrial hub of Tema, and the twelfth being the Railways, Ports and Harbours Division. The Ghana Police Service's Marine Police Unit and Division handles issues that arise from the country's offshore oil and gas industry.
The Ghana Prisons Service and the sub-division Borstal Institute for Juveniles administers incarceration. Ghana retains and exercises the death penalty for treason, corruption, robbery, piracy, drug trafficking, rape, and homicide. The new sustainable development goals adopted by the United Nations call for the international community to come together to promote the rule of law; support equal access to justice for all; reduce corruption; and develop effective, accountable, and transparent institutions at all levels.
Ghana is used as a key narcotics industry transshipment point by traffickers, usually from South America as well as some from other African nations. In 2013, the UN chief of the Office on Drugs and Crime stated that "West Africa is completely weak in terms of border control and the big drug cartels from Colombia and Latin America have chosen Africa as a way to reach Europe." There is not a wide or popular knowledge about the narcotics industry and intercepted narcotics within Ghana, since it is an underground economy. The social context within which narcotic trafficking, storage, transportation, and repacking systems exist in Ghana and the state's location along the Gulf of Guinea makes Ghana an attractive country for the narcotics business. The Narcotics Control Board has impounded container ships at the Sekondi Naval Base in the Takoradi Harbour. These ships were carrying thousands of kilograms of cocaine, with a street value running into billions of Ghana cedis. However, drug seizures saw a decline in 2011. Drug cartels are using new methods in narcotics production and narcotics exportation, to avoid Ghanaian security agencies. Underdeveloped institutions, porous open borders, and the existence of established smuggling organisations contribute to Ghana's position in the narcotics industry. President Mills initiated ongoing efforts to reduce the role of airports in Ghana's drug trade.
=== Human rights ===
Homosexual acts are prohibited by law in Ghana. According to a 2013 survey by the Pew Research Center, 96% of Ghanaians believe that homosexuality should not be accepted by society. Sometimes elderly women in Ghana are accused of witchcraft, particularly in rural Ghana. Issues of witchcraft mainly remain as speculations based on superstitions within families. In some parts of northern Ghana, there exist what are called witch camps. These are said to house a total of around 1,000 people accused of witchcraft. The Ghanaian government has announced that it intends to close the camps.
== Economy ==
Ghana possesses industrial minerals, hydrocarbons and precious metals. It is an emerging designated digital economy with mixed economy hybridisation and an emerging market. It has an economic plan target known as the "Ghana Vision 2020". This plan envisions Ghana as the first African country to become a developed country between 2020 and 2029 and a newly industrialised country between 2030 and 2039. This excludes fellow Group of 24 member and Sub-Saharan African country South Africa, which is a newly industrialised country.
Ghana's economy has ties to the Chinese yuan renminbi along with Ghana's vast gold reserves. In 2013, the Bank of Ghana began circulating the renminbi throughout Ghanaian state-owned banks and to the Ghana public as hard currency along with the national Ghanaian cedi for second national trade currency.
Between 2012 and 2013, 38% of rural dwellers were experiencing poverty whereas only 11% of urban dwellers were. Urban areas hold greater opportunity for employment, particularly in informal trade, while nearly all (94 percent) of "rural poor households" participate in the agricultural sector.
The Volta River Authority and the Ghana National Petroleum Corporation, both state-owned, are the two major electricity producers. The Akosombo Dam, built on the Volta River in 1965, along with the Bui Dam, the Kpong Dam and several other hydroelectric dams, provide hydropower. In addition, the government sought to build the second nuclear power plant in Africa.
The Ghana Stock Exchange is the fifth largest on continental Africa and 3rd largest in Sub-Saharan Africa with a market capitalisation of GH¢ 57.2 billion or CN¥180.4 billion in 2012 with the South Africa JSE Limited as first. The Ghana Stock Exchange was the second best performing stock exchange in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2013.
Ghana produces high-quality cocoa. It is the second largest producer of cocoa globally and its ICCO membership helps in its international cocoa trade. Ghana is classified as a middle-income country. Services account for 50% of GDP, followed by manufacturing (24.1%), extractive industries (5%), and taxes (20.9%).
Ghana's economy is characterized by a growing manufacturing sector and the export of digital technology products. The country is also engaged in the assembly and export of automobiles and ships. Additionally, Ghana's economy benefits from a diverse range of resource-rich exports, including industrial minerals and agricultural products, with cocoa being a primary commodity. The nation is also a significant producer and exporter of petroleum and natural gas.
The information and communications technology (ICT) sector plays a crucial role in Ghana's industrial landscape, with companies such as Rlg Communications, a state-affiliated digital technology corporation, leading in the production of tablet computers, smartphones, and various consumer electronics.
Urban electric cars have been manufactured in Ghana since 2014.
Ghana announced plans to issue government debt by way of social and green bonds in autumn of 2021, making it the first African country to do so. The country, which was planning to borrow up to $5 billion in international markets, would use the proceeds from these sustainable bonds to refinance debt used for social and environmental projects and pay for educational or health. Only a few other nations have sold them so far, including Chile and Ecuador. The country will use the proceeds to forge ahead with a free secondary-school initiative started in 2017 among other programs, despite having recorded its lowest economic growth rate in 37 years in 2020.
Ghana produces and exports hydrocarbons such as sweet crude oil and natural gas. The 100%-state-owned filling station company, Ghana Oil Company, is the number one petroleum and gas filling station, and the 100%-state-owned state oil company Ghana National Petroleum Corporation oversees hydrocarbon exploration and production of petroleum and natural gas reserves. Ghana aims to further increase the output of oil to 2.2 million barrels (350,000 m3) per day and gas to 34,000,000 cubic metres (1.2×10^9 cu ft) per day. The Jubilee Oil Field, which contains up to 3 billion barrels (480,000,000 m3) of sweet crude oil, was discovered in 2007. Ghana is believed to have up to 5 billion barrels (790,000,000 m3) to 7 billion barrels (1.1×109 m3) of petroleum in reserves, which is the fifth-largest in Africa and the 21st-to-25th-largest proven reserves in the world. It also has up to 1.7×1011 cubic metres (6×10^12 cu ft) of natural gas in reserves. The government has drawn up plans to nationalise petroleum and natural gas reserves to increase government revenue.
In 2015, Ghana produced 88 metric tonnes of gold as per the Our World in Data report. As of 2019, Ghana was the 7th largest producer of gold in the world, producing ~140 tonnes that year. This record saw Ghana surpass South Africa in output for the first time, making Ghana the largest gold producer in Africa. In addition to gold, Ghana exports silver, timber, diamonds, bauxite, and manganese, and has other mineral deposits. Ghana ranks 9th in the world in diamond export and reserve size. The government has drawn up plans to nationalize mining industry to increase government revenue.
"Shortages" of electricity in 2015 and 2016 led to dumsor ("persistent, irregular and unpredictable" electric power outages), increasing the interest in renewables. As of 2019, there is a surplus of electricity.
The judicial system of Ghana deals with corruption, economic malpractice and lack of economic transparency. According to Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index of 2018, out of 180 countries, Ghana was ranked 78th, with a score of 41 on a scale where a 0–9 score means highly corrupt, and a 90–100 score means very clean. This was based on perceived levels of public sector corruption.
=== Science and technology ===
Ghana launched a cellular mobile network in 1992. It was later connected to the Internet and introduced ADSL broadband services.
Ghana was ranked 101st in the Global Innovation Index in 2025.
The Ghana Space Science and Technology Centre (GSSTC) and Ghana Space Agency (GhsA) oversee space exploration and space programmes. GSSTC and GhsA worked to have a national security observational satellite launched into orbit in 2015. Ghana's annual space exploration expenditure has been 1% of its GDP, to support research in science and technology. In 2012, Ghana was elected to chair the Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South (Comsats); Ghana has a joint effort in space exploration with the South African National Space Agency.
=== Tourism ===
In 2011, tourists visiting Ghana numbered 1,087,000, with arrivals including South Americans, Asians, Europeans, and North Americans. Among the attractions and tourist destinations are waterfalls such as Kintampo waterfalls and the largest waterfall in west Africa, Wli waterfalls, the coastal palm-lined sandy beaches, caves, mountains, rivers, and reservoirs and lakes such as Lake Bosumtwi and the largest human-made lake in the world by surface area, Lake Volta, dozens of forts and castles, World Heritage Sites, nature reserves and national parks. Notable castles are Cape Coast Castle and the Elmina Castle. Castles mark where blood was shed in the slave trade and preserve and promote the African heritage stolen and destroyed through the slave trade. The World Heritage Convention of UNESCO named Ghana's castles and forts as World Heritage Monuments: "The Castles and Forts of Ghana shaped not only Ghana's history but that of the world over four centuries as the focus of first the gold trade and then the slave trade. They are a significant and emotive symbol of European–African encounters and of the starting point of the African Diaspora."
The World Economic Forum statistics in 2010 showed that out of the world's favourite tourist destinations, Ghana was ranked 108th out of 139 countries. The country had moved two places up from the 2009 rankings. In 2011, Forbes magazine published that Ghana was ranked the 11th most friendly country in the world. The assertion was based on a survey in 2010 of a cross-section of travellers. Of all the African countries that were included in the survey, Ghana ranked highest. Tourism is the fourth highest earner of foreign exchange for the country. In 2024, Ghana ranked as the 55th most peaceful country in the world.
Up and down the coastline, surfing spots have been identified and cultivated by locals and internationals. Surfers have made trips to the country to sample the waves. Surfers carried their boards amid traditional fishing vessels.
According to Destination Pride, Ghana's Pride score is 22 (out of 100).
== Demographics ==
As of 2024, the United Nations reports Ghana has a population of 34,581,288. As of 2018, around 29% of the population is under the age of 15, while persons aged 15–64 make up 57.8% of the population. The 2010 census reported that the largest ethnic groups are the Akan (47.3%), the Mole-Dagbani (18.5%), the Ewe (13.9%), the Ga-Dangme (7.4%), the Gurma (5.7%) and the Guan (3.7%). As of 2024, the United Nations reports the median age of Ghanaian citizens is 21 years old. Ghana contributes 0.42% to the total world population.
With recent legal immigration of skilled workers who possess Ghana Cards, there is a small population of Chinese, Malaysian, Indian, Middle Eastern and European nationals. In 2010, the Ghana Immigration Service reported many economic migrants and undocumented immigrants inhabiting Ghana: 14.6% (or 3.1 million) of Ghana's 2010 population (mostly Nigerians, Burkinabe citizens, Togolese citizens, and Malian citizens). In 1969, under the "Ghana Aliens Compliance Order" enacted by then Prime Minister Kofi Abrefa Busia, the Border Guard Unit deported more than 3,000,000 aliens and undocumented immigrants in three months as they made up 20% of the population at the time. In 2013, there was a mass deportation of undocumented miners, more than 4,000 of whom were Chinese nationals.
=== Languages ===
English is the official language of Ghana. Additionally, there are eleven languages that have the status of government-sponsored languages:
Akan languages (Asante Twi, Akuapem Twi, Fante, Bono which have a high degree of mutual intelligibility, and Nzema, which is less intelligible with the above)
Dangme
Ewe
Ga
Guan
Kasem
Mole–Dagbani languages (Dagaare and Dagbanli)
Of these, Asante Twi is the most widely spoken.
Because Ghana is surrounded by French-speaking countries, French is widely taught in schools and used for commercial and international economic exchanges. Since 2005, Ghana has been an associate member of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, the global organisation that unites French-speaking countries (84 nations on six continents). In 2005, more than 350,000 Ghanaian children studied French in schools. Since then, its status has been progressively updated to a mandatory language in every junior high school, and it is in the process of becoming an official language.
Ghanaian Pidgin English, also known as Kru English (or in Akan, kroo brofo), is a variety of West African Pidgin English spoken in Accra and in the southern towns. It can be divided into two varieties, referred to as "uneducated" or "non-institutionalized" pidgin and "educated" or "institutionalized" pidgin, the former associated with uneducated or illiterate people and the latter acquired and used in institutions such as universities.
=== Religion ===
Christianity is the largest religion in Ghana, with 71.3% of the population being members of various Christian denominations as of the 2021 census. Islam is practised by 20% of the total population. According to a 2012 report by Pew Research, 51% of Muslims are followers of Sunni Islam, while approximately 16% belong to the Ahmadiyya movement and around 8% identify with Shia Islam, while the remainder are non-denominational Muslims. There is "no significant link between ethnicity and religion in Ghana".
Ghana has around 150,000 Jehovah's Witnesses.
==== Orange Order ====
The Grand Orange Lodge of Ghana is a Protestant fraternal organization within the Orange Order. The most famous governed by the Grand Lodge is The Loyal Leopold Lodge No. 907. It was founded in 1894 by a British colonial official, Dr. A.D. MacDonald. The lodge initially served as a social club for European administrators, military officers, and merchants. Over time, it began to admit local African members, which was a significant departure from the lodges in Ireland and Britain that were overwhelmingly white and Protestant. Today, its members continue to participate in events and parades, including The Twelfth. They also are involved in community and charitable work.
=== Universal health care and life expectancy ===
Ghana has a universal health care system, National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS), which is strictly designated for Ghanaian nationals. Health care is variable throughout Ghana and in 2012, more than 12 million Ghanaian nationals were covered by the NHIS. Urban centres are well served and contain most of the hospitals, clinics, and pharmacies. There are more than 200 hospitals, and Ghana is a destination for medical tourism. In 2010, there were 0.1 physicians per 1,000 people and as of 2011, 0.9 hospital beds per 1,000 people. In 2010, 5.2% of Ghana's GDP was spent on health. In 2020, the WHO announced Ghana became the second country in the WHO African Region to attain regulatory system "maturity level 3", the second-highest in the four-tiered WHO classification of National medicines regulatory systems.
Life expectancy at birth in 2021 was 68.6 for a female and 63.7 for a male. In 2013, infant mortality was to 39 per 1,000 live births. Sources vary on life expectancy at birth; the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated 62 years for men and 64 years for women born in 2016. The fertility rate declined from 3.99 (2000) to 3.28 (2010) with 2.78 in urban region and 3.94 in rural region. The United Nations reports a fertility decline from 6.95 (1970) to 4.82 (2000) to 3.93 live births per woman in 2017.
As of 2012, the HIV/AIDS prevalence was estimated at 1.40% among adults aged 15–49.
=== Education ===
The education system is divided into three parts: basic education, secondary cycle, and tertiary education. "Basic education" lasts 11 years (ages 4‒15). It is divided into kindergarten (two years), primary school (two modules of three years) and junior high (three years). Junior high school ends with the Basic Education Certificate Examination. Once certified, the pupil can proceed to the secondary cycle. Hence, the pupil has the choice between general education (offered by the senior high school) and vocational education (offered by the technical senior high school or the technical and vocational institutes). Senior high school lasts three years and leads to the West African Senior School Certificate Examination, which is a prerequisite for enrollment in a university bachelor's degree programme. Polytechnics are open to vocational students.
A bachelor's degree requires four years of study. It can be followed by a one- or two-year master's degree programme, which can be followed by a PhD programme of at least three years. A polytechnic programme lasts two or three years. Ghana possesses colleges of education. Some of the universities are the University of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, and University of Cape Coast.
There are more than 95% of children in school. The literacy rate of youth ages 15 to 24 years old was 81% in 2010, with males at 82%, and females at 80%. An education system annually attracts foreign students particularly in the university sector.
Ghana has a free education six-year primary school education system beginning at age 6. The government largely funds basic education comprising public primary schools and public junior high schools. Senior high schools were subsidised by the government until September 2017/2018 academic year that senior high education became free. At the higher education level, the government funds more than 80% of resources provided to public universities, polytechnics and teacher training colleges. As part of the Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education, Fcube, the government supplies all basic education schools with all their textbooks and other educational supplies, like exercise books. Senior high schools are provided with all their textbook requirements by the government. Private schools acquire their educational material from private suppliers.
== Culture ==
=== Food and drink ===
Ghanaian cuisine includes an assortment of soups and stews with varied seafoods; most Ghanaian soups are prepared with vegetables, meat, poultry or fish. Fish is important in the diet with tilapia, roasted and fried whitebait, smoked fish and crayfish, all being common components of Ghanaian dishes. Banku (akple) is a common starchy food made from ground corn (maize), and cornmeal based staples kɔmi (kenkey) and banku (akple) are usually accompanied by some form of fried fish (chinam) or grilled tilapia and a very spicy condiment made from raw red and green chillies, onions and tomatoes (pepper sauce). Banku and tilapia is a combo served in most restaurants. Fufu is the most common exported Ghanaian dish and is a delicacy across the African diaspora. Rice is an established staple meal across the country, with various rice-based dishes serving as breakfast, lunch and dinner, the main variants are waakye, plain rice and stew (either kontomire or tomato gravy), fried rice and jollof rice.
=== Literature ===
=== Clothing ===
During the 13th century, Ghanaians developed their unique art of adinkra printing. Hand-printed and hand-embroidered adinkra clothes were made and used exclusively by royalty for devotional ceremonies. Each of the motifs that make up the corpus of adinkra symbolism has a name and meaning derived from a proverb, a historical event, human attitude, ethology, plant life-form, or shapes of inanimate and man-made objects. The meanings of the motifs may be categorised into aesthetics, ethics, human relations, and concepts. The Adinkra symbols have a decorative function as tattoos but also represent objects that encapsulate evocative messages that convey traditional wisdom, aspects of life, or the environment. There are many symbols with distinct meanings, often linked with proverbs. In the words of Anthony Appiah, they were one of the means in a pre-literate society for "supporting the transmission of a complex and nuanced body of practice and belief".
Along with the adinkra cloth, Ghanaians use many cloth fabrics for their traditional attire. The different ethnic groups have their own individual cloth. The most well known is the Kente cloth. Kente is a very important national costume and clothing, and these clothes are used to make traditional and modern Kente attire. Different symbols and different colours mean different things. Kente is the most famous of all the Ghanaian clothes. Kente is a ceremonial cloth hand-woven on a horizontal treadle loom and strips measuring about 4 inches wide are sewn together into larger pieces of cloths. Cloths come in various colours, sizes and designs and are worn during very important social and religious occasions. In a cultural context, kente is more important than just a cloth as it is a visual representation of history and also a form of written language through weaving. The term kente has its roots in the Akan word kɛntɛn which means a basket and the first kente weavers used raffia fibres to weave cloths that looked like kenten (a basket); and thus were referred to as kenten ntoma; meaning basket cloth.
Kente is also woven by the Ewe people (Ewe Kente) in the Volta Region. The main weaving centres are Agortime area and Agbozume. Agbozume has a vibrant kente market attracting patrons from all over west Africa and the diaspora.
Contemporary Ghanaian fashion includes traditional and modern styles and fabrics and has made its way into the African and global fashion scene. The cloth known as African print fabric was created out of Dutch wax textiles. It is believed that in the late 19th century, Dutch ships on their way to Asia stocked with machine-made textiles that mimicked Indonesian batik stopped at many West African ports on the way. The fabrics did not do well in Asia. However, in West Africa—mainly Ghana where there was an already established market for cloths and textiles—the client base grew and it was changed to include local and traditional designs, colours and patterns to cater to the taste of the new consumers. Today outside of Africa it is called "Ankara", and it has a client base well beyond Ghana and Africa as a whole. It is popular among Caribbean peoples and African Americans; celebrities such as Solange Knowles and her sister Beyoncé have been seen wearing African print attire. Many designers from countries in North America and Europe are now using African prints, and they have gained a global interest. British luxury fashion house Burberry created a collection around Ghanaian styles. Internationally acclaimed Ghanaian-British designer Ozwald Boateng introduced African print suits in his 2012 collection.
=== Music and dance ===
Music incorporates types of musical instruments such as the talking drum ensembles, Akan Drum, goje fiddle and koloko lute, court music, including the Akan Seperewa, the Akan atumpan, the Ga kpanlogo styles, and log xylophones used in asonko music. Afro-jazz — "the reuniting of African-American jazz with its African roots" — was created by Kofi Ghanaba. A form of secular music called highlife originated in the 19th and 20th centuries and spread throughout West Africa.
In the 1990s, a genre of music was created incorporating the influences of highlife, Afro-reggae, dancehall and hip hop. This hybrid was called hiplife.
There are dances for occasions. Dances for celebrations include the Adowa, Kpanlogo, Azonto, Klama, Agbadza, Borborbor and Bamaya. The Nana Otafrija Pallbearing Services, also known as the Dancing Pallbearers, were featured in a BBC feature story in 2017, and footage from the story became part of an Internet meme in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic.
=== Media ===
Chapter 12 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana guarantees freedom of the press and independence of the media, while Chapter 2 prohibits censorship. Post-independence, private outlets closed during the military governments, and media laws prevented criticism of government. Press freedoms were restored in 1992, and after the election in 2000 of Kufuor, the tensions between the private media and government decreased. Kufuor supported press freedom and repealed a libel law, and maintained that the media had to act responsibly. The media have been described as "one of the most unfettered" in Africa.
=== Architecture ===
There are two types of construction: the series of adjacent buildings in an enclosure around a common, and the round huts with grass roof. The round huts with grass roof architecture are situated in the northern regions, while the series of adjacent buildings are in the southern regions. Postmodern architecture and high-tech architecture buildings are in the southern regions, while heritage sites are evident in the more than 30 forts and castles in the country, such as Fort William and Fort Amsterdam. Ghana has museums that are situated inside castles, and two are situated inside a fort. The Military Museum and the National Museum organise temporary exhibitions.
Ghana has museums that allow an in-depth look at specific regions, with a number of museums providing insight into the traditions and history of the geographical areas. The Cape Coast Castle Museum and St. Georges Castle (Elmina Castle) Museum offer guided tours. The Museum of Science and Technology provides its visitors with a look into the domain of scientific development.
=== Sports ===
Association football is the top spectator sport in Ghana. Ghana has won the Africa Cup of Nations four times, the FIFA U-20 World Cup once, and has participated in five FIFA World Cups (2006, 2010, 2014, 2022, and 2026) and has also won the FIFA U-17 World Cup twice. The International Federation of Football History and Statistics crowned Asante Kotoko SC as the African club of the 20th century.
Ghana competes in the Commonwealth Games, sending athletes in every edition since 1954 (except for the 1986 games). Ghana has won 57 medals at the Commonwealth Games, including 15 gold, with all but one of their medals coming in athletics and boxing. The country has also produced a number of boxers, including Azumah Nelson a three-time world champion, Nana Yaw Konadu also a three-time world champion, Ike Quartey, and Joshua Clottey.
== See also ==
Outline of Ghana
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Official website, Government of Ghana
Visit Ghana.com / Tourist Information Portal
The Parliament of Ghana
National Commission on Culture
Country Profile from BBC News
Ghana from Encyclopædia Britannica
Ghana profile from ECOWAS
News headline links from Al Jazeera.
Wikimedia Atlas of Ghana
The African Activist Archive Project website has photographs of the All Africa People's Conference held in Accra, Ghana, 5–13 December 1958 including Kwame Nkrumah, Prime Minister of Ghana, addressing the conference, the American Committee on Africa delegation meeting with Nkrumah, and of Patrick Duncan and Alfred Hutchinson of South Africa at the conference. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacha_Nagma | Bacha Nagma | Bacha Nagma is one of the major folk dance forms found in the Kashmir valley. It is also referred to as Bacha Gyavaun in certain parts of Kashmir. Afghans of Kabul are credited with the parentage of this dance. It is a derivative of the Hafiza Nagma. During the Bacha Nagma, a teenaged boy dressed as a girl dancer, who is trained in the Hafiza style of dancing sings Kashmiri Ballad and dances. This dance is popular in the villages, mainly at the harvest time. It is also popular for being performed in social gatherings and parties by young boys who disguise themselves as women in long skirts. Bacha Nagma is common in Kashmir during wedding celebrations and when the wedding processions are taken out on boats on the Jhelum river. This dance form is much appreciated and has the ability to engage large audiences. It is accompanied by instruments like rabab, sarangi, and drums. It involves quick spinning movements just like in the Hafiza dance form and some may even resemble those of kathak. The song-dance proceeding is known as Bach Nagma Jashan - Kid Dancer's Celebration. The dancer is known as The Bacha - the Kid - usually a thin and graceful boy/man who dances, sometimes comically, is always attired like a woman in a multi-colored frock-like dress.
This dance occupies a very special place in the folklore of Kashmir and is performed during parties where people socialize with each other. too, The dance is also conducted during festivals and religious occasions. The audience is entertained by the rejoicing movements of the performers accompanied by very loud music. This folk dance form was one of the most prevalent ways of entertainment in the old days. With the passage of time, there come up in many ways by which people entertain themselves. The Bacha Nagma dance has still existed as a folk dance form and is considered one of the prime components of the Kashmiri culture. Before the Bacha Nagma, another type of celebration was much more popular - Hafiz Nagma, ‘Female dancer’s song’.
== Etymology ==
The term "Bacha Nagma" is derived from two different words, Bacha: From Persian بچه (bačče). Ultimately from Sanskrit वत्स (vatsa, "boy, child, son"), from which Hindi बछड़ा (bachṛā, "calf, child, boy") is derived and Nagma: From Urdu ناجما, Hindi: नघमा meaning a melody or a tune. Combined altogether means the child's dance.
== History ==
The valley of Kashmir is appreciated for its rich culture and the various folk dance forms which can still be seen. Kashmir was predominantly populated by Muslims and has remained aloof from the main cultural currents of India, but the ancient caves and temples of Kashmir reveal a strong link with Indian culture at the beginning of the Common Era. At one time the classical dances of the south are believed to have been practiced. When Islam was introduced in the 14th century, dancing and theatrical arts were suppressed, being contrary to a strict interpretation of the Qurʾān. These arts survived only in folk forms and were performed principally at marriage ceremonies. The history of the Bacha Nagma folk dance form says that the dance evolved many years ago as a dance form that was being performed during the harvest season to celebrate the joy of harvesting. However, it gradually gained popularity among the people and is now being performed at social gatherings, parties, and get-togethers, as well as during religious occasions and festivals.
Another dance form is known as the Hafiz Nagma- ‘Female dancer’s Song’ was prevalent before the Bacha Nagma. Its performance was similar to Bacha Nagma, and the songs were usually set to Sufi lyrics or Sufia Kalam, but the dancer who performed on these songs was always female and known as Hafiza. These dancers were much celebrated at weddings and festivals. This dance form was eventually replaced by the Bacha Nagma, with different reasons given for this happening. A belief among the locals is that the concept of boys dancing in female attire had a historical significance which dates back during the rule of the Mughal emperor Akbar. After Kashmir was captured by Akbar, he wanted to diminish the gallantry of the men residing in the place. To accomplish it, he enforced the men to dress up like the women, to prevent them from disclosing their heroism and bravery. Kashmiris believe that Mughal Emperor Akbar, in an attempt to counter manly valor of its people and remove any possible future trouble, decree-forced Kashmiri men to were feminine gown like dresses - pheran. Then, in 1920s Hafiz Nagma was banned officially in Kashmir by the ruling Dogra Maharaja. The ruler felt this dance was losing its Sufi touch and was becoming too sensual and hence amoral for the society. With songs being the same, the female Muslim dancers were replaced by young Muslim boys who dressed as women, giving the origin of Bacha Nagma. Few studies by the respected academic personnel reveal that this dance form was mainly promoted by the Afghans in Kabul. The dancers did not only wear the dress of a woman but they also beautified themselves with various ornaments and jewelry. The dance movements are performed with such dignity and expertise that it is almost impossible to distinguish the boys with that of the dance performances of girls. It is a distinct credit of the young boys, dancing and singing simultaneously with the music. These young boys are trained as soon as they reach their adolescent age to maintain the sweetness and the shrillness in their voice. During the modern era, there have been several alterations in the song and the dance.
== Form ==
Bacha Nagma is an offshoot to the Hafiza dance form. It is considered very popular and draws attention of large amount of crowd and applause. It also involves quick spinning movements like that in Kathak. The dancers do much of an expressional dancing to interpret the lyrics of the song being sung. Nowadays marriages Kashmir in are considered incomplete without Bacha Nagma performance. The groups are booked a couple of months before the events. During the ceremony, the ‘Bacha’ gets more people on the dance floor and is then customarily showered with money. The singing takes place all night and the Ghungroos add to the aesthetic nature of the song. There are songs of different patterns, like Erotic, Humorous, Pathetic, Heroic, Spiritual, Peaceful and Wondrous. Many different type of rasas (emotions) are present in these songs sung by the bacha and which are then expressed beautifully through the dancing.
== Performance ==
The dance is usually performed by highly skilled and brilliant young performers. Each one of them is skilled and accomplished in their genre of dance. These extremely well talented young boys are made to look like women with local traditional women's attire and make-up. The dancers follow the Hafiza style of dance. They receive adequate and expert training to adopt the Hafiza dance form of Kashmir. A common feature noticed in these young teenagers is that they have the supple body so that they can easily adapt the flexible moves like that of female dancers in Hafiza. Since these boys are of tender age they have sweeter voice and thus, they can as well sing while dancing. They are trained to retain that voice too. The sweetness in their voice makes the music very much soothing and creates a very nice ambiance. It consists of six to seven members (maximum) and there is no particular singer, one of the dancers himself is the lead singer among the dancers that sings in a melodious voice and the other members join him in the chorus, this creates a very soothing effect as most of the singers are young in age. The dresses worn by dancers somewhat resemble those worn by Kathak dancers. Their face is beautifully adorned to represent that of a girl. The dancers move around the dance stage with wonderful dignified movements. The poised nature of the dance, simple yet lively, enthralls the audience.
== Music and Instruments ==
The songs are similar to the ones that are sung with the Hafiza dance i.e. songs written in Sufi Kalam or lyrics. Sufi Kalam is a song form, dedicated to the divine power and spirit. Other songs used contain lyrics that resemble the Persian style of literature. Nowadays the lyrics are composed to represent a fun theme or a comedy, to allure the observers. The music is loud and is an inherent part of the dance form. Without the music, the performance does not attain its exquisite charm and sophistication.
A Sufi Kalam performance consists of an ustad, and three musicians (all of the vocalists and instrumentalists) introducing the shakal (alaap) before presenting the baeth (mystic and/or romantic verses) of a maqaam (raga). Sufi Kalam was the music form favored by the elite, while the masses enjoyed traditional forms of folk music like Chhakri, Rof, and Wanwun. Chhakri is folk music sung to the accompaniment of sarang, rabab, tumbaknari and nott. Bacha Nagma is accompanied by the Chhakri singers and instruments and the Sufi kalam slowly faded away. A ballad in Kashmiri was sung for the story is told and not merely as dance-accompaniments. Sometimes for the sake of entertainment, dance was also performed along with the singing of a narrative song which became a local practice for the Bacha Nagma singers.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eintracht_Frankfurt | Eintracht Frankfurt | Eintracht Frankfurt e.V. (German pronunciation: [ˈaɪntʁaxt ˈfʁaŋkfʊʁt] ) is a German professional sports club based in Frankfurt, Hesse. It is best known for its football club, which was founded on 8 March 1899. The club currently plays in the Bundesliga, the top tier of the German football league system. Eintracht have won the German championship once, the DFB-Pokal five times, the UEFA Europa League twice and finished as runner-up in the European Cup once. The team was one of the founding members of the Bundesliga at its inception and has spent a total of 56 seasons in the top division, thus making them the seventh longest participating club in the highest tier of the league.
The club has 155,000 members, and thus is the fourth largest club playing in German football.
Since 1925 their stadium has been the Waldstadion, which is currently named Deutsche Bank Park for sponsorship reasons.
Eintracht Frankfurt have either won or drawn more than three-quarters of their games as well as having finished the majority of their seasons placed in the top half of the table, but also having the highest number of losses in the league (657). With an average attendance of 47,942 since 2013 the team also has one of the highest attendance ratings in the world and the eighth highest out of the 36 Bundesliga and 2. Bundesliga teams. The player with the highest number of appearances (602) in the Bundesliga, Charly Körbel, spent his entire senior career as a defender for Eintracht Frankfurt. The club's primary rival is local club Kickers Offenbach, although, due to spending most of their history in different divisions, the two have only played two league matches within the last 40 years.
With almost 14,000 active athletes in over 50 sports in 2024, Eintracht Frankfurt is the largest multi-sports club in the world with a professional football team.
== History ==
=== Club origins ===
The origins of the club go back to a pair of football clubs founded in 1899: Frankfurter Fußball-Club Victoria von 1899 – regarded as the original team in the club's history – and Frankfurter Fußball-Club Kickers von 1899. Both clubs were founding members of the new Nordkreis-Liga in 1909. These two teams merged in May 1911 to become Frankfurter Fußball Verein (Kickers-Victoria), an instant success, taking three league titles from 1912 to 1914 in the Nordkreis-Liga and qualifying for the Southern German championship in each of those seasons. In turn, Frankfurter FV joined the gymnastics club Frankfurter Turngemeinde von 1861 to form TuS Eintracht Frankfurt von 1861 in 1920. The German word Eintracht means 'harmony' or 'concord', and so Eintracht is the equivalent of United in English in the names of sports teams.
At the time, sports in Germany was dominated by nationalistic gymnastics organizations, and under pressure from that sport's governing authority, the gymnasts and footballers went their separate ways again in 1927, as Turngemeinde Eintracht Frankfurt von 1861 and Sportgemeinde Eintracht Frankfurt (FFV) von 1899.
Through the late 1920s and into the 1930s, Eintracht won a handful of local and regional championships, first in the Kreisliga Nordmain, then in the Bezirksliga Main and Bezirksliga Main-Hessen. After being eliminated from the national level playoffs after quarterfinal losses in 1930 and 1931, they won their way to the final in 1932 where they were beaten 2–0 by Bayern Munich, who claimed their first ever German championship. In 1933, German football was re-organized into sixteen Gauligen under the Third Reich, and the club played first division football in the Gauliga Südwest, consistently finishing in the upper half of the table and winning their division in 1938.
Eintracht picked up where they left off after World War II, joining the new first division Oberliga Süd. In 1946, Eintracht won the first Hessenpokal, and finished third in the Oberliga Süd a year later. In 1953, they would win the Oberliga Süd title, qualifying Eintracht for the German championship, though they did not make it to the final.
=== National champions and European Cup finalists ===
Former coach Paul Oßwald returned to the club for a third stint with Eintracht in 1958. In the 1958–59 season the club won their Oberliga again, qualifying for the 1959 German championship. Winning all six of the games in the group phase, Eintracht made it to the final with a perfect record; there, they would meet rivals Kickers Offenbach, the club that Oßwald joined from, and the runners up behind Eintracht in the Oberliga Süd. Frankfurt went on to win the final 5–3 after extra time, becoming German champions for the first and so far only time in front of 75,000 fans in Berlin's Olympiastadion.
As champions, Frankfurt would represent Germany in the 1959–60 European Cup, where they would come to international prominence. Having beaten BSC Young Boys and Wiener Sport-Club to make it to the semi-finals, they were drawn against Scottish champions Rangers, who were considered favourites, at least in Scotland – Rangers manager Scot Symon allegedly asked, "Eintracht, who are they?" before the game. Eintracht won the first leg 6–1 at home, in a performance described as the greatest in the club's history. They would score six more in the second leg at Ibrox, winning 12–4 on aggregate. After the game, the Rangers players gave their opponents a guard of honour as they left the pitch.
Eintracht would return to Glasgow for the final at Hampden Park, although they lost 7–3 to Real Madrid despite taking an early lead. The final was widely regarded as one of the best football matches ever played, remembered for a hat-trick by Alfredo Di Stéfano and four goals by Ferenc Puskás.
After their championship-winning year, Eintracht did not win the Oberliga again, though they were runners-up in 1961 and 1962. Both times they would finish second in the group phase of the German championship, missing out on the final.
=== Founding member of the Bundesliga ===
The side earned themselves a place as one of the original 16 teams selected to play in the Bundesliga, Germany's new professional football league, formed in 1963. Eintracht played Bundesliga football for 33 consecutive seasons, finishing in the top half of the table for the majority of them. In the inaugural season, Eintracht finished 3rd behind 1. FC Köln and Meidericher SV – the club has still never managed a better Bundesliga finish – and also reached the 1964 DFB-Pokal Final.
Eintracht finished in the top half of the Bundesliga every season until 1970–71. Although they didn't make it back to the European Cup, Eintracht did play in other non-UEFA European competitions, beating FK Inter Bratislava to win the 1967 Intertoto Cup in the last season of its original format. That year, they also reached the semi-final of the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, losing to Dinamo Zagreb.
=== Cup successes ===
From 1973 to 1981, Eintracht had arguably their most successful period of the Bundesliga era, winning three DFB-Pokals and the UEFA Cup. Many of the most iconic players from the club's history played during this era, such as Bernd Nickel, Charly Körbel, Bernd Hölzenbein, Jürgen Grabowski and Cha Bum-kun.
The first title success came under Dietrich Weise in the 1973–74 DFB-Pokal, winning 3–1 in the final over Hamburger SV – due to the 1974 FIFA World Cup, which Hölzenbein and Grabowski had won with West Germany, the final was not played until August 1974.
Eintracht would win the cup again in 1975, beating MSV Duisburg 1–0. That season, they played in the European Cup Winners' Cup for the first time, and in the 1975–76 campaign, they would go far, reaching the semi-finals. Despite beating West Ham 2–1 at home, Eintracht were beaten 3–1 in the second leg and were knocked out, while also finishing a relatively low ninth place in the Bundesliga. The club then had a difficult start to the 1976–77 season, but under new coach Gyula Lóránt, appointed in November, Eintracht went unbeaten in the second half of the season. Lóránt, notable for introducing zonal marking to the Bundesliga, took Frankfurt into fourth place by the end of the season, finishing only two points behind champions Borussia Mönchengladbach. Soon, however, Lóránt would leave for Bayern Munich, with Dettmar Cramer coming the other way to coach Frankfurt. Cramer left at the end of the disappointing 1977–78 season, replaced by Otto Knefler, who soon had to leave on health grounds.
In January 1979, Friedel Rausch joined the club as head coach. This was one of two important arrivals in 1979, as Cha Bum-kun would sign for Eintracht in July, becoming the first Korean to play in Europe. He would quickly become an icon in Frankfurt, scoring 12 league goals in his debut season. Eliminating Aberdeen, Dinamo București, Feyenoord and FC Zbrojovka Brno in the earlier rounds of the UEFA Cup, Eintracht reached the semi-finals, at which point only West German teams remained. Drawn against Bayern Munich, they won 5–1 in extra time to earn a place in the final.
Eintracht lost 3–2 in the first leg of the final to Borussia Mönchengladbach, the reigning champions. The two away goals, scored by Harald Karger and Hölzenbein, would prove crucial. Two weeks later, they hosted the return leg. With the score still at 0–0, Friedel Rausch sent on teenager Fred Schaub with 13 minutes to play. Almost immediately, Schaub scored what proved to be only goal of the game, winning Eintracht the title on away goals.
As Lothar Buchmann succeeded Rausch, Eintracht won their third DFB-Pokal in 1981. This effectively marked the end of Eintracht's golden period, as they began their battle with relegation.
=== Mid-80s struggles and 1988 DFB-Pokal ===
In 1984, they defeated MSV Duisburg 6–1 on aggregate in the relegation playoff after finishing 16th; in 1986 and 1987, they would finish 15th.
After years as a bottom-half club in the Bundesliga, Eintracht had a successful 1987–88 season, finishing in the top half of the league for the first time since 1982. More importantly, they won the 1987–88 DFB-Pokal, with a 1–0 win over VfL Bochum in the 1988 final. The goalscorer was Hungarian Lajos Détári, who became a hero among the club's fans. Only two days after the final, Détári was sold to Olympiacos for a large fee, helping to pay the club's debts.
In 1988–89 Eintracht found themselves in the relegation fight again. Jörg Berger was appointed coach and led the side to safety with a 4–1 aggregate win over 1. FC Saarbrücken in the relegation playoff.
=== Title challenges in the early 90s and first relegation ===
A year later, Berger had taken the club to 3rd place, and was recognised as the best coach in the league. Berger left in 1991 after a 4th-place finish, but the squad now included players considered among the Bundesliga's best, such as Uwe Bein, Uli Stein, Jørn Andersen, Manfred Binz, Tony Yeboah and Andreas Möller.
Dragoslav Stepanović took over as coach when Berger left, and Eintracht would finish 3rd in both seasons he coached, although he left before the end of 1992–93. Under Stepanović, Eintracht played what was considered some of the best football in Bundesliga history, making 'Stepi' a fan favourite to this day. In 1991–92, the club came closer than ever before to winning the Bundesliga. Going into the last game of the season, Eintracht were top of the table and only needed a win against already-relegated Hansa Rostock. With the scores level at 1–1 Eintracht were denied what seemed a clear penalty, they would go on to lose 2–1. Referee Alfons Berg later apologised for his decision, but VfB Stuttgart became champions. Eintracht also came close in 1993–94, under Klaus Toppmöller, leading the table at the halway point; however, they fell to 5th place and Toppmöller was sacked.
In the summer of 1994, Jupp Heynckes was appointed coach. Things quickly began to turn sour, as Heynckes fell out with key players Tony Yeboah, Maurizio Gaudino and Jay-Jay Okocha. The club suspended all three players; Yeboah and Gaudino soon left. With the club in 13th, Heynckes decided to leave. For his role in breaking up the successful side of the early 90s, Heynckes is still disliked by many fans in Frankfurt.
Relegation would come in 1995–96, with neither club legend Charly Körbel or the previously successful Dragoslav Stepanovic able to rescue Eintracht. After 33 consecutive years in the Bundesliga, Frankfurt went down alongside 1. FC Kaiserslautern, who had also been ever-present until 1996.
=== Turbulent years ===
After a tumultuous debut campaign in the 2. Bundesliga, Eintracht won the title in 1997–98 and returned to the Bundesliga. Promotion coach Horst Ehrmantraut left in December, and Jörg Berger returned to try to save Eintracht once more. On the final day of the 1998–99 season, Eintracht were expected to be relegated, but dramatically climbed out of the relegation zone on goal difference thanks to a late goal from Jan Åge Fjørtoft giving them a 5–1 win over Kaiserslautern.
The following year, in another struggle to avoid relegation, the club was docked two points for violating the conditions of their license. Eintracht secured survival on the last day of the season with a win over SSV Ulm, who were relegated instead. Eintracht would go down the season afterwards with Friedel Rausch in charge, and did not come close to promotion in 2001–02.
Eintracht secured a Bundesliga return on the final day of the 2002–03 season with a 6–3 win over Reutlingen, dramatically scoring 3 in the last 10 minutes of the game. They were then relegated straight back to the 2. Bundesliga, but were promoted again the season after, managed by Friedhelm Funkel. Funkel led the team to safety in 2005–06 and also took Eintracht to the DFB-Pokal final for the first time since 1988, where they lost to Bayern Munich. As Bayern had already qualified for Europe, this also meant that Eintracht qualified for the UEFA Cup. After years of stability under Funkel, Michael Skibbe replaced him in 2009.
The 2010–11 season ended with the club's fourth Bundesliga relegation. After setting a new record for most points in the first half of the season, the club struggled after the winter break, going seven games without scoring a goal. Coach Skibbe was replaced with Christoph Daum, but Eintracht went down again after winning just once in the second half of the season.
One year later, Eintracht defeated Alemannia Aachen 3–0 on the 32nd matchday of the 2011–12 season, securing promotion to the Bundesliga. This was followed up by a 6th-place finish in the Bundesliga in 2012–13, qualifying Frankfurt for the Europa League.
=== DFB Pokal and Europa League winners, participation in European competitions ===
Having finished in the top half in 2014–15, a season in which Eintracht's Alexander Meier was the league's top scorer, the team struggled again in 2015–16 and Niko Kovač was appointed coach in March 2016. Frankfurt survived only through the relegation playoff; ending the season in 16th place, they beat 1. FC Nürnberg 2–1 on aggregate in the playoff. In Kovač's first full year, his team survived comfortably and also reached the final of the 2017 DFB-Pokal, where they were beaten by Borussia Dortmund.
Eintracht reached their second DFB-Pokal final in a row in 2017–18, this time winning 3–1 against heavy favourites Bayern Munich – who Kovač had already agreed to join from next season. He was replaced by Adi Hütter.
In 2018–19, Eintracht's attacking trio of Luka Jović, Ante Rebić and Sébastien Haller won lots of praise for their outstanding performances, scoring 41 league goals and 16 Europa League goals between them and earning the nickname "the Buffalo Herd". Making only their second appearance in the modern Europa League, Eintracht won all six group games against Lazio, Apollon Limassol and Marseille, and beat highly rated opponents Shakhtar Donetsk, Inter Milan and Benfica. In the semi-finals against Chelsea, Eintracht drew both legs 1–1 but ended up losing on penalties at Stamford Bridge. Chelsea would go on to win the tournament. Eintracht also missed out on Champions League qualification in the Bundesliga, dropping from 4th to 7th after losing their last two games.
With Jović, Rebić and Haller all leaving in the summer of 2019, Eintracht regressed in 2019–20 and failed to qualify for Europe, but returned to the Europa League with a 5th-place finish in 2020–21, after which Adi Hütter left for Borussia Mönchengladbach. In the 2021–22 Europa League, Eintracht topped their group and stunned Barcelona in the quarter finals, taking a 3–0 lead at the Camp Nou and eventually winning 3–2 with approximately 30,000 travelling Frankfurt fans in attendance. Eintracht went on to beat West Ham home and away in the semi-finals to set up their first European final since 1980.
In the final in Seville's Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán Stadium, Frankfurt beat Rangers 5–4 on penalties after a 1–1 draw in extra-time, with Rafael Santos Borré scoring Eintracht's goal and the winning penalty. Goalkeeper Kevin Trapp was named man of the match in the final after making a crucial late save from Ryan Kent and saving Aaron Ramsey's penalty in the shootout. Eintracht won the competition unbeaten; their success also qualified them for the 2022–23 UEFA Champions League, Eintracht's first appearance in the competition since 1960. Eintracht finished second in their Champions League group, qualifying for the knockout stages, but lost in the round of 16 against S.S.C. Napoli. The team was more successful in the 2022–23 DFB-Pokal, reaching the final on 3 June 2023, where they lost 2–0 against RB Leipzig. A 7th-place finish at the end of 2022–23 season secured qualification for the UEFA Europa Conference League.
Since November 2024, the executive board consists of Axel Hellmann (CEO), Markus Krösche (head of sports) and Julien Zamberk (head of finances) and Philipp Reschke (head of fan relations, merchandising and HR).
== Colours, crest and nicknames ==
The club crest derives from the coat of arms of the city of Frankfurt, which itself is a reference to the one-headed Imperial Eagle of the 13th century.
The crest has evolved showing little significant change until 1980, when a stylized eagle in black and white was chosen to represent the team. In Eintracht's centenary year of 1999, the club decided to re-adopt a more traditional eagle crest. Since 2005, Eintracht has had a living mascot, a golden eagle named Attila from the nearby Hanau Zoo, who has currently been present at over 200 different games.
The official club colours of red, black, and white have their origins in the colours of the founding clubs Frankfurter FC Viktoria and Frankfurter FC Kickers, which sported red and white and black and white respectively. Red and white are the colours of the city coat of arms, and black and white the colours of Prussia. When the clubs merged, officials decided to adopt the colours of both sides. Since local rival Kickers Offenbach sport the colours red and white, Eintracht avoids playing in such a kit, preferring to play in black and red, or in black and white. In the 2023–2024 season, the home kit is black and red.
In the 2021–22 UEFA Europa League, the Eagles played an unbeaten campaign, mostly sporting an all-white kit that gained them the nickname la bestia blanca (literally the white beast in Spanish), a wordplay on the Spanish term la bestia negra (literally the black beast, also meaning bogey team in Spanish). This nickname was received after Eintracht knocked FC Barcelona out of the competition at Camp Nou.
The club is nicknamed "Die Adler" ("The Eagles"), which derives from their logo. A nickname still popular among supporters is SGE, taken from the club's old official name Sportgemeinde Eintracht (Frankfurt), which roughly translates into English as "Sports Community Harmony."
The nickname Launische Diva ("Moody Diva") was heard most often in the early 1990s, when the club would comfortably defeat top teams only to surprisingly lose to lesser clubs.
The nickname Schlappekicker ("Slipper Kickers") has been around since the 1920s, when J. & C. A. Schneider, a local manufacturer of shoes and especially slippers (called Schlappe in the regional Hessian dialect) was a major financial backer of the club and helped propel it to national relevance.
== Honours ==
=== National ===
German Championship / Bundesliga
Champions (1): 1959
Runners-up (1): 1932
2. Bundesliga
Winners (1): 1997–98
Runners-up (1): 2011–12
DFB-Pokal
Winners (5): 1973–74, 1974–75, 1980–81, 1987–88, 2017–18
Runners-up (4): 1963–64, 2005–06, 2016–17, 2022–23
DFB / DFL-Supercup
Runners-up (2): 1988, 2018
=== Continental ===
European Cup / UEFA Champions League
Runners-up (1): 1959–60
UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League
Winners (2): 1979–80, 2021–22
International Football Cup (Intertoto Cup)
Winners (1): 1966-67
UEFA Super Cup
Runners-up (1): 2022
=== Pre-season ===
Cup of the Alps
Winners: 1967
Fuji-Cup
Winners: 1992
Runners-up: 1994
Trofeo Bortolotti
Winners: 2016, 2022
=== Regional ===
Southern German Championship
Champions: 1929–30, 1931–32
Runners-up: 1912–13+, 1913–14+, 1927–28, 1930–31
Oberliga Süd
Champions: 1952–53, 1958–59
Runners-up: 1953–54, 1960–61, 1961–62
Nordkreis-Liga
Champions: 1911–12+, 1912–13+, 1913–14+
Kreisliga Nordmain
Champions: 1919–20+, 1920–21
Runners-up: 1921–22
Bezirksliga Main-Hessen:
Champions: 1927–28, 1928–29, 1929–30, 1930–31, 1931–32
Runners-up: 1932–33
Gauliga Südwest/Mainhessen:
Champions: 1937–38
Runners-up: 1936–37
Hesse Cup (Tiers 3–7):
Winners: 1946, 1969*
Runners-up: 1949
Hesse Championship (Tier 3, 4 & 5):
Champions: 1970*, 2002*, 2023*
Runners-up: 1978*, 1983*, 1995*
+ As Frankfurter FV
* Achieved by Reserve Team
== League results ==
=== Domestic ===
==== Recent seasons ====
==== All time ====
Green denotes the highest level of football in Germany; yellow the second highest.
=== European ===
==== UEFA club coefficient ranking ====
As of 29 June 2025
== Players ==
=== Current squad ===
As of 7 September 2025
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules; some limited exceptions apply. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
=== Players out on loan ===
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules; some limited exceptions apply. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
== Kit history ==
Current sport brand: Adidas
Home kit: Black shirt with vertical red stripes, black shorts and black socks
Away kit: TBA
3rd kit: TBA
=== Sponsoring ===
== Current club staff ==
As of 2023
== Club presidents ==
== Coaches ==
== Records ==
Home victory, Bundesliga: 9–1 v Rot-Weiss Essen, 5 October 1974
Away victory, Bundesliga: 8–1 v Rot-Weiss Essen, 7 May 1977
Home loss, Bundesliga: 0–7 v Karlsruher SC, 19 September 1964
Away loss, Bundesliga: 0–7 v 1. FC Köln, 29 October 1983
Highest home attendance: 81,000 v FK Pirmasens, 23 May 1959
Highest away attendance: 127,621 v Real Madrid, Hampden Park, Glasgow, 18 May 1960
Highest average attendance, season: 57,600, 2024–25
Most appearances, all competitions total: 720, Charly Körbel (1972–1991)
Most appearances, Bundesliga: 602, Charly Körbel (1972–1991)
Most goals scored, all competitions total: 225, Karl Ehmer (1927–1938)
Most goals scored, Bundesliga: 160, Bernd Hölzenbein (1967–1981)
Most goals scored, season, Bundesliga: 28, André Silva, 2020–21
Richard Kress, (born 6 March 1925) is the oldest Bundesliga rookie, making his debut at 38 years and 171 days on the opening day of league play on 24 August 1963. He scored his first Bundesliga goal at 38 years and 248 days of age.
Eintracht hold the record for most consecutive away games without a win (32) from 20 August 1985 to 25 August 1987.
== Stadium ==
The club's initial games from 1899 to 1906 were played on the former Hundswiese field, whose present day location would be near Hessischer Rundfunk. Following new regulations that pitches needed to be surrounded by a fence for the purpose of official games, the team established a new pitch by the Eschersheimer Landstraße called Victoriaplatz in 1906, for which they purchased stands at a price of 350 marks in 1908. From 1912 the team moved to a new ground at Roseggerstraße in Dornbusch with more facilities, before relocating to the former Riederwaldstadion in 1920 following the fusion of Frankfurter FV and Frankfurter Turngemeinde von 1861.
The ground was inaugurated as Waldstadion ("Forest Stadium") in 1925 with the German championship final match between FSV Frankfurt vs. 1. FC Nürnberg.
The facility was renovated for the FIFA World Cup 2006 in Germany. As of 2025, for Bundesliga fixtures the maximum capacity is 59,500.
Though the media usually refer to the ground by the official name, Deutsche Bank Park, Eintracht fans faithful typically use the original name, Waldstadion.
== Reserve team ==
Eintracht Frankfurt U21 is the reserve team of Eintracht Frankfurt. The team played as U23 (Under 23) to emphasize the character of the team as a link between the youth academy and professional team. The club board decided to dissolve the team after the 2013–14 season while playing in the regular league system in the fourth tier, the Regionalliga Süd.
On 14 February 2022, Eintracht Frankfurt applied to have a reserves team to be re-admitted to the 5th tier Hessenliga for the 2022–23 season.
In the first season after being re-admitted, Frankfurt II won the Hessenliga and got promoted to the Regionalliga Südwest, where they play now.
== Rivalries and friendships ==
The club's main rival is from across the Main river, the side Kickers Offenbach. The clubs played the 1959 German championship final, which Eintracht won.
Eintracht also maintain rivalries with Darmstadt 98 regionally, known as the Hesse derby, as well with 1. FSV Mainz 05 and 1. FC Kaiserslautern in Rhineland-Palatinate.
The club's original rival was Frankfurt city-rival FSV Frankfurt. In both clubs' early years, there used to be a fierce rivalry, but after World War II Eintracht proved to be the stronger club and the ways parted and the rivalry deteriorated due to lack of contact. Nowadays, the fan relations tend to be friendly.
The 2011–12 season saw Eintracht play FSV in a league match for the first time in almost 50 years. The last league game between the two had been played on 27 January 1962, then in the Oberliga Süd. For the first of the two matches, FSV's home game on 21 August 2011, the decision was made to move to Eintracht's stadium as FSV's Bornheimer Hang only holds less than 11,000 spectators. Eintracht won 4–0. The second match on 18 February 2012 ended in another victory for Eintracht, a 6–1 rout.
A friendship between two Eintracht fan clubs and supporters of English club Oldham Athletic has lasted for over 30 years after fans from each club met at an international football tournament. Small sections of each club's support will pay a visit to the other's ground at least once a season. Eintracht supporters also have an international friendship with supporters of Italian club Atalanta.
== Other sections within the club ==
The sports club Eintracht Frankfurt e.V. is made up of nineteen sections:
Betty Heidler, the hammer throw world champion of 2007, was a member of the Eintracht Frankfurt athletics team. Other Eintracht athletes include the 2008 Olympians Andrea Bunjes, Ariane Friedrich, Kamghe Gaba and Kathrin Klaas.
The club's rugby union section twice reached the final of the German rugby union championship, in 1940 and 1965.
Within the football section, the sports club directly manages only the youth system and the reserve team. The professional footballers are managed as a separate limited corporation, Eintracht Frankfurt Fußball-AG, which is a subsidiary of the parent club.
== See also ==
List of Eintracht Frankfurt players
List of Eintracht Frankfurt records and statistics
Eintracht Frankfurt in European football
Eintracht Frankfurt II
Eintracht Frankfurt Women
Eintracht Frankfurt Basketball
Eintracht Frankfurt Rugby
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website (in English and German)
Eintracht Frankfurt at Bundesliga
Eintracht Frankfurt at UEFA
First official fansite (in German)
Official stadium website (in German)
Eintracht Frankfurt statistics. Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
Rugby section (in German) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/224_Oceana#:~:text=Oceana%20(minor%20planet%20designation%3A%20224,named%20after%20the%20Pacific%20Ocean. | 224 Oceana | 224 Oceana is an asteroid from the asteroid belt. It was discovered by Austrian astronomer Johann Palisa on 30 March 1882, in Vienna. It was named after the Pacific Ocean. Based upon its spectrum, it is classified as an M-type asteroid, but is not metallic.
A light curve generated from photometric observations of this asteroid at Pulkovo Observatory show a rotation period of 9.401 ± 0.001 hours and a brightness variation of 0.09 ± 0.01 in magnitude.
224 Oceana was one of five minor planets included in the 1993 study, Transition Comets -- UV Search for OH Emissions in Asteroids, which was research involving amateur astronomers who were permitted to make use of the Hubble Space Telescope.
== References ==
== External links ==
Lightcurve plot of 224 Oceana, Palmer Divide Observatory, B. D. Warner (2006)
Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info Archived 16 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine)
Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books
Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend
Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center
224 Oceana at AstDyS-2, Asteroids—Dynamic Site
Ephemeris · Observation prediction · Orbital info · Proper elements · Observational info
224 Oceana at the JPL Small-Body Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramiriqu%C3%AD | Ramiriquí | Ramiriquí is a town and municipality in the Colombian Department of Boyacá, part of the subregion of the Márquez Province. Ramiriquí borders the department capital Tunja in the north, in the south Chinavita and Zetaquirá, in the east Rondón and Ciénaga and in the west Chivatá, Tibaná and Jenesano.
== Etymology ==
Ramiriquí was named after the last cacique; Ramirique. In the Chibcha language of the Muisca Ramirraquí means "white earth". An alternative etymology is Ca-mi-quiquí which means "our strength over the grasslands".
== History ==
The area of Ramiriquí was inhabited by the Muisca before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in the 1530s. The northern Muisca Confederation was ruled from nearby Hunza, present-day Tunja, after the mythological and brutal cacique Goranchacha moved the capital there from Ramiriquí. The first ruler of Hunza was Hunzahúa after whom the city was named.
Second-last ruler Quemuenchatocha died in Ramiriquí, after he was beaten by Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada.
The modern town was founded on December 21, 1541 by Spanish friar Pedro Durán.
Within the boundaries of Ramiriquí petroglyphs have been found.
== Economy ==
Main economical activities in Ramiriquí are agriculture (uchuva, tree tomatoes, cucumbers, beans, blackberries and maize), fishing and crafts.
== Born in Ramiriqui ==
Jose Ignacio de Marquez, first civil Colombian president
José Patrocinio Jiménez, former professional cyclist
Mauricio Soler, former international cyclist
== Climate ==
== Gallery ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Fly over Ramiriquí location using GoogleMaps'API |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anselm_Kiefer#: | Anselm Kiefer | Anselm Kiefer (born 8 March 1945) is a German painter and sculptor. He studied with Peter Dreher and Horst Antes at the end of the 1960s. His works incorporate materials such as straw, ash, clay, lead, and shellac. The poems of Paul Celan have played a role in developing Kiefer's themes of German history and the horrors of the Holocaust, as have the spiritual concepts of Kabbalah.
When he was 18, Kieffer set out on a year-long tour to visit places in The Netherlands, Belgium and France which had associations with Van Gogh. Excerpts from the diary that he kept indicate how strongly he was influenced by Van Gogh.
In his entire body of work, Kiefer argues with the past and addresses taboo and controversial issues from recent history. Themes from Nazi rule are particularly reflected in his work; for instance, the painting Margarete (oil and straw on canvas) was inspired by Celan's well-known poem "Todesfuge" ("Death Fugue").
His works are characterised by an unflinching willingness to confront his culture's dark past, and unrealised potential, in works that are often done on a large, confrontational scale well suited to the subjects. It is also characteristic of his work to find signatures and names of people of historical importance, legendary figures or historical places. All of these are encoded sigils through which Kiefer seeks to process the past; this has resulted in his work being linked with the movements New Symbolism and Neo–Expressionism.
Kiefer has lived and worked in France since 1992. Since 2008, he has lived and worked primarily in Paris. In 2018, he was awarded Austrian citizenship.
== Personal life and career ==
The son of a German art teacher, Kiefer was born in Donaueschingen a few months before the end of World War II. His city having been heavily bombed, Kiefer grew up surrounded by the devastation of the war. In 1951, his family moved to Ottersdorf, and he attended public school in Rastatt, graduating high school in 1965. He studied pre-law and Romance languages at the University of Freiburg. However, after three semesters he switched to art, studying at art academies in Freiburg and Karlsruhe. In Karlsruhe, he studied under Peter Dreher, a realist and figurative painter. He received an art degree in 1969.
In 1971 Kiefer moved to Hornbach (Walldürn) and established a studio. He remained in the Neckar-Odenwald-Kreis until 1992; his output during this first creative time is known as The German Years. In 1992 he relocated to France.
Kiefer left his first wife and children in Germany on his move to Barjac in 1992. From 2008 he lived in Paris, in a large house in the Marais district, with his second wife, the Austrian photographer Renate Graf, and their two children. Kiefer and Graf divorced in 2014.
In 2017, Kiefer was ranked one of the richest 1,001 individuals and families in Germany by the monthly business publication Manager Magazin.
Kiefer is the subject of the 3D documentary film Anselm (2023), directed by Wim Wenders.
== Artistic process ==
Generally, Kiefer attributes traditional mythology, books, and libraries as his main subjects and sources of inspiration. In his middle years, his inspiration came from literary figures, namely Paul Celan and Ingeborg Bachmann. His later works incorporate themes from Judeo-Christian, ancient Egyptian, and Oriental cultures, which he combines with other motifs. Cosmogony is also a large focus in his works. In all, Kiefer searches for the meaning of existence and "representation of the incomprehensible and the non-representational."
=== Philosophy ===
Kiefer values a "spiritual connection" with the materials he works with, "extracting the spirit that already lives within [them]." In doing so, he transforms his materials with acid baths and physical blows with sticks and axes, among other processes.
He often chooses materials for their alchemical properties—lead in particular. Kiefer's initial attraction to lead arose when he had to repair aging pipes in the first house he owned. Eventually, he came to admire its physical and sensory qualities and began to discover more about its connection to alchemy. Physically, Kiefer specifically likes how the metal looks during the heating and melting process when he sees many colors, especially gold, which he associates to the symbolic gold sought by alchemists.
Kiefer's use of straw in his work represents energy. He claims this is due to straw's physical qualities, including the color gold and its release of energy and heat when burned. The resulting ash makes way for new creation, thus echoing the motifs of transformation and the cycle of life.
Kiefer also values the balance between order and chaos in his work, stating, "[I]f there is too much order, [the piece] is dead; or if there is much chaos, it doesn't cohere." In addition, he cares deeply about the space in which his works reside. He states that his works "lose their power completely" if put in the wrong spaces.
== Work ==
=== Photography ===
Kiefer began his career creating performances and documenting them in photographs titled Occupations and Heroische Sinnbilder (Heroic Symbols). Dressed in his father's Wehrmacht uniform, Kiefer mimicked the Nazi salute in various locations in France, Switzerland and Italy. He asked Germans to remember and to acknowledge the loss to their culture through the mad xenophobia of the Third Reich. In 1969, at Galerie am Kaiserplatz, Karlsruhe, he presented his first single exhibition "Besetzungen (Occupations)" with a series of photographs of controversial political actions.
=== Painting and sculpture ===
Kiefer is best known for his paintings, which have grown increasingly large in scale with additions of lead, broken glass, and dried flowers or plants. This results in encrusted surfaces and thick layers of impasto.
By 1970, while studying informally under Joseph Beuys at Kunstakademie Düsseldorf, his stylistic leanings resembled Georg Baselitz's approach. He worked with glass, straw, wood and plant parts. The use of these materials meant that his art works became temporary and fragile, as Kiefer himself was well aware; he also wanted to showcase the materials in such a way that they were not disguised and could be represented in their natural form. The fragility of his work contrasts with the stark subject matter in his paintings. This use of familiar materials to express ideas was influenced by Beuys, who used fat and carpet felt in his works. It is also typical of the Neo-Expressionist style.
Kiefer returned to the area of his birthplace in 1971. In the years that followed, he incorporated German mythology in particular in his work, and in the next decade he studied the Kabbalah, as well as Qabalists like Robert Fludd. He went on extended journeys throughout Europe, the US and the Middle East; the latter two journeys further influenced his work. Besides paintings, Kiefer created sculptures, watercolors, photographs, and woodcuts, using woodcuts in particular to create a repertoire of figures he could reuse repeatedly in all media over the next decades, lending his work its knotty thematic coherence.
Throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, Kiefer made numerous paintings, watercolors, woodcuts, and books on themes interpreted by Richard Wagner in his four-opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung). In the early 1980s, he created more than thirty paintings, painted photographs, and watercolors that refer in their titles and inscriptions to the Romanian Jewish writer Paul Celan's poem "Todesfuge" ("Death Fugue").
A series of paintings which Kiefer executed between 1980 and 1983 depict looming stone edifices, referring to famous examples of National Socialist architecture, particularly buildings designed by Albert Speer and Wilhelm Kreis. The grand plaza in To the Unknown Painter (1983) specifically refers to the outdoor courtyard of Hitler's Chancellery in Berlin, designed by Speer in 1938 in honor of the Unknown Soldier. Between 1984 and 1985, he made a series of works on paper incorporating manipulated black-and-white photographs of desolate landscapes with utility poles and power lines. Such works, like Heavy Cloud (1985), were an indirect response to the controversy in West Germany in the early 1980s about NATO's stationing of tactical nuclear missiles on German soil and the placement of nuclear fuel processing facilities.
By the mid-1980s, Kiefer's themes widened from a focus on Germany's role in civilization to the fate of art and culture in general. His work became more sculptural and involved not only national identity and collective memory, but also occult symbolism, theology and mysticism. The theme of all the work is the trauma experienced by entire societies, and the continual rebirth and renewal in life. During the 1980s his paintings became more physical, and featured unusual textures and materials. The range of his themes broadened to include references to ancient Hebrew and Egyptian history, as in the large painting Osiris and Isis (1985–87). His paintings of the 1990s, in particular, explore the universal myths of existence and meaning rather than those of national identity. From 1995 to 2001, he produced a cycle of large paintings of the cosmos.
Over the years Kiefer has made many unusual works, but one work stands out among the rest as particularly bizarre—that work being his 20 Years of Solitude piece. Taking over 20 years to create (1971–1991), 20 Years of Solitude is a ceiling-high stack of hundreds of white-painted ledgers and handmade books, strewn with dirt and dried vegetation, whose pages are stained with the artist's semen. The word solitude in the title references the artists frequent masturbation onto paper during the 20 years it took to create. He asked American art critic Peter Schjeldahl to write a text for a catalog of the masturbation books. Schjeldahl attempted to oblige but ultimately failed in his endeavor. No other critic would take on the task, so the work has largely faded into obscurity.
He would shock the art world yet again at a dinner party in May 1993. Kiefer and his second wife, Renate Graf, decorated a candlelit commercial loft in New York with white muslin and skinned animals hanging on hooks above a floor carpeted with white sand, and staffed it with waiters dressed as mimes with white-face. A handful of art world elite, such as the likes of Sherrie Levine, were served several courses of arcane organ meats, such as pancreas, that were mostly white in color. Not surprisingly, the guests did not find the meal to be particularly appetizing. A group of NYC nightlife performers including Johanna Constantine, Lavinia Coop, Armen Ra and Flotilla DeBarge were hired to dress in white and mill about the West Village venue, Industria, and Anohni was hired to sing for Kiefer's guests.
Since 2002, Kiefer has worked with concrete, creating the towers destined for the Pirelli warehouses in Milan, the series of tributes to Velimir Khlebnikov (paintings of the sea, with boats and an array of leaden objects, 2004–5), a return to the work of Paul Celan with a series of paintings featuring rune motifs (2004–06), and other sculptures. In 2003, he held his first solo show at Galerie Thaddaeus Ropac, Salzburg Villa Katz, Anselm Kiefer: Am Anfang dedicated to a series of new works, centered on the recurring themes of history and myths. In 2005, he held his second exhibition in Galerie Thaddaeus Ropac's Salzburg location, Für Paul Celan which focused on Kiefer's preoccupation with the book, linking references to Germanic mythology with the poetry of Paul Celan, a German-speaking Jew from Czernowitz. The exhibition featured eleven works on canvas, a series of bound books shown in display cases, and five sculptures, including one powerful, monumental outdoor sculpture of reinforced concrete and lead elements, two leaden piles of books combined with bronze sunflowers, lead ships and wedges, and two monumental leaden books from the series The Secret Life of Plants. The exhibition toured to Galerie Thaddaeus Ropac, Paris and Galerie Yvon Lambert, Paris, the following year.
In 2006, Kiefer's exhibition, Velimir Chlebnikov, was first shown in a small studio near Barjac, then moved to White Cube in London, then finishing in the Aldrich Contemporary Art Museum in Connecticut. The work consists of 30 large (2 × 3 meters) paintings, hanging in two banks of 15 on facing walls of an expressly constructed corrugated steel building that mimics the studio in which they were created. The work refers to the eccentric theories of the Russian futurist philosopher/poet Velimir Chlebnikov, who invented a "language of the future" called "Zaum", and who postulated that cataclysmic sea battles shift the course of history once every 317 years. In his paintings, Kiefer's toy-like battleships—misshapen, battered, rusted and hanging by twisted wires—are cast about by paint and plaster waves. The work's recurrent color notes are black, white, gray, and rust; and their surfaces are rough and slathered with paint, plaster, mud and clay.
In 2007, he became the first artist to be commissioned to install a permanent work at the Louvre, Paris, since Georges Braque some 50 years earlier. The same year, he inaugurated the Monumenta exhibitions series at the Grand Palais in Paris, with works paying special tribute to the poets Paul Celan and Ingeborg Bachmann.
In 2009 Kiefer mounted two exhibitions at the White Cube gallery in London. A series of forest diptychs and triptychs enclosed in glass vitrines, many filled with dense Moroccan thorns, was titled Karfunkelfee, a term from German Romanticism stemming from a poem by the post-war Austrian writer Ingeborg Bachmann. In The Fertile Crescent, Kiefer presented a group of epic paintings inspired by a trip to India fifteen years earlier where he first encountered rural brick factories. Over the past decade, the photographs that Kiefer took in India "reverberated" in his mind to suggest a vast array of cultural and historical references, reaching from the first human civilization of Mesopotamia to the ruins of Germany in the aftermath of the Second World War, where he played as a boy. "Anyone in search of a resonant meditation on the instability of built grandeur", wrote the historian Simon Schama in his catalogue essay, "would do well to look hard at Kiefer's The Fertile Crescent".
In Morgenthau Plan (2012), the gallery is filled with a sculpture of a golden wheat field, enclosed in a five-meter-high steel cage. That same year, Kiefer inaugurated Galerie Thaddaeus Ropac's gallery space in Pantin, with an exhibition of monumental new works, Die Ungeborenen. The exhibition was accompanied by a publication with a letter by Anselm Kiefer and essays by Alexander Kluge and Emmanuel Daydé. He continues to be represented by the gallery and participates in group and solo exhibitions at their various locations.
=== Books ===
In 1969 Kiefer began to design books. Early examples are typically worked-over photographs; his more recent books consist of sheets of lead layered with paint, minerals, or dried plant matter. For example, he assembled numerous lead books on steel shelves in libraries, as symbols of the stored, discarded knowledge of history. The book Rhine (1981) comprises a sequence of 25 woodcuts that suggest a journey along the Rhine River; the river is central to Germany's geographical and historical development, acquiring an almost mythic significance in works such as Wagner's Ring of the Nibelungs. Scenes of the unspoiled river are interrupted by dark, swirling pages that represent the sinking of the battleship Bismarck in 1941, during an Atlantic sortie codenamed Rhine Exercise.
=== Studios ===
Kiefer's first large studio was in the attic of his home, a former schoolhouse in Hornbach. Years later he installed his studio in a factory building in Buchen, near Hornbach. In 1988, Kiefer transformed a former brick factory in Höpfingen (also near Buchen) into an extensive artwork including numerous installations and sculptures. In 1991, after twenty years of working in the Odenwald, the artist left Germany to travel around the world—to India, Mexico, Japan, Thailand, Indonesia, Australia, and the United States. In 1992 he established himself in Barjac, France, where he transformed his 35-hectare studio compound La Ribaute into a Gesamtkunstwerk. A derelict silk factory, his studio is enormous and in many ways is a comment on industrialization. He created an extensive system of glass buildings, archives, installations, storerooms for materials and paintings, subterranean chambers and corridors.
Sophie Fiennes filmed Kiefer's studio complex in Barjac for her documentary study Over Your Cities Grass Will Grow (2010), which recorded both the environment and the artist at work. One critic wrote of the film: "Building almost from the ground up in a derelict silk factory, Kiefer devised an artistic project extending over acres: miles of corridors, huge studio spaces with ambitious landscape paintings and sculptures that correspond to monumental constructions in the surrounding woodland, and serpentine excavated labyrinths with great earthy columns that resemble stalagmites or termite mounds. Nowhere is it clear where the finished product definitively stands; perhaps it is all work in progress, a monumental concept-art organism."
During 2008, Kiefer left his studio complex at Barjac and moved to Paris. A fleet of 110 lorries transported his work to a 35,000 sq ft (3,300 m2) warehouse in Croissy-Beaubourg, outside of Paris, that had once been the depository for the La Samaritaine department store. A journalist wrote of Kiefer's abandoned studio complex: "He left behind the great work of Barjac – the art and buildings. A caretaker looks after it. Uninhabited, it quietly waits for nature to take over, because, as we know, over our cities grass will grow". Kiefer spent the summer of 2019 living and working at Barjac."
== Works ==
Source:
The Second Sinful Fall of Parmenides (Der zweite Sündenfall des Parmenides), 1969. Oil on canvas, 82 5/8 x 98 3/8" (210x250 cm), Private Collection.
You're a Painter (Du bist Maler), 1969. Bound book, 9 7/8 × 7 1/2 x 3/8" (25 x 19 x 1 cm), Private Collection.
Plate I, German Line of Spiritual Salvation, 1975, Deutsche Heilsline, Watercolor on paper, 9 7/16 x 13 3/8" (24 X 34 cm), Private Collection.
Pages from "Occupations" ("Besetzungen"), 1969. From Interfunktionen (Cologne), no. 12 (1975).
Plate 2, Every Human Being Stands beneath His Own Dome of Heaven (Jeder Mensch steht unter seinem Himmelskugel), 1970, Watercolor and pencil on paper, 15 3/4 x 18 7/8", (40 x 48 cm), Private Collection.
Double-page photographic image with foldout from The Flooding of Heidelberg (Die Überschwemmung Heidelbergs), 1969, 11 7/8 × 8 1/2 x 7/8" (30.2 x 21.7 x 2.3 cm) (bound volume), Private Collection.
Double-page photographic images from The Flooding of Heidelberg (Die Überschwemmung Heidelbergs), 1969.
Untitled (Ohne Titel), 1971, Oil on canvas (in two parts), each 86 5/8 x 39 3/8" (220 x 100 cm), Collection of Dr. Gunther Gercken, Lutjensee, West Germany.
Plate 3, Winter Landscape (Winterlandschaft), 1970, Watercolor on paper, 16 15/16 x 14 3/16" (43 x 36 cm), Private Collection.
Plate 4, Reclining Man with Branch (Liegender Mann mit Zweig), 1971, Watercolor on paper, 9 7/16 x 11" (24 x 28 cm), Private Collection.
Plate 5, Fulia, 1971, Watercolor and pencil on paper, 18 11/16 x 14 3/16" (47.5 x 36 cm), Private Collection.
Quaternity (Quaternität), 1973, Charcoal and oil on burlap, 118 1/8 x 171 1/4" (300 x 435 cm), Collection of George Baselitz, Derneburg, West Germany.
Father, Son, Holy Ghost (Vater, Sohn, heiliger Geist), 1973, Oil on burlap, 65 x 61 1/2" (165 x 156 cm), Collection of Dr. Gunther Gerken, Lutjensee, West Germany.
Faith, Hope, Love (Glaube, Hoffnung, Liebe), 1973, Charcoal on burlap, with cardboard, 117 3/8 x 110 5/8" (298 x 281 cm). Staatsgalerie Stuttgart.
Plate 6, Man in the Forest (Mann im Wald), 1971, Oil on muslin, 68 1/2 x 74 7/16" (174 x 189 cm), Private Collection.
Plate 7, Resurrexit, 1973, oil, acrylic and charcoal on burlap, 114 3/16 x 70 7/8" (290 x 180 cm). Collection Sanders, Amsterdam.
Plate 8, Nothung (Notung), 1973, oil and charcoal on burlap, with oil and charcoal on cardboard, 118 1/8 x 170" (300 x 432 cm). Museum Boymans-van Beuningen, Rotterdam.
Plate 10, Germany's Spiritual Heroes (Deutschlands Geisteshelden), 1973, oil and charcoal on burlap, mounted on canvas, 120 7/8 x 268 1/2" (307 x 682 cm). Collection of Barbara and Eugene Schwartz, New York.
Double-page from Heroic Allegories (Heroische Sinnbilder), 1969, photography on cardboard, with pastel and pencil, 26 x 19 5/8 x 4" ( 66 x 50 x 10 cm), Private Collection.
Operation Winter Storm (Unternehmen "Wintergewitter"), 1975, oil on burlap, 47 1/4 x 59" (120 x 150 cm), Private Collection.
The Lake of Gennesaret (See Genezareth), 1974, oil emulsion, and shellac on burlap, 41 1/4 x 67" (105 x 170 cm), Private Collection.
Plate 11, Landscape with Head (Landschaft mit Kopf), 1973, oil, distemper, and charcoal on cardboard, 82 11/16 x 94 1/2" (210 x 240 cm), Private Collection.
Plate 12, Cockchafer Fly (Maikäfer flieg), 1974, oil on burlap, 86 5/8 x 118 1/8" (220 x 300 cm), Saatchi Collection, London.
Plate 13, March Heath (Märkische Heide), oil, acrylic and shellac on burlap, 46 1/2 x 100" (118 x 254 cm), Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
There is Peace upon Every Mountain Peak (Über allen Gipfeln ist Ruh!), 1973, watercolor on paper, 12 3/8 x 18 7/8" (31.5 x 48 cm), Private Collection.
Plate 14, Operation Sea Lion I (Unternehmen "Seelöwe"), 1975, oil on canvas, 86 5/8 x 118 1/8" (220 x 300 cm), Collection of Norman and Irma Braman, Miami Beach.
Plate 15, Piet Mondrian- Operation Sea Lion (Piet Mondrian- Unternehmen "Seelöwe"), 1975, thirty-four double-page photographic images, mounted on cardboard and bound, 22 7/16 x 16 1/2 x 2" (57 x 42 5 cm) (bound volume), Collection of Marian Goodman, New York.
Plate 16, March Sand V (Märkischer Sand V), 1977, twenty-five double page photographic images, with sand, oil, and glue, mounted on cardboard and bound, 24 3/8 x 16 5/8 × 3 3/8" (62 x 42 x 8.5 cm) (bound volume), Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Andrew Saul, New York.
Double-page photographic images from Hoffmann von Fallersleben auf Helgoland, 1978 (Groningen, 1980), 11 7/8 × 8 1/2 x 1/2" (30.2 x 21.6 x 1.3 cm) (bound volume), Private Collection.
Plate 17, Varus, 1976, oil and acrylic on burlap, 78 3/4 x 106 5/16" (200 x 270 cm), Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
Double-page from Germany's Facial Type (Charcoal for 2000 Years) (Das deutsche Volksgesicht [Kohle fur 2000 Jahre]), 1974, charcoal on paper, with woodcut, 22 7/16 x 17 3/4 × 2 3/8" (57 x 45 x 6 cm) (bound volume), Private Collection.
Heliogabalus (Heliogabal), 1974, watercolor on paper, 11 3/4 x 15 3/4" (30 x 40 cm), Collection of Fredrik Roos, Switzerland.
Plate 18, Ways of Worldly Wisdom (Wege der Weltweisheit), 1976–77, oil, acrylic, and shellac on burlap, mounted on canvas, 120 x 196 7/8" (305 x 500 cm), Collection Sanders, Amsterdam.
Plate 19, Ways of Worldly Wisdom- Arminius's Battle (Wege der Weltweisheit-die Hermanns-Schlacht), 1978–80, woodcut, with acrylic and shellac, mounted on canvas, 126 x 196 7/8" (320 x 500 cm), The Art Institute of Chicago.
Plate 20, Stefan!, 1975, watercolor and ball point pen on paper, 8 1/16 x 11 1/4" (20.5 x 28.5 cm), Collection of Johannes Gachenang, Bern.
Siegfried Forgets Brunhilde (Siegfried vergisst Brunhilde), 1975, oil on canvas, 51 1/8 x 67" (130 x 170 cm), Family H. de Groot Collection, Groningen, The Netherlands.
== Exhibitions ==
In 1969, Kiefer had his first solo exhibition, at Galerie am Kaiserplatz in Karlsruhe. Along with Georg Baselitz, he represented Germany at the Venice Biennale in 1980. He was also featured in the 1997 Venice Biennale with a one-man show held at the Museo Correr, concentrating on paintings and books.
Comprehensive solo exhibitions of Kiefer's work have been organized by the Kunsthalle Düsseldorf (1984); Art Institute of Chicago (1987); Sezon Museum of Art in Tokyo (1993); Neue Nationalgalerie in Berlin (1991); Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (1998); Fondation Beyeler in Basel (2001); the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth (2005); the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington D.C. (2006); the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art and the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao (2007). In 2007, the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao presented an extensive survey of recent work. Several of his works were exhibited in 2009 for the first time in the Balearic Islands, in the museum Es Baluard in Palma de Mallorca. In 2012, the Art Gallery of Hamilton presented some of his paintings. London's Royal Academy of Arts mounted the first British retrospective of the artist's work in September 2014.
In 2007 Kiefer was commissioned to create a huge site-specific installation of sculptures and paintings for the inaugural "Monumenta" at the Grand Palais, Paris. With the unveiling of a triptych – the mural Athanor and the two sculptures Danae and Hortus Conclusus – at the Louvre in 2007, Kiefer became the first living artist to create a permanent site-specific installation in the museum since Georges Braque in 1953.
In 2008, Kiefer installed Palmsonntag (Palm Sunday) (2006), a monumental palm tree and 36 steel-and-glass reliquary tablets in the auditorium-gym of the First Baptist Church of Los Angeles, an enormous Spanish Gothic edifice built in 1927. The room was reconfigured to accommodate the work. Floors were sanded to remove the basketball court's markings, and the wall for the reliquary paintings was constructed inside the space. In 2010 the piece was installed at the Art Gallery of Ontario museum in Toronto, where Kiefer created eight new panels specifically for the AGO's exhibition of this work.
In 2009, the Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibited Broken Flowers and Grass: Nature and Landscape in the Drawings of Anselm Kiefer, displaying Kiefer’s landscape paintings.
In Next Year in Jerusalem (2010) at Gagosian Gallery, Kiefer explained that each of the works was a reaction to a personal "shock" initiated by something he had recently heard of.
In September 2013, The Hall Art Foundation, in partnership with the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art, opened a long-term installation of sculpture and paintings in a specifically repurposed, 10,000 square-foot building on the MASS MoCA campus. In 2014, the Foundation landscaped the area surrounding this building in order to present long-term installations of outdoor sculpture. The long-term exhibition—includes Étroits sont les Vaisseaux (Narrow are the Vessels) (2002), an 82-foot long, undulating wave-like sculpture made of cast concrete, exposed rebar, and lead; The Women of the Revolution (Les Femmes de la Revolution) (1992), composed of more than twenty lead beds with photographs and wall text; Velimir Chlebnikov (2004), a steel pavilion containing 30 paintings dealing with nautical warfare and inspired by the quixotic theories of the Russian mathematical experimentalist Velimir Chlebnikov; and a new, large-format photograph on lead created by the artist for the installation at MASS MoCA.
In 2015, the Centre Pompidou, the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, and the Museum der bildenden Künste in Leipzig hosted a retrospective exhibition in honor of Kiefer's 70th birthday.
In 2016 the Albertina in Vienna dedicated an exhibition to his woodcuts, showing 35 made between 1977 and 2015, with an accompanying catalogue.
In 2017, the Met Breuer presented Provocations: Anselm Kiefer at The Met Breuer, an exhibit of works that spanned his career.
He unveiled his first public art commission in the United States in May 2018, at Rockefeller Center. The Uraeus sculpture was inspired in part by the religious symbols of Egypt and Thus Spoke Zarathustra. It was put on view until 22 July.
From October 18, 2025–January 25, 2026, the Saint Louis Art Museum exhibited Anselm Kiefer: Becoming the Sea, a retrospective of Kiefer’s 60 year career. A catalog accompanied the exhibit.
== Recognition ==
In 1990, Kiefer was awarded the Wolf Prize. In 1999 the Japan Art Association awarded him the Praemium Imperiale for his lifetime achievements. In the explanatory statement it reads:
"A complex critical engagement with history runs through Anselm Kiefer's work. His paintings as well as the sculptures of Georg Baselitz created an uproar at the 1980 Venice Biennale: the viewers had to decide whether the apparent Nazi motifs were meant ironically or whether the works were meant to convey actual fascist ideas. Kiefer worked with the conviction that art could heal a traumatized nation and a vexed, divided world. He created epic paintings on giant canvases that called up the history of German culture with the help of depictions of figures such as Richard Wagner or Goethe, thus continuing the historical tradition of painting as a medium of addressing the world. Only a few contemporary artists have such a pronounced sense of art's duty to engage the past and the ethical questions of the present, and are in the position to express the possibility of the absolution of guilt through human effort."
In 2008, Kiefer was awarded the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade, given for the first time to a visual artist. Art historian Werner Spies said in his speech that Kiefer is a passionate reader who takes impulses from literature for his work. In 2011 Kiefer was appointed to the chair of creativity in art at the Collège de France.
== Materials ==
Due to the spontaneous nature of his creative process, many of his works have issues regarding stability—a concern shared by collectors, dealers, and curators alike. He acknowledges the issue, but says change is part of the process and that their essence will ultimately stay the same. This idea of transformation has a kind of appeal for Kiefer and thus is featured in many of his works. This fascination for the process may have stemmed from the artist's keen interest in alchemy. He often chooses materials for their alchemical properties—lead in particular being chief among them. In the case of lead, he specifically likes how the metal looks during the heating and melting process when he would see many colors—especially that of gold—which he thought of in a symbolic sense as the gold sought by alchemists. He is also particularly fond of the oxidation of white on lead. He would often try to induce oxidation artificially with the use of acid to speed up the process. Lead was also associated with the alchemical concepts of magic numbers and represented the planet Saturn.
Shellac, another material popular in his work, corresponded to lead in terms of how he felt about its color and energy possibilities. He also liked that while being polished it takes on energy and becomes warm to the touch.
The use of straw in his work is also in part the result of this common theme of energy. Straw again features the color gold and gives off energy, heat, and warmth when burned. This would make way for new creation thus continuing the cycle of life through the transformation process.
== Art market ==
The best selling painting for the artist was The Fertile Crescent (2009), which sold for $3,997,103 at the China Guardian action house, on 3 June 2019. The previous record belonged to the painting To the Unknown Painter (1983), sold by $3,554,500 at Christie's New York, on 11 May 2011, to an American private collector. Previously, it was held by Let a Thousand Flowers Bloom (1999), who had sold by $3,549,350 at Christie's London, on 8 February 2007.
== Collections ==
Kiefer's works are included in numerous public collections, including the Hamburger Bahnhof, Berlin; the Museum of Modern Art and the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York; Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit; the Tate Modern, London; the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art; the Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto; the North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh; the High Museum of Art, Atlanta; the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo; the Philadelphia Museum of Art; the National Gallery of Australia, Canberra; the Tel Aviv Museum of Art; and the Albertina, Vienna. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York owns 20 of the artist's rare watercolors. Notable private collectors include Eli Broad and Andrew J. Hall.
== See also ==
Holocaust memorial landscapes in Germany
== Bibliography ==
Lauterwein, Andréa (2007). Anselm Kiefer/Paul Celan. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-23836-3.
Kiefer, Anselm; Auping, Michael (2005). Anselm Kiefer. Fort Worth, Tex: Prestel Publishing. ISBN 978-3-7913-3387-8.
Biro, Matthew (1998). Anselm Kiefer and the Philosophy of Martin Heidegger. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59170-6.
Biro, Matthew (5 March 2013). Anselm Kiefer. London [u.a]: Phaidon Press. ISBN 978-0-7148-6143-2.
Danto, Arthur C. (1 January 1997). "Anselm Kiefer". Encounters & Reflections. Berkeley, Calif. London: Univ of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20846-9.
Fiennes, Sophie (2011), Over your cities grass will grow, London: Artificial Eye, OCLC 1043105151
Hoerschelmann, Antonia (2016). Anselm Kiefer. Vienna Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-7757-4101-9.
Stewart, Garrett (2010). "Bookwork as Demediation". Critical Inquiry. 36 (3): 410–457. doi:10.1086/653407. ISSN 0093-1896. S2CID 162264154.
== References ==
== External links ==
AnseIm Kiefer Site includes articles, interviews, bibliography and gallery of exhibitions posters. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlaw_Run | Outlaw Run | Outlaw Run is a wooden roller coaster located at Silver Dollar City in Branson, Missouri. Designed by Alan Schilke, Outlaw Run is the first wooden roller coaster manufactured by Rocky Mountain Construction (RMC) and became the first wooden coaster with multiple inversions. It features a 162-foot (49 m) drop, three inversions, and a maximum speed of 68 mph (109 km/h), making Outlaw Run the sixth-fastest wooden coaster in the world. Its 81-degree first drop is also both the fourth steepest and fourth tallest in the world among wooden roller coasters. It is tied with Wildfire at Kolmården Wildlife Park, also manufactured by RMC, for the most inversions on a wooden coaster.
Development of an early concept began in 2009, and Outlaw Run was officially announced in August 2012. Rocky Mountain Construction was selected as the manufacturer after their proposal met Silver Dollar City's concerns over available space and budget restraints. Outlaw Run opened to a positive reception on March 15, 2013.
== History ==
Planning for a new 2013 attraction in the Silver Dollar City amusement park began in 2009 with the owners, Herschend Family Entertainment, approaching Rocky Mountain Construction and other manufacturers for ideas for "a ride with marketing appeal". Joel Manby, CEO of Herschend, wanted a "world first", to have a wooden roller coaster that would be "the first to do a double barrel roll", which is when the train goes twice through a combination of a loop and a roll. In 2011, Rocky Mountain Construction showcased their new steel roller coaster, New Texas Giant, to park executives. This demonstration secured the contract.
Marketing began in 2011 when the public were made aware at the 2011 trade show of the International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions that Rocky Mountain were working on a wooden roller coaster; it being later revealed that this roller coaster would be built at Silver Dollar City. Following the beginning of construction at the park, Silver Dollar City launched a teaser website for a new attraction to open in 2013. The website featured a public notice indicating that the ride's theme would be stagecoaches and the wild west. The teaser website also stated that an announcement would be made on August 9, 2012. As part of its teaser campaign leading to the announcement, the park released two clues; the first clue was a handwritten letter, while the second was a photo of the park's Powder Keg: A Blast into the Wilderness attraction and the nearby Table Rock Lake. On August 9, 2012, Silver Dollar City officially announced that Outlaw Run would open in the second quarter of 2013. At its opening, the ride would be the only wooden roller coaster to feature inversions and would feature the steepest drop on a wooden roller coaster. At a cost of $10 million, the ride would be the most expensive Silver Dollar City attraction in more than a decade.
On September 26, 2012, the last piece of track was installed on Outlaw Run. The ride opened to a limited audience on March 13, 2013, with a public opening two days later. Official opening celebrations were held in April.
== Characteristics ==
Outlaw Run was Rocky Mountain Construction's first wooden roller coaster. It is the sixth fastest wooden roller coaster in the world, reaching speeds of up to 68 miles per hour (109 km/h). Throughout the course of the 2,937-foot-long (895 m) ride, riders go through three inversions, including a double heartline roll. The park's existing terrain (the park is located in the Ozark Mountains) is used to allow a 107-foot-tall (33 m) lift hill to be translated into a first drop stretching 162 feet (49 m).
The 2,937 feet (895 m) of track is made primarily of layers of laminated wood, with a steel plate located in the upper layers of the track. The steel plating is known as Topper Track and is found on many roller coasters that Rocky Mountain Construction has renovated. This track style is designed to reduce the maintenance typically required for a wooden roller coaster and to provide a smoother ride experience. Rocky Mountain Construction spent four years developing technology to allow them to twist beams of wood that make up the lower layers of the track. This track configuration allows for more dynamic roller coaster elements to be performed on a wooden roller coaster.
Outlaw Run consists of two trains, each featuring twelve pairs of riders. Riders, who must be 48 inches (122 cm) or taller to ride, are restrained in their individual fiberglass seats with a U-shaped lap bar. Unlike most roller coaster trains, which have polyurethane wheels, Outlaw Run features steel wheels.
Outlaw Run features a Western stagecoach theme. The ride's station is themed as a stagecoach depot located in the outskirts of Silver Dollar City. According to the ride's storyline, stagecoaches depart daily heading west, where they are intercepted by outlaws who want to steal from them. Outlaw Run riders are the passengers on the stagecoaches the outlaws are trying to rob. To keep their family-friendly image, Silver Dollar City uses a variety of theming to advertise that the "good guys" will always win.
== Ride experience ==
The train exits out of the station and climbs the chain lift hill first. The track then goes through a small pre-drop, similar to that on Bolliger & Mabillard steel roller coasters, before dropping 162 feet (49 m) at an angle of 81°. The train then ascends the first element, which is an outside banked turn, where the track is banked over to 153° before rolling back out of the bank. After going around a low-to-the-ground curve, the train enters a 100-foot-tall (30 m) double down followed by a 70-foot-tall (21 m) double up. This is followed by a left turn into a "twist and turn" element, which is then followed by a "wave turn" that drops to the right into a small airtime hill known as a high-speed float. Outlaw Run's final two inversions are heartline rolls, where the rotation axis occurs at approximately chest level. The train then enters the brake run and returns to the station. A single ride cycle is completed in approximately 1 minute and 27 seconds.
== Records ==
Outlaw Run debuted with the steepest drop, 81°, on any wooden roller coaster in the world at the time. Although the creators of Outlaw Run originally planned to claim the record for the only operating wooden roller coaster to feature inversions, the announcement of Hades 360 at Mt. Olympus Water & Theme Park in Wisconsin Dells, Wisconsin, forced Silver Dollar City to modify their claim; they now cite Outlaw Run as the only wooden roller coaster to feature multiple inversions. It is also the fifth fastest wooden roller coaster in the world, with a top speed of 68 miles per hour (109 km/h). The speed, height, and drop angle records were broken by Goliath at Six Flags Great America in the first half of 2014. Goliath is another Rocky Mountain Construction roller coaster. Outlaw Run retains the record for the wooden roller coaster with the most inversions.
== Reception ==
Following the announcement of Outlaw Run, the ride's layout received favorable reviews. Arthur Levine of About.com said that "the coaster appears to have a great layout and should provide the kind of ride that fans adore". Brady MacDonald of the Los Angeles Times ranked Outlaw Run in his top 13 most anticipated new theme park attractions in the United States for 2013.
Outlaw Run received largely positive reviews following the ride's opening in 2013. Marcus Leshock of WGN-TV was among the first to ride Outlaw Run. Despite his high expectations, he described it as "a great ride; an incredible ride". Brandy McDonnell of The Oklahoman described Outlaw Run as the highlight of Silver Dollar City: "it's a speedy and spine-tingling ride worth waiting a few hours to take". Tim Baldwin of Roller Coaster Magazine described Outlaw Run as "exhilarating but not intimidating" and "satisfying to the thrill seekers and fun for moms as well". Justin Garvanovic of First Drop Magazine, after describing pacing as an important characteristic of a roller coaster, said "So many coasters get it wrong. Outlaw Run gets it right."
In its debut year, Outlaw Run ranked highly in Amusement Today's Golden Ticket Awards. The ride won the Golden Ticket Award for Best New Ride with 45% of the vote. It also ranked as the seventh-best wooden roller coaster worldwide.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
Outlaw Run at the Roller Coaster DataBase
Outlaw Run at Rocky Mountain Construction |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botho_zu_Eulenburg | Botho zu Eulenburg | Botho Wendt August Graf zu Eulenburg (31 July 1831 – 5 February 1912) was a Prussian statesman. Throughout the entire German Empire period he was, alongside Albrecht von Roon the only Minister President of Prussia not also to be Chancellor of Germany, with the two offices being practically synonymous.
== Early life and career ==
Eulenburg was born in Wicken (now in Pravdinsky District) to Botho Heinrich zu Eulenburg (1804–1879) and Therese née von Dönhoff (1806–1882). He studied law at the universities of Königsberg and Bonn.
Eulenburg worked in high positions of the Prussian and German administration in Wiesbaden (1869–1872), Metz (president of the Département de la Lorraine; 1872–1873) and upper president of the Province of Hanover (1873–1878).
In March 1878 Eulenburg succeeded his first cousin once removed Friedrich Albrecht zu Eulenburg as Minister of the Interior, serving under Bismarck. He implemented a series of repressive anti-socialist measures. From 1881 to 1892 he was the president of the province of Hesse-Nassau.
== Prime Minister of Prussia ==
In 1892, he was appointed Prime Minister of Prussia in succession to Leo von Caprivi, who however remained Chancellor of Germany.
Though Caprivi had recommended the experienced administrator Eulenburg for this appointment, the new prime minister soon made life difficult for Caprivi, and often thought of pressing for his removal. Both Caprivi and Eulenburg were eventually dismissed by Wilhelm II following the renewal of anti-Socialist moves (and an anti-subversion bill) in 1894. Eulenburg often thought of himself as the only possible successor to Caprivi, and he was extremely unhappy to be dismissed at what he regarded as the moment of his destiny.
From 1899 until his death, Eulenburg was a member of the Prussian House of Lords. He died in Berlin in 1912 and is buried in No. I cemetery of Trinity Church, Berlin-Kreuzberg.
== Personal life and family ==
Eulenburg was the older brother of August zu Eulenburg, Marshal of the Prussian royal court, and a second cousin of Prince Philip of Eulenburg, a close friend of Wilhelm II, German Emperor, and an instrumental figure behind the scenes of German politics.
On 25 October 1875 he married at Neustadt, West Prussia Elisabeth von Alvensleben (22 September 1834 in Brandenburg/Havel – 5 September 1919 in Neustadt), by whom he had an only son, Botho (15 February 1879 in Berlin – 30 May 1881 in Berlin).
== Honours ==
He received the following orders and decorations:
== Notes ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eahika_Erc%C3%BCmen#:~:text=On%2026%20October%202021%2C%20she%20set%20a%20new%20world%20record%20in%20variable%20weight%20apnea%20without%20fins%20at%20sea%20(VNF)%20category%20at%20Ka%C5%9F%2C%20Antalya%2C%20Turkey%20with%20100%C2%A0m%20(330%C2%A0ft)%2C%20which%20is%20valid%20for%20women%20and%20men.%5B13%5D | Şahika Ercümen | Şahika Ercümen (born 16 January 1985) is a Turkish dietitian and world record holder free-diver.
Born on January 16, 1985, in Çanakkale, she was educated at the Gazi Primary School, and received a secondary education at the Milli Piyango Anatolian High School in her hometown. For her higher education, she moved to Ankara, and became a dietitian graduating from the Department of Nutrition and Dietetics at Başkent University's Faculty of Health Sciences.
Her participation in underwater sports began with scuba diving and underwater rugby. For twelve years, she is interested in various branches of underwater sports, and is a member of four national teams since 2001. She participated with the underwater hockey, underwater rugby, underwater orienteering and free diving national teams in the World and European Championships.
== Achievements ==
Her 110 m (360 ft) long dynamic apnea under ice (DYN) that was achieved on February 11, 2011, in Lake Weissensee, Austria, found entry into the Guinness Book of World Records for both for men and women. Former records were 70 m (230 ft) for women and 108 m (354 ft) for men.
Şahika Ercümen is former world record holder of constant weight with fins at sea (CWT) discipline with 70 m (230 ft) set in Dahab, Egypt on November 10, 2011 (recognized by CMAS). The former record belonged to Tanya Streeter with 67 m (220 ft). The same day at the same place, she set another CMAS-recognized world record diving 60 m (200 ft) deep in variable weight apnea without fins at sea (VNF).
On June 1, 2013, she broke her own world record diving in the VNF discipline to a depth of 61 m (200 ft) in saline soda waters of Lake Van, eastern Turkey (recognized by CMAS). She stated that she preferred the site for her world-record free-diving attempt because she wanted to call world's attention to the migration of Pearl Mullet (Chalcalburnus tarichi), also called Lake Van fish.
She set a new free-diving world record in the VNF discipline reaching the 91 m (299 ft) depth mark in 2:49 minutes at Kaş, Antalya, southern Turkey on July 23, 2014. Former record in this discipline, which was set the previous year, belonged to Derya Can, another Turkish diver.
On October 22, 2016, Ercümen set a new world record off Kaş, Turkey diving to a depth of 110 m (360 ft) in the variable weight apnea with fins at sea (VWT) discipline in 2:44 minutes. Her record was recognized by CMAS officials at site.
She set a new CMAS world record for women diving in sweet water of Lake Salda in Yeşilova, Burdur Province, Turkey to 65 m (213 ft) in 1:58 minutes. The previous world record was at 55 m (180 ft).
On 26 October 2021, she set a new world record in variable weight apnea without fins at sea (VNF) category at Kaş, Antalya, Turkey with 100 m (330 ft), which is valid for women and men.
In October 2025, she set a new world record of 106 meters in the variable weight apnea without fins at sea category, diving to 107 meters with the slogan “Let Gaza breathe, let darkness turn to light” to draw attention to Gaza.
== World records ==
DYN under ice
110 m (360 ft) - February 11, 2011 in Lake Weissensee, Austria
CWT
70 m (230 ft) - November 10, 2011 in Dahab, Egypt
VNF
60 m (200 ft) - November 10, 2011 in Dahab, Egypt
61 m (200 ft) - June 1, 2013 in Lake Van, Turkey
91 m (299 ft) - July 23, 2014 in Kaş, Antalya, Turkey
100 m (330 ft) - October 26, 2021 in Kaş, Antalya, Turkey
107 m (351 ft) - October17, 2025 in Kaş, Antalya, Turkey
VWT
110 m (360 ft) - October 22, 2016 in Kaş, Antalya, Turkey
Fresh water
65 m (213 ft) - October 26, 2018 in Lake Salda, Yeşilova, Burdur, Turkey
== References ==
== External links ==
Official Website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Vernon_the_Younger#:~:text=In%201691%2C%20Vernon%20was%20appointed%20serjeant%20of%20the%20chandlery | James Vernon the Younger | James Vernon the Younger (15 June 1677 – 17 April 1756) was a British government official, courtier, diplomat and Whig politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1708 to 1710. He was an envoy to Denmark from 1702 to 1707.
== Early life ==
Vernon was the eldest son of James Vernon and his wife Mary Buck, daughter of Sir John Buck, 1st Baronet, of Hamby Grange, Lincolnshire. His father was Secretary of State under William III. He was educated at Utrecht in 1690, at Rotterdam from 1690 to 1692 and a Utrecht again from 1696 to 1697.
== Career ==
In 1691, Vernon was appointed serjeant of the chandlery. He was appointed an extra clerk of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council in 1697. His first parliamentary attempt was in a by-election in 1698 at Penryn when he was unsuccessful. He was groom of bedchamber to Duke of Gloucester from 1698 to 1700. From his close attendance on the Duke he contracted the illness from which the Duke died, and took several months to recover. At the second general election of 1701, he and his father contested St Mawes, but were unable to overcome the established interest. From 1701 to 1702 he was a Commissioner of the privy seal. In May 1702, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He served as British envoy to Denmark from 1702 to 1707 and was groom of bedchamber to the Prince of Denmark from 1702 to 1708.
At the 1708 British general election Vernon was returned as Whig Member of Parliament for Cricklade. In early 1709 he supported the naturalization of the Palatines, and in 1710 voted for the impeachment of Dr Sacheverell, later airing his dismay that Whig leaders had made such a fuss about ‘a factious preacher much below their notice’. He became a Commissioner for excise in 1710, in compensation for his father's dismissal as teller of the Exchequer. The post, worth £800 a year, made him ineligible to stand at the 1710 British general election.
== Later life ==
Vernon disentangled himself from politics and chose to serve the Tory administration as an official. In 1713, he married Arethusa Boyle daughter of Charles Boyle, Lord Clifford of Lanesborough. When King George I came to the throne in 1714 and the Whigs were in power his Whig background served him and he not only kept his post but was also appointed a Clerk of the Privy Council in 1715, which he held for the rest of his life. In 1716 he was again Commissioner of the Privy Seal. He lost his post at the Excise in 1726 after a disagreement with Walpole, but it was restored in 1728. In 1727 he succeeded his father.
In 1713, Vernon married Arethusa Boyle d. 1728, daughter of Charles Boyle, 3rd Viscount Dungarvan and Arethusa Berkeley, with whom he had issue including Francis Vernon d. 1783 who was created 1st Earl of Shipbrook (I).
Vernon devoted his efforts to religious and charitable works. He was a sponsor of the foundation of the colony of Georgia and a trustee for Bray's charity. His government duties kept him in London, but by 1733 he had purchased an estate at Great Thurlow, Suffolk, for £15,000. Later he built workhouses for several Suffolk parishes. He died on 15 or 17 April 1756, and was buried at Great Thurlow.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessie_Smith | Bessie Smith | Bessie Smith (April 15, 1892 – September 26, 1937) was an American blues singer widely renowned during the Jazz Age. Nicknamed the "Empress of the Blues" and formerly Queen of the Blues, she was the most popular female blues singer of the 1930s. Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989, she is often regarded as one of the greatest singers of her era and was a major influence on fellow blues singers, as well as jazz vocalists.
Born in Chattanooga, Tennessee, Smith was young when her parents died, and she and her six siblings survived by performing on street corners. She began touring and performed in a group that included Ma Rainey, and then went out on her own. Her successful recording career with Columbia Records began in 1923, but her performing career was cut short by a car crash that killed her at the age of 45.
== Biography ==
=== Early life ===
The 1900 census indicates that her family reported that Bessie Smith was born in Chattanooga, Tennessee, in July 1892. The 1910 census gives her age as 16, and a birth date of April 15, 1894, which appears on subsequent documents and was observed as her birthday by the Smith family. The 1870 and 1880 censuses report several older siblings or half-siblings.
Smith was the daughter of Laura and William Smith, a laborer and part-time Baptist preacher (he was listed in the 1870 census as a "minister of the gospel", in Moulton, Lawrence County, Alabama). He died while his daughter was too young to remember him. By the time Bessie was nine, her mother and a brother had also died and her older sister Viola took charge of caring for her siblings. As a consequence, Bessie was unable to gain an education.
Due to her parents' death and her poverty, Bessie experienced a "wretched childhood." To earn money for their impoverished household, Bessie and her brother Andrew busked on the streets of Chattanooga. She sang and danced as he played the guitar. They often performed on "street corners for pennies," and their habitual location was in front of the White Elephant Saloon at Thirteenth and Elm streets, in the heart of the city's African-American community.
In 1904, her oldest brother Clarence left home and joined a small traveling troupe owned by Moses Stokes. "If Bessie had been old enough, she would have gone with him," said Clarence's widow, Maud. "That's why he left without telling her, but Clarence told me she was ready, even then. Of course, she was only a child."
In 1912, Clarence returned to Chattanooga with the Stokes troupe and arranged an audition for his sister with the troupe managers, Lonnie and Cora Fisher. Bessie was hired as a dancer rather than a vocalist since the company already included popular singer Ma Rainey. Contemporary accounts indicate that, while Ma Rainey did not teach Smith to sing, she likely helped her develop a stage presence. Smith eventually moved on to performing in chorus lines, making the "81" Theatre in Atlanta her home base. She also performed in shows on the black-owned Theater Owners Booking Association (T.O.B.A.) circuit and would become one of its major attractions.
=== Career ===
Bessie Smith began forming her own act around 1913, at Atlanta's "81" Theater. By 1920, she had established a reputation in the South and along the East Coast. At the time, sales of over 100,000 copies of "Crazy Blues", recorded for Okeh Records by the singer Mamie Smith (no relation), pointed to a new market. The recording industry had not directed its product to black people, but the success of the record led to a search for female blues singers.
Hoping to capitalize on this new market, Smith began her recording career in 1923. She was signed to Columbia Records in 1923 by Frank Walker, a talent agent who had seen her perform years earlier. Her first recording session for Columbia was on February 15, 1923; it was engineered by Dan Hornsby who was recording and discovering many southern music talents of that era. For most of 1923, her records were issued on Columbia's regular A-series. When the company established a "race records" series, Smith's "Cemetery Blues" (September 26, 1923) was the first issued. Both sides of her first record, "Downhearted Blues" backed with "Gulf Coast Blues", were hits (an earlier recording of "Downhearted Blues" by its co-writer Alberta Hunter had previously been released by Paramount Records).
As her popularity increased, Smith became a headliner on the Theatre Owners Booking Association (T.O.B.A.) circuit and rose to become its top attraction in the 1920s. Working a heavy theater schedule during the winter and performing in tent shows the rest of the year, Smith became the highest-paid black entertainer of her day and began traveling in her own 72-foot-long railroad car. Columbia's publicity department nicknamed her "Queen of the Blues", but the national press soon upgraded her title to "Empress of the Blues". Smith's music stressed independence, fearlessness, and sexual freedom, implicitly arguing that working-class women did not have to alter their behavior to be worthy of respect.
Despite her success, neither she nor her music was accepted in all circles. She once auditioned for Black Swan Records (W. E. B. Du Bois was on its board of directors) and was dismissed because she was considered too rough as she supposedly stopped singing to spit. The businessmen involved with Black Swan Records were surprised when she became the most successful diva because her style was rougher and coarser than Mamie Smith. Even her admirers—white and black—considered her a "rough" woman (i.e., working class or even "low class").
Smith had a strong contralto voice, which recorded well from her first session, which was conducted when recordings were made acoustically. The advent of electrical recording made the power of her voice even more evident. Her first electrical recording was "Cake Walking Babies [From Home]", recorded on May 5, 1925. Smith also benefited from the new technology of radio broadcasting, even on stations in the segregated South. For example, after giving a concert to a white-only audience at a theater in Memphis, Tennessee, in October 1923, she performed a late-night concert on station WMC, which was well received by the radio audience. Musicians and composers like Danny Barker and Tommy Dorsey compared her presence and delivery to a preacher because of her ability to enrapture and move her audience.
She made 160 recordings for Columbia, often accompanied by the finest musicians of the day, notably Louis Armstrong, Coleman Hawkins, Fletcher Henderson, James P. Johnson, Joe Smith, and Charlie Green. A number of Smith's recordings—such as "Alexander's Ragtime Band" in 1927—quickly became among the best-selling records of their release years.
==== Broadway ====
Smith's career was cut short by the Great Depression, which nearly put the recording industry out of business, and the advent of sound in film, which spelled the end of vaudeville. She never stopped performing, however. The days of elaborate vaudeville shows were over, but Smith continued touring and occasionally sang in clubs. In 1929, she appeared in a Broadway musical, Pansy. The play was a flop; top critics said she was its only asset.
==== Film ====
In November 1929, Smith made her only film appearance, starring in a two-reeler, St. Louis Blues, based on composer W. C. Handy's song of the same name. In the film, directed by Dudley Murphy and shot in Astoria, Queens, she sings the title song accompanied by members of Fletcher Henderson's orchestra, the Hall Johnson Choir, the pianist James P. Johnson and a string section, a musical environment radically different from that of any of her recordings.
==== Swing era ====
In 1933, John Henry Hammond, who also mentored Billie Holiday, asked Smith to record four sides for Okeh (which had been acquired by Columbia Records in 1925). He claimed to have found her in semi-obscurity, "working as a hostess in a speakeasy on Ridge Avenue in Philadelphia." Smith worked at Art's Cafe on Ridge Avenue, but not as a hostess and not until the summer of 1936. In 1933, when she made the Okeh sides, she was still touring. Hammond was known for his selective memory and gratuitous embellishments.
Smith was paid a non-royalty fee of $37.50 for each selection on these Okeh sides, which were her last recordings. Made on November 24, 1933, they serve as a hint of the transformation she made in her performances as she shifted her blues artistry into something that fit the swing era. The relatively modern accompaniment is notable. The band included such swing era musicians as the trombonist Jack Teagarden, the trumpeter Frankie Newton, the tenor saxophonist Chu Berry, the pianist Buck Washington, the guitarist Bobby Johnson, and the bassist Billy Taylor. Benny Goodman, who happened to be recording with Ethel Waters in the adjoining studio, dropped by and is barely audible on one selection. Hammond was not entirely pleased with the results, preferring to have Smith revisit her old blues sound. "Take Me for a Buggy Ride" and "Gimme a Pigfoot", both written by Wesley Wilson, were among her most popular recordings.
=== Death ===
On September 26, 1937, Smith was critically injured in a car crash on U.S. Route 61 between Memphis, Tennessee, and Clarksdale, Mississippi. Her lover, Richard Morgan, was driving, and misjudged the speed of a slow-moving truck ahead of him. Skid marks at the scene suggested that Morgan tried to avoid the truck by driving around its left side, but he hit the rear of the truck side-on at high speed. The tailgate of the truck sheared off the wooden roof of Smith's old Packard vehicle. Smith, who was in the passenger seat, probably with her right arm or elbow out the window, took the full brunt of the impact. Morgan escaped without injuries.
The first person on the scene was a Memphis surgeon, Dr. Hugh Smith (no relation). In the early 1970s, Hugh Smith gave a detailed account of his experience to Bessie's biographer Chris Albertson. This is the most reliable eyewitness testimony about the events surrounding her death. Arriving at the scene, Dr. Smith examined Smith, who was lying in the middle of the road with obviously severe injuries. He estimated she had lost about a half pint (240 mL) of blood, and immediately noted a major traumatic injury: her right arm was almost completely severed at the elbow.
Dr. Smith stated that this injury alone did not cause her death. Though the light was poor, he observed only minor head injuries. He attributed her death to extensive and severe crush injuries to the entire right side of her body, consistent with a sideswipe collision. Henry Broughton, a fishing partner of Dr. Smith's, helped him move Smith to the shoulder of the road. Dr. Smith dressed her arm injury with a clean handkerchief and asked Broughton to go to a house about 500 feet (150 m) off the road to call an ambulance. By the time Broughton returned, about 25 minutes later, Smith was in shock.
Time passed with no sign of the ambulance, so Dr. Smith suggested that they take her into Clarksdale in his car. He and Broughton had almost finished clearing the back seat when they heard the sound of a car approaching at high speed. Dr. Smith flashed his lights in warning, but the oncoming car failed to slow and plowed into his car at full speed. It sent his car careening into Smith's overturned Packard, completely wrecking it. The oncoming car ricocheted off Hugh Smith's car into the ditch on the right, barely missing Broughton and Bessie Smith.
The young couple in the speeding car did not sustain life-threatening injuries. Two ambulances then arrived from Clarksdale—one from the black hospital, summoned by Broughton, the second from the white hospital, acting on a report from the truck driver, who had not seen the crash victims. Smith was taken to the G. T. Thomas Afro-American Hospital in Clarksdale, where her right arm was amputated. She died that morning without regaining consciousness.
After her death, an often repeated, but now discredited story emerged that she died because a whites-only hospital in Clarksdale refused to admit her. The jazz writer and producer John Hammond gave this account in an article in the November 1937 issue of DownBeat magazine. The circumstances of Smith's death and the rumor reported by Hammond formed the basis for Edward Albee's 1959 one-act play The Death of Bessie Smith. "The Bessie Smith ambulance would not have gone to a white hospital; you can forget that", Hugh Smith told Albertson. "Down in the Deep South Cotton Belt, no ambulance driver, or white driver, would even have thought of putting a colored person off in a hospital for white folks."
Smith's funeral was held in Philadelphia a little over a week later, on October 4, 1937. Initially, her body was laid out at Upshur's funeral home. As word of her death spread through Philadelphia's black community, her body had to be moved to the O. V. Catto Elks Lodge to accommodate the estimated 10,000 mourners who filed past her coffin on Sunday, October 3. Contemporary newspapers reported that her funeral was attended by about seven thousand people. Far fewer mourners attended the burial at Mount Lawn Cemetery, in nearby Sharon Hill. Jack Gee thwarted all efforts to purchase a stone for his estranged wife, once or twice pocketing money raised for that purpose.
==== Unmarked grave ====
Smith's grave remained unmarked until a tombstone was erected on August 7, 1970, paid for by the singer Janis Joplin and Juanita Green, who as a child had done housework for Smith. Dory Previn wrote a song about Joplin and the tombstone, "Stone for Bessie Smith", for her album Mythical Kings and Iguanas. The Afro-American Hospital (now the Riverside Hotel) was the site of the dedication of the fourth historical marker on the Mississippi Blues Trail.
== Personal life ==
In 1923, Smith was living in Philadelphia when she met Jack Gee, a security guard, whom she married on June 7, 1923, just as her first record was being released. During the marriage, Smith became the highest-paid Black entertainer of the day, heading her own shows, which sometimes featured as many as 40 troupers, and touring in her own custom-built railroad car.
In the 1920s and 30s African Americans had limited options in terms of hotels and other spaces to gather. To meet this need, establishments were created by and for African Americans called Buffet Flats, which featured expensive food, free-flowing booze, and sex shows (see also, Prostitution in Harlem Renaissance). Smith frequented Buffet Flats after concerts with friends, including drag queens and gay men who viewed it as a safe haven. Her friends reported that a lot of people would pay top dollar to see the sex shows at the buffet, and it has been reported that she would engage in sexual activities with both men and women, including her longtime friend and lover Ruby Walker, both before and during her relationship with Jack Gee.
Her marriage to Gee was stormy, with infidelity on both sides, including Smith's numerous female lovers. Gee was impressed by the money Smith made during her career, but never adjusted to show business life, or to her bisexuality. He would leave periodically, and Smith would use this as an opportunity to have affairs, including with her musical director Fred Longshaw. When Gee found out about this, he physically assaulted Smith, but she got back up quickly and started beating him. When she found out about one of her husband's affairs, she proceeded to get Gee's gun, and shot at him. In 1929, when she learned of his affair with another singer, Gertrude Saunders, Smith ended the relationship, although neither of them sought a divorce.
Smith later entered a common-law marriage with an old friend, Richard Morgan, who was Lionel Hampton's uncle. She stayed with him until her death.
== Musical themes ==
Songs like "Jail House Blues", "Work House Blues", "Prison Blues", "Sing Sing Prison Blues" and "Send Me to the 'Lectric Chair" dealt critically with social issues of the day such as chain gangs, the convict lease system and capital punishment. "Poor Man's Blues" and "Washwoman's Blues" are considered by scholars to be an early form of African-American protest music.
What becomes evident after listening to her music and studying her lyrics is that Smith emphasized and channeled a subculture within the African-American working class. Additionally, she incorporated commentary on social issues like poverty, intra-racial conflict, and female sexuality into her lyrics. Her lyrical sincerity and public behavior were not widely accepted as appropriate expressions for African-American women; therefore, her work was often written off as distasteful or unseemly, rather than as an accurate representation of the African-American experience.
Smith's work challenged elitist norms by encouraging working-class women to embrace their right to drink, party, and satisfy their sexual needs as a means of coping with stress and dissatisfaction in their daily lives. Smith advocated for a wider vision of African-American womanhood beyond domesticity, piety, and conformity; she sought empowerment and happiness through independence, sassiness, and sexual freedom. Although Smith was a voice for many minority groups and one of the most gifted blues performers of her time, the themes in her music were precocious, which led to many believing that her work was undeserving of serious recognition.
Smith's lyrics are often speculated to have portrayed her sexuality. In "Prove it On Me", performed by Ma Rainey, Rainey famously sang, "Went out last night with a crowd of my friends. They must've been women, 'cause I don't like no mens.. they say I do it, ain't nobody caught me. Sure got to prove it on me." African American queer theorists and activists have often looked to Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith as "gender-bending" role models of the early 20th-century blues era.
== Awards and honors ==
=== Grammy Hall of Fame ===
Three recordings by Smith were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, an award established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least 25 years old and that have "qualitative or historical significance".
=== National Recording Registry ===
In 2002, Smith's recording of "Downhearted Blues" was included in the National Recording Registry by the National Recording Preservation Board of the Library of Congress. The board annually selects recordings that are "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
"Downhearted Blues" was also included in the list of Songs of the Century by the Recording Industry of America and the National Endowment for the Arts in 2001, and in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 songs that shaped rock 'n' roll.
=== Inductions ===
=== U.S. postage stamp ===
The U.S. Postal Service issued a 29-cent commemorative postage stamp honoring Smith in 1994.
=== Other ===
In 2019 Time created 89 new covers to celebrate women of the year starting from 1920; it chose Smith for 1923.
In 2023, Rolling Stone ranked Smith at No. 33 on their list of the 200 Greatest Singers of All Time.
== In pop culture ==
The 1948 short story "Blue Melody", by J. D. Salinger, and the 1959 play The Death of Bessie Smith, by Edward Albee, are based on Smith's life and death, but poetic license was taken by both authors; for instance, Albee's play distorts the circumstances of her medical treatment, or lack of it, before her death, attributing it to racist medical practitioners. The circumstances related by both Salinger and Albee were widely circulated until being debunked at a later date by Smith's biographer.
Dinah Washington and LaVern Baker released tribute albums to Smith in 1958. Released on Exodus Records in 1965, Hoyt Axton Sings Bessie Smith is another collection of Smith's songs performed by folk singer Hoyt Axton.
The song "Bessie Smith" by The Band first appeared on The Basement Tapes in 1975, but probably dates from 1970 to 1971, although musician Artie Traum recalls bumping into Rick Danko, the co-writer of the song, at Woodstock in 1969, who sang a verse of "Going Down The Road to See Bessie" on the spot.
Her song "See If I'll Care" was sampled by Indian Summer throughout their self-titled EP, released in 1993. The release was received well by critics, noting how the sample helped contrast the post-hardcore and emo styles of the rest of the release. When their discography was reissued in 2019 to acclaim, Smith and the song also saw a boost in popularity.
She was the subject of a 1997 biography by Jackie Kay, reissued in February 2021 and featuring as Book of the Week on BBC Radio 4, read in an abridged version by the author.
In the 2015 HBO film Bessie, Queen Latifah portrays Smith, focusing on the struggle and transition of Smith's life and sexuality. The film was well received critically and garnered four Primetime Emmy Awards, winning Outstanding Television Movie.
In the medical show New Amsterdam, season 2 episode 16, the character Reynolds says Bessie Smith's accident, and the myth she was first taken to a white hospital and denied care, was what inspired him and his treatment plans. The show did get the fact that she had an unmarked grave corrected and mentioned her legacy in the world of blues.
Each June, the Bessie Smith Cultural Center in Chattanooga sponsors the Bessie Smith Strut as part of the city's Riverbend Festival.
== Digital remastering ==
Technical faults in the majority of her original gramophone recordings (especially variations in recording speed, which raised or lowered the apparent pitch of her voice) misrepresented the "light and shade" of her phrasing, interpretation and delivery. They altered the apparent key of her performances (sometimes raised or lowered by as much as a semitone). The "center hole" in some of the master recordings had not been in the true middle of the master disc, so that there were wide variations in tone, pitch, key and phrasing, as commercially released records revolved around the spindle.
Given those historic limitations, the 70 LP complete recordings and even more the digitally remastered versions of her work deliver noticeable improvements in the sound quality. Some critics believe that the American Columbia Records compact disc releases are somewhat inferior to subsequent transfers made by the late John R. T. Davies for Frog Records.
== Discography ==
Throughout her entire music career (1923-1933), Bessie Smith recorded 156 tracks for Columbia Records and 4 for the subsidiary OKeh. This makes it quite easy to acquire her complete musical works, which were first released in the 1970s across the following five double albums: The World's Greatest Blues Singer (1970), Any Woman's Blues (1970), Empty Bed Blues (1971), The Empress (1971), Nobody's Blues But Mine (1972). Those recording were later reissued in LPs and CDs in the 1990s under The Complete Recordings (Vol. 1-5) title LPs and CDs
1923-24 – The Complete Recording Vol. 1 (2XLp or CD) (Columbia/Legacy, 1991)
1925-25 – The Complete Recording Vol. 2 (2XLp or CD) (Columbia/Legacy, 1991)
1925-28 – The Complete Recording Vol. 3 (2XLp or CD) (Columbia/Legacy, 1992)
1928-31 – The Complete Recording Vol. 4 (2XLp or CD) (Columbia/Legacy, 1993)
1932-33 – The Complete Recording Vol. 5 (2XLp or CD) (Columbia/Legacy, 1996)
1923-33 – The Complete Recording Vols. 1-8 (8xCD) (Frog, 2001)
First editions in 10 and 122" Lps
Bessie Smith Album (Columbia, 1938) 6 shellac 10" Lp 78 rpm albums
Empress of the Blues (Columbia, 1940) shellac 10" Lp 78 rpm album
Empress of the Blues, Vol. II (Columbia, 1947) shellac 10" Lp 78 rpm album
The Bessie Smith Story, in 4 Volumes (Columbia, 1951) 12" Lp 33 rpm albums
Antologies
1923-33 - The Essential Bessie Smith (2xCD) (Columbia/Legacy, 1997)
1923-33 - Empress of the Blues (Giants Of Jazz, 1985)
1923-33 - The Collection (Columbia, 1989)
1928-33 - Blue Spirit Blues (Drive, 1989)
=== 78 RPM singles — Columbia Records ===
=== 78 RPM Singles — Okeh Records ===
=== Hit records ===
There was no official national record chart in the US until 1936. National positions have been formulated post facto by music historian Joel Whitburn.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Albertson, Chris (1991). Bessie Smith: The Complete Recordings, Volumes 1–5 (Liner notes). Sony Music Entertainment.
Albertson, Chris (2003). Bessie. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09902-9.
Barnet, Andrea (2004). All-Night Party: The Women of Bohemian Greenwich Village and Harlem, 1913–1930. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: Algonquin Books. ISBN 978-1-56512-381-6.
Brooks, Edward (1982). The Bessie Smith Companion: A Critical and Detailed Appreciation of the Recordings. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-76202-1.
Davis, Angela (1998). Blues Legacies and Black Feminism: Gertrude 'Ma' Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Billie Holiday. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-679-45005-X.
Eberhardt, Clifford (January 1, 1994). Out of Chattanooga: The Bessie Smith Story. Chattanooga: Ebco. ASIN B0006PDFAQ.
Feinstein, Elaine (1985). Bessie Smith. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-80642-0.
Grimes, Sara (2000). Backwaterblues: In Search of Bessie Smith. Amherst, Massachusetts: Rose Island. ISBN 0-9707089-0-4.
Kay, Jackie (1997). Bessie Smith. New York: Absolute. ISBN 1-899791-55-8.. Reprinted 2021, London: Faber & Faber, ISBN 978-0571362929
Manera, Alexandria (2003). Bessie Smith. Chicago: Raintree. ISBN 0-7398-6875-6.
Martin, Florence (1994). Bessie Smith. Paris: Éditions du Limon. ISBN 2-907224-31-X.
Oliver, Paul (1959). Bessie Smith. London: Cassell.
Palmer, Tony (1976). All You Need is Love: The Story of Popular Music. New York: Grossman Publishers, Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-11448-0.
Schuller, Gunther (1968). Early Jazz, Its Roots and Musical Development. Vol. 1 (Paperback ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504043-0.
Scott, Michelle R. (2008). Blues Empress in Black Chattanooga: Bessie Smith and the Emerging Urban South. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07545-2.
Welding, Pete; Byron, Tony, eds. (1991). Bluesland: Portraits of Twelve Major American Blues Masters. New York: Dutton. ISBN 0-525-93375-1.
== External links ==
Interview with Bessie Smith biographer Chris Albertson
Bessie Smith discography at Discogs
Bessie Smith recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rached_Ghannouchi#Awards | Rached Ghannouchi | Rached Ghannouchi (Arabic: راشد الغنوشي, romanized: Rāshid al-Ghannūshī; born 22 June 1941), also spelled Rachid al-Ghannouchi or Rached el-Ghannouchi, is a Tunisian politician, the co-founder of the Ennahdha Party and serving as its intellectual leader. He was born Rashad Khriji (راشد الخريجي).
Ghannouchi was named one of Time's 100 Most Influential People in the World in 2012 and Foreign Policy's Top 100 Global Thinkers and was awarded the Chatham House Prize in 2012 (alongside Tunisian President Moncef Marzouki) by Prince Andrew, Duke of York, for "the successful compromises each achieved during Tunisia's democratic transition". In 2016, he received the Jamnalal Bajaj Award for "promoting Gandhian values outside India". On 13 November 2019, Ghannouchi was elected Speaker of the Assembly of the Representatives of the People. Ghannouchi narrowly survived a vote of no confidence after 97 MPs voted against him on 30 July 2020, falling short of 109 needed to oust him as Speaker of the House.
== Early life ==
Ghannouchi was born outside El Hamma, in the governorate of Gabès in southern Tunisia. His village had no electricity or paved roads. His father was a poor farmer with children including Rached. His family worked in the fields every day, and had meat to eat only a few times a year. After the ground season had ended, the family wove baskets from palm leaves to supplement its income. Rached was able to attend a local branch of the traditional Arabic-language Zaytouna school thanks to financial help from an older brother.
He received his certificate of attainment degree, equivalent to the Baccalauréat, in 1962 from the University of Ez-Zitouna (Zaytouna). He entered the school of agriculture at Cairo University in 1964 but, following the expulsion of Tunisians from Egypt, he left for Syria. He studied philosophy at the University of Damascus, graduating in 1968. Ghannouchi also spent some time in his 20s traveling and working in Europe as a grape picker and dish washer.
== Islamic Tendency Movement ==
In April 1981 Ghannouchi founded the Islamic Tendency Movement (Arabic: حركة الاتجاه الإسلامي Ḥarakat al-Ittijāh al-Islāmī). The Movement described itself as specifically rooted in non-violent Islamism, and called for a "reconstruction of economic life on a more equitable basis, the end of single-party politics and the acceptance of political pluralism and democracy." By the end of July, Ghannouchi and his followers were arrested, sentenced to eleven years in prison in Bizerte, and were tortured. Both the religious and secular community, including numerous secular political organizations, rallied in his support.
While in prison he translated a number of works and wrote on topics such as democracy, women's rights, and Palestine. He also wrote his most noted work, Al‐Hurriyat al‐'Ammah (Public Liberties).
He was released in 1984, but returned to prison in 1987 with a life sentence, then was again released in 1988. He moved to the United Kingdom as a political exile, where he lived for 22 years.
He attended The Islamic Committee for Palestine conference in Chicago in 1989. Following the 1990 invasion of Kuwait, Al-Ghannushi denounced King Fahd of Saudi Arabia for the "colossal crime" of inviting the U.S. to deploy forces. He also called for a Muslim boycott of American goods, planes and ships.
He has also been criticized for calling for jihad against Israel.
Ghannouchi continued to criticise Tunisian politics and the regime of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali.
== Tunisian Revolution and after ==
Following popular unrest in which Ben Ali was ousted, Ghannouchi returned to Tunisia on 30 January 2011, after spending twenty two years exiled in London, with thousands of people welcoming him.
His party won 37.04% of the vote (more than the next four biggest vote-getting parties combined) in the 2011 Tunisian Constituent Assembly election. Ghannouchi did not take a government position. Ennahdha's secretary-general Hamadi Jebali became Prime Minister.
Ennahda formed a government which led Tunisia through the challenging and tumultuous aftermath of the Jasmine revolution. The government during this period was characterized by greater transparency, lack of corruption, and consensus-building. In March 2012, Ennahda declared it would not support making sharia the main source of legislation in the new constitution, maintaining the secular nature of the state. Ennahda's stance on the issue was criticized by hardline Islamists, who wanted strict sharia, but was welcomed by secular parties. The government was criticized for mediocre economic performance, not stimulating the tourism industry, and poor relations with Tunisia's biggest trading partner France. In particular it was criticized for tolerating efforts at aggressive Islamisation by radical Islamists who were demanding Sharia law and denouncing gender equality and restrictions on polygamy, some of whom were responsible for the September 2012 ransacking and burning of the American embassy and school following the assassination of two leftist politicians Chokri Belaid (in February 2013) and Mohamed Brahmi (in July 2013). During this 2013–14 Tunisian political crisis enraged secularists demanded the government step down or even a Sisi-style coup, while Ennahda militants defiantly opposed early elections, even booing Ghannouchi's calls for sacrifice for national unity.
Nonetheless Ghanouchi worked with secularist leader Beji Caid Essebsi to forge a compromise and on October 5 signed a "road map" whereby Ennahda would step down for a caretaker government after the new constitution was agreed upon and until new elections were held. Both leaders were heavily criticized by their party rank and file and Ghannouchi received agreement from the Ennahda shura council only by threatening to resign.
In January 2014, after the new Tunisian Constitution was approved, Ennahdha peacefully quit government and handed power to a technocratic government led by Mehdi Jomaa. Ennahda placed second in the October 2014 parliamentary election with 27.79% of the popular vote and formed a coalition government with the larger secularist party Nidaa Tounes despite rank-and-file opposition. Ennahda did not put forth a presidential candidate for the November 2014 election. Ghanouchi "hinted broadly" that he personally supported Beji Caid Essebsi (who won with over 55% of the vote).
Ghannouchi argued for these accommodating measures against more purist party members on the grounds that the country was still too fragile, and the economy too much in need of reform, for Ennahda to be in opposition. Ghannouchi also gave his support to a crackdown on jihadi indoctrination at radical mosques (over 60 civilians, mostly tourists, were killed in 2015 by jihadis, devastating Tunisia's tourist industry). Despite his Islamist background, he had always been "reviled" by jihadis, according to Robert Worth, and now appeared near "the top" of the jihadi "wanted list".
=== Retracted allegations ===
On 22 October 2011, The Economist published an apology on their website for previously publishing an article in which they attributed false statements to Ghannouchi. The article claimed that Ghannouchi "opposes the country's liberal code of individual rights, the Code of Personal Status, and its prohibition of polygamy". The article, also, claimed that Ghannouchi "has threatened to hang a prominent Tunisian feminist, Raja bin Salama, in Basij Square in Tunis, because she has called for the country's new laws to be based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights". The apology stated that "we accept that neither of these statements is true: Mr Ghannouchi has expressly said that he accepts the Code of Personal Status; and he never threatened to hang Ms bin Salama. We apologise to him unreservedly."
On 9 October 2012, The Independent published an apology on their website for suggesting in a previous article that the Ennahdha Party has been offered foreign funds. The apology stated: "we wish to make it clear that Mr. Ghannouchi and his party have not accepted any donation from a foreign state in breach of Tunisian party funding laws. We apologise to Mr. Ghannouchi."
On 17 May 2013, the BBC published an apology on their website for previously publishing inaccurate statements about Ghannouchi six months earlier on 21 November 2012. The article had accused Ghannouchi of threatening to order troops on to the streets if the Ennahdha Party did not get the results he expected in the elections in 2011, and suggested he condoned the violent Salafist attack on the United States embassy and the burning of the American School in Tunis in September 2012. Acknowledging that none of these accusations and suggestions were in fact true, the retraction concluded: "The BBC apologises to Mr Ghannouchi for these mistakes and for the distress they caused him."
=== Libel case ===
In 2020, the UK High Court ruled in favour of Ghannouchi in a libel case against Middle East Online (MEO) and its editor Haitham El Zobaidi. Middle East Online and one of its editors had claimed that Ennahda "supported terrorism", a charge Ghannouchi "vigorously denied". According to Ahmed Yusuf, the article was part of a "a systematic campaign" against Ghannouchi from "media backed by Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Egypt."
=== Corruption charges ===
On 1 February 2024, Rached Ghannouchi was sentenced along with his son-in-law to three years in prison by the Tunis court, for illicit foreign financing, and ordered to pay a fine of $1.17 million on behalf of his party. On 19 February, he went on a hunger strike in prison in solidarity with other opposition figures imprisoned by Saied's government. On 13 July 2024, his sentence to three years in prison was confirmed by the Criminal Chamber of the Judicial and Financial Unit. On 8 July 2025, he was sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment on terrorism charges.
== Views and background ==
Ghannouchi's willingness to compromise with secularists in Tunisia and his country's unique success in maintaining a democratic system following the Arab Spring has been credited by at least one observer (Robert Worth) to his background. Unlike many Islamists, Ghannouchi "lived abroad for decades, reading widely in three languages", including Western thinkers Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud and Jean-Paul Sartre. He admired the courage of leftists who protested in the streets against the dictatorship, were arrested and tortured in prison, and became willing to work with them. Watching the initial victory of the Algerian Islamists—while exiled in London—collapse into the slaughter, mayhem and defeat of the civil war, left a deep impact. According to Azzam S. Tamimi, he was influenced by Malik Bennabi and his treatise "Islam and Democracy", which laid "the foundations" for Ghannouchi's "masterpiece" Al‐Hurriyat al‐'Ammah (Public Liberties).
In 2002, an unsympathetic Western source (Martin Kramer) described him as differing "from other Islamists" in his insistence "that Islam accepts multi-party democracy."
In 2015, he told French journalist Olivier Ravanello that homosexuality should not be criminalized, though he opposed gay marriage. He has been interviewed by Michael Moore in Where to Invade Next and stated that homosexuality is a "private affair."
== Personal life ==
On 13 July 2021, the official TAP news agency reported that Ghannouchi, already vaccinated, tested positive for COVID-19. On 1 August, he was discharged a few hours after he was readmitted to a hospital.
== Awards ==
One of the first in FP Top 100 Global Thinkers in 2011
The Chatham House Prize from Chatham House for the year 2012 in London (with Moncef Marzouki)
The Ibn Rushd Prize for Freedom of Thought for the year 2014 in Berlin
Lifetime membership of Aligarh Muslim University Students' Union in 2015
International Crisis Group's Founder's Award for pioneers in peace-building, along with Tunisian President Béji Caïd Essebsi
The Jamnalal Bajaj Award for the year 2016 in Mumbai
Honorary Degree from International Islamic University Malaysia in 2017
One of the 100 Most Influential Arabs in the World in Global Influence list 2018
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Tamimi, Azzam (2001). Rachid Ghannouchi: a democrat within Islamism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514000-1.
Saeed, Abdullah (1999). "Rethinking citizenship rights of non-Muslims in an Islamic State; Rashid al-Gannushi's contribution to the evolving debate". Islam and Christian Muslim Relations. 10 (3): 307–323 [p. 311]. doi:10.1080/09596419908721189.
alhiwar.net 6 May 2007
Jones, Linda G. (1988). "Portrait of Rashid al-Ghannoushi". Islam and the State. Middle East Report. Vol. 153. New York: Middle East Research and Information Project. pp. 19–22.
al-Ghannoushi, Rashid & Jones, Linda G. (1988). "Deficiencies in the Islamic Movement". Islam and the State. Middle East Report. Vol. 153. New York: Middle East Research and Information Project. pp. 23–24.
== External links ==
Official website
Interview with Rachid Ghannouchi
Al-Hiwar forums and news
Rachid al-Ghannouchi collected news and commentary at Al Jazeera English
Rashid Al-Ghannoushi: Ben Ali's regime aims to destroy Tunisian people's Islamic opposition, identity, Khaled Hamza, Ikhwanweb, 2 November 2006, interview
Rashid al-Ghannushi, A Leader of Pure Islam, Rohama, 27 January 2011
Rachid Ghannouchi, the Islamist Who Believes in Inclusion and Compromise – Fanack Chronicle |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_UCI_Cyclo-cross_World_Championships_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_junior_race | 2007 UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships – Men's junior race | The 2007 UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships – Men's junior race was held on Saturday 27 January 2007 as a part of the 2007 UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships in Hooglede-Gits, Belgium.
== Ranking ==
Two riders, Mattias Nilsson from Sweden and Eduardo Recasens Gasso from Spain, were disqualified for riding through the pits without changing bikes.
== Notes ==
== External links ==
Union Cycliste Internationale |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phyllida_Barlow | Phyllida Barlow | Dame Gillian Phyllida Barlow (4 April 1944 – 12 March 2023) was a British visual artist. She studied at Chelsea College of Art (1960–1963) and the Slade School of Art (1963–1966). She joined the staff of the Slade in the late 1960s and taught there for more than forty years. She retired from academia in 2009 and in turn became an emerita professor of fine art. She had an important influence on younger generations of artists; at the Slade her students included Rachel Whiteread and Ángela de la Cruz. In 2017 she represented Great Britain at the Venice Biennale.
== Early life and education ==
Although born in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, in 1944 (as her psychiatrist father Erasmus Darwin Barlow, a great-grandson of Charles Darwin, was stationed there at the time), Barlow was brought up in a London recovering from the Second World War. She studied at Chelsea College of Art (1960–63) under the tutelage of George Fullard who was to influence Barlow's perception of what sculpture can be. "Fullard, among others, was able to impart that the act of making was in itself an adventure. The family moved to Richmond, west London, after the war, and her childhood experiences of bomb damage would inspire much of her lifelong work. A sculpture that falls over or breaks is just as exciting as one that reveals itself perfectly formed. All the acts of making in the world are there to be plundered and contain within themselves the potential to be transferred to the studio and adapted."
Whilst studying at Chelsea, Barlow met her husband, the artist and writer Fabian Benedict Peake, the son of Mervyn Peake, author of Gormenghast, and his wife the artist and memoirist Maeve Gilmore. She later attended the Slade School of Fine Art from 1963 to 1966 to further study sculpture. Described by The Independent as "a British art dynasty", Barlow and her husband had five children together, including the artists Eddie Peake and Florence Peake.
== Career ==
After graduating from Slade School of Art in 1966, Barlow began a forty-year-long career as a teacher in various institutions, starting with a part-time teaching position in sculpture at the former West of England College of Art, now known as the University of the West of England, Bristol. While here, she learned traditional techniques of sculpture and discovered an affinity for the malleability of clay. Barlow found an interest in everyday, convenient materials like cardboard, polystyrene, scrim, and cement and how she could create abstracted pieces of work that placed a sense of elevated meaning to them. Forming an environment in which her viewers can reflect on the work and explore the material and processes used to create it was one of her main motivations in her practice. In 2004 she was appointed professor of fine art and director of undergraduate studies at Slade School of Art before retiring from teaching in 2009 at the age of 65, deciding to focus on her own art. She believed that art schools placed too big an emphasis on a particular 'model' of how to be an artist.
Barlow's break as an artist came in 2004 when she was shown at the BALTIC, Gateshead. This was followed by representation by Hauser & Wirth. In 2018 and 2019, Barlow was 'provocateur' for the Yorkshire Sculpture international.
== Work ==
Barlow's work is a combination of playful and intimidating. The child like colours she painted her sculptures, almost referencing toys is in deep contrast to the industrial materials and scale of her works. Her sculptures tower above the viewer as if a huge section of scaffolding. She played with mass, scale, volume and height which creates a tension to her forms. Her forms give the impression of being both excruciatingly heavy and light as air simultaneously. When in the presence of her sculpture, one loses the sense of object and is entered into an environment. Barlow did not hide her process and material choices from the viewer, she exposed each detail.
Best known for her colossal sculptural projects, Barlow employed "a distinctive vocabulary of inexpensive materials such as plywood, cardboard, plaster, cement, fabric and paint" to create striking sculptures. Drawing on memories of familiar objects from her surroundings, Barlow's practice was grounded in an anti-monumental tradition characterised by her physical experience of handling materials, which she transformed through processes of layering, accumulation and juxtaposition. "Obtrusive and invasive, Barlow's large-scale sculptural objects are frequently arranged in complex installations in which mass and volume seem to be at odds with the space around them. Their role is restless and unpredictable: they block, interrupt, intervene, straddle and perch, both dictating and challenging the experience of viewing." Her constructions are often crudely painted in industrial or synthetic colours, resulting in abstract, seemingly unstable forms.
Maybe I don't think enough about beauty in my work because I'm so curious about other qualities, abstract qualities of time, weight, balance, rhythm; collapse and fatigue versus the more upright dynamic notions of maybe posture ... the state that something might be in. Is it growing or shrinking, is it going up or down, is it folding or unfolding?
Barlow was also a prolific painter, yet even in this field she recognised they were "sculptural drawings". She painted as part of her curriculum at the Chelsea College of Arts - where she was encouraged to practice by artist and sculptor Henry Moore - and carried on doing so throughout her life as an artist, accruing a vast archive of work.
== Solo exhibitions ==
Barlow's work has been presented in solo exhibitions around the world. In 2014, Barlow was commissioned to create new work for the Duveen Galleries at Tate Britain, London.
After being awarded the Kunstpreis Aachen in 2012, Barlow was commissioned to do a solo exhibition for the Ludwig Forum für Internationale Kunst in Germany. The exhibition Brink featured seven expansive sculptures creating a "stage-like arena" for her fictive city.
In 2013, Barlow presented a solo exhibition entitled HOARD at The Norton Museum of Art in West Palm Beach, Florida, U.S. It was the Norton's third exhibition of RAW – Recognition of Art by Women – made possible by the Leonard and Sophie Davis Fund/MLDauray Arts Institute.
2015 saw Barlow's work travelling up to Scotland to be installed in the Fruitmarket Gallery in Edinburgh. The exhibition was called 'Set' and consisted of new works which were specifically produced for the show. Her work took over the gallery transforming it into an all consuming environment of bright matter. Her forms undulated through the gallery space with the intention of creating an argument or tension between the two floors of the gallery; "The upstairs space shrugging its shoulders at the downstairs space" as Barlow herself put it.
In 2016, Barlow presented a solo exhibition of new work at the Kunsthalle Zurich. Barlow was one of four artists to have been nominated for the inaugural Hepworth prize, the UK's first prize for sculpture, and hers was displayed at the Hepworth Wakefield starting in October 2016.
For the 2017 Venice Biennale, Barlow unveiled her powerfully industrial and bulbous Folly series, which took over both a sanitised indoor space and the idyllic Venetian outdoors. Barlow initially planned for her installation of 41 'baubles' to be hanging from planks that jutted from facade of the pavilion but this vision had to be altered due to expense; they were ultimately displayed in a way that resembled lollipops. Graham Sheffield, the Director Arts at the British Council at the time, wrote that Barlow was selected for her "challenging and imposing sculptures" which unsurprisingly commanded a distinct and powerful presence at the 57th Biennale.
During the course of 2018, Barlow presented three solo shows. Hauser & Wirth curated the exhibition entitled 'tilt', which was held in their New York City gallery. In New York she also exhibited with High Line Art, with the show 'prop'. In the UK in 2018 Barlow's show 'Quarry' was held in Edinburgh, Scotland, at Jupiter Artland.
In 2019 the Royal Academy of Art (of which she was elected an Academician in 2011) hosted exhibition of a new collection of Barlow's work entitled cultural-de-sac. Her work was situated in the Gabrielle Jungels-Winkler Galleries. The works were a site specific collection of large scale, brutalist sculptures which were created in response to the architecture of the RA building.
== Honours and awards ==
Barlow became a Royal Academician in 2011. She was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2015 New Year Honours for services to the arts and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2021 Birthday Honours for services to art.
Barlow was a member of the juries that selected Doris Salcedo (2016), Pierre Huyghe (2017), Isa Genzken (2019) and Michael Rakowitz (2020) for the Nasher Prize.
== Death ==
Dame Phyllida Barlow died on 12 March 2023, at the age of 78.
== References ==
== External links ==
Phyllida Barlow at IMDb
Phyllida Barlow discography at Discogs |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Elizabeth_Botha | Anna Elizabeth Botha | Anna Elizabeth Botha (née Rossouw; 6 May 1922 – 6 June 1997) was the First Lady of South Africa, as the wife of State President Pieter Willem Botha, from 1984 to 1989. From 1978 to 1984 Botha served as Prime Minister of South Africa.
Anna Elizabeth Rossouw married Botha on 13 March 1943. She went by the name Elize, and was the daughter of a pastor from Senekal, Dr S.H. Roussouw. They had two sons, Rossouw and Pieter Willem, and three daughters, Elanza, Amelia and Rozanne.
Elize Botha had stayed quietly in the background as the First Lady of South Africa. She earned admiration from Nelson Mandela for helping to arrange a luncheon that Mandela and widows of apartheid-era leaders attended.
She died on 6 June 1997 at the age of 75. She had suffered an aneurysm in 1978 but had been in good health since then.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_B._Mortimer#:~:text=Temple%20in%201981.-,Judicial%20career,Reform%20Commission%20of%20Hong%20Kong. | John B. Mortimer | John Barry Mortimer, GBS, SPMB, OBE, KC (Chinese: 馬天敏; born 7 August 1931) is a British barrister who has held senior judicial appointments in Hong Kong and Brunei Darussalam.
== Early life and education ==
Mortimer was born in the United Kingdom in 1931. He was educated at St Peter's School, York. He graduated from Emmanuel College, Cambridge with a BA in 1955.
== Legal career ==
Mortimer was called to the Bar at the Middle Temple in England in 1956. He took silk in 1971. He was elected a Bencher of the Middle Temple in 1981.
== Judicial career ==
In 1985, Mortimer was appointed a Judge of the High Court of Hong Kong.
From 1989 to 1995, Mortimer was a member of the Law Reform Commission of Hong Kong.
In 1993, Mortimer was appointed a Justice of Appeal, and in 1997 became Vice President of the Court of Appeal of Hong Kong (a position in which he served until he retired from the Court of Appeal in 1999). Between 1997 and 2015, he was a Non-Permanent Judge of the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal.
In 2002, Mortimer was elected as a Senior Bencher of the Middle Temple.
In 2005, Mortimer was appointed as a Judicial Commissioner of the Supreme Court of Brunei Darussalam. Between 2010 and 2018, Mortimer served as President of the Court of Appeal of Brunei Darussalam.
=== Honours ===
In 1999, Mortimer was awarded the Golden Bauhinia Star by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong.
On retirement from the bench in 2018, Mortimer was awarded the Order of Seri Paduka Mahkota Brunei (First Class) by the Sultan of Brunei.
In the 2019 New Year Honours, Mortimer was appointed OBE for services to law by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Barry,_4th_Earl_of_Barrymore | James Barry, 4th Earl of Barrymore | James Barry, 4th Earl of Barrymore (1667 – 5 January 1748) was an Irish soldier and Jacobite politician.
== Early life ==
The son of Richard Barry, 2nd Earl of Barrymore and his wife Dorothy (née Ferrar), Barry succeeded his half-brother Laurence Barry, 3rd Earl of Barrymore to the Earldom of Barrymore on 17 April 1699.
== Military career ==
Upon William of Orange's invasion of England, Barrymore came out for William against James II and was subsequently appointed lieutenant-colonel in William's army on 31 December 1688. After the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1702, he purchased for 1,400 guineas the 13th Regiment of Foot from Sir John Jacob, 3rd Baronet (his brother-in-law) and became Colonel of the Regiment. He was in turn appointed brigadier-general (c. 1707), major-general (1709) and lieutenant-general (1711). He served under Lord Galway and was captured after the Battle of Almansa in 1707. Upon the accession of the first Hanoverian monarch George I and his proscription of the Tories in 1715, Barrymore was forced to sell his regiment.
== Political career ==
Barrymore took up his seat in the Irish House of Lords in 1704 and was elected Tory MP for Stockbridge for the British House of Commons in the Tory landslide of 1710. He lost his seat to the famous Whig writer Sir Richard Steele in 1713 but regained it upon appeal. In 1715 he was elected MP for Wigan, which he held until 1747 apart from a break during 1727–34. In 1714 he was appointed to the Irish Privy Council.
== Jacobitism ==
Barrymore embraced the Pretender's cause late in life. In 1740 he conspired with English Tories for a Stuart restoration aided by a French invasion and visited Cardinal Fleury to persuade him to support it. In 1743 Louis XV of France's master of horse, James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde, travelled to London to meet Barrymore and other Tory peers to conspire to French invasion. The group also sent a communication to the French king through the Jacobite agent Francis Sempill, requesting support for a Frenco-Jacobite invasion. Barrymore was to be part of Charles Edward Stuart's council of regency should he successfully oust the Hanoverians. In February 1744 the British government discovered from a spy in their service in France the English members of the conspiracy and Barrymore was arrested. After the collapse of the Jacobite rising of 1745 the government decided not to prosecute Barrymore.
== Personal life ==
He married, firstly, Hon. Elizabeth Boyle, daughter of Charles Boyle, 3rd Viscount Dungarvan and his wife Lady Jane Seymour, before 1703. They had two daughters and a son:
Lady Charlotte Barry (d. 1708)
Lady Anne Barry, married James Maule and died soon afterwards
an infant son (d. 30 May 1707)
He married, secondly, Lady Elizabeth Savage, daughter of Richard Savage, 4th Earl Rivers and Penelope Downes, in June 1706, unknown to her father. They had one daughter:
Lady Penelope Barry (18 Apr 1708 – 13 Oct 1775), married General Hon. James Cholmondeley
Lady Elizabeth died in 1714 miscarrying a son.
He married, thirdly, Lady Anne Chichester, daughter of Maj.-Gen. Arthur Chichester, 3rd Earl of Donegall and Lady Catherine Forbes, on 12 July 1716 at St. Anne's, Soho, London, England. They had four sons and two daughters:
James Barry, 5th Earl of Barrymore (25 Apr 1717 – 19 Dec 1751)
Hon. Richard Barry (d. 23 Nov 1787)
Lady Catherine Barry (d. 1738)
Lady Anne Barry (d. 21 Mar 1758), married Mr. Taylor
Hon. Arthur Barry (1724 – Oct 1770)
Hon. John Smith-Barry (28 Jul 1725 – 1784), married Dorothy Smith in 1746 and had issue
== Notes == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Ann_Willson#:~:text=In%201944%2C%20the%20Harry%20Stone,twenty%20of%20Willson's%20surviving%20watercolors. | Mary Ann Willson | Mary Ann Willson (active 1810 to 1825) was an American folk artist whose work remained undiscovered for over a century, until it appeared in an exhibition of American Primitive paintings in 1944. Little is known of her life, but evidence suggests that she may have been one of the first American watercolorists.
== Life and career ==
Mary Ann Willson was an American folk artist based in Greene County, New York. She was unknown until 1943, when a portfolio of her work was discovered by staff at the Harry Stone Gallery in New York City. According to art historian Jean Lipman, Willson and her contemporary Eunice Pinney of Connecticut are considered two of the earliest American painters to work in the medium of watercolor.
Little is known about the artist. What information is available is derived from two anonymous letters, one of which accompanied the portfolio acquired by the Harry Stone Gallery, and a short biography included in Richard Lionel De Lisser's Picturesque Catskills, Greene County, which was first published in 1894. Because both letters contain a reference to the artists Thomas Cole, Asher Brown Durand and Daniel Huntington describing them as "modern" painters, they have been dated to the mid-nineteenth century. According to these documents, Miss Willson and her "friend," Miss Brundage (also spelled Brundidge), left Connecticut in about 1810 to settle in the town of Greenville, Greene County, New York. The couple purchased a few acres and built a log cabin. Apparently, with the aid of her neighbors, Brundage farmed the land while Willson painted pictures, "which she sold to the farmers and others as rare and unique works of art." According to the two letters, her work was purchased by patrons from Canada to Mobile, Alabama. The author of these letters has been tentatively identified by De Lisser and Greene County historian Mabel Parker Smith as Theodore L. Prevost, a cousin of the artist Thomas Cole by marriage; the art historian N. F. Karlins, however, has suggested that Theodore Alexander Cole, the son of the artist and owner of two of Willson's watercolors, composed the letters.
Stylistically, Willson's paintings are the work of an untrained hand. Her subjects are taken from popular prints of the day and are executed in bright colors made from berry juice, vegetable dye or brick dust. Her surviving oeuvre is small: in 1976, Karlins published a checklist of her known watercolors, which numbered twenty-two.
At Brundage's death, Willson is reported to have been inconsolable and to have disappeared not long afterwards. Her last known work was completed in 1825. What became of her is unknown.
== Exhibitions ==
In 1944, the Harry Stone Gallery in New York City mounted an exhibition of sixty-seven "American Primitive" paintings that featured twenty of Willson's surviving watercolors. Willson's exhibited paintings included landscapes, still lifes, narrative scenes, portraits, mythological themes and genre subjects and demonstrated not only the range of her subject matter but also her ability, as noted by curator Jean Lipman, "to exploit pure color and design." According to Lipman, Willson "was simply endowed with a teeming imagination, a bold taste for primary color and geometric design, and a total lack of inhibition, a combination which adds up to a style close indeed to that of modern abstract art." Significantly, as Karlins has noted, there was speculation at the time of the exhibition that the watercolors were forgeries and the supporting documentation "concocted ... in order to benefit from the growing market for folk art." Karlins ultimately concluded, however, that because Willson's career is documented in De Lisser's 1894 publication and works attributed to the artist are recorded in the collection of Theodore Cole, the exhibited watercolors were authentic. He writes that although "there are many questions still to be answered about the origins of and influences on Mary Ann Willson's works ... one thing is certain—[the paintings] are not twentieth-century fakes. They are the product of one of the most original early nineteenth-century folk watercolorists yet discovered."
== In popular culture ==
Willson's life and relationship with Brundage served as the basis for Isabel Miller's 1969 novel A Place for Us, which was republished in 1971 as Patience and Sarah, as well as a 1998 opera by Paula M. Kimper.
== References ==
== External links ==
Prodigal Sons works, National Gallery of Art |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meldola_Medal_and_Prize | Meldola Medal and Prize | The Meldola Medal and Prize was awarded annually from 1921 to 1979 by the Chemical Society and from 1980 to 2008 by the Royal Society of Chemistry to a British chemist who was under 32 years of age for promising original investigations in chemistry (which had been published). It commemorated Raphael Meldola, President of the Maccabaeans and the Institute of Chemistry. The prize was the sum of £500 and a bronze medal.
The prize was modified in 2008 and joined the Edward Harrison Memorial Prize to become the Harrison-Meldola Memorial Prizes.
== Winners ==
Awardees include:
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beanie_Feldstein | Beanie Feldstein | Elizabeth Greer "Beanie" Feldstein (born June 24, 1993) is an American actress. She first gained recognition for her starring roles in the comedy film Neighbors 2: Sorority Rising (2016), the comedy-drama film Lady Bird (2017), and the coming-of-age comedy film Booksmart (2019), the last of which earned her a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture–Comedy or Musical.
Feldstein has appeared on the Broadway stage, making her debut as Minnie Fay in Hello, Dolly! (2017–18), and portraying the lead role of Fanny Brice in the first revival of Funny Girl (2022), a performance for which she earned a nomination for the Drama League Award for Distinguished Performance. In 2021, she portrayed Monica Lewinsky in the third season of the FX anthology series Impeachment: American Crime Story.
== Early life and education ==
Feldstein was born in Los Angeles, the only daughter of Sharon Lyn (née Chalkin), a costume designer and fashion stylist, and Richard Feldstein, a tour accountant for Guns N' Roses. She is Jewish, and the youngest of three children in her family; her older brother is actor Jonah Hill, and their oldest brother, Maroon 5 manager Jordan Feldstein (1977–2017), died suddenly of a blood clot at age 40.
Her nanny nicknamed her "Beanie" when she was an infant, and her brothers also called her by the name at the time. She attended the Harvard-Westlake School in Los Angeles as well as Stagedoor Manor, a theatre camp in New York. She and fellow Broadway and film actor Ben Platt have been best friends since high school.
She graduated from Wesleyan University in 2015 with a degree in sociology.
== Career ==
Feldstein made her acting debut in 2002, appearing in the ABC comedy series My Wife and Kids. In 2012, she played Megan in the musical television pilot Madison High. In 2015, Feldstein appeared as a guest in the third season of Netflix's comedy series Orange Is the New Black. In the same year she played the role of Anna in the comedy film Fan Girl.
Feldstein received recognition with a more significant role in the comedy film Neighbors 2: Sorority Rising, alongside Seth Rogen and Zac Efron. The film was released on May 20, 2016. She was cast as Lydia Harris in HBO's period drama pilot The Devil You Know. She guest starred in an episode of the NBC sitcom Will & Grace.
On October 18, 2016, Feldstein's casting as Minnie Fay in the 2017 Broadway revival of Hello, Dolly!, starring Bette Midler as Dolly Levi, was announced. Feldstein made her Broadway debut in the role. The show began previews on March 15, 2017, and opened on April 20, 2017. Feldstein's performance was positively received by critics.
Feldstein starred in Whitney Cummings' directorial debut comedy film The Female Brain, which premiered at the LA Film Festival in June 2017. She co-starred alongside Saoirse Ronan and Laurie Metcalf in Greta Gerwig's solo directorial debut, Lady Bird, which was released to critical acclaim in 2017. The film earned a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Picture. Along with the cast, she was nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture.
In 2019, Feldstein had a recurring role as Jenna in the first season of the television horror comedy series What We Do in the Shadows, an adaptation of the film of the same title. Her performance earned positive reviews from critics. She was not able to return for the second season, as was originally planned, due to other filming commitments. Also in 2019, she starred in Olivia Wilde's directorial debut, the high school comedy Booksmart. Her performance garnered widespread critical acclaim and a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress–Motion Picture Comedy or Musical. She later portrayed the British lead character Johanna Morrigan in the coming-of-age comedy film How to Build a Girl, which was an adaptation of Caitlin Moran's 2014 novel of the same title. The film and her performance garnered positive reviews from critics.
In 2020, she guest starred as Tess Anderson in the ABC medical drama series Grey's Anatomy. Feldstein stated that it had been a dream of hers to appear on the series since she was a child. She voiced a role in The Simpsons, featuring as a support group therapist in the episode "Frinkcoin". She appeared in the television specials Saturday Night Seder and Take Me to the World: A Sondheim 90th Celebration, performing a cover of "It Takes Two" from Into the Woods with Ben Platt on the latter program.
Feldstein starred in the drama film The Humans, based on Stephen Karam's one-act play of the same title.
On August 6, 2019, it was announced that she would star as Monica Lewinsky in the third season of American Crime Story, subtitled Impeachment. On August 29, 2019, it was announced that Feldstein would be starring in Richard Linklater's film adaptation of Merrily We Roll Along, which would be shot over the course of twenty years. Principal photography of the first section of the film has already been completed. Feldstein is set to star alongside Ben Platt and Paul Mescal.
On August 11, 2021, it was announced that she would star as Fanny Brice in the 2022 Broadway revival of Funny Girl. Reviews of her performance were mixed to negative. Jesse Green at The New York Times called her "good" but "not stupendous," while Adrian Horton at The Guardian opined that Feldstein "simply isn't" a "power singer." Johnny Oleksinski of The New York Post remarked that "Feldstein is, I’m sorry to say, not giving a Broadway-caliber performance." Feldstein subsequently left the production and was later replaced by Lea Michele on September 6, 2022.
In September 2022, Feldstein was cast in Ethan Coen's Drive-Away Dolls.
== Personal life ==
Feldstein is queer. She met English film producer Bonnie-Chance Roberts on the set of the 2019 film How to Build a Girl. The two were engaged in June 2022 and married on May 19, 2023.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Music videos ===
=== Stage ===
== Awards and nominations ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Beanie Feldstein at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Young_(Missouri_politician) | James Young (Missouri politician) | James Young (May 11, 1800 – February 9, 1878) was an American politician. He was the Lieutenant Governor of Missouri from 1844 to 1848. He also served in the Tennessee House of Representatives from 1831 to 1833, in the Missouri House of Representatives 1836 to 1838, and in the Missouri Senate from 1840 to 1844.
He died at his home near Lexington, Missouri on February 9, 1878.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parks_and_Recreation#The_Awesome_Album | Parks and Recreation | Parks and Recreation (also known as Parks and Rec) is an American political satire mockumentary television sitcom created by Greg Daniels and Michael Schur. The series aired on NBC from April 9, 2009, to February 24, 2015, for 125 episodes, over seven seasons. A special reunion episode aired on April 30, 2020. The series stars Amy Poehler as Leslie Knope, a perky, mid-level bureaucrat in the Parks Department of the fictional town of Pawnee, Indiana. The ensemble and supporting cast features Rashida Jones as Ann Perkins, Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford, Nick Offerman as Ron Swanson, Aubrey Plaza as April Ludgate, Chris Pratt as Andy Dwyer, Paul Schneider as Mark Brendanawicz, Adam Scott as Ben Wyatt, Rob Lowe as Chris Traeger, Jim O'Heir as Garry "Jerry" Gergich, Retta as Donna Meagle, and Billy Eichner as Craig Middlebrooks.
The writers researched local California politics for the series and consulted with urban planners and elected officials. Leslie Knope underwent major changes after the first season, in response to audience feedback that the character seemed unintelligent and "ditzy". The writing staff incorporated current events into the episodes, such as a government shutdown in Pawnee inspired by the 2008 financial crisis. Real-life political figures, including John McCain, Michelle Obama, Newt Gingrich, and Joe Biden, have cameos in later episodes.
Parks and Recreation was part of NBC's "Comedy Night Done Right" programming during its Thursday night prime-time block. The series received mixed reviews during its first season (including comparisons to The Office, a sitcom also produced by Daniels and Schur), but, after a re-approach to its tone and format, the second and subsequent seasons were widely acclaimed. Parks and Recreation received several awards and nominations, including 14 Primetime Emmy Award nominations (two for Outstanding Comedy Series), a Golden Globe Award win for Poehler's performance and a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy, and a Peabody Award. In Time's 2012 year-end lists issue, Parks and Recreation was named the number one television series of that year. In 2013, after receiving four consecutive nominations in the category, Parks and Recreation won the Television Critics Association Award for Outstanding Achievement in Comedy.
== Plot ==
The first season focuses on Leslie Knope, the deputy director of the Parks and Recreation Department in the fictional town of Pawnee, Indiana. Local nurse Ann Perkins demands the construction pit beside her house created by an abandoned condo development be filled in after her boyfriend, Andy Dwyer, fell in and broke both legs. Leslie promises to turn the pit into a park, despite resistance from the parks director Ron Swanson, an anti-government libertarian. City planner Mark Brendanawicz – for whom Leslie harbors romantic feelings – pragmatically insists the project is unrealistic due to government red tape, but nevertheless secretly convinces Ron to approve the project. Leslie and her staff, including her assistant Tom Haverford and intern April Ludgate, try encouraging community interest in the pit project, but meet resistance.
In the second season, the pit is eventually filled in because Leslie takes it upon herself to fill in the pit without permission, not realizing Andy was in the pit. Andy became injured and works with Leslie to threaten to sue the city of Pawnee unless the pit was filled. Mark leaves his city hall career for a private sector job. Meanwhile, a crippling budget deficit leads state auditors Chris Traeger and Ben Wyatt to shut down the Pawnee government temporarily.
The third season opens with the Pawnee government reopened, but with budget cuts frustrating Leslie's attempts to provide services. Leslie makes a deal with Chris and Ben to bring back the Pawnee Harvest Festival, but if the festival fails the Parks Department will be eliminated. After weeks of planning, the festival becomes a tremendous success through Leslie's efforts. Later, Chris returns from Indianapolis to become Pawnee's acting city manager, while Ben also takes a job in Pawnee. April and Andy start dating and, only a few weeks later, marry in a surprise ceremony. Tom quits his city hall job to form an entertainment company called Entertainment 720 with his friend, Jean-Ralphio. The business cannot maintain its lavish spending and quickly runs out of money, leaving Tom to return to the Parks Department. Leslie and Ben show romantic interest in each other; however, Chris has implemented a rule that would prevent a superior (Ben) from dating his employee (Leslie). In spite of this rule, Leslie and Ben begin secretly dating.
The fourth season deals with Leslie's campaign to run for city council. As Leslie begins preparing a campaign, she realizes she must break up with Ben to avoid scandal. Ben and Leslie restart their relationship and Ben sacrifices his job to save Leslie from losing hers, due to Chris' policy against romantic relationships in the workplace. The Parks Department volunteers to become her campaign staff, with Ben as Leslie's campaign manager. Leslie's campaign faces myriad setbacks against her main opponent, Bobby Newport, and his famous campaign manager Jennifer Barkley.
In the fifth season, Leslie begins working as a City Councilor but finds opposition from angry locals and her fellow councilmen. Ben is at his new job on a congressional campaign in Washington DC, alongside April whom he brought along as an intern. Ron begins a romantic relationship with a woman named Diane. Ben returns to Pawnee and proposes to Leslie. They get married midway through the season. Tom starts a successful business named Rent-A-Swag that rents high-end clothing to teenagers. Leslie and Ben plan a fundraising event for the park, now called the Pawnee Commons, and decide to have an impromptu wedding that night in City Hall. Later, Leslie's changes to Pawnee lead to several locals petitioning for her to be recalled from office.
The sixth season begins with the absorption of Eagleton by Pawnee after the former town declares bankruptcy. As the governments merge, Leslie loses the recall vote and returns to the Parks Department full-time, while Ben is voted in as the next City Manager. Tom sells Rent-A-Swag to Jean-Ralphio's father, Dr. Saperstein, in a cash settlement and opens a restaurant called "Tom's Bistro". Ann and Chris, now in a relationship and expecting a baby, leave Pawnee for Michigan. As a way to garner public support for the unpopular merger, the Parks Department hold a Unity Concert. Later, Leslie reveals she is pregnant with triplets. Leslie takes the job as Regional Director for the National Park Service in Chicago, immediately submitting a proposal to bring the job to Pawnee.
The seventh season, though it aired in 2015, takes place in 2017. Ron and Leslie are shown to be enemies due to Ron's company having torn down Ann's old house in order to build an apartment building. Ben convinces a technology company, Gryzzl, to bring free Wi-Fi to the city of Pawnee. Gryzzl engages in intense data mining, inducing Ron, whose new construction company, Very Good Building and Development Company, has been handling their construction needs, to reconnect with Leslie to correct the issue.
== Cast and characters ==
The principal cast starting in season one included:
Amy Poehler as Leslie Knope, a mid-level bureaucrat with a strong love of her hometown of Pawnee, who has not let politics dampen her sense of optimism; her ultimate goal is to become President of the United States.
Rashida Jones as Ann Perkins, a nurse and political outsider who gradually becomes more involved in Pawnee government through her friendship with Leslie.
Paul Schneider as Mark Brendanawicz, a city planner who entered the field with a sense of optimism, but has since become jaded and disillusioned.
Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford, Leslie's sarcastic and underachieving subordinate, who eventually considers leaving his city hall job to pursue his own entrepreneurial interests.
Nick Offerman as Ron Swanson, the parks and recreation director who, as a staunch libertarian, believes in as small a government as possible. His desire to make his department small and ineffective frequently clashes with his genuine esteem for his coworkers, particularly Leslie.
Aubrey Plaza as April Ludgate, initially a cynical and uninterested intern, who grows into the role of Ron's assistant.
Chris Pratt as Andy Dwyer, a goofy and dim-witted but lovable slacker and rock musician; Ann's ex-boyfriend, married to April. Goes on to become a children's entertainer, as "Johnny Karate".
Several cast members were introduced or developed after the first season:
Adam Scott as Ben Wyatt, a brilliant but socially awkward government official trying to redeem his past as a failed mayor in his youth.
Rob Lowe as Chris Traeger, an excessively positive and extremely health-conscious government official.
Jim O'Heir as Garry "Jerry" Gergich. A throwaway joke at Jerry's expense in the episode "Practice Date" led him to be established as the inept coworker whom the rest of the department callously picks on.
Retta as Donna Meagle, a sassy hedonist whose mysterious life is occasionally hinted at.
Billy Eichner as Craig Middlebrooks, an overly passionate government employee who began working for Pawnee when Eagleton merged with Pawnee.
Numerous actors have made recurring guest appearances throughout the series, including Pamela Reed as Leslie's mother and fellow politician Marlene Griggs-Knope, Ben Schwartz as Tom's fast-talking friend Jean-Ralphio, Jenny Slate as Jean-Ralphio's twin sister Mona-Lisa, Jama Williamson as Tom's ex-wife Wendy, Mo Collins as morning talk show host Joan Callamezzo, Jay Jackson as television broadcaster Perd Hapley, Alison Becker as newspaper reporter Shauna Malwae-Tweep, Darlene Hunt as conservative activist Marcia Langman, and Andy Forrest as Andy's frequent shoeshine customer Kyle. Megan Mullally, the real-life wife of Nick Offerman, portrayed Ron's second ex-wife Tammy, while Patricia Clarkson appeared as his first ex-wife, also named Tammy. Lucy Lawless and Jon Glaser had recurring roles in the fifth and sixth seasons: Lawless as Ron's love interest (and later wife) Diane Lewis and Glaser as Leslie's archenemy on the city council Jeremy Jamm.
Mullally's performance was well received, which made the Parks and Recreation producers feel more comfortable about using celebrity guest actors in later episodes. Other such celebrity guests included Blake Anderson, Fred Armisen, Will Arnett, Kristen Bell, H. Jon Benjamin, Matt Besser, Chris Bosh, Louis C.K., The Decemberists, Sam Elliott, Will Forte, Ginuwine, Michael Gross, Jon Hamm, Nick Kroll, John Larroquette, Andrew Luck, Letters to Cleo, Natalie Morales, Parker Posey, Kathryn Hahn, Andy Samberg, J. K. Simmons, Roy Hibbert, Detlef Schrempf, Justin Theroux, Wilco, Henry Winkler, Peter Serafinowicz, and Yo La Tengo. Paul Rudd appeared in several season four episodes as Bobby Newport, Leslie's opponent in the City Council race, and returned for two episodes in the final season.
The series has had cameos by several real-life political figures, including then-Vice President Joe Biden, Senator Barbara Boxer, former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich, Senator John McCain, First Lady Michelle Obama, former Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, and Senators Olympia Snowe, Cory Booker, and Orrin Hatch.
== Episodes ==
== Production ==
=== Development and casting ===
Immediately after Ben Silverman was named co-chairman of NBC's entertainment division in 2007, he asked Greg Daniels to create a spin-off of The Office. Daniels co-created Parks and Recreation with Michael Schur, who had been a writer on The Office. The two spent months considering ideas for the new series and debating whether to make it a stand-alone rather than a spin-off. According to Daniels, they eventually abandoned the original spin-off plan because they "couldn't find the right fit". They considered a series about a local government official trying to rebuild a political career following a humiliating public spectacle. They eventually abandoned the idea, though it did end up being incorporated into the backstory for Ben Wyatt late in the second season. After Amy Poehler agreed to play the lead, they decided the series would revolve around an optimistic bureaucrat in small-town government. Production was delayed to accommodate Poehler's pregnancy.
The idea was partly inspired by the portrayal of local politics on the HBO drama series The Wire, as well as the renewed interest in and optimism about politics stemming from the 2008 United States presidential election. The staff was also drawn to the idea of building a show around a female relationship, namely Leslie Knope and Ann Perkins. Reports that Daniels and Schur were developing a show together led to press speculation it would, in fact, be a spin-off of The Office. The producers insisted their new series would be entirely independent. Nevertheless, their concept for it shared several elements with The Office, particularly the mockumentary approach and the encouragement of improvisation among the cast, even though the episodes were scripted. The series was scheduled as a mid-season replacement, and was rushed to meet the premiere date of April 9, 2009. Before the title Parks and Recreation was chosen, the name Public Service was considered, but ultimately rejected because network officials did not want to be accused of mocking the idea.
Schur said at PaleyFest that he and Daniels approached casting with the idea of finding "the funniest people and we'll tailor the roles to them". Poehler departed from the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live, where she was a cast member for nearly seven years, to star in Parks and Recreation as Leslie Knope. It was only after she was cast that Daniels and Schur established the series' general concept and the script for the pilot was written. Rashida Jones was among the first to be cast by Daniels and Schur in 2008, when the series was still being considered as a spin-off to The Office, where Jones had played Jim Halpert's girlfriend Karen Filippelli, who formerly worked at the Stamford Branch but was soon transferred to the Scranton Branch in the third season. She departed in the middle of season six, and returned for a guest appearance later in the season. Jones returned in the series finale, along with the COVID-19 pandemic special.
Paul Schneider was cast as Mark Brendanawicz. He said early in the series he was insecure in the role because he was still trying to figure out the character's motivations. Schneider left the cast after the second season and the character is not referenced at any point during the remainder of the series' run. Similarly with Jones, Daniels and Schur had intended to cast Aziz Ansari from the earliest stages of the development of Parks and Recreation.
While Aubrey Plaza was in Los Angeles for a film, casting director Allison Jones, who cast the film Plaza was working on, asked her if she wanted to attend a meeting with a showrunner of The Office who was developing a pilot. A fan of The Office, Plaza agreed. According to Schur, Jones said to him, "I just met the weirdest, funniest girl I've ever met in my life, you should meet with her." At the meeting, Daniels asked Plaza about life and what she thought happens when people died and the two had a discussion on the topic. Plaza said that Schur likely found the conversation odd. They told her the idea for the show's pilot and that they were considering giving Poehler's character an assistant that was a doltish blonde. Plaza pitched them instead the character of a smart intern who is at the department only for college credit and does not care about the job, which Plaza thought would be an interesting, comedic contrast with Poehler's character. They liked the concept for the character and created April Ludgate.
Chris Pratt was originally intended to be a guest star, with his character Andy Dwyer initially meant to appear only in the first season, but the producers liked Pratt so much that, almost immediately after casting him, they decided to make him a regular cast member starting with season two. Adam Scott left his starring role on the Starz comedy series Party Down to join the series as Ben Wyatt, starting with the penultimate second-season episode, "The Master Plan". Nick Offerman previously auditioned for the role of Michael Scott in The Office, which eventually went to Steve Carell. Offerman was originally considered for another role, but NBC felt that he wouldn't fit for a character who would later kiss Jones at some point in the series; he was cast instead as Ron Swanson. Rob Lowe was introduced as Chris Traeger alongside Scott and was originally expected to depart after a string of guest appearances, but later signed a multi-year contract to become a regular cast member. He departed from the series in the season six episode, "Ann and Chris", returning in the series finale and the 2020 special.
Jim O'Heir and Retta made regular appearances respectively as Garry "Jerry" Gergich and Donna Meagle since the first season, but their personalities did not become developed until the second season. Schur said the Parks and Recreation staff liked the actors so he decided to include them in the show and "figured we'd work it out later". A throwaway joke at Jerry's expense in the episode "Practice Date" led him to be established as the inept co-worker the rest of the department callously picks on. Donna was developed as a sassy hedonist whose mysterious life is occasionally hinted at. It was not until the third season they became considered regular cast members, and were added to the opening credits during the sixth season. Billy Eichner was a recurring cast member as Craig Middlebrooks during season 6, and began being billed as a member of the regular cast in the fourth episode of season seven.
=== Crew ===
Deedle-Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios produced Parks and Recreation starting with the first season; the production companies Fremulon and 3 Arts Entertainment also became involved with the show starting with the second season. The series was created by Greg Daniels and Michael Schur, who served as executive producers along with Howard Klein. Klein previously worked with Daniels and Schur on The Office, a half-hour NBC comedy Daniels adapted from the British comedy of the same name, created by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant. Schur served as the showrunner of Parks and Recreation, while Amy Poehler and Morgan Sackett worked as producers. Dean Holland, an editor on The Office, also worked as an editor on Parks and Recreation. Mike Scully, a former executive producer and showrunner for The Simpsons, joined Parks and Recreation as a consulting producer starting in the middle of the first season. Allison Jones, who worked as a casting director for The Office, served in the same capacity at the start of Parks and Recreation, along with Nancy Perkins, for whom the character Ann Perkins was named. Dorian Frankel became the casting director starting with the second season. Alan Yang, Harris Wittels, and Katie Dippold, all of whom were Parks and Recreation screenwriters, also worked as executive story editors.
The pilot episode was written by Daniels and Schur, and directed by Daniels. Daniels also directed the second-season episode "Hunting Trip", while Schur made his directorial debut with the first-season finale "Rock Show", and wrote or directed several other episodes including "Sister City", "The Master Plan", and "Time Capsule".
Poehler wrote three episodes: "Telethon" in season 2, "The Fight" in season 3, and "The Debate" in season 4 (for which she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series). She also co-wrote "Second Chunce" in season 6, the series' 100th episode, and "One Last Ride", the series finale, with Schur. Poehler also directed three episodes, "The Debate" in season 4, "Article Two" in season 5, and "Gryzzlbox" in season 7. Other cast members that wrote or directed episodes include Nick Offerman, who wrote "Lucky" in season 4, and directed season 5's "Correspondents' Lunch" and season 6's "Flu Season 2"; while Adam Scott directed season 6's "Farmers Market".
Holland also directed about thirty episodes of the series. Norm Hiscock, a consulting producer, wrote a number of episodes, including the first-season finale "Rock Show" and second-season premiere "Pawnee Zoo". Other regular screenwriters included Katie Dippold, Dan Goor, Aisha Muharrar, Harris Wittels, and Alan Yang. Frequent Parks and Recreation directors include Dean Holland, Randall Einhorn, Troy Miller, and Jason Woliner, with several others guest-directing one or two episodes such as Jeffrey Blitz, Paul Feig, Tucker Gates, Seth Gordon, Nicole Holofcener, Beth McCarthy-Miller, Michael McCullers, and Charles McDougall.
=== Writing ===
The writers spent time researching local California politics and attending Los Angeles City Council meetings. Schur said they observed many community hearings were attended only by those opposed, often angrily, to the proposals under consideration. This fact became a major component of town hall scenes and was the basis for the "Canvassing" episode. The writers consulted with real-life government officials such as urban planners and elected officials. Scott Albright, a California city planner, provided direct feedback for the Mark Brendanawicz character, and the inspiration for Ron Swanson's anti-government convictions came from a real-life encounter Schur had in Burbank with a libertarian government official who admitted, "I don't really believe in the mission of my job." The concept of turning a construction pit into a park was seen as a device to bring all the characters together working toward a common goal. The writers originally envisioned the pit becoming a park only in the series finale, although those plans were later changed and the pit was filled in during the second season. While researching whether such a project could realistically last several months or longer, Schur spoke to urban planners in Claremont, California, who said it was entirely plausible because they had recently broken ground on a park that had been in various planning stages for 18 years.
Daniels and Schur wrote the script for the pilot episode in mid-2008. The original script portrayed Leslie and Mark as slightly less likable than they appeared in the final draft, and they were changed to be more appealing in response to feedback the episode received from focus groups and press tour screenings. For example, while an early draft of the pilot script had Mark saying he didn't care about Leslie or the pit but would support her plan because he liked Ann Perkins and wanted an excuse to spend more time with her, the finished pilot had Mark backing Leslie because he admired her passion and drive. Schur said the writing staff strove to avoid the type of cynical humor prevalent in most television comedies at the time and wanted the characters to have a genuine appreciation for each other. Schur said of this, "I've never liked mean-spirited comedy. The characters on our show make fun of each other, but not in a biting, angry way. And there's no shortage of conflict in the world of government." The first-season episodes were written and developed relatively quickly after each other, and Schur said the staff was treating the entire six-episode season as if it were a single television pilot. Daniels felt due to pre-expectations from viewers familiar with The Office, the first-season episodes were "just about trying to tell people what we weren't", and that the writers had a better understanding of the characters by season two and could better write to their strengths.
During the first season, the writing staff received audience feedback that Leslie Knope seemed unintelligent and "ditzy." Schur said the writers did not intend for Leslie to be stupid, but rather an overeager woman who "takes her job too seriously", so a particular effort was made to present that character as more intelligent and capable at her job starting in the second season. As critic Alan Sepinwall observed, three other significant changes for the second season were to build more of the show around the relationship between Leslie Knope and Ron Swanson; transforming Chris Pratt's Andy from the villain of the show to a lovable man-child; and "letting Tom and April be intimidated by Leslie rather than scornful of her". The staff also decided to move on from the construction pit story arc, having the pit filled in the second-season episode "Kaboom". Although it was originally conceived the pit would only become a park in the series finale, Schur said the plotline was accelerated because early episodes were too focused on the pit and had led viewers to believe the entire show was about filling it in, which was not the writers' intention. Also starting with the second season, the writers made an effort to be more topical and incorporate current events into their scripts. For example, the episode "Pawnee Zoo" included social commentary about same-sex marriage. "The Stakeout" included a parody of the controversial arrest of Harvard University professor Henry Louis Gates, and a sex scandal involving a Pawnee councilman in "Practice Date" mirrored the real-life 2009 scandal of South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford.
Starting in the middle of the second season, the writing staff began to draw inspiration from the premise of The Contender (2000). Schur explained The Contender was about a female politician trying to succeed amid intense scrutiny in a political arena dominated by men, which is similar to challenges Leslie Knope occasionally encounters. The financial difficulties Pawnee experiences during the late second-season and third-season episodes were reflective of the 2008 financial crisis facing the nation and much of the world when the episodes were produced. The introduction of Chris Traeger and Ben Wyatt as state auditors visiting Pawnee, and the subsequent government shutdown, were inspired by news reports at a time when a number of states considered a shutdown of schools, parks, and other services due to the global recession. The third season included a seven-episode story arc about the characters organizing a harvest festival and staking the financial future of their department on its success. The festival served as a device to unite the characters, much like the construction pit had earlier in the show. Schur said this was done because the first six episodes were written and filmed early, and the writing staff felt having one concise storyline to tie them together kept the writers focused and, in Schur's words, helped "organize our tired, end-of-the-year brains". For the romance arc between Leslie and Ben in seasons three and four, The Remains of the Day was used as an inspiration, as a story about two people who are forced not to convey their romantic feelings for each other due to a repressive social system, which Schur compared to modern-day government.
=== Filming ===
Like The Office, Parks and Recreation was filmed with a single-camera setup in a cinéma vérité style simulating the look of an actual documentary, with no studio audience or laugh track. Within the context of the show, the characters are being filmed by a documentary crew, the members of which are never seen or heard from on-screen. The actors occasionally look at and directly address the cameras, and in some scenes directly engage the cameras in one-on-one interviews with the documentary crew members. The episodes were scripted, but the production encouraged the cast to improvise, and dialogue or performances the actors made up during filming often made the final cut of the episodes. Schur said he believes the mockumentary style is particularly fitting for a show about city government because "it's a device for showing the ways people act and behave differently when they're in public and private [and] the difference between what goes on behind closed doors and what people present to the public is a huge issue".
The Parks and Recreation producers approached each episode as if filming a real documentary. They typically shot enough for a 35 or 40-minute episode, then cut it down to 22 minutes, using the best material. Due to the improvisational acting and hand-held camerawork, a great deal of extra footage was shot that had to be discarded for the final cut; for example, the original cut of the 22-minute pilot was 48 minutes long. The producers filmed about nine pages of the script each day, a large amount by U.S. television standards.
Despite the similarities in the mockumentary style with The Office, Daniels and Schur sought to establish a slightly different tone in the camerawork of the pilot episode. The one-on-one interviews, for example, sometimes feature two separate camera angles on the same person; the footage is intercut to create the final version of the scene. This technique was inspired by The Five Obstructions, a 2003 experimental documentary directed by Lars von Trier and Jørgen Leth, which Daniels watched at the suggestion of actor Paul Schneider. Another distinction from The Office is while almost all footage from that show is filmed in a workplace setting, the documentary crew on Parks and Recreation regularly follows the characters into more intimate, non-work settings, such as on dates or at their homes. Parks and Recreation also makes frequent use of the jump cut technique. For instance, one scene in the pilot episode repeatedly jump cuts between brief clips in which Leslie seeks permission from Ron to pursue the pit project. Early in the season, editor Dean Holland developed a technique that would be used throughout the series. During a scene in "The Reporter" in which Leslie reacts to quotes read to her by the journalist, Poehler improvised several jokes, many of which were ultimately going to be cut from the episode. Holland thought they were all funny, so he created a brief montage intercutting several of the lines.
Principal photography began on February 18, 2009, less than two months before the show premiered. The show faced early production delays because Poehler was pregnant when she signed on, and filming had to be postponed until she gave birth. The show was filmed in Southern California. The exterior of the Pawnee government building, and several of the hallway scenes, were shot at Pasadena City Hall. The parks and recreation department interiors, as well as the City Hall courtyard, were filmed on a large studio set sound stage. The set's windows were outfitted with water systems to simulate falling rain, and the windowsills included fake pigeons. The set also includes four hallways that make up the hospital setting where Ann Perkins works as a nurse. The construction pit featured throughout the first and second seasons was dug by the episode's producers at an undeveloped property in Van Nuys, a district of Los Angeles. The producers went door-to-door in the neighborhood, seeking residents' permission for the dig. The pit was guarded 24 hours a day. Scenes set in playgrounds and elsewhere outdoors were filmed on location in Los Angeles. Most scenes set in locations outside the usual Parks and Recreation settings were also filmed in Los Angeles-area locations. For example, public forum scenes in the pilot episode were filmed in one of the city's middle schools, and a town meeting scene in the episode "Eagleton" was shot at the Toluca Lake Sports Center in the Toluca Lake district of Los Angeles. Other Eagleton scenes were also shot at the Huntington Library and Botanical Gardens, located in San Marino. Elaborate festival setting and corn maze sets featured in "Harvest Festival" was filmed at a real-life festival setting at Los Angeles Pierce College, a community college in the Woodland Hills neighborhood of Los Angeles. Schur said an aerial shot of the harvest festival at the end of the episode was the most expensive shot in the entire series.
Toward the end of production on the second season, Poehler became pregnant again and the producers of the show were forced to go into production on season three early and film an additional six episodes to accommodate not only Poehler's pregnancy, but also a projected September 2010 air date. After the episodes were already filmed, NBC opted not to put the show on the fall schedule and instead delayed the premiere of the third season until the beginning of 2011. This allowed for the network to run its new comedy, Outsourced, in two-hour comedy schedule block rather than Parks and Recreation. The schedule change meant that all sixteen episodes from the third season were filmed before any of them were shown; the rest of the episodes, starting with the seventh, were filmed in the fall of 2010. NBC chief executive officer Jeff Gaspin said this move was not a reflection on Parks and Recreation, and suggested the extended hiatus would not only have no negative effect on the show, but could actually build anticipation for its return. The move proved frustrating for the cast and crew of Parks and Recreation, although Poehler also pointed out it gave them additional time to go back and re-edit episodes or shoot and add new material.
=== Music ===
The producers hired BMI as music consultants to find a theme song. With less than three weeks until the show first aired, BMI sent out a mass e-mail to a slew of composers, giving them five days to submit an entry. According to the terms of the submission request, the only compensated composer would be the winner, who would receive $7,500 in exchange for the release of all rights to NBC. The winning entry was written by Gaby Moreno and Vincent Jones. Michael Schur said this theme song was chosen because producers wanted something that would immediately make the viewer associate the music with the series and the characters. He said Moreno and Jones' song "does a really good job of explaining what the town is like. (The) credits do a really good job of establishing it's just sort of a normal, every-day town in the middle of the country." Due to its realistic mockumentary-style cinematography technique, Parks and Recreation does not use composed background music.
Several songs were written for the show to be performed by Chris Pratt's character, Andy Dwyer, and his band within the show, Mouse Rat. Pratt sings and plays guitar in the band himself, while the drums are played by Mark Rivers, the guitar by Andrew Burlinson, and the bass guitar by Alan Yang, a screenwriter with the show. Rivers also wrote most of the music performed by Mouse Rat.
Pratt and the other band members played live during filming of the episode, rather than being pre-recorded and dubbed later. One song featured in "Rock Show", called "The Pit", chronicles Andy's experience falling into a construction pit and breaking his legs. Pratt wrote "Ann", a ballad about Ann Perkins, featured in the episode "Boys' Club". Schur wrote the lyrics to "November", a song featured in "The Master Plan" about April Ludgate. In the episode "Woman of the Year", Andy claims every song he writes includes either the lyrics, "Spread your wings and fly", or "You deserve to be a champion." As a result of that joke, every Mouse Rat song featured in the series since then has included one of those two lyrics. In the episode "Telethon", Andy plays the song "Sex Hair", about how one can tell whether someone has had sex because their hair is matted. In "Li'l Sebastian", Andy performs a tribute song called "5,000 Candles in the Wind", so-called because Leslie asks him to write a song like "Candle in the Wind" by Elton John, only 5,000 times better. The song was performed by the show's cast in the 2020 reunion special.
==== The Awesome Album ====
A Mouse Rat album, The Awesome Album, was released by Dualtone Records and Entertainment 720 (a fictional company within the show, created by Tom Haverford) on vinyl, CD, cassette, and digital download on August 27, 2021. The album was announced with the release of two singles: "The Pit" (from the season 1 finale, "Rock Show") and "Two Birds Holding Hands" (from the season 3 episode, "Andy and April's Fancy Party"). The album features guest vocals from Nick Offerman as Ron Swanson and Jeff Tweedy as Scott Tanner. Pratt stated on Rob Lowe's podcast Parks and Recollection that he was not involved with the project or its promotion. On the weekly Billboard charts, The Awesome Album debuted at number 2 on Comedy Albums, number 11 on Heatseekers Albums, and number 17 on Top Album Sales.
== Broadcast ==
Parks and Recreation was broadcast in the 8:30 pm timeslot Thursdays on NBC, in the United States, during its first two seasons, as part of the network's Comedy Night Done Right line-up. It was moved to a 9:30 pm timeslot during its third season, where it premiered as a mid-season replacement. In September 2011, the show returned to its original 8:30 pm timeslot for the fourth season. In 2012, the fifth season moved back to 9:30 pm on Thursdays.
=== International ===
In Australia, Parks and Recreation aired on Channel Seven's digital channel, 7mate. In Canada, the series was simsubbed in most areas on City. In India, it airs on Zee Café. In the Philippines, it airs on Jack TV. In South Africa, the show airs on Pay-TV operator M-Net. In the UK, the show began airing on BBC Four in 2013. The first three seasons aired on this channel before moving to Dave in the summer of 2015, starting with season 4.
=== Syndication ===
In March 2011, Universal Media Studios announced its intentions to sell the syndication rights to Parks and Recreation. Comedy Central, FX, and Spike were all described as possible contenders to buy the syndication rights.
Syndicated episodes have aired on multiple cable networks including NBCUniversal owned Esquire Network (after relaunching from Style) and WGN America. The pilot episode also served as the first official broadcast of FX sister network, FXX, when it launched on September 2, 2013, followed by an all-day marathon, marking the first time the NBC comedy appeared off-network. The series debuted on Comedy Central in the United States on January 21, 2019, and select episodes were available to stream on their website and app. Comedy Central has the rights to air Parks and Recreation through 2024. In June 2020, the show also began airing on IFC in the United States, which they had the rights to until 2024.
=== Streaming ===
By 2018, Parks and Recreation was available for streaming on Hulu, Netflix, and Amazon Prime Video. Viewership on Hulu increased by 32% in 2017 over the previous year. According to Nielsen data, Parks and Recreation was one of the ten most-streamed shows on Netflix in 2018 based on time spent watching. Analytics from Jumpshot measured Parks and Recreation as the show with the third most views for 2018.
In September 2019, it was announced that Parks and Recreation would leave those services for Peacock, NBCUniversal's then-forthcoming streaming service, in October 2020. Variety reported the streaming deal was worth nine figures. A limited number of rotating episodes were also available through the Comedy Central app and website.
=== 2020 special episode ===
In April 2020, amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, NBC announced they would air a new, special episode of the series, centered on Leslie trying to stay connected with the other current and former residents of Pawnee during social distancing. The series' cast returned for the special, which benefited Feeding America's COVID-19 response. The special episode aired on April 30, 2020.
According to Schur, the special took about three weeks to complete. Morgan Sackett, who previously directed episodes of the series, was asked to direct, and many of the original writers on the series (including Megan Amram, Dave King, Joe Mande, Aisha Muharrar, Matt Murray, and Jen Statsky) created the script in three days. The cast members were sent camera rigs and iPhones to record their parts, taking four days to do so. The visual effects team from the series The Good Place (also created by Schur) provided visual effects on the special to help "make it look like not everyone was just sitting alone in their houses staring at their computers".
== Reception ==
=== Critical response ===
The first season of Parks and Recreation started to receive criticism before the premiere episode aired. According to a March 18, 2009, report that was leaked to writer Nikki Finke, focus groups responded poorly to a rough-cut version of the pilot. Many focus group members felt the show was a "carbon copy" of The Office. Some found it predictable, slow-paced, and lacking in character development; others said the show lacked strong male characters, particularly a "datable" lead. Schur insisted the pilot had been completely re-edited at least four times since the focus groups described in the report were held. Nevertheless, the early feedback left many critics and industry observers skeptical about the show's chances of success.
After it aired, the first season received generally mixed reviews; it holds a Metacritic score of 58 out of 100. Many critics said the series was too similar to The Office, and several commentators said Knope too closely resembled Michael Scott, the dimwitted protagonist of The Office. Some critics said the show's characters and overall tone were too mean-spirited in the early episodes, and although reviewers praised various cast members in individual episodes, some said the supporting characters in general needed to be more fully developed and provided with better material. The season finale "Rock Show" received far better reviews, with several commentators declaring that Parks and Recreation had finally found the right tone both generally and for the Leslie Knope character in particular.
Season two was better received and holds a Metacritic score of 71 out 100, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Several publications declared it among the best shows of 2009 including the Los Angeles Times, the Chicago Tribune, Time, Entertainment Weekly, GQ, New York magazine, The Star-Ledger, the San Francisco Chronicle, the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Paste magazine, IGN, and TV Squad. Several reviewers called the second season one of the most impressive comebacks in television history. Some reviewers said the supporting cast was now working with better material and that Amy Poehler's character had improved and become less over-the-top and more human than in the first season. Others praised the decision to drop subplots from season one that risked becoming stale, like Leslie's long-standing crush on Mark, as well as the decision to fill in the pit during the second season, which some commentators said freed the show up for more stories and better scripts.
The critical acclaim continued into the third season, which holds a Metacritic score of 83 out of 100, indicating "universal acclaim". Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club said although he considered Parks and Recreation the funniest sitcom on television during its second season, "it somehow got even better" during the third. Henry Hanks of CNN called it "a near-flawless season". In TIME magazine's 2012 year-end top 10 lists, Parks and Recreation was named the top TV series.
Parks and Recreation featured on the February 11, 2011, cover of Entertainment Weekly, which called it, "the smartest comedy on TV." The magazine included an article called "101 Reasons to Love Parks and Recreation."
Poehler said the first season struggled in part due to extremely high expectations from comparisons to The Office. After the first season ended, she said, "I think it was something we had to work through in the beginning, and I'm kind of hoping we're on the other side of that and people will start to judge the show on its own, for what it is and realize it's just a completely different world in a similar style." Likewise, Schur said he believed much of the early criticism stemmed from the fact audiences were not yet familiar with the characters, and he thought viewers who revisited the episodes would enjoy them more with a better understanding of the characters.
Poehler received wide praise for her performance from the beginning of the series; several reviewers, even those who did not enjoy the show, said her talent, timing and likability helped elevate the series above some of its flaws. Daniel Carlson of The Hollywood Reporter, who felt the season needed some time to mature, wrote that Poehler was its strongest element and that "she proves instantly she's got the comic intelligence to carry a series like this one".
Offerman received particularly strong praise for his minimalist and understated performance as Ron Swanson, whom many considered the show's breakout character. Steve Heisler of GQ magazine wrote that Offerman's role as Ron Swanson was a major part of the show's "creative resurgence". By the end of the second season, the character had taken on a cult status; Jonah Weiner of Slate magazine declared Swanson "Parks and Recreation's secret weapon".
Plaza's portrayal of April received critical praise, and April was considered a breakout character. The New York Times said that "all the characters were funny and well imagined, but Aubrey Plaza was particularly memorable as April". On the character's cultural impact, Vanity Fair regarded April as "an avatar for millennial jadedness and skepticism". The Daily Beast wrote that Plaza was "one of the greatest elements" of the series, and beyond comedic delivery she also brought "pathos" to the character.
Reviewers also consistently praised the performances by supporting actors Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford and Chris Pratt as Andy Dwyer. Jonah Weiner of Slate said he did not enjoy the first season, but that "the brightest spot was Aziz Ansari as Leslie's subordinate Tom Haverford. In Ansari's hands, Tom came wickedly alive as a faux player". Scott Meslow of The Atlantic said Ansari "has somehow found a way to make Tom petulant, sexist, and materialistic without ever being unlikable". New York magazine writer Steve Kandell said, along with Ron Swanson, Andy Dwyer usually steals the episodes he appears in.
=== Cultural and political impact ===
In 2019, Parks and Recreation was ranked 54th on The Guardian's list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century. Vox and the Rolling Stone both named Parks and Recreation as the television show that "defined" the cultural zeitgeist of the Obama Presidency.
Alan Sepinwall wrote in Rolling Stone:
Few series in recent memory have been as clearly tied to a moment—and, specifically, a presidential administration—as Parks and Rec. The show's belief in the power of government to make people's lives better—and, more broadly, in the obligation members of a community (be they friends, family, or, as Ron Swanson once put it, "workplace proximity associates") have to help one another in times of need—made it the standard-bearer for the hopefulness of the Obama era.
The conservative political magazine National Review argued:
Even television shows that are legitimately funny, such as NBC's Parks and Recreation, are designed to flatter the sensibilities of those in charge. In Parks and Rec, self-proclaimed nerds and wonks have adopted liberal bureaucratic functionary and occasional elected official Leslie Knope (Amy Poehler) as one of their own. Her overeager chirpiness and her constant ability to one-up her hyper-libertarian boss mark her as a role model for those who believe that government is a force for good rather than a necessary evil.
U.S. News & World Report commented on the series finale:
Parks and Recreation never lost the Obama-like belief in government powered by goodwill and consensus. But the obstructionism of the Obama years made this vision seem fantastical, stoking a desire for hardheaded partisans who would get things done.
Time magazine's television critic James Poniewozik argued:
Parks became network TV's best and brightest sitcom by embodying the slogan that all politics is local....But there's a big idea in Parks' small-scale vision. In the frame of today's politics, it might be a liberal notion, but it's one that for much of the 20th century was centrist, and even championed by Republicans like park lover Teddy Roosevelt: that we need government to do things the private sector can't or won't, like preserving public spaces.... Parks argues not only that we need our neighbors' help but that helping makes us better ourselves; it's in the small-town, populist tradition of Friday Night Lights and It's a Wonderful Life.
=== Ratings ===
Parks and Recreation struggled in the Nielsen ratings throughout its entire run on NBC. The series premiere was seen by 6.88 million viewers, which media outlets described as a strong opening, comparable to the average Nielsen ratings for 30 Rock, another Thursday-night show on NBC. Viewership declined every week over the rest of the season, culminating in a season low of 4.29 million viewers for the final episode. Parks and Recreation ended the first season with an overall average rating of 5.97 million viewers, ranking 94th in a list of 193 network shows for the 2008–09 television season. Low viewership presented a greater challenge for Parks and Recreation because NBC now trailed CBS, ABC, and Fox in the ratings, and the move of comedian Jay Leno from The Tonight Show to a variety show in NBC's 10:00 pm weeknight slot left less room on the network's primetime schedule. At the end of the season, members of the cast and crew were stressed because they did not know whether the show would be renewed.
Although Parks and Recreation achieved critical success during the second season, the show continued to suffer in the ratings. By December 2009, the average episode viewership was 5.3 million viewers, which was lower than the average ratings for other Thursday-night NBC comedy shows like Community's 6.5 million viewers, 30 Rock's 7.3 million, and The Office's 10.1 million. For the overall second season, Parks and Recreation had an overall average viewership of 4.6 million viewers, making it the 108th ranked network series for the 2009–10 season. The poor ratings continued into the third season, which ended with an overall average rating of 5.1 million viewers, the 116th ranked network series of the 2010–11 television season. Michael Schur partially attributed the continually low viewership to a decline in ratings for NBC in general, as well as changing viewer trends due to a large number of available channels.
Despite the generally low ratings, Parks and Recreation was renewed for a sixth season on May 9, 2013. NBC had a financial incentive to continue the series, as it owns the distribution rights via its NBCUniversal Television Distribution company: the sixth season put the series over the 100 episodes milestone, making it more viable for syndication.
=== Season 1–4 ===
=== Season 5–Special ===
=== Accolades ===
In 2010, Amy Poehler was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for her work in the second season. Also that year, Parks and Recreation was nominated for the Television Critics Association Award for Outstanding Achievement in Comedy and Individual Achievement in Comedy for Nick Offerman for his work in the second season. The second-season premiere episode, "Pawnee Zoo", won the GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Individual Episode (in a Series without a Regular LGBT Character). Also in 2010, Parks and Recreation received two nominations from Entertainment Weekly's EWwy Awards: Best Comedy Series and Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series for Offerman.
In 2011, Parks and Recreation was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series and Amy Poehler received her second Emmy nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series. In June 2011, Parks and Recreation was nominated for three awards for the inaugural Critics' Choice Television Awards: Best Comedy Series, Best Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for Poehler, and Best Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series for Nick Offerman. Also that month, Parks and Recreation was nominated for four TCA Awards: Program of the Year, Outstanding Achievement in Comedy, and Individual Achievement in Comedy for Offerman and Poehler. Offerman hosted the TCA Awards ceremony that year. In 2012, the series received a Peabody Award. In January 2014, Poehler won her first Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Television Series Comedy.
== Home media ==
The first season of Parks and Recreation was released on DVD in region 1 on September 8, 2009. The DVD included all six episodes, as well as an "Extended Producer's Cut" of the season finale, "Rock Show". The disc also included cast and crew commentary tracks for each episode, as well as about 30 minutes of deleted scenes. The second season was released in a four-disc set in region 1 on November 30, 2010. They included extended episodes for "The Master Plan" and "Freddy Spaghetti", as well as two-and-a-half hours of deleted scenes, a third season preview, and additional video clips. Audio commentaries were recorded for the episodes "Sister City", "Ron and Tammy", "Hunting Trip", "Woman of the Year", "The Master Plan" and "Freddy Spaghetti". The Blu-ray version of the complete series was released from Universal Pictures Home Entertainment on June 15, 2021.
== Potential revival ==
In March 2019, during the tenth anniversary reunion at PaleyFest, the cast confirmed they would return for a revival of the series, if series creator Michael Schur "came up with an original, new idea". Schur stated, "I would never ever say never. The chance to do it again, should it arise, would be incredible, but we would only do it if we all felt like there was something compelling us to do it. If one single person said no, we wouldn't do it."
=== Special ===
In April 2020, the cast reprised their roles for a special episode that was created during the COVID-19 pandemic. It first aired on NBC and raised funds for Feeding America.
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
O'Heir, Jim (2024). Welcome to Pawnee: Stories of Friendship, Waffles, and Parks and Recreation (First hardcover ed.). New York: William Morrow. ISBN 9780063293502. OCLC 1438693340.
== External links ==
Official website
Parks and Recreation at NBC.com (2016 archive)
Parks and Recreation at IMDb
Parks and Recreation at epguides.com |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_recognition_system | Facial recognition system | A facial recognition system is a technology potentially capable of matching a human face from a digital image or a video frame against a database of faces. Such a system is typically employed to authenticate users through ID verification services, and works by pinpointing and measuring facial features from a given image.
Development on similar systems began in the 1960s as a form of computer application. Since their inception, facial recognition systems have seen wider uses in recent times on smartphones and in other forms of technology, such as robotics. Because computerized facial recognition involves the measurement of a human's physiological characteristics, facial recognition systems are categorized as biometrics. Although the accuracy of facial recognition systems as a biometric technology is lower than iris recognition, fingerprint image acquisition, palm recognition or voice recognition, it is widely adopted due to its contactless process. Facial recognition systems have been deployed in advanced human–computer interaction, video surveillance, law enforcement, passenger screening, decisions on employment and housing, and automatic indexing of images.
Facial recognition systems are employed throughout the world today by governments and private companies. Their effectiveness varies, and some systems have previously been scrapped because of their ineffectiveness. The use of facial recognition systems has also raised controversy, with claims that the systems violate citizens' privacy, commonly make incorrect identifications, encourage gender norms and racial profiling, and do not protect important biometric data. The appearance of synthetic media such as deepfakes has also raised concerns about its security. These claims have led to the ban of facial recognition systems in several cities in the United States. Growing societal concerns led social networking company Meta Platforms to shut down its Facebook facial recognition system in 2021, deleting the face-scan data of more than one billion users. The change represented one of the largest shifts in facial recognition usage in the technology's history. IBM also stopped offering facial recognition technology due to similar concerns.
== History of facial recognition technology ==
Automated facial recognition was pioneered in the 1960s by Woody Bledsoe, Helen Chan Wolf, and Charles Bisson, whose work focused on teaching computers to recognize human faces. Their early facial recognition project was dubbed "man-machine" because a human first needed to establish the coordinates of facial features in a photograph before they could be used by a computer for recognition. Using a graphics tablet, a human would pinpoint facial features coordinates, such as the pupil centers, the inside and outside corners of eyes, and the widows peak in the hairline. The coordinates were used to calculate 20 individual distances, including the width of the mouth and of the eyes. A human could process about 40 pictures an hour, building a database of these computed distances. A computer would then automatically compare the distances for each photograph, calculate the difference between the distances, and return the closed records as a possible match.
In 1970, Takeo Kanade publicly demonstrated a face-matching system that located anatomical features such as the chin and calculated the distance ratio between facial features without human intervention. Later tests revealed that the system could not always reliably identify facial features. Nonetheless, interest in the subject grew and in 1977 Kanade published the first detailed book on facial recognition technology.
In 1993, the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) and the Army Research Laboratory (ARL) established the face recognition technology program FERET to develop "automatic face recognition capabilities" that could be employed in a productive real life environment "to assist security, intelligence, and law enforcement personnel in the performance of their duties." Face recognition systems that had been trialled in research labs were evaluated. The FERET tests found that while the performance of existing automated facial recognition systems varied, a handful of existing methods could viably be used to recognize faces in still images taken in a controlled environment. The FERET tests spawned three US companies that sold automated facial recognition systems. Vision Corporation and Miros Inc were founded in 1994, by researchers who used the results of the FERET tests as a selling point. Viisage Technology was established by an identification card defense contractor in 1996 to commercially exploit the rights to the facial recognition algorithm developed by Alex Pentland at MIT.
Following the 1993 FERET face-recognition vendor test, the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) offices in West Virginia and New Mexico became the first DMV offices to use automated facial recognition systems to prevent people from obtaining multiple driving licenses using different names. Driver's licenses in the United States were at that point a commonly accepted form of photo identification. DMV offices across the United States were undergoing a technological upgrade and were in the process of establishing databases of digital ID photographs. This enabled DMV offices to deploy the facial recognition systems on the market to search photographs for new driving licenses against the existing DMV database. DMV offices became one of the first major markets for automated facial recognition technology and introduced US citizens to facial recognition as a standard method of identification. The increase of the US prison population in the 1990s prompted U.S. states to established connected and automated identification systems that incorporated digital biometric databases, in some instances this included facial recognition. In 1999, Minnesota incorporated the facial recognition system FaceIT by Visionics into a mug shot booking system that allowed police, judges and court officers to track criminals across the state.
Until the 1990s, facial recognition systems were developed primarily by using photographic portraits of human faces. Research on face recognition to reliably locate a face in an image that contains other objects gained traction in the early 1990s with the principal component analysis (PCA). The PCA method of face detection is also known as Eigenface and was developed by Matthew Turk and Alex Pentland. Turk and Pentland combined the conceptual approach of the Karhunen–Loève theorem and factor analysis, to develop a linear model. Eigenfaces are determined based on global and orthogonal features in human faces. A human face is calculated as a weighted combination of a number of Eigenfaces. Because few Eigenfaces were used to encode human faces of a given population, Turk and Pentland's PCA face detection method greatly reduced the amount of data that had to be processed to detect a face. Pentland in 1994 defined Eigenface features, including eigen eyes, eigen mouths and eigen noses, to advance the use of PCA in facial recognition. In 1997, the PCA Eigenface method of face recognition was improved upon using linear discriminant analysis (LDA) to produce Fisherfaces. LDA Fisherfaces became dominantly used in PCA feature based face recognition. While Eigenfaces were also used for face reconstruction. In these approaches no global structure of the face is calculated which links the facial features or parts.
Purely feature based approaches to facial recognition were overtaken in the late 1990s by the Bochum system, which used Gabor filter to record the face features and computed a grid of the face structure to link the features. Christoph von der Malsburg and his research team at the University of Bochum developed Elastic Bunch Graph Matching in the mid-1990s to extract a face out of an image using skin segmentation. By 1997, the face detection method developed by Malsburg outperformed most other facial detection systems on the market. The so-called "Bochum system" of face detection was sold commercially on the market as ZN-Face to operators of airports and other busy locations. The software was "robust enough to make identifications from less-than-perfect face views. It can also often see through such impediments to identification as mustaches, beards, changed hairstyles and glasses—even sunglasses".
Real-time face detection in video footage became possible in 2001 with the Viola–Jones object detection framework for faces. Paul Viola and Michael Jones combined their face detection method with the Haar-like feature approach to object recognition in digital images to launch AdaBoost, the first real-time frontal-view face detector. By 2015, the Viola–Jones algorithm had been implemented using small low power detectors on handheld devices and embedded systems. Therefore, the Viola–Jones algorithm has not only broadened the practical application of face recognition systems but has also been used to support new features in user interfaces and teleconferencing.
Ukraine is using the US-based Clearview AI facial recognition software to identify dead Russian soldiers. Ukraine has conducted 8,600 searches and identified the families of 582 deceased Russian soldiers. The IT volunteer section of the Ukrainian army using the software is subsequently contacting the families of the deceased soldiers to raise awareness of Russian activities in Ukraine. The main goal is to destabilise the Russian government. It can be seen as a form of psychological warfare. About 340 Ukrainian government officials in five government ministries are using the technology. It is used to catch spies that might try to enter Ukraine.
Clearview AI's facial recognition database is only available to government agencies who may only use the technology to assist in the course of law enforcement investigations or in connection with national security.
The software was donated to Ukraine by Clearview AI. Russia is thought to be using it to find anti-war activists. Clearview AI was originally designed for US law enforcement. Using it in war raises new ethical concerns. One London based surveillance expert, Stephen Hare, is concerned it might make the Ukrainians appear inhuman: "Is it actually working? Or is it making [Russians] say: 'Look at these lawless, cruel Ukrainians, doing this to our boys'?"
== Techniques for face recognition ==
While humans can recognize faces without much effort, facial recognition is a challenging pattern recognition problem in computing. Facial recognition systems attempt to identify a human face, which is three-dimensional and changes in appearance with lighting and facial expression, based on its two-dimensional image. To accomplish this computational task, facial recognition systems perform four steps. First face detection is used to segment the face from the image background. In the second step the segmented face image is aligned to account for face pose, image size and photographic properties, such as illumination and grayscale. The purpose of the alignment process is to enable the accurate localization of facial features in the third step, the facial feature extraction. Features such as eyes, nose and mouth are pinpointed and measured in the image to represent the face. The so established feature vector of the face is then, in the fourth step, matched against a database of faces.
=== Traditional ===
Some face recognition algorithms identify facial features by extracting landmarks, or features, from an image of the subject's face. For example, an algorithm may analyze the relative position, size, and/or shape of the eyes, nose, cheekbones, and jaw. These features are then used to search for other images with matching features.
Other algorithms normalize a gallery of face images and then compress the face data, only saving the data in the image that is useful for face recognition. A probe image is then compared with the face data. One of the earliest successful systems is based on template matching techniques applied to a set of salient facial features, providing a sort of compressed face representation.
Recognition algorithms can be divided into two main approaches: geometric, which looks at distinguishing features, or photo-metric, which is a statistical approach that distills an image into values and compares the values with templates to eliminate variances. Some classify these algorithms into two broad categories: holistic and feature-based models. The former attempts to recognize the face in its entirety while the feature-based subdivide into components such as according to features and analyze each as well as its spatial location with respect to other features.
Popular recognition algorithms include principal component analysis using eigenfaces, linear discriminant analysis, elastic bunch graph matching using the Fisherface algorithm, the hidden Markov model, the multilinear subspace learning using tensor representation, and the neuronal motivated dynamic link matching. Modern facial recognition systems make increasing use of machine learning techniques such as deep learning.
=== Human identification at a distance (HID) ===
To enable human identification at a distance (HID) low-resolution images of faces are enhanced using face hallucination. In CCTV imagery faces are often very small. But because facial recognition algorithms that identify and plot facial features require high resolution images, resolution enhancement techniques have been developed to enable facial recognition systems to work with imagery that has been captured in environments with a high signal-to-noise ratio. Face hallucination algorithms that are applied to images prior to those images being submitted to the facial recognition system use example-based machine learning with pixel substitution or nearest neighbour distribution indexes that may also incorporate demographic and age related facial characteristics. Use of face hallucination techniques improves the performance of high resolution facial recognition algorithms and may be used to overcome the inherent limitations of super-resolution algorithms. Face hallucination techniques are also used to pre-treat imagery where faces are disguised. Here the disguise, such as sunglasses, is removed and the face hallucination algorithm is applied to the image. Such face hallucination algorithms need to be trained on similar face images with and without disguise. To fill in the area uncovered by removing the disguise, face hallucination algorithms need to correctly map the entire state of the face, which may be not possible due to the momentary facial expression captured in the low resolution image.
=== 3-dimensional recognition ===
Three-dimensional face recognition technique uses 3D sensors to capture information about the shape of a face. This information is then used to identify distinctive features on the surface of a face, such as the contour of the eye sockets, nose, and chin.
One advantage of 3D face recognition is that it is not affected by changes in lighting like other techniques. It can also identify a face from a range of viewing angles, including a profile view. Three-dimensional data points from a face vastly improve the precision of face recognition. 3D-dimensional face recognition research is enabled by the development of sophisticated sensors that project structured light onto the face. 3D matching technique are sensitive to expressions, therefore researchers at Technion applied tools from metric geometry to treat expressions as isometries. A new method of capturing 3D images of faces uses three tracking cameras that point at different angles; one camera will be pointing at the front of the subject, second one to the side, and third one at an angle. All these cameras will work together so it can track a subject's face in real-time and be able to face detect and recognize.
=== Thermal cameras ===
A different form of taking input data for face recognition is by using thermal cameras, by this procedure the cameras will only detect the shape of the head and it will ignore the subject accessories such as glasses, hats, or makeup. Unlike conventional cameras, thermal cameras can capture facial imagery even in low-light and nighttime conditions without using a flash and exposing the position of the camera. However, the databases for face recognition are limited. Efforts to build databases of thermal face images date back to 2004. By 2016, several databases existed, including the IIITD-PSE and the Notre Dame thermal face database. Current thermal face recognition systems are not able to reliably detect a face in a thermal image that has been taken of an outdoor environment.
In 2018, researchers from the U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL) developed a technique that would allow them to match facial imagery obtained using a thermal camera with those in databases that were captured using a conventional camera. Known as a cross-spectrum synthesis method due to how it bridges facial recognition from two different imaging modalities, this method synthesize a single image by analyzing multiple facial regions and details. It consists of a non-linear regression model that maps a specific thermal image into a corresponding visible facial image and an optimization issue that projects the latent projection back into the image space. ARL scientists have noted that the approach works by combining global information (i.e. features across the entire face) with local information (i.e. features regarding the eyes, nose, and mouth). According to performance tests conducted at ARL, the multi-region cross-spectrum synthesis model demonstrated a performance improvement of about 30% over baseline methods and about 5% over state-of-the-art methods.
== Application ==
=== Social media ===
Founded in 2013, Looksery went on to raise money for its face modification app on Kickstarter. After successful crowdfunding, Looksery launched in October 2014. The application allows video chat with others through a special filter for faces that modifies the look of users. Image augmenting applications already on the market, such as Facetune and Perfect365, were limited to static images, whereas Looksery allowed augmented reality to live videos. In late 2015 SnapChat purchased Looksery, which would then become its landmark lenses function. Snapchat filter applications use face detection technology and on the basis of the facial features identified in an image a 3D mesh mask is layered over the face. A variety of technologies attempt to fool facial recognition software by the use of anti-facial recognition masks.
DeepFace is a deep learning facial recognition system created by a research group at Facebook. It identifies human faces in digital images. It employs a nine-layer neural net with over 120 million connection weights, and was trained on four million images uploaded by Facebook users. The system is said to be 97% accurate, compared to 85% for the FBI's Next Generation Identification system.
TikTok's algorithm has been regarded as especially effective, but many were left to wonder at the exact programming that caused the app to be so effective in guessing the user's desired content. In June 2020, TikTok released a statement regarding the "For You" page, and how they recommended videos to users, which did not include facial recognition. In February 2021, however, TikTok agreed to a $92 million settlement to a US lawsuit which alleged that the app had used facial recognition in both user videos and its algorithm to identify age, gender and ethnicity.
=== ID verification ===
The emerging use of facial recognition is in the use of ID verification services. Many companies and others are working in the market now to provide these services to banks, ICOs, and other e-businesses. Face recognition has been leveraged as a form of biometric authentication for various computing platforms and devices; Android 4.0 "Ice Cream Sandwich" added facial recognition using a smartphone's front camera as a means of unlocking devices, while Microsoft introduced face recognition login to its Xbox 360 video game console through its Kinect accessory, as well as Windows 10 via its "Windows Hello" platform (which requires an infrared-illuminated camera). In 2017, Apple's iPhone X smartphone introduced facial recognition to the product line with its "Face ID" platform, which uses an infrared illumination system.
==== Face ID ====
Apple introduced Face ID on the flagship iPhone X as a biometric authentication successor to the Touch ID, a fingerprint based system. Face ID has a facial recognition sensor that consists of two parts: a "Romeo" module that projects more than 30,000 infrared dots onto the user's face, and a "Juliet" module that reads the pattern. The pattern is sent to a local "Secure Enclave" in the device's central processing unit (CPU) to confirm a match with the phone owner's face.
The facial pattern is not accessible by Apple. The system will not work with eyes closed, in an effort to prevent unauthorized access. The technology learns from changes in a user's appearance, and therefore works with hats, scarves, glasses, and many sunglasses, beard and makeup. It also works in the dark. This is done by using a "Flood Illuminator", which is a dedicated infrared flash that throws out invisible infrared light onto the user's face to get a 2d picture in addition to the 30,000 facial points.
=== Healthcare ===
Facial recognition algorithms can help in diagnosing some diseases using specific features on the nose, cheeks and other part of the human face. Relying on developed data sets, machine learning has been used to identify genetic abnormalities just based on facial dimensions. FRT has also been used to verify patients before surgery procedures.
In March, 2022 according to a publication by Forbes, FDNA, an AI development company claimed that in the space of 10 years, they have worked with geneticists to develop a database of about 5,000 diseases and 1500 of them can be detected with facial recognition algorithms.
=== Deployment of FRT for availing government services ===
==== India ====
In an interview, the National Health Authority chief Dr. R.S. Sharma said that facial recognition technology would be used in conjunction with Aadhaar to authenticate the identity of people seeking vaccines. Ten human rights and digital rights organizations and more than 150 individuals signed a statement by the Internet Freedom Foundation that raised alarm against the deployment of facial recognition technology in the central government's vaccination drive process. Implementation of an error-prone system without adequate legislation containing mandatory safeguards, would deprive citizens of essential services and linking this untested technology to the vaccination roll-out in India will only exclude persons from the vaccine delivery system.
In July, 2021, a press release by the Government of Meghalaya stated that facial recognition technology (FRT) would be used to verify the identity of pensioners to issue a Digital Life Certificate using "Pensioner's Life Certification Verification" mobile application. The notice, according to the press release, purports to offer pensioners "a secure, easy and hassle-free interface for verifying their liveness to the Pension Disbursing Authorities from the comfort of their homes using smart phones". Mr. Jade Jeremiah Lyngdoh, a law student, sent a legal notice to the relevant authorities highlighting that "The application has been rolled out without any anchoring legislation which governs the processing of personal data and thus, lacks lawfulness and the Government is not empowered to process data."
=== Deployment in security services ===
==== Commonwealth ====
The Australian Border Force and New Zealand Customs Service have set up an automated border processing system called SmartGate that uses face recognition, which compares the face of the traveller with the data in the e-passport microchip. All Canadian international airports use facial recognition as part of the Primary Inspection Kiosk program that compares a traveler face to their photo stored on the ePassport. This program first came to Vancouver International Airport in early 2017 and was rolled up to all remaining international airports in 2018–2019.
Police forces in the United Kingdom have been trialing live facial recognition technology at public events since 2015. In May 2017, a man was arrested using an automatic facial recognition (AFR) system mounted on a van operated by the South Wales Police. Ars Technica reported that "this appears to be the first time [AFR] has led to an arrest". However, a 2018 report by Big Brother Watch found that these systems were up to 98% inaccurate. The report also revealed that two UK police forces, South Wales Police and the Metropolitan Police, were using live facial recognition at public events and in public spaces.
In September 2019, South Wales Police use of facial recognition was ruled lawful. Live facial recognition has been trialled since 2016 in the streets of London and will be used on a regular basis from Metropolitan Police from beginning of 2020. In August 2020 the Court of Appeal ruled that the way the facial recognition system had been used by the South Wales Police in 2017 and 2018 violated human rights.
However, by 2024 the Metropolitan Police were using the technique with a database of 16,000 suspects, leading to over 360 arrests, including rapists and someone wanted for grievous bodily harm for 8 years. They claim a false positive rate of only 1 in 6,000. The photos of those not identified by the system are deleted immediately.
==== United States ====
The U.S. Department of State operates one of the largest face recognition systems in the world with a database of 117 million American adults, with photos typically drawn from driver's license photos. Although it is still far from completion, it is being put to use in certain cities to give clues as to who was in the photo. The FBI uses the photos as an investigative tool, not for positive identification. As of 2016, facial recognition was being used to identify people in photos taken by police in San Diego and Los Angeles (not on real-time video, and only against booking photos) and use was planned in West Virginia and Dallas.
In recent years Maryland has used face recognition by comparing people's faces to their driver's license photos. The system drew controversy when it was used in Baltimore to arrest unruly protesters after the death of Freddie Gray in police custody. Many other states are using or developing a similar system however some states have laws prohibiting its use.
The FBI has also instituted its Next Generation Identification program to include face recognition, as well as more traditional biometrics like fingerprints and iris scans, which can pull from both criminal and civil databases. The federal Government Accountability Office criticized the FBI for not addressing various concerns related to privacy and accuracy.
Starting in 2018, U.S. Customs and Border Protection deployed "biometric face scanners" at U.S. airports. Passengers taking outbound international flights can complete the check-in, security and the boarding process after getting facial images captured and verified by matching their ID photos stored on CBP's database. Images captured for travelers with U.S. citizenship will be deleted within up to 12-hours. The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) had expressed its intention to adopt a similar program for domestic air travel during the security check process in the future. The American Civil Liberties Union is one of the organizations against the program, concerning that the program will be used for surveillance purposes.
In 2019, researchers reported that Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) uses facial recognition software against state driver's license databases, including for some states that provide licenses to undocumented immigrants.
In December 2022, 16 major domestic airports in the US started testing facial-recognition tech where kiosks with cameras are checking the photos on travelers' IDs to make sure that passengers are not impostors. In 2025, it was revealed that the New Orleans Police Department had rolled out what the ACLU's Freed Wessler called "the first known widespread effort by police in a major US city to use AI to identify people in live camera feeds for the purpose of making immediate arrests." in defiance of a 2022 city ordinance limiting the use of the technology.
==== China ====
In 2006, the "Skynet" (天網）)Project was initiated by the Chinese government to implement CCTV surveillance nationwide and as of 2018, there have been 20 million cameras, many of which are capable of real-time facial recognition, deployed across the country for this project. Some official claim that the current Skynet system can scan the entire Chinese population in one second and the world population in two seconds.
In 2017, the Qingdao police was able to identify twenty-five wanted suspects using facial recognition equipment at the Qingdao International Beer Festival, one of which had been on the run for 10 years. The equipment works by recording a 15-second video clip and taking multiple snapshots of the subject. That data is compared and analyzed with images from the police department's database and within 20 minutes, the subject can be identified with a 98.1% accuracy.
In 2018, Chinese police in Zhengzhou and Beijing were using smart glasses to take photos which are compared against a government database using facial recognition to identify suspects, retrieve an address, and track people moving beyond their home areas.
As of late 2017, China has deployed facial recognition and artificial intelligence technology in Xinjiang. Reporters visiting the region found surveillance cameras installed every hundred meters or so in several cities, as well as facial recognition checkpoints at areas like gas stations, shopping centers, and mosque entrances. In May 2019, Human Rights Watch reported finding Face++ code in the Integrated Joint Operations Platform (IJOP), a police surveillance app used to collect data on, and track the Uighur community in Xinjiang. Human Rights Watch released a correction to its report in June 2019 stating that the Chinese company Megvii did not appear to have collaborated on IJOP, and that the Face++ code in the app was inoperable. In February 2020, following the Coronavirus outbreak, Megvii applied for a bank loan to optimize the body temperature screening system it had launched to help identify people with symptoms of a Coronavirus infection in crowds. In the loan application Megvii stated that it needed to improve the accuracy of identifying masked individuals.
Many public places in China are implemented with facial recognition equipment, including railway stations, airports, tourist attractions, expos, and office buildings. In October 2019, a professor at Zhejiang Sci-Tech University sued the Hangzhou Safari Park for abusing private biometric information of customers. The safari park uses facial recognition technology to verify the identities of its Year Card holders. An estimated 300 tourist sites in China have installed facial recognition systems and use them to admit visitors. This case is reported to be the first on the use of facial recognition systems in China. In August 2020, Radio Free Asia reported that in 2019 Geng Guanjun, a citizen of Taiyuan City who had used the WeChat app by Tencent to forward a video to a friend in the United States was subsequently convicted on the charge of the crime "picking quarrels and provoking troubles". The Court documents showed that the Chinese police used a facial recognition system to identify Geng Guanjun as an "overseas democracy activist" and that China's network management and propaganda departments directly monitor WeChat users.
In 2019, Protestors in Hong Kong destroyed smart lampposts amid concerns they could contain cameras and facial recognition system used for surveillance by Chinese authorities. Human rights groups have criticized the Chinese government for using artificial intelligence facial recognition technology in its suppression against Uyghurs, Christians and Falun Gong practitioners.
==== India ====
Even though facial recognition technology (FRT) is not fully accurate, it is being increasingly deployed for identification purposes by the police in India. FRT systems generate a probability match score, or a confidence score between the suspect who is to be identified and the database of identified criminals that is available with the police. The National Automated Facial Recognition System (AFRS) is already being developed by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), a body constituted under the Ministry of Home Affairs. The project seeks to develop and deploy a national database of photographs which would comport with a facial recognition technology system by the central and state security agencies. The Internet Freedom Foundation has flagged concerns regarding the project. The NGO has highlighted that the accuracy of FRT systems are "routinely exaggerated and the real numbers leave much to be desired. The implementation of such faulty FRT systems would lead to high rates of false positives and false negatives in this recognition process."
Under the Supreme Court of India's decision in Justice K.S. Puttaswamy vs Union of India (22017 10 SCC 1), any justifiable intrusion by the State into people's right to privacy, which is protected as a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Constitution, must confirm to certain thresholds, namely: legality, necessity, proportionality and procedural safeguards. As per the Internet Freedom Foundation, the National Automated Facial Recognition System (AFRS) proposal fails to meet any of these thresholds, citing "absence of legality," "manifest arbitrariness," and "absence of safeguards and accountability."
While the national level AFRS project is still in the works, police departments in various states in India are already deploying facial recognition technology systems, such as: TSCOP + CCTNS in Telangana, Punjab Artificial Intelligence System (PAIS) in Punjab, Trinetra in Uttar Pradesh, Police Artificial Intelligence System in Uttarakhand, AFRS in Delhi, Automated Multimodal Biometric Identification System (AMBIS) in Maharashtra, FaceTagr in Tamil Nadu. The Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and Systems (CCTNS), which is a Mission Mode Project under the National e-Governance Plan (NeGP), is viewed as a system which would connect police stations across India, and help them "talk" to each other. The project's objective is to digitize all FIR-related information, including FIRs registered, as well as cases investigated, charge sheets filed, and suspects and wanted persons in all police stations. This shall constitute a national database of crime and criminals in India. CCTNS is being implemented without a data protection law in place. CCTNS is proposed to be integrated with the AFRS, a repository of all crime and criminal related facial data which can be deployed to purportedly identify or verify a person from a variety of inputs ranging from images to videos. This has raised privacy concerns from civil society organizations and privacy experts. Both the projects have been censured as instruments of "mass surveillance" at the hands of the state. In Rajasthan, 'RajCop,' a police app has been recently integrated with a facial recognition module which can match the face of a suspect against a database of known persons in real-time. Rajasthan police is in currently working to widen the ambit of this module by making it mandatory to upload photographs of all arrested persons in CCTNS database, which will "help develop a rich database of known offenders."
Helmets fixed with camera have been designed and being used by Rajasthan police in law and order situations to capture police action and activities of "the miscreants, which can later serve as evidence during the investigation of such cases." PAIS (Punjab Artificial Intelligence System), App employs deep learning, machine learning, and face recognition for the identification of criminals to assist police personnel. The state of Telangana has installed 8 lakh CCTV cameras, with its capital city Hyderabad slowly turning into a surveillance capital.
A false positive happens when facial recognition technology misidentifies a person to be someone they are not, that is, it yields an incorrect positive result. They often results in discrimination and strengthening of existing biases. For example, in 2018, Delhi Police reported that its FRT system had an accuracy rate of 2%, which sank to 1% in 2019. The FRT system even failed to distinguish accurately between different sexes.
The government of Delhi in collaboration with Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is developing a new technology called Crime Mapping Analytics and Predictive System (CMAPS). The project aims to deploy space technology for "controlling crime and maintaining law and order." The system will be connected to a database containing data of criminals. The technology is envisaged to be deployed to collect real-time data at the crime scene.
In a reply dated November 25, 2020 to a Right to Information request filed by the Internet Freedom Foundation seeking information about the facial recognition system being used by the Delhi Police (with reference number DEPOL/R/E/20/07128), the Office of the Deputy Commissioner of Police cum Public Information Officer: Crime stated that they cannot provide the information under section 8(d) of the Right to Information Act, 2005.
A Right to Information (RTI) request dated July 30, 2020 was filed with the Office of the Commissioner, Kolkata Police, seeking information about the facial recognition technology that the department was using. The information sought was denied stating that the department was exempted from disclosure under section 24(4) of the RTI Act.
==== Latin America ====
In the 2000 Mexican presidential election, the Mexican government employed face recognition software to prevent voter fraud. Some individuals had been registering to vote under several different names, in an attempt to place multiple votes. By comparing new face images to those already in the voter database, authorities were able to reduce duplicate registrations.
In Colombia public transport busses are fitted with a facial recognition system by FaceFirst Inc to identify passengers that are sought by the National Police of Colombia. FaceFirst Inc also built the facial recognition system for Tocumen International Airport in Panama. The face recognition system is deployed to identify individuals among the travellers that are sought by the Panamanian National Police or Interpol. Tocumen International Airport operates an airport-wide surveillance system using hundreds of live face recognition cameras to identify wanted individuals passing through the airport. The face recognition system was initially installed as part of a US$11 million contract and included a computer cluster of sixty computers, a fiber-optic cable network for the airport buildings, as well as the installation of 150 surveillance cameras in the airport terminal and at about 30 airport gates.
At the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil the Federal Police of Brazil used face recognition goggles. Face recognition systems "made in China" were also deployed at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. Nuctech Company provided 145 inspection terminals for Maracanã Stadium and 55 terminals for the Deodoro Olympic Park.
==== European Union ====
Police forces in at least 21 countries of the European Union use, or plan to use, facial recognition systems, either for administrative or criminal purposes.
===== Greece =====
Greek police passed a contract with Intracom-Telecom for the provision of at least 1,000 devices equipped with live facial recognition system. The delivery is expected before the summer 2021. The total value of the contract is over 4 million euros, paid for in large part by the Internal Security Fund of the European Commission.
===== Italy =====
Italian police acquired a face recognition system in 2017, Sistema Automatico Riconoscimento Immagini (SARI). In November 2020, the Interior ministry announced plans to use it in real-time to identify people suspected of seeking asylum.
===== The Netherlands =====
The Netherlands has deployed facial recognition and artificial intelligence technology since 2016. The database of the Dutch police currently contains over 2.2 million pictures of 1.3 million Dutch citizens. This accounts for about 8% of the population. In The Netherlands, face recognition is not used by the police on municipal CCTV.
==== South Africa ====
In South Africa, in 2016, the city of Johannesburg announced it was rolling out smart CCTV cameras complete with automatic number plate recognition and facial recognition.
=== Deployment in retail stores ===
The US firm 3VR, now Identiv, is an example of a vendor which began offering facial recognition systems and services to retailers as early as 2007. In 2012, the company advertised benefits such as "dwell and queue line analytics to decrease customer wait times", "facial surveillance analytic[s] to facilitate personalized customer greetings by employees" and the ability to "[c]reate loyalty programs by combining Point of sale (POS) data with facial recognition".
==== United States ====
In 2018, the National Retail Federation Loss Prevention Research Council called facial recognition technology "a promising new tool" worth evaluating.
In July 2020, the Reuters news agency reported that during the 2010s the pharmacy chain Rite Aid had deployed facial recognition video surveillance systems and components from FaceFirst, DeepCam LLC, and other vendors at some retail locations in the United States. Cathy Langley, Rite Aid's vice president of asset protection, used the phrase "feature matching" to refer to the systems and said that usage of the systems resulted in less violence and organized crime in the company's stores, while former vice president of asset protection Bob Oberosler emphasized improved safety for staff and a reduced need for the involvement of law enforcement organizations. In a 2020 statement to Reuters in response to the reporting, Rite Aid said that it had ceased using the facial recognition software and switched off the cameras.
According to director Read Hayes of the National Retail Federation Loss Prevention Research Council, Rite Aid's surveillance program was either the largest or one of the largest programs in retail. The Home Depot, Menards, Walmart, and 7-Eleven are among other US retailers also engaged in large-scale pilot programs or deployments of facial recognition technology.
Of the Rite Aid stores examined by Reuters in 2020, those in communities where people of color made up the largest racial or ethnic group were three times as likely to have the technology installed, raising concerns related to the substantial history of racial segregation and racial profiling in the United States. Rite Aid said that the selection of locations was "data-driven", based on the theft histories of individual stores, local and national crime data, and site infrastructure.
==== Australia ====
In 2019, facial recognition to prevent theft was in use at Sydney's Star Casino and was also deployed at gaming venues in New Zealand.
In June 2022, consumer group CHOICE reported facial recognition was in use in Australia at Kmart, Bunnings, and The Good Guys. The Good Guys subsequently suspended the technology pending a legal challenge by CHOICE to the Office of the Australian Information Commissioner, while Bunnings kept the technology in use and Kmart maintained its trial of the technology.
=== Additional uses ===
At the American football championship game Super Bowl XXXV in January 2001, police in Tampa Bay, Florida used Viisage face recognition software to search for potential criminals and terrorists in attendance at the event. 19 people with minor criminal records were potentially identified.
Face recognition systems have also been used by photo management software to identify the subjects of photographs, enabling features such as searching images by person, as well as suggesting photos to be shared with a specific contact if their presence were detected in a photo. By 2008 facial recognition systems were typically used as access control in security systems.
The United States' popular music and country music celebrity Taylor Swift surreptitiously employed facial recognition technology at a concert in 2018. The camera was embedded in a kiosk near a ticket booth and scanned concert-goers as they entered the facility for known stalkers.
On August 18, 2019, The Times reported that the UAE-owned Manchester City hired a Texas-based firm, Blink Identity, to deploy facial recognition systems in a driver program. The club has planned a single super-fast lane for the supporters at the Etihad stadium. However, civil rights groups cautioned the club against the introduction of this technology, saying that it would risk "normalising a mass surveillance tool". The policy and campaigns officer at Liberty, Hannah Couchman said that Man City's move is alarming, since the fans will be obliged to share deeply sensitive personal information with a private company, where they could be tracked and monitored in their everyday lives.
In 2019, casinos in Australia and New Zealand rolled out facial recognition to prevent theft, and a representative of Sydney's Star Casino said they would also provide 'customer service' like welcoming a patron back to a bar.
In August 2020, amid the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, American football stadiums of New York and Los Angeles announced the installation of facial recognition for upcoming matches. The purpose is to make the entry process as touchless as possible. Disney's Magic Kingdom, near Orlando, Florida, likewise announced a test of facial recognition technology to create a touchless experience during the pandemic; the test was originally slated to take place between March 23 and April 23, 2021, but the limited timeframe had been removed as of late April 2021.
Media companies have begun using face recognition technology to streamline their tracking, organizing, and archiving pictures and videos.
== Advantages and disadvantages ==
=== Compared to other biometric systems ===
In 2006, the performance of the latest face recognition algorithms was evaluated in the Face Recognition Grand Challenge (FRGC). High-resolution face images, 3-D face scans, and iris images were used in the tests. The results indicated that the new algorithms are 10 times more accurate than the face recognition algorithms of 2002 and 100 times more accurate than those of 1995. Some of the algorithms were able to outperform human participants in recognizing faces and could uniquely identify identical twins.
One key advantage of a facial recognition system that it is able to perform mass identification as it does not require the cooperation of the test subject to work. Properly designed systems installed in airports, multiplexes, and other public places can identify individuals among the crowd, without passers-by even being aware of the system. However, as compared to other biometric techniques, face recognition may not be most reliable and efficient. Quality measures are very important in facial recognition systems as large degrees of variations are possible in face images. Factors such as illumination, expression, pose and noise during face capture can affect the performance of facial recognition systems. Among all biometric systems, facial recognition has the highest false acceptance and rejection rates, thus questions have been raised on the effectiveness of or bias of face recognition software in cases of railway and airport security, law enforcement and housing and employment decisions.
=== Weaknesses ===
Ralph Gross, a researcher at the Carnegie Mellon Robotics Institute in 2008, describes one obstacle related to the viewing angle of the face: "Face recognition has been getting pretty good at full frontal faces and 20 degrees off, but as soon as you go towards profile, there've been problems." Besides the pose variations, low-resolution face images are also very hard to recognize. This is one of the main obstacles of face recognition in surveillance systems. It has also been suggested that camera settings can favour sharper imagery of white skin than of other skin tones.
Face recognition is less effective if facial expressions vary. A big smile can render the system less effective. For instance: Canada, in 2009, allowed only neutral facial expressions in passport photos.
There is also inconstancy in the datasets used by researchers. Researchers may use anywhere from several subjects to scores of subjects and a few hundred images to thousands of images. Data sets may be diverse and inclusive or mainly contain images of white males. It is important for researchers to make available the datasets they used to each other, or have at least a standard or representative dataset.
Although high degrees of accuracy have been claimed for some facial recognition systems, these outcomes are not universal. The consistently worst accuracy rate is for those who are 18 to 30 years old, Black and female.
=== Racial bias and skin tone ===
Studies have shown that facial recognition algorithms tend to perform better on individuals with lighter skin tones compared to those with darker skin tones. This disparity arises primarily because training datasets often overrepresent lighter-skinned individuals, leading to higher error rates for darker-skinned people. For example, a 2018 study found that leading commercial gender classification models, which are facial recognition models, have an error rate up to 7 times higher for those with darker skin tones compared to those with lighter skin tones.
Common image compression methods, such as JPEG chroma subsampling, have been found to disproportionately degrade performance for darker-skinned individuals. These methods inadequately represent color information, which adversely affects the ability of algorithms to recognize darker-skinned individuals accurately.
=== Cross-race effect bias ===
Facial recognition systems often demonstrate lower accuracy when identifying individuals with non-Eurocentric facial features. Known as the Cross-race effect, this bias occurs when systems perform better on racial or ethnic groups that are overrepresented in their training data, resulting in reduced accuracy for underrepresented groups. The overrepresented group is generally the more populous group in the location that the model is being developed. For example, models developed in Asian cultures generally perform better on Asian facial features than Eurocentric facial features due to overrepresentation in the developers training dataset. The opposite is observed in models developed in Eurocentric cultures.
The systems used for facial recognition often lack the sufficient training needed to fully recognize those features not of Eurocentric descent. When the training and databases for these Machine Learning (ML) models do not contain a diverse representation, the models fail to identify the missed population, adding to their racial biases.
The cross-race effect is not exclusive to machines; humans also experience difficulty recognizing faces from racial or ethnic groups different from their own. This is an example of inherent human biases being perpetuated in training datasets.
=== Challenges for individuals with disabilities ===
Facial recognition technologies encounter significant challenges when identifying individuals with disabilities. For instance, systems have been shown to perform worse when recognizing individuals with Down syndrome, often leading to increased false match rates. This is due to distinct facial structures associated with the condition that are not adequately represented in training datasets.
More broadly, facial recognition systems tend to overlook diverse physical characteristics related to disabilities. The lack of representative data for individuals with varying disabilities further emphasizes the need for inclusive algorithmic designs to mitigate bias and improve accuracy.
Additionally, facial expression recognition technologies often fail to accurately interpret the emotional states of individuals with intellectual disabilities. This shortcoming can hinder effective communication and interaction, underscoring the necessity for systems trained on diverse datasets that include individuals with intellectual disabilities.
Furthermore, biases in facial recognition algorithms can lead to discriminatory outcomes for people with disabilities. For example, certain facial features or asymmetries may result in misidentification or exclusion, highlighting the importance of developing accessible and fair biometric systems.
=== Advancements in fairness and mitigation strategies ===
Efforts to address these biases include designing algorithms specifically for fairness. A notable study introduced a method to learn fair face representations by using a progressive cross-transformer model. This approach highlights the importance of balancing accuracy across demographic groups while avoiding performance drops in specific populations.
Additionally, targeted dataset collection has been shown to improve racial equity in facial recognition systems. By prioritizing diverse data inputs, researchers demonstrated measurable reductions in performance disparities between racial groups.
=== Ineffectiveness ===
Critics of the technology complain that the London Borough of Newham scheme has, as of 2004, never recognized a single criminal, despite several criminals in the system's database living in the Borough and the system has been running for several years. "Not once, as far as the police know, has Newham's automatic face recognition system spotted a live target." This information seems to conflict with claims that the system was credited with a 34% reduction in crime (hence why it was rolled out to Birmingham also).
An experiment in 2002 by the local police department in Tampa, Florida, had similarly disappointing results. A system at Boston's Logan Airport was shut down in 2003 after failing to make any matches during a two-year test period.
In 2014, Facebook stated that in a standardized two-option facial recognition test, its online system scored 97.25% accuracy, compared to the human benchmark of 97.5%.
Systems are often advertised as having accuracy near 100%; this is misleading as the outcomes are not universal. The studies often use samples that are smaller and less diverse than would be necessary for large scale applications. Because facial recognition is not completely accurate, it creates a list of potential matches. A human operator must then look through these potential matches and studies show the operators pick the correct match out of the list only about half the time. This causes the issue of targeting the wrong suspect.
== Controversies ==
=== Privacy violations ===
Civil rights organizations and privacy campaigners such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Big Brother Watch and the ACLU express concern that privacy is being compromised by the use of surveillance technologies. Face recognition can be used not just to identify an individual, but also to unearth other personal data associated with an individual – such as other photos featuring the individual, blog posts, social media profiles, Internet behavior, and travel patterns. Concerns have been raised over who would have access to the knowledge of one's whereabouts and people with them at any given time. Moreover, individuals have limited ability to avoid or thwart face recognition tracking unless they hide their faces. This fundamentally changes the dynamic of day-to-day privacy by enabling any marketer, government agency, or random stranger to secretly collect the identities and associated personal information of any individual captured by the face recognition system. Consumers may not understand or be aware of what their data is being used for, which denies them the ability to consent to how their personal information gets shared.
In July 2015, the United States Government Accountability Office conducted a Report to the Ranking Member, Subcommittee on Privacy, Technology and the Law, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate. The report discussed facial recognition technology's commercial uses, privacy issues, and the applicable federal law. It states that previously, issues concerning facial recognition technology were discussed and represent the need for updating the privacy laws of the United States so that federal law continually matches the impact of advanced technologies. The report noted that some industry, government, and private organizations were in the process of developing, or have developed, "voluntary privacy guidelines". These guidelines varied between the stakeholders, but their overall aim was to gain consent and inform citizens of the intended use of facial recognition technology. According to the report the voluntary privacy guidelines helped to counteract the privacy concerns that arise when citizens are unaware of how their personal data gets put to use.
In 2016, Russian company NtechLab caused a privacy scandal in the international media when it launched the FindFace face recognition system with the promise that Russian users could take photos of strangers in the street and link them to a social media profile on the social media platform Vkontakte (VK). In December 2017, Facebook rolled out a new feature that notifies a user when someone uploads a photo that includes what Facebook thinks is their face, even if they are not tagged. Facebook has attempted to frame the new functionality in a positive light, amidst prior backlashes. Facebook's head of privacy, Rob Sherman, addressed this new feature as one that gives people more control over their photos online. "We've thought about this as a really empowering feature," he says. "There may be photos that exist that you don't know about." Facebook's DeepFace has become the subject of several class action lawsuits under the Biometric Information Privacy Act, with claims alleging that Facebook is collecting and storing face recognition data of its users without obtaining informed consent, in direct violation of the 2008 Biometric Information Privacy Act (BIPA). The most recent case was dismissed in January 2016 because the court lacked jurisdiction. In the US, surveillance companies such as Clearview AI are relying on the First Amendment to the United States Constitution to data scrape user accounts on social media platforms for data that can be used in the development of facial recognition systems.
In 2019, the Financial Times first reported that facial recognition software was in use in the King's Cross area of London. The development around London's King's Cross mainline station includes shops, offices, Google's UK HQ and part of St Martin's College. According to the UK Information Commissioner's Office: "Scanning people's faces as they lawfully go about their daily lives, in order to identify them, is a potential threat to privacy that should concern us all." The UK Information Commissioner Elizabeth Denham launched an investigation into the use of the King's Cross facial recognition system, operated by the company Argent. In September 2019 it was announced by Argent that facial recognition software would no longer be used at King's Cross. Argent claimed that the software had been deployed between May 2016 and March 2018 on two cameras covering a pedestrian street running through the centre of the development. In October 2019, a report by the deputy London mayor Sophie Linden revealed that in a secret deal the Metropolitan Police had passed photos of seven people to Argent for use in their King's cross facial recognition system.
Automated Facial Recognition was trialled by the South Wales Police on multiple occasions between 2017 and 2019. The use of the technology was challenged in court by a private individual, Edward Bridges, with support from the charity Liberty (case known as R (Bridges) v Chief Constable South Wales Police). The case was heard in the Court of Appeal and a judgement was given in August 2020. The case argued that the use of Facial Recognition was a privacy violation on the basis that there was insufficient legal framework or proportionality in the use of Facial Recognition and that its use was in violation of the Data Protection Acts 1998 and 2018. The case was decided in favour of Bridges and did not award damages. The case was settled via a declaration of wrongdoing. In response to the case, the British Government has repeatedly attempted to pass a Bill regulating the use of Facial Recognition in public spaces. The proposed Bills have attempted to appoint a Commissioner with the ability to regulate Facial Recognition use by Government Services in a similar manner to the Commissioner for CCTV. Such a Bill has yet to come into force [correct as of September 2021].
In January 2023, New York Attorney General Letitia James asked for more information on the use of facial recognition technology from Madison Square Garden Entertainment following reports that the firm used it to block lawyers involved in litigation against the company from entering Madison Square Garden. She noted such a move would could go against federal, state, and local human rights laws.
=== Imperfect technology in law enforcement ===
As of 2018, it is still contested as to whether or not facial recognition technology works less accurately on people of color. One study by Joy Buolamwini (MIT Media Lab) and Timnit Gebru (Microsoft Research) found that the error rate for gender recognition for women of color within three commercial facial recognition systems ranged from 23.8% to 36%, whereas for lighter-skinned men it was between 0.0 and 1.6%. Overall accuracy rates for identifying men (91.9%) were higher than for women (79.4%), and none of the systems accommodated a non-binary understanding of gender. It also showed that the datasets used to train commercial facial recognition models were unrepresentative of the broader population and skewed toward lighter-skinned males. However, another study showed that several commercial facial recognition software sold to law enforcement offices around the country had a lower false non-match rate for black people than for white people.
Experts fear that face recognition systems may actually be hurting citizens the police claims they are trying to protect. It is considered an imperfect biometric, and in a study conducted by Georgetown University researcher Clare Garvie, she concluded that "there's no consensus in the scientific community that it provides a positive identification of somebody." It is believed that with such large margins of error in this technology, both legal advocates and facial recognition software companies say that the technology should only supply a portion of the case – no evidence that can lead to an arrest of an individual. The lack of regulations holding facial recognition technology companies to requirements of racially biased testing can be a significant flaw in the adoption of use in law enforcement. CyberExtruder, a company that markets itself to law enforcement said that they had not performed testing or research on bias in their software. CyberExtruder did note that some skin colors are more difficult for the software to recognize with current limitations of the technology. "Just as individuals with very dark skin are hard to identify with high significance via facial recognition, individuals with very pale skin are the same," said Blake Senftner, a senior software engineer at CyberExtruder.
The United States' National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) carried out extensive testing of FRT system 1:1 verification and 1:many identification. It also tested for the differing accuracy of FRT across different demographic groups. The independent study concluded at present, no FRT system has 100% accuracy.
=== Data protection ===
In 2010, Peru passed the Law for Personal Data Protection, which defines biometric information that can be used to identify an individual as sensitive data. In 2012, Colombia passed a comprehensive Data Protection Law which defines biometric data as senstivite information. According to Article 9(1) of the EU's 2016 General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) the processing of biometric data for the purpose of "uniquely identifying a natural person" is sensitive and the facial recognition data processed in this way becomes sensitive personal data. In response to the GDPR passing into the law of EU member states, EU based researchers voiced concern that if they were required under the GDPR to obtain individual's consent for the processing of their facial recognition data, a face database on the scale of MegaFace could never be established again. In September 2019 the Swedish Data Protection Authority (DPA) issued its first ever financial penalty for a violation of the EU's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) against a school that was using the technology to replace time-consuming roll calls during class. The DPA found that the school illegally obtained the biometric data of its students without completing an impact assessment. In addition the school did not make the DPA aware of the pilot scheme. A 200,000 SEK fine (€19,000/$21,000) was issued.
In the United States of America several U.S. states have passed laws to protect the privacy of biometric data. Examples include the Illinois Biometric Information Privacy Act (BIPA) and the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA). In March 2020 California residents filed a class action against Clearview AI, alleging that the company had illegally collected biometric data online and with the help of face recognition technology built up a database of biometric data which was sold to companies and police forces. At the time Clearview AI already faced two lawsuits under BIPA and an investigation by the Privacy Commissioner of Canada for compliance with the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA).
== Bans on the use of facial recognition technology ==
=== United States of America ===
In May 2019, San Francisco, California became the first major United States city to ban the use of facial recognition software for police and other local government agencies' usage. San Francisco Supervisor, Aaron Peskin, introduced regulations that will require agencies to gain approval from the San Francisco Board of Supervisors to purchase surveillance technology. The regulations also require that agencies publicly disclose the intended use for new surveillance technology. In June 2019, Somerville, Massachusetts became the first city on the East Coast to ban face surveillance software for government use, specifically in police investigations and municipal surveillance. In July 2019, Oakland, California banned the usage of facial recognition technology by city departments.
The American Civil Liberties Union ("ACLU") has campaigned across the United States for transparency in surveillance technology and has supported both San Francisco and Somerville's ban on facial recognition software. The ACLU works to challenge the secrecy and surveillance with this technology.
During the George Floyd protests, use of facial recognition by city government was banned in Boston, Massachusetts. As of June 10, 2020, municipal use has been banned in:
Berkeley, California
Oakland, California
Boston, Massachusetts – June 30, 2020
Brookline, Massachusetts
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Northampton, Massachusetts
Springfield, Massachusetts
Somerville, Massachusetts
Portland, Oregon – September 2020
The West Lafayette, Indiana City Council passed an ordinance banning facial recognition surveillance technology.
On October 27, 2020, 22 human rights groups called upon the University of Miami to ban facial recognition technology. This came after the students accused the school of using the software to identify student protesters. The allegations were, however, denied by the university.
A state police reform law in Massachusetts will take effect in July 2021; a ban passed by the legislature was rejected by governor Charlie Baker. Instead, the law requires a judicial warrant, limit the personnel who can perform the search, record data about how the technology is used, and create a commission to make recommendations about future regulations.
Reports in 2024 revealed that some police departments, including San Francisco Police Department, had skirted bans on facial recognition technology that had been enacted in their respective cities.
=== European Union ===
In January 2020, the European Union suggested, but then quickly scrapped, a proposed moratorium on facial recognition in public spaces.
The European "Reclaim Your Face" coalition launched in October 2020. The coalition calls for a ban on facial recognition and launched a European Citizens' Initiative in February 2021. More than 60 organizations call on the European Commission to strictly regulate the use of biometric surveillance technologies.
== Emotion recognition ==
In the 18th and 19th century, the belief that facial expressions revealed the moral worth or true inner state of a human was widespread and physiognomy was a respected science in the Western world. From the early 19th century onwards photography was used in the physiognomic analysis of facial features and facial expression to detect insanity and dementia. In the 1960s and 1970s the study of human emotions and its expressions was reinvented by psychologists, who tried to define a normal range of emotional responses to events. The research on automated emotion recognition has since the 1970s focused on facial expressions and speech, which are regarded as the two most important ways in which humans communicate emotions to other humans. In the 1970s the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) categorization for the physical expression of emotions was established. Its developer Paul Ekman maintains that there are six emotions that are universal to all human beings and that these can be coded in facial expressions. Research into automatic emotion specific expression recognition has in the past decades focused on frontal view images of human faces. Facial thermography can be considered as a promising tool of emotion recognition.
In 2016, facial feature emotion recognition algorithms were among the new technologies, alongside high-definition CCTV, high resolution 3D face recognition and iris recognition, that found their way out of university research labs. In 2016, Facebook acquired FacioMetrics, a facial feature emotion recognition corporate spin-off by Carnegie Mellon University. In the same year Apple Inc. acquired the facial feature emotion recognition start-up Emotient. By the end of 2016, commercial vendors of facial recognition systems offered to integrate and deploy emotion recognition algorithms for facial features. The MIT's Media Lab spin-off Affectiva by late 2019 offered a facial expression emotion detection product that can recognize emotions in humans while driving.
== Anti-facial recognition systems ==
The development of anti-facial recognition technology is effectively an arms race between privacy researchers and big data companies. Big data companies increasingly use convolutional AI technology to create ever more advanced facial recognition models. Solutions to block facial recognition may not work on newer software, or on different types of facial recognition models. One popular cited example of facial-recognition blocking is the CVDazzle makeup and haircut system, but the creators note on their website that it has been outdated for quite some time as it was designed to combat a particular facial recognition algorithm and may not work. Another example is the emergence of facial recognition that can identify people wearing facemasks and sunglasses, especially after the COVID-19 pandemic.
Given that big data companies have much more funding than privacy researchers, it is very difficult for anti-facial recognition systems to keep up. There is also no guarantee that obfuscation techniques that were used for images taken in the past and stored, such as masks or software obfuscation, would protect users from facial-recognition analysis of those images by future technology.
In January 2013, Japanese researchers from the National Institute of Informatics created 'privacy visor' glasses that use nearly infrared light to make the face underneath it unrecognizable to face recognition software that use infrared. The latest version uses a titanium frame, light-reflective material and a mask which uses angles and patterns to disrupt facial recognition technology through both absorbing and bouncing back light sources. However, these methods are used to prevent infrared facial recognition and would not work on AI facial recognition of plain images. Some projects use adversarial machine learning to come up with new printed patterns that confuse existing face recognition software.
One method that may work to protect from facial recognition systems are specific haircuts and make-up patterns that prevent the used algorithms to detect a face, known as computer vision dazzle. Incidentally, the makeup styles popular with Juggalos may also protect against facial recognition.
Facial masks that are worn to protect from contagious viruses can reduce the accuracy of facial recognition systems. A 2020 NIST study, tested popular one-to-one matching systems and found a failure rate between five and fifty percent on masked individuals. The Verge speculated that the accuracy rate of mass surveillance systems, which were not included in the study, would be even less accurate than the accuracy of one-to-one matching systems. The facial recognition of Apple Pay can work through many barriers, including heavy makeup, thick beards and even sunglasses, but fails with masks. However, facial recognition of masked faces is increasingly getting more reliable.
Another solution is the application of obfuscation to images that may fool facial recognition systems while still appearing normal to a human user. These could be used for when images are posted online or on social media. However, as it is hard to remove images once they are on the internet, the obfuscation on these images may be defeated and the face of the user identified by future advances in technology. Two examples of this technique, developed in 2020, are the ANU's 'Camera Adversaria' camera app, and the University of Chicago's Fawkes image cloaking software algorithm which applies obfuscation to already taken photos. However, by 2021 the Fawkes obfuscation algorithm had already been specifically targeted by Microsoft Azure which changed its algorithm to lower Fawkes' effectiveness.
== See also ==
Lists
List of computer vision topics
List of emerging technologiesOutline of artificial intelligence
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Farokhi, Sajad; Shamsuddin, Siti Mariyam; Flusser, Jan; Sheikh, U.U; Khansari, Mohammad; Jafari-Khouzani, Kourosh (2014). "Near infrared face recognition by combining Zernike moments and undecimated discrete wavelet transform". Digital Signal Processing. 31 (1): 13–27. Bibcode:2014DSP....31...13F. doi:10.1016/j.dsp.2014.04.008.
"The Face Detection Algorithm Set to Revolutionize Image Search" (Feb. 2015), MIT Technology Review
Garvie, Clare; Bedoya, Alvaro; Frankle, Jonathan (October 18, 2016). Perpetual Line Up: Unregulated Police Face Recognition in America. Center on Privacy & Technology at Georgetown Law. Retrieved October 22, 2016.
"Facial Recognition Software 'Sounds Like Science Fiction,' but May Affect Half of Americans". As It Happens. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. October 20, 2016. Retrieved October 22, 2016. Interview with Alvaro Bedoya, executive director of the Center on Privacy & Technology at Georgetown Law and co-author of Perpetual Line Up: Unregulated Police Face Recognition in America.
Press, Eyal, "In Front of Their Faces: Does facial-recognition technology lead police to ignore contradictory evidence?", The New Yorker, 20 November 2023, pp. 20–26.
== External links ==
Media related to Facial recognition system at Wikimedia Commons
A Photometric Stereo Approach to Face Recognition (master's thesis). The University of the West of England, Bristol. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Indies_cricket_team | West Indies cricket team | The West Indies cricket team, nicknamed the Windies, is a men's cricket team representing the West Indies—a group of mainly English-speaking countries and territories in the Caribbean region—and administered by Cricket West Indies. The players are selected from a chain of fifteen Caribbean nation-states and territories. As of 25 March 2025, the West Indies cricket team is ranked eighth in Tests, ninth in ODIs, and fifth in T20Is in the official ICC rankings.
From the mid-late 1970s to the early 1990s, the West Indies team was the strongest in the world in both Test and One Day International cricket. A number of cricketers who were considered among the best in the world have hailed from the West Indies: 21 have been inducted into the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame.
The West Indies have won the ICC Cricket World Cup twice (1975 and 1979, when it was styled the Prudential Cup), the ICC T20 World Cup twice (2012 and 2016, when it was styled World Twenty20), the ICC Champions Trophy once (2004), the ICC Under 19 Cricket World Cup once (2016), and have also finished as runners-up in the Cricket World Cup (1983), the Under 19 Cricket World Cup (2004), and the ICC Champions Trophy (2006). The West Indies appeared in three consecutive World Cup finals (1975, 1979 and 1983), and were the first team to win back-to-back World Cups (1975 and 1979), both of these records have been surpassed only by Australia, who appeared in four consecutive World Cup Finals (1996, 1999, 2003 and 2007).
The West Indies have hosted the 2007 Cricket World Cup the 2010 ICC World Twenty20, and co-hosted (with the United States) the 2024 ICC T20 World Cup.
== Member states and dependencies ==
The current team represents:
Sovereign states
Antigua and BarbudaL
Barbados
DominicaW
GrenadaW
Guyana
Jamaica
Saint Kitts and Nevis
NevisL
Saint KittsL
Saint LuciaW
Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesW
Trinidad and Tobago
Constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands
Sint MaartenL
Overseas Territories of the United Kingdom
AnguillaL
British Virgin IslandsL
MontserratL
Territory of the United States
U.S. Virgin IslandsL
Note
=== Affiliates in Cricket West Indies ===
Cricket West Indies, the governing body of the team, consists of the six cricket associations of Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, the Leeward Islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and the Windward Islands. The Leeward Islands Cricket Association consists of three cricket associations from two sovereign states (one from Antigua and Barbuda, and two from Saint Kitts and Nevis), three British Overseas Territories (Anguilla, the British Virgin Islands, and Montserrat), one U.S. territory (the U.S. Virgin Islands), and one Dutch constituent country (Sint Maarten). The Windward Islands Cricket Board of Control consists of associations of four sovereign states (Dominica, Grenada, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines).
Two more British Overseas Territories in the region that have once been historical parts of the former West Indies Federation, the Cayman Islands and the Turks and Caicos Islands, have their own national teams currently.
National teams also exist for the various islands, which, as they are all separate countries, very much keep their local identities and support their local favourites. These national teams take part in the West Indian first-class competition, the Regional Four Day Competition (earlier known as the Busta Cup, Shell Shield, Carib Beer Cup, and various other names). It is also common for other international teams to play the island teams for warm-up games before they take on the combined West Indies team.
The combined population of these countries and territories is around 6 million people, comparable to fellow Full Members New Zealand and Ireland, and prominent Associate Member Scotland. Between 1928 and 2022 among the 385 men to play for West Indies, 67.8% hailed from either Barbados (98 players, 25.5%), Jamaica (83 players, 21.6%) or Trinidad and Tobago (83 players, 21.6%).
The member associations of Cricket West Indies are:
Barbados Cricket Association (BCA)
Guyana Cricket Board (GCB)
Jamaica Cricket Association (JCA)
Leeward Islands Cricket Association (LICA); itself composed of:
Anguilla Cricket Association
Antigua and Barbuda Cricket Association
British Virgin Islands Cricket Association
Montserrat Cricket Association
Nevis Cricket Association (for the island of Nevis alone)
Saint Kitts Cricket Association (for the island of Saint Kitts alone)
Sint Maarten Cricket Association
United States Virgin Islands Cricket Association
Trinidad and Tobago Cricket Board (TTCB)
Windward Islands Cricket Board of Control (WICBC); itself composed of:
Dominica Cricket Association
Grenada Cricket Association
Saint Lucia Cricket Association
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Cricket Association
=== Potential future members ===
The Bahamas
Overseas collectivities of France
Saint BarthélemyL
Saint MartinL
Overseas regions of the French Republic
GuadeloupeL
MartiniqueW
Special municipalities of the Netherlands
SabaL
Sint EustatiusL
== History ==
The history of the West Indies cricket team began in the 1890s, when the first representative sides were selected to play visiting English sides. The WICB joined the sport's international ruling body, the Imperial Cricket Conference, in 1926, and played their first official international match, granted Test status, in 1928, thus becoming the fourth Test 'nation'. In their early days in the 1930s, the side represented the British colonies that would later form the West Indies Federation plus British Guiana.
The last series the West Indies played before the outbreak of the Second World War was against England in 1939. There followed a hiatus that lasted until January 1948 when the MCC toured the West Indies. Of the West Indies players in that first match after the war only Gerry Gomez, George Headley, Jeffrey Stollmeyer, and Foffie Williams had previously played Test cricket. In 1948, leg spinner Wilfred Ferguson became the first West Indian bowler to take ten wickets in a Test, finishing with 11/229 in a match against England; later that same year Hines Johnson became the first West Indies fast bowler to achieve the feat, managing 10/96 against the same opponents.
The West Indies defeated England for the first time at Lord's on 29 June 1950. Ramadhin and Alf Valentine were the architects of the victory which inspired a calypso by Lord Beginner. Later on 16 August 1950, completed a 3–1 series win when they won at The Oval. Although blessed with some great players in their early days as a Test team, their successes remained sporadic until the 1960s when the side changed from a white-dominated to a black-dominated side under the successive captaincies of Frank Worrell and Gary Sobers.
The team won the inaugural World Cup in England in 1975, and successfully defended the title in 1979. By the late 1970s, the West Indies led by Clive Lloyd had a side recognised as unofficial world champions, a reputation they retained throughout the 1980s. During these glory years, the West Indies were noted for their four-man fast bowling attack, backed up by some of the best batsmen in the world. In 1976, fast bowler Michael Holding took 14/149 in the OvalTest against England, setting a record which still stands for best bowling figures in a Test by a West Indies bowler. The 1980s saw the team set a then-record streak of 11 consecutive Test victories in 1984 and inflict two 5–0 "blackwashes" on England.
Throughout the 1990s and 2000s, however, West Indian cricket declined, largely owing to the failure of the West Indian Cricket Board to move the game from an amateur pastime to a professional sport, coupled with the general economic decline in West Indian countries, and the team struggling to retain its past glory. Victory in the 2004 Champions Trophy and a runner-up showing in the 2006 Champions Trophy left some hopeful, but it was not until the inception of Twenty20 cricket that the West Indies began to regain a place among the cricketing elite and among cricket fans, as they developed ranks of players capable of taking over games with their power hitting, including Chris Gayle, Kieron Pollard, Marlon Samuels, Lendl Simmons, DJ Bravo, Andre Russell and Carlos Brathwaite. They beat Australia and then host Sri Lanka in the 2012 World Twenty20 to win their first ICC world championship since the 1979 World Cup and then bested England to win the 2016 World Twenty20, making them the first team to win the World Twenty20 twice. As an added bonus, the West Indies also became the first to win both the men's and women's World Twenty20 on the same day, as the women's team beat three-time defending champion Australia for their first ICC world title immediately beforehand. For the first time in the history of the tournament, the team did not qualify for the 2023 World Cup after losing to Scotland in the Super Six stage of the Qualifiers.
== Flag and anthem ==
Most cricketing nations use their own national flags for cricketing purposes. However, as the West Indies represent a number of independent states and dependencies, there is no natural choice of flag. The WICB has, therefore, developed an insignia showing a palm tree and cricket stumps on a small sunny island (see the top of this article). The insignia, on a maroon background, makes up the West Indian flag. The background sometimes has a white stripe above a green stripe, which is separated by a maroon stripe, passing horizontally through the middle of the background. Prior to 1999, the WICB(C) had used a similar insignia featuring a cabbage palm tree and an island, but there were no stumps and, instead of the sun, there was the constellation Orion. It was designed in 1923 by Sir Algernon Aspinall, then Secretary of the West India Committee. Around the same time in the 1920s the suggested motto for the West Indies team was "Nec curat Orion leones", which comes from a quote by Horace, meaning that Orion, as symbolical of the West Indies XI, does not worry about the lions [of English cricket].
For ICC tournaments, an adapted version of "Rally 'Round the West Indies" by David Rudder is used as the team's anthem.
== Venues ==
The following eleven stadiums have been used for at least one Test match. The number of Tests played at each venue followed by the number of One Day Internationals and twenty20 internationals played at that venue is in brackets as of 2 April 2021:
Queen's Park Oval – Port of Spain, Trinidad (63/73/6): The Queen's Park Oval has hosted more Test matches than any other ground in the Caribbean and first hosted a Test match in 1930. The ground is considered one of the most picturesque venues in the world of cricket, featuring the view Trinidad's Northern Range. It has a capacity of over 18,000.
Kensington Oval – Bridgetown, Barbados (56/48/32):Kensington Oval hosted the region's first Test match in 1930 and is recognised as the 'Mecca' of West Indies cricket. Its capacity was increased from 15,000 to 28,000 for the 2007 World Cup and down to its current capacity of 11,000 post – World Cup. It has hosted two ICC world finals – the 2007 Cricket World Cup Final, which Australia won over Sri Lanka, and the 2010 World Twenty20 Final, which England won against Australia.
Bourda – Georgetown, Guyana (30/11/0): Bourda first hosted a Test match in 1930. It was the only Test ground in South America (until the use of Providence), and the only one below sea level and with its own moat (to prevent the pitch from frequent flooding). It has a capacity of around 22,000. It is remembered for the Pitch Invasion during an April 1999, One Day International between Australia and the West Indies, with Australia needing 3 runs to tie and 4 to win off the last ball, a full scale pitch invasion, resulted in the match being deemed a tie, due to the stumps having been stolen before the West Indian team could effect a run out.
Sabina Park – Kingston, Jamaica (56/41/11): Sabina Park first hosted a Test match in 1930. The Blue Mountains, which are famed for their coffee, form the backdrop. Sabina Park played host to Garry Sobers' then world-record 365 not out. In 1998, the Test against England was abandoned here on the opening day because the pitch was too dangerous. It has a capacity of 15,000.
Antigua Recreation Ground – St John's, Antigua (22/11/0): Antigua Recreation Ground first hosted a Test in 1981. Three Test triple centuries have been scored on this ground: Chris Gayle's 317 in 2005, and Brian Lara's world record scores of 375 in 1994 and 400 not out in 2004. The historic stadium was removed from the roster of grounds hosting international matches in June 2006, to make way for the island's new cricket stadium, being constructed 3 miles outside the capital city expected to be completed in time for its hosting of matches for Cricket World Cup 2007. However, after the abandoned Test match between England and the West Indies in February 2009 at the new North Sound ground, Test cricket returned to the ARG.
Arnos Vale – Arnos Vale, Kingstown, St Vincent (3/23/10): The Arnos Vale Ground a.k.a. The Playing Fields first hosted a Test in 1997.
National Cricket Stadium – St George's, Grenada (5/25/8): Queen's Park, Grenada first hosted a Test in 2002.
Daren Sammy Cricket Ground – Gros Islet, St Lucia (10/26/26): Originally the Beauséjour Cricket Ground, first hosted a Test in 2003. It has a capacity of 12,000. This was the first stadium in the Caribbean to host a day-night cricket match. The match was between the West Indies and Zimbabwe. New Zealand was scheduled to play a test in 2014 to mark the return to Test cricket after a break of 8 years. Following the West Indies' victory in the 2016 World Twenty20, the St. Lucian government renamed the venue after captain Sammy, a native St. Lucian, with another St. Lucian – Johnson Charles – having a stand named in his honor after also being part of the 2012 and 2016 championship squads.
Warner Park Stadium – Basseterre, St Kitts (3/21/12): The Warner Park Sporting Complex hosted its first One Day International on 23 May 2006 and its first Test match on 22 June 2006. The stadium has a permanent capacity of 8,000, with provisions for temporary stands to enable the hosting figure to past 10,000.
Providence Stadium – Georgetown, Guyana (3/24/16): The Providence Stadium hosted its first One Day International on 28 March 2007 for the 2007 Cricket World Cup and its first Test match on 22 March 2008. The stadium has a permanent capacity of 15,000, and is to host Test cricket instead of Bourda.
Sir Vivian Richards Stadium – North Sound, Antigua (13/24/12): The Sir Viv Richards Stadium hosted its first One Day International on 27 March 2007 for the 2007 Cricket World Cup and its first Test match on 30 May 2008. The stadium has a permanent capacity of 10,000, and is to host Test cricket instead of the Antigua Recreation Ground.
Windsor Park Stadium – Roseau, Dominica (6/4/4): Windsor Park is another home venue for the West Indian team. Construction first started on it in 2005, and it finally opened in October 2007, too late to serve as a venue for the 2007 Cricket World Cup. It hosts first-class cricket and hosted its first Test on 6 July 2011 against India, however it held its first One Day International on 26 July 2009. It has a seating capacity of 12,000.
Three further stadia have been used for One Day Internationals, or Twenty20 Internationals but not Test matches. The number of One Day Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals played at each venue is shown in the table below:
=== ODI and T20I grounds ===
The following four stadiums have been used for at least one international match other than Test matches.
== Clothing ==
When playing one-day cricket, the West Indies cricket team wear a maroon-coloured shirt and trousers. The shirt also sports the logo of the West Indian Cricket Board and the name of their suppliers Macron. The one-day cap is maroon with the WICB logo on the left of the front, with two yellow stripes.
When playing T20I cricket, the team dons a yellow-coloured shirt with maroon-coloured sleeves, with two stripes of sky blue and yellow. The shirt also features the logo of the manufacturer along with the crest of the Cricket Board.
When playing first-class cricket, in addition to their cricket flannels West Indian fielders sometimes wear a maroon sunhat with a wide brim or a maroon baggy cap. The WICB logo is on the front of the hat. Helmets are coloured similarly. The sweater was edged with Maroon, green and grey. Gold was added to the stripes in the early 2000s. The design reverted to a simple maroon facing when the West Indies began wearing fleeces. In 2020 they again wore the traditional cable knit sweaters edged with Maroon and Green. When the team toured they wore maroon caps but in test matches in the Caribbean, it was customary for the team to wear dark blue caps until the late 1970s. The blazers awarded for home tests were dark blue with white and green facings. An example is displayed in the museum at Lord's. After 1977 home and away teams both wore maroon caps and the blazers were the same colours.
During World Series Cricket, coloured uniforms were adopted. The initial West Indies uniform was pink and was later changed to maroon to match their Test match caps. Grey was also added as a secondary colour. In some of their uniforms grey has been dominant over the traditional maroon. Some uniforms had green, yellow or white as accent colour.
Former uniform suppliers were Castore (2019–2023), BLK (2017–2019), Joma (2015–2017), Woodworm (2008–2015), Admiral (2000–2005), Asics (1999 World Cup), UK Sportsgear (1997–1998), ISC (1992–1996) and Adidas (1979–1991).
Former sponsors were Sandals (2018–2021), Digicel (2005–2018), KFC (2006–2009), Cable & Wireless (2000–2004), Carib Beer (1999–2001) and Kingfisher (1996–1999).
== West Indies women's cricket team ==
The West Indies women's cricket team have a much lower profile than the men's team. They played eleven Test matches between 1975–76 and 1979, winning once, losing three times, and drawing seven. Since then, they have only played one further Test match, a drawn game against Pakistan in 2003–04. They also have an infrequent record in One Day Internationals. A team from Trinidad and Tobago and a team from Jamaica played in the first women's World Cup in 1973, with both sides faring poorly, finishing fifth and sixth respectively out of a field of seven. The Windies united as a team to play their first ODI in 1979, but thereafter did not play until the 1993 World Cup. Although the side has never been a world leader, they finished runner-up in the 2013 World Cup and since have improved reasonably well. Their greatest success was achieving second place in the 2003 International Women's Cricket Council Trophy, a competition for the second tier of women's national cricket teams. Their overall record in one-dayers is to have played 177, won 80, lost 91 with one tie and 5 no results.
Because of the women's side's relatively low profile, there are few well-known names in the game. The most notable is probably Nadine George, a wicket-keeper/batsman, whose century in Karachi, Pakistan, in 2003-2004 is the only Test century scored by a West Indian woman. George is a prominent supporter of sport in the West Indies, and in particular, in her native St Lucia, and in 2005 was made an MBE by the Prince of Wales for services to sport.
2016 saw the West Indies women win their first ICC world championship – the 2016 Women's World Twenty20, after beating three-time defending champion Australia by eight wickets at Eden Gardens with members of the men's team in the crowd to support.
== Tournament history ==
A red box around the year indicates tournaments played within West Indies
=== ICC World Test Championship ===
=== Cricket World Cup ===
=== ICC Trophy/ICC Cricket World Cup Qualifier ===
1979–2014: Not eligible (top 8 in ODI rankings and Full Member of ICC)
=== ICC T20 World Cup ===
=== ICC Champions Trophy ===
Known as the 'ICC Knockout' in 1998 and 2000.
== Honours ==
=== ICC ===
World Cup
Champions (2): 1975, 1979
Runners-up (1): 1983
T20 World Cup
Champions (2): 2012, 2016
Champions Trophy
Champions (1): 2004
Runners-up (2): 1998, 2006
== Statistics and records ==
Source:
Innings totals above 700
For: 790 for 3 declared against Pakistan in Kingston in 1957–58; 751 for 5 declared against England in St John's in 2003–04; 747 all out against South Africa in St John's in 2004–05; 749 for 9 declared against England in Bridgetown in 2008–2009
Against: 849 by England in Kingston in 1929–30; 758 for 8 declared by Australia in Kingston in 1954–55
Innings totals below 60
For: 27 against Australia in Kingston in 2025; 47 against England in Kingston in 2003–04; 51 against Australia in Port of Spain in 1998–99; 53 against Pakistan in Faisalabad in 1986–87; 54 against England at Lord's in 2000; 60 against Pakistan in Karachi in 2017–18 (60/9 (Surrender))
Against: 46 by England in Port of Spain in 1993–94; 51 by England in Kingston in 2008–09
Triple centuries scored for the Windies
400 not out by Brian Lara against England at St John's in 2003–04; 375 by Brian Lara against England at St John's in 1993–94; 365 not out by Garry Sobers against Pakistan at Kingston in 1957–58; 333 by Chris Gayle against Sri Lanka at Galle in 2010–11; 317 by Chris Gayle against South Africa at St John's in 2004–05; 302 by Lawrence Rowe against England at Bridgetown in 1973–74
Twelve or more wickets were taken for the Windies in a Test match
14 for the cost of 149 runs by Michael Holding against England at the Oval in 1976; 13 for 55 by Courtney Walsh against New Zealand in Wellington in 1994–95; Shanon Gabriel took 13 for 121 against Sri Lanka.:12 for 121 by Andy Roberts against India in Madras in 1974–
Hat-tricks
Wes Hall against Pakistan in 1959; Lance Gibbs against Australia in 1961; Courtney Walsh against Australia in 1988; and Jermaine Lawson against Australia in 2003
=== One-day matches ===
Hat-trick
An ODI hat-trick performance was made by Jerome Taylor on 19 October 2006 at Mumbai in an ICC Champions Trophy league match against Australia
At the ICC 2011 Cricket World Cup, Kemar Roach became the sixth bowler to claim a World Cup hat-trick against the Netherlands.
== Test captains ==
The following men have captained the West Indian cricket team in at least one Test match:
== Current squad ==
West Indies released the list of their 2025–2026 national contracts on 1 October 2025.
This is a list of every active player who is contracted to West Indies, has played for West Indies since 17 November 2024 or was named in the recent Test, ODI or T20I squads. Contracted players are listed in bold, uncapped players are listed in italics.
Nicholas Pooran and Andre Russell played in T20Is during this period; however, both have retired from international cricket.
Last updated: 17 November 2025
Forms – This refers to the forms they have played for West Indies in the past year, not over their whole West Indies career
S/N – Shirt number
== Coaching staff ==
=== Coaching history ===
1992–1995: Rohan Kanhai
1995–1996: Andy Roberts
1996–1999: Malcolm Marshall
1999: Viv Richards (interim)
2000–2003: Roger Harper
2003–2004: Gus Logie
2004–2007: Bennett King
2007: David Moore (interim)
2007–2009: John Dyson
2009–2010: David Williams (interim)
2010–2014: Ottis Gibson
2015–2016: Phil Simmons
2017–2018: Stuart Law
2018: Nic Pothas (interim)
2019: Richard Pybus (interim)
2019: Floyd Reifer (interim)
2019–2022: Phil Simmons
2022: Andre Coley (interim)
2023–2025: Andre Coley
2025-present: Daren Sammy
== In popular culture ==
A British documentary film entitled Fire in Babylon was released in 2010. The documentary featured archival footage and interviews with several cricketers. The film was written and directed by Stevan Riley and was nominated for a British Independent Film Award for Best Documentary.
The documentary was about the domination of West Indies team of 1970s and 1980s, widely regarded as one of the greatest cricket teams in the history having not lost a Test series for fifteen years. It revolves around how the West Indies triumphed over its former colonial masters of England and racism in those days against black people.
Quite a number of calypsos mention the West Indian cricket. See List of calypso songs about cricket.
== See also ==
Cricket in the West Indies
Cricket West Indies
Fire in Babylon
History of the West Indian cricket team
List of West Indies Test cricket records
West Indies A cricket team
West Indies High Performance Centre
West Indies women's cricket team
West Indies under-19 cricket team
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Goble, Ray; Sandiford, Keith AP (2004). 75 Years of West Indies Cricket 1928–2000. Hansib. ISBN 1-870518-78-0.
"West Indies home summer series", the West Indies cricket team's 2021 home series.
== External links ==
Official Facebook page of the West Indies Cricket team
Official Cricket West Indies website
List of calypso songs about cricket |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golda_Meir#Premiership_(1969%E2%80%931974) | Golda Meir | Golda Meir (previously Meyerson; née Mabovitch; 3 May 1898 – 8 December 1978) was the prime minister of Israel from 1969 to 1974. She was Israel's first and, to date, only female head of government.
Born into a Jewish family in Kiev (within present-day Ukraine), Russian Empire, Meir immigrated with her family to the United States in 1906. She graduated from the Milwaukee State Normal School and found work as a teacher. While in Milwaukee, she embraced the Labor Zionist movement. In 1921, Meir and her husband immigrated to Mandatory Palestine, settling in Merhavia, later becoming the kibbutz's representative to the Histadrut. In 1934, she was elevated to the executive committee of the trade union. Meir held several key roles in the Jewish Agency during and after World War II. She was a signatory of the Israeli Declaration of Independence, in 1948. Meir was elected to the Knesset, in 1949, and served as Labor Minister until 1956, when she was appointed Foreign Minister by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion. She retired from the ministry in 1966 due to ill health.
In 1969, Meir assumed the role of prime minister following the death of Levi Eshkol. Early in her tenure, she made multiple diplomatic visits to western leaders to promote her vision of peace in the region. The outbreak of the Yom Kippur War in 1973 caught Israel off guard and inflicted severe early losses on the army. The resulting public anger damaged Meir's reputation and led to an inquiry into the failings. Her Alignment coalition was denied a majority in the subsequent legislative election; she resigned the following year and was succeeded as prime minister by Yitzhak Rabin. Meir died in 1978 of lymphoma and was buried on Mount Herzl.
A controversial figure in Israel, Meir has been lionized as a founder of the state and described as the "Iron Lady" of Israeli politics, but also widely blamed for the country being caught by surprise during the war of 1973. In addition, her dismissive statements towards the Palestinians have been described as the most famous example of Israeli denial of Palestinian identity. Most historians believe Meir was more successful as Minister of Labour and Housing than as Premier.
== Early life ==
Meir was born Golda Mabovitch on 3 May 1898 into a Jewish family in downtown Kiev (now known by Kyiv) in present-day Ukraine, then part of the Russian Empire. Her parents were Blume Neiditch (died 1951) and Moshe Yitzhak Mabovitch (died 1944), a carpenter. Meir wrote in her autobiography that her earliest memories were of Moshe boarding up the front door in response to rumours of an imminent pogrom. She was named after Blume's paternal grandmother, Golde. Meir had two sisters, Sheyna (born 1889) and Tzipke (later known as Clara; born 1902), as well as five other siblings who died in infancy.
Moshe left Russia to find work in New York City, United States, in 1903. In his absence, the rest of the family moved to Pinsk, a city in present-day Belarus, to join Blume's family. In 1905, Moshe moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in search of higher-paying work and found employment in the workshops of the local railroad yard. The following year, he had saved up enough money to bring his family to the United States. Meir, along with Blume, Sheyna, and Tzipke, landed in Quebec and traveled to Milwaukee by train.
Blume ran a grocery store on Milwaukee's north side. By the age of eight, Meir was often put in charge of watching the store when Blume went to buy supplies. Meir attended the Fourth Street Grade School, which is now known by the Golda Meir School, from 1906 to 1912. A leader early on, she and a close friend, Regina Hamburger, organized the American Young Sisters Society, a fundraiser to pay for her classmates' textbooks in 1908. As part of the organization's activities, Meir rented a hall and scheduled a public meeting for the event. She graduated as valedictorian of her class despite frequent tardiness due to having to work in Blume's store.
In 1912, Meir began studying at North Division High School and worked part-time. Her employers included Schuster's department store and the Milwaukee Public Library. Blume wanted Meir to leave school and marry, but the latter declined.
The following year, Meir took a train to live with her married sister, Sheyna Korngold, in Denver, Colorado. She attended North High School there. The Korngolds held intellectual evenings at their home, where she was exposed to debates on Zionism, literature, women's suffrage, trade unionism, and more. In her autobiography, Meir wrote: "To the extent that my own future convictions were shaped and given form ... those talk-filled nights in Denver played a considerable role." Around 1913, she began dating Morris Meyerson, a sign painter and socialist.
== Return to Milwaukee, Zionist activism, and teaching ==
In 1914, after disagreements with her sister, Golda left North High School, moved out of her sister's home, and found work. After reconciling with her parents, she returned to Milwaukee and resumed studies at North Division High, graduating in 1915. While there, she became an active member of Young Poale Zion, which later became Habonim, the Labor Zionist youth movement. She spoke at public meetings and embraced Socialist Zionism.
She attended the teachers college Milwaukee State Normal School (now University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee) in 1916, and likely part of 1917. In 1917, she took a position at a Yiddish-speaking Folks Schule in Milwaukee. There, she further embraced Labor Zionism.
On 9 July 1917, Golda became a naturalized US citizen, as her father had naturalized, and at that time children of naturalized citizens under the age of 21 received citizenship by descent.
On 24 December 1917, Meir and Meyerson married. However, Meir's precondition for marriage was to settle in Palestine. She had intended to make aliyah (immigration to Israel) straight away, but her plans were disrupted when all transatlantic passenger services were canceled due to the entry of the United States into the First World War. She then threw her energies into Poale Zion activities. A short time after their wedding, she embarked on a fund-raising campaign for Poale Zion that took her across the United States.
== Immigration to Mandatory Palestine ==
In 1921, after the conclusion of the war, the couple moved to Palestine, then part of the British Mandate, along with Meir's sister Sheyna, Sheyna's daughter, and Meir's childhood friend Regina. They sailed on the SS Pocahontas, from New York to Naples, then from there to Tel Aviv by train. Meir's parents subsequently moved to Palestine in 1926.
They were eventually accepted into kibbutz Merhavia in the Jezreel Valley after an initial rejected application. Her duties included picking almonds, planting trees, working in the chicken coops, and running the kitchen. Recognizing her leadership abilities, the kibbutz chose her as its representative to the Histadrut, the General Federation of Labour.
In 1924, the couple left the kibbutz and lived briefly in Tel Aviv before settling in Jerusalem. There, they had two children: a son Menachem in 1924, and a daughter Sarah in 1926. Meir returned to Merhavia for a brief period in 1925.
== Early political career ==
In 1928, Meir was elected secretary of Moetzet HaPoalot (Working Women's Council). She spent two years (1932–34) in the United States as an emissary for the organization and to get expert medical treatment for her daughter's kidney illness.
In 1934, when Meir returned from the United States, she joined the Executive Committee of the Histadrut and moved up the ranks to become the head of its Political Department. This appointment was important training for her future role in Israeli leadership.
In July 1938, Meir was the Jewish observer from Palestine at the Évian Conference, called by President Franklin D. Roosevelt of the United States to discuss the question of Jewish refugees' fleeing Nazi persecution. Delegates from the 32 invited countries repeatedly expressed their sorrow for the plight of the European Jews, but refused to admit the refugees. The only exception was the Dominican Republic, which pledged to accept 100,000 refugees on generous terms. Meir was disappointed at the outcome and she remarked to the press, "There is only one thing I hope to see before I die and that is that my people should not need expressions of sympathy anymore."
Throughout World War II, Meir served several key roles in the Jewish Agency, which functioned as the arm of the Zionist Organization in British Palestine.
In June 1946, Meir became acting head of the Political Department of the Jewish Agency after the British arrested Moshe Sharett and other leaders of the Yishuv as part of Operation Agatha. This was a critical moment in her career: she became the principal negotiator between the Jews in Palestine and the British Mandatory authorities. After his release, Sharett went to the United States to attend talks on the UN Partition Plan, leaving Meir to head the Political Department until the establishment of the state in 1948.
In 1947, she traveled to Cyprus to meet Jewish detainees of the Cyprus internment camps, who had been interned by the British after being caught trying to illegally enter Palestine, and persuade them to give priority to families with children to fill the small quota of detainees allowed into Palestine. She was largely successful in this task.
== Role in the Palestine War and the establishment of Israel ==
On 17 November 1947, shortly before the outbreak of the 1947-1949 Palestine war, Meir met with King Abdullah I of Jordan. Abdullah I was seen as the only Arab leader willing to ally with a future Israeli state, as he also opposed the Mufti of Jerusalem and was rivals with other Arab countries. The meeting was cordial and confirmed that Abdullah was uninterested in invading and quietly willing to cooperate in the future.
=== First phase of the war ===
For most of the war, Meir reluctantly played what she felt was a minor role in Israel's activities. An article published by the Golda Meir institute said "she felt she was being pushed aside to a secondary arena".
However, she played a critical role in fundraising. In January 1948, the Jewish Agency needed to raise funds for the continuing war and the coming Israeli state. The treasurer of the Jewish Agency was convinced that they would not be able to raise more than $7 to $8 million from the American Jewish community. Meir raised over $30 million. Key to her success was an emotional speech she first delivered in Chicago on 22 January. She toured dozens of cities in the United States and returned to Israel on 18 March.
The funds were critical to the success of the war effort and the establishment of Israel; by comparison, the opposing Arab Higher Committee's annual budget was around $2.25 million, similar to Haganah's annual budget before the war. Ben-Gurion wrote that Meir's role as the "Jewish woman who got the money which made the state possible" would go down in history.
However, upon returning home, she suffered a political setback. The Jewish Agency and National Council Executives excluded her from the 13-member cabinet of the provisional government of Israel, and included her instead in the 37-member People's Council. Ben-Gurion protested this, saying "It is inconceivable that there shall be no adequate woman…it is a moral and political necessity, for the Yishuv, the Jewish world and the Arab world." At one point, he even considered offering her his spot on the cabinet.
On 13 April, she was hospitalized in Tel Aviv due to a suspected heart attack. Ben-Gurion and the political department heads urged her to guard her health and come to Jerusalem as soon as she could. They asked her to be "the mother of this city", and that her "words to 100,000 residents will be a source of blessing and encouragement". However, she felt it was a secondary and temporary role.
Instead, on 6 May, she visited Haifa after its 22 April occupation by Haganah. Meir called the mass expulsion and flight of Arabs before the 1948 Palestine war "dreadful", and likened it to what befell the Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe. She returned to Tel Aviv, and eventually to Jerusalem two weeks before the end of the mandate.
On the 11th of May, alongside Ezra Danin, Meir had a second meeting with Abdullah I. Abdullah had refused to meet her at Naharayim again, citing safety concerns, and told her that if she wanted to meet with him she would need to make her way to Amman. He had also refused to notify the Arab Legion of her arrival, forcing Meir to travel to Amman in secret disguised as an Arab woman.
The two met Abdullah in the home of an associate of Danin. According to Meir's account, when asked if Abdullah would break the promise he made to her at Naharayim, he responded by claiming that he had made the promise when he was alone, but now he was "one of five", and that he did not have the capability to fulfill the promise alone. Abdullah asked Meir to let him integrate Jordan into Palestine, with Jews being granted representation in the Jordanian parliament, but Meir refused.
By the end of the meeting, the two failed to reach an agreement and Abdullah told Meir that he would be forced to invade due to pressure from the Arab League. Meir expressed that she would be open to meeting him again after Israel had won the war.
=== Second phase of the war and appointment to Minister Plenipotentiary ===
On 14 May 1948, Meir became one of 24 signatories (including two women) of the Israeli Declaration of Independence. She later recalled, "After I signed, I cried. When I studied American history as a schoolgirl and I read about those who signed the U.S. Declaration of Independence, I couldn't imagine these were real people doing something real. And there I was sitting down and signing a declaration of establishment."
A day after independence, the second phase of the war began. Meir also suddenly lost her job and administrative responsibilities, as the Political Department became the provisional Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and her leadership role in Jerusalem was taken over by Dov Yosef.
On 18 May, she embarked on a second and even more successful fundraising tour in which she raised around $50 million. In total, her fundraising efforts raised around $90 million, around a third of the cost of the war ($275 million). During preparations for this trip, she was issued the first Israeli passport. Over the ten weeks that she was gone, Israel was battered by the war and changed drastically.
On 25 June, while still in the United States, Meir was appointed by Sharett, then the Minister of Foreign Affairs, as the minister plenipotentiary to the Soviet Union, which recently recognized Israel.
Meir was displeased by the offer. In spite of being born in Russia, she spoke no Russian and feared being lonely in Moscow. She said "At last we have a state. I want to be there. I don't want to go thousands of miles away. Why do I always have to go away?"
Her return to Israel was delayed due to a car crash in which she tore a ligament and fractured a bone. Soviet officials refused to believe she was in hospital and wanted an Israeli envoy as soon as possible. Thus she ignored doctor's orders to rest and returned to Israel on 29 July. Years later, her leg would frequently pain her.
== Government career before premiership ==
=== Minister Plenipotentiary to the Soviet Union (1948–1949) ===
Meir served as minister plenipotentiary to the Soviet Union from 2 September 1948 to 10 March 1949.
She was reportedly impatient with diplomatic niceties and using interpreters. She did not drink or ballroom dance and had little interest in gossip and fashion. According to her interpreter, when asked by a Russian ambassador how she traveled to Moscow, she responded "tell His Excellency the Ambassador that we arrived riding on donkeys".
This was an important and difficult role. Good relations with the Soviet Union impacted Israel's ability to secure arms from Eastern European countries. In turn, Joseph Stalin and Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov saw its relationship with Israel as a means of furthering the Soviet position in the Middle East. However, Soviet–Israeli relations were complicated by Soviet policies against religious institutions and nationalist movements, made manifest in actions to shut down Jewish religious institutions as well as the ban on Hebrew language study and the prohibition of promoting emigration to Israel.
Just 20 days after her term began, antisemitic crackdowns began in response to an article by Soviet Jewish writer Ilya Ehrenburg. Meir and the other Israeli representatives responded by making a point of visiting Russian Jewish businesses, synagogues, and performances.
On 3 October, during Rosh Hashanah celebrations at the Moscow Choral Synagogue, she was mobbed by thousands of Russian Jews chanting in Russian "Nasha Golda", meaning "Our Golda". In her autobiography she said "I felt as though I had been caught up in a torrent of love so strong that it had literally taken my breath away and slowed down my heart." This event was commemorated by the Israeli 10,000-shekel banknote issued in November 1984. It bore a portrait of Meir on one side and the image of the crowd greeting her in Moscow on the other.
To her close friends, she admitted she had little to do in Moscow and felt isolated from Israeli politics. Despite being a socialist that was born in Ukraine, her Jewish side caused friction with the Soviets that made progress difficult. By the end of her term, she felt she had accomplished little. She reportedly felt guilty for not achieving more for the Russian Jews, as she would have been in their situation if her father had not moved to the United States.
She planned to run for the first Knesset elections on 25 January 1949. The month before the elections, she returned to Israel and campaigned for Mapai. Mapai won 35% of the votes and formed a coalition, and Ben-Gurion invited her into the cabinet. She was sworn in on 8 March, and continued to serve in the Knesset until 1974.
=== Labor Minister (1949–1956) ===
Ben-Gurion initially offered Meir the position of "deputy prime minister", which she rejected. She found the title and responsibilities vague, and disliked the idea of needing to coordinate with so many government departments.
Instead, she took the role of Labor Minister, which she held from 10 March 1949 to 19 June 1956. Meir enjoyed this role much more than her previous, calling it her "seven beautiful years". In particular, she enjoyed the ability to act quickly and with little friction from others. She was also one of the most powerful Israeli politicians at the time.
The main source of friction in the role was funding, especially to deal with the millions of immigrants arriving in the new state. In October 1950, Meir announced in Washington a three-year-plan for Israel's development and stated a price tag of $15 billion over the next 15 years. The Israeli government managed to secure a loan from the United States government and American Jews that secured 40% of the budget. The newly created Israel Bonds only provided a small amount, although years later they would contribute billions to the Israeli economy.
Meir assisted in building over a hundred ma'abarot (Hebrew: מַעְבָּרוֹת), temporary immigrant camps with crude tin-roofed huts and tents for housing. She drew criticism from many new immigrants and contemporary politicians due to this, but responded by pointing to her limited budget and the time needed to construct proper housing. In 1953, she assisted in an effort to eliminate the ma'abarot. By 1956, two-thirds were eliminated, and 120,000 families moved to permanent housing.
Meir considered herself highly productive during this period. She carried out welfare state policies, orchestrated the integration of immigrants into Israel's workforce, and introduced major housing and road construction projects. From 1949 to 1956, 200,000 apartments and 30,000 houses were built, large industrial and agricultural developments were initiated, and new hospitals, schools, and roads were built. Despite the complaints of her colleagues in the Finance Ministry, Meir worked to establish social security, maternity benefits, work-related accident insurance, benefits to widows and orphans, and even burial costs.
In 1954, she sided with Ben-Gurion against Pinhas Lavon in the Lavon Affair.
In the summer of 1955, Meir reluctantly ran for the position of mayor of Tel Aviv on request of her party. At the time, mayors were elected by the city council and not directly. She lost by the two votes of the religious bloc who withheld their support on the grounds that she was a woman. While angered by the sexism she encountered, she was happy to rejoin her colleagues in the cabinet.
On 3 August 1955, she was again hospitalized after complaining of chest pains, and was diagnosed with arrhythmia.
=== Foreign minister (1956–1966) ===
In October 1955, Ben-Gurion appointed Meir as foreign minister, replacing Sharett. The occasional disagreements between Ben-Gurion and Sharett had escalated to snubbing in meetings and refusals to speak face-to-face. Meir, while less experienced in foreign affairs than Sharett, had a consistently loyal and friendly relationship with Ben-Gurion. While Meir eventually came to enjoy her new job, she disliked the lingering pro-Sharett colleagues in her department.
Meir served as foreign minister from 18 June 1956 to 12 January 1966. Her first months as Foreign Minister coincided with the 1956 Suez Crisis, in which Israel, Britain, and France invaded Egypt to regain Western control over the Suez Canal, remove the President of Egypt Gamal Abdel Nasser, and secure freedom of navigation through the Straits of Tiran for Israel. Meir planned and coordinated with the French government and military prior to the start of the invasion. During United Nations debates about the crisis, Meir took charge of the Israeli delegation. After the fighting started, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations forced the three invaders to withdraw.
As foreign minister, Meir promoted ties with the newly established states in Africa in an effort to gain allies in the international community. She also believed that Israel had experience in nation-building that could be a model for the Africans. In her autobiography, she wrote:Like them, we had shaken off foreign rule; like them, we had to learn for ourselves how to reclaim the land, how to increase the yields of our crops, how to irrigate, how to raise poultry, how to live together, and how to defend ourselves. Israel could be a role model because it had been forced to find solutions to the kinds of problems that large, wealthy, powerful states had never encountered.She also devoted much effort to convincing the United States to sell Israel weaponry. One success in this area came in 1962, when the White House quietly agreed to sell Hawk missiles to Israel. Israel's relationship with the Soviet Union remained frosty during her tenure.
On 29 October 1957, Meir's foot was slightly injured when a Mills bomb was thrown into the debating chamber of the Knesset. David Ben-Gurion and Moshe Carmel were more seriously injured. The attack was carried out by 25-year-old Moshe Dwek. Born in Aleppo, his motives were attributed to a dispute with the Jewish Agency, but he was described as being "mentally unbalanced".
In 1958, shortly after the death of Pope Pius XII, Meir praised the late pope for assisting the Jewish people. The pontiff's legacy as a wartime pope has continued to be controversial into the 21st century.
The same year, during the wave of Jewish migration from Poland to Israel, Meir sought to prevent disabled and sick Polish Jews from immigrating to Israel. In a letter sent to Israel's ambassador in Warsaw, Katriel Katz, she wrote:
A proposal was raised in the coordination committee to inform the Polish government that we want to institute selection in aliyah, because we cannot continue accepting sick and handicapped people. Please give your opinion as to whether this can be explained to the Poles without hurting immigration."
In late 1965, 67-year-old Meir was diagnosed with lymphoma. In January 1966, she retired from her role as Foreign Minister, citing exhaustion and ill health, although she continued to serve in the Knesset and as secretary-general of Mapai.
During the 1960s, Meir lived in a flat on the upper level of a house that was once known as Villa Harun al-Rashid. The house was built in 1926 by Hanna Bisharat and later rented to British officers. The house was later given to Zionist militias, due to the prominent view from the roof. According to Hanna Bisharat's grandson George Bisharat, Meir had the tiles on the house's front sandblasted "to obliterate the 'Villa Harun ar-Rashid' and thereby conceal the fact that she was living in an Arab home."
== Premiership (1969–1974) ==
Prime Minister Levi Eshkol died suddenly on 26 February 1969, leading to the appointment of Yigal Allon as interim prime minister and an election to replace him. Before the vote, most suspected that Meir would be elected. On 7 March 1969, the party's central committee voted Meir as the new party leader. Now age 71, Meir had mixed feelings due to her health concerns, but eventually agreed, saying that she would honor the party's decision just as she had honored all of the party's past decisions.
Meir served as prime minister from 17 March 1969 to 3 June 1974. She maintained the national unity government formed in 1967 after the Six-Day War, in which Mapai merged with two other parties (Rafi and Ahdut HaAvoda) to form the Israeli Labor Party.
Six months after taking office, Meir led the reconfigured Alignment, comprising Labor and Mapam, into the 1969 general election. The Alignment managed what is still the best showing for a single party or faction in Israeli history, winning 56 seats. This is the only time that a party or faction has approached winning an outright majority in an election. The national unity government was retained.
In 1969 and the early 1970s, Meir met with many world leaders to promote her peace settlement idea, including Richard Nixon (1969), Nicolae Ceaușescu (1972) and Pope Paul VI (1973). In 1973, she hosted the chancellor of West Germany, Willy Brandt, in Israel.
In August 1970, Meir accepted a U.S. peace initiative that called for an end to the War of Attrition and an Israeli pledge to withdraw to "secure and recognized boundaries" in the framework of a comprehensive peace settlement. The Gahal party quit the national unity government in protest, but Meir continued to lead the remaining coalition.
On February 28, 1973, during a visit in Washington, D.C., Meir agreed with Henry Kissinger's peace proposal based on "security versus sovereignty": Israel would accept Egyptian sovereignty over all Sinai, while Egypt would accept Israeli presence in some of Sinai's strategic positions.
=== "There was no such thing as Palestinians" ===
In June 1969, on the second anniversary of the Six-Day War, Meir stated in an interview that "there was no such thing as Palestinians", a comment later described by Al Jazeera as "one of her defining – and most damning – legacies." This phrase is considered to be the most famous example of Israeli denial of Palestinian identity.
The interview entitled Who can blame Israel was published in The Sunday Times on June 15, 1969, and included the following exchange:
Frank Giles: Do you think the emergence of the Palestinian fighting forces, the Fedayeen, is an important new factor in the Middle East?
Golda Meir: Important, no. A new factor, yes. There was no such thing as Palestinians. When was there an independent Palestinian people with a Palestinian state? It was either southern Syria before the First World War and then it was a Palestine including Jordan. It was not as though there was a Palestinian people in Palestine considering itself as a Palestinian people and we came and threw them out and took their country from them. They did not exist.
=== Munich Olympics (1972) ===
In the wake of the Munich massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics, Meir appealed to the world to "save our citizens and condemn the unspeakable criminal acts committed". Outraged at the perceived lack of global action, she ordered the Mossad to hunt down and assassinate suspected leaders and operatives of Black September and the PFLP.
=== Dispute with Austria (1973) ===
During the 1970s, about 200,000 Soviet Jewish emigrants were allowed to leave the Soviet Union for Israel by way of Austria. When seven of these emigrants were taken hostage at the Austria–Czechoslovakia border by Palestinian militants in September 1973, the Chancellor of Austria, Bruno Kreisky, closed the Jewish Agency's transit facility in Schönau, Austria. A few days later in Vienna, Meir tried to convince Kreisky to reopen the facility by appealing to his own Jewish origin, and described his position as "succumbing to terrorist blackmail". Kreisky did not change his position, so Meir returned to Israel, infuriated. A few months later, Austria opened a new transition camp.
=== Yom Kippur War (1973) ===
A common criticism of Meir is that she could have avoided the Yom Kippur War in 1973. For months preceding the attack, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat made repeated overtures for peace in exchange for a full Israeli withdrawal from the Sinai, but these gestures were rebuffed by Meir, who had offered previously to discuss ceding "most of the Sinai", but was not willing to restore the pre-1967 borders, and Egypt had no interest in peace talks under Meir's conditions. As the nation's leader during this short war, her main goal was deciding on the timing of preliminary operations, and providing the IDF with the necessary time and munitions to pull off a victory.
In the days leading up to the Yom Kippur War, Israeli intelligence could not conclusively determine that an attack was imminent. However, on 5 October 1973, Meir received information that Syrian forces were massing on the Golan Heights. She was alarmed by the reports, and believed that the situation was similar to what preceded the Six-Day War. However, her advisers counseled her not to worry, saying they would have adequate notice before any war broke out. This made sense at the time; after the Six Day War, most in the Israeli intelligence community considered the Arabs unprepared to launch another attack. Consequently, although the Knesset passed a resolution granting her power to demand a full-scale call-up of the military (instead of the typical cabinet decision), Meir did not mobilize Israel's forces early. Soon, though, the threat of war became very clear. Six hours before the outbreak of hostilities, Meir met with Minister of Defense Moshe Dayan and General David Elazar. While Dayan continued to argue that war was unlikely and favored calling up the air force and only two divisions, Elazar advocated full-scale army mobilization and the launch of a full-scale preemptive strike on Syrian forces.
On October 6, Meir approved full-scale mobilizing but rejected a preemptive strike, citing concerns that Israel might be perceived as initiating hostilities, which would hurt Israel's access to crucial foreign aid and military support, in particular from the United States, in the resulting conflict. She made it a priority to inform Washington of her decision. U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger later confirmed Meir's assessment by stating that if Israel had launched a preemptive strike, Israel would not have received the backing of the United States.
=== Resignation (1974) ===
Following the Yom Kippur War, Meir's government was plagued by infighting and questions over Israel's lack of preparation for the war. The Agranat Commission appointed to investigate the war cleared Meir of "direct responsibility". It said about her actions on Yom Kippur morning:
She decided wisely, with common sense and speedily, in favour of the full mobilization of the reserves, as recommended by the chief-of-staff, despite weighty political considerations, thereby performing a most important service for the defence of the state.
Her party won the elections in December 1973, but the coalition lost seats and was unable to form a majority. Meir resigned as prime minister on 11 April 1974, and gave up her Knesset seat on 7 June 1974. She never held office again. She believed that was the "will of the people" and that she had served enough time as premier. She believed the government needed to form a coalition. She said, "Five years are sufficient ... It is beyond my strength to continue carrying this burden." Yitzhak Rabin succeeded her on June 3, 1974.
== After premiership and death (1974–1978) ==
In 1975, Meir published her autobiography, My Life, which became a New York Times Best Seller.
On 21 November 1977, Meir spoke at the Knesset on behalf of the Labor Party to Egyptian President Anwar Sadat during his historic trip as the first Arab leader to visit Israeli-controlled territory. She said his visit was important for the sake of the next generations' avoiding war, praised Sadat for his courage and vision, and expressed the hope that while many differences remained to be resolved, that vision would be achieved in a spirit of mutual understanding.
On 8 December 1978, Meir died of lymphatic cancer (lymphoma) in Jerusalem at the age of 80. She was buried on Mount Herzl in Jerusalem.
== Personal life ==
Meir's husband Morris Meyerson (also "Myerson") was born on 17 December 1893 in Chicago, Illinois. They married on December 24, 1917, and remained married until his death in Jerusalem on 25 May 1951. She never remarried. Despite never divorcing, the couple grew apart over the course of the marriage. When Meir took her children with her to the United States in the 1930s, Morris stayed behind in Jerusalem.
Meir had two children. Her son, Menachem, was born in Jerusalem in 1924 and died on 14 December 2014 in Tel Aviv. He was a professional cellist who studied at the Israel Conservatory and Manhattan School of Music. Her daughter Sarah was born on 17 May 1926 and died on 30 January 2010 in Revivim.
She had two sisters, Sheyna (1889–1972) and Tzipke (1902–1981), as well as five other siblings who died in childhood.
Morris, Sheyna Korngold and her husband Shamai were buried on Nahalat Yitzhak Cemetery in Givatayim.
In 1956, after becoming Foreign Minister, she changed her surname from "Meyerson" to "Meir", meaning "illuminate", as her predecessor Moshe Sharett had all members of the foreign service take a Hebrew surname.
She was a heavy smoker and coffee drinker, and did not exercise often, which may have contributed to her recurring heart problems.
Of her Jewish identity, Meir said in the 1975 edition of her autobiography My Life that:It is not only a matter, I believe, of religious observance and practice. To me, being Jewish means and has always meant being proud to be part of a people that has maintained its distinct identity for more than 2,000 years, with all the pain and torment that has been inflicted upon it.
She strongly identified with Judaism culturally, but was an atheist in religious belief. She is famously reported to have stated: "I believe in the Jewish people, and the Jewish people believe in God." In her later years she widened her religious attitude, especially concerning the State of Israel: "This country exists as the fulfillment of a promise made by God himself. It would be ridiculous to ask it to account for its legitimacy."
== Awards and recognition ==
In 1974 Meir was awarded the James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service by Princeton University's American Whig–Cliosophic Society.
Also in 1974, Meir was awarded the honor of World Mother by American Mothers.
In 1975, Meir was awarded the Israel Prize for her special contribution to society and the State of Israel.
In 1985, Meir was inducted into the Colorado Women's Hall of Fame.
In 2019, Time created 89 new covers to celebrate women of the year starting from 1920; it chose her for 1956.
== Legacy ==
Biographer Meron Medzini argues that a perspective of forty years makes possible an appreciation of her deep nationalism and Zionism. Historians find her main legacy includes effective leadership of the Labor Movement, and building good relationships with Third World nations. Medzini states, "Apart from laying the foundations for Israel’s presence in Africa, she was never taken with the routine and often dull diplomatic work in the Foreign Ministry and abhorred its outer manifestations of ceremonies and rites." Most historians agree she was a success as Secretary of Labor and Housing, but a failure as prime minister.
A controversial figure in Israel, she has been lionized as a founder of the state and described as the "Iron Lady" of Israeli politics, but also widely blamed for the country being caught by surprise during the 1973 Yom Kippur War. She was also criticized for her dismissive statements towards the Palestinians.
=== Portrayals in film and theater ===
Meir's story has been the subject of many fictionalized portrayals. In 1977, Anne Bancroft played Meir in William Gibson's Broadway play Golda. The Australian actress Judy Davis played a young Meir in the television film A Woman Called Golda (1982), opposite Leonard Nimoy. Ingrid Bergman played the older Meir in the same film. Actress Colleen Dewhurst portrayed Meir in the 1986 TV movie Sword of Gideon.
In 2003, American Jewish actress Tovah Feldshuh portrayed her on Broadway in Golda's Balcony, Gibson's second play about Meir's life. The play was controversial for implying that Meir considered using nuclear weapons during the Yom Kippur War. Valerie Harper portrayed Meir in the touring company production and in the film version of Golda's Balcony. In 2005, actress Lynn Cohen portrayed Meir in Steven Spielberg's film Munich.
Tovah Feldshuh assumed the role of Meir again in the 2006 English-language French movie O Jerusalem. She was played by the Polish actress Beata Fudalej in the 2009 dramatic film The Hope directed by Márta Mészáros.
English actor Helen Mirren portrayed Meir in the 2023 biopic film Golda, directed by Guy Nattiv and produced by Michael Kuhn. The film centres on the Yom Kippur War.
As of April 2021, a TV miniseries Lioness starring Shira Haas is also currently being produced and will be directed by Barbra Streisand.
=== Commemoration ===
Golda Meir House Museum and Education Center, Auraria Campus, 1149 9t Street, Denver CO 80204
Golda Meir School, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Golda Meir School, in Barra da Tijuca, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Golda Meir Library, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Golda Meir Boulevard, Jerusalem, Israel (and various other streets, neighborhoods and schools in Israel)
Golda Meir Center for the Performing Arts – home to the Israeli Opera and the Cameri Theater, Tel Aviv
Bust of Golda Meir at Golda Meir Square, New York City
Golda Meir Center for Political Leadership at Metropolitan State University of Denver
Golda Meir House, Denver, Colorado
Golda Meir House, Newton, Massachusetts
Golda Meir Street in the city of Kyiv
=== Cultural references ===
In Israel, the term "Golda's shoes" (na'alei Golda) has become a reference to the sturdy orthopedic shoes that Golda favored. These shoes were also supplied to women soldiers in the Israel Defense Forces from its foundation to 1987.
== Published works ==
This Is Our Strength (1962) – Golda Meir's collected papers
My Father's House (1972)
My Life (1975). Putnam, ISBN 0-399-11669-9.
== See also ==
Évian Conference
List of Israel Prize recipients
List of prime ministers of Israel
List of elected and appointed female heads of state and government
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Sources ==
Avner, Yehuda (2010). The Prime Ministers: An Intimate Narrative of Israeli Leadership. Toby Press. ISBN 978-1-59264-278-6. OCLC 758724969.
Burkett, Elinor (2008). Golda Meir: The Iron Lady of the Middle East. Gibson Square. ISBN 978-1-906142-13-1.
Medzini, Meron. "Golda Meir–A Forty Year Perspective." Israel Studies 23.1 (2018): 73-85. online
== Further reading ==
Agrees, Elijahu (1969). Golda Meir: Portrait of a Prime Minister. Sabra Books. ISBN 0-87631-020-X.
Bachleitner, Kathrin. "Golda Meir and Bruno Kreisky–A Political and Personal Duel." Israel Studies 23.1 (2018): 26-49. online; in 1973 she clashed with leader of Austria regarding Palestinian terrorist attacks against Jewish transit through Vienna.
Fallaci, Oriana (1976). Interview With History. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-25223-7.
Klagsbrun, Francine (2017). Lioness: Golda Meir and the Nation of Israel. Schocken Books. ISBN 978-0-80524-237-9., a standard scholarly biography; excerpt
Lahav, Pnina. "“A Great Episode in the History of Jewish Womanhood”: Golda Meir, the Women Workers' Council, Pioneer Women, and the Struggle for Gender Equality." Israel Studies 23.1 (2018): 1-25. online
Martin, Ralph G. (1988). Golda Meir: The Romantic Years. Ivy Books. ISBN 0-8041-0536-7., popular online
Meir, Menahem (1983). My Mother Golda Meir: A Son's Evocation of Life With Golda Meir. Arbor House Publishing Company. ISBN 0-87795-415-1.
Medzini, Meron. Golda Meir: A Political Biography (2017) excerpt; a standard scholarly biography
Medzini, Meron. Golda Meir: A Reference Guide to Her Life and Works (2020) excerpt
Skard, Torild (2014) "Golda Meir" in Women of Power – Half a century of female presidents and prime ministers worldwide. Bristol: Policy Press, ISBN 978-1-44731-578-0.
Steinberg, Blema S. Women in power: The personalities and leadership styles of Indira Gandhi, Golda Meir, and Margaret Thatcher (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2008).
Syrkin, Marie (1969). Golda Meir: Israel's Leader. Putnam., highly flattering
Syrkin, Marie (1963). Golda Meir: Woman with a Cause.
Tsoref, Hagai. "Golda Meir's Leadership in the Yom Kippur War." Israel Studies 23.1 (2018): 50-72. online Archived September 3, 2021, at the Wayback Machine
Weitz, Yechiam. "Golda Meir, Israel's Fourth Prime Minister (1969–74)." Middle Eastern Studies 47.1 (2011): 43-61. online
=== Historiography ===
Schmidt, Sarah. "Hagiography in the diaspora: Golda Meir and her biographers." American Jewish History 92.2 (2004): 157-188. online
== External links ==
Golda Meir on the Knesset website
Golda Meir at the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Meir, Golda (née Mabovitch; 1898–1978) at the Jewish Agency For Israel
Women's International Center
The short film Golda Meir Interview (Reel 1 of 2) (1973) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
The short film Golda Meir Interview (Reel 2 of 2) (1973) is available for free viewing and download at the Internet Archive.
Video Lecture on Golda Meir by Henry Abramson
Prime Minister Golda Meir, Exhibition in the IDF&Defense establishment archives Archived March 29, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
Golda Meir Personal Manuscripts, Shapell Manuscript Foundation
The Golda Meir Mount Carmel International Training Center (MCTC) – established in 1961 to assist in the training of women engaged in community work in the newly emerging states in Africa and Asia |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anonymous_Was_A_Woman_Award#2019 | Anonymous Was A Woman Award | The Anonymous Was A Woman Award is a grant program for women artists who are over 40 years of age, in part to counter sexism in the art world. It began in 1996 in direct response to the National Endowment for the Arts' decision to stop funding individual artists.
The award comes with a grant of $25,000 and is designed to enable exceptional woman artists to further develop their work. Awardees are chosen on the basis of their past accomplishments, their originality and artistic growth, and the quality of their work. Since 1996, more than 300 women have received the award and approximately $6.5 million USD has been awarded in total.
The award was founded by a New York artist who originally chose to remain anonymous. She named the award in reference to a line from the Virginia Woolf book A Room of One's Own and in recognition of all the women artists through the ages who have remained anonymous for various reasons. Nominators, who include art writers, curators, art historians, and previous winners, are likewise unnamed.
In July 2018, the artist Susan Unterberg was revealed as both the founder and funder of the award. Before 2018, she had remained anonymous so that her artwork would be evaluated in its own context, without being influenced by her contributions. In an interview, she described her reasons for coming forward, stating "It’s a great time for women to speak up. I feel I can be a better advocate having my own voice," and that she can now work openly to further the organization's cause and to encourage philanthropists and women artists. On top of the awarded grants, Unterberg is considering other forms of programs, possibly seminars, to complement the grants.
== Exhibitions ==
Anonymous Was A Woman: The First 25 Years, Grey Art Museum at New York University, N.Y., April 1-July 19, 2025. This exhibit was curated by Nancy Princenthal and Vesela Sretenović. Anonymous Was A Woman: The First 25 Years, celebrating the awardees from 1996-2020, was published on January 1, 2025, by the Grey Art Museum and Hirmer Verlag.
In Fall 2025, the Kreeger Museum, Washington, D.C., exhibited Anonymous Was a Woman: Jae Ko | linn meyers | Joyce J. Scott | Renée Stout. The exhibited featured the works of Ko, Meyers, Scott and Stout, all Anonymous Was a Woman grant recipients, and all based in the Washington, D.C. area. The exhibit was curated by Dr. Vesela Sretenović.
== Award winners ==
Listed below are the winners of the award.
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== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Afzal_Cheema#Political_career | Mohammad Afzal Cheema | Justice Mohammad Afzal Cheema (Punjabi and Urdu: محمد افضل چیمہ; 1 January 1913 – 4 August 2008) was a Pakistani politician and judge. Justice Cheema is the only Pakistani to reach the top positions in all branches of state. He served as the acting President of Pakistan, Judge of the High Court and then Supreme Court of Pakistan, Senior Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan, Federal Law Secretary, and Chairman of the Council of Islamic Ideology. He is considered the most prominent personality in the Cheema tribe and is commonly referred to as the "Chief of Cheemas".
== Early age and education ==
Justice Cheema was born in a small village named Kathore Kalan, 303 JB near Gojra, Toba Tek Singh in 1913. After graduation from Islamia College in 1932, he received his master's degree in English literature from the University of the Punjab in 1934. Later, circumstances forced him to return to his native village, where he oversaw the affairs of his family and the village following his father's sudden demise, who was the head of the village. A desire for continued professional education led him into the field of law in 1945. In 1947, he received his law degree and subsequently started a law practice in Lyallpur, now known as Faisalabad.
== Participation in the Pakistan movement ==
Justice Cheema played an active role in the Pakistan movement and supported Mohammad Ali Jinnah. He also participated in the gathering in Lahore on the 23 March 1940. He had several meetings with national poet Allama Iqbal and had cordial and personal relations with many Muslim leaders of the Indian subcontinent, including Mohammad Ali Bogra, Feroz Khan Noon, Syed Ata Ullah Shah Bukhari, Molvi Tamizuddin Khan.
== Political career ==
Justice Cheema was elected as member of the West Pakistan Legislative Assembly in one unit system in 1951 and later elected as the Deputy Opposition Leader. He became the member of the National Assembly of Pakistan in 1962 for Toba Tek Singh (The largest Constituency of the country at that time). Subsequently, he was elected Senior Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan by a single vote, defeating the Treasury Candidate. Throughout his tenure as Senior Deputy Speaker, he served as the Speaker of the National Assembly because of the illness of Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan and absence of Fazul ul Qadir. Justice Cheema is the only Speaker of the National Assembly of Pakistan who had cast his Casting vote in the House twice: once in favour of the Treasury and once in favour of the Opposition. He also served as the Acting President of Pakistan in the absence of Field Marshal Ayub Khan more than three times.
== Judicial career ==
Besides his political career, Justice Cheema served as Judge of West Pakistan High Court and also as Federal Law Secretary. He headed the team which drafted the first complete, comprehensive constitution of Pakistan now known as the 1973 Constitution. He was elevated to the Supreme Court and retired as the Senior Most Judge of the Supreme Court of Pakistan.
== Council of Islamic ideology ==
After his retirement from the Supreme Court, Cheema was made the full-time Chairman of Council of Islamic Ideology (Islami Nazeryati Council) and was responsible for the conversion of the parts of the Pakistani common law into Sharia Laws.
== International service ==
=== United Nations ===
Cheema led the Pakistani Delegation at the United Nations annual conference twice. He also represented Pakistan in the Annual Conference of the Parliamentarians held in Caracas, Venezuela as leader of the Pakistani delegation.
=== Muslim World League ===
Cheema served in the Muslim World League (MWL), an international Muslim organisation having observer status in the UN and OIC, as its Secretary General, Asian Branch for more than 15 years. His contribution as Secretary General of the MWL was in Humanitarian relief and Mediation for the Muslim Ummah and in particular for the Muslims of the Asian region.
His main accomplishments were:
Approval and Opening of the first Islamic Centre (largest in the Asian Region) in Xinjiang province in China.
Repatriation efforts for stranded Pakistanis often referred to as Biharis in Bangladesh
Contribution for the revival of the Islamic Values and the religion in various Asian States
Successful mediation among the various factions in Afghanistan
== Honours ==
He was awarded the Highest Civil Award of South Korea by President Roh Tae-woo for his endeavours in bringing Pakistan and South Korea closer through the establishment of diplomatic relations and for the formation of the Pak-Korea Friendship Association.
== Timeline ==
Deputy Leader of the Opposition in the West Pakistan Legislative Assembly. 1951–1955
Senior Deputy Speaker of the National Assembly. 1962–1965.
Acting President of Pakistan. More than thrice. 1962–1965.
Judge of the West Pakistan/Lahore High Court. 1965–1973.
Federal Law Secretary. 1973–1975.
Judge of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. 1975–1979.
Chairman Council of Islamic Ideology. 1977–1980.
Secretary General of Muslim World League Asian Branch. 1980–2000.
== Book ==
The Qadiani Problem: A Legal and Historical Perspective : Working Paper, 1986.
Ijtehad and Islamization of Laws, 2010.
== References ==
[1]
[2]
[3]
== External links ==
"Punjab Legislative Assembly - Second Assembly (May 7, 1951 to October 14, 1955)".
http://www.na.gov.pk/en/deputyspeakers.php
http://cii.gov.pk/aboutcii/Listofchairmen.aspx |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lygia_Pape#Early_life_and_career | Lygia Pape | Lygia Pape (7 April 1927 – 3 May 2004) was a Brazilian visual artist, sculptor, engraver, and filmmaker, who was a key figure in the Concrete movement and a later co-founder of the Neo-Concrete Movement in Brazil during the 1950s and 1960s. Along with Hélio Oiticica and Lygia Clark, she was an important artist in the expansion of contemporary art in Brazil and pushed geometric art to include aspects of interaction and to engage with ethical and political themes.
== Early life and career ==
Lygia Pape was born on 7 April 1927 in Nova Friburgo, Brazil. Pape studied philosophy at the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFTJ). Afterwards, she received an informal training in fine arts, and studied with Fayga Ostrower at the Museum of Modern Art, Rio de Janeiro.
== Concrete art ==
At age 20, Pape joined the concrete art movement. The term "concrete art" was coined by the Dutch artist Theo van Doesburg in 1930.
=== Tecelares Series ===
In the 1950s, Pape created her Tecelares Series. The Tecelares wood prints were originally seen purely as works of Concrete art because of their precise and geometric aesthetic. The woodblock prints are minimalistic; they feature planes of black ink and thin lines that reveal the white rice paper underneath. The production of the series seems straightforward: Pape incised the entire surface of the woodblock with thin lines, adding several non-orthogonal lines to create the appearance of distinct planes and the suggestion of movement and space in a work that would be otherwise flat and static.
In Tecelares, Lygia Pape used "weaving" as a metaphor to evoke handiwork and a connection to Brazil's traditional and indigenous culture. Pape spoke of how indigenous Brazilian cultures had used geometry to express fundamental concepts, like the concept of collective identity. Thus, for Lygia Pape, geometry did not represent industry or mechanization, but rather it expressed a transcendent idiom. Instead of using a gridded and rigid composition, Pape blended natural and organic patterns with incised lines that are intertwined to "warp and weft." Pape used simple materials, crafted minimally by her own hands, to incorporate expression into a work that is not expressionistic.
==== Sem Titulo [Untitled] (1959) ====
This 1959 artwork in the Tecelares series, takes the same woodblock carving technique and is incised by thin parallel lines which are disrupted by the non-orthogonal lines that cut across the print. The two horizontally oriented lines that cut across the print break up the continuity of the parallel lines, creating the illusion of a separate plain and thus, space.
Although Pape used a ruled edge and a compass to create the lines in Sem Título [Untitled] (1959), there are slight variations in the width of the lines, revealing that a hand rather than a machine made the forms. Additionally, the rice paper's delicacy had absorbed the ink, creating imprecise edges. The black ink of the woodprint's background also reveals the natural wood grain of the block print as one can see the porous marks of the wood between the incised lines on the print. So despite the woodprint's originally Concrete identity, Sem Título [Untitled] (1959), is now understood as a transitional piece from the Concrete movement into the Neo-Concrete, as it is infused with non-mechanical and "handmade" qualities that seem more expressive than mechanistic.
Untitled at the Museum of Modern Art, 1959
Untitled at the Museum of Modern Art, 1959
==== Sem Titulo [Untitled] (1960) ====
The 1960s version of Tecelares is even more organic and expressive than the earlier 1959 version. The print shows the grain of the woodblock even more overtly in the bottom portion of the print, while the top portion remains relatively muted. As in the other prints in this series, Sem Título [Untitled] (1960) is cut by diagonal lines that disrupt the continuity of the horizontal wood grain pattern, creating movement and distinct planes in the artwork, though they are considerably more subtle than the 1959 Sem Título [Untitled] print of the same series. Also similar to the 1959 print, the 1960 print has the same imprecise quality created by the feathering of the ink on the rice paper. It also has a very organic quality, which is produced through the patterns and swirls of the wood grain. Because of this organic pattern, this print seems to overtly oppose the mechanic properties associated with Concrete art.
Untitled from the series Weavings (Tecelares) at the Museum of Modern Art, 1960
== Grupo Frente ==
In 1952, at the age of 25, Pape met fellow Brazilian artists Hélio Oiticica, Ivan Serpa, and Aluísio Carvão. Together the quartet formed the Grupo Frente. The Grupo Frente organized a subtle movement that rejected the national painting style of Brazil. Grupo Frente began exploring abstract and concrete art styles that distanced themselves from overly political art. The group was united by their desire to reject modern Brazilian art. Grupo Frente was revolutionary for their studies in line, form, and color. Grupo Frente organized two solo exhibitions. Their first exhibition was at the Ibeu gallery in Rio in 1954, under the artist guidance of Ferreira Gullar. Their second exhibition was in 1955 at the Museum of Modern Art in Rio. Both exhibits highlighted non-traditional use of line, geometric shapes and color.
== Neo-Concrete Movement ==
After her involvement with the Grupo Frente Concrete artists, Pape transitioned into the short wave of Neo-Concrete art.
As scholar Adele Nelson suggested, the Grupo Ruptura artist Waldemar Cordeiro and the Grupo Frente Ferreira Gullar had a debate on each other's “inadequate and overzealous rigor in their respective approaches to geometric abstraction”, which promoted and inspired the former members of Grupo Frente including Lygia Pape to initiate the Neo-Concrete movement in 1959. Neo-Concrete Movement advocates for a more expressive and corporeal viewing experience than the “overly rational” art-making approach embraced by Grupo Ruptura.
In 1959 Pape was a signatory of the Neo-Concrete Manifesto, along with Lygia Clark and Helio Oiticica. In explaining her approach, Lygia Pape said:
My concern is always invention. I always want to invent a new language that's different for me and for others, too... I want to discover new things. Because, to me, art is a way of knowing the world... to see how the world is... of getting to know the world.
Pape specifically during her Neo-Concrete period was interested in the “proposal to ‘live the body.’” This phrase indicates Pape’s interest in how the physical body acts as our mediator for all sensual experiences. Pape sought to explore this idea of the body’s relation in space by creating multi-sensorial experiences in her artwork.
=== Livro da Criação [Book of Creation], (1959) ===
The sculpture/book/poem Livro da Criação [Book of Creation] is emblematic of the early Neo-Concrete works. The work consists of sixteen unbound cardboard "pages". The pages are 12 x 12 inches each and feature abstract images that are supposed to signify a significant moment in the creation of the world, such as the recession of water, the discovery of fire and agriculture, hunting, and navigation. As a Neo-concrete artist, Lygia Pape's Livro da Criação [Book of Creation] synthesizes reason and emotion. The participant is meant to have a phenomenological experience by handling the book. Each reading of the work might be different based on the individual's experiences. As Lygia Pape noted, "It's important to say that there are two plausible readings: for me it is the book of the creation of the world, but for others it can be the book of "creation." Through each person's experiences, there is a process of open structure through which each structure can generate its own reading."
== Later career ==
Later on in the 1960s and 1970s, Pape produced more videos and installations using sarcastic and critical metaphors against the Brazilian dictatorship. From the 1980s onward, these metaphors became more subtle.
Among the videos produced in this period, the seminal film made in 1975 by Pape, Eat Me, has evoked the interest in exploring the attraction and repulsion in gender and sexuality. The sensual movements of a female and a male mouth are presented in slow motion, which is referred to as an implication of a vagina as well as the actions of “sucking and expelling objects”, according to Claudia Calirman. Although Pape persisted that this work should not be viewed as a thesis, the film reveals sexism by “implicating the viewer in the objectification of women”.
Her artwork worked as a vehicle for existential, sensorial, and psychological life experiences, much of it based in geometry and relying on both the intellectual and physical participation of the viewer. A 1967 work, O Ovo, had installation participants crawl inside a cube-shaped structure of wooden boards covered in plastic film, and then push through the film to simulate the act of being born.
From 1972 to 1985, Pape taught semiotics at the School of Architecture at the Universidade Santa Úrsula in Rio de Janeiro, and was appointed professor in the School of Fine Arts of the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro in 1983 as well. In 1980 she received a master's degree in philosophy from the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro. In her teaching, Pape introduced her mostly middle and upper class students to the informal architecture of Rio de Janeiro's favelas, with particular focus on Maré. In her films, photography, and teaching of the 1970s and 1980s, Pape sought to investigate architectural forms and sociability of urban space in Rio de Janeiro.
In 1981 Pape received a Guggenheim Fellowship.
Pape's first retrospective exhibition was held in 2000, with a close focus on her print practice in chronological delineation. She viewed these works as “a generative source of her fifty-plus years of artistic creation”. When reinterpreting these artworks, Pape also adopted the form of photography with no surprise.
=== The Ttéias series ===
Of all of Pape's works, Ttéias (1979) is perhaps most emblematic of her artistic process. The Ttéias was first conceived in 1979, but it was not until the 1990s that it was produced in full scale. In 1978 Lygia Pape began to experiment arranging and rearranging metallic strings together with her students at the Parque Lage Gardens in Rio de Janeiro. Pape invented the word "Ttéias", which is a pun based on the Portuguese word for "web" ("teia") and for "a person or thing of grace" ("teteia"). This series consists of an immersive staging of semi-transparent prisms, which were created using gold thread. This piece blends realism and imaginary art, allowing the viewer to interpret Ttéias by walking through it.
== Death and legacy ==
Pape died on 3 May 2004 in Rio de Janeiro at age of 77.
Her work is in the collections of the Museum of Modern Art, the Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, and the Tate,
Pape's work was included in the 2021 exhibition Women in Abstraction at the Centre Pompidou.
In 2025/2026 Pape was given her first solo exhibition in France, called Weaving Space, at the Pinault Collection, Bourse de Commerce.
== Select exhibitions ==
2000 Artur Barrio, Antonio Manuel, Lygia Pape, Museu Serralves, Porto
2002 Brazil: Body and Soul, Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
2003 50. Biennale di Venezia
2009 Making Worlds, 53rd Biennale di Venezia, Venice
2009 Folder Museum of Modern Art, New York
2011 Lygia Pape: Magnetized Space, Serpentine Galleries, London
2011 Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid
2017 Lygia Pape: A Multitude of Forms, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; catalog ISBN 978-1-588-39616-7
2018 Lygia Pape: Ttéia 1, C, Moderna Museet, Stockholm
2022 Lygia Pape. The Skin of ALL, Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf
== Art market and estate ==
Pape did not work with a commercial gallery until later in life.
Projeto Lygia Pape, the artist's estate, was founded by the artist before her death in 2004 and is administered by her daughter Paula Pape. In 2017, Paula Pape filed a suit in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York against LG Electronics, several vendors of its mobile phones and Getty Images Korea alleging an infringement of copyright of her mother's 2003 sculpture TtEia 1, C in packaging materials, advertising and promotions for the K20 V mobile phone.
== References ==
== External links ==
Lygia Pape at Venice Biennale 2009 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_(Swedish_band)#:~:text=Papa%20Emeritus%20II%20and%20Papa,3%2Dmonth%20difference%20in%20age. | Ghost (Swedish band) | Ghost is a Swedish rock band known for combining costumed theatricality, heavy metal, and arena rock. Formed in Linköping in 2006, the band released their debut album, Opus Eponymous in 2010, which earned them international recognition. This was followed by Infestissumam in 2013 and in 2015 by Meliora, which reached number one in Sweden and number eight in the US. This was followed by the albums Prequelle in 2018 and Impera in 2022. The band's sixth studio album, Skeletá, was released in 2025; it subsequently became their first number one on the US Billboard 200 chart.
Known for their costumed on-stage presence, Ghost's members, except for the lead vocalist, are known as "Nameless Ghouls". The lead-singer has performed under the persona of "Papa Emeritus", a character known for its "demonic anti-pope" imagery, while changing this for subsequent tours.
In 2017, the identity of the lead singer was revealed to be Tobias Forge after several musicians who had worked with him on the Ghost project started legal action over royalties. The single, "Cirice", earned the band a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 2016, while they have been nominated for several Swedish Grammis awards.
== History ==
=== Formation and Opus Eponymous (2006–2011) ===
Ghost was formed in 2006, when future band leader Tobias Forge wrote the song "Stand by Him". He said, "I said that this is probably the most heavy metal riff that has ever existed ... When the chorus came to me, it haunted my dreams. Every time I picked up the guitar, I ended up playing that progression, and when I fit the words in, it seemed to cry out for a Satanically-oriented lyric." Forge then contacted his former Repugnant bandmate Gustaf Lindström to record the song.
In early 2008, the two entered the studio to record three songs: "Stand by Him", "Prime Mover" and "Death Knell". Afterwards Forge remarked to Lindström: "This definitely does not sound like two dudes that look like you and I". Thus Forge decided that they should be an anonymous "theater band", and use their love of horror films and "the traditions of Scandinavian metal" in the band's imagery. While other members of the band would wear black hooded robes and be called "Nameless Ghouls", Forge would go by "Papa Emeritus", dressed in Papal regalia and his face painted to resemble a skull. Forge then chose the name Ghost for the group. Initially Forge had no aspirations on becoming the band's vocalist, instead wanting to play guitar. He offered the position of lead vocalist to Messiah Marcolin, Mats Levén, Christer Göransson and JB Christoffersson, all of whom passed. As a result, Forge became the band's lead singer by default. On 12 March 2010, Forge posted the first three Ghost songs on MySpace and within two days was contacted by records labels and managers wanting to work with the group.
Ghost spent a few weeks in a basement studio in the band's hometown of Linköping recording their debut album. In June 2010, the band released their first single "Elizabeth". Ghost released their first studio album, Opus Eponymous, on 18 October 2010, on the independent record label Rise Above Records. The album earned them international recognition. The album reached number 50 on the Sverigetopplistan and was well received by critics, being nominated for the 2011 Grammis Award for "Best Hard Rock" album. Ghost played their first concert on 23 October 2010 at the Hammer of Doom festival in Würzburg, Germany.
Ghost supported gothic metal band Paradise Lost on their "Draconian Times MMXI" tour in April 2011. On 29 May, Ghost made their United States debut at the Maryland Deathfest. The band performed at Download Festival in Leicestershire, England, on 11 June. Following their performance, Phil Anselmo, lead singer of the band Down, performed wearing a Ghost T-shirt and invited three members of the band to join him on the main stage, where they performed Down's "Bury Me In Smoke" together. In December 2011, Ghost took part in the "Defenders of the Faith III" tour with Trivium, In Flames, Rise to Remain and Insense. The band then embarked on their first US tour, "13 Dates of Doom", beginning in New York on 18 January 2012, and ending on 2 February in Los Angeles. Afterwards Ghost joined Mastodon and Opeth as the opening act on the Heritage Hunter Tour throughout North America during April and May 2012. In June, Ghost received the award for "Breakthrough Band" at the Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards.
=== Infestissumam (2012–2014) ===
In February 2012, a Nameless Ghoul revealed that the band had completed writing their second album. Ghost entered the studio in October to record their second album in Nashville, Tennessee, with producer Nick Raskulinecz. The band had planned to record the album at the turn of 2012, but after starting their US tour in January, they were offered another tour immediately after. At the same time the band, their management and Rise Above Records all agreed that the group's next album should be released on a different label. Thus Ghost signed with Loma Vista Recordings in partnership with Republic Records—a division of Universal Music Group.
On 15 December 2012, Ghost played a show in Linköping, where they debuted a new song titled "Secular Haze", which was released online earlier that day. The band also released a cover of ABBA's "I'm a Marionette" with Dave Grohl. During the same show, the band introduced Papa Emeritus II as the successor to the first Papa Emeritus. On 20 December, the band announced that their second album, Infestissumam, would be released in early 2013. On 5 February 2013, the band announced a name change to "Ghost B.C." in the US for legal reasons. A Nameless Ghoul said: "B.C. is obviously a pun on 'Before Christ', but it's just an amendment. In our world, we're just gonna be called Ghost ... The B.C. is silent, and as soon as we can, it's gonna be taken away forever." They officially dropped the amendment from their name in 2015. From 23 February to 4 March 2013, Ghost toured Australia as a part of the Soundwave Festival.
Infestissumam was originally scheduled to be released on 9 April 2013, in the US, but the band could not find a US company that would manufacture the CD. Four US CD manufacturers rejected the job because the artwork for the deluxe edition of the album was described as "basically a 16th century illustration of an orgy." Rather than delay the album further, the band decided to use the artwork from the regular edition for the US pressings of the deluxe edition and announced the new release date of 16 April. All European copies and the US vinyl versions include the controversial artwork. Infestissumam charted in seven countries, including at number one in Sweden, eventually going gold. The album was also well received by critics, winning the Grammis Award and the P3 Guld Award for "Best Hard Rock/Metal Album" of 2013.
Ghost began their "Haze Over North America" tour on 14 April 2013, at the Coachella Festival, which continued until 18 May. On 27 July, Ghost began the "Still Hazing Over America" tour, which ended in Chicago at the Lollapalooza festival. Immediately after, Ghost toured South America supporting Iron Maiden and Slayer, which included a performance at Rock in Rio. In October 2013, Ghost opened for Avenged Sevenfold and Deftones on their US tour. In November, the band toured the UK with Alice in Chains, before a tour of Europe. On 20 November 2013, Ghost released the EP If You Have Ghost, consisting almost entirely of cover songs. It was produced by Dave Grohl of Nirvana and Foo Fighters fame.
In January 2014, Ghost received six nominations at the Loudwire Music Awards. From 17 January to 2 February 2014, the band toured Australia as a part of the Big Day Out festival. They then embarked on the "Tour Year Zero", which lasted from 17 April until 17 May 2014, in North America. In July, the band performed at the European Sonisphere Festival.
=== Meliora (2015–2017) ===
Ghost's third studio album, the follow-up to Infestissumam, Meliora was released on 21 August 2015. In an advertisement for the album that aired 28 May on VH1 Classic, it was announced that Papa Emeritus II was "fired" and that his successor Papa Emeritus III is his younger brother by a full three months. The song "Cirice" was released on 30 May, and won the 2016 Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance. Papa Emeritus III was officially unveiled with a debut performance in Linköping on 3 June 2015, where the band also performed new songs from the upcoming album.
The album was first promoted in August by a five date acoustic tour named "Unholy/Unplugged" of record shops in the US. Here Papa Emeritus III sported slicked-back jet black hair without his trademark mitre, and performed alongside the two guitarist Nameless Ghouls; accompanying them on the kazoo. A tour of the US titled "Black to the Future" began on 22 September and ran until 1 November. This was followed by a North America tour that took place in the spring 2016.
On 12 September 2016, the band released a new track on a radio show titled "Square Hammer" and a new EP, Popestar, was released on 16 September, the same day the Popestar Tour began. Following the conclusion of the North American tour that concluded on 12 November, was the European tour of the same name which started in late March and finished in late April 2017. They were the opening act for Iron Maiden on their 2017 North America tour from June to July 2017. A Nameless Ghoul stated that after the tour was over, they would be writing and recording the new album which they stated would be much darker than Meliora, with Tobias confirming in an interview that the fourth album would be released in 2018.
In early 2017, Tobias Forge was sued by former Ghost members Simon Söderberg, Mauro Rubino, Martin Hjertstedt, and Henrik Palm as part of a royalties dispute. The four, who left Ghost in 2016, filed the suit in the district court of Linköping, Sweden and accused Forge, who was in charge of the band's business affairs, of withholding financial information and payments to the other members. The former members also claimed that "Our vocalist and former friend is now attempting to, in an underhanded and shameless way, transform Ghost from a band into a solo project with hired musicians." Forge claimed that "no legal partnership" ever existed between the other members and himself; they were paid a fixed salary to perform and execute the band's image as he instructed as "musicians for hire". He also stated that he refers to Ghost as a solo project, "Even though I've never wanted it that way, but at the end of the day, that is what it is. I mean, I started it in 2006, and no one that was ever in the band in 2016 was even on the first record. Call it solo, if you want to, but I call it a project." The legal action against Forge is what revealed his identity.
On 24 August 2017, the band released their final music video from Meliora for their song "He Is". During the final show of the Popestar Tour on 30 September 2017, Papa Emeritus III was dragged off stage at the end of the performance. A new incarnation called "Papa Emeritus Zero" was introduced on stage, later named "Papa Nihil". The band released their first live album titled Ceremony and Devotion digitally on 8 December 2017, with a physical release following on 19 January 2018.
=== Prequelle (2018–2020) ===
On 13 April 2018, Ghost released a new single, titled "Rats", along with an accompanying music video. This marked the first release from the band, with their "new" frontman Cardinal Copia. Additionally, the band welcomed a new character, saxophonist Papa Nihil, extending Ghost into a septet. The album was titled Prequelle, and it was released on 1 June 2018. A second song, "Dance Macabre" was released ahead of the album on 17 May, and was later released as the album's second single.
To promote the album, Ghost began the Rats! on the Road tour in the US which ran from 5 May until 1 June. The band was an opening act for Guns N' Roses in Oslo, Norway on 19 July 2018.
Ghost began A Pale Tour Named Death in London, England, at Royal Albert Hall on 9 September 2018. A North American tour of the same name began later in the fall that year featuring two headlining arena shows in Los Angeles and New York City. An early 2019 European tour of the same name was announced on 10 September 2018. In March 2019, the band performed in Australia and Japan as part of Download Festival. Ghost was later announced as the opening act for Metallica's WorldWired Tour from May to August 2019. A second North American tour was announced on 1 April 2019, with Nothing More as support. A European tour at the end of 2019 with All Them Witches and Tribulation was announced on 8 July 2019.
The band released their second music video for the song "Dance Macabre" on 17 October 2018. A third music video, "Faith", was released on 20 December 2018 following the band's first North American leg of their tour.
Ghost announced their standalone single Kiss the Go-Goat / Mary on a Cross which was released on 13 September 2019 under the title Seven Inches of Satanic Panic. A video for "Kiss the Go-Goat" was released at midnight on September 12 as "Chapter 8" of their ongoing web series.
In an interview on 25 September 2019, Ghost confirmed that other than one show in Mexico City on 3 March 2020, there would be zero touring next year. The year would be spent working on a new studio album which is expected to be released at the beginning of 2021. At the final show of the tour in support of Prequelle, the band introduced the new frontman for the next album cycle, Papa Emeritus IV to which Tobias Forge had stated would be the next frontman.
=== Impera and film (2020–2024) ===
On 8 October 2020, Ghost confirmed that they would release their fifth studio album in winter 2020. There was a tour planned for March 2021, but it had been postponed to the fall of 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On the same day, the band was given the Music Export Prize of 2019 by the government of Sweden. On 21 October 2020, Ghost later announced that they would be entering the recording studio in January to begin recording the album for a late 2021 release. Ghost announced on their Facebook page on 30 December 2020, that 'several big things' were being worked on for 2021, indicating new music and live performances.
Papa Emeritus IV made his public debut on the Swedish television game show "På spåret" on 22 January 2021, joining alongside The Hellacopters to perform a cover of the Rolling Stones' "Sympathy for the Devil". Ghost later released a music video for "Life Eternal" on 3 March 2021, which featured live footage from the previous show in Mexico City the year before. Ghost became a featured artist on Metallica's tribute album The Metallica Blacklist which was released on 10 September 2021, in which they perform "Enter Sandman". On 30 September 2021, the band unveiled their single, "Hunter's Moon", which is featured on the soundtrack of the 2021 slasher film Halloween Kills.
In an interview on 30 October 2021, Forge announced that the concept of the album would be based on "the rise and fall of empires". On 20 January 2022, the band released the single, "Call Me Little Sunshine" as the second from their fifth studio album, Impera, which was released on 11 March 2022. On 2 March 2022, the band released the third single from the album, "Twenties". On 8 March, the band announced its sponsorship of the JD Motorsports No. 4 Chevrolet Camaro SS driven by Bayley Currey at the 12 March NASCAR Xfinity Series race at Phoenix Raceway. Ghost would later make an appearance on Jimmy Kimmel Live! to perform "Call Me Little Sunshine" which had previously been postponed due to touring commitments. On 27 July 2022, the band released a music video for the album's fourth single, "Spillways", which was rereleased in January 2023 with Joe Elliott as a featured guest.
Ghost kicked off on the Imperatour in the US from January to March 2022, co-headlining with Volbeat and Twin Temple. Ghost later announced a European tour of the same name on 23 November 2021, with Uncle Acid & the Deadbeats and Twin Temple joining as support. Ghost was featured as a headliner for Hellfest in Clisson, France on 18 June 2022. On 17 May 2022, the band announced the second North American leg with Mastodon and Spiritbox as opening acts. During an interview on 12 September 2022, Forge confirmed that there would be more touring in 2023, and later revealed further touring plans for Asia and Oceania, as well as stating that he was working on the follow-up for Impera. On 13 February 2023, the band announced that they would be touring the US again from August to September 2023, with Amon Amarth as special guests.
On 1 February 2023, the band temporarily hosted an archival exhibition in Los Angeles, in celebration of the band's "1969 era" which had featured Papa Nihil and other items from that era. Upon release of Chapter 16 in the band's web series, speculation began to spread that Papa Emeritus IV will be "killed off" at the end of the Imperatour, following the announcement of a second show at the Kia Forum in Inglewood. A South American leg was announced on 4 April 2023, which was the band's first time headlining in Brazil and Argentina, following reports that Ghost would release new music before their second European leg on the Imperatour. Prior to the second Europe leg, the band announced their fourth EP, Phantomime, a covers EP which was supported by a single of the band's cover of Genesis' "Jesus He Knows Me". The EP was originally set to be released on 18 May 2023, but was postponed to 19 May. Ghost later collaborated with actor Patrick Wilson and released a single of their cover of Shakespears Sister's "Stay", which was released on 7 July 2023 and featured in the 2023 film, Insidious: The Red Door.
On 7 September 2023, the band received its first platinum certification for the single "Mary On A Cross", from their EP, Seven Inches of Satanic Panic. After their performances in South America, the band concluded the Imperatour in October 2023 with three shows in Australia, in which the Brisbane performance on 7 October 2023 was the final show to feature Papa Emeritus IV. Forge later announced on 11 October 2023, that a Ghost movie was in the works, confirming that the Inglewood performances in September 2023 were filmed.
On 1 December 2023, Ghost released a compilation album titled 13 Commandments. This release marked the global release of Meliora Redux's exclusive track "Zenith" via streaming services, whereas before it was only available on physical formats. In an interview with Metal Hammer on 9 December 2023, Forge confirmed that work on the next studio album had begun, stating that a few songs had been written, and later acknowledged in a New Year's message that there was "lots to come" in 2024.
The band published a teaser for the movie on 4 April 2024. Without revealing the movie's title, the teaser depicted Papa Emeritus IV on stage and announced that the movie would be released worldwide soon. Later, the band revealed the film's name, Rite Here Rite Now, which was released on 20 June 2024. A single, "The Future Is a Foreign Land", was released on 21 June 2024, a day after the film was released. The soundtrack for the movie was released on 26 July 2024 through Loma Vista Recordings.
=== Skeletá (2024–present) ===
On 28 October 2024, the band announced a then-untitled world tour beginning in 2025, later called the "Skeletour". The tour began with its European leg from 15 April to 24 May, followed by the North American leg from 9 July to 16 August. The 2025 shows concluded in Mexico City on 25 September. The band had also confirmed that more dates would be announced.
Papa V Perpetua was revealed as the new frontman for Ghost on 5 February 2025. A month later, Ghost released the single, "Satanized", with an accompanied music video, as well as announcing the title of the sixth studio album, Skeletá, which was released on 25 April 2025. The album's second single, "Lachryma", was released on 11 April 2025. The album's third single, "Peacefield", was released on 22 April 2025. On 28 April, a music video was released for the song. In May 2025, the album topped the Billboard 200 album charts, driven by a combination of sales and streaming that "accumulated 86,000 "equivalent album units".
On 26 September 2025, the band revealed that the two shows in Mexico City were filmed for a future concert film. On 29 September 2025, a second North American leg for the Skeletour was announced for January to February 2026. In November 2025, "Lachryma" was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the upcoming 68th Annual Grammy Awards.
== Musical style and influences ==
Ghost's music has been categorized in many genres, including hard rock, heavy metal, arena rock, pop rock, doom metal, progressive rock, psychedelic rock, occult rock, shock rock, symphonic metal, and gothic rock.
Adrien Begrand of PopMatters stated that Ghost recalls "the early sounds of Black Sabbath, Pentagram, and Judas Priest, as well as the progressive and psychedelic rock of the late '60s." Speaking to Noisey.com, a Nameless Ghoul described Ghost as a black metal band in the traditional sense, but said that they probably do not fit into the norms of the current black metal scene. This Nameless Ghoul described Ghost's music as a mix between pop music and death metal.
In an interview, a Nameless Ghoul said they are influenced by "everything ranging from classic rock to the extreme underground metal bands of the '80s to film scores to the grandeur of emotional harmonic music." A member of the band said the Swedish and Scandinavian black metal movement of the early '90s plays a major role in their act, and said that each member has come from a metal background. However, the band has stated several times that they do not aim to be a metal band. For their second album, Ghost chose a more diverse songwriting style; a member said, "we tried to deliberately have every song have its own signature."
Only a few members actually write songs. The writers compose an acoustic outline of songs before other instrumentation is added so it sounds like a group, rather than being dominated by guitar. In 2017, Forge claimed that he was the main author of every song except "Year Zero" and "Zenith", which were Persner's ideas. Asked how he keeps Ghost's sound intact despite large lineup changes, Forge said he has to teach them to play like he does; explaining that while he is a good guitar player, he is only an "okay" drummer, bassist and keyboardist. So it is a matter of getting them to "underperform [laughs] together."
Their lyrics are often Satanic in nature; one Ghoul said, "the first album is about the forthcoming arrival of the Devil, spoken very much in biblical terms, much like the church will say that doomsday is near. [Infestissumam] is about the presence of the Devil and the presence of the Antichrist." However, the band has said several times their image is all tongue-in-cheek, citing that "We have no militant agenda. We are an entertainment group." The band uses humor during their shows. Infestissumam also deals with "how people relate to a deity or God, themes like submission and superstition, the horrors of being religious." Additionally, a Nameless Ghoul said the second album is about "how mankind—predominantly men—what they have deemed to be the presence of the Devil, throughout history and even nowadays. And that's why the record is so fueled with sexual themes and females ... the Inquisition was basically men accusing women of being the Devil just because they had a hard-on for them." The group's theatrics are influenced by Kiss, David Bowie and Alice Cooper, but a member said they are more influenced by Pink Floyd. A Ghoul later cited Death SS as an influence on their "gimmick" but not their music.
== Controversies ==
Ghost's Satanic theme has proven problematic for the group, especially in the US. While recording Infestissumam in Nashville, Tennessee, they were unable to find choral singers who would sing their lyrics, forcing them to record the parts in Hollywood. The group was unable to find a record manufacturer in the US to press the album because it featured artwork showing nudity, which resulted in a delay to the album's release. When one interviewer suggested that the band's music had become more "radio-friendly" and that they were being accepted into the US mainstream, a Nameless Ghoul replied that in the US their music was banned from major chain stores, most late-night television shows, and most commercial radio stations. He said, "So, yes, mainstream America is absolutely welcoming us with open legs." During an interview with Loudwire in October 2015, a band member stated that as of 2015, the US had become more accepting of their music and imagery, further evidenced by their appearance as the main musical guests on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert on 30 October 2015, during a Halloween-themed episode. This was Ghost's first live television appearance in the US.
Chicago heavy metal-themed restaurant Kuma's Corner added a hamburger called "The Ghost" to its menu in tribute to Ghost. Its recipe includes goat shoulder, red wine reduction, and a communion wafer. A local Catholic food blogger acknowledged that while the unconsecrated wafer is not the Eucharist, it is still symbolic, and that "it is a mockery of something that is holy". The restaurant's owner acknowledged the controversy and stated they respected religion while refusing to remove the burger, citing the First Amendment. To demonstrate his respect for opposing views, he also donated $1,500 to Catholic Charities of the Chicago Archdiocese.
== Members ==
Tobias Forge – lead vocals, guitars, bass, keyboards, percussion (2008–present)
Papa (2010–2017; 2020–present)
Emeritus I (2010–2012)
Emeritus II (2012–2015)
Emeritus III (2015–2017)
Emeritus IV (2020–2025)
V Perpetua (2025–present)
Cardinal Copia – vocals performance (2018–2020)
A Group of Nameless Ghouls – guitars, bass, keytars, drums, percussion, keyboards, organ, synthesizers, backing and choir vocals (2010–present)
Papa Nihil – saxophone (2018–2020; 2022–2023)
The members of Ghost mimic the Roman Catholic Church, but have reversed the image to worship Satan instead of the Holy Trinity. From 2010 to 2017, the band's instrumentalists, referred to as the "Nameless Ghouls", each represented one of the five elements, typically attached to their instrumental role; the lead guitarist was fire, the bassist was water, the keyboardist was wind, the drummer was earth, and the rhythm guitarist was ether, and wore their respective alchemical symbol on their instruments. With Meliora each Nameless Ghoul had all five elemental symbols embroidered on the right breast of their costumes, with the elemental symbol representing the individual Ghoul being highlighted to show the identity of the wearer. In 2018, the band's line-up was expanded to include a third guitarist, two female keyboardists referred to as the "Ghoulettes", and Papa Nihil on saxophone.
=== Papa Emeritus ===
The group's vocalist usually portrays the band's mascot character, a Satanic priest known as Papa Emeritus. There have been four different characters taking the name Papa Emeritus. They first welcomed the second Papa Emeritus on 12 December 2012, in Linköping. On 3 June 2015, the second Papa Emeritus welcomed his younger brother as the new Papa Emeritus in Linköping after being "fired" due to not performing his duty in overthrowing governments and churches. Papa Emeritus II and Papa Emeritus III were stated to only have a 3-month difference in age. On 30 September 2017 during a show in Gothenburg, Papa Emeritus III was dragged off stage by two men, who then escorted a new character, Papa Emeritus 0, to the stage to introduce the band's next chapter. Papa Emeritus 0 is portrayed as being significantly older than the previous Papas, making use of a walker and oxygen tank whilst walking on stage. On 19 January 2018, the band shared a video that features a character, implied to be Papa Emeritus IV, listening to Ceremony and Devotion on 8-track tape while critiquing Papa Emeritus III's vocal abilities. The character's face is hidden offscreen, but he is shown to wear red vestments similar to a cardinal priest. He was later revealed to be Cardinal Copia. At the final show of the tour in support of Prequelle, Papa Nihil had collapsed and "died", and Cardinal Copia became Papa Emeritus IV. Papa Nihil was later resurrected during the European leg of the Imperatour. In March 2025, the band announced in social media that Papa V Perpetua was to be their next frontman. All versions of Papa are actually the same vocalist, Tobias Forge.
Peter Hällje, a former bandmate of former Ghost member Martin Persner, claimed he designed the Papa Emeritus character in 2005, prior to the formation of Ghost. Hällje never performed as Papa Emeritus and agreed with Persner to let him use the character for his then-new band. His claim was later confirmed by Forge.
=== Cardinal Copia ===
In April 2018, it was revealed that the "new leader" of Ghost would be Cardinal Copia, who made his live debut with the group at a private acoustic show on 6 April; he is not a part of the Papa Emeritus lineage. Instead, Forge described the situation as "That's why we have a new guy," Forge explains. "The Cardinal is not the boss. He's just the toastmaster. A cardinal is junior to a pope figure. We still have Papa Emeritus [Zero, a.k.a. Papa Nihil] but he's passing on. He needs to teach the Cardinal to become a pope, to earn his skull paint."
Copia's costume consists of either cardinal vestments or a black or white tuxedo; he also sports a prosthetic mask with black eye makeup and multi-colored eyes, as with the prior Papa Emeritus characters.
In promotion for their 2018 US tour, a video showed that Papa Emeritus one through three had been killed and their bodies embalmed. In an interview the following month, Forge stated that unlike Ghost's previous frontmen, Cardinal Copia is planned to be around for about five years. The band also welcomed Papa Nihil, the first band member besides Forge to receive a character name. Originally introduced as Papa Emeritus Zero, Nihil is the ancestor of all previous Papa Emeritus characters, and after the "deaths" of his descendants, was the only surviving member of the Papa Emeritus lineage that we know of. During the final show of the tour in support of Prequelle, Cardinal Copia was "elevated" to become Papa Emeritus IV.
=== Identities ===
Anonymity is a major characteristic of Ghost; prior to 2017, the members had not publicly revealed their names, and the group's five instrumentalists are only referred to as "Nameless Ghouls". During signings, the Nameless Ghouls sign the merchandise by stamping their individual alchemical symbol, while Papa Emeritus signs with his stage name or the letters "P.E." One Ghoul said the idea that the band's members remain anonymous to gain attention is a misconception, and that the idea was to remove their personalities to allow their audiences to focus upon the artwork itself. He also said, "Had not the music been rocking, I don't think that people would have gone gaga just about our looks". In 2011, a Nameless Ghoul said, "We're often mistaken for roadies, which is helpful. We've almost been thrown out of venues we've played. Forgetting our backstage pass is a big problem." In early 2012, a member of the band said he enjoyed being an individual and that he could easily "step outside the bubble" when he wanted to. In May 2013, a Ghoul disclosed that they had started to reveal their membership in the group to their local friends and family "for house peace."
In an August 2013 interview with Jack Osbourne for Fuse News, a member of the band said that Dave Grohl has dressed up as a Nameless Ghoul and secretly performed with Ghost. In April 2014, a Nameless Ghoul revealed that the group has had several member changes through the years.
The Swedish Performing Rights Society was rumored to have Tobias Forge, vocalist of Swedish bands Subvision and Repugnant and former guitarist for Crashdïet (using the alias Mary Goore in the latter two), credited with songs as "A Ghoul Writer". All of the band's songs are credited to "A Ghoul Writer", causing people to suspect that Forge was Papa Emeritus. The online database for US-based performance rights society ASCAP, when having the name Tobias Forge entered into its search box, revealed all of Ghost's original songs (even though many of the tracks use the pseudonym "A Ghoul Writer" in the database itself) At the time, Ghost stated they would not comment on any rumors of their identities. Following a lawsuit in 2017, Forge's identity as Papa Emeritus was revealed.
In March 2017, Swedish musician Martin Persner of the band Magna Carta Cartel claimed in a short video clip that he was the rhythm guitarist, also known as Omega, from 2009 to July 2016. This marked the first time that someone has publicly identified themselves as a member of Ghost. A few months before Persner's announcement, the band recruited a new bass player who was suspected to be Lez Zeppelin bassist Megan Thomas, later confirmed by Forge. A lawsuit against Forge in April 2017 on behalf of four past members revealed their names, as well as the names of several more past members. When asked about the complete lineup change at the end of 2016, Forge stated that Ghost "was always sort of... I guess a Bathory sort of band, where there was people playing live, and the people playing live [were] not necessarily the same that played on the records." The lawsuit was dismissed by the court on 17 October 2018.
=== Timeline ===
==== Stage names / Character identities ====
As a band with a unique and complex theatrical presentation, the musicians in Ghost's live performances do not perform as themselves, but each play a character. Emphasis is placed on the singer, currently "Papa V Perpetua". The rest of the band are officially deemed "Nameless Ghouls" but there are general categories based on the roles of each of the "ghouls". The five classical elements of fire, earth, water, air, and aether were originally used to identify the ghouls with symbol patches on each ghoul's stage outfit, but with the touring cycle coinciding with the 2018 release of Prequelle, the live lineup expanded to include 7 ghouls, and thus the elemental symbols were no longer displayed or officially used.
As a general rule, Ghost does not directly identify any of the ghouls through their official accounts or spokespeople, but in recent years, they have become more relaxed in allowing this information to become public. Because of the band's long-standing practice of using NDAs, the ghouls are not allowed to discuss their involvement in the band publicly while they are active members, though the avid fanbase tends to deduce the ghouls' identities rather quickly once they have appeared on stage.
==== Real identities ====
== Discography ==
Studio albums
Opus Eponymous (2010)
Infestissumam (2013)
Meliora (2015)
Prequelle (2018)
Impera (2022)
Skeletá (2025)
== Concert tours ==
== Awards and nominations ==
American Music Awards
Bandit Rock Awards
Grammis Awards
Grammy Awards
iHeartRadio Music Awards
Kerrang! Awards
Loudwire Music Awards
Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards
P3 Guld Awards
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Ghost at AllMusic Ghost discography at Discogs Ghost discography at MusicBrainz
Official website
"Ghost First Video Interview". Metal Injection. Archived from the original on 27 June 2011. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirsevimab#:~:text=It%20was%20developed%20by%20AstraZeneca,not%20needed%20in%20most%20infants. | Nirsevimab | Nirsevimab, sold under the brand name Beyfortus, is a human recombinant monoclonal antibody with activity against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). It is a respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) F protein‑directed fusion inhibitor that is designed to bind to the fusion protein on the surface of the RSV virus.
The most common side effects are rash, fever and injection site reactions (such as redness, swelling and pain where the injection is given).
It was developed by AstraZeneca and Sanofi. Nirsevimab was approved for medical use in both the European Union and the United Kingdom in November 2022, in Canada in April 2023, and in the United States in July 2023.
== Medical uses ==
In the European Union, nirsevimab is indicated for the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus RSV lower respiratory tract disease in neonates and infants during their first RSV season.
In the United States, nirsevimab is indicated for the prevention of RSV lower respiratory tract disease in neonates and infants born during or entering their first RSV season and children up to 24 months of age who remain vulnerable to severe RSV disease through their second RSV season. Alternatively, in October 2023 the CDC recommended maternal RSVpreF vaccination during pregnancy, though administration of both is not needed in most infants.
== Adverse effects ==
No major hypersensitivity reactions have been reported, and adverse events of grade 3 or higher were only reported in 8% (77 of 968) of participants in clinical trial NCT02878330.
== Pharmacology ==
=== Mechanism of action ===
Nirsevimab binds to the prefusion conformation of the RSV fusion (F) protein, i.e. it binds to the site at which the virus would attach to a cell; effectively rendering it useless. It has a modified Fc region, extending the half-life of the drug in order for it to last the whole RSV season.
== History ==
The opinion by the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use of the European Medicines Agency was based on data from two randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter clinical trials that investigated the efficacy and safety of nirsevimab in healthy preterm (premature) and full-term infants entering their first RSV season. The studies demonstrated that nirsevimab prevents lower respiratory tract infection caused by RSV requiring medical attention (such as bronchiolitis and pneumonia) in term and preterm infants during their first RSV season.
The safety of nirsevimab was also evaluated in a phase II/III, randomized, double‑blind, multi-center trial in infants who were born five or more weeks prematurely (less than 35 weeks gestation) at higher risk for severe RSV disease and infants with chronic lung disease of prematurity (i.e. long-term respiratory problems faced by babies born prematurely) or congenital heart disease. The results of this study showed that nirsevimab had a similar safety profile compared to palivizumab (Synagis).
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) evaluated the safety and efficacy of nirsevimab based on three trials, two of which were randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter clinical trials (Trials 03, 04 and 05). The key measure of efficacy was the incidence of medically attended RSV lower respiratory tract infection (MA RSV LRTI), evaluated during the 150 days after nirsevimab administration. MA RSV LRTI included all health care provider visits (physician office, urgent care, emergency room visits and hospitalization) for lower respiratory tract disease with worsening clinical severity and a positive RSV test.
Trial 03 included 1,453 preterm infants (born at greater than or equal to 29 weeks of gestational age up to less than 35 weeks of gestation) who were born during or entering their first RSV season. Of the 1,453 preterm infants in the trial, 969 received a single dose of nirsevimab and 484 received placebo. Among infants who were treated with nirsevimab, 25 (2.6%) experienced MA RSV LRTI compared with 46 (9.5%) infants who received placebo. nirsevimab reduced the risk of MA RSV LRTI by approximately 70% relative to placebo.
For Trial 04, the primary analysis group within the trial included 1,490 term and late preterm infants (born at greater than or equal to 35 weeks in gestational age), 994 of whom received a single dose of nirsevimab and 496 of whom received placebo. Among infants who were treated with nirsevimab, 12 (1.2%) experienced MA RSV LRTI compared with 25 (5.0%) infants who received placebo. Nirsevimab reduced the risk of MA RSV LRTI by approximately 75% relative to placebo.
Trial 05, a randomized, double-blind, active (palivizumab)-controlled, multicenter trial, supported the use of nirsevimab in children up to 24 months of age who remain vulnerable to severe RSV disease through their second RSV season. The trial enrolled 925 preterm infants and infants with chronic lung disease of prematurity or congenital heart disease. The safety and pharmacokinetic data from Trial 05 provided evidence for the use of nirsevimab to prevent MA RSV LRTI in this population.
The FDA granted the application for nirsevimab a fast track designation. and granted approval of Beyfortus to AstraZeneca.
== Society and culture ==
=== Legal status ===
In September 2022, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use of the European Medicines Agency recommended to grant a marketing authorization for Beyfortus for the prevention of RSV lower respiratory tract disease in newborns and infants. Beyfortus was reviewed under EMA's accelerated assessment program. The applicant for this medicinal product is AstraZeneca AB. In November 2022, nirsevimab was approved for medical use in the European Union, and the United Kingdom.
It was approved in Canada in April 2023, and in the United States in July 2023.
== Research ==
As of 2022, nirsevimab was investigated as an experimental passive immunization agent (different to active immunization agents, such as vaccines) against RSV in the general infant population. The MELODY study is an ongoing, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled to evaluate the safety and efficacy of nirsevimab in late preterm and term infants. Initial results were promising, with nirsevimab reducing LRTI (lower respiratory tract infections) by 74.5% compared to placebo in infants born at term or late preterm.
As of April 2023, ongoing trials for nirsevimab were:
"A Phase 3 Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Study to Evaluate the Safety and Efficacy of MEDI8897, a Monoclonal Antibody With an Extended Half-life Against Respiratory Syncytial Virus, in Healthy Late Preterm and Term Infants (MELODY)". ClinicalTrials.gov. 1 September 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
"A Phase 2, Open-label, Uncontrolled, Single-dose Study to Evaluate the Safety and Tolerability, Pharmacokinetics, and Occurrence of Antidrug Antibody for Nirsevimab in Immunocompromised Children ≤ 24 Months of Age". ClinicalTrials.gov. 16 March 2023. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
"A Phase 3, Randomized, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Study to Evaluate the Safety and Efficacy of Nirsevimab, a Monoclonal Antibody With Extended Half-life Against Respiratory Syncytial Virus, in Healthy Preterm and Term Infants in China". ClinicalTrials.gov. 11 April 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2023.
A trial in the Canadian province of Quebec
== See also ==
Palivizumab
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mykines,_Mykines | Mykines, Mykines | Mykines (Faroese: /ˈmɪtʃiˌnɛs/; Danish: Myggenæs) is the only settlement on Mykines Island, the westernmost of the Faroe Islands. It is a little coastal village with bright houses with turf roofs, with an old turf-roofed stone Church dating from 1878, and a small stream flowing through the village.
== Population ==
The population reached about 179 in 1925 and was still 150 in 1953. Since then it has decreased, and it now fluctuates during the year with a permanent population of around twenty people being supplemented during summer when families who used to live on the island return to their houses for the summer vacation.
== Transport ==
=== Land ===
Mykines Island has no roads: access to other parts of the island is on foot, using well-used footpaths. Although Mykines village does have asphalted streets, there aren’t any conventional cars on the islands. Residents usually rely on all-terrain vehicles to transport heavier goods around the village.
=== Sea ===
The village has a small harbour, though the regularity of ferry services can be disrupted by inclement weather. A small ferry visits one to three times a day from 1 May to 31 August and again in one week of October, when the Faroese schools have a holiday (and only if the weather allows it). The ferry is run by a private company and not like the other ferries by the public bus and ferry company Strandfaraskip Landsins (SSL).
Every year boat owners can make an offer to SSL in order to run the ferry to Mykines. In 2015 there was one boat called M/B Jósup, which transported tourists and locals from Sørvágur to Mykines and back again. During winter there is no ferry service, only helicopter service.
From the harbour a steep footpath leads up to the village, but there is also a simple funicular for goods transport. Some cruise ships visit Mykines, but they need to anchor at sea and use small boats to get ashore.
=== Air ===
It is possible to reach Mykines three to four times a week by helicopter operated by Atlantic Airways: Sunday, Wednesday and Fridays. In June, July and August it is also possible to take the helicopter to Mykines on Mondays. They go from Vágar Airport to Mykines and back. When there is no boat, it is not possible for residents to leave Mykines and come back same day. There is a simple helipad at Mykines.
== Climate ==
Mykines has a Tundra climate (Köppen climate classification ET), an oddity in most of the Faroe Islands, which mostly has a Subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfc).
== People from Mykines ==
The first professional Faroese painter, S. J. Mikines was born in the village and drew inspiration from Mykines.
== Facilities ==
A blue house at the entrance to the village bears a sign Kristianshús - the house is part guest house and part hostel. The rooms are small, the staircase steep and the hallways are narrow, but the accommodation is good.
Kristianshús can accommodate up to forty people, with six double rooms, three rooms with three beds, two rooms with four beds and a dormitory with six beds. Meals, beer and wine are served in the cafeteria and packed lunches can be ordered. The local speciality is fried puffins. The cafeteria has an attic room in which S. J. Mikines used to paint.
Alternative accommodation is provided at Gula Husid.
== Economy ==
The economy is based on sheep farming and on tourism.
== History ==
A brief history of Mykines can be summarised as follows:
625 - pollen analysis indicates oats and barley were grown on Mykines, possibly by early settlers such as monks and hermits
1538 - the Reformation under King Christian III of Denmark
1592 - Peter Claussøn Friis, a Norwegian priest, described the Faroese mouse as a distinct species, and the Mykines mouse as a subgroup having especially long powerful hind legs
1595 - (approx) on 25 April, fifty boats were shipwrecked in a sudden storm and all the working men of Mykines lost their lives (estimated 200 to 300 men)
1667 - Dutch ship Walcheren was wrecked on Mykines and the islanders gained goods from the ship
1757 - a man lost his life birding
1769 - records show 61 inhabitants on Mykines
1792 - two men from Mykines lost their lives birding, possibly through being roped together; the practice of roping men together was discontinued after this
1801 - population 74 in 17 houses
1819 - a ship abandoned by its crew drifted ashore and the people got some timber
1845 - population 99 in 19 houses
1862 - (approx) the first fulmar chicks were caught and eaten
1863 - Church was destroyed by a storm
1877 - Church again destroyed by a storm
1879 - new Church completed and consecrated
1890 - population 154
1892 - two young men lost their lives birding. About this time, adult fulmars started to be caught for food
1895 - 26 January a boat from Mykines was shipwrecked and all six men on board lose their lives
1896 - Mykines school opened
1906 - famous painter S J Mikines was born on 22 February, baptised Samuel Elias Frederik Joensen, but later changed his name to Mikines
1909 - building of the Lighthouse on Mykines Holm and construction of the first bridge over Holmgjogv, the narrow strait between Mykines and Mykines Holm
1911 - 1 October Mykines made its own municipality with 3 members on the town council
1925 - population 179, with 27 pupils in the school
1927 - the first swimming pool on the Faroes was built on Mykines, just downstream of the waterfall in the north-east part of the village. Poul N. Pedersen, the school teacher, was the driving force behind the project, and he organised sport competitions on the island
1927 - telephone service proposed but considered too expensive; an alternative facility via a communications link between the lighthouses on Mykines and Nolsoy was agreed
1928 - radio beacons were installed at Nólsoy and Mykines lighthouses, making radio navigation possible for the first time, and Mykines got a telephone connection to the outside world
1934 - 7 8 March Mykines men were among the 43 casualties when two ships from Tórshavn were shipwrecked off Iceland. A memorial stands above the village.
1939 - a memorial listing Mykines people lost at sea was consecrated and can be seen in the Church
1940 - first signs of war: unknown aircraft sighted. British military ordered all lighthouses to be switched off. Population 120.
1941 - three air attacks damaged the lighthouse on Mykines Holm; assistant lighthouse keeper was wounded and was treated in Tórshavn hospital. The radio station was out of action for a short period
1942 - in spring British forces completed a radar station on á Ólakletti in Liðarhaugi. In September a mine drifted ashore on Mykines, exploded and damaged some boathouses
1943 - the first wavebreakers at the landing-place was built, entirely from hand-mixed concrete
1945 - 17 May: lighthouses were switched on again and the radio transmission on Mykines and Nolsoy was resumed
1950 - the second (outer) wavebreaker was built, again from hand-mixed concrete
1953 - the second bridge over Holm Gjogv was built. Population about 150.
1959 - a man fell to his death while sheep herding
1961 - work started to build a ramp to haul the boats ashore in winter; the work extended over the summers of three years
1963 - a man fell to his death while sheep herding
1968 - Mykines power station was opened - the generators were started by the oldest inhabitant of Mykines at that time, Niclas Hansen, who was 94 years old
1968 - visit by Princess Margrethe and Prince Henrik of Denmark
1970 - A Fokker F27 Friendship, with registration TF-FIL, from Flugfélag Íslands on flight from Bergen to Vágar Airport, crashed in bad weather on Mykines on 26 September. The captain and 7 passengers, all seated on the left side of the plane, where killed instantly. 26 passengers and crew survived, some with serious injuries. Three passengers hiked for an hour to reach Mykines village to alert the authorities. Most of the villagers went up the mountain to aid the survivors before the arrival of the Danish patrol vessel F348 Hvidbjørnen. A marble memorial was placed in the Church.
1970 - Mykines lighthouse was automated and the last man moved from the Holm, which had been occupied continuously from 1909 by a varying population of up to 22 people (including children).
1971 - Danish Navy Alouette helicopter brought Christmas mail on 23 December since no boat had been able to land for some time due to bad weather. The helicopter engine failed so the crew stayed for Christmas. Mechanics flew in from Denmark on 28 December in two Sikorsky S-61 helicopters and repaired the Alouette. One Sikorsky could not leave because of technical problems, but the other two helicopters left on 2 January.
1979-80 - new radio beacon and telecommunications facility constructed high on the island; materials transported by helicopter
1981 - trial of scheduled passenger transportation by helicopter between July and October
1981 - Anker Jørgensen, Prime Minister of Denmark, visited the island by helicopter on 20 August
1983 - permanent scheduled passenger flights between the smaller islands started and has continued ever since
1987 - a new ferry boat came into service - called Sulan like its 1927 predecessor
1989 - the third bridge between Mykines and Mykines Holm came into use in June
1990 - roads in Mykines village were asphalted
1990 - Queen Margrethe of Denmark and Prince Henrik visited on 20 June
1991 - three men lost their lives in a shipwreck south of Mykines
1992 - hotel Kristianshus was inaugurated on 17 May; forty people were flown to Mykines by helicopter for the reception, including the Faroese minister for tourism
1999 - Poul Nyrup Rasmussen, Prime Minister of Denmark, and Jonathan Motzfeldt, the Greenlandic "landsstyreformand" visited Mykines on 9 August
2001 - the Icelandic president and the Faroese "lagmand" visited Mykines
== See also ==
List of towns in the Faroe Islands
Mykines
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_River#:~:text=begin%20in%20Pennsylvania.-,Depth,feet%20(0.91%20m)%20deep. | Mississippi River | The Mississippi River is the primary river of the largest drainage basin in the United States. It is the second-longest river in the United States, behind only the Missouri. From its traditional source of Lake Itasca in northern Minnesota, it flows generally south for 2,340 mi (3,770 km) to the Mississippi River Delta in the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains all or parts of 32 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian mountains. The river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. The main stem is entirely within the United States; the total drainage basin is 1,151,000 sq mi (2,980,000 km2), of which only about one percent is in Canada. The Mississippi ranks as the world's tenth-largest river by discharge flow, and the largest in North America.
Native Americans have lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries for thousands of years. Many were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural and urban civilizations, and some practiced aquaculture. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the native way of life as first explorers, then settlers, ventured into the basin in increasing numbers. The river served sometimes as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and throughout as a vital transportation artery and communications link. In the 19th century, during the height of the ideology of manifest destiny, the Mississippi and several tributaries, most notably its largest, the Ohio and Missouri, formed pathways for the western expansion of the United States. The river also became the subject of American literature, particularly in the writings of Mark Twain.
Formed from thick layers of the river's silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment, and American Bottom are some of the most fertile regions of the United States; steamboats were widely used in the 19th and early 20th centuries to ship agricultural and industrial goods. During the American Civil War, the Mississippi's final capture by Union forces marked a turning point to victory for the Union. Because of the substantial growth of cities and the larger ships and barges that replaced steamboats, the first decades of the 20th century saw the construction of massive engineering works such as levees, locks and dams, often built in combination. A major focus of this work has been to prevent the lower Mississippi from shifting into the channel of the Atchafalaya River and bypassing New Orleans.
Since the 20th century, the Mississippi River has also experienced major pollution and environmental problems, most notably elevated nutrient and chemical levels from agricultural runoff, the primary contributor to the Gulf of Mexico dead zone.
== Name and significance ==
The word Mississippi itself comes from Misi zipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi-ziibi (Great River).
In the 18th century, the river was set by the Treaty of Paris as, for the most part, the western border of the new United States. With the Louisiana Purchase and the country's westward expansion, it became a convenient boundary line between the western and eastern halves of the country. This is reflected in the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, which was designed to symbolize the opening of the West, and the focus on the "Trans-Mississippi" region in the Trans-Mississippi Exposition.
Regional landmarks are often classified in relation to the river, such as "the highest peak east of the Mississippi" or "the oldest city west of the Mississippi". The FCC also uses it as the dividing line for broadcast call-signs, which begin with W to the east and K to the west, overlapping in media markets along the river.
Due to its size and importance, it has been nicknamed The Mighty Mississippi River or simply The Mighty Mississippi.
== Divisions ==
The Mississippi River can be divided into three sections: the Upper Mississippi, the river from its headwaters to the confluence with the Missouri River; the Middle Mississippi, which is downriver from the Missouri to the Ohio River; and the Lower Mississippi, which flows from the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico.
=== Upper Mississippi ===
The Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. It is divided into two sections:
The headwaters, 493 miles (793 km) from the source to Saint Anthony Falls in Minneapolis, Minnesota; and
A navigable channel, formed by a series of human-made lakes between Minneapolis and St. Louis, Missouri, some 664 miles (1,069 km).
The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca, 1,475 feet (450 m) above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, Minnesota. The name Itasca was chosen to designate the "true head" of the Mississippi River as a combination of the last four letters of the Latin word for truth (veritas) and the first two letters of the Latin word for head (caput). However, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams.
From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, the waterway's flow is moderated by 43 dams. Fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all contain locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river. Taken as a whole, these 43 dams significantly shape the geography and influence the ecology of the upper river. Beginning just below Saint Paul, Minnesota, and continuing throughout the upper and lower river, the Mississippi is further controlled by thousands of wing dikes that moderate the river's flow in order to maintain an open navigation channel and prevent the river from eroding its banks.
The head of navigation on the Mississippi is the St. Anthony Falls Lock. Before the Coon Rapids Dam in Coon Rapids, Minnesota, was built in 1913, steamboats could occasionally go upstream as far as Saint Cloud, Minnesota, depending on river conditions.
The uppermost lock and dam on the Upper Mississippi River is the Upper St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in Minneapolis. Above the dam, the river's elevation is 799 feet (244 m). Below the dam, the river's elevation is 750 feet (230 m). This 49-foot (15 m) drop is the largest of all the Mississippi River locks and dams. The origin of the dramatic drop is a waterfall preserved adjacent to the lock under an apron of concrete. Saint Anthony Falls is the only true waterfall on the entire Mississippi River. The water elevation continues to drop steeply as it passes through the gorge carved by the waterfall.
After the completion of the St. Anthony Falls Lock and Dam in 1963, the river's head of navigation moved upstream, to the Coon Rapids Dam. However, the Locks were closed in 2015 to control the spread of invasive Asian carp, making Minneapolis once again the site of the head of navigation of the river.
The Upper Mississippi has a number of natural and artificial lakes, with its widest point being Lake Winnibigoshish, near Grand Rapids, Minnesota, over 11 miles (18 km) across. Lake Onalaska, created by Lock and Dam No. 7, near La Crosse, Wisconsin, is more than 4 miles (6.4 km) wide. Lake Pepin, a natural lake formed behind the delta of the Chippewa River of Wisconsin as it enters the Upper Mississippi, is more than 2 miles (3.2 km) wide.
By the time the Upper Mississippi reaches Saint Paul, Minnesota, below Lock and Dam No. 1, it has dropped more than half its original elevation and is 687 feet (209 m) above sea level. From St. Paul to St. Louis, Missouri, the river elevation falls much more slowly and is controlled and managed as a series of pools created by 26 locks and dams.
The Upper Mississippi River is joined by the Minnesota River at Fort Snelling in the Twin Cities; the St. Croix River near Prescott, Wisconsin; the Cannon River near Red Wing, Minnesota; the Zumbro River at Wabasha, Minnesota; the Black, La Crosse, and Root rivers in La Crosse, Wisconsin; the Wisconsin River at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin; the Rock River at the Quad Cities; the Iowa River near Wapello, Iowa; the Skunk River south of Burlington, Iowa; and the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. Other major tributaries of the Upper Mississippi include the Crow River in Minnesota, the Chippewa River in Wisconsin, the Maquoketa River and the Wapsipinicon River in Iowa, and the Illinois River in Illinois.
The Upper Mississippi is largely a multi-thread stream with many bars and islands. From its confluence with the St. Croix River downstream to Dubuque, Iowa, the river is entrenched, with high bedrock bluffs lying on either side. The height of these bluffs decreases to the south of Dubuque, though they are still significant through Savanna, Illinois. This topography contrasts strongly with the Lower Mississippi, which is a meandering river in a broad, flat area, only rarely flowing alongside a bluff (as at Vicksburg, Mississippi).
=== Middle Mississippi ===
The Mississippi River is known as the Middle Mississippi from the Upper Mississippi River's confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri, for 190 miles (310 km) to its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.
The Middle Mississippi is relatively free-flowing. From St. Louis to the Ohio River confluence, the Middle Mississippi falls 220 feet (67 m) over 180 miles (290 km) for an average rate of 1.2 feet per mile (23 cm/km). At its confluence with the Ohio River, the Middle Mississippi is 315 feet (96 m) above sea level. Apart from the Missouri and Meramec rivers of Missouri and the Kaskaskia River of Illinois, no major tributaries enter the Middle Mississippi River.
=== Lower Mississippi ===
The Mississippi River is called the Lower Mississippi River from its confluence with the Ohio River to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about 1,000 miles (1,600 km). At the confluence of the Ohio and the Middle Mississippi, the long-term mean discharge of the Ohio at Cairo, Illinois is 281,500 cubic feet per second (7,970 cubic meters per second), while the long-term mean discharge of the Mississippi at Thebes, Illinois (just upriver from Cairo) is 208,200 cu ft/s (5,900 m3/s). Thus, by volume, the main branch of the Mississippi River system at Cairo can be considered to be the Ohio River (and the Allegheny River further upstream), rather than the Middle Mississippi.
In addition to the Ohio River, the major tributaries of the Lower Mississippi River are the White River, flowing in at the White River National Wildlife Refuge in east-central Arkansas; the Arkansas River, joining the Mississippi at Arkansas Post; the Big Black River in Mississippi; and the Yazoo River, meeting the Mississippi at Vicksburg, Mississippi.
Deliberate water diversion at the Old River Control Structure in Louisiana allows the Atchafalaya River in Louisiana to be a major distributary of the Mississippi River, with 30% of the combined flow of the Mississippi and Red Rivers flowing to the Gulf of Mexico by this route, rather than continuing down the Mississippi's current channel past Baton Rouge and New Orleans on a longer route to the Gulf. Although the Red River was once an additional tributary, its water now flows separately into the Gulf of Mexico through the Atchafalaya River.
== Watershed ==
The Mississippi River has the world's fourth-largest drainage basin ("watershed" or "catchment"). The basin covers more than 1,245,000 square miles (3,220,000 km2), including all or parts of 32 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The drainage basin empties into the Gulf of Mexico, part of the Atlantic Ocean. The total catchment of the Mississippi River covers nearly 40% of the landmass of the continental United States. The highest point within the watershed is also the highest point of the Rocky Mountains, Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet (4,400 m).
In the United States, the Mississippi River drains the majority of the area between the crest of the Rocky Mountains and the crest of the Appalachian Mountains, except for various regions drained to Hudson Bay by the Red River of the North; to the Atlantic Ocean by the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River; and to the Gulf of Mexico by the Rio Grande, the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers, the Chattahoochee and Appalachicola rivers, and various smaller coastal waterways along the Gulf.
The Mississippi River empties into the Gulf of Mexico about 100 miles (160 km) downstream from New Orleans. Measurements of the length of the Mississippi from Lake Itasca to the Gulf of Mexico vary somewhat, but the United States Geological Survey's number is 2,340 miles (3,766 km). The retention time from Lake Itasca to the Gulf is typically about 90 days; while speed varies along the course of the river, this gives an overall average of around 26 mi (42 km) per day, or 1 mi (1.6 km) per hour.
The stream gradient of the entire river is 0.01%, a drop of 450 m over 3,766 km.
== Outflow ==
The Mississippi River discharges at an annual average rate of between 200 and 700 thousand cubic feet per second (6,000 and 20,000 m3/s). The Mississippi is the fourteenth largest river in the world by volume. On average, the Mississippi has 8% the flow of the Amazon River,
which moves nearly 7 million cubic feet per second (200,000 m3/s) during wet seasons.
Before 1900, the Mississippi River transported an estimated 440 million short tons (400 million metric tons) of sediment per year from the interior of the United States to coastal Louisiana and the Gulf of Mexico. During the last two decades, this number was only 160 million short tons (145 million metric tons) per year. The reduction in sediment transported down the Mississippi River is the result of engineering modification of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio rivers and their tributaries by dams, meander cutoffs, river-training structures, and bank revetments and soil erosion control programs in the areas drained by them.
=== Mixing with salt water ===
Denser salt water from the Gulf of Mexico forms a salt wedge along the river bottom near the mouth of the river, while fresh water flows near the surface. In drought years, with less fresh water to push it out, salt water can travel many miles upstream—64 miles (103 km) in 2022—contaminating drinking water supplies and requiring the use of desalination. The United States Army Corps of Engineers constructed "saltwater sills" or "underwater levees" to contain this in 1988, 1999, 2012, and 2022. This consists of a large mound of sand spanning the width of the river 55 feet below the surface, allowing fresh water and large cargo ships to pass over.
Fresh river water flowing from the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico does not mix into the salt water immediately. The images from NASA's MODIS show a large plume of fresh water, which appears as a dark ribbon against the lighter-blue surrounding waters. These images demonstrate that the plume did not mix with the surrounding sea water immediately. Instead, it stayed intact as it flowed through the Gulf of Mexico, into the Straits of Florida, and entered the Gulf Stream. The Mississippi River water rounded the tip of Florida and traveled up the southeast coast to the latitude of Georgia before finally mixing in so thoroughly with the ocean that it could no longer be detected by MODIS.
== Course changes ==
Over geologic time, the Mississippi River has experienced numerous large and small changes to its main course, as well as additions, deletions, and other changes among its numerous tributaries, and the lower Mississippi River has used different pathways as its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico across the delta region.
As Pangaea began to break up about 95 million years ago, North America passed over a volcanic "hotspot" in the Earth's mantle (specifically, the Bermuda hotspot) that was undergoing a period of intense activity. The upwelling of magma from the hotspot forced the further uplift to a height of perhaps 2–3 km of part of the Appalachian-Ouachita range, forming an arch that blocked southbound water flows. The uplifted land quickly eroded and, as North America moved away from the hot spot and as the hotspot's activity declined, the crust beneath the embayment region cooled, contracted and subsided to a depth of 2.6 km, and around 80 million years ago the Reelfoot Rift formed a trough that was flooded by the Gulf of Mexico. As sea levels dropped, the Mississippi and other rivers extended their courses into the embayment, which gradually became filled with sediment with the Mississippi River at its center.
Through a natural process known as avulsion or delta switching, the lower Mississippi River has shifted its final course to the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico every thousand years or so. This occurs because the deposits of silt and sediment begin to clog its channel, raising the river's level and causing it to eventually find a steeper, more direct route to the Gulf of Mexico. The abandoned distributaries diminish in volume and form what are known as bayous. This process has, over the past 5,000 years, caused the coastline of south Louisiana to advance toward the Gulf from 15 to 50 miles (24 to 80 km). The currently active delta lobe is called the Birdfoot Delta, after its shape, or the Balize Delta, after La Balize, Louisiana, the first French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi.
=== Prehistoric courses ===
The current form of the Mississippi River basin was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet of the most recent Ice Age. The southernmost extent of this enormous glaciation extended well into the present-day United States and Mississippi basin. When the ice sheet began to recede, hundreds of feet of rich sediment were deposited, creating the flat and fertile landscape of the Mississippi Valley. During the melt, giant glacial rivers found drainage paths into the Mississippi watershed, creating such features as the Minnesota River, James River, and Milk River valleys. When the ice sheet completely retreated, many of these "temporary" rivers found paths to Hudson Bay or the Arctic Ocean, leaving the Mississippi Basin with many features "over-sized" for the existing rivers to have carved in the same time period.
Ice sheets during the Illinoian Stage, about 300,000 to 132,000 years before present, blocked the Mississippi near Rock Island, Illinois, diverting it to its present channel farther to the west, the current western border of Illinois. The Hennepin Canal roughly follows the ancient channel of the Mississippi downstream from Rock Island to Hennepin, Illinois. South of Hennepin, to Alton, Illinois, the current Illinois River follows the ancient channel used by the Mississippi River before the Illinoian Stage.
Timeline of outflow course changes
c. 5000 BC: The last ice age ended; world sea level became what it is now.
c. 2500 BC: Bayou Teche became the main course of the Mississippi.
c. 800 BC: The Mississippi diverted further east.
c. 200 AD: Bayou Lafourche became the main course of the Mississippi.
c. 1000 AD: The Mississippi's present course took over.
Before c. 1400 AD: The Red River of the South flowed parallel to the lower Mississippi to the sea
15th century: Turnbull's Bend in the lower Mississippi extended so far west that it captured the Red River of the South. The Red River below the captured section became the Atchafalaya River.
1831: Captain Henry M. Shreve dug a new short course for the Mississippi through the neck of Turnbull's Bend.
1833 to November 1873: The Great Raft (a huge logjam in the Atchafalaya River) was cleared. The Atchafalaya started to capture the Mississippi and to become its new main lower course.
1963: The Old River Control Structure was completed, controlling how much Mississippi water entered the Atchafalaya.
=== Historic course changes ===
In March 1876, the Mississippi suddenly changed course near the settlement of Reverie, Tennessee, leaving a small part of Tipton County, Tennessee, attached to Arkansas and separated from the rest of Tennessee by the new river channel. Since this event was an avulsion, rather than the effect of incremental erosion and deposition, the state line still follows the old channel.
The town of Kaskaskia, Illinois once stood on a peninsula at the confluence of the Mississippi and Kaskaskia (Okaw) Rivers. Founded as a French colonial community, it later became the capital of the Illinois Territory and was the first state capital of Illinois until 1819. Beginning in 1844, successive flooding caused the Mississippi River to slowly encroach east. A major flood in 1881 caused it to overtake the lower 10 miles (16 km) of the Kaskaskia River, forming a new Mississippi channel and cutting off the town from the rest of the state. Later flooding destroyed most of the remaining town, including the original State House. Today, the remaining 2,300 acres (930 ha) island and community of 14 residents is known as an enclave of Illinois and is accessible only from the Missouri side.
=== New Madrid Seismic Zone ===
The New Madrid Seismic Zone, along the Mississippi River near New Madrid, Missouri, between Memphis and St. Louis, is related to an aulacogen (failed rift) that formed at the same time as the Gulf of Mexico. This area is still quite active seismically. Four great earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, had tremendous local effects in the then sparsely settled area, and were felt in many other places in the Midwestern and eastern U.S. These earthquakes created Reelfoot Lake in Tennessee from the altered landscape near the river.
== Length ==
When measured from its traditional source at Lake Itasca, the Mississippi has a length of 2,340 miles (3,766 km). When measured from its longest stream source (most distant source from the sea), Brower's Spring in Montana, the source of the Missouri River, it has a length of 3,710 miles (5,971 km), making it the fourth longest river in the world after the Nile, Amazon, and Yangtze. When measured by the largest stream source (by water volume), the Ohio River, by extension the Allegheny River, would be the source, and the Mississippi would begin in Pennsylvania.
== Depth ==
At its source at Lake Itasca, the Mississippi River is about 3 feet (0.91 m) deep. The average depth of the Mississippi River between Saint Paul and Saint Louis is between 9 and 12 feet (2.7–3.7 m) deep, the deepest part being Lake Pepin, which averages 20–32 feet (6–10 m) deep and has a maximum depth of 60 feet (18 m). Between where the Missouri River joins the Mississippi at Saint Louis, Missouri, and Cairo, Illinois, the depth averages 30 feet (9 m). Below Cairo, where the Ohio River joins, the depth averages 50–100 feet (15–30 m) deep. The deepest part of the river is in New Orleans, where it reaches 200 feet (61 m) deep.
== Cultural geography ==
=== State boundaries ===
The Mississippi River runs through or along 10 states, from Minnesota to Louisiana, and is used to define portions of these states' borders, with Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi along the east side of the river, and Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas along its west side. Substantial parts of both Minnesota and Louisiana are on either side of the river, although the Mississippi defines part of the boundary of each of these states.
In all of these cases, the middle of the riverbed at the time the borders were established was used as the line to define the borders between adjacent states. In various areas, the river has since shifted, but the state borders have not changed, still following the former bed of the Mississippi River as of their establishment, leaving several small isolated areas of one state across the new river channel, contiguous with the adjacent state. Also, due to a meander in the river, a small part of western Kentucky is contiguous with Tennessee but isolated from the rest of its state.
=== Major communities along the river ===
=== All communities along the river ===
Notable communities listed from the source at Lake Itasca to the mouth the Mississippi Delta.
=== Bridge crossings ===
The road crossing highest on the Upper Mississippi is a simple steel culvert, through which the river (locally named "Nicolet Creek") flows north from Lake Nicolet under "Wilderness Road" to the West Arm of Lake Itasca, within Itasca State Park.
The earliest bridge across the Mississippi River was built in 1855. It spanned the river in Minneapolis where the current Hennepin Avenue Bridge is located. No highway or railroad tunnels cross under the Mississippi River.
The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi was built in 1856. It spanned the river between the Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois and Davenport, Iowa. Steamboat captains of the day, fearful of competition from the railroads, considered the new bridge a hazard to navigation. Two weeks after the bridge opened, the steamboat Effie Afton rammed part of the bridge, setting it on fire. Legal proceedings ensued, with Abraham Lincoln defending the railroad. The lawsuit went to the Supreme Court of the United States, which ruled in favor of the railroad.
Below is a general overview of selected Mississippi bridges that have notable engineering or landmark significance, with their cities or locations. They are sequenced from the Upper Mississippi's source to the Lower Mississippi's mouth.
Stone Arch Bridge – Former Great Northern Railway (now pedestrian) bridge at Saint Anthony Falls connecting downtown Minneapolis with the historic Marcy-Holmes neighborhood.
I-35W Saint Anthony Falls Bridge – In Minneapolis, opened in September 2008, replacing the I-35W Mississippi River bridge which had collapsed catastrophically on August 1, 2007, killing 13 and injuring over 100.
Eisenhower Bridge (Mississippi River) – In Red Wing, Minnesota, opened by Dwight D. Eisenhower in November 1960.
I-90 Mississippi River Bridge – Connects La Crosse, Wisconsin, and Winona County, Minnesota, located just south of Lock and Dam No. 7.
Black Hawk Bridge – Connects Lansing in Allamakee County, Iowa and rural Crawford County, Wisconsin; locally referred to as the Lansing Bridge and documented in the Historic American Engineering Record.
Dubuque-Wisconsin Bridge – Connects Dubuque, Iowa, and Grant County, Wisconsin.
Julien Dubuque Bridge – Joins the cities of Dubuque, Iowa, and East Dubuque, Illinois; listed in the National Register of Historic Places.
Savanna-Sabula Bridge – A truss bridge and causeway connecting the city of Savanna, Illinois, and the island city of Sabula, Iowa. The bridge carries U.S. Highway 52 over the river, and is the terminus of both Iowa Highway 64 and Illinois Route 64. Added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1999.
Fred Schwengel Memorial Bridge – A 4-lane steel girder bridge that carries Interstate 80 and connects LeClaire, Iowa, and Rapids City, Illinois. Completed in 1966.
Clinton Railroad Bridge – A swing bridge that connects Clinton, Iowa and Fulton (Albany), Illinois. Known as the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad Bridge.
I-74 Bridge – Connects Bettendorf, Iowa, and Moline, Illinois; originally known as the Iowa-Illinois Memorial Bridge.
Government Bridge – Connects Rock Island, Illinois and Davenport, Iowa, adjacent to Lock and Dam No. 15; the fourth crossing in this vicinity, built in 1896.
Rock Island Centennial Bridge – Connects Rock Island, Illinois, and Davenport, Iowa; opened in 1940.
Sergeant John F. Baker, Jr. Bridge – Connects Rock Island, Illinois, and Davenport, Iowa; opened in 1973.
Norbert F. Beckey Bridge – Connects Muscatine, Iowa, and Rock Island County, Illinois; became first U.S. bridge to be illuminated with light-emitting diode (LED) lights decoratively illuminating the facade of the bridge.
Great River Bridge – A cable-stayed bridge connecting Burlington, Iowa, to Gulf Port, Illinois.
Fort Madison Toll Bridge – Connects Fort Madison, Iowa, and unincorporated Niota, Illinois; also known as the Santa Fe Swing Span Bridge; at the time of its construction the longest and heaviest electrified swing span on the Mississippi River. Listed in the National Register of Historic Places since 1999.
Keokuk–Hamilton Bridge – Connects Keokuk, Iowa and Hamilton, Illinois; opened in 1985 replacing an older bridge which is still in use as a railroad bridge.
Bayview Bridge – A cable-stayed bridge bringing westbound U.S. Highway 24 over the river, connecting the cities of West Quincy, Missouri, and Quincy, Illinois.
Quincy Memorial Bridge – Connects the cities of West Quincy, Missouri, and Quincy, Illinois, carrying eastbound U.S. 24, the older of these two U.S. 24 bridges.
Clark Bridge – A cable-stayed bridge connecting West Alton, Missouri, and Alton, Illinois, also known as the Super Bridge as the result of an appearance on the PBS program, Nova; built in 1994, carrying U.S. Route 67 across the river. This is the northernmost river crossing in the St. Louis metropolitan area, replacing the Old Clark Bridge, a truss bridge built in 1928, named after explorer William Clark.
Chain of Rocks Bridge – Located on the northern edge of St. Louis, notable for a 22-degree bend occurring at the middle of the crossing, necessary for navigation on the river; formerly used by U.S. Route 66 to cross the Mississippi. Replaced for road traffic in 1966 by a nearby pair of new bridges; now a pedestrian bridge.
Eads Bridge – A combined road and railway bridge, connecting St. Louis and East St. Louis, Illinois. When completed in 1874, it was the longest arch bridge in the world, with an overall length of 6,442 feet (1,964 m). The three ribbed steel arch spans were considered daring, as was the use of steel as a primary structural material; it was the first such use of true steel in a major bridge project.
Chester Bridge – A truss bridge connecting Route 51 in Missouri with Illinois Route 150, between Perryville, Missouri, and Chester, Illinois. The bridge can be seen at the beginning of the 1967 film In the Heat of the Night. In the 1940s, the main span was destroyed by a tornado.
Bill Emerson Memorial Bridge—Connecting Cape Girardeau, Missouri and East Cape Girardeau, Illinois, completed in 2003 and illuminated by 140 lights.
Caruthersville Bridge – A single tower cantilever bridge carrying Interstate 155 and U.S. Route 412 across the Mississippi River between Caruthersville, Missouri and Dyersburg, Tennessee.
Hernando de Soto Bridge – A through arch bridge carrying Interstate 40 across the Mississippi between West Memphis, Arkansas, and Memphis, Tennessee.
Harahan Bridge – A cantilevered through truss bridge, carrying two rail lines of the Union Pacific Railroad across the river between West Memphis, Arkansas, and Memphis, Tennessee.
Frisco Bridge – A cantilevered through truss bridge, carrying a rail line across the river between West Memphis, Arkansas, and Memphis, Tennessee, previously known as the Memphis Bridge. When it opened on May 12, 1892, it was the first crossing of the Lower Mississippi and the longest span in the U.S. Listed as a Historic Civil Engineering Landmark.
Memphis & Arkansas Bridge – A cantilevered through truss bridge, carrying Interstate 55 between Memphis and West Memphis; listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Helena Bridge
Greenville Bridge
Old Vicksburg Bridge
Vicksburg Bridge
Natchez-Vidalia Bridge
John James Audubon Bridge – The second-longest cable-stayed bridge in the Western Hemisphere; connects Pointe Coupee and West Feliciana Parishes in Louisiana. It is the only crossing between Baton Rouge and Natchez. This bridge was opened a month ahead of schedule in May 2011, due to the 2011 floods.
Huey P. Long Bridge – A truss cantilever bridge carrying US 190 (Airline Highway) and one rail line between East Baton Rouge and West Baton Rouge Parishes in Louisiana.
Horace Wilkinson Bridge – A cantilevered through truss bridge, carrying six lanes of Interstate 10 between Baton Rouge and Port Allen in Louisiana. It is the highest bridge over the Mississippi River.
Sunshine Bridge
Gramercy Bridge
Hale Boggs Memorial Bridge
Huey P. Long Bridge – In Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, the first Mississippi River span built in Louisiana.
Crescent City Connection – Connects the east and west banks of New Orleans, Louisiana; the fifth-longest cantilever bridge in the world.
== Navigation and flood control ==
A clear channel is needed for the barges and other vessels that make the main stem Mississippi one of the great commercial waterways of the world. The task of maintaining a navigation channel is the responsibility of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, which was established in 1802. Earlier projects began as early as 1829 to remove snags, close off secondary channels and excavate rocks and sandbars.
The upper backwaters of the Mississippi normally freeze over by December, while the main channel freezes over only in the coldest years, historically as far south as St. Louis.
A series of 29 locks and dams on the upper Mississippi, most of which were built in the 1930s, is designed primarily to maintain a 9-foot-deep (2.7 m) channel for commercial barge traffic. The lakes formed are also used for recreational boating and fishing. The dams make the river deeper and wider but do not stop it. No flood control is intended. During periods of high flow, the gates, some of which are submersible, are completely opened and the dams simply cease to function. Below St. Louis, the Mississippi is relatively free-flowing, although it is constrained by numerous levees and directed by numerous wing dams. The scope and scale of the levees, built along either side of the river to keep it on its course, has often been compared to the Great Wall of China.
On the lower Mississippi, from Baton Rouge to the mouth of the Mississippi, the navigation depth is 45 feet (14 m), allowing container ships and cruise ships to dock at the Port of New Orleans and bulk cargo ships shorter than 150-foot (46 m) air draft that fit under the Huey P. Long Bridge to traverse the Mississippi to Baton Rouge. There is a feasibility study to dredge this portion of the river to 50 feet (15 m) to allow New Panamax ship depths.
=== 19th century ===
In 1829, there were surveys of the two major obstacles on the upper Mississippi, the Des Moines Rapids and the Rock Island Rapids, where the river was shallow and the riverbed was rock. The Des Moines Rapids were about 11 miles (18 km) long and just above the mouth of the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. The Rock Island Rapids were between Rock Island and Moline, Illinois. Both rapids were considered virtually impassable.
In 1848, the Illinois and Michigan Canal was built to connect the Mississippi River to Lake Michigan via the Illinois River near Peru, Illinois. The canal allowed shipping between these important waterways. In 1900, the canal was replaced by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal. The second canal, in addition to shipping, also allowed Chicago to address specific health issues (typhoid fever, cholera and other waterborne diseases) by sending its waste down the Illinois and Mississippi river systems rather than polluting its water source of Lake Michigan.
The Corps of Engineers recommended the excavation of a 5-foot-deep (1.5 m) channel at the Des Moines Rapids, but work did not begin until after Lieutenant Robert E. Lee endorsed the project in 1837. The Corps later also began excavating the Rock Island Rapids. By 1866, it had become evident that excavation was impractical, and it was decided to build a canal around the Des Moines Rapids. The canal opened in 1877, but the Rock Island Rapids remained an obstacle. In 1878, Congress authorized the Corps to establish a 4.5-foot-deep (1.4 m) channel to be obtained by building wing dams that direct the river to a narrow channel causing it to cut a deeper channel, by closing secondary channels and by dredging. The channel project was complete when the Moline Lock, which bypassed the Rock Island Rapids, opened in 1907.
To improve navigation between St. Paul, Minnesota, and Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, the Corps constructed several dams on lakes in the headwaters area, including Lake Winnibigoshish and Lake Pokegama. The dams, which were built beginning in the 1880s, stored spring run-off which was released during low water to help maintain channel depth.
=== 20th century ===
In 1907, Congress authorized a 6-foot-deep (1.8 m) channel project on the Mississippi River, which was not complete when it was abandoned in the late 1920s in favor of the 9-foot-deep (2.7 m) channel project.
In 1913, construction was complete on Lock and Dam No. 19 at Keokuk, Iowa, the first dam below St. Anthony Falls. Built by a private power company (Union Electric Company of St. Louis) to generate electricity (originally for streetcars in St. Louis), the Keokuk dam was one of the largest hydro-electric plants in the world at the time. The dam also eliminated the Des Moines Rapids. Lock and Dam No. 1 was completed in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1917. Lock and Dam No. 2, near Hastings, Minnesota, was completed in 1930.
Before the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, the Corps's primary strategy was to close off as many side channels as possible to increase the flow in the main river. It was thought that the river's velocity would scour off bottom sediments, deepening the river and decreasing the possibility of flooding. The 1927 flood proved this to be so wrong that communities threatened by the flood began to create their own levee breaks to relieve the force of the rising river.
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1930 authorized the 9-foot (2.7 m) channel project, which called for a navigation channel 9 feet (2.7 m) feet deep and 400 feet (120 m) wide to accommodate multiple-barge tows. This was achieved by a series of locks and dams, and by dredging. Twenty-three new locks and dams were built on the upper Mississippi in the 1930s in addition to the three already in existence.
Until the 1950s, there was no dam below Lock and Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois. Chain of Rocks Lock (Lock and Dam No. 27), which consists of a low-water dam and an 8.4-mile-long (13.5 km) canal, was added in 1953, just below the confluence with the Missouri River, primarily to bypass a series of rock ledges at St. Louis. It also serves to protect the St. Louis city water intakes during times of low water.
U.S. government scientists determined in the 1950s that the Mississippi River was starting to switch to the Atchafalaya River channel because of its much steeper path to the Gulf of Mexico. Eventually, the Atchafalaya River would capture the Mississippi River and become its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico, leaving New Orleans on a side channel. As a result, the U.S. Congress authorized a project called the Old River Control Structure, which has prevented the Mississippi River from leaving its current channel that drains into the Gulf via New Orleans.
Because the large scale of high-energy water flow threatened to damage the structure, an auxiliary flow control station was built adjacent to the standing control station. This $300 million project was completed in 1986 by the Corps of Engineers. Beginning in the 1970s, the Corps applied hydrological transport models to analyze flood flow and water quality of the Mississippi. Dam 26 at Alton, Illinois, which had structural problems, was replaced by the Mel Price Lock and Dam in 1990. The original Lock and Dam 26 was demolished.
=== 21st century ===
The Corps now actively creates and maintains spillways and floodways to divert periodic water surges into backwater channels and lakes, as well as route part of the Mississippi's flow into the Atchafalaya Basin and from there to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. The main structures are the Birds Point-New Madrid Floodway in Missouri; the Old River Control Structure and the Morganza Spillway in Louisiana, which direct excess water down the west and east sides (respectively) of the Atchafalaya River; and the Bonnet Carré Spillway, also in Louisiana, which directs floodwaters to Lake Pontchartrain (see diagram). Some experts blame urban sprawl for increases in both the risk and frequency of flooding on the Mississippi River.
Some of the pre-1927 strategy remains in use today, with the Corps actively cutting the necks of horseshoe bends, allowing the water to move faster and reducing flood heights.
== History ==
Approximately 50,000 years ago, the Central United States was covered by an inland sea, which was drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries into the Gulf of Mexico—creating large floodplains and extending the continent further to the south in the process. The soil in areas such as Louisiana was thereafter found to be very rich.
=== Native Americans ===
The area of the Mississippi River basin was first settled by hunting and gathering Native American peoples and is considered one of the few independent centers of plant domestication in human history. Evidence of early cultivation of sunflower, a goosefoot, a marsh elder and an indigenous squash dates to the 4th millennium BC. The lifestyle gradually became more settled after around 1000 BC during what is now called the Woodland period, with increasing evidence of shelter construction, pottery, weaving and other practices.
A network of trade routes referred to as the Hopewell interaction sphere was active along the waterways between about 200 and 500 AD, spreading common cultural practices over the entire area between the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes. A period of more isolated communities followed, and agriculture introduced from Mesoamerica based on the Three Sisters (maize, beans and squash) gradually came to dominate. After around 800 AD there arose an advanced agricultural society today referred to as the Mississippian culture, with evidence of highly stratified complex chiefdoms and large population centers.
The most prominent of these, now called Cahokia, was occupied between about 600 and 1400 AD and at its peak numbered between 8,000 and 40,000 inhabitants, larger than London, England of that time. At the time of first contact with Europeans, Cahokia and many other Mississippian cities had dispersed, and archaeological finds attest to increased social stress.
Modern American Indian nations inhabiting the Mississippi basin include Cheyenne, Sioux, Ojibwe, Potawatomi, Ho-Chunk, Meskwaki, Kickapoo, Tamaroa, Moingwena, Quapaw and Chickasaw.
The word Mississippi itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, Misi-ziibi (Great River). The Ojibwe called Lake Itasca Omashkoozo-zaaga'igan (Elk Lake) and the river flowing out of it Omashkoozo-ziibi (Elk River). After flowing into Lake Bemidji, the Ojibwe called the river Bemijigamaag-ziibi (River from the Traversing Lake). After flowing into Cass Lake, the name of the river changes to Gaa-miskwaawaakokaag-ziibi (Red Cedar River) and then out of Lake Winnibigoshish as Wiinibiigoonzhish-ziibi (Miserable Wretched Dirty Water River), Gichi-ziibi (Big River) after the confluence with the Leech Lake River, then finally as Misi-ziibi (Great River) after the confluence with the Crow Wing River. After the expeditions by Giacomo Beltrami and Henry Schoolcraft, the longest stream above the juncture of the Crow Wing River and Gichi-ziibi was named "Mississippi River". The Mississippi River Band of Chippewa Indians, known as the Gichi-ziibiwininiwag, are named after the stretch of the Mississippi River known as the Gichi-ziibi. The Cheyenne, one of the earliest inhabitants of the upper Mississippi River, called it the Máʼxe-éʼometaaʼe (Big Greasy River) in the Cheyenne language. The Arapaho name for the river is Beesniicíe. The Pawnee name is Kickaátit.
The Mississippi was spelled Mississipi or Missisipi during French Louisiana and was also known as the Rivière Saint-Louis.
=== European exploration ===
In 1519 Spanish explorer Alonso Álvarez de Pineda became the first recorded European to reach the Mississippi River, followed by Hernando de Soto who reached the river on May 8, 1541, and called it Río del Espíritu Santo ("River of the Holy Spirit"), in the area of what is now Mississippi. In Spanish, the river is called Río Mississippi.
French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi in the 17th century. Marquette traveled with a Sioux Indian who named it Ne Tongo ("Big river" in Sioux language) in 1673. Marquette proposed calling it the River of the Immaculate Conception.
When Louis Jolliet explored the Mississippi Valley in the 17th century, natives guided him to a quicker way to return to French Canada via the Illinois River. When he found the Chicago Portage, he remarked that a canal of "only half a league" (less than 2 miles or 3 kilometers) would join the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. In 1848, the continental divide separating the waters of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley was breached by the Illinois and Michigan canal via the Chicago River. This both accelerated the development, and forever changed the ecology of the Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes.
In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle and Henri de Tonti claimed the entire Mississippi River valley for France, calling the river Colbert River after Jean-Baptiste Colbert and the region La Louisiane, for King Louis XIV. On March 2, 1699, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville rediscovered the mouth of the Mississippi, following the death of La Salle. The French built the small fort of La Balise there to control passage.
In 1718, about 100 miles (160 km) upriver, New Orleans was established along the river crescent by Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, with construction patterned after the 1711 resettlement on Mobile Bay of Mobile, the capital of French Louisiana at the time.
In 1727, Étienne Perier begins work, using enslaved African laborers, on the first levees on the Mississippi River.
=== Colonization ===
Following Britain's victory in the Seven Years War, the Mississippi became the border between the British and Spanish Empires. The Treaty of Paris (1763) gave Great Britain rights to all land east of the Mississippi and Spain rights to land west of the Mississippi. Spain also ceded Florida to Britain to regain Cuba, which the British occupied during the war. Britain then divided the territory into East and West Florida.
Article 8 of the Treaty of Paris (1783) states, "The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States". With this treaty, which ended the American Revolutionary War, Britain also ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain the Bahamas, which Spain had occupied during the war. Initial disputes around the ensuing claims of the U.S. and Spain were resolved when Spain was pressured into signing Pinckney's Treaty in 1795. However, in 1800, under duress from Napoleon of France, Spain ceded an undefined portion of West Florida to France in the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. The United States then secured effective control of the river when it bought the Louisiana Territory from France in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. This triggered a dispute between Spain and the U.S. on which parts of West Florida Spain had ceded to France in the first place, which would decide which parts of West Florida the U.S. had bought from France in the Louisiana Purchase, versus which were unceded Spanish property. Due to ongoing U.S. colonization creating facts on the ground, and U.S. military actions, Spain ceded both West and East Florida in their entirety to the United States in the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819.
The last serious European challenge to U.S. control of the river came at the conclusion of the War of 1812, when British forces mounted an attack on New Orleans just 15 days after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent. The attack was repulsed by an American army under the command of General Andrew Jackson.
In the Treaty of 1818, the U.S. and Great Britain agreed to fix the border running from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains along the 49th parallel north. In effect, the U.S. ceded the northwestern extremity of the Mississippi basin to the British in exchange for the southern portion of the Red River basin.
So many settlers traveled westward through the Mississippi river basin, as well as settled in it, that Zadok Cramer wrote a guidebook called The Navigator, detailing the features, dangers, and navigable waterways of the area. It was so popular that he updated and expanded it through 12 editions over 25 years.
The colonization of the area was barely slowed by the three earthquakes in 1811 and 1812, estimated at 8 on the Richter magnitude scale, that were centered near New Madrid, Missouri.
=== Steamboat era ===
Mark Twain's book, Life on the Mississippi, covered the steamboat commerce, which took place from 1830 to 1870, before more modern ships replaced the steamer. Harper's Weekly first published the book as a seven-part serial in 1875. James R. Osgood & Company published the full version, including a passage from the then unfinished Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and works from other authors, in 1885.
The first steamboat to travel the full length of the Lower Mississippi from the Ohio River to New Orleans was the New Orleans in December 1811. Its maiden voyage occurred during the series of New Madrid earthquakes in 1811–12. The Upper Mississippi was treacherous, unpredictable and to make traveling worse, the area was not properly mapped out or surveyed. Until the 1840s, only two trips a year to the Twin Cities landings were made by steamboats, which suggests it was not very profitable. The Secretary of War, Charles M. Conrad in 1851 authorized a scientific study of the river in order to prevent flooding primarily. The report was first published in 1861 under the title, "Report upon the Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River" and was the most extensive river study undertaken in the world at that time.
Steamboat transport remained a viable industry, both in terms of passengers and freight, until the end of the first decade of the 20th century. Among the several Mississippi River system steamboat companies was the noted Anchor Line, which, from 1859 to 1898, operated a luxurious fleet of steamers between St. Louis and New Orleans.
Italian explorer Giacomo Beltrami wrote about his journey on the Virginia, which was the first steamboat to make it to Fort St. Anthony in Minnesota. He referred to his voyage as a promenade that was once a journey on the Mississippi. The steamboat era changed the economic and political life of the Mississippi, as well as of travel itself. The Mississippi was completely changed by the steamboat era as it transformed into a flourishing tourist trade.
=== Civil War ===
Control of the river was a strategic objective of both sides in the American Civil War, forming a part of the U.S. Anaconda Plan. In 1862, Union forces coming down the river successfully cleared Confederate defenses at Island Number 10 and Memphis, Tennessee, while Naval forces coming upriver from the Gulf of Mexico captured New Orleans, Louisiana. One of the last major Confederate strongholds was on the heights overlooking the river at Vicksburg, Mississippi; the Union's Vicksburg Campaign (December 1862 – July 1863), and the fall of Port Hudson, completed control of the lower Mississippi River. The Union victory ended the Siege of Vicksburg on July 4, 1863, and was pivotal to the Union's final victory of the Civil War.
=== 20th and 21st centuries ===
The "Big Freeze" of 1918–19 blocked river traffic north of Memphis, Tennessee, preventing transportation of coal from southern Illinois. This resulted in widespread shortages, high prices, and rationing of coal in January and February.
In the spring of 1927, the river broke out of its banks in 145 places, during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and inundated 27,000 sq mi (70,000 km2) to a depth of up to 30 feet (9.1 m).
In 1930, Fred Newton was the first person to swim the length of the river, from Minneapolis to New Orleans. The journey took 176 days and covered 1,836 miles.
In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled 3.5 million US gallons (13,000 m3) of soybean oil into the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers. The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control water pollution.
On October 20, 1976, the automobile ferry, MV George Prince, was struck by a ship traveling upstream as the ferry attempted to cross from Destrehan, Louisiana, to Luling, Louisiana. Seventy-eight passengers and crew died; only eighteen survived the accident.
In 1988, the water level of the Mississippi fell to 10 feet (3.0 m) below zero on the Memphis gauge. The remains of wooden-hulled water craft were exposed in an area of 4.5 acres (1.8 ha) on the bottom of the Mississippi River at West Memphis, Arkansas. They dated to the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The State of Arkansas, the Arkansas Archeological Survey, and the Arkansas Archeological Society responded with a two-month data recovery effort. The fieldwork received national media attention as good news in the middle of a drought.
The Great Flood of 1993 was another significant flood, primarily affecting the Mississippi above its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois.
Two portions of the Mississippi were designated as American Heritage Rivers in 1997: the lower portion around Louisiana and Tennessee, and the upper portion around Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri and Wisconsin. The Nature Conservancy's project called "America's Rivershed Initiative" announced a 'report card' assessment of the entire basin in October 2015 and gave the grade of D+. The assessment noted the aging navigation and flood control infrastructure along with multiple environmental problems.
In 2002, Slovenian long-distance swimmer Martin Strel swam the entire length of the river, from Minnesota to Louisiana, over the course of 68 days. In 2005, the Source to Sea Expedition paddled the Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers to benefit the Audubon Society's Upper Mississippi River Campaign.
=== Future ===
Geologists believe that the lower Mississippi could take a new course to the Gulf. Either of two new routes—through the Atchafalaya Basin or through Lake Pontchartrain—might become the Mississippi's main channel if flood-control structures are overtopped or heavily damaged during a severe flood.
Failure of the Old River Control Structure, the Morganza Spillway, or nearby levees would likely re-route the main channel of the Mississippi through Louisiana's Atchafalaya Basin and down the Atchafalaya River to reach the Gulf of Mexico south of Morgan City in southern Louisiana. This route provides a more direct path to the Gulf of Mexico than the present Mississippi River channel through Baton Rouge and New Orleans. While the risk of such a diversion is present during any major flood event, such a change has so far been prevented by active human intervention involving the construction, maintenance, and operation of various levees, spillways, and other control structures by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The Old River Control Structure, between the present Mississippi River channel and the Atchafalaya Basin, sits at the normal water elevation and is ordinarily used to divert 30% of the Mississippi flow to the Atchafalaya River. There is a steep drop here away from the Mississippi's main channel into the Atchafalaya Basin. If this facility were to fail during a major flood, there is a strong concern the water would scour and erode the river bottom enough to capture the Mississippi's main channel. The structure was nearly lost during the 1973 flood, but repairs and improvements were made after engineers studied the forces at play. In particular, the Corps of Engineers made many improvements and constructed additional facilities for routing water through the vicinity. These additional facilities give the Corps much more flexibility and potential flow capacity than they had in 1973, which further reduces the risk of a catastrophic failure in this area during other major floods, such as that of 2011.
Because the Morganza Spillway is slightly higher and well back from the river, it is normally dry on both sides. Even if it failed at the crest during a severe flood, the floodwaters would have to erode to normal water levels before the Mississippi could permanently jump channel at this location. During the 2011 floods, the Corps of Engineers opened the Morganza Spillway to 1/4 of its capacity to allow 150,000 cubic feet per second (4,200 m3/s) of water to flood the Morganza and Atchafalaya floodways and continue directly to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. In addition to reducing the Mississippi River crest downstream, this diversion reduced the chances of a channel change by reducing stress on the other elements of the control system.
Some geologists have noted that the possibility for course change into the Atchafalaya also exists in the area immediately north of the Old River Control Structure. Army Corps of Engineers geologist Fred Smith once stated, "The Mississippi wants to go west. 1973 was a forty-year flood. The big one lies out there somewhere—when the structures can't release all the floodwaters and the levee is going to have to give way. That is when the river's going to jump its banks and try to break through."
Another possible course change for the Mississippi River is a diversion into Lake Pontchartrain near New Orleans. This route is controlled by the Bonnet Carré Spillway, built to reduce flooding in New Orleans. This spillway and an imperfect natural levee about 12–20 ft (3.7–6.1 m) high are all that prevents the Mississippi from taking a new, shorter course through Lake Pontchartrain to the Gulf of Mexico. Diversion of the Mississippi's main channel through Lake Pontchartrain would have consequences similar to an Atchafalaya diversion, but to a lesser extent, since the present river channel would remain in use past Baton Rouge and into the New Orleans area.
== Recreation ==
The sport of water skiing was invented on the river in a wide region between Minnesota and Wisconsin known as Lake Pepin. Ralph Samuelson of Lake City, Minnesota, created and refined his skiing technique in late June and early July 1922. He later performed the first water ski jump in 1925 and was pulled along at 80 mph (130 km/h) by a Curtiss flying boat later that year.
There are seven National Park Service sites along the Mississippi River. The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area is the National Park Service site dedicated to protecting and interpreting the Mississippi River itself. The other six National Park Service sites along the river are (listed from north to south):
Effigy Mounds National Monument
Gateway Arch National Park (includes Gateway Arch)
Vicksburg National Military Park
Natchez National Historical Park
New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park
Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve
== Ecology ==
The Mississippi basin is home to a highly diverse aquatic fauna and has been called the "mother fauna" of North American freshwater.
=== Fish ===
About 375 fish species are known from the Mississippi basin, far exceeding other North Hemisphere river basins exclusively within temperate/subtropical regions, except the Yangtze. Within the Mississippi basin, streams that have their source in the Appalachian and Ozark highlands contain especially many species. Among the fish species in the basin are numerous endemics, as well as relicts such as paddlefish, sturgeon, gar and bowfin.
Because of its size and high species diversity, the Mississippi basin is often divided into subregions. The Upper Mississippi River alone is home to about 120 fish species, including walleye, sauger, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, white bass, northern pike, bluegill, crappie, channel catfish, flathead catfish, common shiner, freshwater drum, and shovelnose sturgeon.
=== Other fauna ===
A large number of reptiles are native to the river channels and basin, including American alligators, several species of turtle, aquatic amphibians, and cambaridae crayfish, are native to the Mississippi basin.
In addition, approximately 40% of the migratory birds in the US use the Mississippi River corridor during the Spring and Fall migrations; 60% of all migratory birds in North America (326 species) use the river basin as their flyway.
=== Introduced species ===
Numerous introduced species are found in the Mississippi and some of these are invasive. Among the introductions are fish such as Asian carp, including the silver carp that have become infamous for out-competing native fish and their potentially dangerous jumping behavior. They have spread throughout much of the basin, even approaching (but not yet invading) the Great Lakes. The Minnesota Department of Natural Resources has designated much of the Mississippi River in the state as infested waters by the exotic species zebra mussels and Eurasian watermilfoil.
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== Further reading ==
== External links ==
Mississippi River – project of the American Land Conservancy
Flood management in the Mississippi River (PDF). Archived August 18, 2018, at the Wayback Machine.
Friends of the Mississippi River Archived March 14, 2022, at the Wayback Machine
Mississippi River Challenge – annual canoe & kayak event on the Twin Cities stretch
Mississippi River Field Guide |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica_Hahn#Jim_Bakker_scandal | Jessica Hahn | Jessica Hahn (born July 7, 1959) is an American model and actress. She frequently appeared on The Howard Stern Show throughout the late 1980s and into the 2000s.
== Jim Bakker scandal ==
Hahn first came to public attention in 1987 after the disclosure that televangelist Jim Bakker had paid for her silence in response to an allegation against him of rape, which led to Bakker's announcement that he was stepping down as head of PTL Satellite Network and Heritage USA. According to Hahn, on the afternoon of December 6, 1980, when she was a 21-year-old church secretary, she was drugged and raped by Bakker and another preacher, John Wesley Fletcher. Hahn was given a $279,000 (equivalent to $772,194 in 2024) pay-off for her silence, which was paid with PTL's funds to Hahn through Bakker associate Roe Messner. Bakker, who made all of the financial decisions for the PTL organization, allegedly kept two sets of books to conceal the accounting irregularities. Reporters from The Charlotte Observer, led by Charles Shepard, investigated and published a series of articles regarding the PTL organization's finances. This precipitated Bakker's resignation and the publication of Hahn's claims. In his 1997 book, I Was Wrong, Bakker disputed Hahn's account, claiming that he was "set up" and that the sex was consensual.
== Acting and modeling career ==
After the public revelation of the Bakker scandal, Hahn posed nude for Playboy (November 1987, December 1987 and September 1988) and videos appeared in several television shows, including Married... with Children. She was also known for her frequent appearances on The Howard Stern Show throughout the late 1980s and into the 2000s.
== Personal life ==
Hahn was born in Massapequa, New York, and graduated from Massapequa High School. She had a relationship with comedian Sam Kinison and appeared in his music video for "Wild Thing" in 1988. In 1991, she began a relationship with the co-creator of Married... with Children, Ron Leavitt, which continued until his death in 2008.
In December 2017, Hahn disclosed that she is married to Frank Lloyd (a film stuntman), is no longer active in show business, and lives on a ranch north of Los Angeles. In July 2023 People magazine reported that Hahn's husband Frank Lloyd had filed for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences and stating the couple had been separated since 2018.
== Filmography ==
"Wild Thing" music video by Sam Kinison (1988)
"Critical Mass" music video by Nuclear Assault (1989)
Married... with Children as Ricki (1 episode, 1991)
Bikini Summer II (1992) as Marilyn
Dream On as Reporter 1 (1 episode, 1992)
Blossom as Girl #1 (1 episode, 1992)
"Runnin'" music video by Brittania, directed by Bryan Michael Stoller (1994)
Amanda and the Alien (1995) (TV) as TV Host
Unhappily Ever After as Miss Taylor (3 episodes, 1995)
Hollywood: The Movie (1996) (V) as Esther
== References ==
== Further reading ==
Richard N. Ostling (April 6, 1987). "TV's Unholy Row: A sex-and-money scandal tarnishes electronic evangelism". Time. Archived from the original on March 15, 2007.
"Magazine Buys Story From Jessica Hahn". The New York Times. July 14, 1987.
Andrew L. Yarrow (September 28, 1987). "Celebrities of Summer Are Cashing In". The New York Times.
"Church Chat, Season 13: Episode 6, Saturday Night Live transcript". December 5, 1987.
"Judge Orders Ex-PTL Secretary To Repay Hush Money to Ministry". The New York Times. July 21, 1988.
"Transcript of interview with Larry King". CNN. July 14, 2005.
== External links ==
Jessica Hahn at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicily_Sewell | Sicily Sewell | Sicily Sewell (born October 1, 1985) is an American chef, restaurateur, television producer, and actress. She is sometimes credited in film or television as simply with a mononym Sicily. Following the birth of two daughters, Sewell became a restaurateur.
== Early life, family and education ==
Sewell was born in Pontiac, Michigan. Her parents divorced, and she and her mother and brothers relocated to California where other family resided. She has three brothers (one of which was born after their relocation to California). She resided in Los Angeles during her childhood.
As an adult, Sewell attending the Hollywood campus of Le Cordon Bleu College of Culinary Arts.
== Career ==
=== Television and film ===
Sewell made her television appearance on an Emmy Award-winning episode of Sesame Street when she was eight years old. She played "Young Aisha" in a two-part episode of Season 2 of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers called "Rangers Back in Time", as well as in the 10 part miniseries Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers. She starred as young Diana in the hit miniseries, Mama Flora's Family in 1998, and as Angela Bassett's niece in the film How Stella Got Her Groove Back.
For 4 seasons, Sewell portrayed Spirit Jones, the best friend of Breanna Barnes (played by Kyla Pratt) in the sitcom One on One. Citing a decision by UPN to move in a different direction for the fifth season, Sicily was released from the series on June 20, 2005, when it was nine episodes away from syndication.
Sewell also appeared in the Lifetime original movie Fighting the Odds: The Marilyn Gambrell Story alongside Ernie Hudson, Edwin Hodge and Jami Gertz in August 2005.
=== Chef and restaurateur ===
Sewell's family has a long tradition of skilled cookery. She has told interviewers she is much happier as a chef and restaurateur than she was an actor.
In 2010, while Sewell was attending the Hollywood campus of Le Cordon Bleu College of Culinary Arts, she was an intern at the Los Angeles Times' Test Kitchen. Sewell subsequently graduated, with honours.
Sewell and her mother are co-owners of a soul food restaurant known as Pinky and Red's, in Berkeley, California. In late 2019, Sewell was hired as the chef of a high-profile restaurant known as Colors, in New York City.
== Personal life ==
Sewell came out as gay in a 2022 interview with Comedy Hype channel. She revealed that, despite still being in the closet to her One On One castmates, she was open about her attraction to women at a young age to her close friends.
== Filmography ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Sicily Sewell at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafr_al-Awamid | Kafr al-Awamid | Kafr al-Awamid or Kafr al-Awameed (Arabic: كفر العواميد) is a Syrian village in the Al-Zabadani District of the Rif Dimashq Governorate. According to the Syria Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Kafr al-Awamid had a population of 1,588 in the 2004 census.
== References ==
== External links == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_A._Prather_Award#:~:text=1992%20%E2%80%93%20Kathryn%20D.%20Sullivan | Victor A. Prather Award | The Victor A. Prather Award is an award established by the American Astronautical Society "to promote understanding of high altitude environment on humans." It is awarded to "researchers, engineers and flight crew members in the field of extravehicular protection or activity in space."
The award is in honor of Victor A. Prather, a Naval flight surgeon.
== Recipients ==
Source: American Astronautical Society
1962 – Malcom Davis Ross
1963 – Col. Chuck Yeager
1964 – No award
1965 – Richard S. Johnston
1966 – No award
1967 – No award
1968 – Fred Forbes
1969 – Edward L. Hays and James V. Correale
1970 – Robert E. Smylie and Charles Lutz
1971 – Robert E. Breeding and Leonard Shepard
1972 – Harold I. Johnson
1973 – Walter Guy and Harley Stutesman, Jr.
1974 – Bruce McCandless II and Charles E. Whitsett, Jr.
1975 – David C. Schultz and Harold J. McMann
1976 – Larry E. Bell and Robert M. Bernarndin
1977 – No award
1978 – James W. McBarron II
1979 – Maurice A. Carson and Frederick A. Keune
1980 – No award
1981 – No award
1982 – Wilbert E. Ellis and James M. Waligora
1983 – No award
1984 – Bruce McCandless II
1985 – James D. van Hoften, William F. Fisher, Jerry L. Ross, and Sherwood C. Spring
1986 – Joseph P. Allen
1987 – Joseph J. Kosmo and Hubert C. Vykukal
1988 – Michael Brzezinski
1989 – No award
1990 – Jerry L. Ross
1992 – Kathryn D. Sullivan
1993 – STS-49 Extravehicular Crew: Thomas D. Akers, Pierre J. Thuot, Richard J. Hieb, and Kathryn C. Thornton
1994 – STS-61 Extravehicular Crew: F. Story Musgrave, Thomas D. Akers, Jeffrey A. Hoffman, and Kathryn C. Thornton
1995 – Clifford W. Hess, Scott A. Bleisath, Mark C. Lee
1996 – Willy Z. Sadeh
1997 – Alan M. Rochford
1998 – Guy Severin
1999 – Jerry L. Ross and James H. Newman
2000 – Michael L. Gernhardt
2001 – No award
2002 – G. Allen Flynt
2003 – No award
2004 – No award
2005 – No award
2006 – Scott Crossfield (posthumous) and David Clark (posthumous)
2007 – Curtis A. Stephenson
2008 – Joseph Kittinger
2009 – Joseph A. Ruseckas
2010 – STS-125 EVA Team
2011 – Joseph Kosmo
2012 – Jan Stepanek
2013 – Felix Baumgartner and the Red Bull Stratos Team
2013 - Award terminated
== See also ==
List of engineering awards
List of medicine awards
List of space technology awards
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janice_Burgess#:~:text=The%20series%20received%20eight%20Daytime,Outstanding%20Special%20Class%20Animated%20Program. | Janice Burgess | Janice Burgess (March 1, 1952 – March 2, 2024) was an American television executive, screenwriter and producer for Nickelodeon. She created the Nick Jr. series The Backyardigans and worked as a writer and story editor for Nickelodeon's revival of Winx Club. Both shows were produced at the Nickelodeon Animation Studio. Burgess joined Nickelodeon in 1995 as executive-in-charge of production.
== Early life and education ==
Burgess was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where she grew up in the Squirrel Hill neighborhood and attended the Ellis School. She frequently played in her backyard, and she later used those memories as inspiration for The Backyardigans. "I really remember it as a wonderful, happy, safe place... you could have these great adventures just romping around. From there, you could go anywhere or do anything." She loved musicals, and her mother frequently played a wide array of music. Planning to become an art historian, she graduated from Brandeis University in 1974 with a bachelor's degree in art history.
== Career ==
According to an interview with Investor's Business Daily, Burgess did not enjoy traveling "in art circles with collectors and high society," so she sought out a different career after college. She volunteered for a job at the public television station WQED, where she was put in charge of craft services.
In the early 1990s, Burgess held positions at the Children's Television Workshop, including as an assistant travel coordinator for 3-2-1 Contact and project manager for Ghostwriter. For the latter, she coordinated the efforts of a tie-in magazine and teacher materials with the content and goals of the television show. It was during this job that she was notified of an opening at Nickelodeon; Burgess joked that she interviewed for the job "about 11,000 times." She was hired as the executive in charge of production for Nick Jr., overseeing the development of Blue's Clues and Little Bill. Burgess later became the vice president of Nickelodeon's Nick Jr. division.
=== The Backyardigans ===
While working as an executive, Burgess attended scripting and concept development meetings, where she enjoyed helping the creative teams with characters and storylines. Burgess was eventually given the opportunity to transition to a creative role by the senior vice president of Nick Jr, Brown Johnson. She asked Burgess to develop an idea for a new Nick Jr. show, and Burgess produced a pilot episode called "Me and My Friends" at Nickelodeon Studios Florida in 1998. The pilot was a live-action, full-body puppet show that featured music and dance; it was not picked up for a full series. Several months after the rejection, Brown Johnson asked Burgess to retool the concept, as she liked the characters and music from Burgess's pilot and felt the show would work better in animation.
Using the characters from "Me and My Friends," Burgess wrote a second pilot, which was produced at Nickelodeon's New York studio in 2002. The show, now fully animated and renamed The Backyardigans, was greenlit for a full season of 20 episodes. Reflecting on the shift to animation, Burgess said, "Sometimes your first attempt is just not all that great. In this case, my second attempt was much better." The Backyardigans premiered on Nickelodeon on October 11, 2004.
Burgess served as executive producer for The Backyardigans throughout its run of four seasons. In 2006, she described her work on the show positively: "making The Backyardigans has become sort of like an adventure that I go on with my friends. Of course, we get paid, but we do get to be carefree in our work, enjoy each other, hang around a lot, travel a little bit, and make up stuff."
Burgess drew inspiration from action films when writing episodes of the show, as she wanted to adapt high-stakes stories for a young audience. She also was inspired by memories of playing in her own childhood backyard. The series received eight Daytime Emmy Award nominations, and Burgess won the 2008 Emmy for Outstanding Special Class Animated Program. After The Backyardigans wrapped production in 2010 on the fourth and final season, much of the series' staff members regrouped to work on Nickelodeon's Winx Club, including Burgess. She worked as a writer, story editor, and creative consultant on the action-adventure series.
== Death ==
Burgess died in hospice care in Manhattan on March 2, 2024, the day after her 72nd birthday. She was diagnosed with breast cancer in 2018, six years prior to her death.
== References ==
== External links ==
Janice Burgess at IMDb
The Backyardigans at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Mound,_Iowa | Grand Mound, Iowa | Grand Mound is a city in Clinton County, Iowa, United States. The population was 615 at the time of the 2020 census.
== History ==
The Chicago, Iowa and Nebraska Railroad was built through the town site in 1858, and a train station was built. Grand Mound was platted in 1866. Grand Mound was named for nearby Sand Mound; a recording error accounts for the error in spelling, which was never corrected. Legend has it, that it is the grandest of all mounds.
== Education ==
Grand Mound is part of the Central DeWitt Community School District, based in DeWitt, known as the Central Clinton Community School District until July 1, 2014.
Until 2001, elementary-aged students attended Grand Mound Elementary School with older students being bused to DeWitt.
Grand Mound Elementary was on a property of about 4 acres (1.6 ha) (35 rods, 10 feet by 18 rods). The first school building was built in 1917. Another school building, from 1954, had a cafeteria, a gymnasium, and two classrooms. In 1995 the district closed the original building because it was deemed to be structurally unsafe and its roof was in a poor condition. Circa 1999 that building was demolished. After the demolition the cafeteria began serving as an office, a school nurse area, and a reading and speech therapy instruction area. By 2001 Grand Mound Elementary served Kindergarten and the first grade. Grand Mound Elementary had 38 students in the 1998–1999 school year, and by 2001 the enrollment was down to 35. Grand Mound students used the library, media and computer facilities at Welton Elementary.
Circa 2001 there was a bond proposal to expand the elementary schools in DeWitt, which would have centralized services and facilities for the handicapped, and close the schools in Grand Mound and Welton. By 2002 the school closed, and was sold to God's Family Baptist Church. After the closure of Grand Mound (due to declining enrollment and concerns about the building's structural condition), students were bused to elementary schools in Welton and DeWitt; today (with Welton also closed), all elementary-aged students attend school in DeWitt.
Prior to the formation of the Central Clinton School District, Grand Mound had its own junior-senior high school, which operated in the same school building as the elementary school. Sports teams were known as the Cardinals. The last graduating senior class was in 1961, when Grand Mound—along with the Welton and DeWitt school districts—consolidated to form the Central Community School District.
== Geography ==
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.82 square miles (4.71 km2), all land.
== Demographics ==
=== 2020 census ===
As of the census of 2020, there were 615 people, 251 households, and 182 families residing in the city. The population density was 328.6 inhabitants per square mile (126.9/km2). There were 257 housing units at an average density of 137.3 per square mile (53.0/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 94.6% White, 0.5% Black or African American, 0.0% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 0.7% from other races and 4.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino persons of any race comprised 2.4% of the population.
Of the 251 households, 31.1% of which had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.4% were married couples living together, 10.4% were cohabitating couples, 17.9% had a female householder with no spouse or partner present and 18.3% had a male householder with no spouse or partner present. 27.5% of all households were non-families. 21.9% of all households were made up of individuals, 8.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years old or older.
The median age in the city was 38.6 years. 26.0% of the residents were under the age of 20; 7.8% were between the ages of 20 and 24; 24.2% were from 25 and 44; 26.7% were from 45 and 64; and 15.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.7% male and 49.3% female.
=== 2010 census ===
As of the census of 2010, there were 642 people, 243 households, and 185 families residing in the city. The population density was 352.7 inhabitants per square mile (136.2/km2). There were 253 housing units at an average density of 139.0 per square mile (53.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 98.9% White, 0.3% Asian, and 0.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.7% of the population.
There were 243 households, of which 34.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.4% were married couples living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 23.9% were non-families. 16.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.64 and the average family size was 2.99.
The median age in the city was 39.5 years. 24.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.4% were from 25 to 44; 28.3% were from 45 to 64; and 13.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.9% male and 49.1% female.
=== 2000 census ===
As of the census of 2000, there were 675 people, 254 households, and 196 families residing in the city. The population density was 367.9 inhabitants per square mile (142.0/km2). There were 260 housing units at an average density of 141.5 per square mile (54.6/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 98.37% White, 0.15% Asian, and 1.48% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.33% of the population.
There were 254 households, out of which 38.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.7% were married couples living together, 6.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.8% were non-families. 20.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66 and the average family size was 3.08.
28.1% are under the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 29.9% from 25 to 44, 22.9% from 45 to 64, and 11.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.0 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $42,411, and the median income for a family was $46,429. Males had a median income of $33,611 versus $20,250 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,228. About 4.2% of families and 7.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.6% of those under age 18 and 8.9% of those age 65 or over.
== References ==
== External links ==
Website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_Leather_Jacket | Full Leather Jacket | "Full Leather Jacket" is the 21st episode of the HBO original series The Sopranos and the eighth of the show's second season. It was written by Robin Green and Mitchell Burgess, directed by Allen Coulter, and originally aired on March 5, 2000.
== Starring ==
James Gandolfini as Tony Soprano
Lorraine Bracco as Dr. Jennifer Melfi
Edie Falco as Carmela Soprano
Michael Imperioli as Christopher Moltisanti
Dominic Chianese as Corrado Soprano, Jr.
Vincent Pastore as Pussy Bonpensiero *
Steven Van Zandt as Silvio Dante
Tony Sirico as Paulie Gualtieri
Robert Iler as Anthony Soprano, Jr.
Jamie-Lynn Sigler as Meadow Soprano
Drea de Matteo as Adriana La Cerva
David Proval as Richie Aprile
Aida Turturro as Janice Soprano
Nancy Marchand as Livia Soprano *
* = credit only
=== Guest starring ===
== Synopsis ==
Meadow hopes to go to Berkeley; her parents Tony and Carmela want to prevent it. Their neighbor, Jean Cusamano, has a sister, Joan O'Connell, who is a prestigious alumna of Georgetown University. Carmela cajoles Jean into asking Joan to write a letter of recommendation for Meadow. Joan declines, but Carmela visits her, presents her with a ricotta pie and insists, "I want you to write that letter." Jean reports to Carmela that the letter has been written, and Carmela asks for a copy.
Silvio and Paulie pressure Richie to build Beansie a wheelchair ramp for his house, as partial reparation for crippling him. Richie scornfully refuses, but when he learns that these instructions come from Tony, he sends his nephew Vito Spatafore and his construction workers to fully adapt Beansie's house.
Richie has a leather jacket which he obtained years ago from the feared mobster Rocco DiMeo. He gives it to Tony, who accepts it reluctantly but politely. Richie attaches great importance to the jacket, and to the act of giving it to Tony. He later sees it being worn by the husband of the Sopranos' maid and is deeply offended.
Adriana, embarrassed in a restaurant by Christopher, has left him and gone back to her mother's. Christopher goes to her, proposes marriage and presents her with a ring. She says she loves him, and the ring. In bed, he tells her, "I'm back on track, rededicating myself"—to her and to Tony.
Matt and Sean continue to work with Christopher, breaking into safes. Having been subjected to various slights and snubs by members of the DiMeo family, they feel they are getting nowhere and must do something drastic. They ambush Christopher as he is leaving a diner, imagining that this will gain them favor with Richie. Christopher is shot three times and left unconscious; Sean is killed. Matt flees and asks for Richie's protection; Richie, furious, chases him away. As Christopher lies comatose in the hospital, Tony asks, "How could this happen?"
== First appearances ==
Liz La Cerva: The mother of Adriana La Cerva.
Bryan Spatafore: The brother of Vito Spatafore.
Donny K: A soldier in Richie Aprile's crew.
Stanisław "Stasiu" Wosilius: husband of the Sopranos' housekeeper, Lilliana.
== Deceased ==
Sean Gismonte: shot in the head in self-defense by Christopher Moltisanti.
== Title reference ==
The episode's title is a play on the 1987 film Full Metal Jacket, whose title refers to full metal jacket bullets. Here, it alludes to the leather jacket that Richie gave to Tony. Also, after Christopher is shot, the camera pans the sidewalk showing the metal cartridge casings that have been expelled from the weapons.
On a thematic level, Matt and Sean ambushing Christopher as a way to prove themselves to Richie reflects the killing of the Vietnamese sniper by Joker in the film Full Metal Jacket, which - at least on one level - can also be understood as a reluctant way act by Joker to prove himself in the eyes of Animal Mother and the others. Richie is shown as being abusive of others around him in a similar way as Animal Mother is abusive of other Lusthog Squad marines, who still in a way rely on him for their safety. More generally, this episode is linked to the film referenced in its title through the theme of "loss of innocence".
== Production ==
Saundra Santiago plays a dual role in this episode, portraying twin sisters Jean Cusamano and Joannie O'Connell.
Although the episode was the eighth of the second season, it was the seventh to be produced.
Unlike most other episodes, there is no song played over the end credits. Instead, all that is heard is the sound of Christopher's ventilator and the electrocardiogram machine.
This is the shortest episode of the series, running just under 43 minutes.
Sean Gismonte is killed by Christopher because Sean was restrained in the car by a seatbelt. This is similar to Livia's story to A.J. of how seatbelts can kill, from the previous episode, "D-Girl".
== Music ==
The song played during the opening scene of this episode when the Soprano family eats Chinese food, is "Baker Street" by Gerry Rafferty. Later, when Christopher and Adriana are in bed together, Christopher says "I'm rededicating myself, right down the line." "Right Down the Line" is the title of another Gerry Rafferty song from the 1978 album City to City.
The song played when Richie is reading the paper, and then is joined by Paulie and Silvio, is "Dancing in the Dark", sung by Tony Bennett on the 1993 album Steppin' Out.
The song played when Sean and Matt approach Tony in the Bada Bing's men's room is "Lap Dance" by the Jon Spencer Blues Explosion.
The song played when Furio and his partner collect from Sean and Matt is "Up 'N Da Club" by 2nd II None. Since 2022 the song was popularized as an internet meme among fans of the show.
The song played as Richie and Carmela talk (while the maid and her husband are picking up a television) is "Fields of Gold" by Sting.
The song played when Matt and Sean sit at the Bada Bing, reflecting on their status, is "Fuck With Your Head" by DJ Rap.
== Filming locations ==
Listed in order of first appearance:
North Caldwell, New Jersey
Montclair, New Jersey
Lodi, New Jersey
Newark, New Jersey
Satin Dolls in Lodi, New Jersey
Satriale's Pork Store in Kearny, New Jersey
Kearny, New Jersey
Additionally, Turtle Back Zoo, Willowbrook Mall, and Short Hills are mentioned.
== References ==
== External links ==
"Full Leather Jacket" Archived 2016-08-18 at the Wayback Machine at HBO
"Full Leather Jacket" at IMDb |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasir_Naqvi | Yasir Naqvi | Yasir Abbas Naqvi (born 25 January 1973) is a Canadian politician who has served as the member of Parliament (MP) for Ottawa Centre since the 2021 federal election, sitting as a Liberal. Prior to his election to the House of Commons of Canada, Naqvi was active in Ontario provincial politics, serving as the first visible-minority attorney general of Ontario (2016–2018), minister of community safety and correctional services (2014–2016), and minister of labour (2013–2014). He represented Ottawa Centre in the Legislative Assembly. On 3 June 2023, Naqvi announced his candidacy for the 2023 Ontario Liberal Party leadership election. He placed third, losing to Bonnie Crombie.
== Background ==
Naqvi was born and raised in Karachi, Pakistan and immigrated to Canada with his family after his father was jailed for nine months for leading a pro-democracy demonstration. His family moved to the United Kingdom, settling in London for a short time.
In 1988, at the age of 15, Naqvi settled in Niagara Falls, Ontario with his family where they bought a motel. Naqvi attended McMaster University and graduated with a degree in Political Science and Life Science.
Just two years after arriving in Canada, Naqvi volunteered in the 1990 provincial election. He has been involved with the Liberal Party of Canada and the Liberal Party of Ontario ever since.
He went on to attend the University of Ottawa Law School and was called to the Bar in Ontario in 2001. He began practicing in international trade law at Flavell Kubrick LLP, where he eventually became a partner.
He left Flavell Kubrick in 2005 to work for Land Michener LLP. In 2007, Naqvi joined the Centre for Trade Policy and Law at Carleton University. He also served as President of the Liberal Party of Ontario from October 2009 until February 2013.
The Ottawa Citizen named Naqvi as one of its "People to Watch in 2010", with a profile in the 9 January 2010 Saturday Observer headlined "Yasir Naqvi, he's a firecracker". Ottawa Life magazine also included him in its Tenth Annual "Top 50 People in the Capital" list for 2010. In a September 2011 column, Adam Radwanski of The Globe and Mail called Naqvi "possibly the hardest-working constituency MPP in the province."
Naqvi was also recognized by Carleton University in 2017 as part of their 75 for the 75th series, which highlighted 75 notable alumni in the Faculty of Public Affairs in honour of the University's 75th anniversary.
Prior to entering politics he volunteered with a number of community associations including the Centretown Community Health Centre and the Ottawa Food Bank.
== Political career ==
=== Ontario provincial politics ===
The Ontario Liberal Party nomination in the riding of Ottawa Centre was opened up in March 2007 when incumbent MPP and Peterson era cabinet minister Richard Patten announced that he would not seek re-election. Naqvi competed against long time Ottawa City Councillor Diane Deans, who was backed by the central party and endorsed by Patten, for the nomination. In the general election, he defeated New Democratic Party (NDP) candidate Will Murray by 2,094 votes. He was successful in seeking re-election in both in 2011 and 2014.
He was appointed Parliamentary Assistant to Rick Bartolucci, the Minister of Community Safety and Correctional Services, in the cabinet announcement of 30 October 2007. On 3 October 2008, he was named Parliamentary Assistant to the Minister of Revenue Dwight Duncan. On 24 June 2009, a cabinet shuffle moved John Wilkinson into the role of Minister of Revenue and Naqvi was kept on as his Parliamentary Assistant. On 2 September 2010, Naqvi was appointed Parliamentary Assistant to Minister of Education Leona Dombrowsky.
Naqvi introduced six Private Member's Bills – the "Safer Communities and Neighbourhoods Act", the "City of Ottawa Amendment Act", the "Escaping Domestic Violence Act", the "College and University Student Associations Act", the "Enhancing Red Light Camera System Enforcement Act", and the "Protection of Public Participation Act". Parts of the City of Ottawa Amendment Act were passed as part of the 2010 budget and parts of the Escaping Domestic Violence Act were passed in March 2016 as part of the Sexual Violence and Harassment Action Plan Act. On 17 September 2009, Naqvi introduced a co-sponsored notion with NDP member of Provincial Parliament (MPP) France Gélinas declaring the third week of February "Kindness Week", inspired by a successful Kindness Week initiative underway in Ottawa. Naqvi also co-sponsored Toby's Act with NDP MPP France Gelinas and Progressive Conservative (PC) MPP Christine Elliott which added gender identity and gender expression to the Ontario Human Rights Code.
In March 2013, an article appeared in the Toronto Sun which claimed that Naqvi had endorsed an Islamist book on men physically punishing their wives. The following day in the National Post, Naqvi denied having endorsed the book. The Post reported that "Naqvi acknowledged that he wrote a letter of support for the book two years ago, but says he didn't read it…. The minister says he also didn't authorize the use of his name or comments in the "reviews" section of the book." Naqvi said that he wrote a congratulatory note to the author for the publication but had not read the book nor endorsed the messaging within it. He also made a statement where he strongly condemned violence against women and stated, "I believe that abuse of any kind is unacceptable and I do not share the views expressed in this book".
In February 2013, when Kathleen Wynne took over as Premier, she appointed Naqvi to her first cabinet as Minister of Labour. After the June 2014 election, Naqvi was moved to the position of Minister of Community Safety and Correctional Services and Government House Leader. In 2016, Naqvi and the Ontario Government were criticized for the state of provincial prisons and the human rights violations of inmates.
Attorney General
On 13 June 2016, he assumed the role of Attorney General following a cabinet shuffle, becoming both the first visible-minority and the first Muslim person to do so.
As Attorney General of Ontario, Naqvi introduced the Safe Access to Abortion Services Act, 2017. This bill created Safe access zones for abortion clinics and health-care facilities in Ontario, making it illegal to advise a person not to access abortion services, videotape or photograph a patient or provider for the purpose of discouraging them from abortion services and perform acts of disapproval about issues relating to abortion by any means. These safe access zones are in effect within 50m of abortion clinics and 150m of hospitals or offices of healthcare professionals that provide abortion services.
In a 2018 article naming him one of the 25 Most Influential in the Justice System and Legal Profession, Naqvi was "credited by voters as pulling Ontario's court system into the future with his Digital Justice Action Plan, putting wireless internet in courtrooms, instituting the use of email and text for jury summons, as well as initiating a 2017 website that digitized the filing of civil claims."
Naqvi unsuccessfully sought a fourth mandate in the June 2018 Ontario general election. He came in second behind New Democrat Joel Harden.
In his brief time away from politics, Naqvi was appointed CEO of the Institute for Canadian Citizenship (ICC).
=== Federal politics ===
Naqvi was elected for the Liberal Party of Canada in Ottawa-Centre on 20 September 2021, handily winning his seat with 45.5% of the popular vote. He was chosen to serve as Parliamentary Secretary to the President of the King's Privy Council for Canada and Minister of Emergency Preparedness.
As a Member of Parliament, Naqvi has served on the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Justice and Human Rights (JUST) as well as on the Special Joint Committee on the Declaration of Emergency (DEDC).
In July 2022, Naqvi announced the creation of the Downtown Ottawa Revitalization Task Force to explore ideas and create recommendations that will assist policymakers in the reimagining of downtown Ottawa.
Naqvi was "disappointed" regarding the reopening of Wellington Road, in front of the Parliament of Canada, citing this would result in having cars and buses return to the street, even though the City of Ottawa planned bicycle lanes, further enhancing commuting. He indicated that he preferred having "conversations" to find a good result for Wellington Street.
Naqvi resigned from his role as a Parliamentary Secretary in March 2023 as he began seriously considering running in the 2023 Ontario Liberal Party leadership election. He officially announced his candidacy on 3 June 2023 while continuing to sit as a federal MP.
=== Ontario Liberal leadership campaign ===
Naqvi returned to the provincial scene in 2023 running for the leadership of the Ontario Liberal Party, while remaining a federal MP. He placed third in the 2023 Ontario Liberal Party leadership election behind Mississauga mayor Bonnie Crombie, who won the vote, and runner-up Nathaniel Erskine-Smith.
== Personal life ==
Naqvi was married and has a son and a daughter. They live in Ottawa. Naqvi's older brother, Ali Naqvi, was a candidate for the New Democratic Party in the riding of Mississauga East—Cooksville in the 2015 Canadian federal election, and in the riding of Etobicoke North in the 2008 Canadian federal election and 2006 Canadian federal election, and in the riding of Don Valley West in the 2003 Ontario general election. Naqvi's father Anwar Naqvi was a candidate for the New Democratic Party in the riding of Halton in the 2006 Canadian federal election and the 2004 Canadian federal election, and in the riding of Oakville in the 2003 Ontario general election.
== Electoral record ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Yasir Naqvi – Parliament of Canada biography
Ontario Legislative Assembly parliamentary history |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prayas_Nepal | Prayas Nepal | Prayas Nepal is a non-profit, non-governmental organization in Nepal. It is registered with the District Administrative Office of Kathmandu. Prayas Nepal aims to protect the rights of children and the underprivileged including orphans, women and elderly in Nepal by helping them to access essential services such as education and health care.
== History and development ==
June 2003: Prayas Nepal established the children's home in a rented house with the capacity to accommodate 10 orphans and underprivileged children of Nepal.
2005: In response to the needs and problems of street children in Kathmandu, Prayas Nepal launched a new programme named Children for Children.
March 2005: Due to the increasing number of orphan and abandoned children being accepted, Prayas Nepal acquired its own premises in Baluwatar, Kathmandu, which can accommodate 45 children, with the help of donors.
2006: Prayas Nepal launched its first programme targeting women through supporting female employment – Women Empowerment Program.
July 2007: Responding to the serious floods in some areas of Nepal, Prayas Nepal assisted in the reconstruction of 42 damaged houses in Dhanusa District by providing building materials.
2010: Prayas Nepal started to partner with schools to support their construction and renovation of educational facilities.
== Programmes ==
Children’s Home - Prayas Nepal currently provides basic nutritional and medical support, formal education support, learning excursions and playtime for 38 children at the children’s home.
Sponsorship Programmes - Prayas Nepal offers two types of sponsorship programmes for underprivileged children who live with their own family, namely the full and partial sponsorship programmes. Under the Purna Chhatrabritti (A Full Sponsorship Programme), children can receive overall financial support to complete their one year of schooling. Students granted the Share & Care Sponsorship can obtain partial monetary support from Prayas Nepal according to their need. This sponsorship mainly covers the tuition fee, uniform or school materials of the sponsored child.
Free Community Health Camp Programme - Prayas Nepal has established free medical camps in various rural areas in Nepal where there is no easy access to medical care for the underprivileged including children, women and elderly.
Micro Support (Small Aid) Programme - Prayas Nepal supports local schools’ purchase of learning materials and local small-scale school infrastructure projects, including water tank construction, science lab and library set-up.
Elder Education Programme - Prayas Nepal has organized several literacy classes for the elderly in two districts in Nepal – Dhanusa and Rukum.
Women Empowerment Programme - Prayas Nepal equips female victims of conflict and underprivileged women with literacy classes, counseling sessions and tailoring, knitting, weaving, candle-making, incense-making, pickle-making skills and provides them with necessities including shelter and food.
“Children for Children” - Prayas Nepal has offered counseling services to child street hawkers including drop-outs and drug users to encourage their re-entry to school.
School Construction and Renovation Project - Prayas Nepal assists schools which have inadequate and damaged classrooms and poor facilities with construction and renovation projects by providing technical and financial support including provisions of construction materials. By mid-2014, three projects have been accomplished in three different schools – Shree Nimna Lower Secondary School (Rukum District), Shree Bhumeswori Secondary School (Ramechhap District), and Shree Sunakhani Secondary School (Dhading District).
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patty_Berg#:~:text=During%20a%20four%2Dyear%20stretch,is%20an%20all%2Dtime%20record. | Patty Berg | Patricia Jane Berg (February 13, 1918 – September 10, 2006) was an American professional golfer. She was a founding member and the first president of the LPGA. Her 15 major title wins remains the all-time record for most major wins by a female golfer. She is a member of the World Golf Hall of Fame.
In winter times she was also a speed skater.
== Amateur career ==
Berg was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and expressed an interest in football at an early age. At one point, she played quarterback on a local team that included future Oklahoma Sooners head football coach Bud Wilkinson. At the age of 13, Berg took up golf in 1931 at the suggestion of her parents; by 1934, she began her amateur career and won the Minneapolis City Championship. The following year, Berg claimed a state amateur title. She attended the University of Minnesota where she was a member of Kappa Kappa Gamma sorority. She came to national attention by reaching the final of the 1935 U.S. Women's Amateur, losing to Glenna Collett-Vare in Vare's final Amateur victory. Berg won the Titleholders in 1937. In 1938, she won the U.S. Women's Amateur at Westmoreland and the Women's Western Amateur. With a victory in the 1938 Titleholders Championship and a spot on the winning Curtis Cup team as well, Berg was selected as the Associated Press Woman Athlete of the Year, the first of three times she earned the honor. In 1939, Berg won her third consecutive Titleholders, although she was unable to compete in the U.S. Women's Amateur due to an operation on her appendix.
== Professional career ==
After winning 29 amateur titles, she turned professional in 1940. Berg's career had been interrupted by an automobile accident in December 1941; while traveling to a fund-raising event with Helen Dettweiler, a head-on accident shattered Berg's knee.
Subsequently, she recovered and volunteered for the United States Marine Corps and was commissioned a second lieutenant in 1942. She served in the Marine Reserves from 1942 to 1945.
Despite concerns that her golfing career would end, Berg returned to the game in 1943, helped by a locker room fall that broke adhesions which had developed in her leg. Upon her comeback, she won the Women's Western Open. She won the inaugural U.S. Women's Open in 1946. In 1948, she helped establish the forerunner of the LPGA, the Women's Professional Golf Association (WPGA), winning three tournaments that season and in 1949. When the LPGA was officially started in 1950, Berg was one of the 13 founding members and held a leadership position as the association's first president. Berg won a total of 57 events on the LPGA and WPGA circuit, and was runner-up in the 1957 Open at Winged Foot. She was runner-up in the 1956 and 1959 LPGA Championships. In addition, Berg won the 1953, 1957, and 1958 Women's Western Opens, the 1955 and 1957 Titleholders, both considered majors at the time. Her last victory came in 1962. She was voted the Associated Press Woman Athlete of the Year in 1942 and 1955, in addition to her 1938 award. During a four-year stretch from 1953 to 1956, Berg won the Vare Trophy three times for having the lowest scoring average on the LPGA. She was the LPGA Tour's top money winner twice, in 1954 and 1957, and her seven Titleholders wins is an all-time record. Berg won 15 women's major golf championships in her career, including the seven Titleholders victories, seven wins in the Women's Western Open, and the 1946 U.S. Women's Open championship.
In 1959, Berg became the first woman to hit a hole-in-one during a USGA competition, which happened at the U.S. Women's Open.
In 1963, Berg was voted the recipient of the Bob Jones Award, the highest honor given by the United States Golf Association in recognition of distinguished sportsmanship in golf. Berg received the 1986 Old Tom Morris Award from the Golf Course Superintendents Association of America, GCSAA's highest honor. The LPGA established the Patty Berg Award in 1978. In her later years, Berg teamed-up with PGA Tour player and fellow Fort Myers, Florida resident Nolan Henke to establish the Nolan Henke/Patty Berg Junior Masters to promote the development of young players.
Berg was sponsored on the LPGA Tour her entire career by public golf patriarch Joe Jemsek, owner of the famous Cog Hill Golf & Country Club in Lemont, Illinois, site of the PGA Tour's Western Open from 1991 to 2006. Berg represented another of Jemsek's public facilities, St. Andrews Golf & Country Club in West Chicago, Illinois, on the women's circuit for over 60 years.
Berg told Chicagoland Golf magazine she taught over 16,000 clinics in her lifetime – many of which were sponsored by Chicago-based Wilson Sporting Goods and were called "The Patty Berg Hit Parade." In that interview, Berg figured she personally indoctrinated to the game of golf over a half-million new players. She was a member of Wilson's Advisory Staff for 66 years, until her death.
She announced in December 2004 that she had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. She died in Fort Myers from complications of the disease 21 months later at the age of 88.
== Professional wins (63) ==
=== LPGA Tour wins (60) ===
1937 (1) Titleholders Championship (as an amateur)
1938 (1) Titleholders Championship (as an amateur)
1939 (1) Titleholders Championship (as an amateur)
1941 (3) Women's Western Open, North Carolina Open, New York Invitational
1943 (2) Women's Western Open, All American Open
1945 (1) All American Open
1946 (4) Northern California Open, Northern California Medal Tournament, Pebble Beach Open, U.S. Women's Open
1947 (3) Northern California Open, Pebble Beach Open, Northern California Medal Tournament
1948 (3) Titleholders Championship, Women's Western Open, Hardscrabble Open
1949 (3) Tampa Open, Texas PGA Championship, Hardscrabble Open
1950 (3) Eastern Open, Sunset Hills Open, Hardscrabble Women's Invitational
1951 (5) Sandhills Women's Open, Pebble Beach Weathervane, New York Weathervane, 144 Hole Weathervane, Women's Western Open
1952 (3) New Orleans Women's Open, Richmond Open, New York Weathervane
1953 (7) Jacksonville Open, Titleholders Championship, New Orleans Women's Open, Phoenix Weathervane (tied with Louise Suggs), Reno Open, All American Open, World Championship
1954 (3) Triangle Round Robin, World Championship, Ardmore Open
1955 (6) St. Petersburg Open, Titleholders Championship, Women's Western Open, All American Open, World Championship, Clock Open
1956 (2) Dallas Open, Arkansas Open
1957 (5) Havana Open, Titleholders Championship, Women's Western Open, All American Open, World Championship
1958 (2) Women's Western Open, American Women's Open
1960 (1) American Women's Open
1962 (1) Muskogee Civitan Open
LPGA majors are shown in bold.
=== Other wins (3) ===
1944 Pro-Lady Victory National (with Johnny Revolta)
1950 Orlando Two-Ball (with Earl Stewart)
1954 Orlando Two-Ball (with Pete Cooper)
== Major championships ==
=== Wins (15) ===
=== Results timeline ===
NYF = tournament not yet founded
NT = no tournament
CUT = missed the half-way cut
R16, QF, SF = round in which player lost in match play
"T" indicates a tie for a place
=== Summary ===
Starts – 97
Wins – 15
2nd-place finishes – 10
3rd-place finishes – 10
Top 3 finishes – 35
Top 5 finishes – 47
Top 10 finishes – 57
Top 25 finishes – 78
Missed cuts – 12
Most consecutive cuts made – 79
Longest streak of top-10s – 32
== Team appearances ==
Amateur
Curtis Cup (representing the United States): 1936 (tie, Cup retained), 1938 (winners)
== See also ==
List of golfers with most LPGA Tour wins
List of golfers with most LPGA major championship wins
== References ==
== External links ==
Patty Berg at the LPGA Tour official site
Patty Berg Award
Patty Berg at golf.about.com at the Wayback Machine (archived 2008-02-16) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_UCI_Cyclo-cross_World_Championships_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_junior_race | 2008 UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships – Men's junior race | This event was held on Saturday 26 January 2008 as part of the 2008 UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships in Treviso, Italy.
== Ranking ==
== Notes ==
== External links ==
Union Cycliste Internationale |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Ultimate_Kho_Kho#:~:text=There%20were%20six%20teams%20playing,and%20the%20Indian%20Super%20League. | 2022 Ultimate Kho Kho | The 2022 season of Ultimate Kho Kho was the inaugural season hosted from 14 August to 4 September 2022. Six teams played a total of 34 matches. Odisha Juggernauts beat Telugu Yoddhas 46-45 in the final. The season had a viewership of 64 million, 41 million of which came from India. This made the league the third-most viewed non-cricket competition in India after the Pro Kabaddi and Indian Super League.
== History ==
An exhibition match was played on July 14, 2022. The player draft for the league was completed later that day, with 143 players chosen. Special effort had to be made to find a suitable indoor arena for the first season of Ultimate Kho Kho, given the requirement to have firmly fastened poles as part of the playing area.
=== Format ===
In this season, the rules around scoring worked like this: 2 points are scored for a regular tag (known as a "Running Touch"), and 3 points are scored if a tag is made while an attacker is either fully outstretched and diving ("Sky Dive") or touching a pole ("Pole Dive"), or if a defender got themselves out by stepping out of the field ("Boundary Out") or intentionally allowing themselves to be tagged ("Self-Out"). These rules were changed in the next season so that each tagged defender is always worth 2 points to the attacking team. The rule around Dream Runs was also different in this season: if any batch of defenders could avoid being all dismissed for at least 2 and a half minutes, they would earn 2 points, with an additional 2 points earned for every 30 seconds survived afterwards. In addition, there was a rule that if the attacking team dismissed 4 batches of defenders in a single turn (known as an "all out", since all 12 defenders on the opposing team will have been dismissed), 3 bonus points are scored.
=== Prize money ===
The winning team received ₹1 crore (equivalent to ₹1.1 crore or US$130,000 in 2023), while the runner-ups received ₹50 lakh (equivalent to ₹53 lakh or US$63,000 in 2023) and the third-placed team received ₹30 lakh (equivalent to ₹32 lakh or US$38,000 in 2023).
== Teams ==
The six teams were, Chennai Quick Guns, Gujarat Giants, Mumbai Khiladis, Odisha Juggernauts, Rajasthan Warriors, and Telugu Yoddhas.
== Squads ==
=== Chennai Quick Guns ===
Attackers: Balvir Singh, Jaswant Singh, Manoj Patil, P Narasayya, Sachin Gaur, V Kabilan, and Venu Gopal S.
Defenders: Buchannagari Raju, Daasari Jeevith Rao, Vignesh M, Mahesh Madhukar Shinde(VC), N Suresh, P Anand Kumar, Prasad Vijay Patil, Pritam Ankush Chougule, S. Santhru, Sibin. M, and Vijay Vegad Jagdishbhai.
All-rounders: M Vignesh, Amit Vasant Patil(C), Madan, P Jai Prasath, Rajvardhan Shankar Patil, K Ram, Ramji Kashyap.
=== Gujarat Giants ===
Attackers: Abhinandan Mahadev Patil, Ranjan Sridhar Shetty(C), Chinmoy Nandi, Nilesh Sarjerao Patil, Praful Raju Bhange, S Kavin Raj, Sagar Subhash Lengare, S Sarathkumar, and Shubham Motiramji Jambhale.
Defenders: Mareppa, Ajay Kumar Mandra, Akshay Sandeep Bhangare, Aniket Bhagawan Pote, Dhiraj Vinod Bhave, Manoj Sarkar, Sagar Deepakraj, Saleem Khan, and Vinayak Sadashiv Pokarde.
All-rounders: Pothireddy Sivareddy(VC), Debendra Nath, Suyash Vishwas, T Jagannath, Rutishbhai Jayantibhai.
=== Mumbai Khiladis ===
Attackers: Kurpe Milind Rajendra, Shreejesh S, Abhishek Pathrode, Durvesh Vikas Salunke, Rajesh Kumar, Avik Singha, Bichu S S, Rahul Bharat Sawant, Devendra Dagur, and Ummer Ahmad Rathar.
Defenders: Rohan Bapuso Kore, Vijay Gajanan Hajare(C), Faizankha Sherkha Pathan, Gajanan Maruti Shengal, Rohit Verma, Sourabh Nathaji Ahir, Sribin Kp, Gaurav Kandpal, Abishek M S, Rajat Malik, Harish Mohmmad, Gaurav, and Srijin J.
All-rounders: Visag S
=== Odisha Juggernauts ===
Attackers: Suraj Shital Lande, Mahesha P, Avinash Shivaji Desai, Lipun Mukhi, Dinesh Naik S, Shiv Kumar Sen, Manoj Narayan Ghotekar, Darshanapu Sathish, Mukesh Prajapat
Defenders: Gowtham MK, Vishal, Suresh Kumar, Thugana Vinod Kumar, Gurjinder Singh, and Swayam Satyaprakash Parija.
All-rounders: Dilip Khandavi, Jagannatha Murmu, Aditya Sunil Kudale, Nilesh Ananda Jadhav, Dipesh Vijay More(Co-Captain), Subhasis Santra, Arjun Singh, and Milind Dilip Chavarekar(Co-captain)
=== Rajasthan Warriors ===
Attackers: Sourabh Shivaji Adavkar, Suresh Shamrao Sawant, Majahar Kalandar Jamadar(Co-Captain), Mohammed Taseen, Konjengbam Dhananjoy Singh, Sushant Sanjay Kaldhone, Atla Siva Nagi Reddy, Biswajit Das, Ashwani Ranjan, and Mukesh Maurya.
Defenders: Dilrajsing Rekha Sengar, Akshay Prashant Ganpule(Co-Captain), SK. Murtaja Ali, Jithin B, Tapan Pal, Mahesh M, and Bhuneshwar Sahu.
All-rounders: Abhijit Patil, Sushant Dattatray, Hrushikesh Vijay Murchavade, Shailesh Mahadev Sankapal, Govind Yadav, Bharat Kumar Pradhan, Nikhil B, Yalla Satish.
=== Telugu Yoddhas ===
Attackers: Prajwal KH(C), Adarsh Dattatray Mohite, Subramani V, Gavara Venkatesh, Thokchom Sadananda Meitei, P Hemachandran, Sachin Bhargo, Dhanush K C, Aditya Das, and Sinam Rokeson Singh.
Defenders: Sudershan, Deepak Vitthal Madhav, Avdhut Bharat Patil, Prasad Vaibhav Radye, Dhruv, and Bojjam Ranjith.
All-rounders: Pratik Waikar(VC), Rohan Shingade, Arun SA, Arun Ashok Gunki, Anukul Sarkar, and Pittu Bala Sambi Reddy
== Points table ==
Top 4 teams qualify for playoffs
3 points awarded for a win
2 points for a tie
1 point for a loss by less than 4 points
== League stage ==
All Matches were played at Shree Shiv Chhatrapati Sports Complex14 August 2022Match 1:
20:00 (IST)
Mumbai Khiladis 44 vs 69 Gujarat Giants
Gujarat Giants beat Mumbai Khiladis by 25 points Report
Match 2:
21:15 (IST)
Chennai Quick Guns 40 vs 48 Telugu Yoddhas
Telugu Yoddhas beat Chennai Quick Guns by 10 points Report
15 August 2022
Match 3:
19:30 (IST)
Rajasthan Warriors 43 vs 51 Mumbai Khiladis
Mumbai Khiladis beat Rajasthan Warriors by 8 points Report
Match 4:
20:45(IST)
Odisha Juggernauts 51 vs 43 Chennai Quick Guns
Odisha Juggernauts beat Chennai Quick Guns by 8 points Report
16 August 2022
Match 5:
19:30 (IST)
Telugu Yoddhas 68 vs 47 Rajasthan Warriors
Telugu Yoddhas beat Rajasthan Warriors by 21 points Report
Match 6:
20:45(IST)
Gujarat Giants 54 vs 49 Odisha Juggernauts
Gujarat Giants beat Odisha Juggernauts by 5 points Report
17 August 2022
Match 7:
19:30 (IST)
Gujarat Giants 66 vs 48 Mumbai Khiladis
Gujarat Giants beat Mumbai Khiladis by 22 points Report
Match 8:
20:45(IST)
Telugu Yoddhas 25 vs 49 Chennai Quick Guns
Chennai Quick Guns beat Telugu Yoddhas by 25 points Report
19 August 2022
Match 9:
19:30 (IST)
Rajasthan Warriors 46 vs 65 Odisha Juggernauts
Odisha Juggernauts beat Rajasthan Warriors by 19 points Report
Match 10:
20:45(IST)
Mumbai Khiladis 45 vs 65 Chennai Quick Guns
Chennai Quick Guns beat Mumbai Khiladis by 20 points Report
21 August 2022
Match 11:
19:30 (IST)
Odisha Juggernauts 50 vs 47 Gujarat Giants
Odisha Juggernauts beat Gujarat Giants by 3 points Report
Match 12:
20:45(IST)
Rajasthan Warriors 45 vs 83 Telugu Yoddhas
Telugu Yoddhas beat Rajasthan Warriors by 38 points Report
23 August 2022
Match 13:
19:30 (IST)
Telugu Yoddhas 55 vs 43 Mumbai Khiladis
Telugu Yoddhas beat Mumbai Khiladis by 12 points Report
Match 14:
20:45(IST)
Gujarat Giants 51 vs 53 Chennai Quick Guns
Chennai Quick Guns beat Gujarat Giants by 2 points Report
24 August 2022
Match 15:
19:30 (IST)
Odisha Juggernauts 51 vs 41 Chennai Quick Guns
Odisha Juggernauts beat Chennai Quick Guns by 10 points Report
Match 16:
20:45(IST)
Mumbai Khiladis 56 vs 42 Rajasthan Warriors
Mumbai Khiladis beat Rajasthan Warriors by 14 points Report
25 August 2022
Match 17:
19:30 (IST)
Odisha Juggernauts 51 vs 45 Rajasthan Warriors
Odisha Juggernauts beat Rajasthan Warriors by 6 points Report
Match 18:
20:45(IST)
Gujarat Giants 51 vs 48 Telugu Yoddhas
Gujarat Giants beat Telugu Yoddhas by 3 points Report
26 August 2022
Match 19:
19:30 (IST)
Chennai Quick Guns 44 vs 50 Gujarat Giants
Gujarat Giants beat Chennai Quick Guns by 6 points Report
Match 20:
20:45(IST)
Mumbai Khiladis 54 vs 46 Telugu Yoddhas
Mumbai Khiladis beat Telugu Yoddhas by 8 points Report
27 August 2022
Match 21:
19:30 (IST)
Rajasthan Warriors 36 vs 57 Chennai Quick Guns
Chennai Quick Guns beat Rajasthan Warriors by 21 points Report
Match 22:
20:45(IST)
Odisha Juggernauts 60 vs 37 Mumbai Khiladis
Odisha Juggernauts beat Mumbai Khiladis by 23 points Report
28 August 2022
Match 23:
19:30 (IST)
Odisha Juggernauts 48 vs 39 Telugu Yoddhas
Odisha Juggernauts beat Telugu Yoddhas by 9 points Report
Match 24:
20:45(IST)
Rajasthan Warriors 40 vs 42 Gujarat Giants
Gujarat Giants beat Rajasthan Warriors by 2 points Report
29 August 2022
Match 25:
19:30 (IST)
Chennai Quick Guns 58 vs 42 Mumbai Khiladis
Chennai Quick Guns beat Mumbai Khiladis by 16 points Report
Match 26:
20:45(IST)
Telugu Yoddhas 88 vs 21 Gujarat Giants
Telugu Yoddhas beat Gujarat Giants by 67 points Report
30 August 2022
Match 27:
19:30 (IST)
Mumbai Khiladis 79 vs 31 Odisha Juggernauts
Mumbai Khiladis beat Odisha Juggernauts by 48 points Report
Match 28:
20:45(IST)
Chennai Quick Guns 31 vs 66 Rajasthan Warriors
Rajasthan Warriors beat Chennai Quick Guns by 35 points Report
31 August 2022
Match 29:
19:30 (IST)
Gujarat Giants 47 vs 42 Rajasthan Warriors
Gujarat Giants beat Rajasthan Warriors by 5 points Report
Match 30:
20:45(IST)
Telugu Yoddhas 65 vs 36 Odisha Juggernauts
Telugu Yoddhas beat Odisha Juggernauts by 29 points Report
== Playoffs ==
2 September 2022
Eliminator:
19:30 (IST)
Telugu Yoddhas 61 vs 43 Chennai Quick Guns
Telugu Yoddhas beat Chennai Quick Guns by 18 points Report
Qualifier 1:
20:45(IST)
Gujarat Giants 43 vs 57 Odisha Juggernauts
Odisha Juggernauts beat Gujarat Giants by 14 points Report
3 September 2022
Qualifier 2:
19:45(IST)
Gujarat Giants 44 vs 67 Telugu Yoddhas
Telugu Yoddhas beat Gujarat Giants by 23 points Report
4 September 2022
Final:
20:00(IST)
Odisha Juggernauts 46 vs 45 Telugu Yoddhas
Odisha Juggernauts beat Telugu Yoddhas by 1 point Report
== Awards ==
== Stats ==
Source:
=== Player Stats ===
==== Top Attacker ====
==== Top Defenders ====
==== Top Wazirs ====
==== Total Sky Dives ====
==== Total Pole Dives ====
Total High 5s
==== Not Outs ====
==== Total Touch Points ====
==== Total Dive Points ====
=== Team Stats ===
==== Team Total Points ====
==== Team Attacking Points ====
==== Team Defending Points ====
==== Team Touch Points ====
==== Team All Outs Taken ====
==== Team All Outs Conceded ====
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday_Medal_(electrochemistry)#:~:text=1987%20Heinz%20Gerischer | Faraday Medal (electrochemistry) | The Faraday Medal is awarded by the Electrochemistry Group of the Royal Society of Chemistry. Since 1977, it honours distinguished mid-career electrochemists working outside of the United Kingdom and Ireland for their research advancements.
== Laureates ==
Source: RIC
== See also ==
List of chemistry awards
== References ==
== External links ==
"Electrochemistry Group Faraday Medal Award". Royal Society of Chemistry. 7 December 2020. Retrieved 19 February 2025. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ln_Frankfurter_Stra%C3%9Fe_station | Köln Frankfurter Straße station | Köln Frankfurter Straße is a station situated at Gremberghoven, Cologne in western Germany on the Cologne Airport Loop and the Cologne–Overath railway. It was opened with the Cologne Airport loop on 13 June 2004.
It is served by the S19 services of the Cologne S-Bahn, which run at 20-minute intervals on weekdays and every 30 minutes on the weekend. It is classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category 4 station.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponyo | Ponyo | Ponyo is a 2008 Japanese animated fantasy film written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki. It was animated by Studio Ghibli for the Nippon Television Network, Dentsu, Hakuhodo DY Media Partners, Buena Vista Home Entertainment, Mitsubishi, and distributed by Toho. The film stars Yuria Nara, Hiroki Doi, Tomoko Yamaguchi, Kazushige Nagashima, Yūki Amami, George Tokoro, Rumi Hiiragi, Akiko Yano, Kazuko Yoshiyuki and Tomoko Naraoka. It is the eighth film Miyazaki directed for Studio Ghibli, and his tenth overall.
The film tells the story of Ponyo, a goldfish-like creature who escapes from the ocean and is helped by a five-year-old human boy named Sōsuke, after she is washed ashore while trapped in a glass jar. As they bond with each other, Ponyo desires to become a human girl, against the devastating circumstances brought about by her acquisition and use of magic.
The film was originally released in Japan on July 19, 2008, by distributor Toho. It was a major commercial success, grossing over $204 million worldwide and becoming the eighth-highest-grossing anime film of all time. It received critical acclaim for its uplifting themes, visual design, and simultaneous appeal towards young children and all audiences.
An English-language version of the film was released on August 14, 2009, to 927 theatres across the U.S., the widest opening for a Studio Ghibli film in the U.S. It was produced by The Kennedy/Marshall Company and released by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures through their Walt Disney Pictures banner.
== Plot ==
Fujimoto, a misanthropic wizard who was once a human, lives underwater with his daughter Brunhilde and her numerous smaller sisters, who are goldfish-like creatures with human faces. While she and her siblings are on an outing with their father in his four-flippered submarine, Brunhilde sneaks off and floats away on the back of a jellyfish. After an encounter with a fishing trawler, she becomes trapped in a glass jar and drifts to the shore of a small fishing town where she is rescued by a five-year-old boy named Sōsuke. While shattering the jar with a rock, Sōsuke cuts his finger. Brunhilde licks his blood, healing the wound almost instantly. Sōsuke names her Ponyo and promises to protect her. Meanwhile, a distraught Fujimoto searches frantically for his lost daughter whom he believes to have been kidnapped. He calls his wave spirits to recover her, leaving Sōsuke heartbroken and confused by what happened.
Ponyo refuses to let her father call her by her birth name, declaring her desire to be a human named Ponyo. She magically begins changing into a human, a power granted to her by Sōsuke's human blood that she licked. Fujimoto forces her back into her true form and leaves to summon Ponyo's mother, Gran Mamare. Meanwhile, Ponyo, with the help of her sisters, breaks away from her father and inadvertently uses his magic to make herself human. The huge amount of magic that she releases into the ocean causes an imbalance in nature, resulting in a tsunami. Ponyo goes back to Sōsuke, who is amazed and overjoyed to see her. His mother, Lisa, allows her to stay at their house. Lisa leaves after the tsunami subsides to check up on the residents of the nursing home where she works, promising Sōsuke that she will return home as soon as possible.
Gran Mamare arrives at Fujimoto's submarine. Sōsuke's father, Kōichi, sees her traveling and recognizes her as the Goddess of Mercy. Fujimoto notices the moon appears to be falling out of its orbit and satellites are falling like shooting stars, symptoms of the dangerous imbalance of nature that now exists. Gran Mamare reassures him, and declares that if Sōsuke can pass a test, Ponyo can live as a human and the balance of nature will be restored. Fujimoto, still worried, reminds her that if Sōsuke fails the test, Ponyo will turn into sea foam.
The next day, Sōsuke and Ponyo find that most of the land around the house has been covered by the ocean. Since it is impossible for Lisa to come home, the two decide to find her. With Ponyo's magic, they make Sōsuke's pop-pop boat bigger to traverse the waters, seeing marine life from the Late Devonian period and more people on boats. When they reach the forest, however, Ponyo tires and falls asleep, and the boat slowly reverts to its original size. Sōsuke drags Ponyo to the shore, where he finds Lisa's abandoned car. As they continue walking, Ponyo mysteriously reverts to her fish form. Meanwhile, Gran Mamare grants Lisa and the residents of the nursing home the temporary ability to breathe in water. Ponyo and Sōsuke encounter Fujimoto, who warns the boy about the imbalance of nature and begs him to return Ponyo to him. Despite their attempt to escape, Fujimoto captures them and transports them to the protected nursing home.
Sōsuke reunites with Lisa and meets Gran Mamare, with whom Lisa has just had a long private conversation. Gran Mamare asks him if he can love Ponyo whether she is a fish or human; Sōsuke confirms that he does. She then informs her daughter that she must relinquish her magical powers if she decides to permanently transform into a human. Ponyo agrees, and she is encased in a bubble given to Sōsuke, who is instructed to kiss it to complete Ponyo's transformation, as the balance of nature is restored. The previously stranded ships head back to port. Fujimoto respects his daughter's choice, having decided he can trust Sōsuke. Ponyo then joyfully jumps high in the air and kisses Sōsuke, completing her transformation into a human.
== Cast ==
== Production ==
=== Development ===
Hayao Miyazaki, the film's director and writer, was prompted to create Ponyo after producer Toshio Suzuki suggested he make a film aimed at children, noting the success of Howl's Moving Castle (2004). The film would be created from a mixture of real-world and fictional influences, combined with a desire to implement new art and animation approaches developed by other Studio Ghibli staff in a feature-length film. In 2004 and 2005, Miyazaki spent time in Tomonoura, a seaside town in Setonaikai National Park, where he familiarised himself with its community and environment. His experience in Tomonoura established the kind of setting he wanted for his next film. During his time there, he read the complete works of Natsume Sōseki. He took particular interest in The Gate, a book involving a character named Sōsuke who lived at the bottom of a cliff. This provided him more concrete ideas for characters and settings. Initially, Miyazaki solely considered the concept of a film that would depict a stormy sea with "waves higher than the house on a hillside". He later created the character Ponyo, a name he thought of as an onomatopoeia of what "soft, squishy softness" feels like when touched. Miyazaki recalled that as a nine-year-old he borrowed a copy of Hans Christian Andersen's "The Little Mermaid" from his neighbour, and that while he was reading it, he had difficulty accepting its premise that its protagonist did not have a soul.
When preparing pre-production materials, Miyazaki hit a creative block before visiting the Tate Britain art museum, where he found himself startled by an 1852 painting named Ophelia done by English painter John Everett Millais and its attention to detail. He remarked, "I thought, my work is shoddy compared to those artists. I was just astonished. At that point, it became clear to me. Our animation style could not go on as before." At the time Katsuya Kondō, Miyazaki's colleague, had been the animation director of House Hunting (2006), a 12-minute short film made for screening at the Ghibli Museum. The short used solid and simple lines, and largely used hand-drawn animation. During the production of the short, Kondō had discussed the possibility of producing a feature-length film like this. Kondō accepted an offer to work on the next Studio Ghibli feature film soon after completing the short, identifying an opportunity to progress the ideas behind House Hunting with more consideration to story.
Production of Ponyo began in May 2006. Kondō was given the role of animation supervisor, and worked closely with Miyazaki in outlining a set of goals that defined the direction of the project, including the use of traditional animation throughout production. Borrowing from Kondō's experience in animating House Hunting, Ponyo would use solid and simple lines; in isolating basic animation elements, the film would aim to demonstrate the advantages of hand drawn animation through the depiction of motion that cannot be reproduced in any other medium. An example of the simple style is when Miyazaki painted a picture of Ponyo riding on a flock of fish, called "Ponyo is Here", which was inspired by him listening to "Ride of the Valkyries" while writing a letter to his staff about going with a more elemental style. This would later become a scene in the film. In normal productions, animating a sailing ship would usually involve drawing one cel and sliding it across the frame, which would fix it in a predefined perspective and direction. Miyazaki, however, wanted the ships that appeared in Ponyo to be drawn frame-by-frame. A few previous Studio Ghibli films used computer-generated imagery (CGI), the earliest being Princess Mononoke (1997). For the production of Ponyo however, the computer graphics section at the studio was closed to prioritize hand-drawn animation.
Some elements of the film were inspired by Richard Wagner's opera Die Walküre. Ponyo's birth name, Brunhilde, is a deliberate reference to the eldest of the nine legendary Valkyrie and Wagner's Brünnhilde. The music also makes reference to Wagner's opera. The character of Sōsuke is based on Miyazaki's son Gorō Miyazaki when he was five.
Miyazaki wanted his next film to be a sequel to Ponyo, but producer Toshio Suzuki convinced him to make The Wind Rises instead.
=== Music ===
Ponyo's eponymous theme song, "Gake no Ue no Ponyo", was released ahead of the film on December 5, 2007, performed by Fujioka Fujimaki (a duo consisting of Takaaki Fujioka and Naoya Fujimaki who are known for their underground band Marichans from the 1970s) and eight-year-old Nozomi Ōhashi. It entered the top 100 on the Oricon Weekly Charts on July 14, then rose to 24th on July 21, then 6th on July 28, and after the release of the film it ranked 3rd on August 4. By the end of 2008, it was ranked as the 14th highest selling single on the Oricon Yearly Charts. Ōhashi was also the youngest participant in the 59th NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen, beating Cute's Mai Hagiwara's record at age 11. Afterward, Ōhashi announced her unit with Fujioka Fujimaki was disbanding.
An English-translated pop version of the theme was recorded by Jonas and Cyrus to tie in with the film's English release. The theme plays over the second half of the English version's closing credits; the first half is a translated version of the theme rather than a remix.
The film score of Ponyo was composed by Joe Hisaishi, Miyazaki's regular collaborator. The score album, published on compact disc in Japan by Tokuma Japan Communications, in South Korea by Pony Canyon Korea and throughout Europe by Germany-based label Colosseum, received a great deal of press in the West, including positive reviews from several veteran film music reviewers.
== Distribution ==
=== Japan ===
The film was released by Toho on July 19, 2008, in theatres across Japan on 481 screens—a record for a domestic film. As it had beaten Pokémon: Giratina & the Sky Warrior (which had opened on the same day). It grossed ¥10 billion ($91 million) in its first month of release, and a total of ¥15.0 billion ($153.1 million) as of November 9, 2008.
Tokyo Anime Fair chose Ponyo as Animation of the Year of 2008, as revealed in a press release by Anime News Network.
The film was released on VHS and DVD by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on July 3, 2009, and on Blu-ray on December 8, 2009. Ponyo was the last Studio Ghibli film and last anime as a whole to be released on VHS, and the first Studio Ghibli film to be released on Blu-ray, although several Ghibli documentaries had been released on the format by Disney Japan prior to the release.
=== International ===
Ponyo was released in the U.S. and Canada on August 14, 2009, by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures through their Walt Disney Pictures banner and The Kennedy/Marshall Company, opening at a wide release at 927 theaters across America, which is by far the widest release for a Studio Ghibli film ever in the U.S., as compared to other Miyazaki films (Spirited Away opened in 26 theaters, Howl's Moving Castle opened in 36 theaters, and Princess Mononoke opened in 38 theaters).
The film's English dub was directed by John Lasseter, Brad Lewis and Peter Sohn of Pixar and produced by Frank Marshall, Hayao Miyazaki, John Lasseter, Steve Alpert, and Kathleen Kennedy; the English script was written by Melissa Mathison. In July 2009, there were multiple pre-screenings of the film in California. Miyazaki traveled to America to promote this film by speaking at the University of California, Berkeley, and San Diego Comic-Con.
Ponyo was released in Southeast Asia on January 1, 2009.
Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on DVD and Blu-ray on March 2, 2010, as the first film produced by Ghibli or directed by either Miyazaki or Takahata to be released on Blu-ray in America. GKIDS re-issued the film on Blu-ray and DVD on October 17, 2017, under a new deal with Studio Ghibli. The film was re-released from March 25 to 28, 2018, for its 10th anniversary.
== Reception ==
=== Box office ===
On its opening weekend in the United States and Canada, it made $3,585,852 on 927 screens, which is a per screen average of $3,868. It also opened at number nine at the United States and Canada box office. The film made a total of $15,743,471 in the United States and Canada and $187,461,411 in other countries for a worldwide total of $203,204,882. It was released on DVD and Blu-ray, as well as a DVD/Plush Toy pack, on March 2, 2010.
=== Critical response ===
Ponyo received critical acclaim. Rotten Tomatoes compiled 174 reviews and determined that 91% were positive, with an average score of 7.6/10. The critics consensus on the website states, "While not Miyazaki's best film, Ponyo is a visually stunning fairy tale that's a sweetly poetic treat for children and Miyazaki fans of all ages." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 86 out of 100, based on 29 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim".
The Japan Times gave the film four out of five stars, praised its simple thematic elements and its visual scheme, and compared the film to Miyazaki's classic animation My Neighbor Totoro.
Critics at the Venice International Film Festival generally had high praise. Wendy Ide of The Times said Ponyo "is as chaotic and exuberant as a story told by a hyperactive toddler," and gave it 4 stars out of 5. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film four out of four stars, stating that, "There is a word to describe Ponyo, and that word is magical. This poetic, visually breathtaking work by the greatest of all animators has such deep charm that adults and children will both be touched. It's wonderful and never even seems to try: It unfolds fantastically."
=== Awards ===
The film was rated #2 on Dentsu's list of "2008 Hit Products in Japan", after the Wii console.
Ponyo was an entrant in the 65th Venice International Film Festival. It received a special mention in the Bologna Future Film Festival, for "the high artistic and expressive quality of animation able to give form to wonderful imagination of the worldwide cinema master".
In 2009, Ponyo won five awards at the 8th annual Tokyo Anime Awards. The awards included "Anime of the year" and "Best domestic feature". Miyazaki received the award for best director and best original story, and Noboru Yoshida received the award for best art direction.
The film won the awards for Animation of the Year and Outstanding Achievement in Music at the 32nd Japan Academy Prize.
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
Arakawa, Kaku (2019). "Ponyo Is Here". 10 Years With Hayao Miyazaki. Episode 1. NHK.
Kanazawa, Makoto (2008). "Interview with Hayao Miyazaki" special feature. Ponyo (Blu-ray). StudioCanal. Interview on June 30, 2008.
Studio Ghibli (2009). The Art of Ponyo. Viz Media. ISBN 978-1-4215-3064-2.
Tsuchiya, Toshio (2008). "Interview with Toshio Suzuki" special feature. Ponyo (Blu-ray). StudioCanal. Nippon TV "Dai2" interview on May 21, 2008.
== Further reading ==
Sotinel, Thomas (March 29, 2011). "Japan's fantasy films act as a buffer against the reality of the natural world". The Guardian Weekly. Retrieved August 28, 2014.
== External links ==
Official website (in Japanese)
GKIDS North America official web page
Ponyo (anime) at Anime News Network's encyclopedia
Ponyo at IMDb
Ponyo at Box Office Mojo |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukpe-okhue | Ukpe-okhue | The ukpe-okhue (Edo for "parrot's beak") is a crown traditionally worn by the Iyoba (queen mother) of the Oba of Benin. It is formed of a snood-like net of precious coral beadwork, using ileke ("royal") cylindrical beads.
This type of crown was originated, and first worn, by the original queen mother Idia, the first woman granted the privilege to wear ileke beads.
Named after a parrot's beak, it is a pointed hat, with its shape somewhat resembling a Phrygian cap with its point curving forward.
== Gallery ==
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Albani#:~:text=Albani%20made%20her%20debut%20with,was%20on%20tour%20in%20Chicago. | Emma Albani | Dame Emma Albani, DBE (born Marie-Louise-Emma-Cécile Lajeunesse; 1 November 1847 – 3 April 1930) was a Canadian-British operatic coloratura soprano, later spinto soprano and dramatic soprano of the 19th and early 20th century, the first Canadian singer to become an international star. Her repertoire focused on the operas of Mozart, Rossini, Donizetti, Bellini and Wagner. She performed across Europe and North America.
== Early life ==
Albani was born Marie-Louise-Emma-Cécile Lajeunesse in Chambly, Quebec, to the professional musician Joseph Lajeunesse and his wife, Mélina Mignault. Her parents were French-Canadians. Her date of birth is usually given as 1 November 1847, but other authors have placed her birth in 1848 or 1850, The Biographical Dictionary of America puts her birth on 18 September 1851, Who's Who in America says 1 November 1851, and Albani's memoir says 1852. She began her musical studies with her mother, and at age five her father took over her musical lessons. Her father was a proficient musician who was skilled with the violin, harp, piano and organ. He kept her on a strong practice regimen, with as much as four hours a day of lessons on the harp and piano.
== Emigration and tuition ==
The family moved to Plattsburgh, New York, in 1852. In 1856 after the death of her mother, she continued her education in a Montreal convent-school, run by the Dames du Sacré-Coeur where her father had obtained the position of Music Master. This afforded her a better education than she might otherwise receive, and additional musical instruction. On 24 August 1860 she and Adelina Patti were soloists in the world premiere of Charles Wugk Sabatier's Cantata in Montreal which was performed in honour of the visit of the Prince of Wales. She was also awarded a gold medal for musical composition from that convent. However, she was ultimately unable to finance a musical education in Quebec, where singing and acting were considered unsavoury careers for a woman, and her family moved to Albany, New York in 1865. Her father was unable to give her the training which her very fine voice deserved, but she obtained a place in the cathedral choir, where her singing attracted much attention, as it did in concerts, in which she not only sang but played on both the piano and harp. There she became a popular singer, an organist and teacher of singing and saved enough money to continue her studies.
In 1868, she travelled to Paris, where she studied with Gilbert Duprez at the Conservatoire de Paris. She spent six months in Paris, training with Duprez. She then travelled to Italy, where she studied Italian opera singing with Francesco Lamperti. Under the guidance of her elocution instructor, Signor Delorenzi, she changed her name to the simpler Emma Albani, which sounded more European. She made her debut at Messina using the surname Albani.
== Operatic career ==
=== Development in Italy ===
Her funds began to run low, and although her training was not yet complete, she began to look for work to help support her schooling. She found a position in Messina, and her operatic debut was on 30 March 1870, in Messina, playing Amina in La sonnambula. Her debut performance was very well received. She later recalled:
I was literally loaded with flowers, presents, and poetry, the detached sheets of which were sent fluttering down in every direction on the heads of the audience; and among the numberless bouquets of every shape was a basket in which was concealed a live dove. They had painted it red, and the dear little bird rose and flew all over the theatre.
She returned to Milan after her contract in Messina had expired, to resume her instruction by Lamperti. Additional work offers began to pour in. She soon accepted the role of Gilda in Rigoletto, performing it in Cento. Further roles followed in Florence and Malta, with parts in La sonnambula, Lucia di Lammermoor, Robert le diable, The Barber of Seville and L'Africaine. After spending the winter of 1870–1871 performing in Malta, she auditioned for Frederick Gye, the manager of Covent Garden in London. He was impressed by her talent and signed her to a five-year contract. She was scheduled to make her London debut in the spring of 1872. Before her London contract began, she returned to Italy to study with Lamperti at Lake Como, and then appeared at the Teatro della Pergola in Florence, giving one last series of nine performances in ten days in the title role of Ambroise Thomas's Mignon, a part she studied with the composer in Paris prior to her making her debut in the role.
=== Move to London's Covent Garden ===
Albani arrived in London in the spring, and made her professional debut on 2 April 1872 as Amina in La sonnambula. Critics and audience members alike were impressed with her strong performance in the role, and her admirers presented her with flowers and jewellery. At Covent Garden, she developed an interest in oratorio after being introduced to it by Sir Julius Benedict and Josiah Pittman, who encouraged her to explore it. Her first opportunity to present a piece came in October 1872, when she performed "Angels, ever bright and fair" from Handel's Theodora at the Norwich Festival.
For the 1872–1873 winter season, she performed with the Italian Opera at the Salle Ventadour in Paris, where she made her debut as Amina with Victor Capoul as Elvino.
Her second season in London included performances in the roles of Ophelia in Ambroise Thomas' Hamlet and the Countess in Mozart's The Marriage of Figaro. During the off time after the second season she travelled to Moscow to perform in La sonnambula, Rigoletto, Hamlet, and Lucia di Lammermoor. She then went to St. Petersburg, where the Tsar Alexander II viewed her performances.
In her third season in London, she performed in mostly the same roles she had in her first two seasons: La sonnambula, Lucia di Lammermoor, Linda di Chamounix and Martha. The competition in the opera world of London was very stiff, and it was common for performers to be possessive of their roles. After her third season, Queen Victoria requested a private performance from Albani, who travelled to Windsor Castle in July 1874 to perform the aria "Caro nome" from Rigoletto, the folk ballad "Robin Adair", the Bach/Gounod "Ave Maria", and the popular song "Home! Sweet Home!". The Queen was suitably impressed by her performance and would call Albani back to perform other pieces, by composers such as Brahms, Grieg, Handel and Mendelssohn, as well as traditional French and Scottish tunes.
In the fall of 1874, she undertook a tour of the United States, visiting New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, D.C., Chicago and Albany. The tour was under the management of Maurice Strakosch. She was accompanied by Frederick Gye's son, Ernest Gye, who was acting on his father's behalf. She learned the role of Elsa in Wagner's Lohengrin in two weeks, performing it at the Academy of Music in New York. The opera was performed in Italian, which was also the custom at Covent Garden.
She returned to London for her fourth season at Covent Garden in 1875. After the season, she performed at the Norwich Festival, where she sang in Mendelssohn's "Hymn of Praise" Symphony-Cantata and Julius Benedict's oratorio The Legend of St. Cecilia. In her fifth season in London (1876) she performed the role of Elisabeth in the London premiere of Wagner's Tannhäuser.
Afterward she went to Paris and sang at the Théâtre des Italiens, where she was well received, and gave a special performance at the Élysée Palace for Maréchal MacMahon.
Albani married Ernest Gye on 6 August 1878. She became pregnant, but continued to tour and perform until shortly before the birth of her son, Frederick Ernest Gye on 4 June 1879. He was to be the couple's only child. In the fall of 1879, after singing at the Hereford and Bristol Festivals, she returned to Florence. In January 1880, she sang in Nice, and from there she went to the Théâtre de la Monnaie in Brussels. On 26 June 1880 she performed Isabella in Ferdinand Hérold's Le pré aux clercs at Covent Garden, a production that was mounted especially for her.
Throughout the 1880s, Albani toured Europe and North America, garnering praise wherever she travelled. In 1881, she was invited to perform in Lohengrin, which was being given at the Berlin Royal Opera. She agreed to appear in the role of Elsa, which she had previously sung in Italian, and relearned the part in German. The performance was attended by the German Emperor and King of Prussia, Kaiser Wilhelm I. The reception was very positive, earning three curtain calls. In 1882, Kaiser Wilhelm I awarded her the title of Hofkammersängerin.
In 1883, she gave three recitals in Montreal. More than ten thousand people showed up to greet her upon her arrival, and at a reception the poet Louis-Honoré Fréchette read a poem that he had written in her honour. Her first operatic performance in Canada came on 13 February 1883 in Toronto, at the Grand Opera House where she performed in Lucia di Lammermoor. On 15 July 1884 in London she sang the role of Brunehild in Ernest Reyer's opera Sigurd and the role of Juliette in Gounod's Roméo et Juliette in the same season.
=== Performances with New York's Metropolitan Opera ===
Albani made her debut with New York's Metropolitan Opera on 20 November 1891 as Valentine in Meyerbeer's Les Huguenots, a performance which took place while the company was on tour in Chicago. Her second appearance in Chicago on 23 November was as Desdemona in the company's first ever performance of Verdi's Otello, and she also sang the role there at a gala performance of Act 4 on 9 December. Other appearances with the Met in Chicago included another as Valentine, Gilda in Rigoletto, Violetta in Act 1 of Verdi's La traviata (on a double bill with Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana, in which Emma Eames's sang Santuzza) and Elsa in Wagner's Lohengrin. Her first appearance with the company in New York was as Gilda in Rigoletto on 23 December.
Further performances in New York included four appearances as Valentine (a role she also performed on tour in Louisville, Albany, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, and Boston), three as Donna Elvira in Mozart's Don Giovanni, three as Eva in Wagner's Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, one more as Gilda, one as Desdemona, one as Elsa, as well as a single appearance as Marguerite in Gounod's Faust. She also sang Donna Elvira and Eva on tour in Boston. Her final appearance with the Met was in New York on 31 March 1892, as Senta in The Flying Dutchman. All the operas in which she appeared were sung in Italian. In total she had performed 29 times with the company. As the season progressed, some critics remarked on the wear and tear that was becoming evident in her voice, but praised her artistry and experience. Of her last performance at the Met, The New York Times wrote: "The Senta of Mlle. Albani was not vocally perfect, yet it had so many excellences that her hearers must have been inclined to forgive the departures from the pitch which seem to have become an inseparable accompaniment of her singing of late. She did much to atone for them by the intelligence of her work and by the dramatic earnestness with which she imbued all her singing. She earned a fair share of the honors of the evening."
=== Final season at Covent Garden ===
Even in Albani's final season at Covent Garden in 1896, she continued to receive strongly positive reviews. The greatest triumph of her career came on 26 June 1896, when she sang Isolde in Wagner's Tristan und Isolde, with Jean de Reszke in his first London Tristan, Louise Meisslinger as Brangäne, David Bispham as Kurwenal, Édouard de Reszke as King Marke, and Luigi Mancinelli conducting. There were a total of four performances, all of which sold out despite the higher than normal ticket prices and the oddity that the opera was sung in German. On 24 July she sang Valentine in Les Huguenots. There had been no announcement, and few people would have realized it was the last time they were to hear her in opera. Her career at Covent Garden had lasted for twenty-four years.
=== Post Covent Garden ===
After retiring from Covent Garden in 1896, Albani departed for a tour of Canada, performing in venues across the country. In 1898, she toured Australia. .She also was active in oratorio in Britain.
"Madam Albani gave her farewell concert" at the Albert Hall in London, in 1900. (The London Encyclopedia, First published 1983 by Macmillan London).
In 1907, Albani toured Australia and New Zealand . In spring 1908, the veteran Albani toured the English provinces as part of a company containing two budding talents: pianist Marie Novello, who two years later would become one of Theodor Leschetizky's last students, and John McCormack, who only months before had made his own Covent Garden debut. Albani gave her last public performance on 14 October 1911. That same year she released a book, Forty Years of Song. The book was effectively a memoir, recounting stories of her youth, travels and career, and impressions of fellow performers and the royalty she met over her life, as well as providing some useful advice on singing.
She and her husband retired to Kensington. Poor investments resulted in the loss of much of their wealth, and Albani was forced to give musical lessons to earn income. Her husband died in 1925, compounding the situation, but benefit concerts arranged by friends provided sufficient income for Albani. She died on 3 April 1930, aged 82, at her home on Tregunter Road, Kensington and was buried with her husband at Brompton Cemetery.
== Honours and legacy ==
Albani received the gold medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society in 1897, often known as the "Beethoven Medal". Madame Selitsky, the prima donna who performs in Lucy Maud Montgomery's Anne of Green Gables (1908) was inspired by Albani. Montgomery later wrote a profile of the singer for Courageous Women (1934), a non-fiction work. In 1925, Albani was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire.
The Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada mounted a plaque at her birthplace in 1939. It was replaced with a stele in 1977.
Several streets and places have been named after her in Quebec. Two streets in Montreal have been named in her honour. The first, rue Albani, was dedicated in 1912. It disappeared when road construction merged it with another street. The second, avenue Albani, was named 19 March 1969 by the city's council. In 1980 Canada Post commissioned a postage stamp honoring her on the 50th anniversary of her death. The stamp was designed by artist Huntley Brown, portraying her in costume as Violetta from the opera La Traviata. It is a colourised version of the adjacent image.
In the 1990s, the former mayor of Chambly, Robert Lebel donated the Emma Albani fund for musical arts to the town.
Albani is depicted in a stained-glass mural by Frédéric Back in the Place-des-Arts metro station in Montreal.
== References ==
Citations
Bibliography
"Amusements, General Mention". The New York Times. 16 July 1884. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
Albani, Emma (1911). Forty Years of Song. Toronto, Ontario: The Copp Clark Co.
"Avenue Albani". Commission de toponymie du Québec (in French). Retrieved 29 May 2011.
"Biography of John McCormack". John McCormack Society. Retrieved 17 July 2015.
"Books Received". The Musical Times. 52 (824): 663. October 1911. doi:10.2307/906536. JSTOR 906535.
Blythe, Christine (10 August 2014). "Dame Emma Albani (Emma Marie Louise Cécile Lajeunesse) of Chambly, Québec". Empty Nest Ancestry. Archived from the original on 6 April 2020. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
"Der Fliegende Holländer (includes a copy of The New York Times review)". MetOpera Database. 31 March 1892. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
Dideriksen, Gabriella; Ringel, Matthew (Summer 1995). "Frederick Gye and "The Dreadful Business of Opera Management"". 19th-Century Music. 19 (1): 3–30. doi:10.1525/ncm.1995.19.1.02a00010. JSTOR 746717.
Elliott, Robin (Spring 2005). "Constructions of Identity in the Life Stories of Emma Albani and Glenn Gould". Journal of Canadian Studies. 39 (2): 105–126. doi:10.1353/jcs.2006.0017. S2CID 145438501. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
"Emma Albani". Famous Canadian Women on Postal Stamps. Dawn E. Monroe. Archived from the original on 10 July 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
"Emma Albani". MetOpera Database. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
"Emma Albani, soprano and voice teacher (1847–1930)". The Virtual Gramophone: Canadian Historical Sound Recordings. Library and Archives Canada. 15 July 2010. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
"Great Canadian Wagner Singers". CBC Radio 2. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 11 June 2008.
"Histoire de la musique à Montréal". metrodemontreal.com (in French). Le métro de Montréal. Retrieved 8 October 2013.
Hurst, P. G. (June 1942). "The Record Collector". Gramophone: 12. Archived from the original on 2 August 2012.
Klein, Herman (May 1921). "The Jubilee of the Royal Albert Hall and the Royal Choral Society". The Musical Times. 62 (939): 313–320. doi:10.2307/910562. JSTOR 910562.
Morgan, Henry James, ed. (1903). Types of Canadian Women and of Women who are or have been Connected with Canada. Toronto: Williams Briggs. p. 140.
"Obituary: Dame Emma Albani". The Musical Times. 71 (1047): 463. May 1930. JSTOR 916813.
Potvin, Gilles (Spring 1980). "The Canadian Opera Career of Emma Albani". Aria. 3 (1).
Potvin, Gilles (29 July 2007). "Emma Albani". The Canadian Encyclopedia (online ed.). Historica Canada. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
Potvin, Gilles (29 January 2008). "Dame Emma Albani". The Canadian Encyclopedia (online ed.). Historica Canada. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
"Reviewed Work: Forty Years of Song by Emma Albani". The Musical Times. 52 (825): 725. November 1911. doi:10.2307/906456. JSTOR 906456.
Rosenthal, Harold (1958). Two Centuries of Opera at Covent Garden. London: Putnam. OCLC 593682.
Rosselli, John (2004). "Albani [married name Gye], Dame Emma [née Marie Louise Cécile Emma Lajeunesse]". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/30362. (Subscription, Wikipedia Library access or UK public library membership required.)
Sadie, Stanley, ed. (1992). The New Grove Dictionary of Opera. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-56159-228-9. OCLC 614233624.
Vachon, Pierre (2005). "Lajeunesse, Emma (also called Marie-Louise-Cécile-Emma) (Gye), known as Emma Albani". In Cook, Ramsay; Bélanger, Réal (eds.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. XV (1921–1930) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
Attribution
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Johnson, Rossiter, ed. (1906). "Albani, Marie Emma LaJeunesse". The Biographical Dictionary of America. Vol. 1. Boston: American Biographical Society. p. 67.
== Further reading ==
Brian Busby, Character Parts: Who's Really Who in CanLit (Toronto: Vintage Canada, 2004). ISBN 0-676-97579-8
Cheryl MacDonald, Emma Albani: Victorian Diva (Toronto, Dundurn, 1984). ISBN 0-919670-75-X, ISBN 0-919670-74-1
Stephen Willis, "Archives of Emma Albani at the National Library of Canada", National Library News, Vol. 25, no. 12 (December 1993).
== External links ==
Works by Emma Albani at Faded Page (Canada)
Pictures of Emma Albani
Emma Albani's photograph in the Royal Collection.
(new web site) Theater "Vittorio Emanuele" of Messina, the Theater of Emma Albani's debut
(old web site) Theater "Vittorio Emanuele" of Messina, the Theater of Emma Albani's debut |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranjana_Desai | Ranjana Desai | Ranjana Prakash Desai (born 30 October 1949) is a former judge of the Supreme Court of India and the head of the Delimitation Commission of India. She was previously a public prosecutor for the State of Maharashtra, and served as a judge on the Bombay High Court before her appointment to the Supreme Court. Following her retirement from the Supreme Court, Desai was the chairperson of the Indian Appellate Tribunal for Electricity.
== Early life and education ==
Desai's father was the criminal lawyer S. G. Samant. She completed her Bachelor of Arts from the Elphinstone College in 1970 and Bachelor of Laws from the Government Law College, Bombay in 1973.
== Career ==
Desai enrolled as an advocate on 30 July 1973, and began practicing law, working in the chambers of S.C. Pratap before he was appointed as judge in the Bombay High Court, as well as with her father, S.G. Samant, who practiced criminal law. In 1979, Desai began working as an Assistant Government Pleader in the Bombay High Court, appearing for the Government of Maharashtra, and in 1983, was appointed as an Assistant Government Pleader and Additional Public Prosecutor for the State of Maharashtra. In 1986, Desai was appointed as the State of Maharashtra's Special Public Prosecutor in cases concerning preventive detention. In 1995, she began appearing for the Government of Maharashtra as a government pleader in appeals at the Bombay High Court.
=== High Court of Bombay ===
Desai was initially appointed as an additional judge at the Bombay High Court on 15 April 1996 for a period of two years, and was confirmed as a permanent judge on 12 April 1998. She continued to serve as a judge on the Bombay High Court until she was appointed to the Supreme Court in 2011.
=== Supreme Court of India ===
On 13 September 2011, Desai was appointed as a judge at the Supreme Court of India and served in that capacity until 2014. She was the fifth woman to be appointed as an Indian Supreme Court judge.
=== Electricity Appellate Tribunal ===
Desai took charge as chairperson of Appellate Tribunal for Electricity on 1 December 2014 in New Delhi and continued to serve in that capacity until 29 October 2019.
=== Advance Ruling Authority [Income Tax] ===
Desai was appointed as Chairperson of the Advance Ruling Authority [Income Tax] in 2018 and held the position until 29 October 2019.
=== Lokpal appointment committee ===
On 28 September 2018, the Government of India constituted a search committee of eight, chaired by Desai, under the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013, to search for and recommend a chairperson and members for India's anti-corruption ombudsman agency, the Lokpal. The Committee provided its recommendations to the Selection Committee on 28 February 2020.
=== Delimitation Commission of India ===
Desai was appointed as the chairperson of the Delimitation Commission of India on 13 March 2020.
=== Uniform civil code committee ===
Desai was appointed as the Head of the Uttarakhand UCC committee on 28 May 2022.
=== Press Council of India ===
Desai was appointed as the chairperson of the Press Council of India. Her term started on 17 June 2022.
=== 8th Central Pay Commission ===
Desai was appointed as the Chairperson of the 8th Central Pay Commission on 28 October 2025.
== Jurisprudence ==
On 8 May 2012, the Supreme Court bench composed of Ranjana Desai and Altamas Kabir ordered the government to end the Haj subsidy by 2022. On 27 September 2013, in a landmark decision, a three-judge bench consisting of the Chief Justice P. Sathasivam and Justices Desai and Ranjan Gogoi ruled that the right to register a "none of the above" vote in elections should apply. The court said that negative voting would lead to systemic change in polls and political parties will be forced to project clean candidates. The Election Commission said that the judgement will be implemented immediately.
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_F/A-18E/F_Super_Hornet#Germany | Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet | The Boeing F/A-18E and F/A-18F Super Hornet are a series of American supersonic twin-engine, carrier-capable, multirole fighter aircraft derived from the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. The Super Hornet is in service with the armed forces of the United States, Australia, and Kuwait. The F/A-18E single-seat and F tandem-seat variants are larger and more advanced versions of the F/A-18C and D Hornet, respectively.
A strike fighter capable of air-to-air and air-to-ground/surface missions, the Super Hornet has an internal 20 mm M61A2 rotary cannon and can carry air-to-air missiles, air-to-surface missiles, and a variety of other weapons. Additional fuel can be carried in up to five external fuel tanks and the aircraft can be configured as an airborne tanker by adding an external air-to-air refueling system. Designed and initially produced by McDonnell Douglas, the Super Hornet first flew in 1995. Low-rate production began in early 1997, reaching full-rate production in September 1997, after the merger of McDonnell Douglas and Boeing the previous month. An electronic warfare variant, the EA-18G Growler, was also developed. Although officially named "Super Hornet", it is commonly referred to as "Rhino" within the United States Navy.
The Super Hornet entered operational service with the U.S. Navy in 2001, supplanting the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, which was retired in 2006; the Super Hornet has served alongside the original Hornet as well. The F/A-18E/F became the backbone of U.S. carrier aviation since the 2000s and has been used extensively in combat operations in the Middle East, including the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, and against the Islamic State and Assad-aligned forces in Syria. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), which operated the F/A-18A as its main fighter since 1984, ordered the F/A-18F in 2007 to replace its aging General Dynamics F-111C fleet with the RAAF Super Hornets entering service in December 2010. The Super Hornet is planned to be replaced by the F/A-XX in U.S. Navy service starting in the 2030s.
== Development ==
=== Origins ===
The Super Hornet is an enlarged redesign of the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. The wing and tail configuration trace its origin to a Northrop prototype aircraft, the P-530, c. 1965, which began as a rework of the lightweight Northrop F-5E (with a larger wing, twin tail fins and a distinctive leading edge root extension, or LERX). Later flying as the Northrop YF-17 "Cobra", it competed in the United States Air Force's Lightweight Fighter (LWF) program to produce a smaller and simpler fighter to complement the larger McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle; the YF-17 lost the competition to the YF-16 for the Air Force's LWF, but the Navy found the twin-engine YF-17 design to be more suitable for carrier operations for the service's Navy Air Combat Fighter (NACF) and selected it over the competing naval YF-16 derivative proposal.
After selecting the YF-17, the Navy directed that it be redesigned into the larger F/A-18 Hornet to meet a requirement for a multi-role fighter (VFAX) to complement the larger and more expensive Grumman F-14 Tomcat serving in fleet defense interceptor and air superiority roles. Northrop teamed with McDonnell Douglas to navalize the design, with the latter eventually becoming the prime contractor. The Hornet proved to be effective but limited in combat radius. The concept of an enlarged Hornet was first proposed in the 1980s, which was marketed by McDonnell Douglas as "Hornet 2000". The "Hornet 2000" concept was an advanced F/A-18 with a larger wing and a longer fuselage to carry more fuel and more powerful engines.
The end of the Cold War led to a period of military budget cuts and considerable restructuring. At the same time, U.S. Naval Aviation faced a number of problems. The McDonnell Douglas A-12 Avenger II Advanced Tactical Aircraft (ATA) was canceled in 1991 after the program ran into serious problems; it was intended to replace the obsolete Grumman A-6 Intruder. The Navy then embarked on another attack aircraft program called the Advanced-Attack (A-X), but also considered updating an existing design for an interim capability until A-X could be fielded. Meanwhile, McDonnell Douglas had proposed the "Super Hornet" (initially "Hornet II" and later "Hornet 2000" in the 1980s), which could serve as an alternate replacement for the A-6 Intruder or an interim aircraft for A-X; the design would also address some of the limitations of the previous F/A-18 models, such as insufficient bringback capability, or the ability to recover unused weapons aboard aircraft carriers. The next-generation Hornet design proved more attractive than Grumman's Quick Strike upgrade to the F-14 Tomcat, which was regarded as an insufficient technological leap over existing F-14s and was opposed by the Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney. Furthermore, the A-X, which had evolved into the A/F-X (Advanced Attack/Fighter) due to added fighter capabilities, was canceled in the 1993 Bottom-Up Review as the Super Hornet was viewed as a more attractive low-risk approach to a clean-sheet design due to post-Cold War budget reductions.
At the time, the Grumman F-14 Tomcat was the Navy's primary air superiority fighter and fleet defense interceptor. Cheney described the F-14 as 1960s technology, and drastically cut back F-14D procurement in 1989 before cancelling production altogether in 1991, in favor of the updated F/A-18E/F. The decision to replace the Tomcat with an all-Hornet Carrier Air Wing was controversial; Vietnam War ace and Congressman Duke Cunningham criticized the Super Hornet as an unproven design that compromised air superiority. Between 1991 and 1992, the Navy gradually canceled the Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), which would have been a navalized variant of the Air Force's Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor to complement the A-12, due to escalating costs. As a cheaper alternative to NATF, Grumman proposed substantial improvements to the F-14 beyond Quick Strike, but Congress rejected them as too costly and reaffirmed its commitment to the less expensive F/A-18E/F. Originally viewed as an interim for A-X or A/F-X, the Super Hornet would become the mainstay of the Carrier Air Wing.
=== Testing and production ===
The Super Hornet was first ordered by the U.S. Navy in 1992, and the total Engineering and Manufacturing Development (EMD) cost was capped at $4.88 billion in FY 1990 dollars (~$10.3 billion in 2024). The Navy retained the F/A-18 designation to help sell the program to Congress as a low-risk "derivative", though the Super Hornet is largely a new aircraft. To some extent, the design of the F/A-18E/F was driven by a more cautious development approach favoring incremental improvements over the F/A-18C/D, affordability, and reliability at the expense of raw performance. The Hornet and Super Hornet share many characteristics, including avionics, ejection seats, radar, armament, mission computer software, and maintenance/operating procedures. The Super Hornet's F414 engines were derived from the Hornet's F404 while also incorporating advances developed for the A-12's F412. The initial F/A-18E/F retained most of the avionics systems from the F/A-18C/D's configuration at the time to reduce upfront development costs. The design would be expanded in the Super Hornet with an empty weight slightly greater than the F-15C. The division of manufacturing would largely mirror the Hornet's, with McDonnell Douglas (later Boeing) responsible for the forward fuselage, wings, and stabilators while Northrop Grumman produced the center/aft fuselage and vertical tails. The design service life was 6,000 flight hours.
The Super Hornet first flew on 29 November 1995. Initial production on the F/A-18E/F began in 1995. Flight testing started in 1996 with the F/A-18E/F's first carrier landing in 1997. Low-rate production began in March 1997 with full production beginning in September 1997. Testing continued through 1999, finishing with sea trials and aerial refueling demonstrations, as well as design modifications to resolve "wing drop" and possible stores release interference. Testing involved 3,100 test flights covering 4,600 flight hours. The Super Hornet underwent U.S. Navy operational tests and evaluations in 1999, and was approved in February 2000.
Following the retirement of the F-14 in 2006, all of the Navy's combat jets were Hornet variants until the F-35C Lightning II entered service. The F/A-18E single-seat and F/A-18F two-seat aircraft took the place of the F-14 Tomcat, A-6 Intruder, Lockheed S-3 Viking, and KA-6D aircraft. An electronic warfare variant, the EA-18G Growler, replaced the EA-6B Prowler. The Navy calls this reduction in aircraft types a "neck-down". During the Vietnam War era, the Super Hornet's roles were performed by a combination of the A-1/A-4/A-7 (light attack), A-6 (medium attack), F-8/F-4 (fighter), RA-5C (recon), KA-3/KA-6 (tanker), and EA-6 (electronic warfare). It was anticipated that $1 billion in fleetwide annual savings would result from replacing other types with the Super Hornet. The Navy considers the Super Hornet's acquisition a success, meeting cost, schedule, and weight (400 lb, 181 kg) below requirement threshold limits.
The total Super Hornet procurement number would fluctuate considerably throughout its production run. The 1997 Department of Defense (DoD) Quadrennial Defense Review cut the originally planned number of around 1,000 by nearly half. By October 2008, Boeing had delivered 367 Super Hornets to the U.S. Navy, but the service was still experiencing a strike fighter shortfall as older aircraft types retired and the procurement rate was not sufficient to replenish the carrier air wings, especially with ongoing combat operations in Iraq and Afghanistan as well as substantial delays with the F-35 program. In 2006, the Navy was 60 fighters below its validated requirement. The FY2010 budget bill authorized a multiyear purchase agreement for additional Super Hornets, finalized on 28 September 2010, that reportedly saved $600 million over individual yearly contracts. This contract for 66 Super Hornets and 58 Growlers was intended to mitigate a four-year delay in the F-35 program. In 2019, Boeing received a $4 billion contract to deliver 78 Block III Super Hornets for the Navy through fiscal 2021. The Navy plans to sign year-to-year contracts to convert all of its Block II aircraft to Block III variants through 2033. As the F-35 began entering service, Boeing announced plans to end Super Hornet production in 2025, later extended to 2027 with an additional 17 orders from the U.S. Navy.
=== Improvements and changes ===
The Block II Super Hornet incorporates an improved active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, larger displays, the joint helmet mounted cueing system, and several other avionics replacements. Avionics and weapons systems that were under development for the prospective production version of the Boeing X-32 were used on the Block II Super Hornet. New-build aircraft received the APG-79 AESA radar beginning in 2005. In January 2008, it was announced that 135 earlier production aircraft were to be retrofitted with AESA radars.
In 2008, Boeing discussed the development of a Super Hornet Block III with the U.S. and Australian military, featuring additional stealth capabilities and extended range. The airframe is strengthened to increase service life to 10,000 flight hours, and some Block II aircraft can be modified to achieve this as well. In 2010, Boeing offered prospective Super Hornet customers the "International Roadmap", which included conformal fuel tanks, enhanced engines, an enclosed weapons pod (EWP), a next-generation cockpit, a new missile warning system, and an internal infrared search and track (IRST) system; the IRST was later mounted on the centerline external tank. The EWP has four internal stations for munitions, a single aircraft can carry a total of three EWPs, housing up to 12 AMRAAMs and 2 Sidewinders. The next-generation cockpit features a 19 x 11-inch touch-sensitive display. In 2011, Boeing received a US Navy contract to develop a new mission computer.
In 2007, Boeing stated that a passive Infrared Search and Track (IRST) sensor would be an available future option. The sensor, mounted in a modified centerline fuel tank, detects long wave IR emissions to spot and track targets such as aircraft; combat using the IRST and AIM-9X Sidewinder missiles is immune to radar jamming. In May 2009, Lockheed Martin announced its selection by Boeing for the IRST's technology development phase, and a contract followed in November 2011. As of September 2013, a basic IRST would be fielded in 2016 and a longer-range Block II version in 2019. The sensor would be designated the AN/ASG-34(V) IRST21. An F/A-18F performed a flight equipped with the IRST system in February 2014, and Milestone C approval authorizing low-rate initial production (LRIP) was granted in December 2014. The sequestration cuts in 2013 would cause years of delay, and the Navy chose to skip the basic version and transition directly to the Block II IRST for operational service. After initial production quality issues, the IRST became operational in January 2025.
==== Advanced Super Hornet ====
Boeing and Northrop Grumman self-funded a prototype of the Advanced Super Hornet. The prototype features a 50% reduction in frontal radar cross-section (RCS), conformal fuel tanks (CFT), and an enclosed weapons pod. Features could also be integrated onto the EA-18G Growler: using CFTs on the EA-18G fleet was speculated as useful for relieving underwing space and lowering the drag margin for the Next Generation Jammer. Flight tests of the Advanced Super Hornet began on 5 August 2013 and continued for three weeks, testing the performance of CFTs, the enclosed weapons pod (EWP), and signature enhancements. The U.S. Navy was reportedly pleased with the Advanced Super Hornet's flight test results, and hopes it will provide future procurement options. Although the Advanced Super Hornet was not pursued, many elements would be transferred to the Block III.
In 2013, the U.S. Navy was considering the widespread adoption of CFTs, which would allow the Super Hornet to carry 3,500 lb (1,600 kg) of additional fuel. Budgetary pressures from the F-35C Lightning II and Pacific region operations were cited as reasons supporting the use of CFTs. Flight testing demonstrated CFTs could slightly reduce drag while expanding the combat range by 260 nautical miles (300 mi; 480 km). The prototype CFT weighed 1,500 lb (680 kg), while production CFTs are expected to weigh 870 lb (390 kg). Boeing stated that the CFTs do not add any cruise drag but acknowledged a negative impact imposed on transonic acceleration due to increased wave drag. General Electric's enhanced performance engine (EPE), increasing the F414-GE-400's power output by 20%, was suggested as a mitigating measure. In 2021, the U.S. Navy halted plans to fit CFTs as standard on all Block III Super Hornets due to cost, schedule, and performance issues.
In 2009, development commenced on several engine improvements, including greater resistance to foreign object damage, reduced fuel burn rate, and potentially increased thrust of up to 20%. In 2014, Boeing revealed a Super Hornet hybrid concept, equipped with the EA-18G Growler's electronic signal detection capabilities to allow for targets engagement using the receiver; the concept did not include the ALQ-99 jamming pod. Growth capabilities could include the addition of a long-range infrared search and track sensor and new air-to-air tracking modes.
== Design ==
=== Overview ===
The Super Hornet is largely a new aircraft at about 20% larger, 7,000 lb (3,200 kg) heavier empty weight, and 15,000 lb (6,800 kg) heavier maximum weight than the original Hornet. The Super Hornet carries 33% more internal fuel, increasing mission range by 41% and endurance by 50% over the "Legacy" Hornet. The empty weight of the Super Hornet is about 11,000 lb (5,000 kg) less than that of the F-14 Tomcat which it replaced, while approaching, but not matching, the F-14's payload and range. Although lacking some of the F-14's raw performance, the F/A-18E/F has much better handling characteristics and controllability and was also significantly more reliable and affordable to operate. With the Super Hornet being significantly heavier than the legacy Hornet, the catapult and arresting systems must be set differently. To aid safe flight operations and prevent confusion in radio calls, the Super Hornet is informally referred to as the "Rhino" to distinguish it from earlier Hornets partly because of the AN/APX-111 "pizza box" IFF antenna protruding on top of the nose. (The "Rhino" nickname was previously applied to the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II, which was retired from US Navy combat use in 1987.)
The Super Hornet, unlike the previous Hornet, can be equipped with an aerial refueling system (ARS) or "buddy store" for the refueling of other aircraft, filling the tactical airborne tanker role the Navy had lost with the retirement of the KA-6D and Lockheed S-3B Viking tankers. The ARS includes an external 330 US gal (1,200 L) tank with hose reel on the centerline, along with four external 480 US gal (1,800 L) tanks and internal tanks, for a total of 29,000 lb (13,000 kg) of fuel on the aircraft. On typical missions a fifth of the air wing is dedicated to the tanker role, which consumes aircraft fatigue life expectancy faster than other missions. It most commonly uses JP-5 jet fuel.
=== Airframe changes ===
The forward fuselage is unchanged, but the remainder of the aircraft shares little with earlier F/A-18C/D models. The fuselage was stretched by 34 in (86 cm) to make room for fuel and future avionics upgrades and increased the wing area by 25%, yet the Super Hornet has 42% fewer structural parts than the original Hornet. The wings have a dogtooth extension and a strip of porous surface at the folding joint to mitigate "wing drop". The General Electric F414 engine, developed from the Hornet's F404, has 35% additional thrust over most of the flight envelope and is rated at 22,000 lbf (98 kN) in afterburner. The Super Hornet can return to an aircraft carrier with a larger load of unspent fuel and munitions than the Hornet; this ability is known as "bringback", which for the Super Hornet is in excess of 9,000 lb (4,100 kg).
Other differences include larger rectangular caret inlets with fixed ramps for the more powerful engines and two extra wing hard points for payload (for a total of 11), retaining previous hardpoints on the bottom centerline, wingtips, and two conformal fuselage positions. Among the most significant aerodynamic changes are the enlarged leading edge extensions (LEX) that provide improved vortex lifting characteristics in high angle of attack maneuvers, and reduce the static stability margin to enhance pitching characteristics. This modification results in pitch rates in excess of 40 degrees per second, and high resistance to departure from controlled flight. Due to concerns over released stores potentially striking the airframe from early wind tunnel testing, all underwing pylons are canted outwards slightly; although this was later determined to be unnecessary, production tooling had already been adjusted so the canted pylons remained to save development costs and avoid revalidating all flight testing. While the effects are marginal for cruise drag, they are more substantial for transonic and supersonic drag.
=== Radar signature reduction measures ===
Survivability is a key feature of the Super Hornet. The U.S. Navy took a "balanced approach" to survivability in its design. It does not rely primarily on low-observability technology, but rather adopts improvements to its radar signature alongside other innovations; incorporating more advanced electronic warfare capabilities, reduced ballistic vulnerability, and greater employment of standoff weapons to collectively enhance crew and aircraft safety. While the F/A-18E/F is not a stealth fighter like the F-22, it does have a frontal radar cross-section (RCS) an order of magnitude smaller than prior generation fighters. Additional changes for reducing RCS can be installed on an as-needed basis.
The F/A-18E/F's RCS is reduced greatly from some aspects, mainly the front and rear. The design of the caret engine inlets reduces the aircraft's frontal radar cross-section, with the alignment of the leading edges of the inlets designed to scatter radiation to the sides. Fixed fanlike reflecting structures in the inlet tunnel divert radar energy away from the rotating fan blades. The Super Hornet also makes considerable use of panel joint serration and edge alignment to direct reflected waves away from the aircraft in uniformly narrow angles. Considerable attention is paid to the removal or filling of unnecessary surface join gaps and resonant cavities. Where the F/A-18A-D used grilles to cover various accessory exhaust and inlet ducts, the F/A-18E/F uses perforated panels that appear opaque to radar waves at the frequencies used.
=== Avionics ===
Initially, the Super Hornet's avionics and software had a 90% commonality with that of the F/A-18C/D fleet at the time, with further upgraded avionics introduced in successive Blocks. Differences include an up-front touchscreen control display; a large multipurpose color liquid-crystal display; and a fuel display. The Super Hornet has a quadruplex digital fly-by-wire system, as well as a digital flight-control system that detects and corrects for battle damage. Initial production models used the APG-73 radar, later replaced by the AN/APG-79 active electronically scanned array (AESA). The AN/ASQ-228 ATFLIR (Advanced Targeting Forward Looking InfraRed), is the main electro-optical sensor and laser designator pod for the Super Hornet. The communications equipment consist of an AN/ARC-210 VHF/UHF radio and a MIDS-JTRS low volume terminal for HAVE QUICK, SINCGARS and Link 16 connectivity.
The defensive countermeasures of Block I aircraft includes the AN/ALR-67(V)3 radar warning receiver, the AN/ALE-47 countermeasures dispenser, the AN/ALE-50 towed decoy and the AN/ALQ-165 Airborne Self-Protect Jammer (ASPJ). Block II aircraft replace the ALQ-165 with the AN/ALQ-214 Integrated Defensive Countermeasures (IDECM) system, consisting of internally mounted threat receivers and optional self-protection jammers. Interior and exterior lighting on the Block II was changed to allow the use of night vision devices. The older ALE-50 decoys are being replaced by ALE-55 towed decoys, which can transmit jamming signals based on data received from the IDECM.
Beginning in 2005, Block II aircraft were fitted with the AN/APG-79 AESA radar, capable of executing simultaneous air-to-air and air-to-ground attacks, and providing higher quality high-resolution ground mapping at long standoff ranges. The AESA radar can also detect smaller targets, such as inbound missiles and can track air targets beyond the range of the aircraft's air-to-air missiles. VFA-213, the first squadron to fly AESA-equipped Super Hornets, became "safe for flight" (independently fly and maintain the F/A-18F) on 27 October 2006. The first Super Hornet upgraded with the Joint Helmet Mounted Cueing System (JHMCS) was delivered to VFA-213 on 18 May 2007. The JHMCS provides multi-purpose situational awareness, which includes high-off-boresight missile cuing. The Shared Reconnaissance Pod (SHARP) is a high-resolution, digital tactical aerial reconnaissance system that features advanced day/night and all-weather capability. The Multifunctional Information Distribution System low volume communication terminal is being upgraded with the MIDS-JTRS system, which will allow a tenfold increase in bandwidth as well as compatibility with the Joint Tactical Radio System standards.
The avionics of Block III aircraft, first delivered in 2021, incorporates an improved cockpit with all MFDs replaced by a large-area 10 in × 19 in (25 cm × 48 cm) touchscreen display, updated integration and targeting networks, an updated processor, and an open mission systems architecture. Block II aircraft can be upgraded to the Block III configuration. For passive infrared detection and targeting, the aircraft can carry the AN/ASG-34(V)1 IRST21 sensor contained in a modified centerline FPU-13 external fuel tank; the sensor occupies the forward portion of the tank, reducing its capacity to 340 gallons. The ATFLIR is planned to be replaced by the AN/AAQ-28(V) Litening targeting pod.
== Operational history ==
=== United States Navy ===
In 1999, the Super Hornet entered fleet service with the U.S. Navy. It achieved initial operating capability (IOC) in September 2001 with the U.S. Navy's Strike Fighter Squadron 115 (VFA-115) at Naval Air Station Lemoore, California. VFA-115 was also the first unit to take their F/A-18s into combat. On 6 November 2002, two F/A-18Es conducted a "Response Option" strike in support of Operation Southern Watch on two surface-to-air missile launchers at Al Kut, Iraq and an air defense command and control bunker at Tallil air base. One of the pilots dropped 2,000 lb (910 kg) JDAM bombs from the Super Hornet for the first time during combat.
In support of Operation Iraqi Freedom (Iraq War), VFA-14, VFA-41 and VFA-115 flew close air support, strike, escort, SEAD and aerial refueling sorties. Two F/A-18Es from VFA-14 and two F/A-18Fs from VFA-41 were forward deployed to Abraham Lincoln. The VFA-14 aircraft flew mostly as aerial refuelers and the VFA-41 fighters as Forward Air Controller (Airborne) or FAC(A)s. On 6 April 2005, VFA-154 and VFA-147 (the latter squadron then still operating F/A-18Cs) dropped two 500-pound (230 kg) laser-guided bombs on an enemy insurgent location east of Baghdad. On 8 September 2006, VFA-211 F/A-18Fs expended GBU-12 and GBU-38 bombs against Taliban fighters and Taliban fortifications west and northwest of Kandahar as part of Operations Medusa and Enduring Freedom. This was the first time the unit had participated in an active combat capacity using the Super Hornet.
During the 2006–2007 cruise with Dwight D. Eisenhower, VFA-103 and VFA-143 supported Operations Iraqi Freedom, Enduring Freedom and operations off the Somali coast. Alongside "Legacy Hornet" squadrons, VFA-131 and VFA-83, they dropped 140 precision guided weapons and performed nearly 70 strafing runs. The Super Hornet can operate from the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle.
On 7 August 2014, U.S. defense officials announced they had been authorized to launch bombing missions upon Islamic State (IS) forces in northern Iraq. The decision to take direct action was made to protect U.S. personnel in the city of Irbil and to ensure the safety of transport aircraft making airdrops to Yazidi civilians. Early on 8 August, two Super Hornets took off from George H.W. Bush and dropped 500 lb laser-guided bombs on a "mobile artillery piece" the militants had been using to shell Kurdish forces defending the city. Later that day, four more aircraft struck a seven-vehicle convoy and a mortar position.
On 18 June 2017, a U.S. Navy F/A-18E shot down a Syrian Air Force Su-22 fighter-bomber that allegedly had bombed a position held by U.S.-supported Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) near Tabqa; the Syrian government claimed the Su-22 was bombing an IS position. This was the first aerial kill of a crewed aircraft by an American fighter since 1999, the first by the Navy since the 1991 Persian Gulf War, the first kill by a Super Hornet, and the third kill by an F/A-18. An E-3 Sentry issued several warnings to the Su-22 and, after it dropped bombs near SDF fighters, the F/A-18E, piloted by Lieutenant Commander Michael "MOB" Tremel, a pilot assigned to Strike Fighter Squadron 87 aboard the carrier George H.W. Bush, independently chose to shoot it down based on established rules of engagement. The F/A-18E first missed with an AIM-9X Sidewinder, then hit the Su-22 with an AIM-120 AMRAAM; the encounter lasted eight minutes.
In 2018, Boeing was awarded a contract to convert nine single-seat F/A-18E Super Hornets and two F/A-18F two-seaters for Blue Angels use; these were to be completed by 2021.
On 26 December 2023, Super Hornets from USS Dwight D. Eisenhower, along with the accompanying destroyer USS Laboon, destroyed 12 attack drones, three anti-ship missiles and two ground attack cruise missiles fired by Houthi forces in the southern Red Sea. Around 2:30 AM local time on 12 January 2024, Houthi targets were struck by U.S. Navy, USAF, and RAF forces in response to Houthi attacks against commercial shipping in the Red Sea. Super Hornets from Dwight D. Eisenhower took part in the strikes, which in total hit 60 targets at 16 locations using over 100 PGMs of various types. On 22 December 2024, an F/A-18F Super Hornet from VFA-11 was shot down by USS Gettysburg in a friendly fire incident. Both crewmembers of the aircraft survived. On 28 April 2025 while under attack by missiles and drones from the Houthis, Harry S. Truman made a hard turn and a F/A-18E Super Hornet from VFA-136, which was being towed in the hangar, fell overboard as a result. The plane was lost at sea. On 6 May 2025 a second Super Hornet was lost when arresting gear failed to catch the plane during landing.
=== Royal Australian Air Force ===
On 3 May 2007, the Australian Government signed a $2.9 billion contract to acquire 24 F/A-18Fs as an interim replacement for the Royal Australian Air Force's (RAAF) aging F-111s. It was reported that the order would also address any difficulties that might be caused by a need to quickly replace the RAAF's existing fleet of classic F/A-18A/B Hornets in the event of delays to the F-35 program. The total cost of the purchase, with training and support over 10 years, was expected to be A$6 billion (US$4.6 billion).
The order was controversial; Air Vice Marshal (retired) Peter Criss, said that he was "absolutely astounded" that $6 billion would be spent on an interim aircraft, and cited the US Senate Armed Services Committee, to the effect that the "excess power" of the Block I Super Hornet was inferior to that of the MiG-29 and Su-30, both of which were being operated by, or were on order for, air forces in South East Asia. Another former senior RAAF officer, Air Commodore (ret.) Ted Bushell stated that the F/A-18F could not perform the strategic deterrent/strike role of the F-111C and the latter could continue to operate until 2020 at least. On 31 December 2007, the new Australian Labor government announced a review of the RAAF's aircraft procurement plans citing suitability concerns, the lack of a proper review process, and beliefs that an interim fighter was not needed.
On 17 March 2008, the Government announced that it would proceed to acquire 24 F/A-18Fs. Defence Minister Joel Fitzgibbon called the Super Hornet an "excellent aircraft", and indicated that costs and logistical factors contributed to the decision: the F-111's retirement was "irreversible"; "only" the F/A-18F could meet the timeframe and that termination involved "significant financial penalties and create understandable tensions between the contract partners." The Block II aircraft offered include installed engines and six spares, APG-79 AESA radars, Link 16 connectivity, LAU-127 guided missile launchers, AN/ALE-55 fiber optic towed decoys and other equipment. On 27 February 2009, Fitzgibbon announced that 12 of the 24 F/A-18Fs would be wired on the production line for future modification as Boeing EA-18G Growlers at an additional cost of A$35 million. The final decision on the EA-18G conversion, at a cost of A$300 million, would be made in 2012.
The first RAAF F/A-18F made its first flight from Boeing's factory in St. Louis, Missouri, on 21 July 2009. RAAF crews began training in the U.S. in 2009. The first five F/A-18Fs arrived at their home base, RAAF Base Amberley in Queensland, on 26 March 2010; and were joined by six more aircraft on 7 July 2010. After four more aircraft arrived in December 2010, the first RAAF F/A-18F squadron was declared operational on 9 December 2010.
In 2008, U.S. export approval was sought for EA-18G Growlers. In December 2012, Australia sought cost information on acquiring a further 24 F/A-18Fs, which may be bought to avoid a capability gap due to F-35 delays. In February 2013, the U.S. Defense Security Cooperation Agency notified Congress of a possible Foreign Military Sale to Australia for up to 12 F/A-18E/Fs and 12 EA-18Gs with associated equipment, training and logistical support. In May 2013, Australia announced the order of 12 new EA-18Gs instead of converting any F/A-18Fs. In June 2014, Boeing received a contract for 12 EA-18Gs; the first was rolled out on 29 July 2015.
On 24 September 2014, eight RAAF F/A-18Fs, along with a KC-30A tanker, an early warning aircraft, and 400 personnel arrived in the United Arab Emirates to take part in operations against Islamic State (IS) militants. On 5 October 2014, the RAAF officially started combat missions over Iraq using a pair of F/A-18Fs armed with GPS guided bombs, they returned safely to base without attacking targets. On 8 October 2014, an RAAF F/A-18F conducted its first attack, dropping two bombs on an ISIL facility in northern Iraq. In 2017, EA-18Gs replaced No. 6 Squadron RAAF's F/A-18Fs, which were then transferred to No. 1 Squadron RAAF.
On 8 December 2020, F/A-18F A44-223 rolled into a ditch while attempting to take off at RAAF Base Amberley, the crew ejected. An eyewitness reportedly observed smoke from one of the engines. A day after the incident, the RAAF grounded the fleet of 24 Super Hornets and 11 Growlers while the incident was investigated. The cause was determined to be pilot error. The Super Hornet was repaired, and returned to service in mid-2021.
=== Kuwait Air Force ===
In May 2015, the Kuwait Air Force was reportedly planning to order 28 F/A-18E/Fs with options for an additional 12. However, in June 2015, it was reported that Kuwait was considering a split purchase between the Eurofighter Typhoon and the F/A-18E/F. On 11 September 2015, Kuwait signed an agreement for 28 Eurofighters. In November 2016, a proposed Kuwaiti sale of 32 F/A-18E and 8 F/A-18F fighters, armaments, and associated equipment was approved by the U.S. State Department.
In June 2018, the Kuwaiti Government ordered 22 F/A-18Es and 6 F/A-18Fs via a US$1.5 billion contract. The aircraft were scheduled to be delivered by January 2021, but were rescheduled to be delivered later due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
=== Potential operators ===
Boeing has pitched the F/A-18E/F to numerous countries, particularly those that operate the legacy Hornet as it was supposed to be a "logical progression from the Hornet to the [Super Hornet], with its logistics, weaponry and training commonalities". So far only the US Navy, Australia, and Kuwait have ordered and received the Super Hornet.
==== Malaysia ====
Boeing offered Malaysia Super Hornets as part of a buy-back package for its existing Hornets in 2002. However, the procurement was halted in 2007 after the government decided to purchase the Sukhoi Su-30MKM instead; Chief Gen. Datuk Nik Ismail Nik Mohamaed of the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) indicated that the air force had not planned to end the Super Hornet buy, stating that such fighters were needed. Separately, the Super Hornet is a contender for the MRCA program, under which the RMAF seek to equip three squadrons with 36 to 40 new fighters with an estimated budget of RM6 billion to RM8 billion (US$1.84 billion to US$2.46 billion). Other competitors are the Eurofighter Typhoon, Dassault Rafale and Saab JAS 39 Gripen.
=== Failed bids ===
==== Belgium ====
On 12 March 2014, Belgian newspaper De Morgen reported that Boeing was in talks with the Belgian Ministry of Defence about the Super Hornet as a candidate to replace Belgium's aging F-16 fleet. In April 2017, Boeing announced it would not compete in the competition, citing it "does not see an opportunity to compete on a truly level playing field". On 25 October 2018, Belgium officially selected the offer for 34 F-35As to replace its fleet of around 54 F-16s.
==== Brazil ====
Boeing proposed the Super Hornet to the Brazilian government in response to an initial requirement for 36 aircraft, with a potential total purchase of 120. In October 2008, the Super Hornet was reportedly selected as one of three finalists in Brazil's fighter competition. However, news of National Security Agency spying on Brazilian leaders caused animosity between Brazil and the US. Brazil eventually dropped the Super Hornet from its final list and selected the Saab JAS 39 Gripen in December 2013.
==== Canada ====
The Super Hornet was a contender to replace the CF-18 Hornet, a version of the F/A-18A and B models, operated by the Royal Canadian Air Force. Like the older Hornet, the Super Hornet's design is well-suited to Northern Canada's rugged forward operational airfields, while its extended range removes its predecessor's main deficiency while commonalities enable a straightforward transition. In 2010, Canada decided on sole source selection of the F-35A. Boeing claimed that Canada had ignored the Super Hornet's radar cross-section characteristics during evaluation. By April 2012, Canada was reportedly reviewing its F-35 procurement. In September 2013, Boeing provided Canada with data on its Advanced Super Hornet, suggesting that 65 aircraft would cost $1.7 billion less than an F-35 fleet. The US Navy buys Super Hornets for $52 million per aircraft, while the advanced model costs $6–$10 million more per aircraft, dependent on options selected.
The Liberal government elected in 2015 indicated that it would launch a competition to replace the CF-18 fleet. During the election, Liberal Leader Justin Trudeau stated that his government would not buy the F-35. On 22 November 2016, the government announced its intention to acquire 18 Super Hornets on an interim basis. In September 2017, the U.S. State Department granted Canada permission to buy 10 F/A-18Es and 8 F/A-18Fs (or EA-18Gs) along with supporting equipment, spares, and armaments; the agreed cost totaled CA$1.5 billion, or about CA$83.3 million per aircraft, adding the supporting equipment, training, spares, and weapons increased the acquisition cost to CA$6.3 billion. However, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau warned that the pending Super Hornet sale, along with a possible sale of another 70, was adversely affected by Boeing's actions against Bombardier Aerospace, such as a complaint to the US government over the sale of CSeries airliners to Delta Air Lines at unduly low prices; in September 2017, the U.S. Department of Commerce proposed a 219% tariff on CSeries imported into the US. In January 2018, the USITC commissioners unanimously ruled against Boeing that the U.S. industry is not threatened and no duties will be imposed.
In late 2017, the Canadian Government agreed with Australia to purchase 18 used F/A-18 Hornets as an interim measure. Boeing confirmed its bid for the Advanced Fighter Program, likely offering a mix of 88 F/A-18E/F Advanced Super Hornets (Block III) and Boeing EA-18G Growlers. On 25 November 2021, Reuters reported that Boeing is out of the competition since its fighter proposal does not meet requirements with the F-35 and Saab JAS 39 Gripen remaining in competition.
==== Denmark ====
In 2008, the Royal Danish Air Force was offered the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet as one of three fighters in a Danish competition to replace 48 F-16AM/BMs. The other contenders were the F-35A Joint Strike Fighter and the Eurofighter Typhoon. Denmark is a level-3 partner in the JSF program. The final selection was originally planned for mid-2015 where 24 to 30 fighters were expected. In April 2014, the Danish Ministry of Defence handed over a Request for Binding Information (RBI) that specifically listed the F/A-18F two-seat variant. In December 2015, the decision was postponed to 2016, with the final order's details pending negotiations. In May 2016, the Danish government recommended to parliament that 27 F-35As should be procured instead of 38 Super Hornets.
In September 2016, Boeing indicated that they would take legal action against the Danish F-35A buy, indicating that flawed data was used. In March 2018, Boeing lost the case with the court stating "The court has found that the authorities' decisions on refusal of access to the documents are legal and valid."
==== Finland ====
In June 2015, a working group set up by the Finnish MoD proposed starting the HX Fighter Program to replace the Finnish Air Force's current fleet of F/A-18C/D Hornets, which will reach the end of their service life by the end of the 2020s. The group recognised five potential types: Boeing F/A-18E/F Advanced Super Hornet, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II and Saab JAS 39 Gripen. In May 2016, the DOD announced that Boeing (with the Super Hornet) and Lockheed Martin (with the F-35) would respond to the information request. This request was sent in early 2016 with five responses received in November 2016. A call for tender will be sent in spring 2018 and the buying decision is scheduled to take place in 2021.
In February 2020, three Super Hornets (a single-seat F/A-18E, a twin-seat F/A-18F and an EA-18G) arrived at the Tampere-Pirkkala Airbase in Finland for final flight evaluations. The evaluations concluded on 28 February 2020. The Finnish newspaper Iltalehti reported that several foreign and security policy sources had confirmed the Finnish Defense Forces recommendation of the F-35, citing its capability and expected long lifespan as key reasons. Finland ordered the F-35 in February 2022.
==== Germany ====
Germany requires a replacement for its aging Panavia Tornado fleet, including both Tornado IDS (interdictor/strike) and ECR (Electronic Combat/Reconnaissance) variants. Germany considered ordering the Lockheed Martin F-35, Eurofighter Typhoon, and the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and EA-18G Growler. In April 2020, Germany's defense secretary announced a replacement plan for a split purchase of 30 Super Hornets, 15 EA-18Gs and 55 Typhoons. However, the Defense Ministry states this is not finalized and it is being debated. As of March 2020, the Super Hornet was not certified for the B61 nuclear bombs, but Dan Gillian, Super Hornet program head, previously stated that "We certainly think that we, working with the U.S. government, can meet the German requirements..."
With increased tensions in Europe, due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine beginning 24 February 2022, Germany scrambled to accelerate defense spending priorities. Newly elected Chancellor Olaf Scholz pledged a €100 billion military upgrade, which included selecting the F-35 instead of the Super Hornet for the nuclear role and Eurofighter ECR/SEAD instead of the Growler.
==== India ====
===== Indian Air Force =====
For India's MMRCA competition, Boeing offered a customized variant called F/A-18IN, which included Raytheon's APG-79 AESA radar. In August 2008, Boeing submitted an industrial participation proposal detailing partnerships with companies in India. The Indian Air Force (IAF) extensively evaluated the Super Hornet, including field trials in August 2009. However, in April 2011, the IAF eliminated the F/A-18IN from the competition which was eventually won by the Dassault Rafale.
In October 2016, India reportedly received three unsolicited bids, including one from Boeing for the Super Hornet, to replace its MiG-21 and MiG-27 aircraft. The aircraft is now competing with six others in a fresh tender, referred as MMRCA 2.0, for the procurement of 114 multi-role combat aircraft for the IAF.
===== Indian Navy =====
The Rafale was chosen over the Super Hornet due to their commonality with the Rafale aircraft operated by the Indian Air Force, as well as availability to integrate Indian origin systems into the aircraft. The aircraft would complement the existing fleet of Navy Mikoyan MiG-29K aircraft, to be later joined by the Indian built Twin Engine Deck Based Fighter. The aircraft would be operated on the Indian aircraft carriers INS Vikramaditya and INS Vikrant.
The deal was officially signed with France on 28 April 2025.
==== Poland ====
During the 2010s, Poland sought to purchase 64 multirole combat aircraft from 2021 to replace the Polish Air Force's fleet of Sukhoi Su-22M4 ground attack aircraft and Mikoyan MiG-29 fighters. In November 2017, the Armament Inspectorate launched the acquisition process. On 22 December 2017, five entities expressed interest in participating in the market analysis phase of the procurement, referred to as "Harpia" (harpy eagle); they included Saab (Gripen NG), Lockheed Martin (F-35), Boeing (F/A-18), Leonardo (Eurofighter Typhoon) and Fights-On Logistics (second-hand F-16). On 28 May 2019, the Polish Defense Ministry formally requested to buy 32 F-35As.
==== Switzerland ====
Boeing first offered the Super Hornet to the Swiss Air Force as a replacement for Swiss F-5E Tigers before withdrawing from the competition on 30 April 2008. The Swiss Air Force was at one point intending to buy the rival Saab Gripen, but this was blocked by Swiss voters in 2014. In March 2018, Swiss officials named contenders in its Air 2030 program: The Saab Gripen, Dassault Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and Lockheed Martin F-35. The program has a budget of US$8 billion but includes not only combat aircraft but also ground-based air defense systems. In October 2018, it was reported by Jane's that the Swiss Air Force may be limited to purchasing a single-engine fighter due to cost. The F/A-18E/F performed demonstrations for Swiss personnel at Payerne Air Base in April 2019, which was contrasted to flights performed by other bidders.
On 30 June 2021, the Swiss Federal Council proposed buying 36 F-35As to Parliament at a cost of up to 6 billion Swiss francs (US$6.5 billion), citing the aircraft's cost and combat effectiveness. The anti-military group GSoA intended to contest the purchase in another national referendum supported by the Green Party of Switzerland and the Social Democratic Party of Switzerland (which previously acted to block the Gripen). In August 2022, they registered the initiative, with 120,000 people having signed in less than a year (with 100,000 required). On 26 November 2021, it was announced that Armasuisse had agreed terms with the US government for 36 F-35As for CHF 6.035 billion. The order was then subject to parliamentary approval and the popular initiative not proceeding or failing. A parliamentary inquiry found the purchase worrisome but legal. The government did not wait for the popular initiative to proceed, which was legally permitted. On 15 September 2022, the Swiss National council gave the Federal council permission to sign the purchase deal. The deal to buy 36 F-35A was signed on 19 September 2022, with deliveries to commence in 2027 and conclude by 2030.
==== Spain ====
By 2018, Spain sought 68-72 fighters to replace its F/A-18A/B Hornets; tender participants included the Eurofighter Typhoon, Dassault Rafale, Boeing F/A-18 E/F Advanced Super Hornet, and Lockheed F-35 Lightning II. On 22 June 2022, Spain ordered 20 Tranche 4 Typhoons to replace the 20 ex-USN F/A-18s based at the Canary Islands.
==== United States Marine Corps ====
The United States Marine Corps (USMC) avoided the Super Hornet program over fears that any purchased F/A-18s would be at the cost of the F-35B STOVL fighters that they intend to operate from amphibious ships. Resistance is so high that they would rather fly former Navy F/A-18Cs. In 2011, the USMC agreed to eventually equip five Marine fighter-attack squadrons (VMFA) with the F-35C carrier variant to continue to augment Navy carrier air wings as they do with the F/A-18C.
==== Others ====
On 10 March 2009, Boeing offered the Super Hornet for Greece's Next-Generation Fighter Program.
On 1 August 2010, The Sunday Times reported that the British government was considering canceling orders for the F-35B and buying the Super Hornet instead for its Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers, claiming a saving of around £10 billion as a result. An industry source claimed that the Super Hornet could be ski jump launched without catapults. In the end, the UK opted for a STOVL aircraft carrier equipped with F-35Bs.
The United Arab Emirates was reported to have asked for information on the Super Hornet in 2010.
In early 2011, Bulgaria was considering the F/A-18 as a replacement for its MiG-21 fleet. After initially selecting the Saab Gripen, the newly elected governing coalition restarted the program and indicated that the Super Hornet is again under consideration. The decision is expected by July 2018. In December 2018, the Bulgarian Ministry of Defence selected the offer for 8 F-16V from the United States for an estimated 1.8 billion lev ($1.05 billion) as the preferred option, and recommended the government to start talks with the US.
In 2012, Norway received an offer for at least one squadron of F/A-18s, noting its suitability to Northern Norwegian conditions.
In 2014, Boeing worked with Korean Airlines to offer the Advanced Super Hornet to the Republic of Korea Air Force as an alternative to their KF-X fighter program. Although a fighter based on the Super Hornet would save money, downgrading the program would not give South Korean industry as much knowledge as it would from developing a new fighter.
== Variants ==
F/A-18E
Single seat variant
F/A-18F
Two-seat variant
NEA-18G
Two F/A-18Fs modified as prototypes of the EA-18G Growler.
EA-18G Growler
Electronic warfare variant of the F/A-18F to replace the U.S. Navy's Grumman EA-6B Prowler.
Advanced Super Hornet
Variant of the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet with Conformal Fuel Tanks (CFT) and has a further reduced radar cross section (RCS), with the option of a stealthy enclosed weapons pod and built-in IRST21 sensor system. Not pursued by US Navy, but some elements such as the IRST sensor, although integrated into a fuel tank, became standalone upgrades while others like the enhanced cockpit were incorporated into the Block III. However, the Conformal Fuel Tanks and reduced RCS are still stated to be of interest to the RAAF.
== Operators ==
Australia
Royal Australian Air Force – 24 F/A-18Fs in service
RAAF Base Amberley, Queensland
No. 1 Squadron (F/A-18F)
No. 82 Wing Training Flight (F/A-18F)
Kuwait
Kuwait Air Force – 22 single-seat F/A-18Es and 6 twin-seat F/A-18Fs
United States
United States Navy – 416 F/A-18E/Fs in service plus 93 on order as of 2025
Pacific Fleet squadrons
VFA-2 "Bounty Hunters" (F/A-18F)
VFA-14 "Tophatters" (F/A-18E)
VFA-22 "Fighting Redcocks" (F/A-18F)
VFA-25 "Fist of the Fleet" (F/A-18E)
VFA-27 "Royal Maces" (F/A-18E)
VFA-41 "Black Aces" (F/A-18F)
VFA-94 "Mighty Shrikes" (F/A-18E)
VFA-102 "Diamondbacks" (F/A-18F)
VFA-113 "Stingers" (F/A-18E)
VFA-122 "Flying Eagles" (Fleet Replacement Squadron, operates F/A-18E/F)
VFA-136 "Knighthawks" (F/A-18E)
VFA-137 "Kestrels" (F/A-18E)
VFA-146 "Blue Diamonds" (F/A-18E)
VFA-151 "Vigilantes" (F/A-18E)
VFA-154 "Black Knights" (F/A-18F)
VFA-192 "Golden Dragons" (F/A-18E)
VFA-195 "Dambusters" (F/A-18E)
Atlantic Fleet squadrons
VFA-11 "Red Rippers" (F/A-18F)
VFA-31 "Tomcatters" (F/A-18E)
VFA-32 "Swordsmen" (F/A-18F)
VFA-34 "Blue Blasters" (F/A-18E)
VFA-37 "Ragin Bulls" (F/A-18E)
VFA-81 "Sunliners" (F/A-18E)
VFA-83 "Rampagers" (F/A-18E)
VFA-87 "Golden Warriors" (F/A-18E)
VFA-103 "Jolly Rogers" (F/A-18F)
VFA-105 "Gunslingers" (F/A-18E)
VFA-106 "Gladiators" (Fleet Replacement Squadron, operates F/A-18E/F)
VFA-131 "Wildcats" (F/A-18E)
VFA-143 "Pukin' Dogs" (F/A-18E)
VFA-211 "Fighting Checkmates" (F/A-18E)
VFA-213 "Black Lions" (F/A-18F)
Test and Evaluation squadrons
VX-9 "Vampires" (Air Test and Evaluation Squadron, operates F/A-18E/F and other aircraft)
VX-23 "Salty Dogs" (Air Test and Evaluation Squadron, operates F/A-18E/F and other aircraft)
VX-31 "Dust Devils" (Air Test and Evaluation Squadron, operates F/A-18E/F and other aircraft)
Warfighting Development Centers
NAWDC (Naval Aviation Warfighting Development Center, operates F/A-18E/F and other aircraft)
Flight Demonstration squadrons
U.S. Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron (Blue Angels) (F/A-18E/F)
Each U.S. Navy deployable "Fleet" VFA squadron has a standard unit establishment of 12 aircraft.
== Notable accidents ==
On 6 April 2011, a U.S. Navy F/A-18F from VFA-122 Tactical Demonstration team crashed, killing both crew members. The crash occurred when the crew attempted to perform a loaded roll with too much speed and insufficient angle-of-attack. The loaded roll has since been removed from the Navy's F/A-18F flight demonstration routine.
On 31 July 2019, a U.S. Navy F/A-18E from VFA-151 crashed into the side of "Star Wars Canyon" in California, killing the pilot and injuring seven French civilian sightseers at the Father Crowley Vista Point 40 feet (12 m) above the impact point. The crash was attributed to flying "too fast and too low with respect to the surrounding terrain". Military training within the canyon was suspended, with standing instructions to stay above the rim of the canyon.
On 3 June 2022, a U.S. Navy F/A-18E from VFA-113 crashed near NWS China Lake, killing the pilot.
On 22 December 2024, a U.S. Navy F/A-18F took off from the aircraft carrier USS Harry S. Truman operating in the Red Sea and was hit by friendly SM-2 surface-to-air missile fired from USS Gettysburg operating in the same area. The two pilots onboard ejected with minor injuries and were rescued.
On 28 April 2025, a F/A 18E Super Hornet fell off an elevator of the USS Harry Truman after the carrier turned sharply to evade Houthi fire. The driver of the tractor and the pilot both escaped without major injuries. The carrier was operating in the Red Sea during the incident.
On 6 May 2025, a U.S. Navy F/A-18 fell overboard on the USS Harry Truman after a failure with the carrier's arresting gear. The pilot and weapons systems officer ejected safely and were recovered.
On 20 August 2025, a U.S. Navy F/A-18E Super Hornet crashed into ocean waters off the coast of Virginia. The pilot of the aircraft belonging to Strike Fighter Squadron 83 ejected from the Super Hornet during a routine training flight, according to a statement from Navy spokesperson Lt. Jackie Parashar. Strike Fighter Squadron 83 is based out of Naval Air Station Oceana in Virginia Beach. As of 21 August 2025, the crashed jet was yet to be recovered from the water and the cause of the crash was under investigation.
On 26 October 2025 an F/A-18F was lost serving in the South China Sea aboard USS Nimitz.
== Specifications (F/A-18E/F) ==
Data from U.S. Navy fact file, F/A-18E/F NATOPS, F/A-18E Standard Aircraft Characteristics (SAC), FY 2012 Selected Acquisition ReportGeneral characteristics
Crew: F/A-18E: 1 (pilot), F/A-18F: 2 (pilot and weapon systems officer)
Length: 60 ft 1.25 in (18.31 m)
Wingspan: 44 ft 8.5 in (13.62 m)
Height: 16 ft 0 in (4.88 m)
Wing area: 500 sq ft (46.5 m2)
Empty weight: 32,081 lb (14,552 kg)
Gross weight: 47,000 lb (21,320 kg) (equipped for fighter escort)
Max takeoff weight: 66,000 lb (29,937 kg)
Internal fuel capacity: F/A-18E: 14,700 lb (6,668 kg), F/A-18F: 13,760 lb (6,241 kg)
External fuel capacity: Up to 4 × 480 US gal (1,817 L) tanks, totaling 13,040 lb (5,915 kg), option for 2 x 515 US gal (1,949 L) conformal fuel tanks totaling an additional 7,000 lb (3,175 kg) on Block III
Powerplant: 2 × General Electric F414-GE-400 turbofans, 13,000 lbf (58 kN) thrust each dry, 22,000 lbf (98 kN) with afterburner
Performance
Maximum speed: Mach 1.8, 1,030 kn (1,185 mph; 1,908 km/h) clean at 40,000 ft
Mach 1.06, 700 kn (806 mph; 1,296 km/h) at sea level
Mach 1.54, 885 kn (1,018 mph; 1,639 km/h) at 36,000 ft with 2× AIM-120, 2× AIM-9, 1× drop tank
Cruise speed: 482 kn (555 mph, 893 km/h) fighter escort
Range: 1,275 nmi (1,458 mi, 2,346 km) with armament of two AIM-9s
Combat range: 492 nmi (566 mi, 911 km) hi-lo-hi mission with 4× Mark 83 bombs, 2× AIM-9, 2× drop tanks
518 nmi (596 mi; 959 km) fighter escort with, 2× AIM-120, 2× AIM-9, 1× drop tank
305 nmi (351 mi; 565 km) CAS with 1 hour loiter over target carrying 7× Mark 82 bombs, 1× AIM-120, 2× AIM-9, 2× drop tanks
Ferry range: 1,800 nmi (2,070 mi, 3,330 km)
Service ceiling: 52,300 ft (15,940 m)
Rate of climb: 44,882 ft/min (228 m/s)
Wing loading: 94.0 lb/sq ft (459 kg/m2) or 127.0 lb/sq ft (620 kg/m2) at max takeoff weight
Thrust/weight: 0.93
Design load factor: 7.5 g
Armament
Guns: 1× 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A2 Vulcan, 412 rounds
Hardpoints: 11 (2× wingtips, 6× under-wing, and 3× under-fuselage) with a capacity of Max payload: 17,750 lb (8,050 kg). Carrier bringback payload: F/A-18E: 9,900 lb (4,491 kg), F/A-18F: 9,000 lb (4,082 kg), with provisions to carry combinations of:
Missiles:
Air-to-air missiles
Fighter escort: 7× AIM-120 AMRAAM and 2× AIM-9 Sidewinder or
5x AIM-120 and 4× AIM-9 or
4× AIM-174B, 2× AIM-120, and 2× AIM-9 or
4× AIM-7 Sparrow and 2× AIM-9
maximum of 2× AIM-9 and:
12× AIM-120 AMRAAM or 8× AIM-7 Sparrow
Air-to-surface missiles
AGM-65E/F Maverick
AGM-84H/K SLAM-ER
AGM-88 HARM
AGM-88G AARGM-ER [being integrated]
AGM-158 JASSM
AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW) - glide bomb
AGM-84 Harpoon
AGM-158C LRASM
Joint Strike Missile (JSM) (to be integrated)
Bombs:
JDAM bombs (up to 10× GBU-32/35/38/54 or 4× GBU-31)
Paveway series of laser-guided bombs
Mk 80 series unguided bombs
CBU-78 Gator mine system
Mk 20 Rockeye II cluster bomb
Mk-62/63/65 Quick Strike Naval mine
Other:
SUU-42A/A Flares/infrared decoy dispenser pod and chaff pod
AN/ALE-50 towed decoy system pod
up to 4× 480 US gal (1,800 L; 400 imp gal) drop tanks and 1× A/A42R-1 Aerial Refueling Store pod for aerial refueling.
12× ADM-141C TALD decoys
AWW-13 Advanced data link pod
Avionics
Hughes AN/APG-73 or Raytheon AN/APG-79 AESA radar
Northrop Grumman/ITT ALQ-165 self-protection jammer system or L3Harris AN/ALQ-214 integrated defensive electronic countermeasures system
Raytheon AN/ALE-50 or BAE Systems AN/ALE-55 towed decoy
Raytheon AN/ALR-67(V)3 radar warning receiver
Lockheed Martin AN/ASG-34(V)1 IRST21 infrared search and track (mounted on centerline external tank)
Raytheon AN/ASQ-228 ATFLIR or Northrop Grumman AN/AAQ-28(V) Litening targeting pod
MIDS LVT or MIDS JTRS datalink transceiver
== See also ==
Aircraft in fiction#F/A-18E/F Super Hornet
Related development
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet
Boeing EA-18G Growler
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Dassault Rafale
Eurofighter Typhoon
J-15 / J-11BH/SH / Sukhoi Su-33
Mikoyan MiG-29K / Mikoyan MiG-35
Related lists
List of fighter aircraft
List of active United States military aircraft
List of United States military aerial refueling aircraft
== References ==
=== Notes ===
=== Citations ===
=== Bibliography ===
== External links ==
Official website
F/A-18 U.S. Navy fact file Archived 11 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine, and F/A-18 Navy history page
Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet page and Super Hornet Aero India briefing on Boeing.com
[1] First Super Hornet produced resides at The National Museum of Transportation, St. Louis MO |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floro_Garrido | Floro Garrido | Florencio 'Floro' Garrido Ajenjo (12 October 1952 – 9 January 2012) was a Spanish retired footballer who played as a midfielder, and a current manager.
Garrido had his career mainly associated with Burgos CF and Levante UD, appearing in the three main levels of Spanish football. He amassed a total of 168 appearances in Segunda División, scoring 17 goals, and added 47/3 in La Liga.
== Club career ==
Born in Villanueva de Alcardete, Toledo, Castile-La Mancha, Garrido joined Real Madrid's youth setup in 1966, aged 13. He made his debuts as a senior while on loan at CD Plus Ultra in 1971, in Tercera División.
In March 1972 Garrido moved to Segunda División's Cádiz CF, also in a temporary deal until the end of the campaign. He made his debut as a professional on 26 March, playing the full 90 minutes in a 0–2 away loss against Real Oviedo.
In 1974, after two years at Real Madrid's reserve team, Garrido joined Burgos CF also in the second level. With the Castile and León he achieved promotion to La Liga in 1975–76, despite featuring sparingly; he made his debut in the latter competition on 5 September 1976, starting in a 1–2 home loss against RCD Espanyol.
Garrido left Burgos in 1978 and signed for Levante UD, in the third division. He retired with the club in 1983, aged 30.
== Managerial career ==
Immediately after retiring, Garrido was an assistant manager at his last club Levante, being manager of the reserves, and also an interim manager of the main squad in 1986. He later had spells at CF Alaquàs, CD Olímpic de Xàtiva and Mármol Macael CD before being appointed UD Marbella manager in 1993.
Garrido subsequently resumed his managerial career in the lower levels, coaching mainly CP Mérida, CD Castellón, UD Almería, UD San Sebastián de los Reyes and CD Vera.
During his time as a manager, Garrido suffered with a serious hip injury which took him out of any duties for two years. He subsequently moved to Huércal-Overa after his injury, and died on 9 January 2012 in Almería, after having a multiple organ failure due to his diabetes.
== References ==
== External links ==
Floro Garrido at BDFutbol
Floro Garrido manager profile at BDFutbol
Cadistas 1910 profile Archived 2015-02-27 at the Wayback Machine (in Spanish) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Owen_Dunbar | Carl Owen Dunbar | Carl Owen Dunbar (January 1, 1891 – April 7, 1979) was an American paleontologist who specialized in invertebrate fossils. He was a Professor of Geology at Yale University from 1920 until 1959. He was also Director of the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University from 1942 until 1959. As editor of a textbook series on historical geology from the 1920s through the 1950s, his work was published and sold in over 1 million books.
== Early life ==
Dunbar was born 1 January 1891 in Hallowell, Cherokee County, Kansas. He was raised on his grandfather, Warder Dunbar’s ranch by his parents David Dunbar (1863–1941) and mother Emma Thomas Dunbar (née McNeil).
Dunbar enrolled at the University of Kansas in 1909 and finished his doctorate at Yale University in 1917. His dissertation was entitled, “The Paleontology and Stratigraphy of the Devonian of Western Tennessee.” His doctoral advisor was Yale paleontologist, Charles Schuchert.
== Geology at Yale University & Peabody Museum of Natural History ==
Between 1918 and 1920, Dunbar taught geology at the University of Minnesota. In 1920, when Charles Schuchert retired from his professorship at Yale University, he recommended Dunbar as his replacement. Dunbar taught at Yale University from 1920 to 1959.
Dunbar was a worldwide expert on the evolution of fusulines during the Pennsylvanian and Permian periods of the late Paleozoic age. In 1927, his work, published with G. E. Condra, is considered the first definitive study on fusulinids and Foraminifera. Dunbar published a series of textbooks at Yale University on historical geology. These books "dominated the field through the 1920s and 1930s and made a major contribution to professional education in earth science." At the end of his career, Dunbar’s textbooks had sold close to a million copies.
Dunbar is also notable for his seventeen years as the Director of the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University. Dunbar and his predecessor A. E. Parr were responsible overseeing Rudolph Zallinger and his work on one hundred-foot mural of the Age of Reptiles, a project that earned Zallinger a Pulitzer Prize.
Dunbar was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1942, U.S. National Academy of Sciences in 1944, American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1950. In 1946, Dunbar was selected by The National
Academy of Sciences as one of a twenty-man committee of civilian scientists to observe
Operation Crossroads, the atom bomb tests at Bikini atoll. He was made an honorary member of the Geological Society of Mexico in 1944, a corresponding fellow of the Geological Society of London in 1950, and an honorary life member of the Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists in 1965. He received the Hayden Memorial Geological Medal of the Academy of Natural Sciences in 1959, the Paleontological Society Medal in 1967, and the William H. Twenhofel Medal of the Society of Sedimentary Geology in 1978.
== References ==
== Cited works ==
“Carl Owen Dunbar,” History and Archives, Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University. (retrieved 4 February 2011)
Dunbar, C. O. (1966). The earth. Cleveland: World Pub. Co.
Dunbar, C. O. (1960). Historical geology. New York: Wiley.
Dunbar, C. O. & C. Schuchert (1937) Outlines of Historical Geology, 3d ed. New York: Wiley.
Dunbar, C. O. & C. Schuchert (1940). A textbook of geology: Part II: Historical geology. New York: Wiley.
Rodgers, John. “Carl Owen Dunbar, 1891-1979,” Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1985. ([retrieved 8 October 2016)
== External links ==
Works by or about Carl Owen Dunbar at the Internet Archive |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merwin_Graham | Merwin Graham | Merwin ("Marvin") B. Graham (March 4, 1903 – January 24, 1989) was an American track and field athlete who competed in the 1924 Summer Olympics. He was born in Fairview, West Virginia, attended high school in Bartlesville, Oklahoma and later attended the University of Kansas, where he was a member of the KU track team. In 1924 he finished ninth in the Olympic triple jump competition in Paris, France.
== References ==
== External links ==
Personal Papers of Merwin Graham at University of Kansas
profile |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babar_Awan#:~:text=In%202011%2C%20he%20resigned%20as,PPP%20for%20another%20five%20years. | Babar Awan | Zaheer-ud-din Babar Awan (Urdu: ظہیر الدین بابر اعوان; SI), is a Pakistani politician, senior lawyer, author, analyst, columnist, and leftist writer who served as Adviser to Prime Minister for Parliamentary Affairs from April 2020 to 10 April 2022, and before that as the Federal Law Minister in the cabinet of former Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani. He also served as a junior Pakistani Senator of Punjab Province from 2012 to 2017. Later he joined PTI to serve as Member Executive Council of PTI.
He regularly writes and publishes on left-wing philosophy. He extensively writes political columns in a leading Urdu newspaper, the Daily Jang, in support of social democracy and social justice.
== Early life and education ==
Babar Awan matriculated in 1971 and attended the Punjab University to study humanities. In 1975, Awan graduated with a B.A. in Humanities, and later obtained Master of Science in Economics from the Punjab University in 1978.
In 1980, Awan moved to Karachi and attended the Karachi University to study law where he obtained LLB in civil law in 1986. He began practicing law at the Sindh High Court, initially taking criminal cases.
Awan now lives in Islamabad. His brother Ghulam Farooq Awan served as the advisor to Prime Minister of Pakistan Yousaf Raza Gillani for Law, Justice and Parliamentary Affairs. He also served as the additional Attorney General of Pakistan.
== Political career ==
=== Early activism and PPP ===
His interest in politics grew in the 1980s while studying law at the Karachi University, and was an activist of the Peoples Students Federation— a youth wing of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP). In 1996, he became member of the PPP.
Although being a member of the PPP, he unsuccessfully contested the 1997 Pakistani general election from NA-36 Rawalpindi-I as a candidate of the Pakistan Muslim League (J). He received 21,768 votes and was defeated by Shahid Khaqan Abbasi, a candidate of the Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML(N)).
In 2002, Awan unsuccessfully contested the Islamabad constituency in the general elections, but conceded his defeat. In 2004, Benazir Bhutto appointed Awan as the finance secretary of the Pakistan People's Party.
In 2006, Awan successfully contested the indirect elections for Senate, and was elected unopposed. Awan was present alongside prominent party leaders such as Ameen Faheem when the announcement of Benazir Bhutto's return to Pakistan was made. Awan was present during the 19 October attack on Benazir Bhutto in Karachi, and then when Benazir Bhutto was killed in Rawalpindi. Awan was the first one to announce Bhutto's death to the Pakistani public, outside Rawalpindi General Hospital which is now known as Benazir Bhutto Hospital. Awan told the party workers outside the hospital, "I have just talked to Dr. Mussadiq, he has confirmed to me that Mohtarma (Benazir Bhutto) has been martyred."
=== Law and Justice Ministry (2008–2011) ===
After successfully contesting general elections held in 2008, Awan was appointed the Minister for Parliamentary Affairs as well as the Law Minister in November 2008.
Over many legal issues, Awan resigned from the Justice Ministry in 2011, but was brought back less than 48 hours later. During this time, Awan was considered the right-hand man of then-President Zardari. He was also given the Ministry of Information Technology. In 2011, he resigned as minister to plead in the Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto murder case. On 2 May 2012, Awan was stripped of all his party posts by the Central Executive Committee of the PPP.
=== Links with other political parties ===
The PPP has used Awan for dialogue with other political parties. Awan is highly supported in his Awan tribe. His political base lies in his hometown. Awan's elder brother was also a worker of the Pakistan People's Party. Another one of his brothers works for the Muttahida Qaumi Movement in Punjab. In 2011, Awan held negotiations on behalf of the Pakistan Peoples Party with the Pakistan Muslim League. This led to an alliance between the PPP and the PML, which further strengthened the PPP government and gave them a majority in Parliament. Awan often used to negotiate on the behalf of the PPP with Chaudhry Pervaiz Elahi, who is the Punjab President of PML-Q. Awan was also used for dialogue with PPP's coalition partner, MQM. Ishrat-ul-Ibad Khan, the 30th governor of Sindh visited Awan at his residence and agreed that a working relationship should be established between the PPP and MQM. His nephew, Shakeel Awan is a member of the PML-N and is also a former member of the Pakistan National Assembly. He had defeated Shaikh Rasheed Ahmad in his constituency.
=== 2013 elections campaign and PTI ===
On 28 May 2013, Awan issued a statement saying that it was the right of the new government to complete its stipulated term; however, the opposition should not be of the government's choice. He added that, "the role of the opposition would now be determined in accordance with the Constitution and the rules of business as opposed to via any reconciliatory formula." In July 2013, Awan criticized the Pakistan Election Commission for organizing Presidential Elections in a manner that dissatisfied the opposition political parties.
He went on to say that, "holding presidential election with the shortage of a large number of 46 law makers would result into constitutional chaos and will be a stigma on the election for the extremely distinguished constitutional office." On 5 July 2012, Awan said, "there is serious power crisis and the newly elected government has to take prompt measures including construction of Kalabagh Dam." He further said before restoration of bilateral ties with India, Islamabad had to raise outstanding Kashmir and water issue.
After Awan's sacking, it was expected that he would join another party although he remained a member of the PPP for another five years. In early 2013, Awan met Chairman Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf Imran Khan. Rumours spread that Awan would soon join the PTI.
On 21 June 2017 Awan announced that he will join PTI and with immediate effect step down from his seat in Senate.
== Other work ==
=== Writings and columns ===
In June 2012, Awan claimed that he was receiving life threats and that his family was also being threatened. He asked the concerned authorities to provide him with security. In early 2013, Awan began tweeting regularly. He uses his Twitter account to make political statements and to maintain contact with his supporters. By July 2013, Awan had 34,000 followers on Twitter.
In 2011, Awan published his first book called the Wakalat Nama [Urdu: وکالت نامۂ; Lawyers' diary], which was a collection of his columns and articles published in the newspapers of Pakistan from 1997 to 2009. In November 2011, Awan published another book based on the arguments he made in court during the Karachi Conspiracy case. The judges' bench of that case was led by Chief Justice of Pakistan Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry.
=== Television anchor and analyst ===
He is doing television programs from last many years, early he was doing an Islamic show on ATV and later he did Ikhtilafi Note on Neo TV. The show was hosted by Farwat Malik and Babar Awan participated as an analyst.
== Controversies ==
=== Haris Steel case (2009) ===
In November 2009, National Accountability Bureau of Pakistan summoned Awan after he was accused of getting bribes worth 30 million Pakistani rupees from the owners of the Haris Steel Mill in order to get a favourable verdict from the court. Awan was reported to have said that he had certainly not taken 30 million rupees and that the money he had taken was his professional fee. He further said that anyone was welcome to pursue any complaint in any professional body. In 2011, Sheikh Afzal, the owner of Haris Steel Mill, stated that he has been pressured by the Punjab Government to issue a statement against Awan. The charges were later dropped against Awan, due to Sheikh Afzal's statement.
=== Contempt of court (2011) ===
On 1 December 2011, Awan held a press conference in which he criticized a Supreme Court judge. The Supreme Court issued a notice of contempt of court to Awan in late December. On 5 January 2012, Awan was issued a second contempt of court notice by Supreme Court of Pakistan, due to a comment he made while talking to the media on 4 January. His license to practice law was subsequently suspended on 17 January for an indefinite period. The Supreme Court further asked the Federal Government to appoint someone else as their lawyer in the Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto case. Ali Ahmad Kurd disagreed with the Supreme Court's decision to suspend Awan's license. Awan was indicted by the Supreme Court in March 2012. Awan's counsel, Ali Zafar, maintained during the hearing that the court cannot indict Awan without having made a decision on the unconditional apology he offered twice to the court. He said that the purpose of contempt of court proceedings is to maintain the respect of the judiciary not to "demean someone."
=== PhD claim (2012) ===
According to the media sources and investigative journalists accounts, Awan is said to have been awarded a PhD in criminal law from the diploma mill Monticello University based in Hawaii, United States, in 1998. Controversy surrounded his law PhD also noted that the Monticello University misspelled his PhD nomination papers as "Monty Cello" from where he affirmed to have done his doctorate degree.
=== Witness in contempt case (2012) ===
The President of Pakistan, Asif Ali Zardari in a briefing to his close confidants disclosed that he had given a personal guarantee that Babar Awan will appear before the court as a witness in Prime Minister's contempt case. This was later confirmed by Prime Ministers council Aitezaz Ahsan in an interview given to Arshad Sharif for his program KYUN. Aitezaz said Babar's name was given to him by both the President and PM but Babar Awan refused to show up which irked the President.
== Books ==
وکالتنامه / Vakālat Nāmah [Power of Attorney], Lahore : Jumhūrī Publications, 2010, 486 p. Collected articles on Pakistan politics and government; published in newspapers.
کراچى قتل عام : از خود نوٹس سپريم کورٹ آف پاکستان / Karācī qatl-i ʻām : az k̲h̲vud noṭis Suprīm Korṭ āf Pākistān [Karachi Massacre: Suo Moto Notice by the Supreme Court of Pakistan], Lahore : Jumhūrī Publications, 2011, 112 p. On his arguments as advocate of the state representing PPP against the suo moto action taken by the Supreme Court on the civilian killings in Karachi.
رجیم چینج اور توہینِ ریاست ضیا، مشرف اور قمر باجوہ کے تنازعے / Regime Change aur Tauheen e Riasat : Zia, Musharraf aur Qamar Bajwa ke Tanazay [Regime Change and Insult to the State: The Controversies of Zia, Musharraf, and Qamar Bajwa], Lahore : Jumhūrī Publications, 2023, 224 p.
== Further reading ==
List of members of the 15th National Assembly of Pakistan
List of Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf elected members (2013–2018)
== See also ==
Supreme Court Bar Association of Pakistan
Lahore High Court Bar Association
== References == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung | Samsung | Samsung Group (Korean: 삼성; pronounced [sʰamsɔŋ]; stylised as SΛMSUNG) is a South Korean multinational manufacturing conglomerate headquartered in the Samsung Town office complex in Seoul. The group consists of numerous affiliated businesses, most of which operate under the Samsung brand, and is the largest chaebol (business conglomerate) in South Korea. As of 2024, Samsung has the world's fifth-highest brand value.
Founded in 1938 by Lee Byung-chul as a trading company, Samsung diversified into various sectors, including food processing, textiles, insurance, securities, and retail, over the next three decades. In the late 1960s, Samsung entered the electronics industry, followed by the construction and shipbuilding sectors in the mid-1970s—areas that would fuel its future growth. After Lee died in 1987, Samsung was divided into five business groups: Samsung Group, Shinsegae Group, CJ Group, Hansol Group, and JoongAng Group.
Key affiliates of Samsung include Samsung Electronics, the world's largest information technology company, consumer electronics maker and chipmaker by 2017 revenues; Samsung Heavy Industries, the world's second-largest shipbuilder by 2010 revenues; and Samsung Engineering and Samsung C&T Corporation, ranked 13th and 36th among global construction companies, respectively. Other significant subsidiaries are Samsung Life Insurance, the 14th-largest life insurance company globally, Samsung Everland, operator of Everland Resort (South Korea's oldest theme park), and Cheil Worldwide, the world's 15th-largest advertising agency by 2012 revenues.
== Etymology ==
According to Samsung's founder, the meaning of the Korean hanja Samsung (三星) is three stars. The three stands for something big, numerous and powerful, while stars stands for everlasting or eternal.
== History ==
=== 1938–1970 ===
In 1938, during the Japanese era, Lee Byung-chul (1910–1987), a member of a large landowning family in Ginei moved to nearby Taikyu and founded Mitsuboshi Trading Company (株式会社三星商会 (Kabushiki gaisha Mitsuboshi Shōkai)), or Samsung Sanghoe (주식회사 삼성상회). Samsung started out as a small trading company with forty employees located in Su-dong (now Ingyo-dong). It dealt in dried fish, locally-grown groceries and noodles. The company prospered and Lee moved its head office to Seoul in 1947. When the Korean War broke out, he was forced to leave Seoul. He started a sugar refinery in Pusan named Cheil Jedang. In 1954, Lee founded Cheil Mojik, a textiles company, and built the first plant in Chimsan-dong, Taegu. It was the largest woollen mill in the country at the time of construction.
Samsung diversified into various areas as Lee aimed to establish the company as a leader across multiple industries. The business expanded into sectors such as insurance, securities, and retail.
In 1947, Cho Hong-jai, the Hyosung group's founder, jointly invested in a new company called Samsung Mulsan Gongsa, or the Samsung Trading Corporation, with the Samsung's founder Lee Byung-chul. The trading firm grew to become the now Samsung C&T Corporation. After a few years, Cho and Lee separated due to differences in management style. Cho wanted a 30 equity share. Samsung Group was separated into Samsung Group and Hyosung Group, Hankook Tire and other businesses.
In the late 1960s, Samsung Group entered the electronics industry. It formed several electronics-related divisions, such as Samsung Electronics Devices, Samsung Electro-Mechanics, Samsung Corning and Samsung Semiconductor & Telecommunications, and opened the facility in Suwon. Its first product was a black-and-white television set. Byung-chul was also the owner of the Tongyang Broadcasting Company, a private radio and television company that existed from 1964 to 1980, shut down after the Korean government reviewed the number of media outlets allowed. TBC allowed an early success thanks to its connections to Samsung, boosting the sale of its television sets.
=== 1970–1990 ===
In 1980, Samsung acquired the Kumi-based Hanguk Jeonja Tongsin and entered telecommunications hardware. Its early products were switchboards. The facility was developed into the telephone and fax manufacturing systems and became the center of Samsung's mobile phone manufacturing. They have produced over 800 million mobile phones to date. The company grouped them together under Samsung Electronics in the 1980s.
After Lee, the founder's death in 1987, Samsung Group was separated into five business groups – Samsung Group, Shinsegae Group, CJ Group, Hansol Group and the JoongAng Group. Shinsegae (discount store, department store) was originally part of Samsung Group, separated in the 1990s from the Samsung Group along with CJ Group (Food/Chemicals/Entertainment/logistics), Hansol Group (Paper/Telecom), and the JoongAng Group (Media). Today these separated groups are independent and they are not part of or connected to the Samsung Group. One Hansol Group representative said, "Only people ignorant of the laws governing the business world could believe something so absurd", adding, "When Hansol separated from the Samsung Group in 1991, it severed all payment guarantees and share-holding ties with Samsung affiliates." One Hansol Group source asserted, "Hansol, Shinsegae, and CJ have been under independent management since their respective separations from the Samsung Group". One Shinsegae department store executive director said, "Shinsegae has no payment guarantees associated with the Samsung Group".
In the 1980s, Samsung Electronics began to invest heavily in research and development, investments that were pivotal in pushing the company to the forefront of the global electronics industry. In 1982, it built a television assembly plant in Portugal; in 1984, a plant in New York; in 1985, a plant in Tokyo; in 1987, a facility in England; and another facility in Austin, Texas, in 1996. As of 2012, Samsung has invested more than US$13 billion in the Austin facility, which operates under the name Samsung Austin Semiconductor. This makes the Austin location the largest foreign investment in Texas and one of the largest single foreign investments in the United States.
In 1987, United States International Trade Commission found that the Samsung Group of South Korea unlawfully sold computer chips in the United States without licenses from the chip inventor, Texas Instruments Inc.
=== 1990–2000 ===
Since 1990, Samsung has increasingly globalised its activities and electronics; in particular, its mobile phones and semiconductors have become its most important source of income. It was in this period that Samsung started to rise as an international corporation in the 1990s. Samsung's construction branch was awarded contracts to build one of the two Petronas Towers in Malaysia, Taipei 101 in Taiwan and the Burj Khalifa in United Arab Emirates. In 1993, Lee Kun-hee sold off ten of Samsung Group's subsidiaries, downsized the company, and merged other operations to concentrate on three industries: electronics, engineering and chemicals. In 1996, the Samsung Group reacquired the Sungkyunkwan University foundation.
Samsung became the world's largest producer of memory chips in 1992 and is the world's second-largest chipmaker after Intel (see Worldwide Top 20 Semiconductor Market Share Ranking Year by Year). In 1995, it created its first liquid-crystal display screen. Samsung grew to be the world's largest manufacturer of liquid-crystal display panels. Ten years later, Sony, which had not invested in large-size TFT-LCDs, contacted Samsung to cooperate, and, in 2006, S-LCD was established as a joint venture between Samsung and Sony in order to provide a stable supply of LCD panels for both manufacturers. S-LCD was owned by Samsung (50% plus one share) and Sony (50% minus one share) and operates its factories and facilities in Tanjung, South Korea. As of 26 December 2011, it was announced that Samsung had acquired the stake of Sony in this joint venture.
Compared to other major Korean companies, Samsung survived the 1997 Asian financial crisis relatively unharmed. However, Samsung Motor was sold to Renault at a significant loss. As of 2010, Renault Samsung is 80.1 per cent owned by Renault and 19.9 per cent owned by Samsung. Additionally, Samsung manufactured a range of aircraft from the 1980s to the 1990s. The company was founded in 1999 as Korea Aerospace Industries (KAI), the result of a merger between then three domestic major aerospace divisions of Samsung Aerospace, Daewoo Heavy Industries and Hyundai Space and Aircraft Company. However, Samsung still manufactures aircraft engines and gas turbines.
=== 2000–present ===
In 2000, Samsung R&D opened a development center in Warsaw, Poland. Its work began with set-top-box technology before moving into digital TV and smartphones. The smartphone platform was developed with partners, officially launched with the original Samsung Solstice line of devices and other derivatives in 2008, which was later developed into Samsung Galaxy line of devices including Notes, Edge and other products.
In 2007, former Samsung chief lawyer Kim Yong Chul claimed that he was involved in bribing and fabricating evidence on behalf of the group's chairman, Lee Kun-hee, and the company. Kim said that Samsung lawyers trained executives to serve as scapegoats in a "fabricated scenario" to protect Lee, even though those executives were not involved. Kim also told the media that he was "sidelined" by Samsung after he refused to pay a $3.3 million bribe to the U.S. Federal District Court judge presiding over a case where two of their executives were found guilty on charges related to memory chip price-fixing. Kim revealed that the company had raised a large number of secret funds through bank accounts illegally opened under the names of up to 1,000 Samsung executives – under his own name, four accounts were opened to manage 5 billion won.
In 2010, Samsung announced a ten-year growth strategy centered around five businesses. One of these businesses was to be focused on biopharmaceuticals, to which has committed ₩2.1 trillion. In first quarter of 2012, Samsung Electronics became the world's largest mobile phone maker by unit sales, overtaking Nokia, which had been the market leader since 1998.
On 24 August 2012, nine American jurors ruled that Samsung Electronics had to pay Apple $1.05 billion in damages for violating six of its patents on smartphone technology. The award was still less than the $2.5 billion requested by Apple. The decision also ruled that Apple did not violate five Samsung patents cited in the case. Samsung decried the decision saying that the move could harm innovation in the sector. It also followed a South Korean ruling stating that both companies were guilty of infringing on each other's intellectual property. In first trading after the ruling, Samsung shares on the KOSPI fell 7.7%, the largest fall since 24 October 2008, to 1,177,000 South Korean won. Apple then sought to ban the sales of eight Samsung phones (Galaxy S 4G, Galaxy S2 AT&T, Galaxy S2 Skyrocket, Galaxy S2 T-Mobile, Galaxy S2 Epic 4G, Galaxy S Showcase, Droid Charge and Galaxy Prevail) in the United States, but this was denied by the court.
As of 2013, the Fair Trade Commission of Taiwan is investigating Samsung and its local Taiwanese advertising agency for false advertising. The case was commenced after the commission received complaints stating that the agency hired students to attack competitors of Samsung Electronics in online forums. Samsung Taiwan made an announcement on its Facebook page in which it stated that it had not interfered with any evaluation report and had stopped online marketing campaigns that constituted posting or responding to content in online forums.
In 2015, Samsung has been granted more U.S. patents than any other company. The company received 7,679 utility patents through 11 December.
The Galaxy Note 7 smartphone went on sale on 19 August 2016. However, in early September 2016, Samsung suspended sales of the phone and announced an informal recall. This action was taken after some units of the phones were found to have batteries with a defect that caused them to generate excessive heat, leading to fires and explosions. Samsung replaced the recalled units of the phones with a new version. However, it was later discovered that the new version of the Galaxy Note 7 also had the battery defect. Consequently, Samsung recalled all Galaxy Note 7 smartphones worldwide on 10 October 2016 and permanently ceased production of the phone the following day.
In 2018, they inaugurated the world's largest mobile manufacturing facility in Noida, India, in the presence of Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and South Korean President Moon Jae-in.
In 2023, Samsung announced its decision to reduce the production of memory chips. This action is on account of the company's projected 96% decline in quarterly operating profit - a 600 million won decline from the 14 trillion won in 2022. The said drop can be attributed to the weak demand after COVID and a slowing global economy. Despite this decision, the company's shares increased by more than 4%. Samsung has been the top two applicant for PCT filled patents in 2022 and 2023 worldwide.
== Influence in South Korea ==
Samsung has a powerful influence on South Korea's economic development, politics, media and culture and has been a major driving force behind the "Miracle on the Han River". Its affiliate companies produce around a fifth of South Korea's total exports. Samsung's revenue was equal to 22.4% of South Korea's $1.67 trillion GDP in 2022.
"You can even say the Samsung chairman is more powerful than the President of South Korea. [South] Korean people have come to think of Samsung as invincible and above the law", said Woo Suk-hoon, host of a popular economics podcast in a Washington Post article headlined "In South Korea, the Republic of Samsung", published on 9 December 2012. Critics claimed that Samsung knocked out smaller businesses, limiting choices for South Korean consumers and sometimes colluded with fellow giants to fix prices while bullying those who investigate. Lee Jung-hee, a South Korean presidential candidate, said in a debate, "Samsung has the government in its hands. Samsung manages the legal world, the press, the academics and bureaucracy".
== Operations ==
Samsung comprises around 80 companies. Its activities include construction, consumer electronics, financial services, shipbuilding, and medical services, and two research and development stations that have allowed the chaebol to enter the industries of "high-polymer chemicals, genetic engineering tools [and biotech as a whole], aerospace, and nanotechnology."
As of April 2011, the Samsung Group comprised 59 unlisted companies and 19 listed companies, all of which had their primary listing on the Korea Exchange.
In FY 2009, Samsung reported consolidated revenues of 220 trillion KRW ($172.5 billion). In FY 2010, Samsung reported consolidated revenues of 280 trillion KRW ($258 billion), and profits of 30 trillion KRW ($27.6 billion) based upon a KRW-USD exchange rate of 1,084.5 KRW per USD, the spot rate as of 19 August 2011. These amounts do not include the revenues from Samsung's subsidiaries based outside South Korea.
In 2024, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)'s Hague Yearly Review ranked Samsung's number of industrial design applications filled under the Hague System as 1st in the world, with 544 industrial design applications submitted during 2023.
=== Leadership ===
Lee Byung-chul (1938–1966, 1968–1987)
Lee Maeng-hee (1966–1968), Lee Byung-chul's first son
Lee Kun-hee (1987–2008, 2010–2020), Lee Byung-chul's third son
Lee Soo-bin (2008–2010)
=== Affiliates ===
Samsung Electronics is a multinational electronics and information technology company headquartered in Suwon and the flagship company of the Samsung Group. Its products include air conditioners, computers, digital television sets, active-matrix organic light-emitting diodes (AMOLEDs), mobile phones, display monitors, computer printers, refrigerators, semiconductors and telecommunications networking equipment. It was the world's largest mobile phone maker by unit sales in the first quarter of 2012, with a global market share of 25.4%. It was also the world's second-largest semiconductor maker by 2011 revenues (after Intel).
Steco is a joint venture established between Samsung Electronics and Japan's Toray Industries in 1995. Toshiba Samsung Storage Technology Corporation (TSST) is a joint venture between Samsung Electronics and Toshiba of Japan which specialises in optical disc drive manufacturing. TSST was formed in 2004, and Toshiba owns 51 per cent of its stock, while Samsung owns the remaining 49 per cent. Samsung Electronics is listed on the Korea Exchange stock market (number 005930).
Samsung Biologics is a biopharmaceutical division of Samsung, founded in 2011. It has contract development and manufacturing (CDMO) services including drug substance and product manufacturing and bioanalytical testing services. The company is headquartered in Incheon, South Korea and its existing three plants comprises the largest biologic contract manufacturing complex. It expanded its contract development service lab to San Francisco, U.S. Samsung Biologics is listed on the Korean Exchange stock market (number 207940). Samsung Bioepis is a biosimilar medicine producer and joint venture between Samsung Biologics (50 per cent plus one share) and the U.S.-based Biogen Idec (50 per cent). In 2014, Biogen Idec agreed to commercialize future anti-TNF biosimilar products in Europe through Samsung Bioepis.
Samsung Engineering is a multinational construction company headquartered in Seoul, founded in January 1969. Its principal activity is the construction of oil refining plants; upstream oil and gas facilities; petrochemical plants and gas plants; steel making plants; power plants; water treatment facilities; and other infrastructure. It achieved total revenues of 9,298.2 billion won (US$8.06 billion) in 2011. Samsung Engineering is listed on the Korea Exchange stock market (number 02803450).
Samsung Fire & Marine Insurance is a multinational general insurance company headquartered in Seoul. It was founded in January 1952 as Korea Anbo Fire and Marine Insurance and was renamed Samsung Fire & Marine Insurance in December 1993. Samsung Fire & Marine Insurance offers services including accident insurance, automobile insurance, casualty insurance, fire insurance, liability insurance, marine insurance, personal pensions and loans. As of March 2011 it had operations in 10 countries and 6.5 million customers. Samsung Fire & Marine Insurance had a total premium income of $11.7 billion in 2011 and total assets of $28.81 billion on 31 March 2011. It is the largest provider of general insurance in South Korea. Samsung Fire has been listed on the Korea Exchange stock market since 1975 (number 000810).
Samsung Heavy Industries is a shipbuilding and engineering company headquartered in Seoul, founded in August 1974. Its principal products are bulk carriers, container vessels, crude oil tankers, cruisers, passenger ferries, material handling equipment steel and bridge structures. It achieved total revenues of 13,358.6 billion won in 2011 and is the world's second-largest shipbuilder by revenues (after Hyundai Heavy Industries). It is listed on the Korea Exchange stock market (number 010140).
Samsung Life Insurance is a multinational life insurance company headquartered in Seoul, founded in March 1957 as Dongbang Life Insurance. It became an affiliate of the Samsung Group in July 1963. Samsung Life's principal activity is the provision of individual life insurance and annuity products and services. As of December 2011 it had operations in seven countries, 8.08 million customers and 5,975 employees. Samsung Life had total sales of 22,717 billion won in 2011 and total assets of 161,072 billion won at 31 December 2011. It is the largest provider of life insurance in South Korea. Samsung Air China Life Insurance is a 50:50 joint venture between Samsung Life Insurance and China National Aviation Holding. It was established in Beijing in July 2005. Siam Samsung Life Insurance: Samsung Life Insurance holds a 37 per cent stake while the Saha Group also has a 37.5 per cent stake in the joint venture, with the remaining 25 per cent owned by Thanachart Bank. It is listed on the Korea Exchange stock market (number 032830).
Samsung SDI builds lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles such as the BMW i3, and acquired Magna Steyr's battery plant near Graz in 2015. Samsung SDI also produced CRTs and VFD displays until 2012. SDI began using the "21700" cell format in August 2015. Samsung plans to convert its factory in Göd, Hungary to supply 50,000 cars per year. Samsung SDI uses lithium-ion technology for its phone and portable computer batteries. On 5 December 2012, the European Union's antitrust regulator fined Samsung SDI and several other major companies for fixing prices of TV cathode-ray tubes in two cartels lasting nearly a decade. It is listed on the Korea Exchange stock-exchange (number 006400).
Samsung SDS is a multinational IT Service company, founded in March 1985. Its main activity is the deployment of IT systems (ERP, IT infrastructure, IT consulting, IT outsourcing, data center operation, etc.). It is Korea's largest IT service company. It achieved total revenues of 6,105.9 billion won (US$5.71 billion) in 2012. Samsung C&T Corporation is listed on the Korea Exchange stock market (000830). Samsung Electro-Mechanics, established in 1973 as a manufacturer of key electronic components, is headquartered in Suwon, South Korea. It is listed on the Korea Exchange stock market (number 009150). Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology (SAIT), established in 1987, is headquartered in Suwon and operates research labs around the world.
Ace Digitech is listed on the Korea Exchange stock market (number 036550). Cheil Industries is listed on the Korea Exchange stock market (number 001300).
Cheil Worldwide is a marketing company that offers advertising, public relations, etc. It is listed on the Korea Exchange stock market (number 030000).
Credu is listed on the Korea Exchange stock market (number 067280).
Imarket Korea provides procurement services and business-to-business goods. It is listed on the Korea Exchange stock market (number 122900).
Samsung Card is a South Korean credit card company. It is listed on the Korea Exchange stock market (number 029780).
Hotel Shilla (also known as "The Shilla") opened in March 1979, following the intention of the late Lee Byung-chul, founder of the Samsung Group. Shilla Hotels and Resorts is listed on the Korea Exchange stock market (number 008770).
Samsung C&T Corporation covers the three main sectors of Environment & Asset, Food Culture and Resort.
Samsung Medical Center was founded on 9 November 1994, under the philosophy of "contributing to improving the nation's health through the best medical service, advanced medical research and development of outstanding medical personnel". The Samsung Medical Center consists of a hospital and a cancer center, which is the largest in Asia. The hospital is located in an intelligent building with floor space of more than 200,000 square meters and 20 floors above ground and 5 floors underground, housing 40 departments, 10 specialist centers, 120 special clinics and 1,306 beds. The 655-bed Cancer Center has 11 floors above ground and 8 floors underground, with floor space of over 100,000 square meters. SMC is a tertiary hospital staffed by approximately 7,400, including over 1,200 doctors and 2,300 nurses. Since its foundation in the 1990s, the Samsung Medical Center has successfully incorporated and developed an advanced model with the motto of becoming a "patient-centered hospital", a new concept in Korea. Samsung donates around US$100 million per annum to the Samsung Medical Center. It incorporates Samsung Seoul Hospital, Kangbuk Samsung Hospital, Samsung Changwon Hospital, Samsung Cancer Center and Samsung Life Sciences Research Center. In 2010, the Samsung Medical Center and pharmaceutical multinational Pfizer agreed to collaborate on research to identify the genomic mechanisms responsible for clinical outcomes in hepatocellular carcinoma.
=== Divested ===
Hanhwa Techwin was a developer and manufacturer of surveillance (including security cameras), aeronautics, optoelectronics, automations and weapons technology. It was announced to be sold to Hanwha Group in December 2014 and the take-over completed in June 2015. It was later renamed Hanwha Techwin. The company was listed on the Korea Exchange stock-exchange (number 012450)
Samsung Thales Co., Ltd. (until 2001 known as Samsung Thomson-CSF Co., Ltd.) was a joint venture between Samsung-Techwin and the France-based aerospace and defense company Thales. It was established in 1978 and is based in Seoul. Samsung's involvement was passed on to the Hanwha Group as part of the Techwin transaction.
Samsung General Chemicals was sold to Hanwha. Another chemical division was sold to Lotte Corporation in 2016.
Hanhwa Total was a 50/50 joint venture between Samsung and the France-based oil group TotalEnergies (more specifically, Samsung General Chemicals and Total Petrochemicals). Samsung's stake was inherited by Hanwha Group in its acquisition of Samsung General Chemicals.
=== Defunct ===
Alpha Processor Inc. (API) was established in 1998 as a joint venture with U.S.-based Compaq, to enter the high-end microprocessor market. The venture was also aimed at expanding Samsung's non-memory chip business by manufacturing DEC Alpha CPUs. At the time, Samsung and Compaq invested $500 million in Alpha Processor.
GE Samsung Lighting was a joint venture between Samsung and the GE Lighting subsidiary of General Electric. The venture was established in 1998 and was broken up in 2009.
Global Steel Exchange was a joint venture formed in 2000 between Samsung, the U.S.-based Cargill, the Switzerland-based Duferco Group, and the Luxembourg-based Tradearbed (now part of the ArcelorMittal), to handle their online buying and selling of steel.
Samtron was a subsidiary of Samsung until 1999 when it became independent. After that, it continued to make computer monitors and plasma displays until 2003, Samtron became Samsung when Samtron was a brand. In 2003 the website redirected to Samsung.
S-LCD Corporation was a joint venture between Samsung Electronics (50% plus one share) and the Japan-based Sony Corporation (50% minus one share) established in April 2004. On 26 December 2011, Samsung Electronics announced that it would acquire all of Sony's shares in the venture.
=== Joint ventures ===
Samsung Fine Chemicals is listed on the Korea Exchange stock-exchange (number 004000).
Samsung Machine Tools of America is a national distributor of machines in the United States. Samsung GM Machine Tools is the head office of China, It is an SMEC Legal incorporated company.
Samsung Securities is listed on the Korea Exchange stock-exchange (number 016360).
S-1 was founded as Korea's first specialized security business in 1997 and has maintained its position at the top of industry with the consistent willingness to take on challenges. S1 Corporation is listed on the Korea Exchange stock-exchange (number 012750.KS).
State-run Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corp. set up the venture, aT Grain Co., in Chicago, with three other South Korean companies, Korea Agro-Fisheries owns 55 per cent of aT Grain, while Samsung C&T Corp, Hanjin Transportation Co. and STX Corporation each hold 15 per cent.
Brooks Automation Asia Co., Ltd. is a joint venture between Brooks Automation (70%) and Samsung (30%) which was established in 1999. The venture locally manufactures and configure vacuum wafer handling platforms and 300mm Front-Opening Unified Pod (FOUP) load port modules, and designs, manufactures and configures atmospheric loading systems for flat panel displays.
POSS – SLPC s.r.o. was founded in 2007 as a subsidiary of Samsung C & T Corporation, Samsung C & T Deutschland and the company POSCO.
Samsung BP Chemicals, headquartered in Ulsan, is a 49:51 joint venture between Samsung and the UK-based BP, which was established in 1989 to produce and supply high-value-added chemical products. Its products are used in rechargeable batteries and liquid crystal displays.
Samsung Corning Precision Glass is a joint venture between Samsung and Corning, which was established in 1973 to manufacture and market cathode ray tube glass for black and white televisions. The company's first LCD glass substrate manufacturing facility opened in Gumi, South Korea, in 1996.
Samsung Sumitomo LED Materials is a Korea-based joint venture between Samsung LED Co., Ltd., an LED maker based in Suwon, Korea-based and the Japan-based Sumitomo Chemical. The JV will carry out research and development, manufacturing and sales of sapphire substrates for LEDs.
SD Flex Co., Ltd. was founded in October 2004 as a joint venture corporation by Samsung and DuPont, one of the world's largest chemical companies.
Sermatech Korea specializes in aircraft construction processes such as special welding and brazing. GKN (formerly Sermatech International) owns 51% of its stock, while Samsung owns the remaining 49%.
Siltronic Samsung Wafer Pte. Ltd, is a joint venture between Samsung and wholly owned Wacker Chemie subsidiary Siltronic. It was officially opened in Singapore in June 2008.
SMP Ltd. is a joint venture between Samsung Fine Chemicals and MEMC. In 2011, MEMC Electronic Materials Inc. and an affiliate of Korean conglomerate Samsung formed a joint venture to build a polysilicon plant.
Stemco is a joint venture established between Samsung Electro-Mechanics and Toray Industries in 1995.
SB LiMotive is a 50:50 joint company of Robert Bosch GmbH (commonly known as Bosch) and Samsung SDI founded in June 2008. The joint venture develops and manufactures lithium-ion batteries for use in hybrid-, plug-in hybrid vehicles and electric vehicles.
=== Partially owned companies ===
Samsung Heavy Industries owns 10% of the Brazilian shipbuilder Atlântico Sul, whose Atlântico Sul Shipyard is the largest shipyard in South America. The Joao Candido, Brazil's largest ship, was built by Atlântico Sul with technology licensed by Samsung Heavy Industries. The companies have a technical assistance agreement through which industrial design, vessel engineering and other know-how is being transferred to Atlântico Sul.
Samsung Life Insurance currently holds a 7.4% stake in the South Korean banking company DGB Financial Group, making it the largest shareholder. DGB Financial Group is a Korea-based company that specialises in banking. The company is divided into six segments of operation and each segment's primary source of funds come from general public deposits.
Samsung Display acquired 7.4% of Gorilla Glass maker Corning, signing a long-term supply deal. Corning is an American company that is experienced in glass chemistry, ceramics science, and optical physics, as well as its manufacturing and engineering, to create goods that support industries and improve living standards. Corning is committed to long-term research and development.
Samsung Heavy Industries currently holds a 14.1% stake in Doosan Engine, making it the second-largest shareholder. Doosan Group is a South Korean company found in 1896 by Park Seung-jik. The company specializes in heavy industries and construction such as power plants and desalination plants.
MEMC's joint venture with Samsung Electronics Company, Ltd. In 1990, MEMC entered into a joint venture agreement to construct a silicon plant in Korea. MEMC Korea Company is a Korean manufacturer and distributor of electronic components, ingots, silicon wafers, and other products.
Samsung Electronics bought a 10% stake in rival phone maker Pantech. Pantech is a South Korean company found in 1991. Pantech manufactures mobile phones and tablets. Pantech serves in many countries, including South Korea, United States, Japan, Europe, Vietnam, and China.
Samsung Electronics currently owns 4.19% of Rambus Incorporated. Rambus Incorporated is an American technology company found in 1990. The company specializes in producing electronic components such as licenses chip interface technologies and architectures used in digital electronic products.
Samsung Card currently owns 19.9% of the automobile manufacturer Renault Korea Motors. Renault Samsung Motors is a South Korean automotive company found in 1994. The company made car related transactions starting in 1998 and since have expanded into a range of cars and electric car models.
Samsung Electronics currently owns 9.6% of Seagate Technology, making it the second-largest shareholder. Under a shareholder agreement, Samsung has the right to nominate an executive to Seagate's board of directors. Seagate Technology is an American company that works in the computer storage industry. Seagate Technology was founded in 1979. The company is a major supplier of microcomputers and hard disks.
Samsung owns 3% of Sharp Corporation, a rival company to Samsung. Sharp Corporation is a Japanese company found in 1912. The company specializes in designing and manufacturing electronic products, such as phones, microwave ovens, and air conditioners.
Samsung Engineering holds a 10% stake in Sungjin Geotec, an offshore oil drilling company that is a subsidiary of POSCO. SungJin Geotec is a South Korean company found in 1989. The company specializes in manufacturing and developing offshore facilities, oil sand modules, petrochemical plant components, and desalination plants.
Taylor Energy is an independent American oil company that drills in the Gulf of Mexico based in New Orleans, Louisiana. Samsung Oil & Gas USA Corp. currently owns 20% of Taylor Energy. Taylor Energy is an American oil and gas company found in 1979. The company works mainly in the oil drilling industry and drills in the Gulf of Mexico.
== Acquisitions and attempted acquisitions ==
Samsung has made the following acquisitions and attempted acquisitions:
In 1995, Samsung Techwin acquired the German camera manufacturer Rollei. Samsung used Rollei's expertise in optics to develop a line of Swiss-made watches. However, on 11 March 1995, the Cologne District Court prohibited the advertising and sale of Rollei watches in Germany. In 1999, Rollei management bought out the company.
Samsung lost a chance to revive its failed bid to take over Dutch aircraft maker Fokker when other airplane manufacturers rejected its offer to form a consortium. The three proposed partners—Hyundai, Hanjin, and Daewoo—notified the South Korean government that they would not join Samsung Aerospace Industries.
In 1995, Samsung bought a 40% stake in AST Research in an attempt to break into the North American computer market. However, Samsung was forced to close the California-based computer maker after mass resignations of research staff and a series of losses.
In 1995, Samsung's textile department invested in FUBU, an American hip hop apparel company, after the founder placed an advertisement asking for funding in The New York Times.
Samsung Securities Co., Ltd. and N M Rothschild & Sons agreed to form a strategic alliance in investment banking. The two companies would jointly work on cross-border mergers and acquisition deals.
In December 2010, Samsung Electronics bought MEDISON Co., a South Korean medical-equipment company. This marked Samsung's first step in its plan to diversify beyond consumer electronics.
In July 2011, Samsung announced that it had acquired spin-transfer torque random access memory (MRAM) vendor Grandis Inc.. Grandis became part of Samsung's R&D operations, focusing on the development of next-generation random-access memory.
In December 2011, the board of Samsung Electronics approved a plan to buy Sony's entire stake in their 2004 joint liquid-crystal display (LCD) venture for 1.1 trillion won ($939 million).
In May 2012, mSpot announced that it had been acquired by Samsung Electronics with the intention of creating a cloud-based music service. The succeeding service was Samsung Music Hub. In December 2012, Samsung acquired the privately held storage software vendor NVELO, Inc., based in Santa Clara, California. NVELO became part of Samsung's R&D operations, focusing on software for managing and optimizing next-generation Samsung SSD storage subsystems for consumer and enterprise computing platforms.
In January 2013, Samsung acquired the medical imaging company NeuroLogica, as part of its plans to build a leading medical technology business. Terms of the deal were not disclosed.
In August 2014, Samsung acquired SmartThings, a fast-growing home automation startup. The acquisition price was not released, but it was reported by TechCrunch to be around $200 million. At this time, Samsung also acquired US air conditioner distributor Quietside LLC as part of its push to strengthen its "smart home" business.
In November 2014, Samsung acquired Proximal Data, a San Diego-based pioneer of server-side caching software that works within virtualized systems.
In February 2015, Samsung acquired U.S.-based mobile payments firm LoopPay, allowing Samsung to enter the smartphone transaction market.
In March 2015, Samsung acquired the small U.S.-based manufacturer of LED displays, YESCO Electronics, which focuses on making digital billboards and message signs.
In October 2016, Samsung acquired Viv, a company working on artificial intelligence, created by the developers of Apple's Siri.
In November 2016, Samsung Canada announced it had acquired Rich Communication Services, a company working on a new technology for text messaging.
== Major clients ==
Major clients include:
=== Shell plc ===
Samsung Heavy Industries is sole provider of liquefied natural gas (LNG) storage facilities worth up to US$50 billion to Shell plc for 15 years, between 2009 and 2024.
Shell unveiled plans to build the world's first floating liquefied natural gas (FLNG) platform. In October 2012 at Samsung Heavy Industries' shipyard on Geoje Island in South Korea work started on a "ship" that, when finished and fully loaded, weighs 600,000 tonnes, the world's biggest "ship".
=== United Arab Emirates government ===
In 2009, a consortium of South Korean firms, including Samsung, Korea Electric Power Corporation and Hyundai, won a deal worth $40 billion to build nuclear power plants in the United Arab Emirates.
=== Ontario government ===
The government of the Canadian province of Ontario signed one of the world's largest renewable energy projects, a deal worth $6.6 billion for an additional 2,500 MW of new wind and solar energy. Under the agreement, a consortium led by Samsung and the Korea Electric Power Corporation manages the development of 2,000 MW-worth of new wind farms and 500 MW of solar capacity, while also building a manufacturing supply chain in the province.
== Corporate image ==
The basic colour in the logo is blue, which Samsung has employed for years, supposedly symbolizing stability, reliability and corporate social responsibility.
=== Audio logo ===
Samsung has an audio logo, which consists of the notes E♭, A♭, D♭, E♭; after the initial E♭ tone it is up a perfect fourth to A♭, down a perfect fifth to D♭, then up a major second to return to the initial E♭ tone. The audio logo was produced by Musikvergnuegen and written by Walter Werzowa. This audio logo is discontinued as of 2015.
=== Font ===
In 2014, Samsung unveiled its Samsung Sharp Sans font.
In July 2016, Samsung unveiled its SamsungOne font, a typeface that hopes to give a consistent and universal visual identity to the wide range of Samsung products. SamsungOne was designed to be used across Samsung's diverse device portfolio, with a focus on legibility for everything from smaller devices like smartphones to larger connected TVs or refrigerators, as well as Samsung marketing and advertisements. The font family supports 400 different languages through over 25,000 characters.
== Sponsorships ==
Samsung Electronics spent an estimated $14 billion (U.S.) on advertising and marketing in 2013. At 5.4% of annual revenue, this is a larger proportion than any of the world's top-20 companies by sales (Apple spent 0.6% and General Motors spent 3.5%). Samsung became the world's biggest advertiser in 2012, spending $4.3 billion, compared to Apple's $1 billion. Samsung's global brand value of $39.6 billion is less than half that of Apple.
== In Vietnam ==
In March 2008, Samsung received an investment certificate and began construction of its first mobile phone manufacturing plant in Vietnam, Samsung Electronics Vietnam (SEV) in Bac Ninh. The project originally had an investment capital of 670 million USD, but it was quickly increased to 1.5 billion USD, then to 2.5 billion USD, nearly four times the original investment capital.
In the period from 2018 to 2022, Samsung contributed over 306 billion USD in export revenue to Vietnam. In 2022 alone, despite the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, the figure reached 65 billion USD, contributing significantly to Vietnam's total export value, which for the first time exceeded the 700 billion USD threshold, reaching over 732 billion USD.
In addition, Samsung has also brought Vietnamese businesses deeper into the global value chain and contributed significantly to the development of the electronics industry in Vietnam. Currently, the number of Vietnamese first- and second-tier suppliers in Samsung's global supply chain has increased tenfold, from 25 businesses in 2014 to 257 businesses by the end of 2022.
== Controversies ==
=== Labor abuses ===
Samsung was the subject of several complaints about child labor in its supply chain from 2012 to 2015.
In July 2014, Samsung cut its contract with Shinyang Electronics after it received a complaint about the company violating child labor laws. Samsung says that its investigation turned up evidence of Shinyang using underage workers and that it severed relations immediately per its "zero tolerance" policy for child labor violations.
One of Samsung's Chinese supplier factories, HEG, was criticized for using underage workers by China Labor Watch (CLW) in July 2014. HEG denied the charges and has sued China Labor Watch. CLW issued a statement in August 2014 claiming that HEG employed over ten children under the age of 16 at a factory in Huizhou, Guangdong. The group said the youngest child identified was 14 years old. Samsung said that it conducted an onsite investigation of the production line that included one-on-one interviews but found no evidence of child labor being used. CLW responded that HEG had already dismissed the workers described in its statement before Samsung's investigators arrived.
CLW also claimed that HEG violated overtime rules for adult workers. CLW said a female college student was only paid her standard wage despite working four hours of overtime per day even though Chinese law requires overtime pay at 1.5 to 2.0 times standard wages.
In 2020, the Australian Strategic Policy Institute accused at least 82 major brands, including Samsung, of being connected to alleged forced Uyghur labor in Xinjiang.
=== Union-busting activity ===
Samsung has a no-union policy and has been engaged in union-busting activities around the world. Samsung has also been sued by a union for stealing the corpse of a dead worker. On 6 May 2020, Samsung vice chairman Lee Jae-yong apologized for the union-busting scandals.
=== 2007 slush fund scandal ===
Kim Yong-chul, the former head of the legal department at Samsung's Restructuring Office, and Catholic Priests Association for Justice uncovered Lee Kun-hee's slush fund on 29 October 2007. He presented a list of 30 artworks that the Lee family purchased with some of the slush funds, which were to be found in Samsung's warehouse in south of Seoul, along with documents about bribes to prosecutors, judges and lawmakers, tax collectors with thousands of borrowed-named bank account.
The court sentenced Lee Kun-hee to 3 years' imprisonment with 5 years' probation, and fined him ₩11 billion (US$9.62 million). But on 29 December 2009, the South Korean president Lee Myung-bak specially pardoned Lee, stating that the intent of the pardon was to allow Lee to remain on the International Olympic Committee.
Kim Yong-chul published the book Thinking about Samsung in 2010. He wrote detailed accounts of Samsung's behavior and how the company lobbied governmental authorities including the court officials, prosecutors and national tax service officials for transferring Samsung's management rights to Lee Jae-yong.
=== Lee Kun-hee's prostitution scandal ===
In July 2016, the investigative journal KCIJ-Newstapa released a video which appeared to show Samsung chairman Lee Kun-hee paying a group of prostitutes for sex acts. The footage was filmed on five separate occasions between December 2011 and June 2013 both at Lee's residence and a secret rental home.
Police detained six suspects for taking the compromising videos without Lee Kun-hee's knowledge. Investigators stated that, by threatening to release the tapes, the suspects were able to extort ₩500 million (US$437,082.04) from Samsung, a claim which Samsung representatives denied.
One of the suspects, surnamed Seon, was a former executive of a competitor Chaebol, CJ CheilJedang, which used to be part of Samsung Group until its separation in 1993. Lee Kun-hee's older brother is Lee Jay-hyun, the Chairman of CJ CheilJedang, and the two shared a heated rivalry. This fraternal feud fueled rumours that, as a former CJ employee had been indicted, Lee Jay-hyun had co-ordinated the scandal against his younger brother. However, prosecutors were not able to find sufficient evidence that CJ's leadership had knowledge or involvement in their former executive's actions.
On 12 April 2018, Supreme Court of Korea sentenced the former employee of CJ CheilJedang to four years and six months in prison for blackmail and intimidation.
While it was speculated that prosecutors were looking into Lee Kun-hee's culpability for sex trafficking, charges were never pursued, likely due to his health. Lee Kun-hee had suffered a heart attack in 2014 and had lapsed into a coma, where he remained until his death in 2020.
=== 2017 bribery scandal ===
In February 2017, de facto Samsung leader Lee Jae-yong was arrested for bribery, embezzlement, hiding assets overseas and perjury. In return for government approval for a merger of two Samsung affiliates, it was alleged that Lee paid ₩43 billion (US$37.59 million) to a close friend of incumbent President Park Geun-hye. He was convicted and initially sentenced to 5 years incarceration, but left prison after a year when the Seoul High Court suspended and halved his sentence. Then, following a retrial in 2021, Lee was sent back to prison for 2.5 years. He was released early after serving 10 months of his sentence in August 2021 as part of South Korea's yearly tradition of clemency on Liberation Day. In August 2022, Lee received a presidential pardon, which was supported by 70% of the Korean public, according to local polls.
=== Supporting far-right groups ===
The investigative team of special prosecutors looking into the 2016 South Korean political scandal announced that the Blue House received money from South Korea's four largest chaebols (Samsung, Hyundai Motor Group, SK Group and LG Group) to fund pro-government demonstrations by conservative and far-right organizations such as the Korean Parent Federation (KPF) and the Moms Brigade.
=== Price fixing ===
On 19 October 2011, Samsung companies were fined €145,727,000 for being part of a price cartel of ten companies for DRAMs which lasted from 1 July 1998 to 15 June 2002. The companies received, like most of the other members of the cartel, a 10% reduction for acknowledging the facts to investigators. Samsung had to pay 90% of their share of the settlement, but Micron avoided payment as a result of having initially revealed the case to investigators.
In Canada, during 1999, some DRAM microchip manufacturers conspired to price fix, among the accused included Samsung. The price fix was investigated in 2002. A recession started to occur that year, and the price fix ended; however, in 2014, the Canadian government reopened the case and investigated silently. Sufficient evidence was found and presented to Samsung and two other manufacturers during a class action lawsuit hearing. The companies agreed upon a $120 million agreement, with $40 million as a fine, and $80 million to be paid back to Canadians who purchased a computer, printer, MP3 player, gaming console or camera from April 1999 to June 2002.
=== Misleading claims ===
In Australia during 2022, Australia's competition and consumer commission fined Samsung AU$14 million. The fine came due to misleading water resistance claims for over 3.1 million smartphones. The commission stated that during 2016–2018 the company advertised its Galaxy S7, S7 Edge, A5, A7, S8, S8 Plus and Note 8 devices as able to survive short immersion in water. However, after many user complaints about the devices having issues after water submersion, such as charger port corrosion. The ACCC have officially labelled the fact these devices have "water resistance" listed as a feature misleading and proceeded with the fine.
=== Spyware attack on Samsung phones ===
According to reports, a type of spyware called Landfall has been active on Samsung Galaxy phones in the Middle East in selected countries including Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Morocco since 2024. This spyware is capable of accessing complete information including photos, sounds and calls without a single click from the user. This dangerous spyware was sent via WhatsApp and infected many Samsung phones over the course of a year.
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knuth_Prize | Knuth Prize | The Donald E. Knuth Prize is a prize for outstanding contributions to the foundations of computer science, named after the American computer scientist Donald E. Knuth.
== History ==
The Knuth Prize has been awarded since 1996 and includes an award of US$5,000. The prize is awarded by ACM SIGACT and by IEEE Computer Society's Technical Committee on the Mathematical Foundations of Computing. Prizes are awarded in alternating years at the ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing and at the IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, which are among the most prestigious conferences in theoretical computer science. The recipient of the Knuth Prize delivers a lecture at the conference.
For instance, David S. Johnson "used his Knuth Prize lecture to push for practical applications for algorithms."
In contrast with the Gödel Prize, which recognizes outstanding papers, the Knuth Prize is awarded to individuals for their overall impact in the field.
== Winners ==
Since the prize was instituted in 1996, it has been awarded to the following individuals, with the citation for each award quoted (not always in full):
== Selection Committees ==
== See also ==
List of computer science awards
== References ==
== External links ==
Knuth Prize website |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SunPass | SunPass | SunPass is an electronic toll collection system within the state of Florida, United States. It was created in 1999 by the Florida Department of Transportation's (FDOT's) Office of Toll Operations, operating as a division of Florida's Turnpike Enterprise (FTE). The system utilizes windshield-mounted RFID transponders manufactured by TransCore and lane equipment designed by companies including TransCore, SAIC, and Raytheon.
== History ==
SunPass was introduced on April 24, 1999, and by October 1 of the same year, more than 100,000 SunPass transponders had been sold.
In early 2009, all Easy Pay customers automatically became SunPass Plus customers if they opt-in and have the privilege of using their transponders to pay for airport parking at Tampa, Orlando, Palm Beach, Fort Lauderdale and Miami airports. Customers were also able to opt out of the program.
== Functionality ==
The Mini was introduced on July 1, 2008, and became available at retail locations. The Mini is a RFID passive transponder, about the size of a credit card, and uses no batteries. The transponder must be mounted on the glass windshield of the vehicle to work properly and, once applied, cannot be removed from a windshield without destroying the pass. The SunPass Mini sticker will not work on motorcycle windshields as they are not made of glass.
SunPass Portable (or SunPass Pro) transponders can be transferred between vehicles.
=== Technology ===
SunPass-only toll lanes on most toll roads in Florida allow a vehicle to proceed through the tollbooth at speeds of up to 25 mph (40 km/h) as a safety precaution. The Turnpike utilizes all-electronic tolling (AET) and toll by plate which handles highway speeds. The mainline toll barriers have dedicated lanes capable of full-speed automatic toll collection at up to 65 mph (105 km/h).
Florida's Turnpike Enterprise converted the Homestead Extension of Florida's Turnpike, the Sawgrass Expressway, and the Veterans Expressway to open road tolling, utilizing the SunPass transponders, in September 2010, February 2011, April 2014, and June 2014 respectively, ceasing cash collection. This allows free-flowing movement on both toll roads, moving through toll gantries at the former toll plazas. Motorists without a SunPass are billed through toll by plate. Toll-by-Plate uses cameras and sends a bill to the registered owner of the vehicle. The bill consists of the toll and an administrative fee. If the person fails to pay the toll and accompanying fees at all, the person would be fined $100 plus the tolls owed; in some cases, court costs, points against the driver's license, and the suspension of the license and registration would also be levied.
== Interoperability ==
SunPass is fully interoperable with E-Pass (from the Central Florida Expressway Authority), O-Pass (from Osceola County, which has been folded into E-Pass), LeeWay (from Lee County toll bridges) and the Miami-Dade Expressway Authority (MDX) toll roads.
SunPass, like other electronic toll collection (ETC) systems in Florida, was not initially compatible with systems outside of Florida. The federal transportation bill, Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21), adopted in July 2012 required all toll facilities to have interoperable road tolling systems by October 1, 2016. SunPass announced in 2012 for plans to become interoperable with E-ZPass. As a step towards this, the older battery-powered SunPass transponders were phased out by the end of 2015; new batteryless models can work with tolling equipment in other states.
On July 29, 2013, Florida's Turnpike Enterprise made an interoperability agreement with North Carolina Turnpike Authority and its NC Quick Pass, allowing SunPass holders to utilize North Carolina's toll roads and lanes.
On November 12, 2014, an interoperability agreement was made with Georgia's Peach Pass, allowing SunPass holders to utilize the I-85 Express lanes and any future toll roads or lanes in the state.
The C-Pass system operated by Miami-Dade County Public Works on the Rickenbacker and Venetian Causeways was replaced by SunPass and pay-by-plate on September 23, 2014.
In July 2020, E-ZPass announced that SunPass would be compatible with E-ZPass by the end of 2020, along with Peach Pass in 2021. On May 28, 2021, the Florida Turnpike Enterprise announced that its SunPass facilities would begin accepting E-ZPass. In addition, E-ZPass facilities began accepting SunPass Pro transponders (but not earlier SunPass transponders such as the SunPass Portable and SunPass Mini).
On February 27, 2023, it was announced that SunPass was compatible with toll roads in Kansas and Oklahoma, as well as on certain toll roads in Texas. Both the SunPass Mini and SunPass Pro transponders are supported. Certain transponders from these three states can be used on all roads operated by the Florida Turnpike Enterprise. However, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas transponders cannot be used on any tolled roads maintained by the Central Florida Expressway Authority.
In March 2025, the Harris County Toll Road Authority reached an interoperability agreement with the Florida Turnpike Enterprise. SunPass is accepted statewide in Texas, and both EZ Tag & TxTag are accepted on all roads operated by the Florida Turnpike Enterprise.
In November 2025, the E-470 Public Highway Authority reached an interoperability agreement with the Florida Turnpike Enterprise. SunPass is accepted on E-470 & the express lanes network in Colorado, and ExpressToll is accepted on all roads operated by the Florida Turnpike Enterprise.
== See also ==
List of toll roads in Florida
== References ==
== External links ==
Official websiteq |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chip_Fields#:~:text=Fields%20began%20her%20career%20as,two%20singles%20for%20Buddah%20Records. | Chip Fields | Chip Fields is an American singer, actress, television director, and producer who has appeared in popular films, television series, and Broadway theatre. She is best known for portraying Linella Gordon, the abusive birth mother of Penny Gordon Woods (played by Janet Jackson), in a four–episode story arc (1977) of the 1970s sitcom Good Times.
== Early life and career ==
Fields began her career as a singer. She joined Ronnie Spector as a Ronette in 1973 and recorded two singles for Buddah Records.
Fields began her acting career as an extra in the 1974 film Claudine. She has had numerous supporting roles and guest appearances on television. She played an unwed mother opposite Patty Weaver in the NBC television soap opera, Days of Our Lives. Also during the 1970s, she played the abusive birth mother of Millicent "Penny" Gordon Woods (Janet Jackson) on the sitcom Good Times.
From 1978 to 1979, she played Rita Conway in the short-lived The Amazing Spider-Man TV series. Rita Conway was J. Jonah Jameson's secretary, the same function as the black Glory Grant from the 1970s comics. She also appeared in What's Happening!!, Hill Street Blues, T. J. Hooker, Roc, Kirk (a short-lived sitcom starring Kirk Cameron), The Wayans Bros., and The Parkers. She played the role of "Laverne", mother to the character "Regine" (played by Kim Fields) on Living Single.
Fields was a consultant for The Parkers, Zenon: Girl of the 21st Century, Living Single, and was a dialogue coach for the film, Menace II Society. She also directed episodes of the popular UPN sitcoms, One on One, All of Us, Girlfriends, The Parkers, as well as episodes of Romeo!, Just Jordan, Hannah Montana, Tyler Perry's House of Payne and Meet the Browns.
== Discography ==
1973 (as Ronnie and the Ronettes) – "Go Out and Get It" b/w "Lover, Lover" (Buddha 384)
1974 (as Ronnie Spector and the Ronettes) – "I Wish I Never Saw the Sunshine" b/w "I Wonder What He's Doing" (Buddha 408)
== Filmography ==
=== Acting ===
==== Film ====
==== Television ====
=== Production ===
==== Film ====
==== Television ====
== References ==
== External links ==
Chip Fields at IMDb
Chip Fields at the Internet Broadway Database |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syed_Osman_Ali | Syed Osman Ali | Syed Osman Ali was a Pakistani civil servant who served as the Governor of the State Bank of Pakistan from 1975 to 1978.
== Biography ==
Osman Ali studied economics and began his career as a civil servant in the Indian Civil Services in 1934.
He served as the Federal Secretary in the Ministries of Industries, Commerce of Economic Affairs between 1959 and 1966, executive director of the World Bank in Washington between 1968 and 1972, and Pakistan Ambassador to Belgium and Luxembourg from 1966 to 1968.
== References == |
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