Split (1)

train · 3.98k rows

url stringlengths 33 435	title stringlengths 3 72	page stringlengths 102 132k
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiki_Smith#Exhibitions	Kiki Smith	Kiki Smith (born January 18, 1954) is a German-born American artist whose work has addressed the themes of sex, birth and regeneration. Her figurative work of the late 1980s and early 1990s confronted subjects such as AIDS, feminism, and gender, while recent works have depicted the human condition in relationship to nature. Smith lives and works on the Lower East Side of Manhattan in New York City, and in the Hudson Valley. == Early life and education == Smith's father was artist Tony Smith and her mother was actress and opera singer Jane Lawrence. Although her work takes a very different form than that of her parents, early exposure to her father's process of making geometric sculptures allowed her to experience Modernism's formal craftsmanship firsthand. Her childhood experience in the Catholic Church, combined with a fascination for the human body, shaped her artwork conceptually. Smith moved from Germany to South Orange, New Jersey, as an infant in 1955. That same year, her sisters, Seton Smith and Beatrice (Bebe) Smith, were born in Newark, New Jersey. Smith subsequently attended Columbia High School, but left to attend Changes, Inc. Later, she was enrolled at Hartford Art School in Connecticut for eighteen months from 1974 to 1975. She then moved to New York City in 1976 and joined Collaborative Projects (Colab), an artist collective. The influence of this radical group's use of unconventional materials can be seen in her work. For a short time in 1984, she studied to be an emergency medical technician and sculpted body parts. By 1990, she began to craft human figures. == Work == === Themes === Prompted by her father's death in 1980, and the subsequent death of her sister the underground actress Beatrice "Bebe" Smith, due to AIDS in 1988, Smith began an ambitious investigation of mortality and the physicality of the human body. She has gone on to create works that explore a wide range of human organs; including sculptures of hearts, lungs, stomach, liver and spleen. Related to this was her work exploring bodily fluids, which also had social significance as responses to the AIDS crisis (blood) and women's rights (urine, menstrual blood, feces). === Film === In 1984 Smith finished a definitively unfinished feminist no wave super8 film, begun in 1981, entitled Cave Girls. It was co-directed by Ellen Cooper. === Printmaking === Smith has experimented with a wide range of printmaking processes. Some of her earliest print works were screen-printed dresses, scarves and shirts, often with images of body parts. In association with Colab, Smith printed an array of posters in the early 1980s containing political statements or announcing Colab events, such as her The Island of Negative Utopia poster done for ABC No Rio in 1983. In 1988 she created All Souls, a fifteen-foot screen-print work featuring repetitive images of a fetus, an image Smith found in a Japanese anatomy book. Smith printed the image in black ink on 36 attached sheets of handmade Thai paper. MoMA and the Whitney Museum both have extensive collections of Smith's prints. In the Blue Prints series, 1999, Kiki Smith experimented with the aquatint process. The Virgin with Dove was achieved with an airbrushed aquatint, an acid resist that protects the copper plate. When printed, this technique results in a halo around the Virgin Mary and Holy Spirit. === Sculpture === Mary Magdelene (1994), a sculpture made of silicon bronze and forged steel, is an example of Smith's non-traditional use of the female nude. The figure is without skin everywhere but her face, breasts and the area surrounding her navel. She wears a chain around her ankle; her face is relatively undetailed and is turned upwards. Smith has said that when making Mary Magdalene she was inspired by depictions of Mary Magdalene in Southern German sculpture, where she was depicted as a "wild woman". Smith's sculpture "Standing" (1998), featuring a female figure standing atop the trunk of a Eucalyptus tree, is a part of the Stuart Collection of public art on the campus of the University of California, San Diego. Another sculpture, “Lilith” (1994), a bronze woman with glass eyes, is on display at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. Lilith is an arresting figure, hanging upside down on a wall of the gallery. In 2005, Smith's installation, Homespun Tales won acclaim at the 51st Venice Biennale. Lodestar, Smith's 2010 installation at the Pace Gallery, was an exhibition of free-standing stained glass works painted with life-size figures. === Commissions === After five years of development, Smith's first permanent outdoor sculpture was installed in 1998 on the campus of the University of California, San Diego. In 2010, the Museum at Eldridge Street commissioned Smith and architect Deborah Gans to create a new monumental east window for the 1887 Eldridge Street Synagogue, a National Historic Landmark located on New York's Lower East Side. This permanent commission marked the final significant component of the museum's 20-year restoration and was topped off with an exhibition of site-specific sculptures by Smith in a 2018 show entitled Below the Horizon: Kiki Smith at Eldridge. For the Claire Tow Theater above the Vivian Beaumont Theater, Smith conceived Overture (2012), a little mobile made of cross-hatched planks and cast-bronze birds. In 2019, Smith conceived Memory, a site specific installation for the DESTE Foundation for Contemporary Art on the Greek island of Hydra. === Artist books === She has created unique books, including: Fountainhead (1991); The Vitreous Body (2001); and Untitled (Book of Hours) (1986). === Tapestries === Since the early 2010s Smith has created twelve 9 x 6 ft. Jacquard tapestries, published by Magnolia Editions. In 2012, Smith showed a series of three of these woven editions at the Neuberger Museum of Art. In early 2019, all twelve were exhibited together as part of "What I saw on the road" at the Palazzo Pitti in Florence, Italy. Smith notes that the tapestries provide an opportunity to work at a larger scale ("I never thought I could make a picture so big") and to work with color, which she does not frequently do otherwise. === Mosaics === In 2022, Smith to created a series of five giant mosaics for Manhattan train station at Grand Central Madison station, located beneath the Grand Central Terminal. The mosaics are titled River Light, The Water's Way, The Presence, The Spring, and The Sound (all 2022). == Collaborations == Smith was an active member of Collaborative Projects and ABC No Rio; participating in many Potato Wolf broadcasts and the Cardboard Air Band. Smith collaborated with David Wojnarowicz on her first solo exhibition, Life Wants to Live, at The Kitchen. During this period (the early 1980s), Smith collaborated and co-directed with Ellen Cooper on a group collaboration with many young women associated with the Bush Tetras and Colab for her 1984 No Wave underground film Cave Girls. Later she collaborated with poet Mei-mei Berssenbrugge to produce Endocrinology (1997), and Concordance (2006), and with author Lynne Tillman to create Madame Realism (1984). She has worked with poet Anne Waldman on If I Could Say This With My Body, Would I. I Would. Smith also collaborated on a performance featuring choreographer Douglas Dunn and Dancers, musicians Ha-Yang Kim, Daniel Carter, Ambrose Bye, and Devin Brahja Waldman, performed by and set to Anne Waldman's poem Jaguar Harmonics. == Exhibitions == In 1980, Smith participated in the Colab organized exhibition The Times Square Show. In 1982, Smith received her first solo exhibition, Life Wants to Live, at The Kitchen. Since then, her work has been exhibited in nearly 150 solo exhibitions at museums and galleries worldwide and has been featured in hundreds of significant group exhibitions, including the Whitney Biennial, New York (1991, 1993, 2002); La Biennale di Firenze, Florence, Italy (1996-1997; 1998); and the Venice Biennale (1993, 1999, 2005, 2009). Past solo exhibitions have been held at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts and the Modern Art Museum, Fort Worth (1996–97); Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles (1996–97); Irish Museum of Modern Art, Dublin (1997–98); Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Washington, DC (1998); Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh (1998); Center for Curatorial Studies and Art in Contemporary Culture, Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson (1999); St. Louis Art Museum (1999-2000); and the International Center for Photography (2001). In 1996, Smith exhibited in a group show at SITE Santa Fe, along with Kara Walker. In 2005, "the artist's first full-scale American museum survey" titled Kiki Smith: A Gathering, 1980-2005 debuted at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art. Then an expansion came to the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis where the show originated. At the Walker, Smith coauthored the catalogue raisonné with curator Siri Engberg. The exhibition traveled to the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston, to the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York, and finally to La Coleccion Jumex in Ecatepec de Morelos outside Mexico City. In 2008, Smith gave Selections from Animal Skulls (1995) to the Walker in honor of Engberg. In 2016, the Walsh Gallery at Seton Hall University, in collaboration with the Lennie Pierro Memorial Arts Foundation, hosted Kiki and Seton Smith: A Sense of Place. Smith participated in the 2017 Venice Biennale, Viva Arte Viva, from May 13 – November 16, 2017. In 2018, Smith took part in Frieze Sculpture (part of Frieze Art Fair, where her work Seer (Alice I), Timothy Taylor (gallery), was presented in Regent's Park, London, England, from July 4 – October 7, 2018. Also in London in 2018, an exhibition of Smith's tapestries, sculpture and works on paper was presented at the Timothy Taylor (gallery) from September 13 – October 27. Woodland was produced in collaboration with Magnolia Editions. In 2019, the Deste Foundation's Project Space at the Slaughterhouse on Hydra island featured Memory, a site specific exhibition. In 2019 The 11 Conti – Monnaie de Paris presented the first solo show of Smith by a French public institution. In 2019 the Österreichische Galerie Belvedere in Vienna, Austria, presented a solo show of Smith entitled "Processions", presenting about sixty works from the last three decades. == Other activities == In 2023, Smith served on the jury that chose Sarah Lucas as first winner of the New Museum's $400,000 Hostetler/Wrigley Sculpture Award. == Recognition == Smith's many accolades also include the Nelson A. Rockefeller Award from Purchase College School of the Arts (2010), Women in the Arts Award from the Brooklyn Museum (2009), the 50th Edward MacDowell Medal (2009), the Medal Award from the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (2006), the Athena Award for Excellence in Printmaking from the Rhode Island School of Design (2006), the Skowhegan Medal for Sculpture from the Skowhegan School of Painting and Sculpture, Maine (2000), and Time Magazine's "Time 100: The People Who Shape Our World" (2006). Smith was elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters, New York, in 2005. In 2012, Smith received the U.S. State Department Medal of Arts from Hillary Clinton. Pieces by Smith adorn consulates in Istanbul and Mumbai. After being chosen speaker for the annual Patsy R. and Raymond D. Nasher Lecture Series in Contemporary Sculpture and Criticism in 2013, Smith became the artist-in-residence for the University of North Texas Institute for the Advancement of the Arts in the 2013–14 academic year. In 2016, Smith was awarded the International Sculpture Center's Lifetime Achievement in Contemporary Sculpture Award. == References == Adams, Laurie Schneider, Ed. A History of Western Art Third Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2001. Berland, Rosa JH. "Kiki Smith: A Gathering, 1980-2005." C Magazine: International Contemporary Art, 2007. Engberg, Siri, Linda Nochlin, and Marina Warner, Kiki Smith: A Gathering, 1980–2005 (Walker Art Center, Minneapolis, 2005). Posner, Helaine, with an interview by Christopher Lyon, Kiki Smith (Monacelli Press, New York), 2005. Alan W. Moore and Marc Miller, eds., ABC No Rio Dinero: The Story of a Lower East Side Art Gallery (Collaborative Projects (Colab), NY, 1985). == Footnotes == == External links == Media related to Kiki Smith at Wikimedia Commons Kiki Smith talks with Joseph Nechvatal about her Cave Girls film and The ABC No Rio Cardboard Air Band at Hyperallergic Kiki Smith at Barbara Gross Galerie Biography, interviews, essays, artwork images and video clips from PBS series Art:21—Art in the Twenty-First Century (2003) Interview with Kiki Smith Museum of Biblical Art - Biblical Art in a Secular Century: Selections, 1896-1993 featuring Kiki Smith Processional Crucifix from Saint Peter's Church, New York, NY 'Kiki Smith video interview' Kiki Smith: Prints, Books and Things at MoMA Jewel, an excerpt of Smith's 1997 film in the AVI format Heyoka magazine Interview Archived May 30, 2012, at the Wayback Machine with John Lekay Kiki Smith: "Life Wants to Live" (1:33) published at Tellus Audio Cassette Magazine Kiki Smith Galerie Lelong & Co.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sativasur	Sativasur	Sativasur is a town and municipality in the Colombian Department of Boyacá, part of the subregion of the Northern Boyacá Province. It is approximately 132 km from Tunja, the capital of the department. Sativasur borders the municipalities Sativanorte in the north, Socotá in the east and Paz de Río in the south and west. == History == Sativanorte and Sativasur were called Sátiva in the times before the Spanish conquest of the Muisca on the central highlands (Altiplano Cundiboyacense) of Colombia. Sátiva was inhabited during the Herrera Period and later ruled by the cacique of Tundama, today known as Duitama and part of the Muisca Confederation, the former country of the Muisca. The Spanish conquistadores who conquered the area in 1540 were Gonzalo Suárez Rendón and Hernán Pérez de Quesada. Sativasur was properly founded on January 30, 1720. The names for Sativasur and Sativanorte are derived from the cacique Sátiva, which in the Chibcha language of the Muisca means: "Captain of the Sun". == Economy == The main economical activities of the village are agriculture, livestock farming and mining. == Gallery == == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahat_Kazmi	Rahat Kazmi	Rahat Kazmi (Urdu: راحت کاظمی) is a Pakistani actor, screenwriter, TV news presenter anchorman, and an academician. He has worked in several TV serials for PTV such as in 1967 with Mayaar, rose to prominence in 1974 with Qurbatain aur Faaslay (an adaptation of Turgenev's 1862 novel Fathers and Sons) and also starred in 1976 with Pakistan's first coloured and classical serial Parchaiyan. Later, he worked in PTV's many other TV dramas such as in 1980 with Teesra Kinara (that he himself wrote based on Ayn Rand's 1943 novel The Fountainhead), the same year with Ehsaas, and in 1987 with Dhoop Kinare. == Early life and education == Rahat Kazmi was born in Shimla, on 30 June 1944. Rahat's father was a lawyer by profession, and he wanted his son to follow his footsteps. Rahat completed his high school education in Rawalpindi from Gordon College. He successfully completed and received his law degree (LLB) in Lahore. Additionally, Rahat received his master's degree in political science from Government College University, Lahore and a master's degree in English literature from Punjab University. == Career == He worked for Pakistan Television Network and appeared in famous drama serials such as Qurbatein Aur Faslay, Teesra Kinara, Parchayian, Dhoop Kinaray, Raghon Mein Andhera, Ehsas, Zikar Hay Kayi Saal Ka, Nangay Paon, Saraab and others. He also teaches English Literature and Drama to A-level students at LAS, Karachi. Rahat Kazmi is also a director at the National Academy of Performing Arts. He has previously taught at Avicenna School and Hamdard University (Clifton Campus, Karachi) in 2001. Currently Rahat is working as an administrative director for L'ecole for Advanced Studies (LAS), an academic institute in Karachi. == Personal life == In 1974 Rahat married actress Sahira Kazmi, the daughter of actress Mumtaz Qureshi (Taji) and actor Shyam. They first met on the sets of PTV in 1971. They have a son, Ali Kazmi, an actor, and a daughter, Nida Kazmi, a former actress . == Public image == === In India === Due to projects such as Dhoop Kinare, Rahat was popular in India as well, especially in northern India and in western India, the Indian public having access to his series through pirated videotape cassettes, and a 1988 India Today report said of Rahat that "his looks are a mix of Amitabh Bachchan and Rajendra Kumar, but close your eyes and he sounds uncannily like Dilip Kumar." == Filmography == === Television series === === Film === === Theater === == Awards and recognition == == See also == List of Lollywood actors == References == == External links == Rahat Kazmi at IMDb
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Serra#Early_work	Richard Serra	Richard Serra (November 2, 1938 – March 26, 2024) was an American artist known for his large-scale abstract sculptures made for site-specific landscape, urban, and architectural settings, and whose work has been primarily associated with postminimalism. Described as "one of his era's greatest sculptors", Serra became notable for emphasizing the material qualities of his works and exploration of the relationship between the viewer, the work, and the site. Serra pursued English literature at the University of California, Berkeley, before shifting to visual art. He graduated with a B.A. in English literature from the University of California, Santa Barbara, in 1961, where he met influential muralists Rico Lebrun and Howard Warshaw. Supporting himself by working in steel mills, Serra's early exposure to industrial materials influenced his artistic trajectory. He continued his education at Yale University, earning a B.A. in art history and an M.F.A. degree in 1964. While in Paris on a Yale fellowship in 1964, he befriended composer Philip Glass and explored Constantin Brâncuși's studio, both of which had a strong influence on his work. His time in Europe also catalyzed his subsequent shift from painting to sculpture. From the mid-1960s onward, particularly after his move to New York City in 1966, Serra worked to radicalize and extend the definition of sculpture beginning with his early experiments with rubber, neon, and lead, to his large-scale steel works. His early works in New York, such as To Lift from 1967 and Thirty-Five Feet of Lead Rolled Up from 1968, reflected his fascination with industrial materials and the physical properties of his chosen mediums. His large-scale works, both in urban and natural landscapes, have reshaped public interactions with art and, at times, were also a source of controversy, such as that caused by his Tilted Arc in Manhattan, New York in 1981. Serra was married to artist Nancy Graves between 1965 and 1970, and Clara Weyergraf between 1981 and his death in 2024. == Early life and education == Serra was born in San Francisco on November 2, 1938, to Tony and Gladys Serra – the second of three sons. His father was Spanish from Mallorca and his mother Gladys (nee Fineberg) was the daughter of Russian Jewish immigrants from Odessa, USSR. From a young age, he was encouraged to draw by his mother and he carried a small notebook for his sketches. His mother would introduce her son as "Richard the artist." His father worked as a pipe fitter for a shipyard near San Francisco. Serra recounted a memory of a visit to the shipyard to see a boat launch when he was four years old. He watched as the ship transformed from an enormous weight to a buoyant, floating structure and noted, "All the raw material that I needed is contained in the reserve of this memory." Serra's father, who was related to the Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí, later worked as a candy plant foreman. Richard Serra studied English literature at the University of California, Berkeley in 1957 before transferring to the University of California, Santa Barbara and graduating in 1961 with a BA in English Literature. In Santa Barbara, Serra met the muralists, Rico Lebrun and Howard Warshaw. Both were in the Art Department and took Serra under their wing. During this period, Serra worked in steel mills to earn a living, as he did at various times from ages 16–25. Serra studied painting at Yale University and graduated with both a BA in art history and an MFA degree in 1964. Fellow Yale alumni contemporaneous to Serra include Chuck Close, Rackstraw Downs, Nancy Graves, Brice Marden, and Robert Mangold. At Yale Serra met visiting artists from the New York School including Philip Guston, Robert Rauschenberg, Ad Reinhardt, and Frank Stella. Serra taught a color theory course during his last year at Yale and after graduating was asked to help proof Josef Albers's notable color theory book Interaction of Color. In 1964, Serra was awarded a one-year traveling fellowship from Yale and went to Paris where he met the composer Philip Glass who became a collaborator and long-time friend. In Paris, Serra spent time sketching in Constantin Brâncuși's studio, partially reconstructed inside the Musée national d'Art moderne on the Avenue du Président Wilson, allowing Serra to study Brâncuși's work, later drawing his own sculptural conclusions. An exact replica of Brâncuși's studio is now located opposite the Centre Pompidou. Serra spent 1965 in Florence, Italy on a Fulbright Grant. In 1966 while still in Italy, Serra made a trip to the Prado Museum in Madrid, Spain and saw Diego Velázquez's painting Las Meninas. The artist realized he would not surpass the skill of that painting and decided to move away from painting. While still in Europe, Serra began experimenting with nontraditional sculptural material. He had his first one-person exhibition "Animal Habitats" at Galleria Salita, Rome. Exhibited there were assemblages made with live and stuffed animals which would later be referenced as early work from the Arte Povera movement. == Work == === Early work === Serra returned from Europe moving to New York City in 1966. He continued his constructions using experimental materials including rubber, latex, fiberglass, neon, and lead. His Belt Pieces were made with strips of rubber and hung on the wall using gravity as a forming device. Serra combined neon with continuous strips of rubber in his sculpture Belts (1966–67) referencing the serial abstraction in Jackson Pollock's Mural (1963.) Around that time Serra wrote Verb List (1967) a list of transitive verbs (i.e. cast, roll, tear, prop, etc.) which he used as directives for his sculptures. To Lift (1967), and Thirty-Five Feet of Lead Rolled Up (1968), Splash Piece (1968), and Casting (1969), were some of the action-based works with origins in the verb list. Serra used lead in many of his constructs because of its adaptability. Lead is malleable enough to be rolled, folded, ripped, and melted. With To Lift (1967) Serra lifted a 10-foot (3 m) sheet of rubber off the ground making a free-standing form; with Thirty-five Feet of Lead Rolled Up (1968), Serra, with the help of Philip Glass, unrolled and rolled a sheet of lead as tightly as they could. In 1968 Serra was included in the group exhibition "Nine at Castelli" at Castelli Warehouse in New York where he showed Prop (1968), Scatter Piece (1968), and made Splashing (1968) by throwing molten lead against the angle of the floor and wall. In 1969 his piece Casting was included in the exhibition Anti-Illusion: Procedures/Materials at the Whitney Museum of American Art in . In Casting the artist again threw molten lead against the angle of the floor and wall. He then pulled the casting made from the hardened lead away from the wall and repeated the action of splashing and casting creating a series of free-standing forms. "To prop" is another transitive verb from Serra's "Verb List" utilized by the artist for a series of assemblages of lead plates and poles dependent on leaning and gravity as a force to stay upright. His early Prop Pieces like Prop (1968) relied mainly on the wall as a support. Serra wanted to move away from the wall to remove what he thought was a pictorial convention. In 1969 he propped four lead plates up on the floor like a house of cards. The sculpture One Ton Prop: House of Cards (1969) weighed 1 ton and the four plates were self-supporting. Another pivotal moment for Serra occurred in 1969 when he was commissioned by the artist Jasper Johns to make a Splash Piece in Johns's studio. While Serra heated the lead plates to splash against the wall, he took one of the larger plates and set it in the corner where it stood on its own. Serra's break into space followed shortly after with the sculpture Strike: To Roberta and Rudy (1969–71). Serra wedged an 8 by 24-foot (2.4 × 7.3 m) plate of steel into a corner and divided the room into two equal spaces. The work invited the viewer to walk around the sculpture, shifting the viewer's perception of the room as they walked. Serra first recognized the potential of working in large scale with his Skullcracker Series made during the exhibition, "Art and Technology," at LACMA (the Los Angeles County Museum of Art) in 1969. He spent ten weeks building a number of ephemeral stacked steel pieces at the Kaiser Steelyard. Using a crane to explore the principles of counterbalance and gravity, the stacks were as tall as 30 to 40 feet (9 to 12 m) high and weighed between 60 and 70 tons (54.4 and 63.5 t). They were knocked down by the steelworkers at the end of each day. The scale of the stacks allowed Serra to begin to think of his work outside the confines of gallery and museum spaces. === Landscape works === In 1970 Serra received a Guggenheim Fellowship and traveled to Japan. His first outdoor sculptures, To Encircle Base Plate (Hexagram) (1970) and Sugi Tree (1970), were both installed in Ueno Park in Tokyo as part of the Tokyo Biennale. While in Japan, Serra spent most of his time studying the Zen gardens and temples of the Myoshin-ji in Kyoto. The layout of the gardens revealed the landscape as a total field that can only be experienced by walking. The gardens changed Serra's way of seeing space in relation to time. Upon returning to the United States he built his first site-specific outdoor work: To Encircle Base Plate Hexagram, Right Angles Inverted (1970). Here Serra embedded two semi-circular steel flanges, forming a ring 26 feet (7.9 m) in diameter, into the surface of 183rd Street in the Bronx. One semi-circle measured 1 inch (25.4 mm) wide and the second, 8 inches wide (203.2 mm). The work was visible from two perspectives: either when the viewer came directly upon it or from above on a stairway overlooking the street. Throughout the 1970s Serra continued to make outdoor site-specific sculptures for urban areas and landscapes. Serra was interested in the topology of landscape and how one relates to it through movement, space, and time. His first landscape work was made in late 1970 when Serra was commissioned by the art patrons Joseph and Emily Rauh Pulitzer to build a sculpture on their property outside St. Louis, Missouri. Pulitzer Piece: Stepped Elevation (1970–71) was Serra's first large-scale landscape work. Three plates measuring 5 feet (1.5 m) high by 40 to 50 feet (12 to 15 m) long were placed across approximately 3 acres (12 140 m2). The placement of the plates was determined by the fall of the landscape. Each plate was impaled into the ground far enough until its rise was 5 feet (1.5 m). Serra's intention was for the plates to act as cuts in the landscape that function as surrogate horizons as viewers walked amongst them. Shift (1970–1972), Serra's second endeavor in the landscape, was built in a field owned by the collector Roger Davidson in King City, Ontario. The sculpture is composed of six rectilinear concrete sections placed along the sloping landscape. In 2013 Shift was designated a Heritage Site under the Ontario Heritage Act. Shift, like Pulitzer Prizes pieces, was based on the elevational fall of the land over a given distance. The top edges of the plates function as a horizon being placed into specific elevational intervals as you walk the entire field.Serra's subsequent site-specific works in landscape continued to explore the topography of the land and how the sculpture relates to this topography by way of movement, meditation, and perception of the viewer. Among the most notable of the landscape works are Porten i Slugten (1983–1986) at the Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Denmark; Carnegie (1985) outside the Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh; Afangar (Stations, Stops on the Road, To Stop and Look: Forward and Back, To Take It All In) (1990) on Videy Island, Iceland; Schunnemunk Fork (1991) in Storm King Art Center, New York; Snake Eyes and Box Cars (1993) in Sonoma County, California; Te Tuhirangi Contour (2000–2002) in Kaipara, New Zealand; and East-West/West-East (2014) in Qatar. The sculpture Porten i Slugten (1983–1986) was commissioned for the Louisiana Museum of Modern Art in Humlebaek, Denmark. After walking the museum grounds, Serra chose a ravine that runs towards the Kattegat Sea as the site for his sculpture. The ravine was the only area on the grounds that had not been landscaped. Two plates were set at an angle to each other at the end of a sloping stretch of path which fronts the ravine. The plates function in their location like a gate that opens as the viewer walks down the path toward the sea. Seen from the center of a bridge, which crosses the ravine and leads to the museum, the two plates form a single plane as if the gate had closed. As you walk down from the museum to the ocean below, the plates appear to have a continuous swinging motion. In 1988 Serra was invited by the National Gallery of Iceland to build a work. Serra chose Videy Island as the site for Afangar (Stations, Stops on the Road, To Stop and Look: Forward and Back, To Take It All In) (1990). The sculpture consists of nine pairs of basalt columns (a material indigenous to Iceland) and is placed along the periphery of Vesturey in the western part of the country. All nine locations share the same elevations in that the stones of each pair are situated at an elevation of 9 and 10 meters, respectively. Each set of stones is level at the top. All stones at the higher elevation measure 3 meters; all stones at the lower elevation measure 4 meters. Because of the variance of topography, the stones in a set are sometimes closer together, sometimes further apart. The rise and fall of Videy Island and the surrounding landscape are seen against the fixed measure of the standing stones. The stones are visible along the horizon of the island and orient the viewer against the rise and fall of the surrounding landscape. Te Tuhirangi Contour (2000–2002) is located on a vast open pasture on Gibbs Farm in Kaipara, New Zealand. The sculpture stands 20 feet (6 m) high and spans 844 feet (257 m) as one continuous contour that follows the rolling hills, expansion, and contraction of the landscape. The sculpture's elevation is perpendicular to the fall of the land. East-West/West-East (2014), located on an east-west axis in the Brouq Nature Reserve in Qatar, was commissioned by Sheika al-Mayassa al-Thani of Qatar. It consists of four steel plates either 543⁄4 or 481⁄2 feet (16.7 or 14.8 m) high. The plates are placed at irregular intervals in a valley that runs between two gypsum plateaus. The plates are level with each other and the elevation of the adjacent plateaus. The work spans less than a kilometer and all plates are visible from either end. === Urban works === In the landscape, the sculptural elements draw the viewer's attention to the topology of the land as its walked. Serra's site-specific Urban sculptures focus the viewer's attention on the sculpture itself. Their locations often more accessible to the public than the landscape works, invite the viewer to walk inside, pass through and move around them. Because of the confines of Urban architecture, sculptures such as Sight Point (1972–1975) at the Stedelijk Museum, The Netherlands; Terminal (1977) in Bochum, Germany; T.W.U. (1980) at the Deichtorhallen, Hamburg, Germany; Fulcrum (1986–87), installed in Broadgate, London; Exchange (1996) outside the City of Luxembourg; or 7 (2011) on a pier in Doha, Qatar, reflect the verticality of their surrounding architecture. Outdoor sculptures like St. John's Rotary Arc (1980) temporarily installed outside the Holland Tunnel entrance in New York City; Tilted Arc (1981) installed and later removed from New York City's Federal Plaza; Clara-Clara (1983), temporarily installed at Tuileries, Place de la Concorde, Paris; Berlin Junction (1987) installed outside the Berlin Philharmonic; are all curved forms or arcs that open and close depending on the direction the viewer takes walking around them. Sight Point (1972–1975) was Serra's first vertical Urban work and a continuation of the balance and counterbalance principles of his earlier work Prop. Sight Point stands outside the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, consisting of three vertical steel plates 10 feet (3 m) wide and 40 feet (12 m) high that lean in at an angle and forming a triangular space on the ground with three openings that can be walked through. Once inside the viewer can look up and see the sky framed by the triangular shape made by the leaning plates. Another vertical sculpture, Terminal (1977), was conceived for "Documenta VI" in 1977. It was permanently installed on a traffic island between the street car tracks in front of a train station in Bochum, Germany. Serra chose the site because of its proximity to a high-traffic area. Exchange (1996), sited in a vehicular round-about on top of a highway tunnel, made of seven trapezoidal plates. The sculpture stands 60 feet (18 m) high and can be seen by drivers as they enter and leave the City of Luxembourg. In 1980 Serra installed two sculptures, with the support of the Public Art Fund, in New York City. T.W.U. (1980) and St. John's Rotary Arc (1980) were each placed in areas where traffic and people converged. T.W.U, a vertical sculpture consisting of three vertical plates, each 36 feet (11 m) high, was installed at a subway entrance near West Broadway between Leonard and Franklin Streets. The sculpture is now permanently installed outside the Deichterhallen, Hamburg, Germany. St. John's Rotary Arc, one of Serra's earliest curved sculptures, was 12 feet (3.6 m) high and spanned 180 feet (55 m). From 1980 to 1988 the site-specific sculpture was installed on the rotary at the entrance and exit to the Holland Tunnel. In 1981, a second site-specific curved sculpture Tilted Arc (1981) was installed in New York City's Federal Plaza. Commissioned by the U.S. General Services Administration's Art-in-Architecture Program following a rigorous selection process, the sculpture's arc spanned 120 feet (36 m) and 12 feet (3.6 m) high. The sculpture was a curve that tilted and leaned away from its base. It was anchored into the plaza at both ends so that the center of the sculpture was raised. Serra's intention for the sculpture was to draw pedestrians' attention to the sculpture as they crossed the plaza. Tilted Arc was met with resistance by workers in the Federal building. An eight-year campaign to remove the sculpture ensued and Tilted Arc was ultimately removed on March 15, 1989. In Serra's defense to preserve the sculpture he stated "To remove Tilted Arc, therefore, is to destroy it", advocating an art-for art's sake mantra of site-specific artworks. Following the hearing and GSA's decision, Serra responded that he would deny his authorship of Tilted Arc if it were relocated. and would consider it a "derivative work". The case of Tilted Arc continues to highlight the tension surrounding the nature of public art and its intended audience. === Gallery works === Serra's work has enjoyed numerous exhibitions in gallery and museum settings. His site-specific gallery installations are sometimes used to test ideas. Serra's first U.S. solo exhibition was at the Leo Castelli Warehouse, New York City in 1969. There he exhibited ten lead Prop Pieces, a Scatter Piece: Cutting Device: Base Plate Measure (1969), and a Splash Piece: Splashing with Four Molds (To Eva Hesse) (1969). After his process-based works of the late 1960s and early 1970s, Serra began to solely use rolled or forged steel in his sculpture. Berlin Block (for Charlie Chaplin) (1977) was Serra's first forged sculpture. Made for the plaza outside the Neue Nationalgalerie in Berlin, designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, the sculpture weighs 70 tons. His other forged sculptures include Elevation for Mies (1985–88) at Museum Haus Esters, Krefeld, Germany; Philibert et Marguerite (1985), in the Musee de Brou, Bourg-en-Bresse, France; Weight and Measure (1992), a temporary site-specific installation at the Tate Gallery, London; Santa Fe Depot (2004), in the Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego; and Equal (2015) in the Museum of Modern Art, New York. Serra's most known series of sculptures using rolled steel plates are the Torqued Ellipses. In 1991 Serra visited Borromini's Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome and mistook the ovals of the dome and the floor to be offset from one another. He thought to make a sculpture in this torqued form. Serra constructed models of this perceived form in his studio by cutting two ellipse-shaped pieces of wood and nailing a dowel between them. He then turned the ellipses so they were at a right angle to one another and wrapped a sheet of lead around the form. After making a template from the models Serra worked with an engineer to fabricate the sculptures. In total there are seven Torqued Ellipses and four Double Torqued Ellipses (an ellipse inside of an ellipse) dated between 1996 and 2004. Each sculpture has a different degree or torque and measures up to 13 feet (3.9 m) high. The sculptures all have an opening so that they can be walked through and around. Three Torqued Ellipses are on permanent view at Dia Beacon, New York. In 2005 "The Matter of Time", a commissioned installation, opened at the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao in Spain. Consisting of eight sculptures spanning a decade from 1994 to 2005, "The Matter of Time" highlights the evolution of Serra's sculptural forms. Serra chose to include five sculptures derived from the initial torqued ellipse: one single, one double ellipse, and three torqued spirals. The Torqued Spirals followed after the Double Torqued Ellipses when Serra decided to connect a double ellipses into one wound form that can be entered and walked through. The remaining sculptures in "The Matter of Time" are one closed (Blind Spot Reversed) and one open (Between the Torus and the Sphere) torus and spherical sculpture; and Snake: made of three parts, each comprising two identical conical sections inverted relative to each other and spanning 104 feet (31.7 m) overall. The sculptures are organized by Serra with intention. The direction which the viewer moves through the space creates a sensation of varying scale and proportion, and an awareness to the passing of time. In 2008 Serra participated in Monumenta, an annual exhibition held in Paris's Grand Palais featuring a single artist. For Monumenta Serra installed a single sculpture, Promenade (2008), consisting of five plates, each 55 feet (16.8 m) tall and 13 feet (4 m) wide, placed 100 feet (30 m) apart from one another across the cavernous interior of the Grand Palais. Overall, the sculpture spanned 656 feet (200 m). The plates were not placed in a line but stood side to side off the Grand Palais's center axis. They tilted either left or right, leaned either toward or away from another, and the viewer as they strolled around them. The sculpture Equal (2015), in the collection of The Museum of Modern Art, New York, consists of eight forged blocks. Each block measures 5 by 5 1⁄2 by 6 feet (1.5 × 1.7 × 1.8 m) and weighs 40 tons. The blocks are stacked in pairs and positioned on their longer or shorter sides so that each stack measures 11 feet (3.4 m) tall. When walking amongst the four stacks the viewer becomes aware of their own sense of weight, balance, and gravity in relation to the sculptures. Four Rounds: Equal Weight, Unequal Measure (2017), consisting of four 82-ton (74 t) forged cylinders of varying dimensions is permanently installed at Glenstone in Potomac, Maryland. The sculpture is installed within a building designed by Thomas Phifer of Thomas Phifer and Partners, in collaboration with Serra to highlight the sculpture's mass within the confines of the building's interior. === Drawings === Drawing was integral to Serra's practice. He made drawings on large sheets of canvas or handmade paper. They include horizontal or vertical compositions; constructions of overlapping sheets; or line drawings. His drawings were primarily done in paintstick, lithographic crayon, or charcoal and are always black. Serra experiments with different techniques and tools to manipulate and apply the medium. He often pushes the conventions of drawing towards a tactile, phenomenological experience of movement, time, and space. The artist said that his drawing practice is involved with "repetition, knowing there's no possibility of repeating, knowing that it's going to yield something different each time". After his break into space with sculptures like Strike: To Roberta and Rudy (1969–1971), Serra became interested in redefining architectural space with drawing as well. In 1974 Serra started to make his Installation Drawings—large-scale site-specific sheets of canvas completely covered in paintstick and stapled to the wall. The Installation Drawings cover the wall, or walls, of a given space. Shafrazi and Zadikians were two of Serra's first Installation Drawings. Both were exhibited at Leo Castelli Gallery, New York City in 1974 and measured approximately 10 1⁄2 feet (3.2 m) high and 18 feet (5.5 m) wide overall. Serra continued to make Installation Drawing throughout his career. Other notable drawing series include: Diptychs (1989); Dead Weight (1991–92); Weight and Measure (1993–94); Videy Afangar (1989–1991); Rounds (1996–97); out-of-rounds (1999–2000); Line Drawings (2000–2002); Solids (2008); Greenpoint Rounds (2009); Elevational Weights (2010); Rifts (2011–2018); Transparencies (2011–2013); Horizontal Reversals (2014) Rambles (2015–16); Composites (2016); Horizontals and Verticals (2016–17); and Orchard Street (2018). National and international survey exhibitions of Serra's drawings have included Richard Serra: Tekeningen/Drawings 1971–1977 at the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam in 1978; Richard Serra: Tekeningen/Drawings at the Bonnefantenmuseum, Maastrict in 1990; Richard Serra Drawing: A Retrospective at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, and Menil Collection, Houston from 2011 to 2012; and Richard Serra: Drawings 2015–2017: Rambles, Composites, Rotterdam Verticals, Rotterdam Horizontals, Rifts at the Museum Boijmans van Beuningen. Rotterdam, The Netherlands in 2017. === Prints === Serra began making prints in 1972. Working closely with Gemini G.E.L. in Los Angeles, he developed unconventional printing techniques. He made over 200 printed works and like his sculpture and drawing, his prints reflect an interest in process, scale, and experimentation with material. His early lithographs starting in 1972 include the prints Circuit; Balance; Eight by Eight; or 183rd & Webster Avenue, each titled after a sculpture created around the same time. In 1981 Serra produced his first lithograph series comprising seven editions, titled: Sketch #1 through Sketch #7. That same year Serra begin to make larger-scale prints such as Malcolm X; Goslar, or The Moral Majority Sucks. After pushing lithography to its limit, Serra began to work with silkscreen to produce a unique surface in his prints. He did so by first applying a layer of ink onto the paper. He then would apply a layer of paint stick through the second screen creating a saturated and textured surface. Serra continued to work this his silkscreen technique, sometimes combining it with etching and aquatint. His print series include: Videy Afanger (1991); Hreppholer (1991); WM (1996); Rounds (1999); Venice Notebook (2001); Between the Torus and the Sphere (2006); Paths and Edges (2007); Level (2008); Junction (2010); Reversal (2015); Elevational Weight (2016); Equal (2018); and (?) (2019). === Films and video works === From 1968 to 1979 Serra made a collection of films and videos. Although he began working with sculpture and film at the same time, Serra recognized the different material capacities of each and did not extend sculptural problems into his films and videos. Serra collaborated with several artists including Joan Jonas, Nancy Holt, and Robert Fiore, on his films and videos. His first films, Hand Catching Lead (1968), Hands Scraping (1968) and Hand Tied (1968) involve a series of actions: a hand tries to catch falling lead; pairs of hands move lead shavings; and bound hands untie themselves. A later film Railroad Turnbridge (1976) frames the surrounding landscape of the Willamette River in Portland, Oregon, as the bridge turns. Steelmill/Stahwerk (1979), made in collaboration with the art historian Clara Weyergraf is divided in two parts. The first part is made up of interviews of German steel factory workers about their work. The second part captures the forging of Serra's sculpture Berlin Block (for Charlie Chaplin). Survey exhibitions and screenings of his films have been held at the Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland in 2017; Anthology Film Archives, New York, October 17–23, 2019; and Harvard Film Archive, January 27 – February 9, 2020. In 2019, Serra donated his entire film and video works to the Museum of Modern Art in Manhattan, New York. == Exhibitions == Serra's first solo exhibition was in 1966 at Galleria Salita in Rome, Italy. His first solo exhibition in the U.S. was at the Leo Castelli Warehouse, New York in 1969. His first solo museum exhibition was held at the Pasadena Art Museum in Pasadena, California in 1970. The first retrospective of his work was held at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, in 1986. A second retrospective was held at The Museum of Modern Art, New York in 2007. The first survey exhibition of his drawings was held at the Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam in 1977 and traveled to the Kunsthalle Tübingen in 1978. A second retrospective of drawings was presented at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City; the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art; and The Menil Collection, Houston from 2011 to 2012. An overview of the artist's work in film and video was on view at the Kunstmuseum Basel, in 2017. Serra enjoyed solo exhibitions at the Staatliche Kunsthalle Baden-Baden, 1978; Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam, 1980; Musée National d'Art Moderne, Centre Pompidou, Paris, 1983–1984; Museum Haus Lange, Krefeld, 1985; The Museum of Modern Art, New York, 1986 and 2007; Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlebæk, 1986; Westphalian State Museum of Art and Cultural History, Münster, 1987; Städtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus, Munich, 1987; Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, 1988; Bonnefantenmuseum, Maastricht, 1990; Kunsthaus Zürich, 1990; CAPC Musée d'Art Contemporain, Bordeaux, 1990; Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, Madrid, 1992; Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen, Düsseldorf, 1992; Dia Center for the Arts, New York, 1997; Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, 1998–1999; Centro de Arte Hélio Oiticica, Rio de Janeiro, 1997–1998; Trajan's Market, Rome, 1999–2000; Pulitzer Foundation for the Arts, St. Louis, 2003; National Archaeological Museum, Naples, 2004; and Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam, in 2017. == Collections == Serra's work is included in many museums and public collections around the world. Selected museum collections which own his work include The Museum of Modern Art, New York; The Whitney Museum of American Art, New York; Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto; Art Institute of Chicago; Bonnefantenmuseum, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Centre Cultural Fundació La Caixa, Barcelona; Centre Georges Pompidou, Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris; Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, Texas; Dia Art Foundation, New York; Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and New York; Pérez Art Museum Miami, Florida; Hamburger Kunsthalle, Hamburg, Germany; Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC; Moderna Museet, Stockholm; and Glenstone Museum, Potomac, Maryland. Selected public collections which hold his work include City of Bochum, Germany; City of Chicago, Public Art Collection; City of Goslar, Germany; City of Hamburg, Germany; City of St. Louis, Missouri; City of Tokyo, Japan; City of Berlin, Germany; City of Paris, France; Collection City of Reykjavík, Iceland. == Personal life == Serra moved to New York City in 1966. He bought a house in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia in 1970 and spent summers working there. He and art historian Clara Weyergraf married in 1981. As of 2019, Serra maintained a home in Manhattan and studios in Nova Scotia and the North Fork of Long Island. His brother is noted San Francisco attorney Tony Serra. Richard Serra died from pneumonia at his home in Orient, New York, on March 26, 2024, at the age of 85. == Awards and honors == Serra is the recipient of many notable prizes and awards including the Fulbright Grant (1965–66); Guggenheim Fellowship (1970); République Française, Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication Chevalier de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres (1985 and 1991); Japan Arts Association, Tokyo Praemium Imperiale (1994); a Leone d'Oro for lifetime achievement, Venice Biennale, Italy (2001); American Academy of Arts and Letters (2001); Orden pour le Mérite für Wissenschaften und Künste, Federal Republic of Germany (2002); Orden de las Artes y las Letras de España, Spain (2008); The National Arts Award: Lifetime Achievement Award (bestowed by Americans for the Arts 2014); Hermitage Museum Foundation's Award for Lifetime Contributions to the World of Art (2014); Chevalier de l'Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur, Republic of France (2015); Landesmuseum Wiesbaden Alexej-von-Jawlensky-Preis (2017); and a J. Paul Getty Medal (2018). == Writings and interviews == Gathered in the following three anthologies is a comprehensive collection of writings by, and interviews with, the artist: Richard Serra: Writings/Interviews. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. August 15, 1994. ISBN 978-0-226-74880-1. OL 9651745M. Includes writings by the artist and interviews by Friedrich Teja Bach, Liza Béar, Patricia E. Bickers, Lizzie Borden, Lynne Cooke, Douglas Crimp, Peter Eisenman, Mark Francis, Bernard Lamarche-Vadel, Annette Michelson, Robert C. Morgan, Alfred Pacquement, Brenda Richardson, Mark Rosenthal, Nicholas Serota, David Sylvester, and Clara Weyergraf Richard Serra, Interviews, Etc., 1970–1980. Yonkers, New York: Hudson River Museum. 1980. OCLC 9946126. OL 4124913M. Written and compiled by Richard Serra in collaboration with Clara Weyergraf; includes interviews by Friedrich Teja Bach, Liza Béar, Lizzie Borden, Douglas Crimp, Bernard Lamarche-Vadel, and Clara Weyergraf Richard Serra, Schriften, Interviews 1970–1989. Bern: Benteli Verlag. 1990. OCLC 950242621. German translation of the 1980 Hudson River Museum publication with additional contributions by Thomas Beller, Peter Eisenman, Philip Glass, Gerard Hovagymyan, Robert C. Morgan, Alfred Pacquement, Brenda Richardson, and Harald Szeemann == Actor == Serra plays an architect who is a third level Mason in artist and filmmaker Matthew Barney's Cremaster 3 from the director's five-part Cremaster Cycle. == Selected writing == All are solely by Richard Serra unless indicated otherwise. "Play it Again, Sam," Arts Magazine 44, no. 4 (February 1970), pp. 24–27 "Verb List, 1967–68," First published in Avalanche [New York], no. 2 (Winter 1971), pp. 20–21 "Skullcracker Stacking Series," In Scott, Gail R., A Report on the Art & Technology Program of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art 1967–1971, pp. 299–300, Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1971 Jackson, Ward, and Richard Serra; "Richard Serra," Art Now: New York 3, no. 3 (September 1971), p. 4 Serra, Richard, "Statements," Artforum 10, no. 1 (September 1971), p. 64 "On Frame, on Color-Aid," Artforum 10, no. 1 (September 1971), p. 64 Jonas, Joan, and Richard Serra; "Paul Revere," Artforum 10, no. 1 (September 1971), pp. 65–67 Serra, Richard, and Rosalind Krauss; ed. "Shift." Arts Magazine 47, no. 6 (April 1973), pp. 49–55 Serra, Richard, and Clara Weyergraf; "St. John's Rotary Arc," Artforum 19, no. 1 (September 1980), pp. 52–55 "Notes from Sight Point Road," Originally published in Perspecta: The Yale Architectural Journal, no. 19 (1982), pp. 172–81 Edited and printed as "Extended Notes from Sight Point Road" in Richard Serra: Neuere Skulpturen in Europa 1977–1985 (Eine Auswahl)/Recent Sculpture in Europe 1977–1985 (Selected), pp. 11–15 "Letter from Richard Serra to President Ronald Reagan" [in Portuguese and English], Lo Spazio Umano [Portugal], no. 2 (April–July 1985), pp. 89–92, bilingual, Portuguese and English "Serra Writes the President," Art & Artists 14, no. 3 (May–June 1985), special supplement, pp. 3, 22 "Notes on Drawing," First published in Güse, Ernst-Gerhard, ed. Richard Serra, pp. 66–68, New York: Rizzoli, 1988 "Weight," In Richard Serra: 10 Sculptures for the Van Abbe, pp. 10–12, Exh. cat. Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, 1988, bilingual in Dutch and English "'Tilted Arc'—A Precedent?" [letter to the editor], The New York Times, April 30, 1989, sec. 2, p. 5 "'Tilted Arc' Destroyed," Art in America 77, no. 5 (May 1989), pp. 34–47, cover "Artists Have Rights to Their Works," The Des Moines Sunday Register, October 29, 1989, pp. 3C "The Yale Lecture, January 1990," Kunst & Museumjournaal [Amsterdam: English edition] 1, no. 6 (1990), pp. 23–33 "Art and Censorship". Critical Inquiry. 17 (3): 574–581. April 1991. doi:10.1086/448597. "Afangar Series," Open City, no. 2 (1993), pp. 101–7 "Donald Judd, 1928-1994" [eulogy. Parkett, nos. 40–41 (1994), pp. 176–79 "Basel, 18. January 1994/Basel, January 18, 1994," In Martin Schwander, ed., Richard Serra: Intersection Basel, pp. 72–79, Basel: Christoph Merian Verlag and Düsseldorf: Richter Verlag, 1996, ISBN 9783928762526. OCLC 37725722 "Notes on The Matter of Time," In Richard Serra: The Matter of Time, p. 141, Bilbao: Museo Guggenheim Bilbao, and Göttingen: Steidl Verlag, 2005, ISBN 9788495216434, OCLC 66529716 == References == == External links == Hand Catching Lead, 1968 One Ton Prop (House of Cards), 1969 Strike: To Roberta and Rudy, 1969–71 Railroad Turnbridge, 1976 Berlin Block (For Charlie Chaplin), 1977 Tilted Arc, 1981 Richard Serra: Torqued Ellipses at Dia Beacon The Matter of Time, 1994–2005 East-West/West-East, 2014 Equal, 2015
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Jamal	Ahmad Jamal	Ahmad Jamal (born Frederick Russell Jones; July 2, 1930 – April 16, 2023) was an American jazz pianist, composer, bandleader, and educator. For six decades, he was one of the most successful small-group leaders in jazz. He was a National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) Jazz Master and won a Lifetime Achievement Grammy for his contributions to music history. == Biography == === Early life === Jamal was born Frederick Russell Jones in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on July 2, 1930. He began playing piano at the age of three, when his uncle Lawrence challenged him to duplicate what he was playing. Jamal began formal piano training at the age of seven with Mary Cardwell Dawson, who he said greatly influenced him. Although Jamal is famous for his restrained playing style, he possessed an enormous piano technique from an early age and was playing Liszt etudes in competition as young as 11 years old. His Pittsburgh roots remained an important part of his identity ("Pittsburgh meant everything to me and it still does," he said in 2001), and it was there that he was immersed in the influence of jazz artists such as Earl Hines, Billy Strayhorn, Mary Lou Williams, and Erroll Garner. Jamal studied with pianist James Miller and began playing piano professionally at the age of fourteen, at which point he was recognized as a "coming great" by the pianist Art Tatum. When asked about his practice habits by a critic from The New York Times, Jamal commented that, "I used to practice and practice with the door open, hoping someone would come by and discover me. I was never the practitioner in the sense of twelve hours a day, but I always thought about music. I think about music all the time." === Beginnings === Jamal began touring with George Hudson's Orchestra after graduating from George Westinghouse High School in 1948. He then joined touring group The Four Strings, that disbanded when violinist Joe Kennedy Jr. left. In 1950 he moved to Chicago, performing intermittently with local musicians Von Freeman and Claude McLin, and solo at the Palm Tavern, occasionally joined by drummer Ike Day. Born to Baptist parents, Jamal became interested in Islam and Islamic culture in Detroit, where there was a sizeable Muslim community in the 1940s and 1950s. He converted to Islam and changed his name to Ahmad Jamal in 1950. In an interview with The New York Times a few years later, he said his decision to change his name stemmed from a desire to "re-establish my original name." Shortly after his conversion to Islam, he explained to The New York Times that he "says Muslim prayers five times a day and arises in time to say his first prayers at 5 am. He says them in Arabic in keeping with the Muslim tradition." Jamal made his first records in 1951 for the Okeh label with The Three Strings (which would later also be called the Ahmad Jamal Trio, although Jamal himself avoided using the term "trio"): the other members were guitarist Ray Crawford and a bassist, at different times Eddie Calhoun (1950–52), Richard Davis (1953–54), and Israel Crosby (1954–62). The Three Strings arranged an extended engagement at Chicago's Blue Note, but leapt to fame after performing at the Embers in New York City where John Hammond saw the band play and signed them to Okeh Records. Hammond, a record producer who discovered the talents and enhanced the fame of musicians like Benny Goodman, Billie Holiday, and Count Basie, helped Jamal's trio attract critical acclaim. Jamal subsequently recorded for Parrot (1953–55) and Epic (1955) using the piano-guitar-bass lineup. He recorded his first album with a drummer, Walter Perkins, in 1956: Count 'Em 88, which includes the influential revival of the song "On Green Dolphin Street". === At the Pershing: But Not for Me === The trio's sound changed significantly when Crawford was replaced with a drummer, and Vernel Fournier assumed this position in 1957. The group worked as the "house trio" at Chicago's Pershing Hotel. The trio released the live album At the Pershing: But Not for Me, which stayed on the Ten Best-selling charts for 108 weeks. Jamal's well-known live recording of the Nat Simon song "Poinciana", which Jamal had first recorded on The Piano Scene of Ahmad Jamal, was released on this album. Perhaps Jamal's most famous recording, At the Pershing: But Not for Me, was recorded at the Pershing Hotel in Chicago in 1958; it brought him an unusual level of popularity for a jazz pianist in the late 1950s and the early 1960s. The set list included various jazz standards, such as "The Surrey with the Fringe on Top" from the Richard Rodgers musical Oklahoma! and Karl Suessdorf's "Moonlight in Vermont". Jamal's trio, especially through its influence on Miles Davis, would come to be recognized as a seminal force in the history of jazz. Particularly evident were Jamal's unusually minimalist and restrained style and his extended use of vamps, according to reviewer John Morthland. The New York Times contributor Ben Ratliff said, in a review of the album, "If you're looking for an argument that pleasurable mainstream art can assume radical status at the same time, Jamal is your guide." He attracted media coverage for his investment decisions pertaining to his "rising fortune". In 1959, he took a tour of North Africa to explore investment options in Africa. Jamal, who was 29 at the time, said he was curious about the homeland of his ancestors, highly influenced by his conversion to the Muslim faith. He also said his religion had brought him peace of mind about his race, which accounted for his "growth in the field of music that has proved very lucrative for me." Upon his return to the U.S. after a tour of North Africa, the financial success of Live at the Pershing: But Not For Me allowed Jamal to open a restaurant and club called The Alhambra in Chicago, which lasted barely one year. In 1962, the classic Jamal/Crosby/Fournier trio made its final recording, Ahmad Jamal at the Blackhawk. Although Crosby and Fournier had started to play with George Shearing, the definitive end of the trio came with Crosby's death from a heart attack in August 1962. Jamal recorded Macanudo with a full orchestra in late 1962. He then took a brief hiatus from performing and recording. === Return to music and The Awakening === In 1964, Jamal resumed performing after moving to New York and started a residency at the Village Gate nightclub. That year, he began recording a series of new trio albums with bassist Jamil S. Nasser, starting with Naked City Theme. Jamal and Nasser continued to play together until 1972. He also joined forces with Fournier (again, 1965–1966) and drummer Frank Gant (1966–77), among others. Until 1970, he played only acoustic piano. The final album on which, for a time, he played exclusively acoustic piano in the regular sequence was The Awakening. In the 1970s, he played electric piano as well, as on the instrumental recording of "Suicide is Painless," theme song from the 1970 film MAS*H, which was released on a 1973 reissue of the film's soundtrack album, replacing the original vocal version of the song by The Mash. Apparently, the Rhodes piano he used was a gift from someone in Switzerland. He continued to play and record throughout the 1970s and 1980s, mostly in trios with piano, bass and drums, and occasionally expanded the group to include a guitarist or a percussionist. One of his most long-standing gigs was as the band for the New Year's Eve celebrations at Blues Alley in Washington, D.C., from 1979 through the 1990s. Jamal also reimagined his hit song "Poinciana" several times, notably on Ahmad Jamal at the Top: Poinciana Revisited (1968) and Digital Works (1985). In 1986, Jamal sued critic Leonard Feather for using his former name in a publication. === Later career === In his 80s, Jamal continued to make numerous tours and recordings, including albums such as Saturday Morning (2013), the CD/DVD release Ahmad Jamal Featuring Yusef Lateef Live at L'Olympia (2014), Marseille (2017), and Ballades (2019), featuring mostly solo piano. Jamal was the main mentor of jazz piano virtuosos Hiromi Uehara, known as Hiromi, and Shahin Novrasli. == Personal life and death == Jamal was married and divorced three times. As a teenager, he married Virginia 'Maryam' Wilkins; they had one daughter, who pre-deceased him. In the early 1960s, he married Sharifah Frazier, with whom he had one daughter; they divorced in 1982. That year, he married his manager, Laura Hess-Hay. They divorced two years later but she represented him for the rest of his life. On April 16, 2023, Jamal died from complications of prostate cancer at home in Ashley Falls, Massachusetts. He was 92. == Style and influence == Trained in both traditional jazz ("American classical music", as he preferred to call it) and European classical style, Jamal was praised as one of the greatest jazz innovators over the course of his exceptionally long career. Following bebop greats like Charlie Parker and Dizzy Gillespie, Jamal entered the world of jazz at a time when speed and virtuosic improvisation were central to the success of jazz musicians as artists. Jamal, however, took steps in the direction of a new movement, later coined "cool jazz"—an effort to move jazz in the direction of classical music. He emphasized space between notes in his musical compositions and interpretations instead of focusing on the fast-paced bebop style. Because of this style, Jamal was "often dismissed by jazz writers as no more than a cocktail pianist, a player so given to fluff that his work shouldn't be considered seriously in any artistic sense". Stanley Crouch, author of Considering Genius, offered a very different reaction to Jamal's music, claiming that, like the highly influential Thelonious Monk, Jamal was a true innovator of the jazz tradition and is second in importance in the development of jazz after 1945 only to Charlie Parker. His unique musical style stemmed from many individual characteristics, including his use of orchestral effects and his ability to control the beat of songs. These stylistic choices resulted in a unique and new sound for the piano trio: "Through the use of space and changes of rhythm and tempo", wrote Crouch, "Jamal invented a group sound that had all the surprise and dynamic variation of an imaginatively ordered big band." Jamal explored the texture of riffs, timbres, and phrases rather than the quantity or speed of notes in any given improvisation. Speaking about Jamal, A. B. Spellman of the National Endowment of the Arts said: "Nobody except Thelonious Monk used space better, and nobody ever applied the artistic device of tension and release better." These (at the time) unconventional techniques that Jamal gleaned from both traditional classical and contemporary jazz musicians helped pave the way for later jazz greats like Bill Evans, Cedar Walton, McCoy Tyner, Herbie Hancock, Monty Alexander, Fred Hersch, Bill Charlap, Vijay Iyer, and Ethan Iverson. Though Jamal is often overlooked by jazz critics and historians, he is frequently credited with having a great influence on Miles Davis. Davis is quoted as saying that he was impressed by Jamal's rhythmic sense and his "concept of space, his lightness of touch, his understatement". Miles used to send his crew to concerts of Jamal, so they could learn to play like Miles wanted it. Jamal's contrasts (crafting melodies that included strong and mild tones, and fast and slow rhythms) were what impressed Miles. Jamal characterized what he thought Davis admired about his music as: "my discipline as opposed to my space." Jamal and Davis became friends in the 1950s, and Davis continued to support Jamal as a fellow musician, often playing versions of Jamal's own songs ("Ahmad's Blues", "New Rhumba") until he died in 1991. In addition, in a 1960 interview, Bill Evans said of Jamal, "I enjoy listening to him very much." Evans emphatically rejected the "cocktail pianist" criticism of Jamal, stating, "It's a real thing he's doing." Jamal, speaking about his own work, said, "I like doing ballads. They're hard to play. It takes years of living, really, to read them properly." From an early age, Jamal developed an appreciation for the lyrics of the songs he learned: "I once heard Ben Webster playing his heart out on a ballad. All of a sudden he stopped. I asked him, 'Why did you stop, Ben?' He said, 'I forgot the lyrics.'" Jamal attributed the variety in his musical taste to the fact that he grew up in several eras: the big band era, the bebop years, and the electronic age. He said his style evolved from drawing on the techniques and music produced in these three eras. In 1985, Jamal agreed to do an interview and recording session with his fellow jazz pianist, Marian McPartland on her NPR show Piano Jazz. Jamal, who said he rarely would play "But Not For Me" due to its popularity after his 1958 recording, played an improvised version of the tune – though only after noting that he moved on to making ninety percent of his repertoire his own compositions. He said that when he grew in popularity from the Live at the Pershing album, he was severely criticized afterwards for not playing any of his own compositions. In his later years, Jamal embraced the electronic influences affecting the genre of jazz. He also occasionally expanded his usual small ensemble of three to include a tenor saxophone (George Coleman) and a violin. A jazz fan interviewed by Down Beat magazine about Jamal in 2010 described his development as "more aggressive and improvisational these days. The word I used to use is avant garde; that might not be right. Whatever you call it, the way he plays is the essence of what jazz is." Saxophonist Ted Nash described his experience with Jamal's style in an interview with Down Beat magazine: "The way he comped wasn't the generic way that lots of pianists play with chords in the middle of the keyboard, just filling things up. He gave lots of single line responses. He'd come back and throw things out at you, directly from what you played. It was really interesting because it made you stop, and allowed him to respond, and then you felt like playing something else – that's something I don't feel with a lot of piano players. It's really quite engaging. I guess that's another reason people focus in on him. He makes them hone in." Jamal recorded with the voices of the Howard A. Roberts Chorale on The Bright, the Blue and the Beautiful and Cry Young; with vibraphonist Gary Burton on In Concert; with brass, reeds, and strings celebrating his hometown of Pittsburgh; with The Assai Quartet; and with tenor saxophonist George Coleman on the album The Essence Part One. == Awards and honors == 1959: Entertainment Award, Pittsburgh Junior Chamber of Commerce Players 1980: Distinguished Service Award, City of Washington D.C., Anacostia Community Museum, Smithsonian Institution 1981: Nominee for Best R&B Instrumental Performance ("You're Welcome", "Stop on By"), 24th Annual Grammy Awards 1986: Mellon Jazz Festival Salutes Ahmad Jamal, Pittsburgh. 1987: Honorary Membership, Philippines Jazz Foundation 1994: American Jazz Masters award, National Endowment for the Arts 2001: Arts & Culture Recognition Award, National Coalition of 100 Black Women 2001: Kelly-Strayhorn Gallery of Stars, for Achievements as Pianist and Composer, East Liberty Quarter Chamber of Commerce 2003: Inductee, American Jazz Hall of Fame, New Jersey Jazz Society 2003: Gold Medallion, Steinway & Sons 150 Years Celebration (1853–2003) 2007: Living Jazz Legend, Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts 2007: Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, Government of France 2011: Down Beat Hall of Fame, 76th Readers Poll 2015: Honorary Doctorate of Music, The New England Conservatory 2017: Lifetime Achievement Award, 59th Annual Grammy Awards, The Recording Academy 2018: International Eddie Rosner Leopolis Jazz Music Award, Leopolis Jazz Fest, Lviv == Discography == === Compilations === 1967: Standard Eyes (Cadet) 1972: Inspiration (Cadet) 1974: Re-evaluations: The Impulse! Years (Impulse!) 1980: The Best of Ahmad Jamal (20th Century) 1998: Cross Country Tour 1958–1961 (GRP Records/Chess) 2005: The Legendary Okeh & Epic Recordings (1951–1955) (Columbia Legacy) 2007: Complete Live at the Pershing Lounge 1958 (Gambit) 2007: Complete Live at the Spotlite Club 1958 (Gambit) 2010: The Complete Ahmad Jamal Trio Argo Sessions 1956-62 (Mosaic Records) 2014: Complete Live at the Blackhawk (Essential Jazz Classics) 2022: Emerald City Nights: Live at the Penthouse 1963–1964 (Jazz Detective) 2022: Emerald City Nights: Live at the Penthouse 1965-1966 (Jazz Detective) 2023: Emerald City Nights: Live at the Penthouse 1966-1968 (Jazz Detective) === As sideman === With Ray Brown Some of My Best Friends Are...The Piano Players (Telarc, 1994) With Pat Metheny/Gary Burton/The Heath Brothers All The Things You Are (Fruit Tree, 1999) With Shirley Horn May the Music Never End (Verve, 2003) == See also == Biography portal == References == Bibliography == External links == Official website A Fireside Chat with Ahmad Jamal "'Poinciana' Turns Fifty" by Ted Gioia (www.jazz.com) Ahmad Jamal at NPR Ahmad Jamal at AllMusic Ahmad Jamal discography at Discogs Ahmad Jamal at IMDb
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knud_Nellemose	Knud Nellemose	Knud Nellemose (12 March 1908, Copenhagen – 14 January 1997, Copenhagen) was a Danish sculptor who is remembered for his figures of sportsmen and his statues of famous Danes. == Biography == Between 1927 and 1933, with some interruptions, Nellemose studied under Einer Utzon-Frank at the Danish Academy. After beginning his career as a sports journalist and newspaper illustrator, he turned to sculpture, concentrating on figures of boxers, footballers and athletes, often in motion. Initially influenced by Kai Nielsen, he soon developed a style of his own, creating figures showing the rhythmic movements of arms and legs. He travelled to Greece and Italy, where he was particularly impressed by Donatello. However, the lively representations he was able to create through the accentuated shaping of muscles and asymmetrical body positions, are entirely of his own making. Another imposing piece from before the war is his Avismanden Leitriz (1935), depicting a newspaperman dressed in the clothes he wore when selling newspapers in the streets of Copenhagen. Highly productive in both stone and bronze, Nellemose created the Marble Church statues of Søren Kierkegaard (1972) and Bernhard Severin Ingemann (1988) as well as many groups of footballers. Among his many portraits, some focused on the face, others as half figures, are those of the archaeologist Peter Vilhelm Glob (1979) and the architect Steen Eiler Rasmussen (1988). Under the German occupation during the Second World War, Nellemose was a member of the Frit Danmark resistance group. As a result, he received many commissions for war memorials including those for Silkeborg (1946) and for the 4th of May Dormitory in Aarhus (1953). His Erindring (Remembrance) from 1987 is a striking representation of a prisoner from a concentration camp. From 1939, Nellemose exhibited as a member of the Decembrist artists and from 1946 at Den Frie Udstilling. His work was also part of the sculpture event in the art competition at the 1948 Summer Olympics. Knud Nellemose's sister, Karin (1905–1993) was a well-known actress, figuring in many stage productions and films. == Awards == Nellemose received the Eckersberg Medal for Ung mand med diskos (Young Man with Discus) in 1944 and the Thorvaldsen Medal in 1968. == References == == Bibliography == Knud Nellemose, Preben Wilmann, Thomas Winding, Pia Nellemose, Anders Nyborg: Knud Nellemose, Copenhagen, 1979, Anders Nyborg, 207 pp. ISBN 8785176117. (in Danish) == External links == Works by Knud Nellemose at Statens Museum for Kunst.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_Industry_Medal#:~:text=%2C%20Union%20Carbide-,1960%20Hans%20Stauffer,-%2C%20Stauffer	Chemical Industry Medal	The Chemical Industry Medal is an annual American award given to an industrial chemist by the Society of Chemical Industry America (SCI America). The medal has been awarded since 1933, when it replaced the Grasselli Medal. It was initially given to "a person making a valuable application of chemical research to industry. Primary consideration shall be given to applications in the public interest." As of 1945, the criterion became "a person who ... has rendered conspicuous service to applied chemistry." More recently it has been awarded "for contributions toward the growth of the chemical industry." == Recipients == Source: SCI Chemical Industry Medal Past Winners 1933 James G. Vail, Philadelphia Quartz Company 1934 Floyd G. Metzger, Air Reduction 1935 Edward R. Weidlein, Mellon Institute 1936 Walter S. Landis, American Cyanamid 1937 Evan J. Crane, Chemical Abstracts 1938 John V. N. Dorr, Dorr 1939 Robert E. Wilson, Standard Oil of Indiana, PanAmerican Petroleum 1941 Elmer K. Bolton, Dupont 1942 Harrison Howe, ACS 1943 John Grebe, Dow 1944 Bradley Dewey, Dewey & Almy 1945 Sidney Dale Kirkpatrick, Chemical & Metallurgical 1946 Willard H. Dow, Dow Chemical 1947 George W. Merck, Merck 1948 James A. Rafferty, Union Carbide 1949 William B. Bell, American Cyanamid 1950 William M. Rand, Monsanto 1951 Ernest W. Reid, Corn Products 1952 J. R. Donald, Crawford H. Greenewalt, Dupont 1953 Charles S. Munson, Air Reduction 1954 Ernest H. Volwiler, Abbot 1955 Joseph George Davidson, Union Carbide 1956 Robert Lindley Murray, Hooker Electrochemical 1957 Clifford Rassweiler, Johns Manville 1958 Fred J. Emmerich, Allied 1959 Harry B. Mcclure, Union Carbide 1960 Hans Stauffer, Stauffer 1961 William Edward Hanford, Olin Mathieson 1962 Kenneth H. Klipstein, American Cyanamid 1963 Max Tishler, Merck 1964 Leland I. Doan, Dow 1965 Ralph Connor, Rohm and Haas 1966 Monroe E. Spaght, Shell 1967 Chester M. Brown, Allied 1968 Harold W. Fisher, Standard Oil of New Jersey 1969 Charles B. McCoy, Dupont 1970 William H. Lycan, Johnson & Johnson 1971 Carroll A. Hochwalt, Thomas & Hochwalt, Monsanto 1972 Jesse Werner, Gaf 1973 Ralph Landau, Scientific Design 1974 Carl Gerstacker, Dow 1975 Leonard P. Pool, Air Products & Chemicals 1976 Harold E. Thayer, Mallinckrodt 1977 F. Perry Wilson, Union Carbide 1978 Jack B. St. Clair, Shell 1979 Irving S. Shapiro, Dupont 1980 Edward Donley, Air Products 1981 Thomas W. Mastin, Lubrizol 1982 H. Barclay Morley, Stauffer 1983 Paul Oreffice, Dow 1984 James Affleck, American Cyanamid 1985 Louis Fernandez, Monsanto 1986 Edward G. Jefferson, Dupont 1987 Edwin C. Holmer, Exxon 1988 Vincent L. Gregory Jr., Rohm and Haas 1989 Richard E. Heckert, Dupont 1990 George J. Sella Jr., American Cyanamid 1991 Dexter F. Baker, Air Products 1992 H. Eugene McBrayer, Exxon 1993 W. H. Clark, Nalco 1994 Keith R. McKennon, Dow Corning 1995 Robert D. Kennedy, Union Carbide 1996 John W. Johnstone Jr., Olin 1997 J. Roger Hirl, Occidental Chemical 1998 Edgar S. Woolard, Jr., Dupont 1999 J. Lawrence Wilson, Rohm and Haas 2000 Vincent A. Calarco, Crompton 2001 William S. Stavropoulos, Dow Chemical 2002 Earnest W. Deavenport Jr., Eastman Chemical 2003 Whitson Sadler, Solvay 2004 Thomas E. Reilly, Reilly Industries 2005 Daniel S. Sanders, ExxonMobil & Company 2006 Jon Huntsman, Sr., Huntsman Corporation 2007 Raj Gupta, Rohm and Haas 2008 Dennis H. Reilley, Praxair 2009 Jeffrey M. Lipton, Nova Chemicals 2010 Michael E. Campbell, Arch Chemicals, Inc 2011 J. Brian Ferguson, Eastman Chemical 2012 David N. Weidman, Celanese 2013 Andrew Liveris, Dow Chemical 2014 Sunil Kumar, International Speciality Products 2015 Stephen D. Pryor, President of ExxonMobil Chemical 2016 James L. Gallogly, LyondellBasell 2017 Andreas C. Kramvis, Honeywell 2018, Cal Dooley, American Chemistry Council 2019, Neil A. Chapman, Exxon Mobil Corporation 2020, Christopher D. Pappas, Trinseo 2021, Craig Rogerson, Hexion 2022, Mark Vergnano, Chemours 2023, Bhavesh (Bob) Patel, W.R. Grace & Co. 2024, John J. Paro, Hallstar 2025, Albert Chao and James Chao, Westlake Corporation == See also == List of chemistry awards == External links == SCI Chemical Industry Medal Past Winners Society of Chemical Industry == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelangelo#:~:text=Michelangelo%20was%20the%20first%20Western,were%20published%20during%20his%20lifetime.	Michelangelo	Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (6 March 1475 – 18 February 1564), known mononymously as Michelangelo, was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High Renaissance. He was born in the Republic of Florence but was mostly active in Rome from his 30s onwards. His work was inspired by models from classical antiquity and had a lasting influence on Western art. Michelangelo's creative abilities and mastery in a range of artistic arenas define him as an archetypal Renaissance man, along with his rival and elder contemporary, Leonardo da Vinci. Given the sheer volume of surviving correspondence, sketches, and reminiscences, Michelangelo is one of the best-documented artists of the 16th century. He was lauded by contemporary biographers as the most accomplished artist of his era. Michelangelo achieved fame early. Two of his best-known works, the Pietà and David, were sculpted before the age of 30. Although he did not consider himself a painter, Michelangelo created two of the most influential frescoes in the history of Western art: the scenes from Genesis on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome, and The Last Judgment on its altar wall. His design of the Laurentian Library pioneered Mannerist architecture. At the age of 71, he succeeded Antonio da Sangallo the Younger as the architect of St. Peter's Basilica. Michelangelo transformed the plan so that the Western end was finished to his design, as was the dome, with some modification, after his death. Michelangelo was the first Western artist whose biography was published while he was alive. Three biographies were published during his lifetime. One of them, by Giorgio Vasari, proposed that Michelangelo's work transcended that of any artist living or dead, and was "supreme in not one art alone but in all three". In his lifetime, Michelangelo was often called Il Divino ("the divine one"). His contemporaries admired his terribilità—his ability to instill a sense of awe in viewers of his art. Attempts by subsequent artists to imitate the expressive physicality of Michelangelo's style contributed to the rise of Mannerism, a short-lived movement in Western art between the High Renaissance and the Baroque. == Early life and career == === Early life, 1475–1488 === Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni was born on 6 March 1475 in Caprese, known today as Caprese Michelangelo, a small town situated in Valtiberina, near Arezzo, Tuscany. For several generations, his family had been small-scale bankers in Florence; but the bank failed, and his father Ludovico briefly took a government post in Caprese. At the time of Michelangelo's birth, his father was the town's judicial administrator and podestà (local administrator) of Chiusi della Verna. Michelangelo's mother was Francesca di Neri del Miniato di Siena. The Buonarrotis claimed to descend from the Countess Matilde di Canossa—a claim that remains unproven, but which Michelangelo believed. Several months after Michelangelo's birth, the family returned to Florence, where he was raised. During his mother's later prolonged illness, and after her death in 1481 (when he was six years old), Michelangelo lived with a nanny and her husband, a stonecutter, in the town of Settignano, where his father owned a marble quarry and a small farm. There the young boy gained his love for marble. As his biographer Giorgio Vasari quotes him: If there is some good in me, it is because I was born in the subtle atmosphere of your country of Arezzo. Along with the milk of my nurse I received the knack of handling chisel and hammer, with which I make my figures. === Apprenticeships, 1488–1492 === As a young boy, Michelangelo was sent to the city of Florence to study grammar under the Humanist Francesco da Urbino. Michelangelo showed no interest in his schooling, preferring to copy paintings from churches and seek the company of other painters. Florence was at that time Italy's greatest centre of the arts and learning. Art was sponsored by the Signoria (the town council), the merchant guilds, and wealthy patrons such as the Medici and their banking associates. The Renaissance, a renewal of Classical scholarship and the arts, had its first flowering in Florence. In the early 15th century, the architect Filippo Brunelleschi, having studied the remains of Classical buildings in Rome, had created two churches, San Lorenzo's and Santo Spirito, which embodied the Classical precepts. The sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti had laboured for 50 years to create the north and east bronze doors of the Baptistry, which Michelangelo was to describe as "The Gates of Paradise". The exterior niches of the Church of Orsanmichele contained a gallery of works by the most acclaimed sculptors of Florence: Donatello, Ghiberti, Andrea del Verrocchio, and Nanni di Banco. The interiors of the older churches were covered with frescos (mostly in Late Medieval, but also in the Early Renaissance style), begun by Giotto and continued by Masaccio in the Brancacci Chapel, both of whose works Michelangelo studied and copied in drawings. During Michelangelo's childhood, a team of painters had been called from Florence to the Vatican to decorate the walls of the Sistine Chapel. Among them was Domenico Ghirlandaio, a master in fresco painting, perspective, figure drawing and portraiture who had the largest workshop in Florence. In 1488, at the age of 13, Michelangelo was apprenticed to Ghirlandaio. The next year, his father persuaded Ghirlandaio to pay Michelangelo as an artist, which was rare for someone that young. When in 1489, Lorenzo de' Medici, de facto ruler of Florence, asked Ghirlandaio for his two best pupils, Ghirlandaio sent Michelangelo and Francesco Granacci. From 1490 to 1492, Michelangelo attended the Platonic Academy, a Humanist academy founded by the Medicis. There, his work and outlook were influenced by many of the most prominent philosophers and writers of the day, including Marsilio Ficino, Pico della Mirandola and Poliziano. At this time, Michelangelo sculpted the reliefs Madonna of the Stairs and Battle of the Centaurs, the latter based on a theme suggested by Poliziano and commissioned by Lorenzo de' Medici. Michelangelo worked for a time with the sculptor Bertoldo di Giovanni. When he was 17, another pupil, Pietro Torrigiano, struck him on the nose, causing the disfigurement that is conspicuous in the portraits of Michelangelo. === Bologna, Florence, and Rome, 1492–1499 === Lorenzo de' Medici's death on 8 April 1492 changed Michelangelo's circumstances. He left the security of the Medici court and returned to his father's house. In the following months he carved a polychrome wooden Crucifix (1493), as a gift to the prior of the Florentine church of Santo Spirito, which had allowed him to do some anatomical studies of the corpses from the church's hospital. This was the first of several instances during his career that Michelangelo studied anatomy by dissecting cadavers. Between 1493 and 1494, Michelangelo bought a block of marble, and carved a larger-than-life statue of Hercules. On 20 January 1494, after heavy snowfalls, Lorenzo's heir, Piero de Medici, commissioned a statue made of snow, and Michelangelo again entered the court of the Medici. In the same year, the Medici were expelled from Florence as the result of the rise of Savonarola. Michelangelo left the city before the end of the political upheaval, moving to Venice and then to Bologna. In Bologna, he was commissioned to carve several of the last small figures for the completion of the Shrine of St. Dominic, in the church dedicated to that saint. At this time Michelangelo studied the robust reliefs carved by Jacopo della Quercia around the main portal of the Basilica of St Petronius, including the panel of The Creation of Eve, the composition of which was to reappear on the Sistine Chapel ceiling. Towards the end of 1495, the political situation in Florence was calmer; the city, previously under threat from the French, was no longer in danger as Charles VIII had suffered defeats. Michelangelo returned to Florence but received no commissions from the new city government under Savonarola. He returned to the employment of the Medici. During the half-year he spent in Florence, he worked on two small statues, a child St. John the Baptist and a sleeping Cupid. According to Condivi, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, for whom Michelangelo had sculpted St. John the Baptist, asked that Michelangelo "fix it so that it looked as if it had been buried" so he could "send it to Rome ... pass [it off as] an ancient work and ... sell it much better." Both Lorenzo and Michelangelo were unwittingly cheated out of the real value of the piece by a middleman. Cardinal Raffaele Riario, to whom Lorenzo had sold it, discovered that it was a fraud, but was so impressed by the quality of the sculpture that he invited the artist to Rome. This apparent success in selling his sculpture abroad as well as the conservative Florentine situation may have encouraged Michelangelo to accept the prelate's invitation. Michelangelo arrived in Rome on 25 June 1496 at the age of 21. On 4 July of the same year, he began work on a commission for Cardinal Riario, an over-life-size statue of the Roman wine god Bacchus. Upon completion, the work was rejected by the cardinal, and subsequently entered the collection of the banker Jacopo Galli, for his garden. In November 1497, the French ambassador to the Holy See, Cardinal Jean de Bilhères-Lagraulas, commissioned him to carve a Pietà, a sculpture showing the Virgin Mary grieving over the body of Jesus. The subject, which is not part of the Biblical narrative of the Crucifixion, was common in religious sculpture of medieval northern Europe and would have been very familiar to the Cardinal. The contract was agreed upon in August of the following year. Michelangelo was 24 at the time of its completion. It was soon to be regarded as one of the world's great masterpieces of sculpture, "a revelation of all the potentialities and force of the art of sculpture". Contemporary opinion was summarised by Vasari: "It is certainly a miracle that a formless block of stone could ever have been reduced to a perfection that nature is scarcely able to create in the flesh." Michelangelo's only work known to have been signed, his name on Mary's sash, it is now located in St Peter's Basilica. === Florence, 1499–1505 === Michelangelo returned to Florence in 1499. The Republic was changing after the fall of its leader, anti-Renaissance priest Girolamo Savonarola, who was executed in 1498, and the rise of the gonfaloniere Piero Soderini. Michelangelo was asked by the consuls of the Guild of Wool to complete an unfinished project begun 40 years earlier by Agostino di Duccio: a colossal statue of Carrara marble portraying David as a symbol of Florentine freedom to be placed on the gable of Florence Cathedral. Michelangelo responded by completing his most famous work, the statue of David, in 1504. The masterwork definitively established his prominence as a sculptor of extraordinary technical skill and strength of symbolic imagination. A team of consultants, including Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Filippino Lippi, Pietro Perugino, Lorenzo di Credi, Antonio and Giuliano da Sangallo, Andrea della Robbia, Cosimo Rosselli, Davide Ghirlandaio, Piero di Cosimo, Andrea Sansovino and Michelangelo's dear friend Granacci, was called together to decide upon its placement, ultimately the Piazza della Signoria, in front of the Palazzo Vecchio. It now stands in the Accademia, and in 1910 a marble replica was raised in its place in the square. In the same period of placing the David, Michelangelo may have been involved in creating the sculptural profile on Palazzo Vecchio's façade known as the Importuno di Michelangelo. The hypothesis of Michelangelo's possible involvement in the creation of the profile is based on the strong resemblance of the latter to a profile drawn by the artist, datable to the beginning of the 16th century, now preserved in the Louvre. With the completion of the David came another commission. In early 1504 Leonardo da Vinci had been commissioned to paint The Battle of Anghiari in the council chamber of the Palazzo Vecchio, depicting the battle between Florence and Milan in 1440. Michelangelo was then commissioned to paint the Battle of Cascina. The two paintings are very different: Leonardo depicts soldiers fighting on horseback, while Michelangelo has soldiers being ambushed as they bathe in the river. Neither work was completed and both were lost forever when the chamber was refurbished. Both works were much admired, and copies remain of them, Leonardo's work having been copied by Rubens and Michelangelo's by Bastiano da Sangallo. Also during this period, Michelangelo was commissioned by Angelo Doni to paint a "Holy Family" as a present for his wife, Maddalena Strozzi. It is known as the Doni Madonna and hangs in the Uffizi Gallery, still in its original magnificent frame, which Michelangelo may have designed. He also may have painted the Madonna and Child with John the Baptist, known as the Manchester Madonna and now in the National Gallery, London. === Tomb of Julius II, 1505–1545 === In 1505 Michelangelo was invited back to Rome by the newly elected Pope Julius II and commissioned to build the Pope's tomb, which was to include forty statues and be finished in five years. Under the patronage of the pope, Michelangelo experienced constant interruptions to his work on the tomb in order to accomplish numerous other tasks. The commission for the tomb forced the artist to leave Florence with his planned Battle of Cascina painting unfinished. By this time, Michelangelo was established as an artist; both he and Julius II had hot tempers and soon argued. On 17 April 1506, Michelangelo left Rome in secret for Florence, remaining there until the Florentine government pressed him to return to the pope. Although Michelangelo worked on the tomb for 40 years, it was never finished to his satisfaction. It is located in the Church of San Pietro in Vincoli in Rome and is most famous for the central figure of Moses, completed in 1516. Of the other statues intended for the tomb, two, known as the Rebellious Slave and the Dying Slave, are now in the Louvre. === Sistine Chapel ceiling, 1508 –1512 === During the same period, Michelangelo painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, which took approximately four years to complete (1508–1512). According to Condivi's account, Bramante, who was working on the building of St. Peter's Basilica, resented Michelangelo's commission for the pope's tomb and convinced the pope to commission him in a medium with which he was unfamiliar, in order that he might fail at the task. Michelangelo was originally commissioned to paint the Twelve Apostles on the triangular pendentives that supported the ceiling, and to cover the central part of the ceiling with ornament. Michelangelo persuaded Pope Julius II to give him a free hand and proposed a different and more complex scheme, representing the Creation, the Fall of Man, the Promise of Salvation through the prophets, and the genealogy of Christ. The work is part of a larger scheme of decoration within the chapel that represents elements of the doctrine of the Catholic Church. The composition stretches over 500 square metres of ceiling and contains over 300 figures. At its centre are nine episodes from the Book of Genesis, divided into three groups: God's creation of the earth; God's creation of humankind and their fall from God's grace; and lastly, the state of humanity as represented by Noah and his family. On the pendentives supporting the ceiling are painted twelve men and women who prophesied the coming of Jesus, seven prophets of Israel, and five Sibyls, prophetic women of the Classical world. Among the most famous paintings on the ceiling are The Creation of Adam, Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, the Deluge, the Prophet Jeremiah, and the Cumaean Sibyl. === Florence under Medici popes, 1513 – early 1534 === In 1513, Pope Julius II died and was succeeded by Pope Leo X, the second son of Lorenzo de' Medici. From 1513 to 1516, Pope Leo was on good terms with Pope Julius's surviving relatives, so encouraged Michelangelo to continue work on Julius's tomb, but the families became enemies again in 1516 when Pope Leo tried to seize the Duchy of Urbino from Julius's nephew Francesco Maria I della Rovere. Pope Leo then had Michelangelo stop working on the tomb, and commissioned him to reconstruct the façade of the Basilica of San Lorenzo in Florence and to adorn it with sculptures. He spent three years creating drawings and models for the façade, as well as attempting to open a new marble quarry at Pietrasanta specifically for the project. In 1520, the work was abruptly cancelled by his financially strapped patrons before any real progress had been made. The basilica lacks a façade to this day. In 1520, the Medici came back to Michelangelo with another grand proposal, this time for a family funerary chapel in the Basilica of San Lorenzo. For posterity, this project, occupying the artist for much of the 1520s and 1530s, was more fully realised. Michelangelo used his own discretion to create the composition of the Medici Chapel, which houses the large tombs of two of the younger members of the Medici family, Giuliano, Duke of Nemours, and Lorenzo, his nephew. It also serves to commemorate their more famous predecessors, Lorenzo the Magnificent and his brother Giuliano, who are buried nearby. The tombs display statues of the two Medici and allegorical figures representing Night and Day, and Dusk and Dawn. The chapel also contains Michelangelo's Medici Madonna. In 1976, a concealed corridor was discovered with drawings on the walls that related to the chapel itself. Pope Leo X died in 1521 and was succeeded briefly by the austere Adrian VI, and then by his cousin Giulio Medici as Pope Clement VII. In 1524, Michelangelo received an architectural commission from the Medici pope for the Laurentian Library at San Lorenzo's Church. He designed both the interior of the library itself and its vestibule, a building utilising architectural forms with such dynamic effect that it is seen as the forerunner of Baroque architecture. It was left to assistants to interpret his plans and carry out construction. The library was not opened until 1571, and the vestibule remained incomplete until 1904. In 1527, Florentine citizens, encouraged by the sack of Rome, threw out the Medici and restored the republic. A siege of the city ensued, and Michelangelo went to the aid of his beloved Florence by working on the city's fortifications from 1528 to 1529. The city fell in 1530, and the Medici were restored to power, with the young Alessandro Medici as the first Duke of Florence. Pope Clement, a Medici, sentenced Michelangelo to death. It is thought that Michelangelo hid for two months in a small chamber under the Medici chapels in the Basilica of San Lorenzo with light from just a tiny window, making many charcoal and chalk drawings which remained hidden until the room was rediscovered in 1975, and opened to small numbers of visitors in 2023. Michelangelo was eventually pardoned by the Medicis and the death sentence lifted, so that he could complete work on the Sistine Chapel and the Medici family tomb. He left Florence for Rome in 1534. Despite Michelangelo's support of the republic and resistance to the Medici rule, Pope Clement reinstated an allowance that he had previously granted the artist and made a new contract with him over the tomb of Pope Julius. === Rome, 1534–1546 === In Rome, Michelangelo lived near the church of Santa Maria di Loreto. It was at this time that he met the poet Vittoria Colonna, marchioness of Pescara, who was to become one of his closest friends until her death in 1547. Shortly before his death in 1534, Pope Clement VII commissioned Michelangelo to paint a fresco of The Last Judgment on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel. His successor, Pope Paul III, was instrumental in seeing that Michelangelo began and completed the project, which he laboured on from 1534 to October 1541. The fresco depicts the Second Coming of Christ and his Judgement of the souls. Michelangelo ignored the usual artistic conventions in portraying Jesus, showing him as a massive, muscular figure, youthful, beardless and naked. He is surrounded by saints, among whom Saint Bartholomew holds a drooping flayed skin, bearing the likeness of Michelangelo. The dead rise from their graves, to be consigned either to Heaven or to Hell. Once completed, the depiction of Christ and the Virgin Mary naked was considered sacrilegious, and Cardinal Carafa and Monsignor Sernini (Mantua's ambassador) campaigned to have the fresco removed or censored, but the Pope resisted. At the Council of Trent, shortly before Michelangelo's death in 1564, it was decided to obscure the genitals and Daniele da Volterra, an apprentice of Michelangelo, was commissioned to make the alterations. An uncensored copy of the original, by Marcello Venusti, is in the Capodimonte Museum of Naples. Michelangelo worked on a number of architectural projects at this time. They included a design for the Capitoline Hill with its trapezoid piazza displaying the ancient bronze statue of Marcus Aurelius. He designed the upper floor of the Palazzo Farnese and the interior of the Church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, in which he transformed the vaulted interior of an Ancient Roman bathhouse. Other architectural works include San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, the Sforza Chapel (Capella Sforza) in the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore and the Porta Pia. === St Peter's Basilica, 1546–1564 === While still working on the Last Judgment, Michelangelo received yet another commission for the Vatican. This was for the painting of two large frescos in the Cappella Paolina depicting significant events in the lives of the two most important saints of Rome, the Conversion of Saint Paul and the Crucifixion of Saint Peter. Like the Last Judgment, these two works are complex compositions containing a great number of figures. They were completed in 1550. In the same year, Giorgio Vasari published his Vita, including a biography of Michelangelo. In 1546, Michelangelo was appointed architect of St. Peter's Basilica, Rome. The process of replacing the Constantinian basilica of the 4th century had been underway for fifty years and in 1506 foundations had been laid to the plans of Bramante. Successive architects had worked on it, but little progress had been made. Michelangelo was persuaded to take over the project. He returned to the concepts of Bramante, and developed his ideas for a centrally planned church, strengthening the structure both physically and visually. The dome, not completed until after his death, has been called by Banister Fletcher, "the greatest creation of the Renaissance". As construction was progressing on St Peter's, there was concern that Michelangelo would die before the dome was finished. However, once building commenced on the lower part of the dome, the supporting ring, the completion of the design was inevitable. == Personal life == === Faith === Michelangelo was a devout Catholic whose faith deepened at the end of his life. Along with Raphael, he was enrolled in the Secular Franciscan Order. His poetry includes the following closing lines from what is known as poem 285 (written in 1554): "Neither painting nor sculpture will be able any longer to calm my soul, now turned toward that divine love that opened his arms on the cross to take us in." === Personal habits === Michelangelo was moderate in his personal life, and once told his apprentice, Ascanio Condivi: "However rich I may have been, I have always lived like a poor man." Michelangelo's bank accounts and numerous deeds of purchase show that his net worth was about 50,000 gold ducats, more than many princes and dukes of his time. Condivi said he was indifferent to food and drink, eating "more out of necessity than of pleasure" and that he "often slept in his clothes and ... boots." His biographer Paolo Giovio says, "His nature was so rough and uncouth that his domestic habits were incredibly squalid, and deprived posterity of any pupils who might have followed him." This, however, may not have affected him, as he was by nature a solitary and melancholy person, bizzarro e fantastico, a man who "withdrew himself from the company of men." === Relationships and poetry === Michelangelo wrote more than three hundred sonnets and madrigals. About sixty are addressed to men – "the first significant modern corpus of love poetry from one man to another". The longest sequence, displaying deep loving feeling, was written to the young Roman patrician Tommaso dei Cavalieri (c. 1509–1587), who was 23 years old when Michelangelo first met him in 1532, at the age of 57. In his Lives of the Artists, Vasari observed: "But infinitely more than any of the others he loved M. Tommaso de' Cavalieri, a Roman gentleman, for whom, being a young man and much inclined to these arts, [Michelangelo] made, to the end that he might learn to draw, many most superb drawings of divinely beautiful heads, designed in black and red chalk; and then he drew for him a Ganymede rapt to Heaven by Jove's Eagle, a Tityus with the Vulture devouring his heart, the Chariot of the Sun falling with Phaëthon into the Po, and a Bacchanal of children, which are all in themselves most rare things, and drawings the like of which have never been seen." Some scholars downplay the relationship between Michelangelo and Cavalieri as one of platonic friendship. The poems to Cavalieri make up the first large sequence of poems in any modern tongue addressed by one man to another; they predate by 50 years Shakespeare's sonnets to the fair youth: Cavalieri replied: "I swear to return your love. Never have I loved a man more than I love you, never have I wished for a friendship more than I wish for yours." Cavalieri remained devoted to Michelangelo until the latter's death. In 1542, Michelangelo met Cecchino dei Bracci who died only a year later, inspiring Michelangelo to write 48 funeral epigrams. Some of the objects of Michelangelo's affections, and subjects of his poetry, took advantage of him: the model Febo di Poggio asked for money in response to a love-poem, and a second model, Gherardo Perini, shamelessly stole from him. The nature of the poetry has been a source of discomfort to later generations. Michelangelo's grandnephew, Michelangelo Buonarroti the Younger, published the poems in 1623 with the gender of pronouns changed; he also removed words or in other instances insisted that Michelangelo's poems be read allegorically and philosophically, a judgment some modern scholars still repeat today. Anthony Hughes, for example, says that it is impossible to know whether Michelangelo was sexually active and, while acknowledging that it is a reasonable guess that Michelangelo's sexuality was inclined towards men rather than women, insists the letters and poems Michelangelo addressed to Cavalieri cannot be taken as expressions of personal desire, and should be understood in the context of the realities of Italian Renaissance culture. But since John Addington Symonds translated the poems into English in 1893, restoring the original genders, it has become more accepted that Michelangelo's poems should be understood at face value, that is, as indicating his personal feelings and a preference for young men. Late in life, Michelangelo nurtured a friendship with the poet and noble widow Vittoria Colonna, whom he met in Rome in 1536 or 1538 and who was in her late forties at the time. They wrote sonnets for each other and were in regular contact until she died. These sonnets mostly deal with the spiritual issues that occupied them. Condivi, who in his biography was preoccupied with downplaying Michelangelo's attraction to men, alleged Michelangelo said his sole regret in life was that he did not kiss the widow's face in the same manner that he had her hand. === Feuds with other artists === In a letter from late 1542, Michelangelo blamed the tensions between Julius II and him on the envy of Bramante and Raphael, saying of the latter, "all he had in art, he got from me". According to Gian Paolo Lomazzo, Michelangelo and Raphael met once: the former was alone, while the latter was accompanied by several others. Michelangelo commented that he thought he had encountered the chief of police with such an assemblage, and Raphael replied that he thought he had met an executioner, as they are wont to walk alone. == Works == === Madonna and Child === The Madonna of the Stairs is Michelangelo's earliest known work in marble. It is carved in shallow relief, a technique often employed by the master-sculptor of the early 15th century, Donatello, and others such as Desiderio da Settignano. While the Madonna is in profile, the easiest aspect for a shallow relief, the child displays a twisting motion that was to become characteristic of Michelangelo's work. The Taddei Tondo of 1502 shows the Christ Child frightened by a Bullfinch, a symbol of the Crucifixion. The lively form of the child was later adapted by Raphael in the Bridgewater Madonna. The Madonna of Bruges was, at the time of its creation, unlike other such statues depicting the Virgin proudly presenting her son. Here, the Christ Child, restrained by his mother's clasping hand, is about to step off into the world. The Doni Tondo, depicting the Holy Family, has elements of all three previous works: the frieze of figures in the background has the appearance of a low-relief, while the circular shape and dynamic forms echo the Taddeo Tondo. The twisting motion present in the Madonna of Bruges is accentuated in the painting. The painting heralds the forms, movement and colour that Michelangelo was to employ on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. === Male figure === The kneeling Angel is an early work, one of several that Michelangelo created as part of a large decorative scheme for the Arca di San Domenico in the church dedicated to that saint in Bologna. Several other artists had worked on the scheme, beginning with Nicola Pisano in the 13th century. In the late 15th century, the project was managed by Niccolò dell'Arca. An angel holding a candlestick, by Niccolò, was already in place. Although the two angels form a pair, there is a great contrast between the two works, the one depicting a delicate child with flowing hair clothed in Gothic robes with deep folds, and Michelangelo's depicting a robust and muscular youth with eagle's wings, clad in a garment of Classical style. Everything about Michelangelo's Angel is dynamic. Michelangelo's Bacchus was a commission with a specified subject, the youthful God of Wine. The sculpture has all the traditional attributes, a vine wreath, a cup of wine and a fawn, but Michelangelo ingested an air of reality into the subject, depicting him with bleary eyes, a swollen bladder and a stance that suggests he is unsteady on his feet. While the work is plainly inspired by Classical sculpture, it is innovative for its rotating movement and strongly three-dimensional quality, which encourages the viewer to look at it from every angle. In the so-called Dying Slave, Michelangelo again utilised the figure with marked contrapposto to suggest a particular human state, in this case waking from sleep. With the Rebellious Slave, it is one of two such earlier figures for the Tomb of Pope Julius II, now in the Louvre, that the sculptor brought to an almost finished state. These two works were to have a profound influence on later sculpture, through Rodin who studied them at the Louvre. The Atlas Slave is one of the later figures for Pope Julius' tomb. The works, known collectively as The Captives, each show the figure struggling to free itself, as if from the bonds of the rock in which it is lodged. The works give a unique insight into the sculptural methods that Michelangelo employed and his way of revealing what he perceived within the rock. === Sistine Chapel ceiling === The Sistine Chapel ceiling was painted between 1508 and 1512. The ceiling is a flattened barrel vault supported on twelve triangular pendentives that rise from between the windows of the chapel. The commission, as envisaged by Julius II, was to adorn the pendentives with figures of the twelve apostles. Michelangelo, who was reluctant to take the job, persuaded the Pope to give him a free hand in the composition. The resultant scheme of decoration awed his contemporaries and has inspired other artists ever since. The scheme is of nine panels illustrating episodes from the Book of Genesis, set in an architectonic frame. On the pendentives, Michelangelo replaced the proposed Apostles with Prophets and Sibyls who heralded the coming of the Messiah. Michelangelo began painting with the later episodes in the narrative, the pictures including locational details and groups of figures, the Drunkenness of Noah being the first of this group. In the later compositions, painted after the initial scaffolding had been removed, Michelangelo made the figures larger. One of the central images, The Creation of Adam is one of the best known and most reproduced works in the history of art. The final panel, showing the Separation of Light from Darkness is the broadest in style and was painted in a single day. As the model for the Creator, Michelangelo has depicted himself in the action of painting the ceiling. As supporters to the smaller scenes, Michelangelo painted twenty youths who have variously been interpreted as angels, as muses, or simply as decoration. Michelangelo referred to them as "ignudi". The figure reproduced may be seen in context in the above image of the Separation of Light from Darkness. In the process of painting the ceiling, Michelangelo made studies for different figures, of which some, such as that for The Libyan Sibyl have survived, demonstrating the care taken by Michelangelo in details such as the hands and feet. The prophet Jeremiah, contemplating the downfall of Jerusalem, is a self-portrait. === Figure compositions === Michelangelo's relief of the Battle of the Centaurs, created while he was still a youth associated with the Medici Academy, is an unusually complex relief in that it shows a great number of figures involved in a vigorous struggle. Such a complex disarray of figures was rare in Florentine art, where it would usually only be found in images showing either the Massacre of the Innocents or the Torments of Hell. The relief treatment, in which some of the figures are boldly projecting, may indicate Michelangelo's familiarity with Roman sarcophagus reliefs from the collection of Lorenzo Medici, and similar marble panels created by Nicola and Giovanni Pisano, and with the figurative compositions on Ghiberti's Baptistry Doors. The composition of the Battle of Cascina is known in its entirety only from copies, as the original cartoon, according to Vasari, was so admired that it deteriorated and was eventually in pieces. It reflects the earlier relief in the energy and diversity of the figures, with many different postures, and many being viewed from the back, as they turn towards the approaching enemy and prepare for battle. In The Last Judgment it is said that Michelangelo drew inspiration from a fresco by Melozzo da Forlì in Rome's Santi Apostoli. Melozzo had depicted figures from different angles, as if they were floating in the Heaven and seen from below. Melozzo's majestic figure of Christ, with windblown cloak, demonstrates a degree of foreshortening of the figure that had also been employed by Andrea Mantegna, but was not usual in the frescos of Florentine painters. In The Last Judgment Michelangelo had the opportunity to depict, on an unprecedented scale, figures in the action of either rising heavenward or falling and being dragged down. In the two frescos of the Pauline Chapel, The Crucifixion of St. Peter and The Conversion of Saul, Michelangelo has used the various groups of figures to convey a complex narrative. In the Crucifixion of Peter soldiers busy themselves about their assigned duty of digging a post hole and raising the cross while various people look on and discuss the events. A group of horrified women cluster in the foreground, while another group of Christians is led by a tall man to witness the events. In the right foreground, Michelangelo walks out of the painting with an expression of disillusionment. === Architecture === Michelangelo's architectural commissions included a number that were not realised, notably the façade for Brunelleschi's Church of San Lorenzo in Florence, for which Michelangelo had a wooden model constructed, but which remains to this day unfinished rough brick. At the same church, Giulio de' Medici (later Pope Clement VII) commissioned him to design the Medici Chapel and the tombs of Giuliano and Lorenzo Medici. Pope Clement also commissioned the Laurentian Library, for which Michelangelo also designed the extraordinary vestibule with columns recessed into niches, and a staircase that appears to spill out of the library like a flow of lava, according to Nikolaus Pevsner, "... revealing Mannerism in its most sublime architectural form". In 1546 Michelangelo produced the highly complex ovoid design for the pavement of the Campidoglio and began designing an upper storey for the Farnese Palace. In 1547 he took on the job of completing St Peter's Basilica, begun to a design by Bramante, and with several intermediate designs by several architects. Michelangelo returned to Bramante's design, retaining the basic form and concepts by simplifying and strengthening the design to create a more dynamic and unified whole. Although the late 16th-century engraving depicts the dome as having a hemispherical profile, the dome of Michelangelo's model is somewhat ovoid and the final product, as completed by Giacomo della Porta, is more so. === Final years === In his old age, Michelangelo created a number of Pietàs in which he apparently reflects upon mortality. They are heralded by the Victory, perhaps created for the tomb of Pope Julius II but left unfinished. In this group, the youthful victor overcomes an older hooded figure, with the features of Michelangelo. The Pietà of Vittoria Colonna is a chalk drawing of a type described as "presentation drawings", as they might be given as a gift by an artist, and were not necessarily studies towards a painted work. In this image, Mary's upraised arms and hands are indicative of her prophetic role. The frontal aspect is reminiscent of Masaccio's fresco of the Holy Trinity in the Basilica of Santa Maria Novella, Florence. In the Florentine Pietà, Michelangelo again depicts himself, this time as the aged Nicodemus lowering the body of Jesus from the cross into the arms of Mary his mother and Mary Magdalene. Michelangelo smashed the left arm and leg of the figure of Jesus. His pupil Tiberio Calcagni repaired the arm and drilled a hole in which to fix a replacement leg which was not subsequently attached. He also worked on the figure of Mary Magdalene. The last sculpture that Michelangelo worked on (six days before his death), the Rondanini Pietà, could never be completed because Michelangelo carved it away until there was insufficient stone. The legs and a detached arm remain from a previous stage of the work. As it remains, the sculpture has an abstract quality, in keeping with 20th-century concepts of sculpture. Michelangelo died in Rome on 18 February 1564, at the age of 88. His body was taken from Rome for interment at the Basilica of Santa Croce, fulfilling the maestro's last request to be buried in his beloved Florence. His heir Lionardo Buonarroti commissioned Vasari to design and build the Tomb of Michelangelo, a monumental project that cost 770 scudi, and took over 14 years to complete. Marble for the tomb was supplied by Cosimo I de' Medici, Duke of Tuscany, who had also organized a state funeral to honour Michelangelo in Florence. == Legacy == Michelangelo, with Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael, is one of the three giants of the Florentine High Renaissance. Although their names are often cited together, Michelangelo was younger than Leonardo by 23 years, and eight years older than Raphael. Because of his reclusive nature, he had little to do with either artist and outlived both of them by more than 40 years. Michelangelo took few sculpture students. He employed Granacci, who was his fellow pupil at the Medici Academy, and became one of several assistants on the Sistine Chapel ceiling. Michelangelo appears to have used assistants mainly for the more manual tasks of preparing surfaces and grinding colours. Despite this, his works were to have a great influence on painters, sculptors and architects for many generations to come. While Michelangelo's David is arguably the most famous nude of all time (it is called by the BBC "the world's most famous statue"), some of his other works have had perhaps even greater impact on the course of art. The twisting forms and tensions of the Victory, the Bruges Madonna and the Medici Madonna make them the heralds of the Mannerist art. The unfinished giants for the tomb of Pope Julius II had profound effect on sculptors such as Rodin and Henry Moore. Michelangelo's vestibule of the Laurentian Library was one of the earliest buildings to use classical forms in a plastic and expressive manner. This dynamic quality was later to find its major expression in his centrally planned St. Peter's, with its giant order, its rippling cornice and its upward-launching pointed dome. The dome of St. Peter's was to influence the building of churches for many centuries, including Sant'Andrea della Valle in Rome and St Paul's Cathedral, London, as well as the civic domes of public buildings and state capitals across the United States. Artists who were directly influenced by Michelangelo include Raphael, whose monumental treatment of the figure in the School of Athens and The Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple owes much to Michelangelo, and whose fresco of Isaiah in Sant'Agostino closely imitates the older master's prophets. Other artists, such as Pontormo, drew on the writhing forms of the Last Judgment and the frescoes of the Cappella Paolina. The Sistine Chapel ceiling was a work of unprecedented grandeur, both for its architectonic forms, to be imitated by many Baroque ceiling painters, and also for the wealth of its inventiveness in the study of figures. Vasari wrote: The work has proved a veritable beacon to our art, of inestimable benefit to all painters, restoring light to a world that for centuries had been plunged into darkness. Indeed, painters no longer need to seek for new inventions, novel attitudes, clothed figures, fresh ways of expression, different arrangements, or sublime subjects, for this work contains every perfection possible under those headings. == In popular culture == Vita di Michelangelo (1964) The Agony and the Ecstasy (1965), directed by Carol Reed and starring Charlton Heston as Michelangelo A Season of Giants (1990) Michelangelo - Endless (2018), starring Enrico Lo Verso as Michelangelo Sin (2019), directed by Andrei Konchalovsky == See also == Italian Renaissance sculpture Italian Renaissance painting Michelangelo and the Medici Michelangelo phenomenon Nicodemite == Notes == == References == == Sources == Bartz, Gabriele; Eberhard König (1998). Michelangelo. Könemann. ISBN 978-3-8290-0253-0. Clément, Charles (1892). Michelangelo. Harvard University: S. Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington, Ltd.: London. michelangelo. Condivi, Ascanio; Alice Sedgewick (1999) [First published 1553]. The Life of Michelangelo. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-01853-9. Gayford, Martin (2013). Michelangelo: His Epic Life. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-141-93225-5. Goldscheider, Ludwig (1962). Michelangelo: Paintings, Sculptures, Architecture. Phaidon. Goldscheider, Ludwig (1953). Michelangelo: Drawings. Phaidon. Gardner, Helen; Fred S. Kleiner, Christin J. Mamiya, Gardner's Art through the Ages. Thomson Wadsworth, (2004) ISBN 0-15-505090-7. Hirst, Michael and Jill Dunkerton. (1994) The Young Michelangelo: The Artist in Rome 1496–1501. London: National Gallery Publications, ISBN 1-85709-066-7 Liebert, Robert (1983). Michelangelo: A Psychoanalytic Study of his Life and Images. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-02793-8. Paoletti, John T. and Radke, Gary M., (2005) Art in Renaissance Italy, Laurence King, ISBN 1-85669-439-9 Tolnay, Charles (1947). The Youth of Michelangelo. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. == Further reading == == External links == The Digital Michelangelo Project from Stanford University Works by Michelangelo at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Michelangelo at the Internet Archive Works by Michelangelo at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) The BP Special Exhibition Michelangelo Drawings – closer to the master from the British Museum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokosing_River#:~:text=The%20Kokosing%20River%20(ko%2DKO,Ohio%20in%20the%20United%20States.	Kokosing River	The Kokosing River (ko-KO-sing) is a tributary of the Walhonding River, 57.2 miles (92.1 km) long, in east-central Ohio in the United States. Via the Walhonding, Muskingum and Ohio Rivers, it is part of the watershed of the Mississippi River, draining an area of 482 square miles (1248 km2). Etymologically, "Kokosing" translates roughly to "River of Little Owls" in Lenape language. The Kokosing River rises in Morrow County, northeast of Mount Gilead, and initially flows southwardly. It turns eastwardly near Chesterville and flows through Knox and Coshocton Counties, passing the communities of Mount Vernon, Gambier and Howard. In western Coshocton County the Kokosing joins the Mohican River to form the Walhonding River, about 2 miles (3 km) northwest of Nellie. Upstream of Mount Vernon, the Kokosing collects its largest tributary, the North Branch Kokosing River, which rises in Morrow County and flows southeastwardly through Knox County, past Fredericktown. Between Mount Vernon and Howard, the river is roughly paralleled by a rail trail, the Kokosing Gap Trail which continues to the town of Danville. == Variant names == According to the Geographic Names Information System, the Kokosing River has also been known historically as: Kokoshing River Kokosing Stream Owl Creek Vernon Vernon River == See also == List of rivers of Ohio == References == == External links == Columbia Gazetteer of North America entry
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station	International Space Station	The International Space Station (ISS) is a large space station that was assembled and is maintained in low Earth orbit by a collaboration of five space agencies and their contractors: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), ESA (Europe), JAXA (Japan), and CSA (Canada). As the largest space station ever constructed, it primarily serves as a platform for conducting scientific experiments in microgravity and studying the space environment. The station is divided into two main sections: the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS), developed by Roscosmos, and the US Orbital Segment (USOS), built by NASA, ESA, JAXA, and CSA. A striking feature of the ISS is the Integrated Truss Structure, which connect the station's vast system of solar panels and radiators to its pressurized modules. These modules support diverse functions, including scientific research, crew habitation, storage, spacecraft control, and airlock operations. The ISS has eight docking and berthing ports for visiting spacecraft. The station orbits the Earth at an average altitude of 400 kilometres (250 miles) and circles the Earth in roughly 93 minutes, completing 15.5 orbits per day. The ISS programme combines two previously planned crewed Earth-orbiting stations: the United States' Space Station Freedom and the Soviet Union's Mir-2. The first ISS module was launched in 1998, with major components delivered by Proton and Soyuz rockets and the Space Shuttle. Long-term occupancy began on 2 November 2000, with the arrival of the Expedition 1 crew. Since then, the ISS has remained continuously inhabited for 25 years and 41 days, the longest continuous human presence in space. As of August 2025, 290 individuals from 26 countries had visited the station. Future plans for the ISS include the addition of at least one module, Axiom Space's Payload Power Thermal Module. The station is expected to remain operational until the end of 2030, after which it will be de-orbited using the US Deorbit Vehicle. == Conception == == Purpose == The ISS was originally intended to be a laboratory, observatory, and factory while providing transportation, maintenance, and a low Earth orbit staging base for possible future missions to the Moon, Mars, and asteroids. However, not all of the uses envisioned in the initial memorandum of understanding between NASA and Roscosmos have been realised. In the 2010 United States National Space Policy, the ISS was given additional roles of serving commercial, diplomatic, and educational purposes. === Scientific research === The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, with power, data, cooling, and crew available to support experiments. Small uncrewed spacecraft can also provide platforms for experiments, especially those involving zero gravity and exposure to space, but space stations offer a long-term environment where studies can be performed potentially for decades, combined with ready access by human researchers. The ISS simplifies individual experiments by allowing groups of experiments to share the same launches and crew time. Research is conducted in a wide variety of fields, including astrobiology, astronomy, physical sciences, materials science, space weather, meteorology, and human research including space medicine and the life sciences. Scientists on Earth have timely access to the data and can suggest experimental modifications to the crew. If follow-on experiments are necessary, the routinely scheduled launches of resupply craft allows new hardware to be launched with relative ease. Crews fly expeditions of several months' duration, providing approximately 160 man-hours per week of labour with a crew of six. However, a considerable amount of crew time is taken up by station maintenance. Perhaps the most notable ISS experiment is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), which is intended to detect dark matter and answer other fundamental questions about our universe. According to NASA, the AMS is as important as the Hubble Space Telescope. Currently docked on station, it could not have been easily accommodated on a free flying satellite platform because of its power and bandwidth needs. On 3 April 2013, scientists reported that hints of dark matter may have been detected by the AMS. According to the scientists, "The first results from the space-borne Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer confirm an unexplained excess of high-energy positrons in Earth-bound cosmic rays". The space environment is hostile to life. Unprotected presence in space is characterised by an intense radiation field (consisting primarily of protons and other subatomic charged particles from the solar wind, in addition to cosmic rays), high vacuum, extreme temperatures, and microgravity. Some simple forms of life called extremophiles, as well as small invertebrates called tardigrades can survive in this environment in an extremely dry state through desiccation. Medical research improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body, including muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shift. These data will be used to determine whether high duration human spaceflight and space colonisation are feasible. In 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggested that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise, such as the six-month interval required to travel to Mars. Medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS on behalf of the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity study in which astronauts perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts. The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions in space. Usually, there is no physician on board the ISS and diagnosis of medical conditions is a challenge. It is anticipated that remotely guided ultrasound scans will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations where access to a trained physician is difficult. In August 2020, scientists reported that bacteria from Earth, particularly Deinococcus radiodurans bacteria, which is highly resistant to environmental hazards, were found to survive for three years in outer space, based on studies conducted on the International Space Station. These findings supported the notion of panspermia, the hypothesis that life exists throughout the Universe, distributed in various ways, including space dust, meteoroids, asteroids, comets, planetoids or contaminated spacecraft. Remote sensing of the Earth, astronomy, and deep space research on the ISS have significantly increased during the 2010s after the completion of the US Orbital Segment in 2011. Throughout the more than 20 years of the ISS program, researchers aboard the ISS and on the ground have examined aerosols, ozone, lightning, and oxides in Earth's atmosphere, as well as the Sun, cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter, and dark matter in the universe. Examples of Earth-viewing remote sensing experiments that have flown on the ISS are the Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3, ISS-RapidScat, ECOSTRESS, the Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation, and the Cloud Aerosol Transport System. ISS-based astronomy telescopes and experiments include SOLAR, the Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer, the Calorimetric Electron Telescope, the Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image (MAXI), and the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer. ==== Freefall ==== Researchers are investigating the effect of the station's near-weightless environment on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes of plants and animals. In response to some of the data, NASA wants to investigate microgravity's effects on the growth of three-dimensional, human-like tissues and the unusual protein crystals that can be formed in space. Investigating the physics of fluids in microgravity will provide better models of the behaviour of fluids. Because fluids can be almost completely combined in microgravity, physicists investigate fluids that do not mix well on Earth. Examining reactions that are slowed by low gravity and low temperatures will improve our understanding of superconductivity. The study of materials science is an important ISS research activity, with the objective of reaping economic benefits through the improvement of techniques used on Earth. Other areas of interest include the effect of low gravity on combustion, through the study of the efficiency of burning and control of emissions and pollutants. These findings may improve knowledge about energy production and lead to economic and environmental benefits. === Exploration === The ISS provides a location in the relative safety of low Earth orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. This provides experience in operations, maintenance, and repair and replacement activities on-orbit. This will help develop essential skills in operating spacecraft farther from Earth, reduce mission risks, and advance the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft. Referring to the MARS-500 experiment, a crew isolation experiment conducted on Earth, ESA states, "Whereas the ISS is essential for answering questions concerning the possible impact of weightlessness, radiation and other space-specific factors, aspects such as the effect of long-term isolation and confinement can be more appropriately addressed via ground-based simulations". Sergey Krasnov, the head of human space flight programmes for Russia's space agency, Roscosmos, in 2011 suggested a "shorter version" of MARS-500 may be carried out on the ISS. In 2009, noting the value of the partnership framework itself, Sergey Krasnov wrote, "When compared with partners acting separately, partners developing complementary abilities and resources could give us much more assurance of the success and safety of space exploration. The ISS is helping further advance near-Earth space exploration and realisation of prospective programmes of research and exploration of the Solar system, including the Moon and Mars." A crewed mission to Mars may be a multinational effort involving space agencies and countries outside the current ISS partnership. In 2010, ESA Director-General Jean-Jacques Dordain stated his agency was ready to propose to the other four partners that China, India, and South Korea be invited to join the ISS partnership. NASA chief Charles Bolden stated in February 2011, "Any mission to Mars is likely to be a global effort." Currently, US federal legislation prevents NASA co-operation with China on space projects without approval by the FBI and Congress. === Education and cultural outreach === The ISS crew provides opportunities for students on Earth by running student-developed experiments, making educational demonstrations, allowing for student participation in classroom versions of ISS experiments, and directly engaging students using radio, and email. ESA offers a wide range of free teaching materials that can be downloaded for use in classrooms. In one lesson, students can navigate a 3D model of the interior and exterior of the ISS, and face spontaneous challenges to solve in real time. The Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) aims to inspire children to "pursue craftsmanship" and to heighten their "awareness of the importance of life and their responsibilities in society". Through a series of education guides, students develop a deeper understanding of the past and near-term future of crewed space flight, as well as that of Earth and life. In the JAXA "Seeds in Space" experiments, the mutation effects of spaceflight on plant seeds aboard the ISS are explored by growing sunflower seeds that have flown on the ISS for about nine months. In the first phase of Kibō utilisation from 2008 to mid-2010, researchers from more than a dozen Japanese universities conducted experiments in diverse fields. Cultural activities are another major objective of the ISS programme. Tetsuo Tanaka, the director of JAXA's Space Environment and Utilization Center, has said: "There is something about space that touches even people who are not interested in science." Amateur Radio on the ISS (ARISS) is a volunteer programme that encourages students worldwide to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, through amateur radio communications opportunities with the ISS crew. ARISS is an international working group, consisting of delegations from nine countries including several in Europe, as well as Japan, Russia, Canada, and the United States. In areas where radio equipment cannot be used, speakerphones connect students to ground stations which then connect the calls to the space station. First Orbit is a 2011 feature-length documentary film about Vostok 1, the first crewed space flight around the Earth. By matching the orbit of the ISS to that of Vostok 1 as closely as possible, in terms of ground path and time of day, documentary filmmaker Christopher Riley and ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli were able to film the view that Yuri Gagarin saw on his pioneering orbital space flight. This new footage was cut together with the original Vostok 1 mission audio recordings sourced from the Russian State Archive. Nespoli is credited as the director of photography for this documentary film, as he recorded the majority of the footage himself during Expedition 26/27. The film was streamed in a global YouTube premiere in 2011 under a free licence through the website firstorbit.org. In May 2013, commander Chris Hadfield shot a music video of David Bowie's "Space Oddity" on board the station, which was released on YouTube. It was the first music video filmed in space. In November 2017, while participating in Expedition 52/53 on the ISS, Paolo Nespoli made two recordings of his spoken voice (one in English and the other in his native Italian), for use on Wikipedia articles. These were the first content made in space specifically for Wikipedia. In November 2021, a virtual reality exhibit called The Infinite featuring life aboard the ISS was announced. == International co-operation == Involving five space programs and fifteen countries, the International Space Station is the most politically and legally complex space exploration programme in history. The 1998 Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement sets forth the primary framework for international cooperation among the parties. A series of subsequent agreements govern other aspects of the station, ranging from jurisdictional issues to a code of conduct among visiting astronauts. Brazil was also invited to participate in the programme, the only developing country to receive such an invitation. Under the agreement framework, Brazil was to provide six pieces of hardware, and in exchange, would receive ISS utilization rights. However, Brazil was unable to deliver any of the elements due to a lack of funding and political priority within the country. Brazil officially dropped out of the ISS programme in 2007. Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, continued cooperation between Russia and other countries on the International Space Station has been put into question. Roscosmos Director General Dmitry Rogozin insinuated that Russian withdrawal could cause the International Space Station to de-orbit due to lack of reboost capabilities, writing in a series of tweets, "If you block cooperation with us, who will save the ISS from an unguided de-orbit to impact on the territory of the US or Europe? There's also the chance of impact of the 500-ton construction in India or China. Do you want to threaten them with such a prospect? The ISS doesn't fly over Russia, so all the risk is yours. Are you ready for it?" (This latter claim is untrue: the ISS flies over all parts of the Earth between 51.6 degrees latitude north and south, approximately the latitude of Saratov.) Rogozin later tweeted that normal relations between ISS partners could only be restored once sanctions have been lifted, and indicated that Roscosmos would submit proposals to the Russian government on ending cooperation. NASA stated that, if necessary, US corporation Northrop Grumman has offered a reboost capability that would keep the ISS in orbit. On 26 July 2022, Yury Borisov, Rogozin's successor as head of Roscosmos, submitted to Russian President Putin plans for withdrawal from the programme after 2024. However, Robyn Gatens, the NASA official in charge of the space station, responded that NASA had not received any formal notices from Roscosmos concerning withdrawal plans. === Participating countries === Canada European Space Agency Belgium Denmark France Germany Italy Netherlands Norway Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom Japan Russia United States == Construction == === Manufacturing === The International Space Station is a product of global collaboration, with its components manufactured across the world. The modules of the Russian Orbital Segment, including Zarya and Zvezda, were produced at the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center in Moscow. Zvezda was initially manufactured in 1985 as a component for the Mir-2 space station, which was never launched. Much of the US Orbital Segment, including the Destiny and Unity modules, the Integrated Truss Structure, and solar arrays, were built at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama and Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans. These components underwent final assembly and processing for launch at the Operations and Checkout Building and the Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The US Orbital Segment also hosts the Columbus module contributed by the European Space Agency and built in Germany, the Kibō module contributed by Japan and built at the Tsukuba Space Center and the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, along with the Canadarm2 and Dextre, a joint Canadian-U.S. endeavor. All of these components were shipped to the SSPF for launch processing. === Assembly === The assembly of the International Space Station, a major endeavour in space architecture, began in November 1998. Modules in the Russian segment launched and docked autonomously, with the exception of Rassvet. Other modules and components were delivered by the Space Shuttle, which then had to be installed by astronauts either remotely using robotic arms or during spacewalks, more formally known as extra-vehicular activities (EVAs). By 5 June 2011 astronauts had made over 159 EVAs to add components to the station, totaling more than 1,000 hours in space. The beginning of the core of the ISS's tenure in orbit was the launch of the Russian-built Zarya module atop a Proton rocket on 20 November 1998. Zarya provided propulsion, attitude control, communications, and electrical power. Two weeks later on 4 December 1998, the American-made Unity was ferried aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour on STS-88 and joined with Zarya. Unity provided the connection between the Russian and US segments of the station and would provide ports to connect future modules and visiting spacecraft. While the connection of two modules built on different continents, by nations that were once bitter rivals was a significant milestone, these two initial modules lacked life-support systems and the ISS remained unmanned for the next two years. At the time, the Russian station Mir was still inhabited. The turning point arrived in July 2000 with the launch of the Zvezda module. Equipped with living quarters and life-support systems, Zvezda enabled continuous human presence aboard the station. The first crew, Expedition 1, arrived that November aboard Soyuz TM-31. The ISS grew steadily over the following years, with modules delivered by both Russian rockets and the Space Shuttle. Expedition 1 arrived midway between the Space Shuttle flights of missions STS-92 and STS-97. These two flights each added segments of the station's Integrated Truss Structure, which provided the station with Ku band communications, additional attitude control needed for the additional mass of the USOS, and additional solar arrays. Over the next two years, the station continued to expand. A Soyuz-U rocket delivered the Pirs docking compartment. The Space Shuttles Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour delivered the American Destiny laboratory and Quest airlock, in addition to the station's main robot arm, the Canadarm2, and several more segments of the Integrated Truss Structure. Tragedy struck in 2003 with the loss of the Space Shuttle Columbia, which grounded the rest of the Shuttle fleet, halting construction of the ISS.Assembly resumed in 2006 with the arrival of STS-115 with Atlantis, which delivered the station's second set of solar arrays. Several more truss segments and a third set of arrays were delivered on STS-116, STS-117, and STS-118. As a result of the major expansion of the station's power-generating capabilities, more modules could be accommodated, and the US Harmony module and Columbus European laboratory were added. These were soon followed by the first two components of the Japanese Kibō laboratory. In March 2009, STS-119 completed the Integrated Truss Structure with the installation of the fourth and final set of solar arrays. The final section of Kibō was delivered in July 2009 on STS-127, followed by the Russian Poisk module. The US Tranquility module was delivered in February 2010 during STS-130, alongside the Cupola, followed by the penultimate Russian module, Rassvet, in May 2010. Rassvet was delivered by Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-132 in exchange for the Russian Proton delivery of the US-funded Zarya module in 1998. The last pressurised module of the USOS, Leonardo, was brought to the station in February 2011 on the final flight of Discovery, STS-133. Russia's new primary research module Nauka docked in July 2021, along with the European Robotic Arm which can relocate itself to different parts of the Russian modules of the station. Russia's latest addition, the Prichal module, docked in November 2021. As of June 2025, nasa.gov states that there are 43 different modules and elements installed on the ISS. == Structure == The ISS functions as a modular space station, enabling the addition or removal of modules from its structure for increased adaptability. Below is a diagram of major station components. The Unity node joins directly to the Destiny laboratory; for clarity, they are shown apart. Similar cases are also seen in other parts of the structure. Key to box background colors: Pressurised component, accessible by the crew without using spacesuits Docking/berthing port, pressurized when a visiting spacecraft is present Airlock, to move people or material between pressurized and unpressurized environment Unpressurised station superstructure Unpressurised component Temporarily defunct or non-commissioned component Former, no longer installed component Future, not yet installed component === Pressurised modules === ==== Zarya ==== Zarya (Russian: Заря, lit. 'Sunrise'), also known as the Functional Cargo Block (Russian: Функционально-грузовой блок), was the inaugural component of the ISS. Launched in 1998, it initially served as the ISS's power source, storage, propulsion, and guidance system. As the station has grown, Zarya's role has transitioned primarily to storage, both internally and in its external fuel tanks. A descendant of the TKS spacecraft used in the Salyut programme, Zarya was built in Russia but is owned by the United States. Its name symbolizes the beginning of a new era of international space cooperation. ==== Unity ==== Unity, also known as Node 1, is the inaugural U.S.-built component of the ISS. Serving as the connection between the Russian and U.S. segments, this cylindrical module features six Common Berthing Mechanism locations (forward, aft, port, starboard, zenith, and nadir) for attaching additional modules. Measuring 4.57 metres (15.0 ft) in diameter and 5.47 metres (17.9 ft) in length, Unity was constructed of steel by Boeing for NASA at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. It was the first of three connecting nodes – Unity, Harmony, and Tranquility – that forms the structural backbone of the U.S. segment of the ISS. ==== Zvezda ==== Zvezda (Russian: Звезда, lit. 'star') launched in July 2000, is the core of the Russian Orbital Segment of the ISS. Initially providing essential living quarters and life-support systems, it enabled the first continuous human presence aboard the station. While additional modules have expanded the ISS's capabilities, Zvezda remains the command and control center for the Russian segment and it is where crews gather during emergencies. A descendant of the Salyut programme's DOS spacecraft, Zvezda was built by RKK Energia and launched atop a Proton rocket. ==== Destiny ==== The Destiny laboratory is the primary research facility for U.S. experiments on the ISS. NASA's first permanent orbital research station since Skylab, the module was built by Boeing and launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis during STS-98. Attached to Unity over a period of five days in February 2001, Destiny has been a hub for scientific research ever since. Within Destiny, astronauts conduct experiments in fields such as medicine, engineering, biotechnology, physics, materials science, and Earth science. Researchers worldwide benefit from these studies. The module also houses life-support systems, including the Oxygen Generating System. ==== Quest Joint Airlock ==== The Quest Joint Airlock enables extravehicular activities (EVAs) using either the U.S. Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) or the Russian Orlan space suit. Before its installation, conducting EVAs from the ISS was challenging due to a variety of system and design differences. Only the Orlan suit could be used from the Transfer Chamber on the Zvezda module (which was not a purpose-built airlock) and the EMU could only be used from the airlock on a visiting Space Shuttle, which could not accommodate the Orlan. Launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis during STS-104 in July 2001 and attached to the Unity module, Quest is a 6.1-metre-long (20 ft), 4.0-metre-wide (13 ft) structure built by Boeing. It houses the crew airlock for astronaut egress, an equipment airlock for suit storage, and has facilities to accommodate astronauts during their overnight pre-breathe procedures to prevent decompression sickness. The crew airlock, derived from the Space Shuttle, features essential equipment like lighting, handrails, and an Umbilical Interface Assembly (UIA) that provides life-support and communication systems for up to two spacesuits simultaneously. These can be either two EMUs, two Orlan suits, or one of each design. ==== Poisk ==== Poisk (Russian: По́иск, lit. 'Search'), also known as the Mini-Research Module 2 (Russian: Малый исследовательский модуль 2), serves as both a secondary airlock on the Russian segment of the ISS and supports docking for Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, facilitates propellant transfers from the latter. Launched on 10 November 2009 attached to a modified Progress spacecraft, called Progress M-MIM2. Poisk provides facilities to maintain Orlan spacesuits and is equipped with two inward-opening hatches, a design change from Mir, which encountered a dangerous situation caused by an outward-opening hatch that opened too quickly because of a small amount of air pressure remaining in the airlock. Since the departure of Pirs in 2021, it's become the sole airlock on the Russian segment. ==== Harmony ==== Harmony, or Node 2, is the central connecting hub of the US segment of the ISS, linking the U.S., European, and Japanese laboratory modules. It's also been called the "utility hub" of the ISS as it provides essential power, data, and life-support systems. The module also houses sleeping quarters for four crew members. Launched on 23 October 2007 aboard Space Shuttle Discovery on STS-120, Harmony was initially attached to the Unity before being relocated to its permanent position at the front of the Destiny laboratory on 14 November 2007. This expansion added significant living space to the ISS, marking a key milestone in the construction of the U.S. segment. ==== Tranquility ==== Tranquility, also known as Node 3, is a module of the ISS. It contains environmental control systems, life-support systems, a toilet, exercise equipment, and an observation cupola. The European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency had Tranquility manufactured by Thales Alenia Space. A ceremony on 20 November 2009 transferred ownership of the module to NASA. On 8 February 2010, NASA launched the module on the Space Shuttle's STS-130 mission. ==== Columbus ==== Columbus is a science laboratory that is part of the ISS and is the largest single contribution to the station made by the European Space Agency. Like the Harmony and Tranquility modules, the Columbus laboratory was constructed in Turin, Italy by Thales Alenia Space. The functional equipment and software of the lab was designed by EADS in Bremen, Germany. It was also integrated in Bremen before being flown to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in an Airbus Beluga jet. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on 7 February 2008, on flight STS-122. It is designed for ten years of operation. The module is controlled by the Columbus Control Centre, located at the German Space Operations Center, part of the German Aerospace Center in Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich, Germany. The European Space Agency has spent €1.4 billion (about US$1.6 billion) on building Columbus, including the experiments it carries and the ground control infrastructure necessary to operate them. ==== Kibō ==== Kibō (Japanese: きぼう; lit. 'hope'), also known as the Japanese Experiment Module, is Japan's research facility on the ISS. It is the largest single module on the ISS, consisting of a pressurized lab, an exposed facility for conducting experiments in the space environment, two storage compartments, and a robotic arm. Attached to the Harmony module, Kibō was assembled in space over three Space Shuttle missions: STS-123, STS-124 and STS-127. ==== Cupola ==== The Cupola is an ESA-built observatory module of the ISS. Its name derives from the Italian word cupola, which means "dome". Its seven windows are used to conduct experiments, dockings and observations of Earth. It was launched aboard Space Shuttle mission STS-130 on 8 February 2010 and attached to the Tranquility (Node 3) module. With the Cupola attached, ISS assembly reached 85 per cent completion. The Cupola's central window has a diameter of 80 cm (31 in). ==== Rassvet ==== Rassvet (Russian: Рассвет, lit. 'first light'), also known as the Mini-Research Module 1 (Russian: Малый исследовательский модуль 1) and formerly known as the Docking Cargo Module is primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting spacecraft on the Russian segment of the ISS. Rassvet replaced the cancelled Docking and Storage Module and used a design largely based on the Mir Docking Module built in 1995. Rassvet was delivered in on 14 May 2010 Space Shuttle Atlantis on STS-132 in exchange for the Russian Proton delivery of the US-funded Zarya module in 1998. Rassvet was attached to Zarya shortly thereafter. ==== Leonardo ==== The Leonardo Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM) was flown into space aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery on STS-133 on 24 February 2011 and installed on 1 March. Leonardo is primarily used for storage of spares, supplies and waste on the ISS, which was until then stored in many different places within the space station. It is also the personal hygiene area for the astronauts who live in the US Orbital Segment. The Leonardo PMM was a Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) before 2011, but was modified into its current configuration. It was formerly one of two MPLM used for bringing cargo to and from the ISS with the Space Shuttle. The module was named for Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci. ==== Bigelow Expandable Activity Module ==== The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) is an experimental expandable space station module developed by Bigelow Aerospace, under contract to NASA, for testing as a temporary module on the International Space Station (ISS) from 2016 to at least 2020. It arrived at the ISS on 10 April 2016, was berthed to the station on 16 April at Tranquility Node 3, and was expanded and pressurized on 28 May 2016. In December 2021, Bigelow Aerospace conveyed ownership of the module to NASA, as a result of Bigelow's cessation of activity. ==== International Docking Adapters ==== The International Docking Adapter (IDA) is a spacecraft docking system adapter developed to convert APAS-95 to the NASA Docking System (NDS). An IDA is placed on each of the ISS's two open Pressurized Mating Adapters (PMAs), both of which are connected to the Harmony module. Two International Docking Adapters are currently installed aboard the Station. Originally, IDA-1 was planned to be installed on PMA-2, located at Harmony's forward port, and IDA-2 would be installed on PMA-3 at Harmony's zenith. After IDA 1 was destroyed in a launch incident, IDA-2 was installed on PMA-2 on 19 August 2016, while IDA-3 was later installed on PMA-3 on 21 August 2019. ==== Bishop Airlock Module ==== The NanoRacks Bishop Airlock Module is a commercially funded airlock module launched to the ISS on SpaceX CRS-21 on 6 December 2020. The module was built by NanoRacks, Thales Alenia Space, and Boeing. It will be used to deploy CubeSats, small satellites, and other external payloads for NASA, CASIS, and other commercial and governmental customers. ==== Nauka ==== Nauka (Russian: Наука, lit. 'Science'), also known as the Multipurpose Laboratory Module, Upgrade (Russian: Многоцелевой лабораторный модуль, усоверше́нствованный), is a Roscosmos-funded component of the ISS that was launched on 21 July 2021, 14:58 UTC. In the original ISS plans, Nauka was to use the location of the Docking and Stowage Module (DSM), but the DSM was later replaced by the Rassvet module and moved to Zarya's nadir port. Nauka was successfully docked to Zvezda's nadir port on 29 July 2021, 13:29 UTC, replacing the Pirs module. It had a temporary docking adapter on its nadir port for crewed and uncrewed missions until Prichal arrival, where just before its arrival it was removed by a departing Progress spacecraft. ==== Prichal ==== Prichal (Russian: Причал, lit. 'pier') is a 4-tonne (8,800 lb) spherical module that serves as a docking hub for the Russian segment of the ISS. Launched in November 2021, Prichal provides additional docking ports for Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, as well as potential future modules. Prichal features six docking ports: forward, aft, port, starboard, zenith, and nadir. One of these ports, equipped with an active hybrid docking system, enabled it to dock with the Nauka module. The remaining five ports are passive hybrids, allowing for docking of Soyuz, Progress, and heavier modules, as well as future spacecraft with modified docking systems. As of 2024, the forward, aft, port and starboard docking ports remain covered. Prichal was initially intended to be an element of the now canceled Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex. === Unpressurised elements === The ISS has a large number of external components that do not require pressurisation. The largest of these is the Integrated Truss Structure (ITS), to which the station's main solar arrays and thermal radiators are mounted. The ITS consists of ten separate segments forming a structure 108.5 metres (356 ft) long. The station was intended to have several smaller external components, such as six robotic arms, three External Stowage Platforms (ESPs) and four ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs). While these platforms allow experiments (including MISSE, the STP-H3 and the Robotic Refueling Mission) to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space by providing electricity and processing experimental data locally, their primary function is to store spare Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs). ORUs are parts that can be replaced when they fail or pass their design life, including pumps, storage tanks, antennas, and battery units. Such units are replaced either by astronauts during EVA or by robotic arms. Several shuttle missions were dedicated to the delivery of ORUs, including STS-129, STS-133 and STS-134. As of January 2011, only one other mode of transportation of ORUs had been used – the Japanese cargo vessel HTV-2 – which delivered an FHRC and CTC-2 via its Exposed Pallet (EP). There are also smaller exposure facilities mounted directly to laboratory modules; the Kibō Exposed Facility serves as an external "porch" for the Kibō complex, and a facility on the European Columbus laboratory provides power and data connections for experiments such as the European Technology Exposure Facility and the Atomic Clock Ensemble in Space. A remote sensing instrument, SAGE III-ISS, was delivered to the station in February 2017 aboard CRS-10, and the NICER experiment was delivered aboard CRS-11 in June 2017. The largest scientific payload externally mounted to the ISS is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), a particle physics experiment launched on STS-134 in May 2011, and mounted externally on the ITS. The AMS measures cosmic rays to look for evidence of dark matter and antimatter. The commercial Bartolomeo External Payload Hosting Platform, manufactured by Airbus, was launched on 6 March 2020 aboard CRS-20 and attached to the European Columbus module. It will provide an additional 12 external payload slots, supplementing the eight on the ExPRESS Logistics Carriers, ten on Kibō, and four on Columbus. The system is designed to be robotically serviced and will require no astronaut intervention. It is named after Christopher Columbus's younger brother. ==== MLM outfittings ==== In May 2010, equipment for Nauka was launched on STS-132 (as part of an agreement with NASA) and delivered by Space Shuttle Atlantis. Weighing 1.4 metric tons, the equipment was attached to the outside of Rassvet (MRM-1). It included a spare elbow joint for the European Robotic Arm (ERA) (which was launched with Nauka) and an ERA-portable workpost used during EVAs, as well as RTOd add-on heat radiator and internal hardware alongside the pressurized experiment airlock. The RTOd radiator adds additional cooling capability to Nauka, which enables the module to host more scientific experiments. The ERA was used to remove the RTOd radiator from Rassvet and transferred over to Nauka during VKD-56 spacewalk. Later it was activated and fully deployed on VKD-58 spacewalk. This process took several months. A portable work platform was also transferred over in August 2023 during VKD-60 spacewalk, which can attach to the end of the ERA to allow cosmonauts to "ride" on the end of the arm during spacewalks. However, even after several months of outfitting EVAs and RTOd heat radiator installation, six months later, the RTOd radiator malfunctioned before active use of Nauka (the purpose of RTOd installation is to radiate heat from Nauka experiments). The malfunction, a leak, rendered the RTOd radiator unusable for Nauka. This is the third ISS radiator leak after Soyuz MS-22 and Progress MS-21 radiator leaks. If a spare RTOd is not available, Nauka experiments will have to rely on Nauka's main launch radiator and the module could never be used to its full capacity. Another MLM outfitting is a 4 segment external payload interface called means of attachment of large payloads (Sredstva Krepleniya Krupnogabaritnykh Obyektov, SKKO). Delivered in two parts to Nauka by Progress MS-18 (LCCS part) and Progress MS-21 (SCCCS part) as part of the module activation outfitting process. It was taken outside and installed on the ERA aft facing base point on Nauka during the VKD-55 spacewalk. ==== Robotic arms and cargo cranes ==== The Integrated Truss Structure (ITS) serves as a base for the station's primary remote manipulator system, the Mobile Servicing System (MSS), which is composed of three main components: Canadarm2, the largest robotic arm on the ISS, has a mass of 1,800 kilograms (4,000 lb) and is used to: dock and manipulate spacecraft and modules on the USOS; hold crew members and equipment in place during EVAs; and move Dextre to perform tasks. Dextre is a 1,560 kg (3,440 lb) robotic manipulator that has two arms and a rotating torso, with power tools, lights, and video for replacing orbital replacement units (ORUs) and performing other tasks requiring fine control. The Mobile Base System (MBS) is a platform that rides on rails along the length of the station's main truss, which serves as a mobile base for Canadarm2 and Dextre, allowing the robotic arms to reach all parts of the USOS. A grapple fixture was added to Zarya on STS-134 to enable Canadarm2 to inchworm itself onto the ROS. Also installed during STS-134 was the 15 m (50 ft) Orbiter Boom Sensor System (OBSS), which had been used to inspect heat shield tiles on Space Shuttle missions and which can be used on the station to increase the reach of the MSS. Staff on Earth or the ISS can operate the MSS components using remote control, performing work outside the station without the need for space walks. Japan's Remote Manipulator System, which services the Kibō Exposed Facility, was launched on STS-124 and is attached to the Kibō Pressurised Module. The arm is similar to the Space Shuttle arm as it is permanently attached at one end and has a latching end effector for standard grapple fixtures at the other. The European Robotic Arm, which will service the ROS, was launched alongside the Nauka module. The ROS does not require spacecraft or modules to be manipulated, as all spacecraft and modules dock automatically and may be discarded the same way. Crew use the two Strela (Russian: Стрела́, lit. 'Arrow') cargo cranes during EVAs for moving crew and equipment around the ROS. Each Strela crane has a mass of 45 kg (99 lb). === Former module === ==== Pirs ==== Pirs (Russian: Пирс, lit. 'Pier') was launched on 14 September 2001, as ISS Assembly Mission 4R, on a Russian Soyuz-U rocket, using a modified Progress spacecraft, Progress M-SO1, as an upper stage. Pirs was undocked by Progress MS-16 on 26 July 2021, 10:56 UTC, and deorbited on the same day at 14:51 UTC to make room for the Nauka module to be attached to the space station. Prior to its departure, Pirs served as the primary Russian airlock on the station, being used to store and refurbish the Russian Orlan spacesuits. === Planned components === ==== Axiom segment ==== In January 2020, NASA awarded Axiom Space a contract to build a commercial module for the ISS. The contract is under the NextSTEP2 program. NASA negotiated with Axiom on a firm fixed-price contract basis to build and deliver the module, which will attach to the forward port of the space station's Harmony (Node 2) module. Although NASA only commissioned one module, Axiom planned to build an entire segment consisting of five modules, including a node module, an orbital research and manufacturing facility, a crew habitat, and a "large-windowed Earth observatory". The Axiom segment was expected to greatly increase the capabilities and value of the space station, allowing for larger crews and private spaceflight by other organisations. Axiom planned to convert the segment into a stand-alone space station once the ISS is decommissioned, with the intention that this would act as a successor to the ISS. Canadarm2 is planned to continue its operations on Axiom Station after the retirement of ISS in 2030. In December 2024, Axiom Space revised their station assembly plans to require only one module to dock with the ISS before assembling Axiom Station in an independent orbit. As of December 2024, Axiom Space expects to launch one module, the Payload Power Thermal Module (PPTM), to the ISS no earlier than 2027. PPTM is expected to remain at the ISS until the launch of Axiom's Habitat One (Hab-1) module about one year later, after which it will detach from the ISS to join with Hab-1. ==== US Deorbit Vehicle ==== The US Deorbit Vehicle (USDV) is a NASA-provided spacecraft intended to perform a controlled de-orbit and demise of the station after the end of its operational life in 2030. In June 2024, NASA awarded SpaceX a contract to build the Deorbit Vehicle. NASA plans to de-orbit ISS as soon as they have the "minimum capability" in orbit: "the USDV and at least one commercial station." === Cancelled components === Several modules developed or planned for the station were cancelled over the course of the ISS programme. Reasons include budgetary constraints, the modules becoming unnecessary, and station redesigns after the 2003 Columbia disaster. The US Centrifuge Accommodations Module would have hosted science experiments in varying levels of artificial gravity. The US Habitation Module would have served as the station's living quarters. Instead, the living quarters are now spread throughout the station. The US Interim Control Module and ISS Propulsion Module would have replaced the functions of Zvezda in case of a launch failure. Two Russian Research Modules were planned for scientific research. They would have docked to a Russian Universal Docking Module. The Russian Science Power Platform would have supplied power to the Russian Orbital Segment independent of the ITS solar arrays. ==== Science Power Modules 1 and 2 (Repurposed Components) ==== Science Power Module 1 (SPM-1, also known as NEM-1) and Science Power Module 2 (SPM-2, also known as NEM-2) are modules that were originally planned to arrive at the ISS no earlier than 2024, and dock to the Prichal module, which is docked to the Nauka module. In April 2021, Roscosmos announced that NEM-1 would be repurposed to function as the core module of the proposed Russian Orbital Service Station (ROSS), launching no earlier than 2027 and docking to the free-flying Nauka module. NEM-2 may be converted into another core "base" module, which would be launched in 2028. ==== Xbase ==== Designed by Bigelow Aerospace. In August 2016, Bigelow negotiated an agreement with NASA to develop a full-size ground prototype Deep Space Habitation based on the B330 under the second phase of Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships. The module was called the Expandable Bigelow Advanced Station Enhancement (XBASE), as Bigelow hoped to test the module by attaching it to the International Space Station. However, in March 2020, Bigelow laid off all 88 of its employees, and as of February 2024 the company remains dormant and is considered defunct, making it appear unlikely that the XBASE module will ever be launched. ==== Nautilus-X Centrifuge Demonstration ==== A proposal was put forward in 2011 for a first in-space demonstration of a sufficiently scaled centrifuge for artificial partial-g gravity effects. It was designed to become a sleep module for the ISS crew. The project was cancelled in favour of other projects due to budget constraints. == Onboard systems == === Life support === The critical systems are the atmosphere control system, the water supply system, the food supply facilities, the sanitation and hygiene equipment, and fire detection and suppression equipment. The Russian Orbital Segment's life-support systems are contained in the Zvezda service module. Some of these systems are supplemented by equipment in the USOS. The Nauka laboratory has a complete set of life-support systems. ==== Atmospheric control systems ==== The atmosphere on board the ISS is similar to that of Earth. Normal air pressure on the ISS is 101.3 kPa (14.69 psi); the same as at sea level on Earth. An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1 crew. Earth-like atmospheric conditions have been maintained on all Russian and Soviet spacecraft. The Elektron system aboard Zvezda and a similar system in Destiny generate oxygen aboard the station. The crew has a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters, a chemical oxygen generator system. Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Vozdukh system in Zvezda. Other by-products of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, are removed by activated charcoal filters. Part of the ROS atmosphere control system is the oxygen supply. Triple-redundancy is provided by the Elektron unit, solid fuel generators, and stored oxygen. The primary supply of oxygen is the Elektron unit which produces O2 and H2 by electrolysis of water and vents H2 overboard. The 1 kW (1.3 hp) system uses approximately one litre of water per crew member per day. This water is either brought from Earth or recycled from other systems. Mir was the first spacecraft to use recycled water for oxygen production. The secondary oxygen supply is provided by burning oxygen-producing Vika cartridges (see also ISS ECLSS). Each 'candle' takes 5–20 minutes to decompose at 450–500 °C (842–932 °F), producing 600 litres (130 imp gal; 160 US gal) of O2. This unit is manually operated. The US Orbital Segment (USOS) has redundant supplies of oxygen, from a pressurised storage tank on the Quest airlock module delivered in 2001, supplemented ten years later by ESA-built Advanced Closed-Loop System (ACLS) in the Tranquility module (Node 3), which produces O2 by electrolysis. Hydrogen produced is combined with carbon dioxide from the cabin atmosphere and converted to water and methane. === Power and thermal control === Double-sided solar arrays provide electrical power to the ISS. These bifacial cells collect direct sunlight on one side and light reflected off from the Earth on the other, and are more efficient and operate at a lower temperature than single-sided cells commonly used on Earth. The Russian segment of the station, like most spacecraft, uses 28 V low voltage DC from two rotating solar arrays mounted on Zvezda. The USOS uses 130–180 V DC from the USOS PV array. Power is stabilised and distributed at 160 V DC and converted to the user-required 124 V DC. The higher distribution voltage allows smaller, lighter conductors, at the expense of crew safety. The two station segments share power with converters. The USOS solar arrays are arranged as four wing pairs, for a total production of 75 to 90 kilowatts. These arrays normally track the Sun to maximise power generation. Each array is about 375 m2 (4,036 sq ft) in area and 58 m (190 ft) long. In the complete configuration, the solar arrays track the Sun by rotating the alpha gimbal once per orbit; the beta gimbal follows slower changes in the angle of the Sun to the orbital plane. The Night Glider mode aligns the solar arrays parallel to the ground at night to reduce the significant aerodynamic drag at the station's relatively low orbital altitude. The station originally used rechargeable nickel–hydrogen batteries (NiH2) for continuous power during the 45 minutes of every 90-minute orbit that it is eclipsed by the Earth. The batteries are recharged on the day side of the orbit. They had a 6.5-year lifetime (over 37,000 charge/discharge cycles) and were regularly replaced over the anticipated 20-year life of the station. Starting in 2016, the nickel–hydrogen batteries were replaced by lithium-ion batteries, which are expected to last until the end of the ISS program. The station's large solar panels generate a high potential voltage difference between the station and the ionosphere. This could cause arcing through insulating surfaces and sputtering of conductive surfaces as ions are accelerated by the spacecraft plasma sheath. To mitigate this, plasma contactor units create current paths between the station and the ambient space plasma. The station's systems and experiments consume a large amount of electrical power, almost all of which is converted to heat. To keep the internal temperature within workable limits, a passive thermal control system (PTCS) is made of external surface materials, insulation such as MLI, and heat pipes. If the PTCS cannot keep up with the heat load, an External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) maintains the temperature. The EATCS consists of an internal, non-toxic, water coolant loop used to cool and dehumidify the atmosphere, which transfers collected heat into an external liquid ammonia loop. From the heat exchangers, ammonia is pumped into external radiators that emit heat as infrared radiation, then the ammonia is cycled back to the station. The EATCS provides cooling for all the US pressurised modules, including Kibō and Columbus, as well as the main power distribution electronics of the S0, S1 and P1 trusses. It can reject up to 70 kW. This is much more than the 14 kW of the Early External Active Thermal Control System (EEATCS) via the Early Ammonia Servicer (EAS), which was launched on STS-105 and installed onto the P6 Truss. === Communications and computers === The ISS relies on various radio communication systems to provide telemetry and scientific data links between the station and mission control centres. Radio links are also used during rendezvous and docking procedures and for audio and video communication between crew members, flight controllers and family members. As a result, the ISS is equipped with internal and external communication systems used for different purposes. The Russian Orbital Segment primarily uses the Lira antenna mounted on Zvezda for direct ground communication. It also had the capability to utilize the Luch data relay satellite system, which was in a state of disrepair when the station was built, but was restored to operational status in 2011 and 2012 with the launch of Luch-5A and Luch-5B. Additionally, the Voskhod-M system provides internal telephone communications and VHF radio links to ground control. The US Orbital Segment (USOS) makes use of two separate radio links: S band (audio, telemetry, commanding – located on the P1/S1 truss) and Ku band (audio, video and data – located on the Z1 truss) systems. These transmissions are routed via the United States Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) in geostationary orbit, allowing for almost continuous real-time communications with Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center (MCC-H) in Houston, Texas. Data channels for the Canadarm2, European Columbus laboratory and Japanese Kibō modules were originally also routed via the S band and Ku band systems, with the European Data Relay System and a similar Japanese system intended to eventually complement the TDRSS in this role. UHF radio is used by astronauts and cosmonauts conducting EVAs and other spacecraft that dock to or undock from the station. Automated spacecraft are fitted with their own communications equipment; the ATV used a laser attached to the spacecraft and the Proximity Communications Equipment attached to Zvezda to accurately dock with the station. The US Orbital Segment of the ISS is equipped with approximately 100 commercial off-the-shelf laptops running Windows or Linux. These devices are modified to use the station's 28V DC power system and with additional ventilation since heat generated by the devices can stagnate in the weightless environment. NASA prefers to keep a high commonality between laptops and spare parts are kept on the station so astronauts can repair laptops when needed. The laptops are divided into two groups: the Portable Computer System (PCS) and Station Support Computers (SSC). PCS laptops run Linux and are used for connecting to the station's primary Command & Control computer (C&C MDM), which runs on Debian Linux, a switch made from Windows in 2013 for reliability and flexibility. The primary computer supervises the critical systems that keep the station in orbit and supporting life. Since the primary computer has no display or keyboards, astronauts use a PCS laptop to connect as remote terminals via a USB to 1553 adapter. The primary computer experienced failures in 2001, 2007, and 2017. The 2017 failure required a spacewalk to replace external components. SSC laptops are used for everything else on the station, including reviewing procedures, managing scientific experiments, communicating over e-mail or video chat, and for entertainment during downtime. SSC laptops connect to the station's wireless LAN via Wi-Fi, which connects to the ground via the Ku band. While originally this provided speeds of 10 Mbit/s download and 3 Mbit/s upload from the station, NASA upgraded the system in 2019 and increased the speeds to 600 Mbit/s. ISS crew members have access to the internet. == Operations == === Expeditions === Each permanent crew is given an expedition number. Expeditions run up to six months, from launch until undocking, an 'increment' covers the same time period, but includes cargo spacecraft and all activities. Expeditions 1 to 6 consisted of three-person crews. After the destruction of NASA's Space Shuttle Columbia, Expeditions 7 to 12 were reduced to two-person "caretaker" crews who could maintain the station, because a larger crew could not be fully resupplied by the small Russian Progress cargo spacecraft. After the Shuttle fleet returned to flight, three person crews also returned to the ISS beginning with Expedition 13. As the Shuttle flights expanded the station, crew sizes also expanded, eventually reaching six around 2010. With the arrival of crew on larger US commercial spacecraft beginning in 2020, crew size has been increased to seven, the number for which ISS was originally designed. Oleg Kononenko of Roscosmos holds the record for the longest time spent in space and at the ISS, accumulating nearly 1,111 days in space over the course of five long-duration missions on the ISS (Expedition 17, 30/31, 44/45, 57/58/59 and 69/70/71). He also served as commander three times (Expedition 31, 58/59 and 70/71). Peggy Whitson of NASA and Axiom Space has spent the most time in space of any American, accumulating over 675 days in space during her time on Expeditions 5, 16, and 50/51/52 and Axiom Missions 2 and 4. === Private flights === As of June 2023, 13 individuals have paid for their own travel to visit the ISS. In news coverage, such travellers are often referred to as "space tourists"; however, many have objected to the term, as they typically undergo professional training and conduct scientific, educational, or outreach activities while on orbit. Accordingly, Roscosmos and NASA classify them as spaceflight participants. Initially, privately funded access to the ISS was provided exclusively by Roscosmos through seats on Soyuz spacecraft, either during crew rotations or on dedicated missions. These seats were marketed by Space Adventures at prices of about US$40 million. NASA and the ESA initially criticised the practice, and NASA resisted training Dennis Tito, the first person to pay for an ISS stay. Beginning in 2021, NASA also began authorizing commercially organized visits known as Private Astronaut Missions (PAMs). These flights are required to use a NASA-certified U.S. commercial vehicle and to include a mission commander who is a former NASA astronaut, responsible for spacecraft operations and oversight of the other spaceflight participants. The first PAM, Axiom Mission 1, launched in 2022 with one Axiom commander and three private passengers, followed in 2023 by Axiom Mission 2, with one private passenger and two astronauts from the Saudi Space Agency. As of 2025, NASA offers up to two PAM opportunities per year. In addition to private individuals, PAMs are frequently used by ESA and other national governments to fly astronauts for short-term missions. === Fleet operations === Various crewed and uncrewed spacecraft have supported the station's operations. Flights to the ISS have included 93 Progress, 73 Soyuz, 50 SpaceX Dragon 37 Space Shuttle, 21 Cygnus, 9 HTV, 5 ATV, and 2 Boeing Starliner missions. There are currently eight docking ports for visiting spacecraft, with four additional ports installed but not yet put into service: Harmony forward (with PMA 2 & IDA 2) Harmony zenith (with PMA 3 & IDA 3) Harmony nadir (CBM port) Unity nadir (CBM port) Prichal aft Prichal forward Prichal nadir Prichal port Prichal starboard Poisk zenith Rassvet nadir Zvezda aft Forward ports are at the front of the station in its usual orientation and direction of travel. Aft is the opposite, at the rear. Nadir points toward Earth, while zenith points away from it. Port is to the left and starboard to the right when one's feet are toward Earth and one is facing forward, in the direction of travel. Cargo spacecraft that will perform an orbital re-boost of the station will typically dock at an aft, forward or nadir-facing port. ==== Crewed ==== As of 27 November 2025, a total of 292 individuals from 26 countries had visited the International Space Station (ISS), including both government-sponsored astronauts and privately funded spaceflight participants. The United States accounted for 171 of these visitors, followed by Russia with 65, Japan with 11, and Canada with 9. Italy had 6 visitors, while France and Germany had each sent 4. Saudi Arabia, Sweden, and the United Arab Emirates each had 2 individuals visit the ISS. One person had traveled to the ISS from each of the following countries: Belarus, Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, Hungary, India, Israel, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Poland, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. ===== List of current crew members ===== ==== Uncrewed ==== Uncrewed spaceflights are primarily used to deliver cargo to the station including crew supplies, scientific investigations, spacewalk equipment, vehicle hardware, propellant, water, and gases. Cargo resupply missions have typically used Russian Progress spacecraft, the now-retired European ATV, the Japanese HTV, and American Dragon and Cygnus spacecraft. Additionally, several Russian modules have been launched on uncrewed rockets and autonomously docked with the station. ==== Currently docked/berthed ==== All dates are UTC. Departure dates are the earliest possible (NET) and may change. ==== Scheduled missions ==== All dates are UTC. Launch dates are the earliest possible (NET) and may change. ==== Docking and berthing of spacecraft ==== Russian spacecraft can autonomously rendezvous and dock with the station without human intervention. Once within about 200 kilometres (120 mi) the spacecraft activates its Kurs docking navigation system, exchanging radio signals with the station's beacon to guide orbital manoeuvres. As it closes in, more accurate transceivers align the craft with the docking port and control the final approach. The crew supervises the procedure and can intervene using the TORU (Tele-robotically Operated Rendezvous Unit) system if required. Automated docking has been used by the Soviet programme since 1967, with Kurs introduced on Mir in 1986 and refined since. Though costly to develop, its reliability and standardised components have delivered significant long-term savings. The American SpaceX Dragon 2 cargo and crewed spacecraft can autonomously rendezvous and dock with the station without human intervention. However, on crewed Dragon missions, the astronauts have the capability to intervene and fly the vehicle manually. Other automated cargo spacecraft typically use a semi-automated process when arriving and departing from the station. These spacecraft are instructed to approach and park near the station. Once the crew on board the station is ready, the spacecraft is commanded to come close to the station, so that it can be grappled by an astronaut using the Mobile Servicing System robotic arm. The final mating of the spacecraft to the station is achieved using the robotic arm (a process known as berthing). Spacecraft using this semi-automated process include the American Cygnus and the Japanese HTV-X. The now-retired American SpaceX Dragon 1, European ATV and Japanese HTV also used this process. ==== Launch and docking windows ==== Prior to a spacecraft's docking to the ISS, navigation and attitude control (GNC) is handed over to the ground control of the spacecraft's country of origin. GNC is set to allow the station to drift in space, rather than fire its thrusters or turn using gyroscopes. The solar panels of the station are turned edge-on to the incoming spacecraft, so residue from its thrusters does not damage the cells. Before its retirement, Shuttle launches were often given priority over Soyuz, with occasional priority given to Soyuz arrivals carrying crew and time-critical cargoes, such as biological experiment materials. === Repairs === Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs) are spare parts that can be readily replaced when a unit either passes its design life or fails. Examples of ORUs are pumps, storage tanks, controller boxes, antennas, and battery units. Some units can be replaced using robotic arms. Most are stored outside the station, either on small pallets called ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs) or share larger platforms called External Stowage Platforms (ESPs) which also hold science experiments. Both kinds of pallets provide electricity for many parts that could be damaged by the cold of space and require heating. The larger logistics carriers also have local area network (LAN) connections for telemetry to connect experiments. A heavy emphasis on stocking the USOS with ORU's occurred around 2011, before the end of the NASA shuttle programme, as its commercial replacements, Cygnus and Dragon, carry one tenth to one quarter the payload. Unexpected problems and failures have impacted the station's assembly time-line and work schedules leading to periods of reduced capabilities and, in some cases, could have forced abandonment of the station for safety reasons. Serious problems include an air leak from the USOS in 2004, the venting of fumes from an Elektron oxygen generator in 2006, and the failure of the computers in the ROS in 2007 during STS-117 that left the station without thruster, Elektron, Vozdukh and other environmental control system operations. In the latter case, the root cause was found to be condensation inside electrical connectors leading to a short circuit. During STS-120 in 2007 and following the relocation of the P6 truss and solar arrays, it was noted during unfurling that the solar array had torn and was not deploying properly. An EVA was carried out by Scott Parazynski, assisted by Douglas Wheelock. Extra precautions were taken to reduce the risk of electric shock, as the repairs were carried out with the solar array exposed to sunlight. The issues with the array were followed in the same year by problems with the starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ), which rotates the arrays on the starboard side of the station. Excessive vibration and high-current spikes in the array drive motor were noted, resulting in a decision to substantially curtail motion of the starboard SARJ until the cause was understood. Inspections during EVAs on STS-120 and STS-123 showed extensive contamination from metallic shavings and debris in the large drive gear and confirmed damage to the large metallic bearing surfaces, so the joint was locked to prevent further damage. Repairs to the joints were carried out during STS-126 with lubrication and the replacement of 11 out of 12 trundle bearings on the joint. In September 2008, damage to the S1 radiator was first noticed in Soyuz imagery. The problem was initially not thought to be serious. The imagery showed that the surface of one sub-panel had peeled back from the underlying central structure, possibly because of micro-meteoroid or debris impact. On 15 May 2009, the damaged radiator panel's ammonia tubing was mechanically shut off from the rest of the cooling system by the computer-controlled closure of a valve. The same valve was then used to vent the ammonia from the damaged panel, eliminating the possibility of an ammonia leak. It is also known that a Service Module thruster cover struck the S1 radiator after being jettisoned during an EVA in 2008, but its effect, if any, has not been determined. In the early hours of 1 August 2010, a failure in cooling Loop A (starboard side), one of two external cooling loops, left the station with only half of its normal cooling capacity and zero redundancy in some systems. The problem appeared to be in the ammonia pump module that circulates the ammonia cooling fluid. Several subsystems, including two of the four CMGs, were shut down. Planned operations on the ISS were interrupted through a series of EVAs to address the cooling system issue. A first EVA on 7 August 2010, to replace the failed pump module, was not fully completed because of an ammonia leak in one of four quick-disconnects. A second EVA on 11 August removed the failed pump module. A third EVA was required to restore Loop A to normal functionality. The USOS's cooling system is largely built by the US company Boeing, which is also the manufacturer of the failed pump. The four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSUs, located in the S0 truss), control the routing of power from the four solar array wings to the rest of the ISS. Each MBSU has two power channels that feed 160V DC from the arrays to two DC-to-DC power converters (DDCUs) that supply the 124V power used in the station. In late 2011, MBSU-1 ceased responding to commands or sending data confirming its health. While still routing power correctly, it was scheduled to be swapped out at the next available EVA. A spare MBSU was already on board, but a 30 August 2012 EVA failed to be completed when a bolt being tightened to finish installation of the spare unit jammed before the electrical connection was secured. The loss of MBSU-1 limited the station to 75% of its normal power capacity, requiring minor limitations in normal operations until the problem could be addressed. On 5 September 2012, in a second six-hour EVA, astronauts Sunita Williams and Akihiko Hoshide successfully replaced MBSU-1 and restored the ISS to 100% power. On 24 December 2013, astronauts installed a new ammonia pump for the station's cooling system. The faulty cooling system had failed earlier in the month, halting many of the station's science experiments. Astronauts had to brave a "mini blizzard" of ammonia while installing the new pump. It was only the second Christmas Eve spacewalk in NASA history. === Mission control centres === The components of the ISS are operated and monitored by their respective space agencies at mission control centres across the globe, primarily the Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center in Houston and the RKA Mission Control Center (TsUP) in Moscow, with support from Tsukuba Space Center in Japan, Payload Operations and Integration Center in Huntsville, Alabama, U.S., Columbus Control Center in Munich, Germany and Mobile Servicing System Control at the Canadian Space Agency's headquarters in Saint-Hubert, Quebec. == Orbit, debris and visibility == === Altitude and orbital inclination === The ISS is currently maintained in a nearly circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of 370 km (230 mi) and a maximum of 460 km (290 mi), in the centre of the thermosphere, at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to Earth's equator with an eccentricity of 0.0002267. This orbit was selected because it is the lowest inclination that can be directly reached by Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome at 46° N latitude without overflying China or dropping spent rocket stages in inhabited areas. It travels at an average speed of 28,000 kilometres per hour (17,000 mph), and completes 15.5 orbits per day (93 minutes per orbit). The station's altitude was allowed to fall around the time of each NASA shuttle flight to permit heavier loads to be transferred to the station. After the retirement of the shuttle, the nominal orbit of the space station was raised in altitude (from about 350 km to about 400 km). Other, more frequent supply spacecraft do not require this adjustment as they are substantially higher performance vehicles. Atmospheric drag reduces the altitude by about 2 km a month on average. Orbital boosting can be performed by the station's two main engines on the Zvezda service module, or Russian or European spacecraft docked to Zvezda's aft port. The Automated Transfer Vehicle is constructed with the possibility of adding a second docking port to its aft end, allowing other craft to dock and boost the station. It takes approximately two orbits (three hours) for the boost to a higher altitude to be completed. Maintaining ISS altitude uses about 7.5 tonnes of chemical fuel per annum at an annual cost of about $210 million. The Russian Orbital Segment contains the Data Management System, which handles Guidance, Navigation and Control (ROS GNC) for the entire station. Initially, Zarya, the first module of the station, controlled the station until a short time after the Russian service module Zvezda docked and was transferred control. Zvezda contains the ESA built DMS-R Data Management System. Using two fault-tolerant computers (FTC), Zvezda computes the station's position and orbital trajectory using redundant Earth horizon sensors, Solar horizon sensors as well as Sun and star trackers. The FTCs each contain three identical processing units working in parallel and provide advanced fault-masking by majority voting. === Orientation === Zvezda uses gyroscopes (reaction wheels) and thrusters to turn itself. Gyroscopes do not require propellant; instead they use electricity to 'store' momentum in flywheels by turning in the opposite direction to the station's movement. The USOS has its own computer-controlled gyroscopes to handle its extra mass. When gyroscopes 'saturate', thrusters are used to cancel out the stored momentum. In February 2005, during Expedition 10, an incorrect command was sent to the station's computer, using about 14 kilograms of propellant before the fault was noticed and fixed. When attitude control computers in the ROS and USOS fail to communicate properly, this can result in a rare 'force fight' where the ROS GNC computer must ignore the USOS counterpart, which itself has no thrusters. Docked spacecraft can also be used to maintain station attitude, such as for troubleshooting or during the installation of the S3/S4 truss, which provides electrical power and data interfaces for the station's electronics. === Orbital debris threats === The low altitudes at which the ISS orbits are also home to a variety of space debris, including spent rocket stages, defunct satellites, explosion fragments (including materials from anti-satellite weapon tests), paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, and coolant released by US-A nuclear-powered satellites. These objects, in addition to natural micrometeoroids, are a significant threat. Objects large enough to destroy the station can be tracked, and therefore are not as dangerous as smaller debris. Objects too small to be detected by optical and radar instruments, from approximately 1 cm down to microscopic size, number in the trillions. Despite their small size, some of these objects are a threat because of their kinetic energy and direction in relation to the station. Spacewalking crew in spacesuits are also at risk of suit damage and consequent exposure to vacuum. Ballistic panels, also called micrometeorite shielding, are incorporated into the station to protect pressurised sections and critical systems. The type and thickness of these panels depend on their predicted exposure to damage. The station's shields and structure have different designs on the ROS and the USOS. On the USOS, Whipple Shields are used. The US segment modules consist of an inner layer made from 1.5–5.0 cm-thick (0.59–1.97 in) aluminium, a 10 cm-thick (3.9 in) intermediate layers of Kevlar and Nextel (a ceramic fabric), and an outer layer of stainless steel, which causes objects to shatter into a cloud before hitting the hull, thereby spreading the energy of impact. On the ROS, a carbon fibre reinforced polymer honeycomb screen is spaced from the hull, an aluminium honeycomb screen is spaced from that, with a screen-vacuum thermal insulation covering, and glass cloth over the top. Space debris is tracked remotely from the ground, and the station crew can be notified. If necessary, thrusters on the Russian Orbital Segment can alter the station's orbital altitude, avoiding the debris. These Debris Avoidance Manoeuvres (DAMs) are not uncommon, taking place if computational models show the debris will approach within a certain threat distance. Ten DAMs had been performed by the end of 2009. Usually, an increase in orbital velocity of the order of 1 m/s is used to raise the orbit by one or two kilometres. If necessary, the altitude can also be lowered, although such a manoeuvre wastes propellant. If a threat from orbital debris is identified too late for a DAM to be safely conducted, the station crew close all the hatches aboard the station and retreat into their spacecraft in order to be able to evacuate in the event the station was seriously damaged by the debris. Partial station evacuations have occurred on 13 March 2009, 28 June 2011, 24 March 2012, 16 June 2015, November 2021, and 27 June 2024. The November 2021 evacuation was caused by a Russian anti-satellite weapon test. NASA administrator Bill Nelson said it was unthinkable that Russia would endanger the lives of everyone on ISS, including their own cosmonauts. === Visibility from Earth === The ISS is visible in the sky to the naked eye as a visibly moving, bright white dot, when crossing the sky and being illuminated by the Sun, during twilight, the hours after sunset and before sunrise, when the station remains sunlit, outside of Earth's shadow, but the ground and sky are dark. It crosses the skies at latitudes between the polar regions. Depending on the path it takes across the sky, the time it takes the station to move across the horizon or from one to the other may be short or up to 10 minutes, while likely being only visible part of that time because of it moving into or out of Earth's shadow. It then returns around every 90 minutes, with the time of the day that it crosses the sky shifting over the course of some weeks, and therefore before returning to twilight and visible illumination. Because of the size of its reflective surface area, the ISS is the brightest artificial object in the sky (excluding other satellite flares), with an approximate maximum magnitude of −4 when in sunlight and overhead (similar to Venus), and a maximum angular size of 63 arcseconds. Tools are provided by a number of websites such as Heavens-Above (see Live viewing below) as well as smartphone applications that use orbital data and the observer's longitude and latitude to indicate when the ISS will be visible (weather permitting), where the station will appear to rise, the altitude above the horizon it will reach and the duration of the pass before the station disappears either by setting below the horizon or entering into Earth's shadow. In November 2012 NASA launched its "Spot the Station" service, which sends people text and email alerts when the station is due to fly above their town. The station is visible from 95% of the inhabited land on Earth, but is not visible from extreme northern or southern latitudes. Under specific conditions, the ISS can be observed at night on five consecutive orbits. Those conditions are 1) a mid-latitude observer location, 2) near the time of the solstice with 3) the ISS passing in the direction of the pole from the observer near midnight local time. The three photos show the first, middle and last of the five passes on 5–6 June 2014. ==== Astrophotography ==== Using a telescope-mounted camera to photograph the station is a popular hobby for astronomers, while using a mounted camera to photograph the Earth and stars is a popular hobby for crew. The use of a telescope or binoculars allows viewing of the ISS during daylight hours. Transits of the ISS in front of the Sun, particularly during an eclipse (and so the Earth, Sun, Moon, and ISS are all positioned approximately in a single line) are of particular interest for amateur astronomers. == Environment, safety and crew health == === Environment === ==== Freefall environment ==== Gravity at the altitude of the ISS is approximately 90% as strong as at Earth's surface, but objects in orbit are in a continuous state of freefall, resulting in an apparent state of weightlessness. This perceived weightlessness is disturbed by five effects: Drag from the residual atmosphere. Vibration from the movements of mechanical systems and the crew. Actuation of the on-board attitude control moment gyroscopes. Thruster firings for attitude or orbital changes. Gravity-gradient effects, also known as tidal effects. Items at different locations within the ISS would, if not attached to the station, follow slightly different orbits. Being mechanically connected, these items experience small forces that keep the station moving as a rigid body. ==== Radiation ==== The ISS is partially protected from the space environment by Earth's magnetic field. From an average distance of about 70,000 km (43,000 mi) from the Earth's surface, depending on Solar activity, the magnetosphere begins to deflect solar wind around Earth and the space station. Solar flares are still a hazard to the crew, who may receive only a few minutes warning. In 2005, during the initial "proton storm" of an X-3 class solar flare, the crew of Expedition 10 took shelter in a more heavily shielded part of the ROS designed for this purpose. Subatomic charged particles, primarily protons from cosmic rays and solar wind, are normally absorbed by Earth's atmosphere. When they interact in sufficient quantity, their effect is visible to the naked eye in a phenomenon called an aurora. Outside Earth's atmosphere, ISS crews are exposed to approximately one millisievert each day (about a year's worth of natural exposure on Earth), resulting in a higher risk of cancer. Radiation can penetrate living tissue and damage the DNA and chromosomes of lymphocytes; being central to the immune system, any damage to these cells could contribute to the lower immunity experienced by astronauts. Radiation has also been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in astronauts. Protective shielding and medications may lower the risks to an acceptable level. Radiation levels on the ISS are between 12 and 28.8 milli rads per day, about five times greater than those experienced by airline passengers and crew, as Earth's electromagnetic field provides almost the same level of protection against solar and other types of radiation in low Earth orbit as in the stratosphere. For example, on a 12-hour flight, an airline passenger would experience 0.1 millisieverts of radiation, or a rate of 0.2 millisieverts per day; this is one fifth the rate experienced by an astronaut in LEO. Additionally, airline passengers experience this level of radiation for a few hours of flight, while the ISS crew are exposed for their whole stay on board the station. ==== Microbiological environmental hazards ==== Hazardous molds that can foul air and water filters may develop aboard space stations. They can produce acids that degrade metal, glass, and rubber. They can also be harmful to the crew's health. Microbiological hazards have led to a development of the LOCAD-PTS (a portable test system) which identifies common bacteria and molds faster than standard methods of culturing, which may require a sample to be sent back to Earth. Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence of five Enterobacter bugandensis bacterial strains on the ISS (none of which are pathogenic to humans), that microorganisms on the ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts. Contamination on space stations can be prevented by reduced humidity, and by using paint that contains mold-killing chemicals, as well as the use of antiseptic solutions. All materials used in the ISS are tested for resistance against fungi. Since 2016, a series of ESA-sponsored experiments have been conducted to test the anti-bacterial properties of various materials, with the goal of developing "smart surfaces" that mitigate bacterial growth in multiple ways, using the best method for a particular circumstance. Dubbed "Microbial Aerosol Tethering on Innovative Surfaces" (MATISS), the programme involves deployment of small plaques containing an array of glass squares covered with different test coatings. They remain on the station for six months before being returned to earth for analysis. The most recent and final experiment of the series was launched on 5 June 2023 aboard the SpaceX CRS-28 cargo mission to ISS, comprising four plaques. Whereas previous experiments in the series were limited to analysis by light microsocopy, this experiment uses quartz glass made of pure silica, which will allow spectrographic analysis. Two of the plaques were returned after eight months and the remaining two after 16 months. In April 2019, NASA reported that a comprehensive study had been conducted into the microorganisms and fungi present on the ISS. The experiment was performed over a period of 14 months on three different flight missions, and involved taking samples from 8 predefined locations inside the station, then returning them to earth for analysis. In prior experiments, analysis was limited to culture-based methods, thus overlooking microbes which cannot be grown in culture. The present study used molecular-based methods in addition to culturing, resulting in a more complete catalog. The results may be useful in improving the health and safety conditions for astronauts, as well as better understanding other closed-in environments on Earth such as clean rooms used by the pharmaceutical and medical industries. ==== Noise ==== Space flight is not inherently quiet, with noise levels exceeding acoustic standards as far back as the Apollo missions. For this reason, NASA and the International Space Station international partners have developed noise control and hearing loss prevention goals as part of the health program for crew members. Specifically, these goals have been the primary focus of the ISS Multilateral Medical Operations Panel (MMOP) Acoustics Subgroup since the first days of ISS assembly and operations. The effort includes contributions from acoustical engineers, audiologists, industrial hygienists, and physicians who comprise the subgroup's membership from NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency (ESA), the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). When compared to terrestrial environments, the noise levels experienced by astronauts and cosmonauts on the ISS may seem insignificant and typically occur at levels that would not be of major concern to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration – rarely reaching 85 dBA. But crew members are exposed to these levels 24 hours a day, seven days a week, with current missions averaging six months in duration. These levels of noise also impose risks to crew health and performance in the form of sleep interference and communication, as well as reduced alarm audibility. Over the 19 plus year history of the ISS, significant efforts have been put forth to limit and reduce noise levels on the ISS. During design and pre-flight activities, members of the Acoustic Subgroup have written acoustic limits and verification requirements, consulted to design and choose the quietest available payloads, and then conducted acoustic verification tests prior to launch. During spaceflights, the Acoustics Subgroup has assessed each ISS module's in flight sound levels, produced by a large number of vehicle and science experiment noise sources, to assure compliance with strict acoustic standards. The acoustic environment on ISS changed when additional modules were added during its construction, and as additional spacecraft arrive at the ISS. The Acoustics Subgroup has responded to this dynamic operations schedule by successfully designing and employing acoustic covers, absorptive materials, noise barriers, and vibration isolators to reduce noise levels. Moreover, when pumps, fans, and ventilation systems age and show increased noise levels, this Acoustics Subgroup has guided ISS managers to replace the older, noisier instruments with quiet fan and pump technologies, significantly reducing ambient noise levels. NASA has adopted most-conservative damage risk criteria (based on recommendations from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and the World Health Organization), in order to protect all crew members. The MMOP Acoustics Subgroup has adjusted its approach to managing noise risks in this unique environment by applying, or modifying, terrestrial approaches for hearing loss prevention to set these conservative limits. One innovative approach has been NASA's Noise Exposure Estimation Tool (NEET), in which noise exposures are calculated in a task-based approach to determine the need for hearing protection devices (HPDs). Guidance for use of HPDs, either mandatory use or recommended, is then documented in the Noise Hazard Inventory, and posted for crew reference during their missions. The Acoustics Subgroup also tracks spacecraft noise exceedances, applies engineering controls, and recommends hearing protective devices to reduce crew noise exposures. Finally, hearing thresholds are monitored on-orbit, during missions. There have been no persistent mission-related hearing threshold shifts among US Orbital Segment crewmembers (JAXA, CSA, ESA, NASA) during what is approaching 20 years of ISS mission operations, or nearly 175,000 work hours. In 2020, the MMOP Acoustics Subgroup received the Safe-In-Sound Award for Innovation for their combined efforts to mitigate any health effects of noise. ==== Fire and toxic gases ==== An onboard fire or a toxic gas leak are other potential hazards. Ammonia is used in the external radiators of the station and could potentially leak into the pressurised modules. === Overall health effects === On 12 April 2019, NASA reported medical results from the Astronaut Twin Study. Astronaut Scott Kelly spent a year in space on the ISS, while his identical twin spent the year on Earth. Several long-lasting changes were observed, including those related to alterations in DNA and cognition, when one twin was compared with the other. In November 2019, researchers reported that astronauts experienced serious blood flow and clot problems while on board the ISS, based on a six-month study of 11 healthy astronauts. The results may influence long-term spaceflight, including a mission to the planet Mars, according to the researchers. ==== Stress ==== There is considerable evidence that psychosocial stressors are among the most important impediments to optimal crew morale and performance. Cosmonaut Valery Ryumin wrote in his journal during a particularly difficult period on board the Salyut 6 space station: "All the conditions necessary for murder are met if you shut two men in a cabin measuring 18 feet by 20 [5.5 m × 6 m] and leave them together for two months." NASA's interest in psychological stress caused by space travel, initially studied when their crewed missions began, was rekindled when astronauts joined cosmonauts on the Russian space station Mir. Common sources of stress in early US missions included maintaining high performance under public scrutiny and isolation from peers and family. The latter is still often a cause of stress on the ISS, such as when the mother of NASA astronaut Daniel Tani died in a car accident, and when Michael Fincke was forced to miss the birth of his second child. A study of the longest spaceflight concluded that the first three weeks are a critical period where attention is adversely affected because of the demand to adjust to the extreme change of environment. ISS crew flights typically last about five to six months. The ISS working environment includes further stress caused by living and working in cramped conditions with people from very different cultures who speak a different language. First-generation space stations had crews who spoke a single language; second- and third-generation stations have crew from many cultures who speak many languages. Astronauts must speak English and Russian, and knowing additional languages is even better. Due to the lack of gravity, confusion often occurs. Even though there is no up and down in space, some crew members feel like they are oriented upside down. They may also have difficulty measuring distances. This can cause problems like getting lost inside the space station, pulling switches in the wrong direction or misjudging the speed of an approaching vehicle during docking. ==== Medical ==== The physiological effects of long-term weightlessness include muscle atrophy, deterioration of the skeleton (osteopenia), fluid redistribution, a slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, and puffiness of the face. Sleep is regularly disturbed on the ISS because of mission demands, such as incoming or departing spacecraft. Sound levels in the station are unavoidably high. The atmosphere is unable to thermosiphon naturally, so fans are required at all times to process the air which would stagnate in the freefall (zero-G) environment. To prevent some of the adverse effects on the body, the station is equipped with: two TVIS treadmills (including the COLBERT); the ARED (Advanced Resistive Exercise Device), which enables various weightlifting exercises that add muscle without raising (or compensating for) the astronauts' reduced bone density; and a stationary bicycle. Each astronaut spends at least two hours per day exercising on the equipment. Astronauts use bungee cords to strap themselves to the treadmill. == Life aboard == === Living quarters === The living and working space aboard the International Space Station (ISS) is larger than a six-bedroom house, equipped with seven private sleeping quarters, three bathrooms, two dining rooms, a gym, and a panoramic 360-degree-view bay window. The station provides dedicated crew quarters for long-term crew members. Two are located in Zvezda, one in Nauka, and four in Harmony. These soundproof, person-sized booths offer privacy, ventilation, and basic amenities such as a sleeping bag, a reading lamp, and storage for personal items. The quarters in Zvezda include a small window but have less ventilation and soundproofing. Visiting crew members use tethered sleeping bags attached to available wall space or inside their spacecraft. While it is possible to sleep floating freely, this is generally avoided to prevent collisions with sensitive equipment. Proper ventilation is critical, as astronauts risk oxygen deprivation if exhaled carbon dioxide accumulates in a bubble around their heads. The station's lighting system is adjustable, allowing for dimming, switching off, and colour temperature changes to support crew activities and rest. === Crew activities === The ISS operates on Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). A typical day aboard the ISS begins at 06:00 with wake-up, post-sleep routines, and a morning inspection of the station. After breakfast, the crew holds a daily planning conference with Mission Control, starting work around 08:10. Morning tasks include scheduled exercise, scientific experiments, maintenance, or operational duties. Following a one-hour lunch break at 13:05, the crew resumes their afternoon schedule of work and exercise. Pre-sleep activities, including dinner and a crew conference, begin at 19:30, with the scheduled sleep period starting at 21:30. The crew works approximately 10 hours on weekdays and 5 hours on Saturdays, with the remaining time allocated for relaxation or catching up on tasks. Free time often involves enjoying personal hobbies, communicating with family, or gazing out at Earth through the station's windows. The crew can watch TV aboard the station. When the Space Shuttle was operating, the ISS crew aligned with the shuttle crew's Mission Elapsed Time, a flexible schedule based on the shuttle's launch. To simulate night conditions, the station's windows are covered during designated sleep periods, as the ISS experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets daily due to its orbital speed. === Reflection and material culture === Reflection of individual and crew characteristics are found particularly in the decoration of the station and expressions in general, such as religion. The latter has produced a certain material economy between the station and Russia in particular. The micro-society of the station, as well as wider society, and possibly the emergence of distinct station cultures, is being studied by analyzing many aspects, from art to dust accumulation, as well as archaeologically how material of the ISS has been discarded. === Food === Food aboard the International Space Station (ISS) is preserved and packaged to withstand long storage times, minimize waste, and prevent contamination of station systems. Because microgravity dulls taste, meals are often seasoned more heavily than on Earth. Crews particularly look forward to resupply missions, which deliver perishable items such as fresh fruit and vegetables. To reduce the risk of crumbs and spills damaging equipment, foods are prepared in specialized packaging, liquid condiments are preferred over powdered ones, and containers are secured with Velcro or magnets. Drinks are delivered as powders to be mixed with water, while soups and beverages are sipped from plastic bags with straws. Solid foods are eaten with utensils attached to trays by magnets, and any stray food must be collected to prevent it from clogging air filters and other systems. The first galley was installed in Zvezda, equipped with an electro-resistive can warmer and a water dispenser for both hot and ambient water. Many Russian meals are still packaged in cans, which are eaten directly, while others are provided in retort pouches rehydrated with the water dispenser. A second galley was later added to Unity to support the station's larger crew. It contains two briefcase-shaped food warmers, a refrigerator (added in 2008), and a water dispenser. Most food in the U.S. Orbital Segment is packaged in retort pouches, which are rehydrated if necessary and heated or chilled in a food warmer or refrigerator as desired. While crews occasionally gather for group meals in Unity, especially during holidays or special occasions, they more often eat in small groups because of differing schedules. Russian cosmonauts also retain the option of dining separately in Zvezda, where the can warmer is located. With the growing diversity of NASA's astronaut corps and the large number of international astronauts who have flown to the ISS, the variety of food available has expanded significantly. Efforts are made to provide meals that reflect astronauts' cultural backgrounds and personal preferences, and food is often shared among crew members. Experiments have also been conducted aboard the ISS to grow fresh vegetables in orbit. These studies aim to supplement astronauts' diets with additional nutrients, provide psychological benefits, and advance space agricultural techniques needed for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. As of 2023, crops grown include three types of lettuce, Chinese cabbage, mizuna mustard, and red Russian kale. Some of the plants are harvested and eaten by the crew, while others were returned to Earth for analysis. In the future, NASA plans to grow tomatoes and peppers, and eventually berries, beans, and other nutrient-rich foods. Such crops could offer not only improved nutrition, but also potential protection against space radiation for crew members who consume them. === Personal hygiene === The ISS is equipped with three Russian-designed toilets, located in Zvezda, Tranquility and Nauka. Inside these "Waste and Hygiene Compartments" the occupant fastens themselves to the toilet seat, which is equipped with spring-loaded restraining bars to ensure a proper seal. A lever activates a powerful fan while opening a suction port at the bottom of the toilet bowl, and the airstream carries waste away. Solid waste is stored in individual bags placed in an aluminium container, which is later transferred to cargo spacecraft that will burn up on reentry. Liquid waste is collected through a hose with anatomically shaped funnel adapters so that both men and women can use the same system. The urine is diverted to the Water Recovery System, where it is processed into drinking water. Showers were first introduced on space stations in the early 1970s aboard Skylab and Salyut 3. However, crews complained about the complexity of showering, and by the time of Salyut 6 in the early 1980s, it had been reduced to a monthly activity. The ISS, like later Russian stations after has no shower; instead, astronauts clean themselves with wet wipes or with a water jet and using soap dispensed from a toothpaste-like tube. Rinseless shampoo and edible toothpaste are also provided to conserve water. == End of mission == Originally the ISS was planned to be a 15-year mission. Therefore, an end of mission had been worked on, but was several times postponed due to the success and support for the operation of the station. As a result, the oldest modules of the ISS have been in orbit for more than 20 years, with their reliability having decreased. It has been proposed to use funds elsewhere instead, for example for a return to the Moon. According to the Outer Space Treaty, the parties are legally responsible for all spacecraft or modules they launch. An unmaintained station would pose an orbital and re-entry hazard. Russia has stated that it plans to pull out of the ISS program after 2025. However, Russian modules will provide orbital station-keeping until 2028. The US planned in 2009 to deorbit the ISS in 2016. But on 30 September 2015, Boeing's contract with NASA as prime contractor for the ISS was extended to 30 September 2020. Part of Boeing's services under the contract related to extending the station's primary structural hardware past 2020 to the end of 2028. In July 2018, the Space Frontier Act of 2018 was intended to extend operations of the ISS to 2030. This bill was unanimously approved in the Senate, but failed to pass in the U.S. House. In September 2018, the Leading Human Spaceflight Act was introduced with the intent to extend operations of the ISS to 2030, and was confirmed in December 2018. Congress later passed similar provisions in its CHIPS and Science Act, signed into law by U.S. President Joe Biden on 9 August 2022. If until 2031 Commercial LEO Destinations providers are not sufficient to accommodate NASA's projects, NASA is suggesting to extend ISS operations beyond 2031. === NASA's disposal plans === NASA considered originally several possible disposal options: natural orbital decay with random reentry (as with Skylab), boosting the station to a higher altitude (which would delay reentry), and a controlled de-orbit targeting a remote ocean area. NASA determined that random reentry carried an unacceptable risk of producing hazardous space debris that could hit people or property and re-boosting the station would be costly and could also create hazards. Prior to 2010, plans had contemplated using a slightly modified Progress spacecraft to de-orbit the ISS. However, NASA concluded Progress would not be adequate for the job, and decided on a spacecraft specifically designed for the task. In January 2022, NASA announced a planned date of January 2031 to de-orbit the ISS using the "U.S. Deorbit Vehicle" and direct any remnants into a remote area of the South Pacific Ocean that has come to be known as the spacecraft cemetery. NASA plans to launch the deorbit vehicle in 2030, docking at the Harmony forward port. The deorbit vehicle will remain attached, dormant, for about a year as the station's orbit naturally decays to 220 km (140 mi). The spacecraft would then conduct one or more orientation burns to lower the perigee to 150 km (93 mi), followed by a final deorbiting burn. NASA began planning for the deorbit vehicle after becoming wary of Russia pulling out of the ISS abruptly, leaving the other partners with few good options for a controlled reentry. In June 2024, NASA selected SpaceX to develop the U.S. Deorbit Vehicle, a contract potentially worth $843 million. The vehicle will consist of an existing Cargo Dragon spacecraft which will be paired with a significantly lengthened trunk module which will be equipped with 46 Draco thrusters (instead of the normal 16) and will carry 30,000 kg (66,000 lb) of propellant, nearly six times the normal load. NASA is still working to secure all the necessary funding to build, launch and operate the deorbit vehicle. On 20 February 2025, Elon Musk, CEO of SpaceX and Senior Advisor to President Trump, suggested in a tweet that the International Space Station be de-orbited "two years from now" as Musk believes the station has "served its purpose" and has "very little incremental utility". Despite this, no official decisions on moving up the de-orbiting date have been made yet by the president. === Post mission proposals and plans === The follow-up to NASA's program/strategy is the Commercial LEO Destinations Program, meant to allow private industry to build and maintain their own stations, and NASA procuring access as a customer, starting in 2028. Similarly, the ESA has been seeking new private space stations to provide orbital services, as well as retrieve materials, from the ISS. Axiom Station is planned to begin as a single module temporarily hosted at the ISS in 2027. Additionally, there have been suggestions in the commercial space industry that the ISS could be converted to commercial operations after it is retired by government entities, including turning it into a space hotel. Russia previously has planned to use its orbital segment for the construction of its OPSEK station after the ISS is decommissioned. The modules under consideration for removal from the current ISS included the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (Nauka; MLM), launched in July 2021, and the other new Russian modules that are proposed to be attached to Nauka. These newly launched modules would still be well within their useful lives in 2024. At the end of 2011, the Exploration Gateway Platform concept also proposed using leftover USOS hardware and Zvezda 2 as a refuelling depot and service station located at one of the Earth–Moon Lagrange points. However, the entire USOS was not designed for disassembly and will be discarded. Western space industry has suggested in 2022 using the ISS as a platform to develop orbital salvage capacities, by companies such as CisLunar Industries working on using space debris as fuel, instead of plunging it into the ocean. NASA has stated that by July 2024 it has not seen any viable proposals for reuse of the ISS or parts of it. == Cost == The ISS has been described as the most expensive single item ever constructed. As of 2010, the total cost was US$150 billion. This includes NASA's budget of $58.7 billion ($89.73 billion in 2021 dollars) for the station from 1985 to 2015, Russia's $12 billion, Europe's $5 billion, Japan's $5 billion, Canada's $2 billion, and the cost of 36 shuttle flights to build the station, estimated at $1.4 billion each, or $50.4 billion in total. Assuming 20,000 man-days of use from 2000 to 2015 by two- to six-person crews, each man-day would cost $7.5 million, less than half the inflation-adjusted $19.6 million ($5.5 million before inflation) per man-day of Skylab. == In culture == The ISS has become an international symbol of human capabilities, particularly human cooperation and science, defining a cooperative international approach and period, instead of a looming commercialized and militarized interplanetary world. === Film === Beside numerous documentaries such as the IMAX documentaries Space Station 3D from 2002, or A Beautiful Planet from 2016, and films like Apogee of Fear (2012) and Yolki 5 (2016) the ISS is the subject of feature films such as The Day After Tomorrow (2004), Love (2011), together with the Chinese station Tiangong 1 in Gravity (2013), Life (2017), and I.S.S. (2023). In 2022, the movie The Challenge (Doctor's House Call) was filmed aboard the ISS, and was notable for being the first feature film in which both professional actors and director worked together in space. === Literature === Neal Stephenson's 2015 novel Seveneves is the set largely on the ISS for the first and second parts of the novel. The ISS is depicted largely as it was when the novel was written, but with the addition of a large captured asteroid attached to the station. The 2023 novel by English writer Samantha Harvey, Orbital, is set in the space station. It won the 2024 Booker Prize Ceridwen Dovey's Only the Astronauts, a 2024 collection of short stories in which the narrator in each story is an inanimate object in space, includes the International Space Station. === Video games === The ISS is blown up during the Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 mission "Second Sun", in which the character Captain Price launches an ICBM into the earth's atmosphere; the resulting shockwave destroys the station. The ISS is present in Far Cry New Dawn as an expedition site, having fallen to earth during a nuclear war. == See also == A Beautiful Planet (2016) – IMAX documentary film showing scenes of Earth, as well as astronaut life aboard the ISS Center for the Advancement of Science in Space – operates the US National Laboratory on the ISS List of accidents and incidents involving the International Space Station List of commanders of the International Space Station List of human spaceflights to the International Space Station List of International Space Station expeditions List of International Space Station spacewalks List of visitors to the International Space Station List of space stations List of spacecraft deployed from the International Space Station Politics of outer space Science diplomacy Space Station 3D (2002) – Canadian documentary Tiangong space station – another permanently crewed station operating in Low Earth orbit == Notes == == References == === Attributions === This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This article incorporates public domain material from Building ISS. National Archives and Records Administration. == Further reading == Reference Guide to the International Space Station (PDF) (Utilization ed.). NASA. September 2015. NP-2015-05-022-JSC. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 May 2021. Retrieved 11 January 2018. Reference Guide to the International Space Station (PDF) (Assembly Complete ed.). NASA. 2010. ISBN 978-0-16-086517-6. NP-2010-09-682-HQ. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 9 January 2018. O'Sullivan, John. European Missions to the International Space Station: 2013 to 2019 (Springer Nature, 2020). Ruttley, Tara M.; Robinson, Julie A.; Gerstenmaier, William H. (2017). "The International Space Station: Collaboration, Utilization, and Commercialization". Social Science Quarterly. 98 (4): 1160–1174. doi:10.1111/ssqu.12469. ISSN 0038-4941. == External links == Official website ISS Location Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine === Agency ISS websites === Canadian Space Agency Archived 4 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine European Space Agency Archived 13 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine Centre national d'études spatiales (National Centre for Space Studies) Archived 28 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine German Aerospace Center. Archived 7 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Italian Space Agency Archived 9 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine S.P. Korolev Rocket and Space Corporation Energia. Archived 27 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Russian Federal Space Agency. Archived 27 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Archived 7 September 2005 at the Wayback Machine === Research === NASA: Daily ISS Reports Archived 3 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine NASA: Station Science Archived 16 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine ESA: Columbus RSC Energia: Science Research on ISS Russian Segment. Archived 11 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine. === Live viewing === Live ISS webcam Archived 19 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine by NASA at uStream.tv Live HD ISS webcams Archived 29 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine by NASA HDEV at uStream.tv Sighting opportunities Archived 25 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine at NASA.gov Complete Orbital Position Archived 12 October 2022 at the Wayback Machine at KarhuKoti.com Real-time position Archived 27 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine at Heavens-above.com Real-time tracking and position Archived 17 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine at uphere.space === Multimedia === Johnson Space Center image gallery Archived 16 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine at Flickr ISS tour with Sunita Williams Archived 14 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine by NASA (on YouTube) Journey to the ISS Archived 18 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine by ESA (on YouTube) The Future of Hope, Kibō module documentary Archived 18 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine by JAXA (on YouTube) Seán Doran's compiled videos of orbital photography from the ISS: Orbit – Remastered Archived 17 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Orbit: Uncut Archived 18 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine The Four Seasons Archived 21 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Nocturne – Earth at Night Archived 19 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine Earthbound Archived 18 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine The Pearl Archived 10 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine (see Flickr album Archived 15 August 2021 at the Wayback Machine for more) Amateur Radio ISS Contact with Harrogate Ladies College in 2002 Archived 17 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine ISS in Real Time, an interactive portal presenting 25 years of communications, photos, and videos from the ISS
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyeri_High_School	Nyeri High School	Nyeri High School, also known as Nyeri High, is a boys' boarding school situated in Nyeri, Kenya near Mathari Consolata Mission Hospital, which provides secondary education as stipulated by the 8-4-4 Curriculum. Despite being acknowledged as an academic giant in the region, the school has also gained notoriety for student unrest, culminating in the deaths of four school prefects in a fire caused by student arson and was followed a few years later by a student strike that led to an official government inquiry into the school's management. In 2006, Nyeri High School was ranked the 22nd best high school in Kenya based on Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education results. == History == The present Nyeri High school was founded in 1907 as a primary school, along with the neighbouring St. Paul Seminary and the Mathari Mission Hospital, by the Consolata Missionary Sisters on a parcel of land acquired from a local chief a few years earlier. In the 1930s, the school began offering K.A.P.E certificates and by the time Kenya gained its political independence in 1963, it had developed into a full high school offering both O-Level and A-Level certificates. == Notable alumni == Nderitu Gachagua, 1st governor of Nyeri County Bonaya Godana, former Member of Parliament for North Horr, Eng. Michael Kamau, former Minister for Roads and Transport Joseph Kamotho, former Member of Parliament for Mathioya and Former Minister of Education Julius Waweru Karangi, former head of Kenya Defence Forces (KDF) Mwai Kibaki, former President of the Republic of Kenya, Member of Parliament, Othaya Constituency Musikari Kombo, nominated Member of Parliament John Michuki, Minister for Environment, Republic of Kenya, Member of Parliament, Kangema Constituency Francis Muthaura, Former secretary to the cabinet & head of public service in Kenya Dr. Chris Murungaru, former Minister for Internal Security & MP for Kieni Constituency Benson Wairegi, former CEO of Britain Insurance Group Koigi wa Wamwere, former Member of parliament for Nakuru North (formerly Subukia) Joseph Gethenji - former MP Tetu constituency Mwangi Githaiga, CEO & MD KWFT Bank Amb. Isaiya Kaberia, Kenya's High commissioner to Australia Ngata Kariuki, former MP Kerugoya Central & CEO Sarova Group of Hotels Godfrey Kiruhi, proprietor, Outspan Hospital, Nyeri Andrew Karuga Maina, Managing Director, Histoto Ltd James Kigwa Maina, current school principal Reagan Orina Momanyi, President Student Union of Egerton University 2018. Politician from Nyamira County. Gitonga Muchiri Charles Mutua Mulwa, Lecturer, Kenyatta University Babu Muraya, Country Manager, Tuk Tuk Media Karega Mutahi, Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Local Government Kijana Steve Maina Nderi, Party Leader, Empowerment and Liberation Party, ELP. Peter Ndiang'ui, Country Manager, OLX James Wagema Ruitha, Managing Director, National Housing Corporation (NHC) Ngunjiri Martin Deric Wambugu, current Member of Parliament (MP), Nyeri Town == References == == External links == Nyeri High School Website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kara_Walker#:~:text=Solo%20exhibitions,-2007%3A%20%22Kara%20Walker&text=2016%3A%20%22The%20Ecstasy%20of%20St,%E2%80%93%20Hyundai%20Commission%2C%20Tate%20Modern.	Kara Walker	Kara Elizabeth Walker (born November 26, 1969) is an American contemporary painter, silhouettist, printmaker, installation artist, filmmaker, and professor who explores race, gender, sexuality, violence, and identity in her work. She is best known for her room-size tableaux of black cut-paper silhouettes. Walker was awarded a MacArthur fellowship in 1997, at the age of 28, becoming one of the youngest ever recipients of the award. She has been the Tepper Chair in Visual Arts at the Mason Gross School of the Arts, Rutgers University since 2015. Walker is regarded as among the most prominent and acclaimed Black American artists working today. == Early life and education == Walker was born in 1969 in Stockton, California. Her father, Larry Walker, was a painter and professor. Her mother Gwendolyn was an administrative assistant. A 2007 review in New York Times described her early life as calm, noting that "nothing about [Walker's] very early life would seem to have predestined her for this task. Born in 1969, she grew up in an integrated California suburb, part of a generation for whom the uplift and fervor of the civil rights movement and the want-it-now anger of Black Power were yesterday's news." When Walker was 13, her father accepted a position at Georgia State University. They settled in the city of Stone Mountain. The move was a culture shock for the young artist. In sharp contrast with the multi-cultural environment of Central California, Stone Mountain still held Ku Klux Klan rallies. At her new high school, Walker recalls, "I was called a 'nigger,' told I looked like a monkey, accused (I didn't know it was an accusation) of being a 'Yankee.'" Walker received her BFA from the Atlanta College of Art in 1991 and her MFA in painting from the Rhode Island School of Design in 1994. Walker found herself uncomfortable and afraid to address race within her art during her early college years, worrying it would be received as "typical" or "obvious"; however, she began introducing race into her art while attending Rhode Island School of Design for her Master's. Walker recalls reflecting on her father's influence: "One of my earliest memories involves sitting on my dad's lap in his studio in the garage of our house and watching him draw. I remember thinking: 'I want to do that, too,' and I pretty much decided then and there at age 2½ or 3 that I was an artist just like Dad." == Work and career == Walker is best known for her panoramic friezes of cut-paper silhouettes, usually black figures against a white wall, which address the history of American slavery and racism through violent and unsettling imagery. She has also produced works in gouache, watercolor, video animation, shadow puppets, magic lantern projections, as well as large-scale sculptural installations like her ambitious public exhibition with Creative Time called "A Subtlety, or the Marvelous Sugar Baby, an Homage to the unpaid and overworked Artisans who have refined our Sweet tastes from the cane fields to the Kitchens of the New World on the Occasion of the demolition of the Domino Sugar Refining Plant" (2014). The black-and-white silhouettes confront the realities of history while also using the stereotypes from the era of slavery to relate to persistent modern-day concerns. Drawings also constitute a significant portion of Walker's body of work. The artist reserves a special meaning to this medium in her artistic practice as a space to confront the western canon and find freedom from its historical criteria dominating painting: “I gravitated towards [drawing] pretty early on in graduate school […] partly as a way to escape the chains of western painting. […] Drawing transforms a blank page into a site of reflection.” A major retrospective dedicated to Walker’s drawings and archival materials was held at Kustmuseum Basel in 2021. She first came to the art world's attention in 1994 with her mural "Gone, An Historical Romance of a Civil War as It Occurred Between the Dusky Thighs of One Young Negress and Her Heart." This cut-paper silhouette mural, presenting an Antebellum south filled with sex and slavery, was an instant hit. The artwork's title references the popular novel Gone with the Wind by Margaret Mitchell, and the individual figures in the tableau index the fairy-tale universe of Walt Disney in the 1930s. At the age of 28, she became the second youngest recipient of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation's "genius" grant, second only to renowned Mayanist David Stuart. In 2007, the Walker Art Center exhibition "Kara Walker: My Complement, My Oppressor, My Enemy, My Love" was the artist's first full-scale US museum survey. Her influences include Andy Warhol, whose art Walker says she admired as a child, Adrian Piper, and Robert Colescott. Walker's silhouette images work to bridge unfinished folklore in the Antebellum South, raising identity and gender issues for African-American women in particular. Walker uses images from historical textbooks to show how enslaved African Americans were depicted during Antebellum South. The silhouette was typically a genteel tradition in American art history; it was often used for family portraits and book illustrations. Walker carried on this portrait tradition but used them to create characters in a nightmarish world, a world that reveals the brutality of American racism and inequality. Walker incorporates ominous, sharp fragments of the South's landscape, such as Spanish moss trees and a giant moon obscured by dramatic clouds. These images surround the viewer and create a circular, claustrophobic space. This circular format paid homage to another art form, the 360-degree historical painting known as the cyclorama. Some of her images are grotesque; for example, in "The Battle of Atlanta," a white man, presumably a Southern soldier, is raping a black girl while her brother watches in shock; and a male black slave rains tears all over an adolescent white boy. The use of physical stereotypes such as flatter profiles, bigger lips, straighter nose, and longer hair helps the viewer immediately distinguish the black subjects from the white subjects. Walker depicts the inequalities and mistreatment of African Americans by their white counterparts. Viewers at the Studio Museum in Harlem looked sickly, shocked, and appalled upon seeing her exhibition. Thelma Golden, the museum's chief curator, said that "throughout her career, Walker has challenged and changed the way we look at and understand American history. Her work is provocative, emotionally wrenching, yet overwhelmingly beautiful and intellectually compelling." Walker has said that her work addresses the way Americans look at racism with a "soft focus," avoiding "the confluence of disgust and desire and voluptuousness that are all wrapped up in [...] racism." In an interview with New York's Museum of Modern Art, Walker stated: "I guess there was a little bit of a slight rebellion, maybe a little bit of a renegade desire that made me realize at some point in my adolescence that I really liked pictures that told stories of things– genre paintings, historical paintings– the sort of derivatives we get in contemporary society." == Process: Silhouette Installations == Walker is most widely known for her immersive site-specific installations. Walker plays and almost blurs the lines between types of art forms. Her installations could be fluid between visual art and performance art. Elements of her installations like the theatrical staging or the life-size cut figurines contribute to and somewhat evoke this performative behavior. As Walker has mentioned before, she focuses more on the ideas and concepts behind the artwork rather than focusing on the initial aesthetic and visual aspect of the artwork, creating more of a conceptual outlook. Shelly Jarenski discusses Walker's art in the context of panoramas. Panoramas were very popular in the nineteenth century and were used as a form of entertainment. They usually depicted historical scenes or vast landscapes. Walker's work demonstrates that the aesthetic experiences embedded in the panorama (though those experiences are rooted in the particular contexts of the nineteenth century) persist as a concern in African American art, just as the social consequences of slavery and the racial narratives that structured it persist in shaping our contemporary cultural narratives of race and space. Walker's work also provides a second visual example of the way panoramas can affect spectators, since it is a continual struggle for contemporary scholars to apprehend the visuality of panoramas, given that written sources are often all that survive in the historical archive. When viewing Walker's panoramas, they are illustrative of past events or depictions of the enslavement of African Americans. Her ability to combine devices that were used in the past and recontextualize with the sinful scenes she creates in her large-scale installations deconstructs the aesthetic of these installations. As Jarenski mentioned in her article, Walker's panoramas provide a visual example of how her panoramas affect the viewers which is different from 19th-century panoramas which were limited to written sources. Walker's installations are able to create a contemporary visual interpretation and reinforce one of the themes of panoramas; depict historical events. Thus, further shedding light and interconnectedness on the artistic process and the final artistic output. Kara Walker once explained her artistic process as “two parts research and one part paranoid hysteria,” a description that captures the entanglement of history and fantasy that pervades her work. In that sense, through the process of Walker creating her art, 2/3 of it has to do with logical analysis, research, and other rational minded resources. While on the other hand, she suggests a component of rational fear or paranoia. Even despite the rational aspect, there's a sense of uneasiness and complexity that ties and illustrates itself through her work. === Notable works === In her piece created in 2000, "Insurrection! (Our Tools Were Rudimentary, Yet We Pressed On)", the silhouetted characters are against a background of colored light projections. This gives the piece a transparent quality, evocative of the production cels from the animated films of the 1930s. It also references the plantation story " Gone With the Wind" and the Technicolor film based on it. Also, the light projectors were set up so that the shadows of the viewers were cast on the wall, making them characters and encouraging them to assess the work's tough themes. In 2005, she created the exhibit "8 Possible Beginnings" or: "The Creation of African-America, a Moving Picture," which introduced moving images and sound. This helped further immerse the viewers into her dark worlds. In this exhibit, the silhouettes are used as shadow puppets. Additionally, she uses the voice of herself and her daughter to suggest how the heritage of early American slavery has affected her image as an artist and woman of color. In response to Hurricane Katrina, Walker created "After the Deluge" since the hurricane had devastated many poor and black areas of New Orleans. Walker was bombarded with news images of "black corporeality." She likened these casualties to enslaved Africans piled onto ships for the Middle Passage, the Atlantic crossing to America. I was seeing images that were all too familiar. It was black people in a state of life-or-death desperation, and everything corporeal was coming to the surface: water, excrement, sewage. It was a re-inscription of all the stereotypes about the black body. Walker took part in the 2009 inaugural exhibition at Scaramouche Gallery in New York City with a group exhibit called "The Practice of Joy Before Death; It Just Wouldn't Be a Party Without You." Recent works by Kara Walker include Fall Frum Grace, Miss Pipi's Blue Tale (April–June 2011) at Lehmann Maupin, in collaboration with Sikkema Jenkins & Co. A concurrent exhibition, "Dust Jackets for the Niggerati- and Supporting Dissertations, Drawings submitted ruefully by Dr. Kara E. Walker," opened at Sikkema Jenkins on the same day. Walker created "Katastwóf Karavan" for the 2018 art festival "Prospect.4: The Lotus in Spite of the Swamp" in New Orleans. This sculpture was an old-timey wagon, with Walker's signature silhouettes portraying slaveholders and enslaved people making up the sides and a custom-built steam-powered calliope playing songs off "black protest and celebration." It was displayed at the National Gallery of Art's Sculpture Garden May 12-19, 2022. Although Walker is known for her serious exhibitions with an overall deep meaning behind her work, she admits relying on "humor and viewer interaction." Walker has stated, "I didn't want a completely passive viewer" and "I wanted to make work where the viewer wouldn't walk away; he would either giggle nervously, get pulled into history, into fiction, into something totally demeaning and possibly very beautiful." === Commissions === In 2002, Walker created a site-specific installation, "An Abbreviated Emancipation (from a larger work: The Emancipation Approximation)," which was commissioned by The University of Michigan Museum of Art, Ann Arbor. The work represented motifs and themes of race relations and their roots in the system of slavery before the Civil War. Several years later, in 2005, The New School unveiled Walker's first public art installation, a site-specific mural titled "Event Horizon," and placed along a grand stairway leading from the main lobby to a major public program space. Walker's most well-known commission debuted in May 2014. Her first sculpture, this work was a monumental public artwork entitled "A Subtlety, or the Marvelous Sugar Baby, an Homage to the unpaid and overworked Artisans who have refined our Sweet tastes from the cane fields to the Kitchens of the New World on the Occasion of the demolition of the Domino Sugar Refining Plant." The massive work was installed in the derelict Domino Sugar Refinery in Brooklyn and commissioned by Creative Time. The installation consisted of a female sphinx figure, measuring approximately 75 feet long by 35 feet high, preceded by an arrangement of fifteen life-size young male figures, dubbed attendants. The sphinx, which bore the head and features of the Mammy archetype, was made by covering a core of machine-cut blocks of polystyrene with 80 tons of white sugar donated by Domino Foods. The fifteen male attendants were modeled after racist figurines that Walker purchased online. Five were made from solid sugar, and the other ten were resin sculptures coated in molasses. The fifteen attendants stood 60 inches tall and weighed 300-500 pounds each. The factory and the artwork were demolished after the exhibition closed in July 2014, as had been previously planned. Walker has hinted that the whiteness of the sugar references its "aesthetic, clean, and pure quality." The slave trade is highlighted in the sculpture as well. Remarking on the overwhelmingly white audience at the exhibition in tandem with the political and historical content of the installation, art critic Jamilah King argued that "the exhibit itself is a striking and incredibly well-executed commentary on the historical relationship between race and capital, namely the money made off the backs of black slaves on sugar plantations throughout the Western Hemisphere. So the presence of so many white people -- and my presence as a black woman who's a descendant of slaves -- seemed to also be part of the show." The work attracted over 130,000 visitors in its eight-weekend run. In his commentary on the sculpture, art historian Richard J. Powell wrote, "No matter how noble or celebratory in tone Walker's title for this work seemed, in this post-modern moment of moral skepticism and collective distrust, a work of art in a public arena—especially a visually perplexing nude—would be subjected to not just serious criticism, but Internet trolling and mockery." In 2016, Walker revealed "Slaughter of the Innocents (They Might be Guilty of Something)." In the painting, Walker depicts an African American woman slicing a baby with a small scythe. The influence for this detail was that of Margaret Garner, an enslaved person who killed her daughter to prevent her child from returning to slavery. In 2019, Walker created Fons Americanus, the fifth annual Hyundai Commission at Tate Modern 's Turbine Hall. The fountain, measuring up to 13 feet (4.0 m), contains allegorical motifs referencing the histories of Africa, America, and Europe, particularly pertaining to the Atlantic slave trade. In her review of Walker's Fons Americanus for Artnet News, Naomi Rea noted that "the piece is so loaded with art-historical and cultural references that you could teach an entire college history course without leaving Turbine Hall." For example, Walker quotes specific artworks including The Slave Ship from 1840 by the British painter J.M.W. Turner and The Gulf Stream from 1899 by the American painter Winslow Homer. She also observed that – owing to the fountain's running water – the great work of art could be both seen and heard in the Turbine Hall. The artwork is, at the same time, a sort of public monument inspired in part by the Victoria Memorial in front of Buckingham Palace. In 2019, acclaimed writer Zadie Smith observed something about public monuments that Walker interrogates in Fons Americanus: "Monuments are complacent; they put a seal upon the past, they release us from dread. For Walker, dread is an engine: it prompts us to remember and rightly fear the ruins we shouldn't want to return to and don't wish to re-create—if we're wise." In 2023, the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA) commissioned Walker to create the first site-specific installation for its Roberts Family Gallery. In 2025, Walker was one of the artists commissioned to create a work for MONUMENTS, an exhibition at The Geffen Contemporary at MOCA and The Brick; the other artists were Bethany Collins, Julie Dash, Karon Davis, Abigail DeVille, Stan Douglas, Kevin Jerome Everson, Kahlil Robert Irving, Monument Lab, Walter Price, Cauleen Smith, and Davóne Tines. The works were all newly created for this exhibit and “marks the recent wave of monument removals as a historic moment.” Walker co-curated the exhibit with Hamza Walker, Director of The Brick and Bennett Simpson, Senior Curator at MOCA. === Other projects === For the season 1998/1999 in the Vienna State Opera, Walker designed a large-scale picture (176 m2) as part of the exhibition series "Safety Curtain," conceived by museum in progress. In 2009, Walker curated volume 11 of Merge Records', Score!. Invited by fellow artist Mark Bradford in 2010 to develop a set of free lesson plans for K-12 teachers at the J. Paul Getty Museum, Walker offered a lesson that had students collaborating on a story by exchanging text messages. In March 2012, artist Clifford Owens performed a score by Walker at MoMA PS1. In 2013, Walker produced 16 lithographs for a limited edition, fine art printing of the libretto Porgy & Bess, by DuBose Heyward and Ira Gershwin, published by the Arion Press. === Concerns and criticism === The Detroit Institute of Art removed her "The Means to an End: A Shadow Drama in Five Acts" (1995) from a 1999 exhibition "Where the Girls Are: Prints by Women from the DIA's Collection" when African-American artists and collectors protested its presence. The five-panel silhouette of an antebellum plantation scene was in the permanent collection and was to be re-exhibited at some point according to a DIA spokesperson. A Walker piece entitled "The moral arc of history ideally bends towards justice but just as soon as not curves back around toward barbarism, sadism, and unrestrained chaos" at the Newark Public Library was questioned by employees regarding its appropriateness for the reading room where it was hung. The artwork included depictions of the Ku Klux Klan accompanied by a burning cross, a naked black woman fellating a white man, and Barack Obama. The piece was covered but not removed in December 2012. After discussion among employees and trustees the work was again uncovered. In March 2013, Walker visited the New Jersey Newark Public Library to discuss the work. Walker discussed the content of the work, including racism, identity, and her use of "heroic" figures such as Obama. Walker asked, "[d]o these archetypes collapse history? They're supposed to expand the conversation, but they often collapse it." Walker described the overwhelming subject matter of her works as a "too-muchness". In the 1999 PBS documentary "I'll Make Me a World," African-American artist Betye Saar criticized Walker's work for its "revolting and negative" depiction of black stereotypes and enslaved people. Saar accused the art of pandering to the enjoyment of "the white art establishment." In 1997 Saar emailed 200 fellow artists and politicians to voice her concerns about Walker's use of racist and sexist imagery and its positive reception in the art world. This attention to Walker's practice led to a 1998 symposium at Harvard University, Change a Joke and Slip the Yoke: A Harvard University Conference on Racist Imagery, which discussed her work. == Exhibitions == Walker's first museum survey, in 2007, was organized by Philippe Vergne for the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis and traveled to the Whitney Museum in New York, the Hammer Museum in Los Angeles, and the ARC/Musee d'Art Moderne de la ville de Paris. === Solo exhibitions === 2006: "Kara Walker at the Met: After the Deluge" Metropolitan Museum of Art 2007: "Kara Walker: My Complement, My Enemy, My Oppressor, My Love" Walker Art Center; traveled to Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth (2008) 2013: "Kara Walker, Rise Up Ye Mighty Race!" The Art Institute of Chicago 2013: "We at the Camden Arts Centre are Exceedingly Proud to present an Exhibition of Capable Artworks by the Notable Hand of the Celebrated American, Kara Elizabeth Walker, Negress", Camden Art Centre, London (toured to the MAC, Belfast in 2014) 2014: "A Subtlety, or the Marvelous Sugar Baby, an Homage to the unpaid and overworked Artisans who have refined our Sweet tastes from the cane fields to the Kitchens of the New World on the Occasion of the demolition of the Domino Sugar Refining Plant," Creative Time, Brooklyn, NY 2016: "The Ecstasy of St. Kara," Cleveland Museum of Art 2017: "Sikkema Jenkins and Co. is Compelled to Present the Most Astounding And Important Painting Show of the Fall Art Show Viewing Season!", Sikkema Jenkins & Co., New York, NY 2019: Untitled – Hyundai Commission, Tate Modern, London 2021: "A Black Hole is Everything a Star Longs to Be," Kunstmuseum Basel, Switzerland 2021: "Kara Walker: Cut to the Quick from the Collections of Jordan D. Schnitzer and His Family Foundation", Frist Art Museum, Nashville, TN 2021-22: "Kara Walker: Cut to the Quick", Cincinnati Art Museum, Cincinnati, OH 2023: "Kara Walker: Harper's Pictorial History of the Civil War (Annotated)", New York Historical Society Museum and Library, New York, NY == Collections == Among the public collections holding work by Walker are the Minneapolis Institute of Art and the Weisman Art Museum (Minneapolis, Minnesota); the Metropolitan Museum of Art; the Tate Collection, London; the Pérez Art Museum Miami; the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles; the Madison Museum of Contemporary Art (Madison, Wisconsin); the Menil Collection, Houston; and the Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, Virginia. Early large-scale cut-paper works have been collected by, among others, Jeffrey Deitch and Dakis Joannou. == Recognition == In 1997, Walker, who was 28 at the time, was one of the youngest people to receive a MacArthur fellowship. Walker's work received criticism from older generations of African-American artists who accused her work of being pornographic and of pandering to racism, while being targeted at a white audience who these critics felt covertly enjoyed the racist imagery which her work repurposed. She was the United States representative for the 25th International São Paulo Biennial in Brazil in 2002. Walker received the 2004 Deutsche Bank Prize and the 2005 Larry Aldrich Award. In 2007, she was listed among Time magazine's 100 Most Influential People in The World, Artists and Entertainers, in an essay written by artist Barbara Kruger. In 2012, she was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters and won the International Artist Award from Anderson Ranch Arts Center in Colorado. In 2016, she was an artist-in-residence at the American Academy in Rome. Walker has been featured on the PBS series Art21: Art in the Twenty-First Century. Her work appears on the cover of musician Arto Lindsay's recording, "Salt" (2004). In addition, she co-wrote the song "Suicide Demo for Kara Walker" on the Destroyer album "Kaputt." Her name appears in the lyrics of the Le Tigre song "Hot Topic." In 2017, a large scale mural portrait of Kara Walker done by artist Chuck Close was installed in a New York City subway station (Q line, 86th Street), part of a MTA public arts program. She was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2018. In 2019, Walker was elected to the Royal Academy of Arts in London, as an Honorary Royal Academician (HonRA). == Personal life == Early in her career, Walker lived in Providence, Rhode Island with her husband, German-born jewelry professor Klaus Bürgel, whom she married in 1996. In 1997, she gave birth to a daughter. The couple separated, and their divorce was finalized in 2010. As of 2017, Walker is in a relationship with photographer and filmmaker Ari Marcopoulos. They married in 2025. Walker moved to Fort Greene, Brooklyn in 2003 and has been a professor of visual arts in the MFA program at Columbia University since then. She maintained a studio in the Garment District, Manhattan from 2010 until 2017. In May 2017, she moved her art practice to a studio in Industry City. She also owns a country home in rural Massachusetts. In addition to her own practice, Walker served on the board of directors of the Foundation for Contemporary Arts (FCA) between 2011 and 2016. == Further reading == === Articles === D'Arcy, David. "Kara Walker Kicks Up a Storm," "Modern Painters" (April 2006). Garrett, Shawn-Marie. "Return of the Repressed," "Theater" 32, no. 2 (Summer 2002). Kazanjian, Dodie. "Cut it Out," "Vogue" (May 2005). Szabo, Julia. "Kara Walker's Shock Art," "New York Times Magazine" 146, no. 50740 (March 1997). Walker, Hamza. "Kara Walker: Cut it Out," "Nka: Journal of Contemporary African Art" no. 11/12 (Fall/Winter 2000). Als, Hilton. "The Shadow Act," "The New Yorker", October 8, 2007 Als, Hilton. "The Sugar Sphinx," "The New Yorker", May 8, 2014 Scott, Andrea K. "Kara Walker's Ghosts of Future Evil", the "New Yorker", September 9, 2017 Wall, David (2010). "Transgression, Excess, and the Violence of Looking in the Art of Kara Walker". Oxford Art Journal. 33 (3). Oxford University Press: 277–299. doi:10.1093/oxartj/kcq035. ISSN 0142-6540. JSTOR 40983288. === Non-fiction books and catalogues === Barrett, Terry. "Interpreting Art: Reflecting, Wondering, and Responding", New York: McGraw Hill (2002). Berry, Ian, Darby English, Vivian Patterson, Mark Reinhardt, eds. Narratives of a Negress, Boston: MIT Press (2003). Carpenter, Elizabeth and Joan Rothfuss. "Bits & Pieces Put Together to Present a Semblance of A Whole: Walker Art Center Collections". Minneapolis: Walker Art Center, 2005. Géré, Vanina. "Kara Walker", October Files series, The MIT Press (2022). https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262544474/kara-walker/ Jacobs, Harriet. "Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl" (1858). Shaw, Gwendolyn Dubois. "Seeing the Unspeakable: The Art of Kara Walker", Durham and London: Duke University Press (2004). http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55008318 Vergne, Philippe, et al. "Kara Walker: My Complement, My Enemy, My Oppressor, My Love". Minneapolis: Walker Art Center, 2007. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/602217956 Walker, Kara E. "Kara Walker: After the Deluge". New York: Rizzoli, 2007. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/144225309 Walker, Kara E., Olga Gambari, and Richard Flood. Kara Walker: A Negress of Noteworthy Talent. Torino: Fondazione Merz, 2011. http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/768397358 === Web sources === The Art Story: Kara Walker, Modern Art Insight. 2016 == Notes == == References == Hans Werner Holzwarth, ed. (2008). Art Now, Vol. 3: A cutting-edge selection of today's most exciting artists. Taschen. p. 488. ISBN 978-3-8365-0511-6. Goldbaum, Karen, ed. "Kara Walker: Pictures From Another Time." Seattle: Marquand Books, Inc. ISBN 1-891024-50-7 Smith, Zadie. "What Do We Want History to Do to Us?" "The New York Review of Books", February 27, 2020. https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2020/02/27/kara-walker-what-do-we-want-history-to-do-to-us/ Vergne, Phillppe. "Kara Walker: My Complement, My Enemy, My Oppressor, My Love." Minneapolis: Walker Art Center. ISBN 978-0-935640-86-1 == External links == Kara Walker website The "Time" 100: "Time" magazine's profile of Walker Biography, interviews, essays, artwork images and video clips from PBS series Art:21 -- Art in the Twenty-First Century - Season 2 (2003) Kara E. Walker's Song of the South Archived January 10, 2016, at the Wayback Machine at REDCAT Kara Walker at Ocula Kara Walker at Smithsonian American Art Museum
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacinda_Ardern	Jacinda Ardern	Dame Jacinda Kate Laurell Ardern ( ar-DURN; born 26 July 1980) is a New Zealand politician and activist who was the 40th prime minister of New Zealand and leader of the Labour Party from 2017 to 2023. She was a member of Parliament (MP) as a list MP from 2008 to 2017 and for Mount Albert from 2017 to 2023. Born and raised in Hamilton, Ardern grew up in Morrinsville and Murupara. She joined the New Zealand Labour Party at the age of 17. After graduating from the University of Waikato in 2001, Ardern worked as a researcher in the office of then-New Zealand Prime Minister Helen Clark. She later worked in London as an adviser in the Cabinet Office during Tony Blair's premiership. In 2008, Ardern was elected president of the International Union of Socialist Youth. Ardern was first elected as an MP in the 2008 general election, when Labour lost power after nine years. She was later elected to represent the Mount Albert electorate in a by-election on 25 February 2017. Ardern was unanimously elected as deputy leader of the Labour Party on 1 March 2017, after the resignation of Annette King. Exactly five months later, with an election due, Labour's leader Andrew Little resigned after a historically low opinion polling result for the party, with Ardern elected unopposed as leader in his place. Labour's support increased rapidly after Ardern became leader, and she led her party to gain 14 seats at the 2017 general election on 23 September, winning 46 seats to the National Party's 56. After negotiations, New Zealand First chose to enter a minority coalition government with Labour, supported by the Green Party, with Ardern as prime minister. She was sworn in by the governor-general on 26 October 2017. She became the world's youngest female head of government at age 37. Ardern gave birth to her daughter on 21 June 2018, making her the world's second elected head of government to give birth while in office (after Benazir Bhutto). Ardern describes herself as a social democrat and a progressive. The Sixth Labour Government faced challenges from the New Zealand housing crisis, child poverty, and social inequality. In March 2019, in the aftermath of the Christchurch mosque shootings, Ardern reacted by rapidly introducing strict gun laws. Throughout 2020 she led New Zealand's response to the COVID-19 pandemic, for which she won praise for New Zealand being one of few Western nations to successfully contain the virus. Ardern moved the Labour Party further to the centre towards the October 2020 general election, promising to cut spending during the remainder of the COVID-19 recession. She led the Labour Party to a landslide victory, gaining an overall majority of 65 seats in Parliament, the first time a majority government had been formed since 1996. Facing declining popularity and increasing criticism over the government's handling of key issues such as the economy, housing, and child poverty, Ardern announced on 19 January 2023, that she would resign as Labour leader, stating that she "didn't have enough in the tank." Ardern resigned as leader of the Labour Party on 22 January and submitted her resignation as prime minister three days later. Rising costs of living and concerns that the government's focus on health measures overshadowed effective economic recovery fueled public backlash against the Labour Party in the 2023 general election. Since late 2025, Ardern has resided in the United Kingdom, after having lived in the United States for two years. == Early life and education == Jacinda Kate Laurell Ardern was born on 26 July 1980 in Hamilton, New Zealand. She grew up in Morrinsville and Murupara, where her father, Ross Ardern, worked as a police officer, and her mother, Laurell Ardern (née Bottomley), worked as a school catering assistant. She has an older sister named Louise. Ardern was raised in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and her uncle, Ian S. Ardern, is a general authority in the church. In 1994, she began studying at Morrinsville College, and later she was the student representative on the school's board of trustees. Whilst still at school, she found her first job, working at a local fish-and-chip shop. She joined the Labour Party at the age of 17. Her aunt, Marie Ardern, a longstanding member of the Labour Party, recruited the teenaged Ardern to help her with campaigning for New Plymouth MP Harry Duynhoven during his re-election campaign at the 1999 general election. Ardern attended the University of Waikato, graduating in 2001 as a Bachelor of Communication Studies in politics and public relations, a specialist three-year degree. She took a semester (half-year) abroad at Arizona State University in 2001. After graduating from university, she spent time working in the offices of Phil Goff and of Helen Clark as a researcher. After a period of time in New York City, United States, where she volunteered at a soup kitchen and worked on a workers' rights campaign, Ardern moved to London, England, in 2006, where she became a senior policy adviser in an 80-person policy unit of the United Kingdom Cabinet Office under prime minister Tony Blair. (She did not meet Blair in person while in London, but later at an event in New Zealand in 2011 she questioned him about the 2003 invasion of Iraq). Ardern was also seconded to the United Kingdom Home Office to help with a review of policing in England and Wales. == Early political career == === President of International Union of Socialist Youth === On 30 January 2008, at 27, Ardern was elected president of the International Union of Socialist Youth (IUSY) at their world congress in the Dominican Republic for a two-year term until 2010. The role saw her spend time in several countries, including Hungary, Jordan, Israel, Algeria and China. It was mid-way through her presidency term that Ardern became a list MP for the Labour Party. She then continued to manage both roles for the next 15 months. === Member of Parliament === Ahead of the 2008 election, Ardern was ranked 20th on Labour's party list. This was a very high placement for someone who was not already a sitting MP, and virtually assured her of a seat in Parliament. Accordingly, Ardern returned from London to campaign full-time. She also became Labour's candidate for the safe National electorate of Waikato. Ardern was unsuccessful in the electorate vote, but her high placement on Labour's party list allowed her to enter Parliament as a list MP. Upon election, she became the youngest sitting MP in Parliament, succeeding fellow Labour MP Darren Hughes, and remained the youngest MP until the election of Gareth Hughes on 11 February 2010. Opposition leader Phil Goff promoted Ardern to the front bench, naming her Labour's spokesperson for Youth Affairs and as associate spokesperson for Justice (Youth Affairs). She made regular appearances on TVNZ's Breakfast programme as part of the "Young Guns" feature, in which she appeared alongside National MP (and future National leader) Simon Bridges. Ardern contested the seat of Auckland Central for Labour in the 2011 general election, standing against incumbent National MP Nikki Kaye for National and Greens candidate Denise Roche. She lost to Kaye by 717 votes. However, she returned to Parliament via the party list, on which she was ranked 13th. Ardern maintained an office within the electorate while she was a list MP based in Auckland Central. After Goff resigned from the Party leadership following his defeat at the 2011 election, Ardern supported David Shearer over David Cunliffe. She was elevated to the fourth-ranking position in his Shadow Cabinet on 19 December 2011, becoming a spokesperson for social development under the new leader. Ardern stood again in Auckland Central at the 2014 general election. She again finished second though increased her own vote and reduced Kaye's majority from 717 to 600. Ranked 5th on Labour's list, Ardern was still returned to Parliament where she became Shadow spokesperson for Justice, Children, Small Business, and Arts & Culture under new leader Andrew Little. In 2014 Ardern was also selected, attended and graduated from the World Economic Forum's (WEF) Forum of Young Global Leaders, founded by Klaus Schwab, which takes place in Switzerland. She remains involved publicly as a part of the Young Global Leaders Alumni Community, and speaks at WEF events. == Pre-premiership == === Mount Albert by-election === Ardern put forward her name for the Labour nomination for the Mount Albert by-election to be held in February 2017 following the resignation of David Shearer on 8 December 2016. When nominations for the Labour Party closed on 12 January 2017, Ardern was the only nominee and was selected unopposed. On 21 January, Ardern participated in the 2017 Women's March, a worldwide protest in opposition to Donald Trump, the newly inaugurated president of the United States. She was confirmed as Labour's candidate at a meeting on 22 January. Ardern won a landslide victory, gaining 77 per cent of votes cast in the preliminary results. === Deputy Leader of the Labour Party === Following her win in the by-election, Ardern was unanimously elected as deputy leader of the Labour Party on 7 March 2017, following the resignation of Annette King, who was intending to retire at the next election. Ardern's vacant list seat was taken by Raymond Huo. === Leader of the Opposition === On 1 August 2017, just seven weeks before the 2017 general election, Ardern assumed the position of leader of the Labour Party, and consequently became leader of the Opposition, following the resignation of Andrew Little. Little stood down due to the party's historically low polling. Ardern was unanimously confirmed in an election to choose a new leader at a caucus meeting the same day. At 37, Ardern became the youngest leader of the Labour Party in its history. She is also the second female leader of the party after Helen Clark. According to Ardern, Little had previously approached her on 26 July and said he thought she should take over as Labour leader then, as he was of the opinion he could not turn things around for the party, although Ardern declined and told him to "stick it out". At her first press conference, after her election as leader, she said that the forthcoming election campaign would be one of "relentless positivity". Immediately following her appointment, the party was inundated with donations by the public, reaching NZ$700 per minute at its peak. After Ardern's ascension to the leadership, Labour rose dramatically in opinion polls. By late August, the party had reached 43 per cent in the Colmar Brunton poll (having been 24 per cent under Little's leadership) as well as managing to overtake National in opinion polls for the first time in over a decade. Detractors observed her positions were substantially similar to those of Andrew Little, and suggested that Labour's sudden increase in popularity were due to her youth and good looks. In mid-August, Ardern stated that a Labour government would establish a tax working group to explore the possibility of introducing a capital gains tax but ruled out taxing family homes. In response to negative publicity, Ardern abandoned plans to introduce a capital gains tax during the first term of a Labour government. Finance spokesperson Grant Robertson later clarified that Labour would not introduce new taxes until after the 2020 election. The policy shift accompanied strident allegations by Minister of Finance Steven Joyce that Labour had an $11.7 billion "hole" in its tax policy. The Labour and Green parties' proposed water and pollution taxes also generated criticism from farmers. On 18 September 2017, the farming lobby group Federated Farmers staged a protest against the taxes in Ardern's hometown of Morrinsville. New Zealand First leader Winston Peters attended the protest to campaign but was jeered at by the farmers because they suspected he was also in favour of the taxes. During the protest, one farmer displayed a sign calling Ardern a "pretty communist". This was criticised as misogynistic by former prime minister Helen Clark. In the final days of the general election campaign, the opinion polls narrowed with National taking a slight lead. === 2017 general election === At the general election held on 23 September 2017, Ardern retained her Mount Albert electorate seat by a margin of 15,264 votes. Labour increased its vote share to 36.89 per cent while National dropped back to 44.45. Labour gained 14 seats, increasing its parliamentary representation to 46 seats, the best result for the party since losing power in 2008. The rival Labour and National parties lacked sufficient seats to govern alone and held talks with the Greens and New Zealand First parties about forming a coalition. Under the country's mixed-member proportional (MMP) voting system, New Zealand First held the balance of power and chose to be part of a coalition government with Labour. == Prime Minister (2017–2023) == === First term (2017–2020) === On 19 October 2017, New Zealand First leader Winston Peters agreed to form a coalition with Labour, making Ardern the next prime minister. This coalition received confidence and supply from the Green Party. Ardern named Peters as deputy prime minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs. She also gave New Zealand First five posts in her government, with Peters and three other ministers serving in Cabinet. The next day, Ardern indicated her intention to take ministerial responsibilities in the National Security and Intelligence; Arts, Culture and Heritage; and children's portfolios; reflecting the shadow positions she held as Leader of the Opposition. She wanted to appoint herself the Minister for Children but was advised that role was too large to hold alongside her other responsibilities; instead, Ardern became the first Minister for Child Poverty Reduction. She was officially sworn in by Governor-General Dame Patsy Reddy on 26 October, alongside her ministry. Upon taking office, Ardern said that her government would be "focused, empathetic and strong". Ardern is New Zealand's third female prime minister after Jenny Shipley (1997–1999) and Helen Clark (1999–2008). She is a member of the Council of Women World Leaders. Entering office aged 37, Ardern is also the youngest individual to become New Zealand's head of government since Edward Stafford, who became premier in 1856 also aged 37. On 19 January 2018, Ardern announced that she was pregnant, and that Winston Peters would take the role of acting prime minister for six weeks after the birth. Following the birth of a daughter, she took her maternity leave from 21 June to 2 August 2018. ==== Domestic affairs ==== Ardern promised to halve child poverty in New Zealand within a decade. In July 2018, Ardern announced the start of her government's flagship Families Package. Among its provisions, the package gradually increased paid parental leave to 26 weeks and introduced a $60 per-week universal BestStart Payment for low and middle-income families with young children. The Family Tax Credit, Orphans Benefit, Accommodation Supplement, and Foster Care Allowance were all substantially increased as well. In 2019, the government began the roll-out of a school lunches pilot programme to assist in reducing child poverty numbers; this was then extended to support 200,000 children (about 25 per cent of school rolls) in low decile schools. Other efforts to reduce poverty have included increases to main welfare benefits, expanding free doctor's visits, providing free menstrual hygiene products in schools and adding to state housing stock. However, as of 2022 critics say rising housing costs are continuing to cripple families and systemic changes are needed to ensure any gains are lasting. Economically, Ardern's government implemented steady increases to the country's minimum wage and introduced the Provincial Growth Fund to invest in rural infrastructure projects. The National Party's planned tax cuts were cancelled, saying instead it would prioritise expenditure on healthcare and education. The first year of post-secondary education was made free from 1 January 2018 and, after industrial action, the government agreed to increase primary teachers' pay by 12.8 (for beginning teachers) and 18.5 per cent (for senior teachers without other responsibilities) by 2021. Despite the Labour Party campaigning on a capital gains tax for the last three elections, Ardern pledged in April 2019 that the government would not implement a capital gains tax under her leadership. However, since then the period for which capital gain on rental properties sold is taxed has increased from five to ten years since purchase. Ardern travelled to Waitangi in 2018 for the annual Waitangi Day commemoration; stayed in Waitangi for five days, an unprecedented length. Ardern became the first female prime minister to speak from the top marae. Her visit was largely well received by Māori leaders, with commentators noting a sharp contrast with the acrimonious responses received by several of her predecessors. On 24 August 2018, Ardern removed Broadcasting Minister Clare Curran from Cabinet after she failed to disclose a meeting with a broadcaster outside of parliamentary business, which was judged to be a conflict of interest. Curran remained a minister outside Cabinet, and Ardern was criticised by the Opposition for not dismissing Curran from her portfolio. Ardern later accepted Curran's resignation. In 2019, she was criticised for her handling of an allegation of sexual assault against a Labour Party staffer. Ardern said she had been told the allegation did not involve sexual assault or violence before a report about the incident was published in The Spinoff. Media questioned her account, with one journalist stating that Ardern's claim was "hard to swallow". Ardern opposes criminalising people who use cannabis in New Zealand, and pledged to hold a referendum on the issue. A non-binding referendum to legalise cannabis was held in conjunction with the 2020 general election on 17 October 2020. Ardern admitted to past cannabis use during a televised debate prior to the election. In the referendum, voters rejected the proposed Cannabis Legalisation and Control Bill by 51.17 per cent. A retrospective article published in a medical journal suggested that Ardern's refusal to publicly back the 'yes' campaign "may have been a decisive factor in the narrow defeat". In September 2020, Ardern announced that her government had abandoned plans to make tertiary education tuition free. ==== Foreign affairs ==== On 5 November 2017, Ardern made her first official overseas trip to Australia, where she met Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull for the first time. Relations between the two countries had been strained in the preceding months because of Australia's treatment of New Zealanders living in the country, and shortly before taking office, Ardern had spoken of the need to rectify this situation, and to develop a better working relationship with the Australian government. Turnbull described the meeting in cordial terms: "we trust each other...The fact we are from different political traditions is irrelevant". On 12 November 2017, Trade and Export Growth Minister David Parker and Ardern announced that the government would continue participating in the Trans-Pacific Partnership negotiations despite opposition from the Green Party. New Zealand ratified the revised agreement, the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, which she described as being better than the original TPP agreement. Ardern attended the 2017 APEC summit in Vietnam, the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting 2018 in London (featuring a private audience with Queen Elizabeth II) and a United Nations summit in New York City. After her first formal meeting with Donald Trump she reported that the US president showed "interest" in New Zealand's gun buyback programme. In 2018, Ardern raised the issue of Xinjiang internment camps and human-rights abuses against the Uyghur Muslim minority in China. Ardern has also raised concerns over the persecution of the Rohingya Muslims in Myanmar. Ardern travelled to Nauru, where she attended the 2018 Pacific Islands Forum. Media and political opponents criticised her decision to travel separately from the rest of her contingent, costing taxpayers up to NZ$100,000, so that she could spend more time with her daughter. At a 2018 United Nations General Assembly meeting, Ardern became the first female head of government to attend with her infant present. Her address to the General Assembly praised the United Nations for its multilateralism, expressed support for the world's youth, called for immediate attention to the effects and causes of climate change, for the equality of women, and for kindness as the basis for action. On 24 September 2019, Ardern met with United States President Donald Trump on the sidelines of the annual United Nations General Assembly meeting. During the 25-minute meeting, the two leaders discussed various issues including tourism, the Christchurch mosque shooting, and bilateral trade. During the meeting, Trump expressed an interest in New Zealand's gun buy-back scheme. The two leaders had earlier met briefly at the 2017 East Asia Summit, the 2017 APEC Summit, and during an exclusive party following the 2018 UN General Assembly meeting. In late February 2020, Ardern met Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison in Sydney. During her visit, she criticised Australia's policy of deporting New Zealanders, many of whom had lived in Australia but had not taken up Australian citizenship, as "corrosive" and damaging to Australia–New Zealand relations. ==== Christchurch mosque shootings ==== On 15 March 2019, 51 people were fatally shot and 49 injured in two mosques in Christchurch. In a statement broadcast on television, Ardern offered condolences and stated that the shootings had been carried out by suspects with "extremist views" that have no place in New Zealand, or anywhere else in the world. She also described it as a well-planned terrorist attack. US President Donald Trump telephoned her asking if there was anything the US could do; Ardern described the killer as a terrorist, and asked Trump to "show sympathy and love for all Muslim communities ... the terrorist chose us because he knew that New Zealand openly welcomed people of all faiths. He wanted to destroy that." Ardern announced a period of national mourning, and was the first signatory of a national condolence book that she opened in the capital, Wellington. She also travelled to Christchurch to meet first responders and families of the victims. In an address at the Parliament, she declared she would never say the name of the attacker: "Speak the names of those who were lost rather than the name of the man who took them... he will, when I speak, be nameless." Ardern received international praise for her response to the shootings, and a photograph of her hugging a member of the Christchurch Muslim community with the word "peace" in English and Arabic was projected onto the Burj Khalifa, the world's tallest building. A 25-metre (82 ft) mural of this photograph was unveiled in May 2019. In response to the shootings, Ardern announced her government's intention to introduce stronger firearms regulations. She said that the attack had exposed a range of weaknesses in New Zealand's gun law. Less than one month after the attack, the New Zealand Parliament passed a law that bans most semiautomatic weapons and assault rifles, parts that convert guns into semiautomatic guns, and higher capacity magazines. Ardern and French President Emmanuel Macron co-chaired the 2019 Christchurch Call summit, which aimed to "bring together countries and tech companies in an attempt to bring to an end the ability to use social media to organise and promote terrorism and violent extremism". In 2025, 130 governments and tech firms were signed up to the "Christchurch Call to Action". ==== COVID-19 pandemic ==== On 14 March 2020, Ardern announced in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand that the government would be requiring anyone entering the country from midnight 15 March to isolate themselves for 14 days. She said the new rules would give New Zealand the "widest-ranging and toughest border restrictions of any country in the world". On 19 March, Ardern closed New Zealand's borders to all except citizens and permanent residents from 21 March (NZDT). Ardern announced that New Zealand would move to alert level 4, including a nationwide lockdown, on 26 March. National and international media covered the government response led by Ardern, praising her leadership and swift response to the outbreak in New Zealand. The Washington Post's Anna Fifield described her regular use of interviews, press conferences and social media as a "masterclass in crisis communication". Alastair Campbell, a journalist and adviser in Tony Blair's British government, commended Ardern for addressing both the human and economic consequences of the coronavirus pandemic. In mid-April 2020 a lawsuit was filed, but dismissed, against Ardern and government officials, claiming that the COVID-19 lockdown infringed on the applicants' freedoms and was made for "political gain". On 5 May 2020, Ardern, her Australian counterpart Scott Morrison and several Australian state and territorial leaders agreed that they would collaborate to develop a trans-Tasman COVID-safe travel zone that would allow residents from both countries to travel freely without travel restrictions as part of efforts to ease coronavirus restrictions. Post-lockdown opinion polls showed the Labour Party with nearly 60 per cent support. In May 2020, Ardern rated 59.5 per cent as 'preferred prime minister' in a Newshub-Reid Research poll—the highest score for any leader in the Reid Research poll's history. The number of lives saved by the response Ardern spearheaded was estimated as up to 80,000 by a team led by Shaun Hendy. === Second term (2020–2023) === In the 2020 general election, Ardern led her party to a landslide victory, winning an overall majority of 65 seats in the 120-seat House of Representatives, and 50 per cent of the nationwide party vote (moreover Labour won the party vote in 71 out of the 72 electorates). She also retained the Mount Albert electorate by a margin of 21,246 votes. Ardern credited her victory to her government's response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the economic impacts it has had. In 2021 the much more infectious Delta variant of covid was spreading in New Zealand; in August a nationwide lockdown was instituted, but cases continued to rise, and the government abandoned containment and accelerated vaccination. Ardern said that she began to see that "New Zealand's sense of togetherness was starting to fracture". Anti-vaccine protesters demonstrated vociferously against Ardern. However, Ardern in 2025 continued to believe that she had saved about 24,000 lives by her actions, but said that she had found covid "really hard". In 2022, domestic popularity for Ardern and her policies fell considerably, with polling on whether people "think the country is going in the right direction" tracking down from a high of 70% in early 2021 to 30% at the end of 2022. The last polls of 2022 had Labour at about 33%, similar to party polling when she first took over in 2017, and her approval rating dropped to 29%. ==== Domestic affairs ==== On 2 December 2020, Ardern declared a climate change emergency in New Zealand and pledged that the Government would be carbon neutral by 2025 in a parliamentary motion. As part of this commitment towards carbon neutrality, the public sector would be required to buy only electric or hybrid vehicles, the fleet would be reduced over time by 20 per cent, and all 200 coal-fired boilers in public service buildings would be phased out. This motion was supported by the Labour, Green, and Māori parties, but was opposed by the opposition National and ACT parties. However, climate activist Greta Thunberg said about Ardern: "It's funny that people believe Jacinda Ardern and people like that are climate leaders. That just tells you how little people know about the climate crisis ... the emissions haven't fallen." In response to worsening housing affordability issues, minister of housing and urban development Megan Woods announced new reforms. These reforms included the removal of the interest rate tax-deduction, lifting Housing Aid for first home buyers, renewed allocation of infrastructure funds (named Housing Acceleration Fund) for district councils, and an extension of the Bright Line Test from five to ten years. On 14 June 2021, Ardern confirmed that the New Zealand government would formally apologise for the Dawn Raids, a series of police raids which disproportionately targeted members of the Pasifika diaspora in New Zealand during the 1970s and early 1980s, at the Auckland Town Hall on 26 June 2021. In September 2022, Ardern led the nation's tributes following the death of New Zealand's longest-reigning monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. Ardern described her as an "incredible woman", a "constant in our lives", and a "much admired and respected" monarch. Ardern also stated that republicanism was currently not on the agenda but believed that the country would head in that direction in the future. In mid-December 2022, Ardern was recorded on a hot mic calling the leader of the ACT Party, David Seymour, an "arrogant prick" during Parliament's Question Time which was broadcast on television. Ardern later texted Seymour to apologise for her comment. The two politicians subsequently reconciled and joined forces to raise NZ$60,000 for the Prostate Cancer Foundation by auctioning a signed and framed copy of the prime minister's remark. ==== COVID-19 and vaccination programme ==== On 17 June 2020, prime minister Ardern met with Bill and Melinda Gates via a teleconference in a meeting requested by Bill. In the meeting, Ardern was asked by Melinda to "speak up" in support of a collective approach to a COVID-19 vaccine. Ardern said she'd be happy to assist, an Official Information Act request response has shown. A month earlier in May, Ardern's government had pledged $37 million to help develop a COVID-19 vaccine, which included $15 million to CEPI (Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations) founded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the World Economic Forum among others, and $7 million to GAVI (Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunisation), also founded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. During the meeting Gates noted this contribution. On 12 December 2020, Ardern and Cook Islands prime minister Mark Brown announced that a travel bubble between New Zealand and the Cook Islands would be established in 2021, allowing two-way quarantine-free travel between the two countries. On 14 December, Prime Minister Ardern confirmed that the New Zealand and Australian governments had agreed to establish a travel bubble between the two countries the following year. On 17 December, Ardern also announced that the government had purchased two more vaccines from the pharmaceutical companies AstraZeneca and Novavax for New Zealand and its Pacific partners in addition to the existing stocks from Pfizer/BioNTech and Janssen Pharmaceutica. On 26 January 2021, Ardern stated that New Zealand's borders would remain closed to most non-citizens and non-residents until New Zealand citizens have been "vaccinated and protected". The COVID-19 vaccination programme began in February 2021. In the outbreak of the COVID-19 Delta variant in August 2021, she prompted the government to enact a nationwide lockdown again. By September, the number of new community infections began to fall again; comparisons were made with an outbreak in neighbouring Australia, which was unable to contain a Delta variant outbreak at the same time. In early October 2021, after one and a half years of pursuing a "Covid zero" strategy—a policy maintained even as many of its neighbors transitioned to living with the viral threat—New Zealand finally ended its zero-Covid approach, becoming the last country in the world to do so, apart from China. On 29 January 2022, Ardern, Governor-General Cindy Kiro and chief press secretary Andrew Campbell self-isolated after being in close contact with a COVID-19 case on an Air New Zealand flight on 22 January. During a routine school visit by Ardern, vociferous protestors gathered; Ardern was driven away, chased by protesters. The previous month Ardern's vehicle had been chased by anti-vaccination protesters calling her a Nazi and yelling obscenities; Ardern said it had been "just another day". Ardern's government faced significant criticism for its border management during the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly the Managed Isolation and Quarantine (MIQ) system. Thousands of New Zealanders were stranded abroad sometimes for years due to the system's limited capacity. Critics highlighted the severe consequences, including homelessness, financial ruin, family separation, and mental health crises. In April 2022, the New Zealand High Court ruled that aspects of MIQ violated international human rights, finding the policies arbitrarily restricted citizens' right to return home under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. During a May 2022 appearance on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, Ardern stated that during the two and a half years New Zealand had closed its borders, "New Zealanders could come and go and use quarantine," a remark widely criticised as tone-deaf and dismissive of the hardships many thousands endured. While the policies were credited with limiting the virus's spread, their social and personal costs remain a controversial aspect of Ardern's pandemic leadership. ==== Foreign affairs ==== In early December 2020, Ardern expressed support for Australia during a dispute between Canberra and Beijing over Chinese Foreign Ministry official Zhao Lijian's Twitter post alleging that Australia had committed war crimes against Afghans. She described the image as not being factual and incorrect, adding that the New Zealand Government would raise its concerns with the Chinese Government. On 9 December 2020, Ardern delivered a speech virtually at the Singapore FinTech Festival, applauding the Digital Economy Partnership Agreement (DEPA) among New Zealand, Chile and Singapore as "the first important steps" to achieve the regulatory alignment to facilitate businesses. On 16 February 2021, Ardern criticised the Australian Government's decision to revoke dual New Zealand–Australian national Suhayra Aden's Australian citizenship. Aden had migrated from New Zealand to Australia at the age of six and acquired Australian citizenship. She subsequently travelled to Syria to live in the Islamic State as a ISIS bride in 2014. On 15 February 2021, Aden and two of her children were detained by Turkish authorities for illegal entry. Ardern accused the Australian Government of abandoning its obligations to its citizens and also offered consular support to Aden and her children. In response, Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison defended the decision to revoke Aden's citizenship, citing legislation stripping dual nationals of their Australian citizenship if they were engaged in terrorist activities. Following a phone conversation, the two leaders agreed to work together to address what Ardern described as "quite a complex legal situation". In response to the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, Ardern stated on 17 May that New Zealand "condemned both the indiscriminate rocket fire we have seen from Hamas and what looks to be a response that has gone well beyond self-defence on both sides." She also stated that Israel had the "right to exist" but Palestinians also had a "right to a peaceful home, a secure home." In late May 2021, Ardern hosted Australian Prime Minister Scott Morrison during a state visit at Queenstown. The two heads of governments issued a joint statement affirming bilateral cooperation on the issues of COVID-19, bilateral relations, and security issues in the Indo-Pacific. Ardern and Morrison also raised concerns about the South China Sea dispute and human rights in Hong Kong and Xinjiang. In response to the joint statement, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Wang Wenbin criticised the Australian and New Zealand governments for interfering in Chinese domestic affairs. In early December 2021, Ardern participated in the virtual Summit for Democracy that was hosted by US President Joe Biden. In her address, she talked about bolstering democratic resilience in the age of COVID-19 followed by panel discussions. Ardern also announced that New Zealand would contribute an additional NZ$1 million to supporting Pacific countries' anti-corruption efforts, as well as contributing to UNESCO's Global Media Defence Fund and the International Fund for Public Interest Media. In April 2022, Ardern was banned from entering Russia along with 129 other parliamentarians and senior government officials after the New Zealand Parliament unanimously imposed sanctions on Russia in response to its invasion of Ukraine. In late May 2022, Ardern led a trade and tourism mission to the United States. During her trip, she urged the Biden Administration to join the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP); the successor to the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement which the previous Trump Administration had abandoned in 2017. While attending the Late Show with Stephen Colbert, Ardern also condemned the Robb Elementary School shooting and advocated stronger gun control measures, citing New Zealand's ban on semi-automatic firearms following the 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings. On 27 May, Ardern gave the annual commencement address at Harvard University, speaking about gun reform and democracy. She was also awarded an honorary doctorate in law. On 28 May, Ardern signed a memorandum of understanding with Governor of California Gavin Newsom formalising bilateral cooperation between New Zealand and California in climate change mitigation and research. On 1 June 2022, Ardern met with US President Joe Biden and Vice-president Kamala Harris to reaffirm bilateral relations between the two countries. The two leaders also issued a joint statement reaffirming bilateral cooperation on various issues including the South China Sea dispute, support for Ukraine in response to the Russian invasion, Chinese tensions with Taiwan, and alleged human-rights violations in Xinjiang and Hong Kong. In response, Chinese Foreign Ministry official Zhao Lijian accused New Zealand and the United States of seeking to spread disinformation about China's engagement with Pacific Islands countries, interfering in Chinese internal affairs, and urged New Zealand to adhere to its stated "independent foreign policy". On 10 June 2022, Ardern visited the newly elected Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese. The two leaders discussed a range of issues including Australia's controversial Section 501 deportation policy, Chinese influence in the Pacific region, climate change, and working with Pacific neighbours. In response to Ardern's concerns, Albanese stated that he would explore ways of addressing New Zealand's concerns about the adverse impact of its deportation policies on New Zealanders residing in Australia. In late June 2022, Ardern attended the NATO's Leader Summit, which marked the first time that New Zealand had formally addressed a NATO event. During her speech, she emphasised New Zealand's commitment to peace and human rights. Ardern also criticised China for challenging international norms and rules in the South Pacific. She also alleged that Russia was conducting a disinformation campaign targeting New Zealand due to its support for Ukraine. In response, the Chinese Embassy defended China's engagement with the South Pacific region, claiming that China was only interested in promoting regional development and did not seek to militarise the region. On 30 June 2022, Ardern spoke by telephone with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky. Though Zelensky had earlier invited Ardern to visit Ukraine during her European trade mission, Ardern had declined due to scheduling issues. During the conversation, Ardern reassured Zelensky that New Zealand would continue imposing sanctions on Russia. Zelensky also thanked New Zealand for providing aid to Ukraine and called for assistance in rebuilding Ukraine. In early August 2022, Ardern led a delegation of New Zealand political leaders, officials, civil society leaders, and journalists including National Party and opposition leader Christopher Luxon, Arts, Culture and Heritage Minister Carmel Sepuloni and Pacific Peoples Minister William Sio on a state visit to Samoa to marked the 60th anniversary of Samoa's independence. This visit preceded an earlier visit to New Zealand in June 2022 by Samoan Prime Minister Fiame Naomi Mata'afa. On 2 August, Ardern met with Fiame to discuss issues of concern to bilateral relations including climate change, economic resilience, COVID-19, health and Samoan seasonal workers in New Zealand. Ardern also confirmed that New Zealand would commit NZ$15 million in aid to support Samoa's climate change mitigation efforts and NZ$12m to rebuild Apia's historical Savalalo Market. In September 2022, Ardern along with her fiancé Clarke Gayford and their daughter Neve attended Queen Elizabeth II's funeral. During the funeral, she wore a traditional Māori cloak designed by Māori fashion designer Kiri Nathan. In late October 2022, Ardern and Gayford visited New Zealand's Antarctica base Scott Base to mark the research base's 65th anniversary. The Government had already committed NZ$344 million to the redevelopment of Scott base. After Ardern's C-130 Hercules aircraft of the Royal New Zealand Air Force broke down, she and her entourage returned to Christchurch on an Italian C-130 Hercules aircraft. In mid-November 2022, Ardern attended the East Asia Summit in Cambodia where she condemned the Myanmar military regime's execution of political prisoners and called for consensus in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine. During the East Asia Summit, she met with US President Biden to discuss New Zealand milk company A2 Milk's efforts to supply infant formula to help address the infant formula milk shortage in the United States. On 30 November, Ardern hosted Finnish Prime Minister Sanna Marin, which marked the first visit by a Finnish head of government to New Zealand. During her visit, the two leaders discussed bilateral trade relations, the global economic situation, the Russian invasion of Ukraine, and human rights in Iran. During the ensuing press conference, Ardern rebuffed a suggestion by a journalist that the two heads of government had met because they were of a similar age and gender. === Resignation === On 19 January 2023, at the Labour Party's summer caucus retreat, Ardern announced she would resign as Labour leader and prime minister by 7 February and leave Parliament by the 2023 general election. She cited a desire to spend more time with her partner and daughter and an inability to commit to another four years. Ardern had indicated in November 2022 that she would seek a third term as prime minister. Speaking to the press during the caucus retreat as she announced her resignation plan, Ardern said, "I know what this job takes and I know that I no longer have enough in the tank to do it justice. It is that simple. We need a fresh set of shoulders for that challenge." While this has been described as "burnout" (occupational fatigue), Ardern said in an interview in 2025 that it was not burnout as such, which "is very different from making a judgment in yourself as to whether or not you're operating at the level you need to be". Ardern's announcement prompted reactions from across the New Zealand political establishment. The opposition National and ACT parties' leaders Christopher Luxon and David Seymour thanked Ardern for her service while expressing disagreement with her government's policies. Green Party co-leader James Shaw credited Ardern with fostering a constructive working relationship between their parties while fellow co-leader Marama Davidson praised Ardern for her compassion and determination to promote a "fairer and safer" Aotearoa. Similar sentiments were echoed by the Māori Party's co-leaders Debbie Ngarewa-Packer and Rawiri Waititi, who praised her leadership qualities and contributions to New Zealand society. New Zealand First leader and former Deputy Prime Minister Winston Peters attributed Ardern's resignation to her government's failure to deliver on promises and targets during the 2020–2023 parliamentary term. Prominent New Zealanders, including actor Sam Neill, comedian and writer Michèle A'Court, and Internet entrepreneur Kim Dotcom, expressed gratitude for Ardern's service. Overseas, Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese and several state leaders paid tribute to Ardern. In several opinion polls, Ardern's domestic popularity had reached all-time lows by 19 January 2023, but she said that this would not affect the Labour Party's chances of winning the next election. Ardern's final event as prime minister was a birthday celebration for Tahupōtiki Wiremu Rātana, a Māori prophet. At the event, Ardern called her work as prime minister the "greatest privilege" and said that she loved the country and its people. On 25 January 2023, she was succeeded as prime minister and leader of the New Zealand Labour Party by Chris Hipkins, who had been elected unopposed during the Labour Party leadership election. == Post-premiership == On 4 April 2023, Ardern was announced as a trustee of the Earthshot Prize. Ardern was selected for the post by Prince William, who stated that Ardern had a life-long commitment to supporting sustainable and environmental solutions. According to the Prince, Ardern was one of the first people to encourage him to establish the prize. That same day, Prime Minister Hipkins appointed Ardern as Special Envoy for the Christchurch Call, which she had established following the Christchurch mosque shootings to combat online extremist content. During her valedictory speech, Ardern called on political leaders and parties in New Zealand to take the politics out of climate change while highlighting her role in getting cross-party support for the passage of the Climate Change Response (Zero Carbon) Amendment Act. Ardern accepted dual fellowships at the Harvard Kennedy School for a semester beginning in fall 2023, to serve as the 2023 Angelopoulos Global Public Leaders Fellow and as a Hauser Leader at the Center for Public Leadership, where she intends to share and learn leadership and governance skills. She will also work with Harvard's Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society as its first Knight Tech Governance Leadership Fellow during that period where she will focus on the study of online extremism. In mid June 2024, the Center for American Progress Active Fund announced that Ardern would be leading the Field Fellowship programme for training new "emerging leaders". On 21 August 2024, Ardern endorsed US Vice President Kamala Harris's 2024 presidential campaign. Ardern also spoke at the Global Progress Action Luncheon during the 2024 Democratic National Convention, where she likened Harris' campaign to Labour's campaign during the 2017 New Zealand general election. She also talked about women in politics and positive campaigning. A documentary on Ardern's time as prime minister, titled Prime Minister, was produced between 2017 and 2024 by Michelle Walshe and Lindsay Utz. Featuring home video filmed by Ardern's partner Clarke Gayford in which Ardern described herself as a "reluctant participant," the documentary premiered at the 2025 Sundance Film Festival. On 21 January 2025, Crown Publishing Group announced that Ardern's memoir, titled A Different Kind of Power, would be released on 3 June. Ardern, who has been living in the United States for the past two years, chose not to tour in or near New Zealand to promote her memoir although she remains the country's most popular politician. Despite this continuing popularity, many pundits claim that public sentiment toward her is negative. Ardern instead plans a nine-night promotional tour across the United Kingdom and the United States for her book which will detail her political career and leadership philosophy. Oxford University announced that during the annual Encaenia ceremony on 25 June 2025 Jacinda Ardern would be awarded an honorary degree (conferred as a mark of distinction, without requiring study or examination) of Civil Law. == Political views == Ardern has described herself as a social democrat, a progressive, a republican, and a feminist, citing Helen Clark as a political hero. She has described the extent of child poverty and homelessness in New Zealand as a "blatant failure" of capitalism. Asked by reporters to comment on the 2021 Budget, Ardern stated to "have always described myself as a Democratic Socialist", but she does not consider the term to be useful in New Zealand, as it is not commonly used in the political sphere. The American socialist magazine Jacobin asserts that, despite identifying as socialist, her government was effectively neoliberal. Referring to New Zealand's distinctive nuclear-free policy, she described taking action on climate change as "my generation's nuclear-free moment". Ardern has spoken in support of same-sex marriage, and she voted for the Marriage (Definition of Marriage) Amendment Act 2013 which legalised it. In 2018, she became the first New Zealand prime minister to march in a pride parade. Ardern supported the removal of abortion from the Crimes Act 1961. In March 2020, she voted for the Abortion Legislation Act that amends the law to decriminalise abortion. Ardern voted in favour of legalising cannabis in the 2020 New Zealand cannabis referendum, though she refused to reveal her position on legalisation until after the referendum had concluded. With regard to the future of the Māori electorates—a contentious topic in New Zealand politics—Ardern believes the retention or abolition of the electorates (seats) should be decided by Māori, stating, "[Māori] have not raised the need for those seats to go, so why would we ask the question?" She supports compulsory study of the Māori language in schools. In September 2017, Ardern said she wanted New Zealand to debate removing the monarch of New Zealand as head of state. During her announcement on 24 May 2021 of the appointment of Dame Cindy Kiro as the governor-general, Ardern said she believed that New Zealand would become a republic within her lifetime. She has, however, met regularly with members of the Royal Family over the years and said that, "My particular views do not change the respect that I have for Her Majesty and for her family and for the work that they've done for New Zealand. I think you can hold both views, and I do." Following the death of Queen Elizabeth II, Ardern reaffirmed her support for republicanism but stated that official moves towards New Zealand becoming a republic was not "on the agenda anytime soon." Ardern in 2017 advocated a lower rate of immigration, suggesting a drop of around 20,000–30,000. Calling it an "infrastructure issue", she said that "there hasn't been enough planning about population growth, we haven't necessarily targeted our skill shortages properly"; but she wanted to increase the intake of refugees. In foreign affairs, Ardern in 2017 voiced support for a two-state solution to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. She condemned the Israeli killing of Palestinians during protests at the Gaza border. Following the Supreme Court's landmark Make It 16 Incorporated v Attorney-General ruling in November 2022, Ardern supported lowering the voting age to 16 years, and said that the Government would introduce legislation to this effect. Legislation to change electoral law requires a 75 per cent majority. == Public image == Ardern was frequently described, often critically, as a "celebrity politician". After becoming the Labour Party leader, Ardern received positive coverage from many sections of the media, including international outlets such as CNN, with commentators referring to a "Jacinda effect" and "Jacindamania". Jacindamania was cited as a factor behind New Zealand gaining global attention and media influence in some reports, including the Soft Power 30 index. In a 2018 overseas trip, Ardern attracted much attention from international media, particularly after delivering a speech at the United Nations in New York. She contrasted with contemporary world leaders, being cast as an "antidote to Trumpism". Writing for Stuff, Tracy Watkins said Ardern made a "cut-through on the world stage" and her reception was as a "torch carrier for progressive politics as a young woman who breaks the mold in a world where the political strongman is on the rise. She is a foil to the muscular diplomacy of the likes of US President Donald Trump and Russian President Vladimir Putin." A year after Ardern formed her government, The Guardian's Eleanor Ainge Roy reported that Jacindamania was waning in the population, with not enough of the promised change visible. When Toby Manhire, the editor of The Spinoff, reviewed the decade in December 2019, he praised Ardern for her leadership following the Christchurch mosque shootings and the Whakaari / White Island eruption, saying that "Ardern ... revealed an empathy, steel and clarity that in the most appalling circumstances brought New Zealanders together and inspired people the world over. It was a strength of character that showed itself again this week following the tragic eruption at Whakaari." Towards the end of her tenure Ardern faced decreased levels of popularity domestically and increased levels of criticism from across the political spectrum. By early 2023, her popularity in New Zealand had declined significantly, with polls showing her approval rating at 29%, reflecting public frustration over unfulfilled promises on issues like housing, child poverty and social inequality. Contributing factors included the strictness of New Zealand's pandemic response strategy and the country's economic downturn in the early 2020s. Ardern, along with several other politicians, experienced abuse from anti-vaxxers, anti-government protestors, and right-wing populist protestors. Conspiracy theorist Richard Sivell contributed to the violent rhetoric in 2021–22 and was convicted of threatening to kill Ardern. Ardern is qualified in communications, with a focus on public relations and political science, from the University of Waikato. Some commentators have suggested that her background in public relations contributed to a leadership style perceived by critics as emphasising performative empathy over substantive policy outcomes. While she was internationally lauded for her responses to crises, domestic critics argued that her government underdelivered on key social and economic issues. Following her resignation in 2023 and her subsequent academic appointments in the United States, some New Zealanders expressed concern over what they viewed as a withdrawal from domestic political accountability. == Honours and awards == Ardern was one of fifteen women selected to appear on the cover of the September 2019 issue of British Vogue, by guest editor Meghan, Duchess of Sussex. Forbes magazine has consistently ranked her among the 100 most powerful women in the world, placing her 34th in 2021. She was included in the 2019 Time 100 list and shortlisted for Time's 2019 Person of the Year. The magazine later incorrectly speculated that she might win the 2019 Nobel Peace Prize among a listed six candidates, for her handling of the Christchurch mosque shootings. In 2020, she was listed by Prospect as the second-greatest thinker for the COVID-19 era. On 19 November 2020, Ardern was awarded Harvard University's 2020 Gleitsman International Activist Award; she contributed the US$150,000 (NZ$216,000) prize money to New Zealanders studying at the university. In 2021, New Zealand zoologist Steven A. Trewick named the flightless wētā species Hemiandrus jacinda in honour of Ardern. A spokesperson for Ardern said that a beetle (Mecodema jacinda), a lichen (Ocellularia jacinda-arderniae), and an ant (Crematogaster jacindae, found in Saudi Arabia) had also been named after her. In mid-May 2021, Fortune magazine gave Ardern the top spot on their list of world's 50 greatest leaders, citing her leadership during the COVID-19 pandemic as well as her handling of the Christchurch mosque shootings and the Whakaari / White Island eruption. On 26 May 2022, Ardern was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree by Harvard University for contributions that "shape the world". In the 2023 King's Birthday and Coronation Honours, Ardern was appointed a Dame Grand Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit (GNZM), for services to the State. Her investiture by the Prince of Wales was at Windsor Castle on 16 October 2024. In mid November 2024, Radio New Zealand reported that the United Nations Foundation would award the Champion for Global Change Award in recognition of her "trailblazing and empathetic" leadership, her commitment to women's rights, combating climate change and promoting unity and peace. == Personal life == === Family === Ardern is a second cousin of Hamish McDouall, former mayor of Whanganui. She is also a distant cousin of former National MP for Taranaki-King Country Shane Ardern. Ardern's husband is television presenter Clarke Gayford. The couple first met in 2012 when they were introduced by mutual friend Colin Mathura-Jeffree, a New Zealand television host and model, but they did not spend time together until Gayford contacted Ardern regarding a controversial Government Communications Security Bureau bill. Ardern and Gayford were living together when she became prime minister, and on 3 May 2019, it was reported that they were engaged to be married. The wedding was scheduled for January 2022, but was postponed due to highly transmissible COVID-19 Deltacron hybrid variant. On 14 May 2022, Ardern tested positive for COVID-19. Her partner, Gayford had tested positive for COVID-19 several days earlier on 8 May. On 13 January 2024 Ardern and Gayford married, at Craggy Range Winery near Havelock North in Hawke's Bay. On 19 January 2018, Ardern announced that she was expecting her first child in June, making her New Zealand's first prime minister to be pregnant in office. Ardern was admitted to Auckland City Hospital on 21 June 2018, and gave birth to a girl the same day, becoming only the second elected head of a nation's government to give birth while in office (after Benazir Bhutto in 1990). Her daughter's given names are Neve Te Aroha. Neve is an anglicised form of the Irish name Niamh, meaning 'bright'; Aroha is Māori for 'love', and Te Aroha is a rural town west of the Kaimai Range, near Ardern's former home town of Morrinsville. After growing rumours that Gayford was under police investigation for criminal offences, in 2018 both Ardern and the Police Commissioner Mike Bush took the unusual step of confirming that Gayford was not, and had not been, under any such investigations. === Religious views === Raised as a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in New Zealand, Ardern left the church in 2005 at age 25 because, she said, it conflicted with her personal views, in particular her support for gay rights. In January 2017, Ardern identified as agnostic, saying "I can't see myself being a member of an organised religion again". As prime minister in 2019, she met the president of the LDS Church, Russell M. Nelson. == See also == List of New Zealand governments Politics of New Zealand Paddles (cat), Ardern's former pet cat == References == == External links == Jacinda Ardern's Archived 2 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine profile on the New Zealand Parliament website Jacinda Ardern Archived 14 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine at the New Zealand Labour Party Appearances on C-SPAN
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiharu_Shiota#cite_note-27	Chiharu Shiota	Chiharu Shiota (塩田千春, Shiota Chiharu) (born 1972) is a Japanese performance and installation artist and belongs to a generation of artists who have gained international attention in the twenty-first century for body-related art. Shiota has lived and worked in Berlin, Germany since 1996. Educated in Japan, Australia, and Germany, Shiota interweaves materiality and the psychic perception of the space to explore ideas around the body and flesh, personal narratives that engage with memory, territory, and alienation. Her signature installations, which consist of dazzling, intricate networks of threads stretching across gallery rooms, made the artist rise to fame in the 2000s. Shiota has exhibited worldwide. She made her debut in Japan at the Yokohama Triennale in 2001 with Memory of Skin and represented Japan in the 56th Venice Biennale in 2015. == Early life, education and teaching == Shiota was born in Osaka. Her parents ran a business manufacturing fish boxes, producing a thousand wooden boxes a day. She wanted to be an artist since she was twelve. Although her parents didn't directly support her desire to be an artist and worried about her, she was able to formally study art. She studied at the Kyoto Seika University in Kyoto from 1992 to 1996, was an exchange student at Canberra School of Art, Australian National University, 1993 and a student at Hochschule für Bildende Künste, Braunschweig, from 1997 to 1999 and at Universität der Künste, Berlin, from 1999 to 2002 and was Artist in Residence at Akademie Schloss Solitude, Stuttgart, Germany. In an interview with Andrea Jahn, Shiota mentions that her first installation work was Becoming Painting (1994), which took place while she was studying abroad in Canberra, Australia, was created with red enamel paint she used on her body. "Taking part in Becoming Painting was indeed an act of liberation. It was my first physical piece of work, using my whole body, rather than a skillful artwork." Shiota first studied under contemporary sculptor Saburo Muraoka while at Kyoto Seika University. In Berlin, she was a student of Rebecca Horn and in Braunschweig studied with Marina Abramović. == Work == Shiota's oeuvre links various aspects of art performances, sculpture and installation practices. Mostly renowned for her vast, room-spanning webs of threads or hoses, she links abstract networks with concrete everyday objects such as keys, window frames, dresses, shoes, boats and suitcases. Her early works are performance pieces, many of which were recorded in photographs and video, in which, for example, she uses mud, while later large-scale installations integrate personal objects (e.g. shoes) given to her by other people. In the early works of Shiota while at Seika University in Kyoto, including From DNA to DNA (1994) and Becoming Painting (1994), elements like woollen threads and paint set an elemental foundation for her future creation. Materials and colours carry particular meanings in her artistic work, which menstruation blood is used as artistic material and red threads come to signify human relationships. Thin plastic tubing filled with blood-like liquid is also occasionally used to suggest the umbilical support of a body, symbolizing nurturing and the beginning of a new life. Shiota acknowledges her teacher Marina Abramovic's influence during her formative years and refers to Christian Boltanski's work as a source of inspiration for some of her later installation works. Places matter to her work and she is strongly interested in psychogeography, the relationship between psyche and space. Shiota's thread installation works developed from the artist's experience of moving between places out of which evolved the desire to cover her possessions in yarn thereby marking a personal territory. In an interview she states that she could not have made her large-scale installations, A Room of Memory (2009) and Memory of Skin (2005), without living in Berlin. She has also created work in collaboration with choreographers and composers such as Toshio Hosokawa, Sasha Waltz and Stefan Goldmann. === Boundary and dwelling: House of Windows (2005) === Arriving in Berlin in 1999, Shiota witnessed a Berlin with lingering Cold War ideological and cultural relics at the turn of the millennium. With the political tension gradually weakening, Berlin had transformed itself into a major economic and commercial center. Although equally fascinated by the forward-moving scenes and the renewal of the urban landscape, Shiota turned to look at the historic, abandoned part of the city. Over several years, the artist collected hundreds of old windows from construction sites in former East Berlin out of her curiosity of how residents from the two sides viewed each other’s way of life. House of Windows (2005), shown at Shiota’s solo exhibition Raum at Haus am Lützowplatz in Berlin and later at the 3rd Fukuoka Asian Art Triennale at the Fukuoka Asian Art Museum in Japan, presents a delicate assemblage of approximately two hundred disposed windows in the shape of a house. Equating windows as skin that divides the flesh and the outer world, Shiota explores the physical boundaries that stood in the fast-changing urban realm and draws a parallel between that and the body and therefore, interpersonal boundaries. Personally, as still a new transplant to Berlin, Shiota moved frequently from one place to another and dislocation has become an inherent part of her life. Thus, through the creation of works such as House of Windows, Shiota probes into the in-betweenness as she was feeling culturally and artistically distant to both her home country and current place of residence. Standing as an extremely fragile dwelling, House of Windows evokes the liminal boundaries between the personal and the historical through visual narratives embedded in used objects. === Cobweb installations === Since the 2000s, Shiota continues to produce cobweb-like installations at institutions worldwide, which became her signature set of works. These installations vary significantly from one to another, fitting the scale of the gallery rooms and incorporating found objects of various kinds. In creating the work at each exhibiting venue, Shiota often engages with the symbolism and stories contained in used objects that she was able to collect. The objects range from beds (Breathing from Earth (2000), During Sleep (2000/2005), One Place (2001), Traces of Memory (2013), Sleeping is like death (2016)), to dresses (After the Dream (2011), Labyrinth of Memory (2012)), to shoes (DNA (2004), Over the Continents (2008), Traces of Life (2008)), to keys (The Key in the Hand (2015)) and chairs Infinity Lines (2017). Dresses indicate a second skin, a divide between the self and the world. The curved contours of keys resemble those of the human body. The bodily contact that all of these above objects carries constitutes numerous lived experiences that intrigues the artist. In Shiota’s constructions, the red or black strings stretches from, reaches, surrounds, connects, encloses, and obscures the collected objects in varying ways. At each installation, Shiota and her assistants would spend hours straight in completing the work. The artist views the crisscrossing threads as human relationships that would get tangled, cut, loosened or charged with tension, and these experiences are constantly present in the creation processes of the artist, which adds a layer of performative nature to Shiota’s work that is often unseen to the audience. === Women’s experiences, Dialogue with Absence (2010) === In the recent decade, Shiota has created large-scale installations that evoke the lived experiences of women. In Dialogue with Absence (2010), an oversized white wedding dress is hung high up on the wall. On the ground lays several peristaltic pumps, from where red liquid depart and reach the dress via numerous plastic tubes attached onto the dress. This part-medical, part-ghostly scene poses questions about womanhood. The dress seems to embody an ideal version of a married woman, who is drained by societal burdens. The injection of the blood could also suggest that societal expectations are fed to her continuously. A disturbing, nightmare-like composition, Dialogue may also be autobiographical, pointing to the artist’s own battling with cancer. === Great Hammam of Pristina, Manifesta 14 === In an attempt to use neglected sites in Pristina as art exhibition spaces for Manifesta 14, Shiota hung hundreds of red yarn threads from the Great Hammam’s ceiling. The venue counted over 150,000 visitors. == Community Projects == Besides art creation, Shiota has taken part in realising community-based projects outside her place of residence. Further Memory (2010) is a tunnel-like structure she has built in Teshima Island, Japan for the Setouchi International Art Festival. The medium of 600 used local windows is reminiscent of Shiota's House of Windows (2005), with unique memories attached to its frames and glasses. With the end of the tunnel facing the farmed rice field and ocean, it shows an appreciation for the ecological beauty and the islanders' connection with the environment, rendering a sense of hope and openness in spite of its depopulation over decades. == Selected Exhibitions (2010-2025) == 2010 : Dialogue with Absence, Galerie Christophe Gaillard, Paris Wall, Kenji Taki Gallery, Nagoya 2015 : The Key in the Hand, Japanese Pavilion, Biennale di Venezia 2022 : The Soul Trembles, Gallery of Modern Art, Brisbane 2024 : The Unsettled Soul, Kunsthalle Praha, Prague Between Worlds, Istanbul Modern, Istanbul 2024-2025 : The Soul Trembles, Grand Palais, Paris == References == == Further reading == 2003 : Chiharu Shiota / a-i-r- laboratory / December 2003, Centre for Contemporary Art, Ujazdowski Castle, Warsaw, Poland, ISBN 83-85142-87-8 The Way Into Silence, solo show, Württembergischer Kunstverein Stuttgart, Hrsg: Andrea Jahn, Verlag Das Wunderhorn, ISBN 3-88423-211-8 2005 : Chiharu Shiota: Raum / Room, Haus am Lützowplatz Berlin, Germany, ISBN 3-934833-17-9 2007 : From In Silence – Chiharu Shiota, Kanagawa Kenmin Hall, Kanagawa Arts Foundation, Kanagawa, Japan 2008 : Chiharu Shiota, Zustand des Seins / État d´Être / State of Being, CentrePasquArt, Biel / Bienne, Suisse, Verlag für Moderne Kunst Nürnberg, ISBN 978-3-940748-44-7 Chiharu Shiota - Breath of the Spirit, National Museum of Art Osaka, Osaka, Japan 2009 : Chiharu Shiota, Unconscious Anxiety, Galerie Christophe Gaillard, France Chiharu Shiota - When Mind Takes Shape, lecture book of Kobe Design 2011 Chiharu Shiota, edited by Caroline Stummel, Gervasuti Foundation, Venice in cooperation with Haunch of Venison, Hatje Cantz, ISBN 978-3-7757-3156-0 University, Shinjuku Shobo, Japan, ISBN 978-4-88008-395-7 2014: Chiharu Shiota, Las líneas de la mano, Casa Asia, España, ISBN 978-1-940291-36-9 Yoshimoto, Midori. "Beyond ‘Japanese/Women Artists’: Transnational Dialogues in the Art of Nobuho Nagasawa and Chiharu Shiota." Third Text 28, no. 1 (2014): 67–81. 2019 Shiota Chiharu: The Soul Trembles, Mori Art Museum, Japan, ISBN 978-4-568-10519-3 Heinz-Norbert Jocks: Chiharu Shiota. I hope, in: Kunstforum International, Nr. 273, Cologne 2021, p. 258-260. 2025 : Tardigrades et intrigues/Nos quotidiennes (with French poet Etienne Vaunac), Epousées par l'écorce, Aix-en-Provence (ISBN : 9782958552862, https://www.editionsepouseesparlecorce.com/tardigrades-et-intrigues-nos-quotidiennes).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kho_Kho_Federation_of_England#:~:text=KKFE%20held%20the%20first%20National,Kho%20Team%20were%20crowned%20champions.	Kho Kho Federation of England	The Kho Kho Federation of England (KKFE) is the governing body for the sport of kho kho in the United Kingdom. Established in 2014 by Brij Haldania, the sport has seen a rise in popularity especially amongst the South Asian communities that reside in the UK. KKFE has a vision to take kho kho to the international platform, and organised international competitions involving India, England, and other countries in 2018. It is also promoting the sport by participating in TEAMS Europe. KKFE held the first National Kho Kho Championship in 2015, where the Finchley Shakha Kho Kho Team were crowned champions. Wembley Kho Kho Leicester Kho Kho Sangh United Kho Kho North London Nighthawks North London Shakha NHSF Kingston University Woolwich Kho Kho Ashton All Stars East London Shakha Shishukunj Kho Kho Kingston University became the first University Kho Kho team to be recognised by KKFE. == See also == Kabaddi in the United Kingdom == References == == External links == Official website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sing_Sing#:~:text=In%201943%2C%20the%20old%20cellblock,it%20judged%20every%20correctional%20facility.	Sing Sing	Sing Sing Correctional Facility is a maximum-security prison for men operated by the New York State Department of Corrections and Community Supervision in the village of Ossining, New York, United States. It is about 30 miles (48 km) north of Midtown Manhattan on the east bank of the Hudson River. It holds about 1,700 inmates as of 2007, and housed the execution chamber for the State of New York for a period, with the final execution there occurring in 1963; instead Green Haven Correctional Facility had the execution chamber by the late 20th Century, before the total abolition of capital punishment in New York in 2007. The name "Sing Sing" derives from the Sintsink Native American tribe from whom the New York colony purchased the land in 1685, and was formerly the name of the village. In 1970, the prison's name was changed to Ossining Correctional Facility, but it reverted to its original name in 1985. There are plans to convert the original 1825 cell block into a period museum. The prison property is bisected by the Metro-North Railroad's four-track Hudson Line. == History == === Early years === Sing Sing was the fifth prison constructed by New York state authorities. In 1824, the New York State Legislature gave Elam Lynds, warden of Auburn Prison and a former United States Army captain, the task of constructing a new, more modern prison. Lynds spent months researching possible locations for the prison, considering Staten Island, the Bronx, and Silver Mine Farm, an area in the town of Mount Pleasant on the banks of the Hudson River. By May, Lynds had decided to build a prison on Mount Pleasant, near (and thus named after) a small village in Westchester County named Sing Sing, whose name came from the Wappinger (Native American) words sinck sinck, which translates to 'stone upon stone'. In March 1825, the legislature appropriated $20,100 (roughly $559,000 in 2024) to purchase the 130-acre (53 ha) site, and the project received the official stamp of approval. Lynds selected a hundred inmates from the Auburn prison for transfer and had them transported by barge via the Erie Canal and down the Hudson River on freighters. On their arrival on May 14, the site was "without a place to receive them or a wall to enclose them"; "temporary barracks, a cook house, carpenter and blacksmith's shops" were rushed to completion. To construct the permanent building, the prisoners were forced to mine the stone from an on-site marble quarry. When it was opened in 1826, Sing Sing was considered a model prison because it turned a profit for the state. By October 1828, the prison was completed. Lynds employed the Auburn system, which imposed absolute silence on the prisoners; the system was enforced by whipping and other punishments. Quarrying continued to be the cornerstone of its early hard labor system; notable buildings such as Tarrytown's Lyndhurst mansion and New York City's Grace Church were constructed from stones mined at Sing Sing. John Luckey, the prison chaplain around 1843, reported Lynds' actions as warden to New York Governor William H. Seward and the president of the board of inspectors, John Edmonds in order to get him removed from his position. Luckey also created a religious library in the prison, with the purpose of teaching correct moral principles. In 1844, the New York Prison Association was inaugurated to monitor state prison administration. The Association was made up of reformers interested in the rehabilitation of prisoners through humane treatment. Eliza Farnham obtained a position in charge of the women's ward at Sing Sing largely on the recommendation of these reformers. She overturned the strictly silent practice in prison and introduced social engagement to shift concern more toward the future instead of dwelling on the criminal past. She included novels by Charles Dickens in Luckey's religious library, novels the chaplain did not approve of. This was the first documented expansion of the prison library to include moral teachings from secular literature. === After 1900 === Thomas Mott Osborne's tenure as warden of Sing Sing was brief but dramatic. Osborne arrived in 1914 with a reputation as a radical prison reformer. His report of a week-long incognito stay inside New York's Auburn Prison indicted traditional prison administration in merciless detail. During his time in Sing Sing he wrote his book Society and Prisons: Some Suggestions for a New Penology, which influenced the discussion of prison reform and contributed to a change in societal perceptions of incarcerated individuals. Prisoners who had bribed officers and intimidated other inmates lost their privileges under Osborne's regime. One of them conspired with powerful political allies to destroy Osborne's reputation, even succeeding in getting him indicted for a variety of crimes and maladministration. After Osborne triumphed in court, his return to Sing Sing was a cause for wild celebration by the inmates. Another notable warden was Lewis Lawes. He was offered the position of warden in 1919, accepted in January 1920, and remained for 21 years as Sing Sing's warden. While warden, Lawes brought about reforms and turned what was described as an "old hellhole" into a modern prison with sports teams, educational programs, new methods of discipline, and more. Several new buildings were constructed during the years Lawes was warden. Lawes retired in 1941 and died six years later. In 1943, the old cellblock was closed and the metal bars and doors were donated to the war effort. In 1989, the institution was accredited for the first time by the American Correctional Association, which established a set of national standards by which it judged every correctional facility. As of 2019, Sing Sing housed approximately 1,500 inmates, employed about 900 people, and hosted over 5,000 visitors per month. The original 1825 cell block is no longer used, and in 2002, plans were announced to turn it into a museum. In April 2011, there were talks of closing the prison to take advantage of its valuable real estate. == Executions == In total, 614 men and women – including four inmates under federal death sentences – were executed by electric chair at Sing Sing until the abolition of the death penalty in 1972. After a series of escapes from death row, a new Death House was built in 1920 and began executions in 1922. High-profile executions in Sing Sing's electric chair, nicknamed "Old Sparky", include Julius and Ethel Rosenberg on June 19, 1953, for espionage for the Soviet Union on nuclear weapon research, and Gerhard Puff on August 12, 1954, for the murder of an FBI agent. The last person executed in New York state was Eddie Lee Mays, for murder, on August 15, 1963. In 1972, the United States Supreme Court ruled in Furman v. Georgia that the death penalty was unconstitutional if its application was inconsistent and arbitrary. This led to a temporary de facto nationwide moratorium (executions resumed in other states in 1977, and the death penalty was reinstated and abolished in New York in various forms over subsequent years), but the electric chair at Sing Sing remained. In the early 1970s, the electric chair was moved to Green Haven Correctional Facility in working condition, but was never used again. == Educational programs == In 2013, Sing Sing Superintendent Michael Capra and NBC producer Dan Slepian worked with a group of 12 incarcerated men to start a program called "Voices From Within", created by Jon-Adrian Velazquez in an effort to "redefine what it means to pay a debt to society" Their first project was an emotional video about gun violence, where the men spoke directly to the youth in the communities from which they came. Slepian released the video in 2014 TEDxTalk at Sing Sing. The video is currently being used by various non-profits and law enforcement agencies to help prevent gun violence. In 1996, Katherine Vockins founded Rehabilitation Through the Arts (RTA) at Sing Sing, enabling theater professionals to provide prisoners with a curriculum of year-round theater-related workshops. It has produced several plays at Sing Sing open to prisoners and community guests and has shown that the use of dramatic techniques leads to significant improvements in the cognitive behavior of the program's participants and a reduction in recidivism once paroled. Its impact on social and institutional behavior was formally evaluated by the John Jay College for Criminal Justice, in collaboration with the NY State Department of Corrections. Led by Dr. Lorraine Moller, Professor of Speech and Drama at John Jay, the study found that it had a positive impact on prisoner Pavle Stanimirovic, one of the program's first participants, that "the longer the inmate was in the program, the fewer violations he committed." RTA currently operates at five other New York state prisons. The Rehabilitation Through the Arts program is dramatized in the 2023 drama film Sing Sing, starring Colman Domingo alongside a cast of mainly real-life former inmates. The organization Hudson Link for Higher Education in Prison provides college courses to incarcerated people to help reduce recidivism and poverty and strengthen families and communities. In 1998, as part of the get-tough-on-crime campaign, state and federal funding for college programs inside the prison was stopped. Understanding the positive effects of education in the transformation and rehabilitation of incarcerated people, inmates at Sing Sing Correctional Facility reached out to religious and academic volunteers to develop a college degree-granting program. Under Anne Reissner, Hudson Link for Higher Education in Prison was founded to restore college education at Sing Sing through private funding. == Football team == In 1931, new prison reforms permitted Sing Sing State Penitentiary prisoners to partake in recreation opportunities. The baseball and football teams, and the vaudeville presentations and concerts, were funded through revenue from paid attendance. Tim Mara, the owner of the New York Giants, sponsored the Sing Sing Black Sheep, Sing Sing's football team. Mara provided equipment and uniforms and players to tutor them in fundamentals. He helped coach them the first season. Known as the Black Sheep, they were also sometimes called the Zebras. All games were "home" games, played at Lawes Stadium, named for Warden Lewis E. Lawes. In 1935, the starting quarterback and two other starters escaped the morning before a game. Alabama Pitts was their starting quarterback and star for the first four seasons, but then finished his sentence. Upon release, Alabama Pitts played for the Philadelphia Eagles in 1935. In 1932, "graduate" Jumbo Morano was signed by the Giants and played for the Paterson Nighthawks of the Eastern Football League. In 1934, State Commissioner of Correction, Walter N. Thayer banned the advertising of activities at the prison, including football games. On November 19, 1936, a new rule banned ticket sales. No revenues could come from show and sports event ticketing. These funds had been paying for disbursements to prisoners' families, especially the kin of those executed, and for equipment and coaches' salaries. With this new edict, the season ended and prisoners were no longer allowed to play football outside Sing Sing. == Museum == Plans to turn a portion of Sing Sing into a museum date back to 2002, when local officials sought to turn the old powerhouse into the museum, linked by a tunnel to a retired cell block, for $5 million. In 2007, the village of Ossining applied for $12.5 million in federal money for the project, at the time expected to cost $14 million. The proposed museum would display the Sing Sing story as it unfolded over time. == Contribution to American English == The expression "up the river" to describe someone in prison or heading to prison derives from the practice of sentencing people convicted in New York City to serve their terms in Sing Sing prison, which is located up the Hudson River from the city. The slang expression dates from 1891. == Wardens == The wardens of Sing Sing are appointed by the Commissioner of the Department of Corrections and Community Supervision. == Gallery == == Notable inmates == Frank Abbandando and Harry Maione, hitmen and members of Murder, Inc., both executed in 1942. George Appo, 19th-century pickpocket and con artist. Charles Becker, NYPD Lieutenant convicted for the murder of Herman Rosenthal and executed at Sing Sing on July 30, 1915. Maria Barbella, the second woman sentenced to death by electric chair. The sentence was later overruled as her attorneys argued the judge overseeing her first trial pushed jurors to convict in his instructions. After a second trial she was found not guilty and was set free in 1896. Robert Bierenbaum, convicted in October 2000 of having murdered his estranged wife, Gail Katz-Bierenbaum, 15 years earlier. Louis Buchalter, American mobster and head of Murder, Inc. who served 18 months at Sing Sing for grand larceny. On January 22, 1920, he returned to Sing Sing on a 30 month sentence for attempted burglary. Buchalter was released on March 16, 1922. He was later executed for murder in 1944. Elmer "Trigger" Burke, hitman, executed in 1958. Louis Capone and Emanuel Weiss, members of Murder, Inc., both executed in 1944. Frank Cirofici, Harry Horowitz, Jacob Seidenshner, and Louis Rosenberg, accomplices of Charles Becker, were all executed in 1914. Charles Chapin, editor of New York Evening World, convicted of the murder of his wife in 1918, popularly known as the "Rose Man of Sing Sing". Eva Coo, American brothel keeper, innkeeper, and speakeasy operator who was convicted of murdering a hired hand, and executed in 1935 Mary Frances Creighton, suspected serial killer, executed, along with Everett Applegate, in 1936. Robert John Cronin, child rapist who raped and impregnated an 11-year-old girl from Niskayuna, New York, in February or March 2018, serving a 24-year sentence. The girl gave birth in November 2018, aged 11. Monk Eastman, New York gangster and leader of the Eastman Gang, was sentenced to 10 years at Sing Sing in 1904. Raymond Fernandez and Martha Beck, so-called Lonely Heart Killers, were both executed in 1951. Albert Fish, early-20th century American serial killer, child kidnapper/rapist/mutilator, cannibal, forger, con artist and obscene letter sender, executed in 1936. Paul Geidel, formerly, the longest-serving prison inmate in the United States whose sentence ended with his parole, who served 68 years and 296 days in various New York state prisons. Martin Goldstein and Harry Strauss, hitmen and members of Murder, Inc., were both executed in 1941. Mary Jones, a 19th-century transgender prostitute who was a center of media attention for coming to court wearing feminine attire. Leroy Keith, serial killer, executed in 1959. Fritz Julius Kuhn, German former leader of the German American Bund, incarcerated at Sing Sing various times between 1939-1945 and deported to Germany. Angelo LaMarca, convicted of the kidnapping and murder of Peter Weinberger, executed in 1958. James Larkin, political activist and union leader sentenced to five to ten years in Sing Sing prison for "criminal anarchy" in 1919. John Katehis, convicted for the murder of George Weber. Charles "Lucky" Luciano, head of the Genovese crime family convicted on 62 counts of compulsory prostitution in 1936. Was later moved to Clinton Correctional Facility, until he was deported back to Italy. Clarence Maclin, sentenced to 17 years for a robbery conviction in the mid-1990's, and after his release became a screenwriter and actor, writing and starring in the 2023 Academy Award nominated film Sing Sing. Michael Magnan, murdered a passenger in a taxi in 2012. Eddie Lee Mays, executed in 1963, became the last person executed in New York. Joesph Pabon, murdered Eridania Rodriguez in 2009. Carl Panzram killer George C. Parker, infamous con man known for "selling" the Brooklyn Bridge. John Roche, serial killer and rapist, executed in 1956. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, executed in 1953 for conspiring to pass secrets of the American atomic bomb project to the Soviet Union during World War II. Norman Roye, serial killer and rapist, executed in 1956. Hans Schmidt, executed in 1916, was the only Roman Catholic priest executed in the United States. Tony Sirico, actor known for his role as Paulie Gaultieri on the critically acclaimed television series The Sopranos, convicted of felony weapons possession and served 20 months of his four-year sentence at Sing Sing. Ruth Snyder, executed along with Henry Judd Gray in 1928, Snyder's execution was illegally photographed. Willie Sutton, career criminal who escaped December 11, 1932. Joseph Valachi, member of the American Mafia, served his first prison sentence (of approximately one year) at Sing Sing before he was 20 years old. Jon-Adrian Velazquez, served a 25 years to life sentence after wrongfully convicted for murder, released in 2021. Ferdinand Ward, Gilded Age swindler who ran a New York City investment firm with Ulysses S. Grant Jr., son of former President of the United States Ulysses S. Grant, revealed to be a Ponzi scheme that bankrupted the Grant family in 1884. Richard Whitney served a sentence for embezzlement at Sing Sing from 1938 until 1941. Frederick Charles Wood, serial killer, executed in 1963. == See also == List of reduplicated place names Marvin's Marvelous Mechanical Museum, which contains one of Sing Sing's electric chairs The Rise of the Penitentiary: Prisons and Punishment in Early America by Adam J. Hirsch Penitentiaries, Reformatories, and Chain Gangs by Mark Colvin == References == == Further reading == Barnes, Harry Elmer. The Repression of Crime: Studies in Historical Penology. Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith. Blumenthal, Ralph. Miracle at Sing Sing: How One Man Transformed the Lives of America's Most Dangerous Prisoners. (2005) Brian, Denis. Sing Sing: The Inside Story of a Notorious Prison. (2005) Brockway, Zebulon Reed. Fifty Years of Prison Service. Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith. Christianson, Scott. Condemned: Inside the Sing Sing Death House. (2000) Conover, Ted. Newjack: Guarding Sing Sing (2000) ISBN 0-375-50177-0 Conyes, Alfred. Fifty Years in Sing Sing: A Personal Account, 1879–1929. SUNY Press (2015). ISBN 978-1-4384-5422-1 Gado, Mark. Death Row Women. (2008) ISBN 978-0-275-99361-0 Gilfoyle, Timothy J. (2006). A Pickpocket's Tale: The Underworld of Nineteenth-Century New York. W. W. Norton Company. ISBN 978-0393329896. Goeway, David. Crash Out: The True Tale of a Hell's Kitchen Kid and the Bloodiest Escape in Sing Sing History. (2005) Lawes, Lewis E. Twenty Thousand Years in Sing Sing. New York: Ray Long & Richard H. Smith, Inc., 1932. Lawes, Lewis E. Life and Death in Sing Sing. Garden City, NY: Garden City Publishing Co., 1928 Luckey, John. Life in Sing Sing State Prison, as seen in a Twelve Years' Chaplaincy. New York: N. Tibbals & Co., 1860. McLennan, Rebecca M. The Crisis of Imprisonment: Protest, Politics, and the Making of the Penal State, 1776–1941. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-521-53783-4 Morris, James McGrath. The Rose Man of Sing Sing: A True Tale of Life, Murder, and Redemption in the Age of Yellow Journalism.(2003) Papa, Anthony. 15 to Life: How I Painted My Way To Freedom (2004) ISBN 1-932595-06-6 Pereira, Al Bermudez. Sing Sing State Prison, One Day, One Lifetime (2006) ISBN 978-0-8059-7290-0 Pereira, Al Bermudez. Ruins of a Society and the Honorable (2009) ISBN 978-0-578-04343-2 Weinstein, Lewis M. A Good Conviction. (2007) ISBN 1-59594-162-2 (fiction) == External links == Facility Listing – New York State Department of Corrections and Community Supervision "All about Sing Sing Prison" by Mark Gado from The Crime Library New York Corrections History Society Town of Ossining, NY – Town History "The History of Sing Sing Prison" Archived 2001-01-24 at the Wayback Machine Half Moon Press, May 2000 issue Rehabilitation Through the Arts homepage Archived 2008-11-21 at the Wayback Machine Tocqueville in Ossining – Segment from C-SPAN's Alexis de Tocqueville Tour C-SPAN's Inside the Sing Sing Prison, June 6, 1997 Unedited footage from C-SPAN's Sing Sing documentary Mug shots of prisoners and photos of the prison 1920–1941 (digitized images) from the Lewis Lawes Papers, Lloyd Sealy Library Digital Collections Sing Sing Prison Museum website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devils_Hole_pupfish	Devils Hole pupfish	The Devils Hole pupfish (Cyprinodon diaboli) is a critically endangered species of the family Cyprinodontidae (pupfishes) found only in Devils Hole, a water-filled cavern in the US state of Nevada. It was first described as a species in 1930 and is most closely related to C. nevadensis and the Death Valley pupfish (C. salinus). The age of the species is unknown, with differing analyses offering ranges between one thousand and sixty thousand years. It is a small fish, with maximum lengths of up to 30 mm (1.2 in). Individuals vary in coloration based on age and sex: males are bright metallic blue while females and juveniles are more yellow. A defining trait of this species is its lack of pelvic fins. The pupfish consumes nearly every available food resource at Devils Hole, including beetles, snails, algae, and freshwater crustaceans, with diet varying throughout the year. It is preyed on by the predaceous diving beetle species Neoclypeodytes cinctellus, which was first observed in Devils Hole in 1999 or 2000. Reproduction occurs year-round, with spikes in the spring and fall. Females produce few eggs and the survivorship from egg to adult is low. Individuals live 10–14 months. Devils Hole is more than 130 m (430 ft) deep, though pupfish are only found in the upper 24 m (80 ft). The water is a constant temperature of 33 °C (91 °F) and dissolved oxygen levels are low. A small, shallowly submerged rock shelf provides critical feeding and spawning habitat for the pupfish. Nearby agricultural irrigation in the 1960s and 1970s caused the water to drop in Devils Hole, resulting in less and less of the shelf remaining submerged. Several court cases ensued, resulting in the Supreme Court case Cappaert v. United States, which determined that the preservation of Devils Hole as a National Monument in 1952 implicitly included preservation of adequate groundwater to maintain the scientific value of the pool and its fauna. Other threats faced by the species include flash floods, earthquakes, and vandalism. As its entire native range is a single locality, efforts to create other populations have proceeded since the 1960s and 1970s, most of which have failed. Three refugia were created in 1972, 1973, and 1990, though all were closed by 2007 as a result of maintenance failures, hybridization, and small founder populations. In the early 2010s, an exact replica of the uppermost 6.7 m (22 ft) of Devils Hole was constructed at Ash Meadows Fish Conservation Facility, which was populated with eggs taken from Devils Hole in winter months when development into adults is unlikely. Efforts to conserve the wild population have included removing sediment from the shallow shelf, adding supplemental food, and installing fences and security cameras to keep unauthorized people away. Conservation efforts have been costly and divisive. During the legal battle over ground water in the 1960s and 1970s, bumper stickers were distributed that read "Kill the Pupfish" or "Save the Pupfish". Some have argued that the species should be allowed to go extinct, while others have said this would be akin to "bombing the Louvre to make way for a parking lot". Population counts are conducted twice a year, in the spring and fall, with the fall population usually much larger. Since 1972, population counts have peaked at around 550 individuals. The April 2013 count showed only 35 remaining in the wild, but the numbers recovered, and by September 2022, the count showed a total of 263 observed wild pupfish. However, after winter earthquakes swept algae off of the spawning shelf, the Spring 2025 count showed only 38 fish remaining. The Devils Hole pupfish has been listed as endangered by the US federal government since 1967 and critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature since 2014. == Taxonomy and evolution == The Devils Hole pupfish was described as a new species in 1930 by American ichthyologist Joseph H. Wales. The holotype had been collected by Wales and George S. Myers in March 1930 at Devils Hole in the US state of Nevada. The species name "diabolis" was chosen to allude to the type locality of Devils Hole. Both the species name and the location spell "Devils Hole" without an apostrophe, a relic of the "quirks of government cartographers and scientists". According to genetic analysis, the sister taxon of the Devils Hole pupfish is Cyprinodon nevadensis. Along with the Death Valley pupfish (C. salinus), the three Amargosa River basin species form a clade. The age of the species is subject to considerable debate, with analyses recovering starkly different figures. Devils Hole was formed around 60,000 years ago, with some researchers assuming the pupfish has existed in isolation for 10,000–20,000 years. How it colonized Devils Hole is unknown; hypotheses include arriving via subterranean waters or over dry land. As Native Americans used pupfish species as food, it has been speculated that they introduced the pupfish to Devils Hole, intentionally or not. Its divergence from a common ancestor with C. nevadensis mionectes was estimated at 217–2530 years in one study. Two studies, each based on independent genetic datasets, estimated that this species may have first colonized the hole within the past 1,000 years, but another suggested the species is as old as 60,000 years. These estimates depend heavily on knowledge of the mutation rate in this species, which is unknown, but is predicted to be one of the highest for any vertebrate due to its small population size. == Description == The Devils Hole pupfish is the smallest pupfish species in the genus Cyprinodon, with lengths up to 30 mm (1.2 in). The average length is 23 mm (0.9 in). Males and females differ in coloration. Males are overall dark brown with metallic blue on their sides. The margins of all fins are black, and the back has golden iridescence. Iridescence is particularly pronounced on the opercles (gill covers) which have a violet sheen on their posterior side. The iris is blue and also iridescent. Females and young are more yellow in color than the males. Females have yellowish-brown backs, and the margins of their pectoral and caudal fins are yellow, not black. The dorsal fin has a black margin like the males, however. Females' opercles are metallic green, and their eyes are tinted metallic blue. The young are overall colored as the females, though they have a faint vertical bar on their sides. Individuals lack pelvic fins, though have been observed to grow them when raised in lower temperatures in captivity. Its dorsal fin has twelve rays, while each pectoral fin has seventeen rays. The caudal fin is convex in appearance and has twenty-eight rays, curving outward at the margin. Its lateral series (the number of scales from the back end of the opercle to the beginning of the tail) is twenty-seven scales. The scales are ctenoid, or toothed, on the outer margin. == Biology and ecology == The Devils Hole pupfish consumes a variety of food items representing nearly all possible food resources in Devils Hole. Its food resources include inorganic particulate matter; the algae Spirogyra and diatoms; the freshwater crustaceans Hyalella azteca and ostracods; protozoa; the beetle Stenelmis calida; the flatworm Girardia dorotocephala; and the freshwater snails Tryonia. The consumption of the various food resources varies seasonally, though inorganic particulate matter had a high frequency of occurrence in stomach contents year-round in one study. The inorganic particulate matter consists of primarily travertine, a form of limestone. The three most common food items for each season by frequency of occurrence were: Spring (March through May): inorganic particulate matter (83%), diatoms (75%), and Spirogyra (58%) Summer (June through August): inorganic particulate matter (79%), Spirogyra (46%), and diatoms (46%) Autumn (September through November): inorganic particulate matter (95%), Spirogyra (74%), and Hyalella azteca (33%) Winter (December through February): inorganic particulate matter (100%), diatoms (91%), and ostracods (45%) As Spirogyra was mostly found undigested in the stomach, the authors hypothesized that it was not important as a food resource, but rather as a foraging substrate. The inorganic particulate matter was thought to be incidentally consumed as well as a result of the fish's foraging strategy of bottom feeding and surface feeding. Predators of the Devils Hole pupfish include the diving beetle species Neoclypeodytes cinctellus, which consumes its eggs and juveniles. N. cinctellus likely also preys on some of the same invertebrates as does the Devils Hole pupfish, meaning that it is a competitor as well as a predator. The diving beetle only recently became part of the ecosystem, and was first documented at Devils Hole in 1999 or 2000. Although spawning year-round, spawning peaks from mid-February to mid-May with a smaller peak from July to September. Devils Hole pupfish females have low fecundity, which is the capacity to create offspring. The average female may only produce four or five mature ova (egg cells) each breeding season. Mature ova represent 10–20% of the total number of ova produced. During each spawn, a mature female is thought to produce only a single egg, which are only 1 mm (0.039 in) in diameter. In addition to its low fecundity, eggs have low hatching success and juveniles have low rates of survival. Individuals have a lifespan of 10–14 months. Because the rock shelf upon which the fish feed and breed is susceptible to seismic activity, specialized behavior mitigates the impact of earthquakes. When a disturbance such as an earthquake occurs, it causes the fish to flee en masse into the depths, and begin a spawning event that may be out of season. During spawning brought upon by a disturbance, several males chase lone females until they become receptive, at which point the female allows one of the males to swim next to her. The female then lays an egg that the male immediately fertilizes. The Devils Hole pupfish has daily and seasonal movement within the Hole. Around midday, when incoming sunlight is at its maximum intensity on the shallow shelf, the number of fish on the shelf decreases. This tendency to leave the shelf at midday is most pronounced April through September. From December to March, when the shallow shelf receives little if any direct sunlight at midday, the number of fish on the shelf increases as the day advances. In the summer months when the shelf receives the most sunlight, fish are overall less likely to use the shallow shelf. Having adapted to an environment with low oxygen saturation, the Devils Hole pupfish has developed a behavior known as "paradoxical anaerobism". The fish enters a state of torpor, and has been known to forego breathing oxygen for up to two hours. As a byproduct of this alternate respiration method, the fish produces ethanol. == Habitat == Devils Hole and the pupfish are located in the Amargosa Desert ecosystem, in the Amargosa Valley, of southwestern Nevada, US, east of Death Valley and the Funeral Mountains and Amargosa Range. The Amargosa River is part of Devils Hole and the region's aquifer hydrology. Devils Hole is a water-filled cavern extending into a hillside. It is at an elevation of 730 m (2,400 ft) above sea level and the water is a constant temperature of 33 °C (91 °F). The surface area of Devils Hole is about 22 m long by 3.5 m wide (72 ft long by 11.5 ft wide). Its depth is at least 130 m (430 ft). Devils Hole "may be the smallest habitat in the world containing the entire population of a vertebrate species". Approximately 0.3 m (0.98 ft) deep on one end of Devils Hole is a small rock shelf of 3.5 by 5 m (11 by 16 ft). The dissolved oxygen of the water is 2.5–3.0 ppm up to around 22 m (72 ft) in depth, though the shallow shelf can have dissolved oxygen levels as high as 6.0–7.0 ppm in June and July. Although pupfish have been found as deep as 24 metres (80 ft), their numbers are most dense above depths of 15 m (49 ft). They depend on the shallow shelf for spawning as well as for much of their diet which primarily consists of diatoms. Natural threats from flash floods to earthquakes have been known to disrupt this fragile ecosystem, but in the 1960s and 1970s, the major threat was groundwater depletion due to agricultural irrigation. Research indicates that the annual population fluctuation is in response to the amount of algae on the shallow shelf, which is dependent on incoming solar radiation and nutrient levels. Nutrient availability may peak when the cave is used by barn owls as a roosting or nesting site, as their nutrient-rich pellets fall into the water. == Conservation and status == === Threats === The Devils Hole pupfish species is limited to a single site and highly susceptible to disturbance. In the 1970s, the species was threatened with groundwater depletion, as the withdrawal of groundwater lowered the water level of Devils Hole and limited their ability to spawn on the shallow shelf. After the groundwater withdrawal was limited, its population rebounded, but experienced a second decline from 1995 onward. The reasons for the second decline are unknown, but inbreeding depression, the loss of a prey species, changing algal and microbial communities, or shifting sediment dynamics have been hypothesized as potential factors. It could face threats in the future relating to climate change, as warming temperatures in the area are predicted to shorten the period of optimum recruitment, or the time when the next generation is produced and matures. Large-scale earthquakes, such as the 2012 Guerrero–Oaxaca earthquake, the 2018 Gulf of Alaska earthquake and the 2019 Ridgecrest earthquakes, have caused standing waves known as seiches in Devils Hole, which can lead to an unseasonal spawning event due to the disruption of the pupfishes' environment. The waves caused by earthquakes can scour the algae from the rocks (as well as eggs and larvae), affecting the food supply and spawning grounds. Flash floods also disrupt the algae via debris swept into Devils Hole. In addition to the indirect threat of groundwater depletion, human actions can impact the pupfish in other ways as well. A 2004 flash flood swept scientific monitoring equipment into Devils Hole, causing the deaths of an estimated eighty pupfish. In April 2016, three men broke into the Devils Hole protected area, destroying scientific equipment and wading onto the shallow shelf of Devils Hole, smashing pupfish eggs and larvae, as well as vomiting into the water. Isolation over the course of thousands of years has led the Devils Hole pupfish to become what are believed to be one of the most inbred vertebrates on Earth, and the resulting high mutation load and genetic instability remains a potential long-term threat to the species as a whole. === Status designations and legal action === In the late 1940s, ichthyologist Carl Leavitt Hubbs began campaigning for legal protection for Devils Hole and the pupfish. This led to President Harry S. Truman issuing a proclamation in 1952 that made Devils Hole part of Death Valley National Monument (now National Park). In 1956, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) installed the first water level recorder. The fish was officially listed as an endangered species in 1967, making it one of the first species protected under the Endangered Species Act. In 1967, Spring Meadows, Inc. began purchasing large tracts of Ash Meadows, much from the Bureau of Land Management, in anticipation of developing 48.6 km2 (18.8 sq mi) of irrigated cropland. Many wells were drilled from 1967–1970, causing a decline of the water at Devils Hole by 1968. The level continued to drop through 1972, causing alarm as a 1969 study had determined that the shallow shelf was virtually the only feeding and spawning habitat available to the fish. Conservationists and public opinion began to rally for preservation of the pupfish, with a 1970 issue of the magazine Cry California stating that allowing it to go extinct would be "comparable to bombing the Louvre to make way for a parking lot". Two organizations were formed in support of the species: the Desert Fishes Council and the Desert Pupfish Task Force. In 1970, the USGS began a study to determine why the water level was receding at Devils Hole, concluding that a substantial withdrawal of groundwater would negatively affect the water level, and thus, pupfish habitat. In August 1971, the U. S. Department of Justice filed a complaint on behalf of the Department of the Interior, seeking to stop Spring Meadows from using three wells identified as having the greatest impact on Devils Hole. The basis for the argument was that when Devils Hole became part of a National Monument in 1952, sufficient water was thus reserved "to serve the requirements and purposes of the monument". Later that month, Spring Meadows and the federal government made an agreement that they would cease operation of the three identified wells, and not increase withdrawal at their other wells to compensate. Though the water level briefly rose, it once again entered a decline, exposing more than half the shallow shelf by summer 1972. This caused the government to reactivate the suit in 1972. Now, they wanted Spring Meadows to cease using any wells within 4 km (2.5 mi) of Devils Hole for any non-domestic purpose based on the implied reservation doctrine established in Winters v. United States (1908). An injunction in favor of the government was issued in June 1973, which was appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit (upheld in 1974) and the Supreme Court. In the case Cappaert vs. U.S., decided in 1976, the Supreme Court upheld the injunction and determined that the district court should set the minimum water level necessary to ensure pupfish survival. The Court stated that by making Devils Hole part of a National Monument, the groundwater necessary to sustain the pupfish was implicitly reserved. In 1977 the district court determined that the water level minimum would be 0.82 m (2.7 ft) below a reference point on the wall. In 1980, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) designated about 21,000 acres (8,500 ha) as essential habitat where the groundwater most influenced the water level in the Hole. One of the identified goals of the recovery plan was to maintain the aquifer at such levels that the population fluctuates from 300 in winter to 700–900 in late summer. The water source for Devils Hole pupfish were now protected from industrial use, but the rest of Ash Meadows was unprotected. When the USFWS declined to purchase the land from Cappaert Enterprises, Ash Meadows was sold in 1980 to a property development company, Preferred Equities Corporation, who acquired additional nearby land with the intention of creating 33,636 residential parcels altogether. As the original injunction limited water with exception to domestic purposes, it was unclear if residents of the proposed subdivision would have to limit water usage in respect to the water level of Devils Hole. In 1982, Secretary of the Interior James Watt approved the emergency listing of two more Ash Meadows fish, the Ash Meadows pupfish (Cyprinodon nevadensis mionectes) and the Ash Meadows speckled dace (Rhinichthys osculus nevadensis). Further development by Preferred Equities would therefore almost certainly violate the Endangered Species Act. After protracted negotiations, The Nature Conservancy (a nonprofit) was able to purchase Ash Meadows for $5.5 million in February 1984, with reimbursement from the U.S. Federal Government of $5 million. By June 1984, Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge was established, as The Nature Conservancy transferred the property to the government. By 1986, a recovery plan was drafted for all of Ash Meadows, encompassing Devils Hole. As of 2014, Devils Hole pupfish is evaluated as a critically endangered species by the IUCN. The species meets the criteria for this designation due to its extremely small extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, both of which are less than 1 km2 (0.39 sq mi). Additionally, the species is found in a single locality and has a very small population, often with fewer than 100 mature individuals. In the state of Nevada, it is considered a protected species that is also endangered. === Recovery actions === ==== In the wild ==== Shortly after 1956, a locked gate was installed in a rock crevice of Devils Hole to limit public access to the site. By 1970, as the shallow shelf was exposed by groundwater depletion, an artificial shelf was installed at Devils Hole. It was never used by the fish. In 2005, 1.7 m3 (60 cu ft) of sediment was removed from the shallow shelf to encourage feeding and spawning. While the number of larvae appeared to increase as a result, the population still experienced a net decline over the following year. In January 2006, biologists began supplementing the fish's food supply in response to observations of poor health and malnourishment. After vandalism resulted in the death of a pupfish in 2016, the National Park Service added additional barbed wire to the top of the fences surrounding Devils Hole, also installing more motion sensors and video cameras. ==== Ex situ conservation ==== Due to the fear of extinction in the 1960s and 1970s, several measures were taken to create multiple populations of the pupfish outside of Devils Hole to safeguard the species, which is known as ex situ conservation. Some of these measures, such as transplanting the fish into nearby natural springs, quickly failed. The fish disappeared, though one population at Purgatory Spring was destroyed by biologists, as the fish were misshapen and no longer looked like Devils Hole pupfish. Two attempts were made at this time to establish aquaria populations, one at Steinhardt Aquarium and the other at Fresno State College, though these also failed. A number of artificial "refugia" consisting of concrete tanks approximating conditions in Devils Hole were attempted to ensure the species' survival should the natural population at Devils Hole die out. The Hoover Dam Refugium for Endangered Desert Fish was established in August 1972, with the first twenty-seven pupfish translocated in October 1972. The Hoover Dam Refugium was successfully maintained for several years and reached a population of several hundred, though the sex ratio was highly skewed towards males with as many as three males per female. In 1985 or 1986, a component of the water supply system failed, however, killing many of the fish. Nearly all the remaining fish were killed by October 1986 when an additional failure caused the water temperature to drop drastically. The lone surviving fish was then removed. In 1973, a second refugium was established at Ash Meadows National Wildlife Refuge (AMNWR), the Amargosa Pupfish Station, also known as the School Springs refuge. From the founding population of twenty-five fish, it remained at several dozen individuals until a power failure in August 1984 disrupted the water flow, reducing the population to seven. The population increased to 121 by October 1987. In 1990, a third refugium was constructed, also at AMNWR, called Point of Rocks refuge. Historical attempts to maintain the refugia populations through traditional methods has been largely ineffective, blamed on the small founder population size of each refugium as well as maintenance failures. The Point of Rocks refuge population unexpectedly had individuals appear with pelvic fins, which are not found in the species. Genetic evidence showed that around three individuals of the closely related C. nevadensis, which do have pelvic fins, invaded Point of Rocks between 1997 and 2005, hybridizing with the Devils Hole pupfish. The C. nevadensis genes quickly became highly prevalent in the gene pool, with researchers concluding, "...we add hybridization to the long list of problems that have conspired against successful propagation of C. diabolis in artificial settings outside of its native habitat". The School Springs population was extirpated in 2003, the Hoover Dam refugia population became extirpated once more in 2006, and the Point of Rocks refuge was extirpated in 2007. In May through August 2006, two pupfish from Devils Hole and five from the Hoover Dam Refuge were transferred to a Las Vegas Strip casino aquarium at Mandalay Bay with the hope of understanding how to breed the species in aquaria. Propagation efforts at Mandalay Bay failed, and by April 2007 all individuals had died or been transferred. Also in 2006, six younger pupfish were moved from Devils Hole to the Willow Beach National Fish Hatchery in Arizona. Additionally, the eighteen remaining individuals from the Hoover Dam refuge were moved to Willow Beach. While early breeding efforts appeared successful and four larvae survived to adulthood, all individuals had died by December 2006, possibly from a form of leukemia. In the early 2010s, a full-scale replica of the upper 6.7 m (22 ft) of Devils Hole was built at the new Ash Meadows Fish Conservation Facility (AMFCF), resulting in a 380,000 L (100,000 U.S. gal) tank. Located less than a mile away (36°25′25″N 116°18′21″W), this refuge closely mimics the natural Devils Hole, including water chemistry, spawning shelf, and natural sunlight. It intentionally differs, however, in temperature and dissolved oxygen content. The temperature is 2–3 °C (3.6–5.4 °F) cooler than that of Devils Hole and the dissolved oxygen content is doubled in attempts to reduce thermal and respiratory stress on the fish. The population of Devils Hole pupfish at AMFCF was created by taking eggs from Devils Hole. However, eggs are only removed at times of the year when it is unlikely that they would develop into mature adults, such as in the winter. It is thought that egg removal during this time would therefore have the least impact on the population size at Devils Hole. When transferred to AMFCF, the eggs are exposed to anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, and anti-parasite treatments. They are reared in the aquarium until adulthood, at which point they are transferred to the large refuge tank. This procedure is also followed for eggs laid in the refuge tank. While efforts have been made to remove the predaceous beetle Neoclypeodytes cinctellus from the captive population's tank to lessen its depredation on eggs, it has not been removed from Devils Hole. It is unknown how removal of the species could affect the Devils Hole ecosystem, and the number of beetles in Devils Hole is less than in the tank hosting the captive population. As of 2021, the efforts of the Ash Meadows Fish Conservation Facility have been considered "very successful" in maintaining a refuge population. At least fifty captive fish populated the refuge as of 2019, with an additional 10–20 in propagation tanks. ==== Costs and public opinion ==== Millions of dollars have been spent conserving the Devils Hole pupfish. The construction of the Ash Meadows Fish Conservation Facility alone, which opened in 2013, was estimated to cost $4.5 million. Conservation efforts from January 2006 to May 2007 were $750,000. The legal case over the rights to extract groundwater concluded that the Cappaert family, who invested $7 million into opening a ranch in the area, could no longer withdraw the same amount of water. The Cappaert family's attorney decried that the Supreme Court had chosen the interests of a fish over people, and a newspaper editor from nearby Pahrump threatened to dump a pesticide into Devils Hole to kill them all. In response to bumper stickers that read "Save the Pupfish" distributed by the Desert Fishes Council, Nye County Commissioner Robert Rudd produced bumper stickers that said "Kill the Pupfish". The Cappaert family sold the ranch in the late 1970s. === Population trends === Population surveys of the Devils Hole pupfish began in 1972. Population counts since then have been conducted using the same methods, with scuba diving researchers counting fish starting at depths of 30 m (100 ft) while researchers above the water count the individuals on the shallow shelf. Surveys are carried out twice a year, once during the spring season and once during fall. From 1970 through 1996, the average population was 324. Population highs were recorded in 1980, 1990, and 1995 at counts of 541–548 individuals. Since 2005, the population at Devils Hole has been below 200 individuals, although the population fluctuates depending on the season. Low algae growth and other winter conditions cause spring populations to be 35–65% of the autumn population. The reasons for the decline are unclear. A 2014 study ascertained that the Devils Hole pupfish had a 26–33% chance of becoming extinct in the next twenty years. In November 2005, divers counted just 84 individuals in the Devils Hole population, the same as the spring population, despite observations of egg-laying and juvenile fish during the summer. In 2007, between 38 and 42 fish were left in Devils Hole. The pupfish count rose in the autumn of 2008 to 126, the first steady increase in more than 10 years. As of April 2013 U.S. Fish and Wildlife reported only 35 fish remain in their natural habitat, but increased to 92 when measured again in 2014. As of spring 2016, a periodic count found 115 of the fish living in the waters. In spring 2019, the pupfish population reached 136, the highest springtime population since 2003. Population counts were suspended in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic; however, egg collection for ex situ cultivation continued. Observers noted encouraging signs of population growth, and during the next count in April 2022, 175 pupfish were observed. The population has continued to grow, with 263 observed pupfish in September 2022. In spring 2024 the population was 191 individuals, the highest springtime count in 25 years. Increased nutrients for algae growth, swept into Devils Hole by runoff from Hurricane Hilary in 2023, may have contributed to the pupfish's proliferation. In spring 2025, the population suddenly declined to only 38 individuals due to two earthquakes (December 2024 and February 2025), prompting the introduction, for the first time, of 19 captive-bred fish. Substantial swings in population size are considered not untypical for species in the genus. == See also == Many of the various surviving local Cyprinodon species and subspecies (pupfish), including the Devils Hole pupfish, are on the IUCN Red List of threatened species: Ash Meadows pupfish, Cyprinodon nevadensis mionectes Amargosa pupfish, Cyprinodon nevadensis amargosae Death Valley pupfish, Salt Creek pupfish Cyprinodon salinus salinus Cottonball Marsh pupfish, Cyprinodon salinus milleri Shoshone pupfish, Cyprinodon nevadensis shoshone Saratoga Spring pupfish, Cyprinodon nevadensis nevadensis Tecopa pupfish, Cyprinodon nevadensis calidae (extinct) Desert pupfish, Cyprinodon macularius Owens pupfish, Cyprinodon radiosus == References == == External links == Desert Fishes Council "Attack of the Mutant Pupfish", a Wired article by Hillary Rosner PBS video segment on the Devils Hole Pupfish On The Trail: Devils Hole on YouTube by CBS Sunday Morning
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_Kuzwayo#:~:text=Education%20and%20career,-Kuzwayo%20began%20her&text=She%20married%20Ernest%20Moloto%20when,husband%20she%20fled%20to%20Johannesburg.	Ellen Kuzwayo	Nnoseng Ellen Kate Kuzwayo (29 June 1914 – 19 April 2006) was a South African women's rights activist and politician, who was a teacher from 1938 to 1952. She was president of the African National Congress Youth League in the 1960s. In 1994, she was elected to the first post-apartheid South African Parliament. Her autobiography, Call Me Woman (1985), won the CNA Literary Award. == Early years == === Family background === Born Nnoseng Ellen Serasengwe, in Thaba 'Nchu, Orange Free State, Kuzwayo came from an educated, politically active family. Her maternal grandfather, Jeremaiah Makgothi, was taken by his mother from the Orange Free State to the Cape to attend the Lovedale Institute, circa 1875. He qualified as a teacher and also worked as a court interpreter and a Methodist lay preacher. Makgothi was the only layman to work with Robert Moffat on the translation of the Bible into Setswana.1 Both Makgothi and Kuzwayo's father, Philip S. Mefare, were active in politics. Makgothi was secretary of the Orange Free State branch of the South African Native National Congress, Mefare a member of its successor, the African National Congress. === Education and career === Kuzwayo began her schooling at the school built by Makgothi on his farm in Thabapatchoa, about 12 miles from Tweespruit, Orange Free State. She attended Adams College, Amanzimtoti, and then undertook a teacher training course at Lovedale College in Fort Hare, graduating at the age of 22 and beginning a teaching career. She married Ernest Moloto when in her late twenties, and the couple had two sons, but the marriage was not a happy one, and after suffering abuse from her husband she fled to Johannesburg. She had a part as a shebeen queen, alongside Sidney Poitier in the 1951 film Cry, the Beloved Country. After her first marriage was dissolved, she married Godfrey Kuzwayo in 1950. She worked as a teacher in the Transvaal until 1952, giving up teaching on the introduction of the Bantu Education Act, 1953, which cut back opportunities for black education. She then trained as a social worker (1953–55). In the 1940s, she served as secretary of the ANC Youth League. After the 1976 Soweto uprising, she was the only woman on the committee of 10 set up to organise civic affairs in Soweto, and her activities led to her detention for five months in 1977–78 under the Prevention of Terrorism Act. She would recount her arrest in her 1996 testimony to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Her other community activism included serving as the president of the Black Consumer Union of South Africa and the Maggie Magaba Trust. On the 1985 publication of her autobiography, Call Me Woman, in which she described being beaten by her husband, Kuzwayo became the first black writer to win South Africa's leading literary prize, the CNA Award. After Nelson Mandela was inaugurated as South African president in 1994, Kuzwayo became a member of the country's first multiracial Parliament, aged 79, and served for five years until June 1999, when she was South Africa's longest-serving parliamentarian. With director Betty Wolpert, Kuzwayo was involved in making the documentary films Awake from Mourning (1982) and Tsiamelo –– A Place of Goodness (1983), which drew on the story of the dispossession of her family's farmland. Kuzwayo died in Johannesburg, aged 91, of complications from diabetes, survived by her sons, Bobo and Justice Moloto, grandchildren and great-grandchildren. == Awards and recognition == In 1979, Ellen Kuzwayo was named Woman of the Year by the Johannesburg newspaper The Star, and was nominated again in 1984. In 1987, she was awarded an honorary doctorate of Laws from the University of the Witwatersrand, the first black woman to receive an honorary degree from the university. She also awarded honorary doctorates by the University of Natal and the University of Port Elizabeth. She was awarded the Order of Meritorious Service by Nelson Mandela in 1999. A South African marine research ship was named after her, the Ellen Khuzwayo, launched in 2007. == Works == Call Me Woman. London: The Women's Press (1985). ISBN 1-879960-09-5, reprinted Aunt Lute Books, 1992 Sit Down and Listen: Stories from South Africa, London: The Women's Press, 1990. ISBN 978-0704342309 == References == == External links == "Another Milestone for Ellen Kuzwayo", City of Johannesburg website, 7 December 2004. Kuzwayo, Ellen. "Nnoseng Ellen Kate Kuzwayo". African National Congress. Archived from the original on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952_Summer_Olympics	1952 Summer Olympics	The 1952 Summer Olympics (Finnish: Kesäolympialaiset 1952, Swedish: Olympiska sommarspelen 1952), officially known as the Games of the XV Olympiad (Finnish: XV olympiadin kisat, Swedish: Spel i XV Olympiaden) and commonly known as Helsinki 1952, were an international multi-sport event held from 19 July to 3 August 1952 in Helsinki, Finland. After Japan declared in 1938 that it would be unable to host the 1940 Olympics in Tokyo due to the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War, Helsinki had been selected to host the 1940 Summer Olympics, which were then cancelled due to World War II. Tokyo eventually hosted the games in 1964. Helsinki is the northernmost city at which a summer Olympic Games have been held. With London hosting the 1948 Olympics, 1952 is the most recent time when two consecutive summer Olympic Games were held entirely in Europe. The 1952 Summer Olympics was the last of the two consecutive Olympics to be held in Northern Europe, following the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo, Norway. They were also the Olympic Games at which the most world records were broken until they were surpassed by the 2008 Summer Games in Beijing. The Bahamas, Guatemala, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Israel, Netherlands Antilles, Nigeria, the People's Republic of China, Saarland, the Soviet Union, Thailand, and Vietnam made their Olympic debuts at the 1952 Games. The United States won the most gold and overall medals at these Olympics. == Background and preparation of the Games == === Host city selection === Inspired by the success of the Swedish 1912 Olympics, Finnish sports fans began to arouse the idea of their own Olympic Games: for example, Erik von Frenckell publicly presented his dreams of the Finnish Olympic Games at the opening of the 1915 Töölön Pallokenttä. As the Olympic success continued in the 1920s, enthusiasm for one's own Olympics grew, and after the 1920 Antwerp Olympics, Finnish sports leaders began planning to build a stadium in Helsinki in 1920. Finland's main sports organizations and the City of Helsinki founded the Stadion Foundation in 1927 to get the stadium to Helsinki. In the same year, Ernst Edvard Krogius, who represented Finland on the International Olympic Committee (IOC), announced Finland's willingness to host the competition. In 1930, preparations for the 1936 Games, which was accelerated by the launch of a design project for the Olympic Stadium. However, Helsinki was not a candidate in the first round in 1931, and Berlin won the competition, but Helsinki immediately registered as a candidate for the 1940 Games. Those games were awarded to Tokyo in 1936, and two years later with the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War Japan announced they were giving up the 1940 games, and four days later the IOC offered the Games to Helsinki, which agreed to take over, although there was little time left to prepare for the Games. World War II broke out on 1 September 1939, with the German–Soviet invasion of Poland, which also drew Britain and France to war. Despite the aggression, the Organizing Committee of the Olympic Games continued to be optimistic about the preparations for the Games. However, the Soviet invasion of Finland on 30 November 1939, halted planning for the games. After the Winter War, the Organizing Committee decided to abandon the Games on 20 March 1940 due to the hostilities across Europe, the suspension of preparations caused by the Winter War, and the deplorable economic situation. At the meeting of the Finnish Olympic Committee on 20 April 1940, the Olympic Games in Finland were officially canceled. In the meantime, World War II had already expanded, with Germany occupying Denmark and fighting in Norway. Instead of the Olympic Games, Finland held a Memorial Competitions for Fallen Athletes who died in the Winter War against Russia, at the opening of which actor Eino Kaipainen recited the poem Silent Winners written by Yrjö Jylhä. The memorial competitions were held on the initiative of the sports journalist Sulo Kolkka. At the end of World War II, London was awarded the 1948 Summer Olympics after the city was originally granted the 1944 Games, which were canceled due to the war. Helsinki continued its attempt to have the Games organized and registered as candidates for the 1952 Games. At the IOC Congress in Stockholm on 21 June 1947, Helsinki was chosen as the host city, leaving behind the bids of Amsterdam, Los Angeles, Minneapolis, Detroit, Chicago and Philadelphia. Helsinki's strengths included the fairly completed venues built for the 1940 Games. === Bidding results === === Organizing Committee === After confirmation that Helsinki would host the Games, the "XV Olympia Helsinki 1952" was established as the organizing committee of the Games on 8 September 1947. Its members were the Finnish Olympic Committee, the Finnish State, the City of Helsinki and 26 various sports organizations. The mayor of Helsinki Erik von Frenckell was elected chairman of the committee, who at the time also chaired Finnish Football Association. Akseli Kaskela, Olavi Suvanto and Armas-Eino Martola were elected Vice-Chairs. Among them, Kaskela and Suvanto were elected on political grounds as representatives of the bourgeois Finnish Sports Federation (SVUL) and the leftist Finnish Workers' Sports Federation (TUL), Martola, on the other hand, got a former officer to lead the organization of the practical arrangements. Other members of the Organizing Committee were Yrjö Enne, Väinö A. M. Karikoski, Urho Kekkonen, Ernst Krogius, William Lehtinen, Aarne K. Leskinen, Eino Pekkala, Väinö Salovaara and Erik Åström. In 1948–1949, Karikoski, Kekkonen, Krogius and Lehtinen resigned from the committee, and Lauri Miettinen, Arno Tuurna and Yrjö Valkama were elected to replace them. In the spring of 1952, Ente was replaced by Arvi E. Heiskanen and as completely new members by Mauno Pekkala and Aaro Tynell. Erik von Frenckell was the chairman of the organizing committee and the other members were Armas-Eino Martola (competition director), Yrjö Valkama (sports director), Olavi Suvanto (maintenance director), Akseli Kaskela, Aarne K. Leskinen and Niilo Koskinen. In addition, the head of the central office Kallio Kotkas and the head of information Eero Petäjäniemi were involved in the competition organization. === Political situation === The international political atmosphere was tense when the Helsinki Olympics were held. When the IOC held its meeting in Vienna in 1951, many difficult topics were on the agenda. The Cold War was under way, and the situation between Israel and Arab countries, divided Germany had to be addressed as a team, and the Chinese Civil War, with the Chinese Communist Party winning, forming the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China government exiled to Taiwan. Four years earlier, Japan was not invited to the London Olympics from the losing states of the Second World War. The Olympic Committee of Israel had not yet been recognized, and a successor to the German Olympic Committee, which had been dissolved during World War II, had not yet been established, but all these countries already participated in the Helsinki Games, as did Saarland. The Cold War affected the participation of both the United States and the Soviet Union in the Games. The participation of the United States in the Games was decided only after the country had received an assessment of the political situation in Finland from its embassy in Helsinki. The Soviet Union was accepted as a member of the IOC in May 1951, and in December of the same year the country accepted the invitation to the competition, as the country's athletes were in medal condition. Although the Soviet leadership had previously considered the Games a bourgeois event, the Helsinki Games held propaganda value. In the Soviet Union, billions of rubles were spent on coaching athletes in just one year. The Soviet Union planned to fly its athletes every day between Leningrad and Helsinki. Another option was for Soviet athletes to stay in the Soviet Porkkalanniemi garrison. However, Finland required that all competitors stay in the Olympic village. As a compromise solution for the Eastern Bloc athletes, a second Olympic village was established in Espoo, Otaniemi. Joseph Stalin allowed Soviet athletes to enter the 1952 Summer Olympics because he was sure that they would win the most medals. However, American athletes secured more gold and total medals and Stalin afforded more resources for the advancement of elite athletes in the Soviet Union in the build-up to the 1956 Summer Olympics. The 1952 Games were also threatened with cancellation due to the deteriorating world situation. The Korean War had begun in 1950, which also caused concern in the organizing committee. At Von Frenckell's suggestion, the organizing committee decided to take out Lloyd's of London war insurance. === Construction work === Most of the venues for the competitions were completed prior to the 1940s in anticipation of successful bid attempts, but some expansion and refurbishment work was needed, including the construction of additional stands at the Olympic and Swimming Stadium. A residential area, Kisakylä (Olympic Village) was built south of Käpylä's Koskelantie to accommodate competitors. The area, which was built close to the 1940 Olympics, was already the residence of the people of Helsinki at that time. Just below the opening, the competition area was completed for the use of visitors Kumpula Outdoor Swimming Pool. Female athletes got their own race village from the Nursing College in Meilahti. The athletes of the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc stayed in the Teekkarikylä in Otaniemi. The Finnish team lived on the premises of the Santahamina Army School (later the Cadet School, now the National Defence University). The City of Helsinki prepared for the Olympics by building a new airport in Seutula (now Helsinki-Vantaan lentoasema), 11-story Hotelli Palace, and the Olympic Pier in South Harbor. A large electric scoreboard was procured. It attracted international attention because it represented the top of its time in the scoreboard field both in terms of its system and its technology. OMEGA debuted the OMEGA Time Recorder in Helsinki. This all-new quartz clock not only timed the events but also printed out the results. This breakthrough technology allowed official Olympic times to be accurate to 1/100 of a second. As a result, the company received the prestigious Croix du Mérite Olympique award for their efforts. In 1950 cable television was tried for the first time in Finland, in the 1952 Olympics people could watch TV sending from the stadium through coaxial cable to Stockmann department store window. Helsinki paved tens of kilometers of roads, and a myriad of houses were painted. The city's first traffic lights were installed at the intersection of Aleksanterinkatu and Mikonkatu in October 1951. The Palace Hotel and Vaakuna Hotel among others, were completed for the needs of the guests. However, due to the relatively low number of hotels in the city, tent villages were built for tourists in Lauttasaari and Seurasaari, among others. However, the preparations for accommodation turned out to be considerably oversized; at its best, the occupancy rate of the 6,000-seat tent village in Lauttasaari had an occupancy of only 8 per cent. With the support of the Olympia 1952 committee, Finland's first mini golf courses were completed to entertain guests. === Anthem === The International Olympic Committee had declared in 1950 that it did not have an official Olympic anthem, but that the organizers could decide their own anthems. An anthem competition was held in Finland. In the spring of 1951, a poetry competition was announced, which was surprisingly won by an unknown teacher candidate, Niilo Partanen. Second and third came the well-known poets Toivo Lyy and Heikki Asunta. These winning poems were allowed to be used in the composition competition. The selection of the 51 compositions by a jury chaired by Jouko Tolonen was also a surprise. When the winner was announced on 17 March 1952, an unknown teacher Jaakko Linjama was revealed behind the nickname, who had used Lyy's lyrics in his Olympic Hymn. The nicknames of the other contestants were not opened. This caused a stir, and Arijoutsi, among others, doubted that the victory of the unknown would go to the honor of well-known composers. There were well-known members in the competition. The voters had identified the composing style of Uuno Klami and Aarre Merikanto, among others. The only Finnish composer who congratulated Linjamaa was Jean Sibelius, who did not take part in the anthem. == Torch relay == The Olympic torch was transported by land from Olympia to Athens from where fire's journey continued in a miner's lamp donated by the Saar Olympic Committee on a SAS plane to Aalborg, Denmark. The glass cover surrounding the lamp was designed by the artist Sakari Tohka. The Olympic torch itself was designed by the artist Aukusti Tuhka. From Denmark, the torchlight continued by running, cycling, riding, rowing and paddling to Copenhagen, from where the fire was transported by ferry to Sweden to Malmö. The journey of the torch across Sweden was carried to Haparanda by 700 messengers, from where it continued to the Finnish side in Tornio. On the Finnish-Swedish border bridge, the torch was received by Ville Pörhölä, who brought it to Tornio sports ground. The Olympic torch from Tornio, Greece, was connected to Pallastunturi on 6 July 1952 where it ignited the "midnight sun fire". In reality, the Pallastunturi fire was lit with liquefied petroleum gas, because the night in July was cloudy at that time and it was not possible to use the sun as a lighter. From Tornio, the torch traveled through Finland to Helsinki. It was transported by more than 1,200 people. Initially, the aim was to transport fire to Helsinki via the Soviet Union, but the matter was not settled through diplomacy by the deadline. The journey covered a total of 7,870 kilometres on the journey that began on 25 June and ended on 19 July 1952. The actual Olympic flame was lit for the Olympic Stadium. Olympic torch relay: Greece: Olympia – Corinth – Athens Denmark: Aalborg – Århus – Vejle – Odense – Sorø – Copenhagen Sweden: Malmö – Helsingborg – Laholm – Gothenburg – Jönköping – Norrköping – Örebro – Stockholm – Uppsala – Falun – Gävle – Hudiksvall – Sundsvall – Umeå – Skellefteå – Boden – Haparanda Finland: (midnight sun fire): Pallastunturi – Rovaniemi – Tornio – Oulu – Kokkola – Jyväskylä – Tampere – Helsinki == Opening ceremony == The opening ceremony of the Helsinki Olympics was held on 19 July. Although the weather was rainy and chilly and the Olympic Stadium had no roof but on top of the main auditorium, the stadium was full with 70,435 spectators. The inaugural march had a record 5,469 people from 67 countries. After the march, the countries organized themselves into the central lawn, and the chairman of the organizing committee, Erik von Frenckell, spoke in Finnish, Swedish, French and English. President of the Republic J. K. Paasikivi gave the opening speech, which was the shortest in Olympic history and contained a mistake: it was not the "Fifteenth Olympic Games", but the XV Olympic Games and the 12th World Olympics, due to the 1916, 1940 and 1944 races had been canceled. The speech was followed by the raising of the Olympic flag and the Olympic fanfare composed by Aarre Merikanto. The President's speech was as follows:It gives me great pleasure to address a message of greeting to the young people of the world as they prepare for the fifteenth Olympic Games which are, once again, to be celebrated in a spirit worthy of the ideals of Baron de Coubertin. This happy cooperation between young people of all countries will serve the great call of concord and peace among the nations of the world. I am particularly pleased to be sending you this advance greeting because, as a young man, I was myself an enthusiastic gymnast and athlete. And I have retained throughout my life a deep interest in athletics and sports of all kinds. I am convinced that the Finnish people, loving sport as they do, will spare no effort to make the 1952 Olympic Games a complete success. The Olympic flame was lit by running heroes Paavo Nurmi (to the stadium) and Hannes Kolehmainen (to the stadium tower). When Paavo Nurmi was announced to arrive at the stadium, athletes from the participating countries deviated from the formation to see the legend better. Only the lines of the Soviet Union and Finland remained in the line. After the Olympic flame was lit, the Archbishop Ilmari Salomies was due to say a prayer, but German Barbara Rotbraut-Pleyer, nicknamed "White Angel of the Games", had jumped from the auditorium onto the track and ran straight to the speaker's seat. Organizers quickly removed Pleyer, who had time to say just a few words into the microphone. Pleyer's purpose was to proclaim a message of peace. Heikki Savolainen, a gymnast who was competing in his fifth consecutive Olympic games, swore the Olympic oath on behalf of the athletes. == Highlights == These were the final Olympic Games organised under the IOC presidency of Sigfrid Edström. Israel made its Olympic debut. The Jewish state had been unable to participate in the 1948 Games because of its 1947–1949 Palestine war. A previous Palestine Mandate team had boycotted the 1936 Games in protest of the Nazi regime. Indonesia made its Olympic debut with three athletes. The newly established People's Republic of China (PRC) participated in the Olympics for the first time, although only one swimmer (Wu Chuanyu) of its 40-member delegation arrived in time to take part in the official competition. The PRC would not return to the Summer Olympics until Los Angeles 1984. The Republic of China (Taiwan) withdrew from the Games on July 20, in protest of the IOC decision to allow athletes from the People's Republic of China to compete. The Soviet Union participated for the first time. Soviet Olympic team was notorious for skirting the edge of amateur rules. All Soviet athletes held some nominal jobs, but were in fact state-sponsored and trained full-time. According to many experts, that gave the Soviet Union a huge advantage over the United States and other Western countries, whose athletes were students or real amateurs. Indeed, the Soviet Union monopolized the top place in the medal standings after 1968, and, until its collapse, placed second only once, in the 1984 Winter games, after another Eastern bloc nation, the GDR. Amateur rules were relaxed only in the late 1980s and were almost completely abolished in the 1990s, after the fall of the USSR. The Soviets turned the athletic competition into a metaphor for political propaganda: "Every record won by our sportsmen, every victory in international contests, graphically demonstrates to the whole world the advantages and strength of the Soviet system."(Sovetsky Sport) Additionally, the Soviet state media falsely claimed victory at these Games, despite the Soviet Union finishing second to the United States both in terms of gold and total medals. The Olympic Flame was lit by two Finnish heroes, runners Paavo Nurmi and Hannes Kolehmainen. Nurmi first lit the cauldron inside the stadium, and later the flame was relayed to the stadium tower where Kolehmainen lit it. Only the flame in the tower was burning throughout the Olympics. (See: 1952 Summer Olympics torch relay.) Germany and Japan were invited after being barred in 1948. Following the post-war occupation and partition, three German states had been established. Teams from the Federal Republic of Germany and the Saarland (which joined the FRG after 1955) participated; the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was absent. Though they won 24 medals, the fifth-highest total at the Games, German competitors failed to win a gold medal for the only time. Eva Perón, the celebrated First Lady of Argentina, died of cancer in July 1952 while the Olympics were taking place, so a memorial was held at the Games for the Argentine team. == Sports events == There were 4,925 athletes from 69 countries, with the Soviet Union making its Olympic debut and Germany participating for the first time since World War II. A total of 149 events were held in 17 different sports. The most-medalling athletes of the Games were Viktor Chukarin of the Soviet Union, who won four gymnastics Olympic gold medals, and Czechoslovakia's Emil Zátopek, who won three track golds. The United States won the most gold and total medals, with 40 and 76. The host country, Finland, had 6 gold, 3 silver and 13 bronze medals. === Shooting === Shooting was competed in seven events, six of which (rifle sports) were conducted at the Malmi Shooting Range in moderately difficult wind conditions. Tough results were still fired in Helsinki, as the top four deer shooting broke world records. World records for knee position were also broken in free and small rifles. Shotgun shooting took place at the Huopalahti shooting range. Ten countries took medals from the shooting. Norway was the only country to win two gold medals, with the Soviet Union winning the most medals. Boris Andreyev was the only Soviet shooter to win two multiple medals. A Finnish winner was already celebrated in a miniature rifle when Vilho Ylönen had time to play on the radio Björneborgarnas marsch. However, in an hour-long countdown, the Norwegian Erling Asbjørn Kongshaug was declared the winner of the competition. === Football === The football tournament started even before the official opening, as the one-piece qualifiers took place on 15–16 July in Kotka, Lahti, Tampere, Turku and Helsinki. There were 27 countries registered for the tournament, but Saarland and Mexico dropped out before the Games. Hungary Golden Team won the gold when it knocked down the Yugoslavia in the final with a score of 2–0. Sweden won a bronze medal. In the final, the Olympic Stadium had 58 553 paid spectators, the largest number of spectators in Finland watching a football match. The first meeting between the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia in football is still amongst the most famous matches. On the political level, the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and the Yugoslav leader Josip Tito split in 1948, which resulted in Yugoslavia being excluded from the Communist Information Bureau. The origin of the conflict was Tito's refusal to submit to Stalin's interpretations and visions of politics and in process becoming a Soviet satellite state. Before the match, both Tito and Stalin sent telegrams to their national teams, which showed just how important it was for the two head of states. Yugoslavia led 5–1, but a Soviet comeback in the last 15 minutes resulted in a 5–5 draw. The match was replayed, Yugoslavia winning 3–1. The defeat to the archrivals hit Soviet football hard, and after just three games played in the season, CSKA Moscow, who had made up most of the USSR squad, was forced to withdraw from the league by Joseph Stalin and later disbanded. Furthermore, Boris Arkadiev, who coached both USSR and CDKA, was stripped of his Merited Master of Sports of the USSR title. === Basketball === 23 teams entered basketball, ten of which made it directly to the actual tournament. The remaining 13 countries took the final six places in the Olympic tournament before the official opening of the Olympic Games. In basketball, the gold medal was won by the United States, who defeated Soviet Union in the final 36–25. The final match was relatively slow-paced, as the Soviet Union tried to keep up with the United States by freezing the game. The United States had already clearly beat the Soviet Union 86–58 earlier in the tournament. The bronze was won by Uruguay, who also organized a mass battle after being dissatisfied with the referee's work. === Field hockey === Field hockey was included in the Helsinki Olympic Games in the range of sports on the condition that a maximum of 12 teams register for the Games. In the end, 16 teams applied for the competition, from which the International Field Hockey Federation selected 12 countries to participate in the competition venue. Eventually, four countries dropped out of the Games, so the remaining 12 teams that had applied for the competition were able to take part in the Olympic tournament. The tournament started with two rounds before the Games opened, and the final match was held on July 24. India and Netherlands met in the Velodrome final, with India winning its fifth consecutive gold under captaincy of Kunwar Digvijay Singh with a score of 6–1. === Canoeing === Canoeing competitions were held Taivallahti 27–28 July. There were a total of 159 participants in eight men's and women's only races, coming from 21 countries. Canoeing was a celebration in Finland, as four of the nine sports went to the host country. In addition, the Finns took one silver and a bronze. The double gold medalists were Kurt Wires and Yrjö Hietanen who won the kayak duo's 1,000 and 10,000 meters. In the only women's sport, the 500-meter kayak unit, gold was taken by Sylvi Saimo, who was the first Finnish female gold medalist in the summer competitions. The second most successful country in kayaking was Sweden, which won one gold and three silver. === Fencing === Helsinki Olympics fencing competitions were held on the Espoo side of the Westend Tennis Hall. The men competed with Épée, sabre and foil in both personal competition and team competition. The women had only a personal competition for foil in the program. There were 250 men and 37 women from 32 countries. Italy, Hungary and France were, as usual, the best fencing countries and took all the gold medals. A total of six countries reached medals. The Mangiarot brothers Edoardo and Dario took a double victory over the film. Hungarian swordsmen won a triple victory over the preserve. === Modern Pentathlon === The Modern pentathlon Olympic competitions was held at Ahvenisto Hämeenlinna. A total of 51 competitors from 19 countries entered the sport. For the first time in Olympic history, the sport also included a team competition. Sweden, Hungary and Finland shared the medals. Sweden's Lars Hall won the individual competition, and Hungary was the best in the team competition. Before Hall, all Olympic winners of the sport have been officers. However, Hall was a carpenter by profession. === Boxing === Töölö Sports Hall held Olympic boxing between 28 July to 2 August in ten weight classes. There were a total of 240 participants. A total of 17 countries won medals. The most successful boxing country was the United States, which won five gold. The Soviet Union won the most medals, but its boxers did not win a single championship. Finnish boxers reached five medals. In the middle series, the American Floyd Patterson knocked out Romanian Vasile Tiță in a record-breaking 42 seconds. The American Norvel Lee, who won the heavyweight series, was awarded as the most technical boxer in the Games. In the heavyweight series Ed Sanders got gold when the Swedish Ingemar Johansson was rejected for his passivity. Johansson did not receive his silver medal until 1982. === Wrestling === Wrestling was held in Helsinki in eight weight classes in both Greco-Roman wrestling and freestyle wrestling. All finals were held in the larger Exhibition Hall I, but freestyle wrestling events were held in the smaller Exhibition Hall II. Free button competitions were held on 20–23. July, and Greco-Roman wrestling matches took place on 24–27 July. The most successful wrestling country was the Soviet Union, whose athletes won six gold and a total of ten medals in the sport. Sweden dominated free wrestling and received the second highest number of medals in wrestling overall. The overwhelming athlete in wrestling was the Soviet Johannes Kotkas, who competed in the heavy series of Greco-Roman wrestling. He managed to beat all his opponents in less than five minutes. === Weightlifting === The Olympic weightlifting competition was held in seven weight classes with 141 competitors. Initially, there were to be only six weight classes, but a light heavyweight series was also added to the program, as a result of which the weight limit for the heavyweight series increased from 82.5 kilograms to 90 kilograms. The addition of the new weight class took place so late that there was no time to change the race program. Weightlifting was carried out according to plan at the Exhibition Hall on 25–27 July. All seven gold medals were awarded to athletes from the United States and the Soviet Union. The Soviets won a total of seven medals, but the Americans took four championships, while the Soviets only took three. A total of five world records were set in weightlifting. In the heavyweight series John Davis continued his superiority, Davis had not lost a single event since 1938 and continued with his victory in Helsinki as well. === Sailing === The competition took place in the waters of Helsinki from 20 to 28 May in five different categories. Larger boats sailed in front of Harmaja lighthouse island, and the Finn race was held near Liuskasaari. A total of 93 crews from 29 countries took part in the competition. The United States, Norway and Sweden took three medals. The United States was the only country to reach two gold medals in sailing. In the Finn that developed from the Firefly class, the Danish Paul Elvstrøm won the overwhelming championship. The gold medal was the second in Elvstrøm's career. He later became the first athlete to win the same sport four times in a row (individual disciplines). === Cycling === In cycling, medals were awarded in six sports, four for track cycling and two for road racing. In total, 214 competitors from 36 countries took part in the cycling. Track cycling competitions were held from 29 to 31 July and road driving on 2 August. A total of seven countries collected medals and gold medals went to Italy, Australia and Belgium. Italy was the most successful country with five medals. Two gold medals went to Australian Russell Mockridge, who won the championship in the kilometer time trial and with his partner in tandem racing, and the Belgian André Noyelle, who won the 190 kilometer road race personal competition and team competition. === Equestrian === Equestrian events were competed in dressage, Eventing and show jumping in person and in team competition in a total of six sports. Eight countries won medals in horseback riding, and Sweden was by far the most successful country. The Swedes won both races in both dressage and field riding. For the events in first time non-military officers including women were allowed to take part in dressage events in Helsinki. In a show jumping, Danish Lis Hartel, paralyzed from her knees down, was the first woman to win a riding medal after finishing second in the Olympics. === Rowing === Rowers competed in seven sports from the 20th to the 23rd of July. The competition was held in Meilahti, as Taivallahti, where the canoeing competitions took place, was too open to the sea breeze. There were a total of 409 entrants from 33 countries. Representatives from fourteen countries won medals, and only American rowers won two gold medals. The youngest Olympic winner of the Games was seen in Rowing. In the coxswain duo, the French winning team included 14 years old Bernard Malivoire. === Diving === Diving competed in a total of four men's and women's events. The United States led the events, as nine of the 12 medals in the distribution went to the country. In addition to the United States, only France, Mexico and Germany won medals in the sport. Patricia McCormick won Olympic gold in the women's events from both the three-meter springboard and the ten-meter floor jump. === Swimming === At the Helsinki Swimming Stadium men competed in six sports and women in five sports. High-level competitions were held from July 25 to 2 August. Summer Olympics in London had resulted in significant progress in the sport, and every Olympic record was broken in each event. The Americans dominated men's events and the Hungarians dominated women. Both countries won four gold medals. Ford Konno was the most successful swimmer with two gold medals and one silver. In the women's events Katalin Szőke won two gold medals and Éva Novák two silver in addition to the gold medal. The only world record in the Games was set by the Hungarian women's 4 × 100 meter freestyle message team. The Helsinki Olympics, was the last instance where competitors could participate in Breaststroke in the butterfly stroke. In the men's events, no athlete swimming in the breaststroke style made it to the finals. In women, Novák won silver. === Water polo === A total of 21 countries took part in the water polo tournament. The initial series of the Games was to be played in the offshore pools, but due to the coolness of the water, the International Swimming Federation ordered all the matches to be played at the Swimming Stadium. Because of this, some of the matches in the first series had to be played as early as six in the morning. The water polo championship was decided in the final block, where the four teams faced each other once. Hungary and Yugoslavia ended in a draw after winning two other matches and playing 2–2 each other. Hungary won gold with a better goal difference. === Gymnastics === The 1952 Olympic gymnastics was dominated by the Soviet Union, which despite participating in the Games for the first time, had already been an established gymnastics power by 1952. The USSR's athletes won nine gold medals and took a total of 22 medals. Finland, Germany and Switzerland, who previously dominated the gymnastics at the Olympics, were content with more modest success. A total of fifteen medals were awarded, eight men's and seven women's sports. The most personal medals in gymnastics were taken by Viktor Chukarin in the men's events and Maria Gorokhovskaya in the women's events. Chukarin won four gold and two silver. Gorokhovskaya won medals in every women's sport. Her seven-medal catch (two gold and five silver) was a record for one women's Olympics. === Athletics === Athletics was competed in 33 sports, 24 for men and 9 for women. By far the most successful state was the United States, which won 31 medals, nine of which were gold. The Soviet Union reached 17 medals, but won only two championships, and the eight-medal country Germany was left without first places. The second medalist was Czechoslovakia, with four of the five medals being the brightest. Emil Zátopek won the 5,000 and 10,000 meters, as well as the marathon, which he had never run before, all in new Olympic record times. On the women's side, the Australian Marjorie Jackson won the 100 and 200 meter runs. World records were set in seven events. In the triple jump Adhemar Ferreira da Silva broke the old world record four times. In the decathlon, Bob Mathias made a new ME and took the victory with a total score of 7,887 points, more than 900 points to the next. Josy Barthel of Luxembourg pulled a major surprise by winning the 1500 m. === Demonstration sports === According to the Olympic rules, the organizer of the Games was allowed to choose between two types of demonstration sports, one from abroad and one from Finland. In connection with the Helsinki Games, a handball and pesäpallo (Finnish baseball) match was held. In the handball match of the Games, Sweden and Denmark faced at the Olympic Stadium. The level of playing outside was modest due to heavy rain. Sweden won by a goal from 19 to 11. The pesäpallo match was also played at the Olympic Stadium. The Finnish Baseball Federation and Finnish Workers' Sports Federation teams competed in the event. The Baseball Federation won the match 8–4. During the breaks in both shows, the audience was entertained by the performances of Finnish male and female gymnasts. == Venues == With an annual average temperature of 5.9 °C (42.6 °F), Helsinki is one of the coldest cities to have hosted the Summer Olympics. Most of the competition venues were located in Helsinki Metropolitan Area. Modern pentathlon and some field hockey games were held in Hämeenlinna and some football games by Tampere, Lahti, Kotka and Turku. The main arena was the Olympic Stadium, which hosted the opening and closing ceremonies, athletics competitions, football semi-finals and finals, as well as the show jumping competition "Prix des Nations" were held. The stadium was built for the 1940 Olympics and opened as early as 1938, but had suffered under the bombing of World War II. It had to undergo expansion and refurbishment work. The concrete auditorium section was expanded and a new temporary wooden auditorium was built on the south and north curves and on the east side, which increased the Stadium's audience capacity to about 70,000. The swimming competitions were held at Helsinki Swimming Stadium, located just a few hundred meters east of the Olympic Stadium and with three pools: a racing, diving and children's pool. The swimming stadium could accommodate about 9,500 spectators, while the wooden eastern and standing stands for the Games could accommodate a total of about 6,000 people. The Fair Hall near the stadiums (now Töölö Sports Hall) many of the indoor events were held in two separate halls. In the bigger hall, men competed in gymnastics, wrestling and boxing. The smaller hall hosts the women's gymnastics, freestyle wrestling, weightlifting and basketball finals. Basketball first round matches were played at Tennis Palace and fencing competitions were held at the Westend tennis center in Espoo. The shooting events took place at the Malmi shooting range 11 kilometers from the center of Helsinki, with the exception of clay pigeon shooting. Clay pigeon shooting was performed on the Finnish Hunters' Association track Huopalahti.Ruskeasuo competed in dressage as well as in Tali and Laakso in field riding. The Töölö Rowing Stadium was built for rowing and canoeing events one kilometer from Taivallahti. However, the place was not accepted as a place for rowing competitions, as it was open to the sea breeze. The rowing took place in Meilahti about three kilometers from the Stadium. The place was considerably more sheltered than Taivallahti. Harmaja, a lighthouse island a couple of kilometers off the coast of Helsinki, was the starting and finishing area for larger sailing classes. Finn was the starting and finish point of the race Liuskasaari close to the coast. The Marathon running route was north of the Stadium to Käpylä, Pakinkylä, Tuomarinkylä, Vantaa, Tikkurila and Korso. In Tuusula, Mätäkivenmäki there was a turning point from which the runners set off on their way back to the Stadium. The 50-kilometer walk was organized along the same route. A memorial stone was later erected at the turning point along Old Tuusulantie. A swimming stadium was built in Hämeenlinna for Ahvenisto for the pentathlon. The other four pentathlon events were also held in the vicinity of Ahvenisto. == Participating National Olympic Committees == A total of 69 nations participated in these Games, up from 59 in the 1948 Games. Thirteen nations made their first Olympic appearance in 1952: The Bahamas, the People's Republic of China, Gold Coast (now Ghana), Guatemala, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Israel, Netherlands Antilles, Nigeria, Soviet Union (USSR), Thailand, and Vietnam. Japan and Germany were both reinstated and permitted to send athletes after being banned for 1948 for their instigation of World War II. Due to the division of Germany, German athletes from Saar entered a separate team for the only time. Only West Germany would provide athletes for the actual German team, since East Germany refused to participate in a joint German team. Romania returned to the games in this edition. Nations that participated in the previous games in London 1948 but was absent in Helsinki 1952 included Afghanistan, Colombia, Malta, Peru and Syria. Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory and commonwealth of the United States. Bahamas, Bermuda, Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana), Hong Kong, Jamaica, Nigeria, Singapore, Trinidad and Tobago, and British Guyana was all part of the British Empire. Netherlands Antilles was a constituent country of the Kingdom of Netherlands. The Soviet Union sent the largest delegation. === Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees (by highest to lowest) === == Medal count == These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1952 Games. == 50th anniversary coin == The 50th anniversary of the Helsinki Olympic Games was the main motif for one of the first Finnish euro silver commemorative coins, the €10 silver coin minted in 2002. The reverse depicts part of the Helsinki Olympic Stadium, as well as a section of the 1952 500 markka coin. The obverse has lettering SUOMI FINLAND 10 EURO, a flame, and Finland is the only country highlighted on Earth. == Admission tickets == In total 2,394,099 admission tickets were printed for the Helsinki games. About two million of them were made Bank of Finland banknote printing works. To prevent counterfeiting, tickets were printed on watermark banknote paper. Printing began in July 1951 and lasted four months. In early 1952, the race organizers opened their own ticket offices for sales at home and abroad. They were sold abroad in 52 countries. Half of the more than two million admission tickets were put up for sale abroad. However, only about 250,000 tickets were sold. However, foreign tourists also bought a lot of tickets from Finland. A total of 1,376,512 tickets were sold for various competition events. There were four different price categories. Prices varied between 300 and 2,100 FIM, which in current currency corresponds to about 9–65 euros. Ticket revenue totaled approximately FIM 965 million, or EUR 29.7 million. Entrance tickets were printed in ten different colors, depending on the venue and the auditorium. Except for the color, the flags were all similar in appearance. The texts in Finnish, Swedish, English and French were printed on them, and the sport was also indicated by a symbol in the upper left corner. A spectator map was printed on the back of the entrance tickets. Tickets sold to Finland only marked their Price Category, foreign tickets also marked the price US Dollars. In addition to tickets made by the organizers, the City of Hämeenlinna printed its own entry tickets for modern pentathlon competitions held locally. They were simpler in design than other tickets. == Impact and legacy == The Olympics influenced the Finns, the City of Helsinki and the image of foreigners. The Olympics can even be considered a symbolic decision for the post-war years in Finland. Reconstruction of the land was practically completed in 1952, although at the beginning of the decade many had lived in temporary housing. The last war reparations was paid in September 1952, and regulatory policy was abolished at the same time. On the closing day of the Games, 3 August 1952, President J.K. Paasikivi wrote in his diary: "The Olympics were a great success. Foreigners, including the magazines, have praised the good organization. This is a good thing and advertising for us." Helsinki cityscape was clearly a new impetus for the Olympics. The development of Helsinki had already begun in the late 1930s, when Parliament House, Lasipalatsi and Pääposti were built. Olympic dreams motivate many construction projects. Helsinki's entertainment and nightlife was modest compared to previous race hosts. Many temporary restaurants and entertainment venues were set up in the city for the Games. The city had been planning a fair for decades, but even for this project, the Olympic host gave the final impetus. After the competition was confirmed, the city of Helsinki started looking for a place for an amusement park in Alppila. The Linnanmäki Amusement Park was opened on 27 May 1950 on a plot leased in December 1949. The Olympics also developed Helsinki's infrastructure with the construction of a new airport, Olympic Pier, new asphalt and the city's first traffic lights. The Olympic spirit was also visible outside the capital region. In 1952, Finland's first rest stop for motorists was opened in Lahnajärvi, along the former Highway 1 (current road 110). The impact of the Olympics on Finns is difficult to define. It was certainly good for Finns' self-confidence to create a successful major event together and at the same time get a new kind of contact with the interaction between peoples. For the first time, many Finns were in contact with non-Caucasian foreigners at the Games. At the same time, the Olympics united Finns in their disputes. For example, Finnish Workers' Sports Federation and Finnish Sports Federation strong disputes between were on a break during the Olympics, even though they continued even after the Games. With internationalization, new products also arrived in Finland. The best known of these is Coca-Cola (Coca-Cola arrived in Finland as early as the 1930s through Stockmann). In addition, chewing gum was imported for the first time, and Alko launched new drinks, including Gin Long Drink. Finland's relations with United Kingdom clearly warmed up thanks to the Olympics. This was particularly influenced by the fact that Prince Philip, who came to visit the Games, received a warm welcome in Finland. After the Second World War, Britain had been rude to Finland, but the Olympics showed that Finland belonged to the Western world. === "The Last Real Olympics" === In Finland, the Helsinki Olympics are sometimes called the last real Olympics, when trying to emphasize the nature of the Games as the last Games of the true Olympic spirit, a sporting and non-commercial event. For example, a book about competitions written by Antero Raevuori is named after this saying. However, the phrase was invented in Finland and is not used elsewhere in the world. It was developed at the turn of the 1970s and 1980s, when doping began to become more widespread in sports, 1972 Summer Olympics the Munich massacre, and the 1976, 1980 and 1984 the Summer Olympics were widely boycotted. In a way, the Helsinki Olympics were a return to smaller competitions due to resources, as Finland is the smallest country to host the Summer Olympics. However the 1956 Summer Olympics involved fewer participating athletes than in Helsinki, and in practice it was not until the 1970s that the Games clearly began to expand. The Helsinki Olympics were still relatively non-commercial, although the Polish press, for example, barked at the Helsinki Olympics as "competitions for disgusting traders". The Helsinki Games were also not much smaller in terms of marketing than the following Games, and marketing was well known in the Olympic world with Kodak supporting the Games as far back as the 1896 Summer Olympics. == Gallery == == See also == 1952 Winter Olympics List of IOC country codes 1952 Summer Olympics torch relay == References == Notes Citations === Bibliography === Arponen, Antti O. (1996). Olympiakisat Ateenasta Atlantaan [Olympic Games from Athens to Atlanta] (in Finnish). Porvoo: WSOY. ISBN 951-0-21072-2. Kolkka, Sulo, ed. (1955). Official Report of the Organising Committee for the Games of the XV Olympiad, Helsinki, 1952. Purvoo: Serner Söderström Osakeyhitö. Pukkila, Hanna; Linnilä, Kai (2012). Hyvä Suomi! 1952 [Good Finland 1952] (in Finnish) (2. painos ed.). Somerniemi: Amanita. ISBN 978-952-5330-48-9. Raevuori, Antero (2002). Viimeiset oikeat olympialaiset: Helsinki 1952 [The Last Real Olympics: Helsinki 1952] (in Finnish). Helsingissä: Ajatus. ISBN 951-20-6108-2. Wickström, Mika (2002). Helsinki 1952 (in Finnish). Helsinki: Suomen urheilumuseosäätiö. ISBN 951-97773-8-5. == External links == "Helsinki 1952". Olympics.com. International Olympic Committee. Helsinki 1952 Official Olympic Report la84foundation.org Helsinki 1952 Official Olympic Report olympic-museum.de
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Ribeiro#:~:text=His%20paternal%20grandfather%20was%20Albert,known%20professionally%20as%20Lord%20Hummingbird.	Alfonso Ribeiro	Alfonso Lincoln Ribeiro (born September 21, 1971) is an American actor, comedian, and television host. In a career spanning over four decades, he is best known for his role as Carlton Banks on the NBC television sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air (1990–1996), as well as his performances on Silver Spoons (1984–1987) and In the House (1996–1999). Ribeiro started his career as a child actor and gained recognition for his titular performance in the Broadway musical The Tap Dance Kid. He later competed in the thirteenth season of the British survival show I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!. Ribeiro currently hosts ABC's video clip series America's Funniest Home Videos and co-hosts its reality competition series Dancing with the Stars with Julianne Hough. He won the latter program's nineteenth season alongside professional dancer Witney Carson, with whom he presented the GSN game show Catch 21. == Early life == Ribeiro was born in New York City in the Riverdale neighborhood of the Bronx to parents of Trinidadian descent. His paternal grandfather was Albert Ribeiro, a calypsonian known professionally as Lord Hummingbird. His aunt had been a dancer on Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In in the 1960s and 1970s. == Career == === Early work === Ribeiro began his career at age 8. He first gained recognition in 1983 when he played a leading role in the Broadway musical The Tap Dance Kid. He received positive reviews for his performance and was nominated for an Outer Critics Circle Award. Ribeiro appeared as a dancer in a Pepsi commercial that featured Michael Jackson in 1984; a rumor spread that Ribeiro died from snapping his neck while dancing in the commercial. The same year, Ribeiro was cast as Ricky Schroder's best friend on the TV series Silver Spoons, after which he and his family moved to Los Angeles. In 1985, Ribeiro authored a dance instruction book, Alfonso's Breakin' & Poppin' Book, and appeared in a commercial advertising it. He also released four 12-inch singles on Prism Records, including the 1984 track "Dance Baby". After Silver Spoons ended, Ribeiro took a hiatus from acting to finish high school and attend California State University, Los Angeles. === The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air === Ribeiro's most prominent role was as Carlton Banks, the cousin of Will Smith's lead character, on the NBC sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air from September 1990 to May 1996. Carlton was known for frequently dancing to Tom Jones' "It's Not Unusual", a dance routine that gained fame as "The Carlton". Ribeiro based "The Carlton" on Eddie Murphy's "white man dance" and Courteney Cox's dance from Bruce Springsteen's "Dancing in the Dark" music video. === Later work === Ribeiro starred on the sitcom In the House with LL Cool J from 1997 to 1999. He graduated from the New York Film Academy in 1999 and would go on to direct episodes of One on One, All of Us, Meet the Browns, Are We There Yet?, Shake It Up and K.C. Undercover. Ribeiro appeared as a contestant on a special child TV stars episode of Weakest Link in 2001. He made it into the final round but lost to Keshia Knight-Pulliam. In 2002, Ribeiro returned to the stage in an Encores! revival of the musical Golden Boy, starring as Joe Wellington. Ribeiro competed as one of the celebrity singers on the reality television show Celebrity Duets in September 2006, winning over the runner-up Lucy Lawless. From 2008 to 2016, Ribeiro hosted the game show Catch 21 on GSN. On May 24, 2013, Ribeiro made a cameo appearance on The Graham Norton Show to perform "The Carlton Dance", with show guests Will and Jaden Smith. On July 24, he began hosting his second game show, Spell-Mageddon, on ABC Family. On November 17, Ribeiro became a contestant in the thirteenth series of the British reality show I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here. He was eliminated from the show on December 5, finishing in seventh place. On September 4, 2014, Ribeiro was announced as one of the celebrities who would compete on season 19 of Dancing with the Stars. He partnered with professional dancer Witney Carson and became the fourth celebrity dancer in the show's history to receive a 9 from each judge in week one. On November 25, 2014, Ribeiro and Carson won the competition. After his victory, he hosted the nationwide live tour for the show. On May 19, 2015, Ribeiro was named Tom Bergeron's successor to host America's Funniest Home Videos. In July, Ribeiro made a cameo appearance in the music video for "All Night" by pop-rock band R5. In September, he returned to Dancing with the Stars as a guest judge in week three of season 21, and he substituted for Bergeron as host the following week, after Bergeron's father became ill. In October 2018, he was announced as the host of the British game show Money Tree. That month, it was also announced that Ribeiro would sit in for Bruno Tonioli as guest judge on Strictly Come Dancing for week 5, joining regular judges Craig Revel Horwood, Darcey Bussell, and Shirley Ballas. This would also occur in week 5 of the 2019 series. Catch 21 was revived in 2019, and Ribeiro returned as the host, with his former Dancing with the Stars partner Witney Carson joining as co-host. His role earned him a 2020 Daytime Emmy nomination for Outstanding Game Show Host, but he lost to Alex Trebek. He earned another nomination the following year, but again lost to Trebek. In 2020, Ribeiro starred in a series of commercials for State Farm Insurance as a Chris Paul impersonator. In 2021, he voiced a character in Muppets Haunted Mansion. In 2022, Ribeiro joined season 31 of Dancing with the Stars as co-host of the show, alongside host Tyra Banks. After Banks departed the show following season 31, Ribeiro became the main host of the show, with Julianne Hough joining as co-host, assuming Ribeiro's previous role. === The '90s with Alfonso Ribeiro === On July 6, 2019, the syndicated radio show The '90s with Alfonso Ribeiro launched on multiple radio stations across the country via Sun Broadcast Group, co-hosted by radio veteran Daena "DK" Kramer. The three-hour weekly show celebrates 1990s music and culture while Ribeiro and Kramer share their stories, pop culture facts and memories from the 1990s. == Personal life == === Family === Ribeiro was married to Robin Stapler from January 2002 until August 2006. They have a daughter, born in October 2002. Ribeiro married Angela Unkrich on October 13, 2012, following a three-month engagement. The two live in Los Angeles and have three children, born in 2013, 2015, and 2019. === Motorsports === Ribeiro competed in several editions of the Toyota Pro/Celebrity Race car race in Long Beach, earning an overall win in 2015 and celebrity class wins in 1994, 1995 and 2016. He also worked as radio spotter for CART racecar driver Bryan Herta, and performed the national anthem at CART and IndyCar Series races. === Lawsuit against Epic Games === In December 2018, Ribeiro, along with Instagram star Russell Horning, aka Backpack Kid, and rapper Terrence Ferguson, aka 2 Milly, brought a lawsuit against Epic Games for their decision to feature respective choreographies in the popular game Fortnite. In Ribeiro's case, his "Carlton dance", which he made popular in the 1990s as a cast member of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, is one of the many dances that Fortnite players can purchase for their avatars. Epic Games declined to comment on the lawsuits. The U.S. Copyright Office denied him a copyright for his dance on January 13, 2019. On March 7, 2019, Ribeiro dropped the lawsuit. == Filmography == === Film === === Television === === Directing === == Dancing with the Stars performances == Ribeiro was partnered with Witney Carson for season 19. On November 25, 2014, Ribeiro and Carson were declared the season's champions. In November 2017, Ribeiro returned to 25th season in Week eight, to participate in a trio Jive with Frankie Muniz and his professional partner Witney Carson. 1 Score given by guest judge Kevin Hart in place of Goodman. 2The American public scored the dance in place of Goodman with the averaged score being counted alongside the three other judges. 3This week only, for "Partner Switch-Up" week, Ribeiro performed with Cheryl Burke instead of Carson. 4Score given by guest judge Jessie J in place of Goodman. 5Score given by guest judge Pitbull in place of Goodman. == Stage == == Discography == === Singles === == References == == External links == Alfonso Ribeiro at IMDb Alfonso Ribeiro at Yahoo! Movies Alfonso Ribeiro at the Internet Broadway Database Alfonso Ribeiro discography at Discogs
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey#Personal_life	Oprah Winfrey	Oprah Gail Winfrey (; born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and media proprietor. She is best known for her talk show, The Oprah Winfrey Show, broadcast from Chicago, which ran in national syndication for 25 years, from 1986 to 2011. Globally, she is the richest Black woman and the wealthiest female celebrity. Dubbed the "Queen of All Media", she was the richest African-American of the 20th century and was once the world's only Black billionaire. By 2007, she was often ranked as the most influential woman in the world. Winfrey was born into poverty in rural Mississippi to a single teenage mother and later raised in inner-city Milwaukee. She has stated that she was molested during her childhood and early teenage years and became pregnant at 14; her son was born prematurely and died in infancy. Winfrey was then sent to live with the man she calls her father, Vernon Winfrey, a barber in Nashville, Tennessee, and landed a job in radio while still in high school. By 19, she was a co-anchor for the local evening news. Winfrey's often emotional, extemporaneous delivery eventually led to her transfer to the daytime talk show arena, and after boosting a third-rated local Chicago talk show to first place, she launched her own production company. Credited with creating a more intimate, confessional form of media communication, Winfrey popularized and revolutionized the tabloid talk show genre pioneered by Phil Donahue. By the mid-1990s, Winfrey had reinvented her show with a focus on literature, self-improvement, mindfulness, and spirituality. She has been criticized for unleashing a confession culture, promoting controversial self-help ideas, and having an emotion-centered approach, and has also been praised for overcoming adversity to become a benefactor to others. Winfrey also emerged as a political force in the 2008 presidential race, with her endorsement of Barack Obama estimated to have been worth about one million votes during the 2008 Democratic primaries. In the same year, she formed her own network, the Oprah Winfrey Network (OWN). In 2013, Winfrey was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama. In 1994, Winfrey was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. Then in October, she finished the Marine Corps Marathon in less than four and a half hours. She has received honorary doctorate degrees from multiple universities. Winfrey has won many awards throughout her career, including 19 Daytime Emmy Awards (including the Lifetime Achievement Award and the Chairman's Award), 2 Primetime Emmy Awards (including the Bob Hope Humanitarian Award), a Tony Award, a Peabody Award, and the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award awarded by the Academy Awards, in addition to two competitive Academy Award nominations. Winfrey was elected as a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2021. == Early life == Orpah Gail Winfrey was born on January 29, 1954; her first name was spelled Orpah on her birth certificate after the biblical figure in the Book of Ruth, but people mispronounced it regularly and "Oprah" stuck. She was born in Kosciusko, Mississippi, to a teenaged mother, Vernita Lee, and father Vernon Winfrey. Winfrey's parents never married. Vernita Lee (1935–2018) was a housemaid. Vernon Winfrey (1933–2022) was a coal miner turned barber turned city councilman who was in the Armed Forces when she was born. A genetic test in 2006 determined that her matrilineal line originated among the Kpelle ethnic group, from the area that became Liberia. Her genetic makeup was determined to be 89% Sub-Saharan African, 8% Native American, and 3% East Asian. After Winfrey's birth, her mother traveled north, and Winfrey spent her first six years living in rural poverty with her maternal grandmother, Hattie Mae (Presley) Lee (April 15, 1900 – February 27, 1963). Her grandmother was so poor that Winfrey often wore dresses made of potato sacks, for which other children made fun of her. Her grandmother taught her to read before the age of three and took her to the local church, where she was nicknamed "The Preacher" for her ability to recite Bible verses. Her grandmother, a believer in the adage "spare the rod, spoil the child," beat her almost daily. At age six, Winfrey moved to an inner-city neighborhood in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Her mother had little time for Oprah as a result of the long hours she worked as a maid. Around this time, Lee had given birth to another daughter, Winfrey's younger half-sister, Patricia, who died of causes related to cocaine addiction in February 2003 at age 43. By 1962, Lee was having difficulty raising both daughters, so Winfrey was temporarily sent to live with Vernon in Nashville, Tennessee. While Winfrey was in Nashville, Lee gave birth to a third daughter, who was put up for adoption in the hopes of easing the financial straits that had led to Lee's being on welfare, and was later also named Patricia. Winfrey did not know that she had a second half-sister until 2010. By the time Winfrey moved back with her mother, Lee had also given birth to Winfrey's half-brother Jeffrey, who died of AIDS-related causes in 1989. At the age of eight, she was baptized in a Baptist church. Winfrey has stated she was molested by her cousin, uncle, and a family friend, starting when she was nine years old, something she first announced on a 1986 episode of her TV show regarding sexual abuse. A biographer alleged that when Winfrey discussed the alleged abuse with family members at age 24, they refused to believe her account. Winfrey once commented that she had chosen not to be a mother because she had not been mothered well. At 13, after suffering what she described as years of abuse, Winfrey ran away from home. When she was 14, she became pregnant, but her son was born prematurely and died shortly after birth. Winfrey later stated she felt betrayed by the family member who had sold the story of her son to the National Enquirer in 1990. Winfrey attended Lincoln Middle and High School in Milwaukee, but after early success in the Upward Bound program, was transferred to the affluent suburban Nicolet High School. Upon transferring, she said she was continually reminded of her poverty as she rode the bus to school with fellow African-Americans, some of whom were servants of her classmates' families. She began to rebel and steal money from her mother in an effort to keep up with her free-spending peers. As a result, her mother once again sent her to live with her father in Nashville, although this time, she did not take her daughter back. Vernon was strict but encouraging, and made her education a priority. Winfrey became an honors student, was voted Most Popular Girl, and joined her high school speech team at East Nashville High School, placing second in the nation in dramatic interpretation. In 1986, Winfrey said, "'When my father took me, it changed the course of my life. He saved me. He simply knew what he wanted and expected. He would take nothing less'". Winfrey's first job as a teenager was working at a local grocery store. At the age of 17, Winfrey won the Miss Black Tennessee beauty pageant. She also attracted the attention of the local black radio station, WVOL, which hired her to do the news part-time. She worked there during her senior year of high school and in her first two years of college. Winfrey won an oratory contest, which secured her a full scholarship to Tennessee State University, a historically black institution, where she studied communication. However, she did not deliver her final paper until 1987, by which time she was a successful television personality. It was only then Winfrey earned her degree. Winfrey's career in media would not have surprised her grandmother, who once said that ever since Winfrey could talk, she was on stage. As a child, she played games interviewing her corncob doll and the crows on the fence of her family's property. Winfrey later acknowledged her grandmother's influence, saying it was Hattie Mae who had encouraged her to speak in public and "gave me a positive sense of myself". == Television == Working in local media, Winfrey was both the youngest news anchor and the first black female news anchor at Nashville's WLAC-TV (now WTVF-TV), where she often covered the same stories as John Tesh, who worked at a competing Nashville station. In 1976, she moved to Baltimore's WJZ-TV to co-anchor the six o'clock news. In 1977, she was removed as co-anchor and worked in lower profile positions at the station. She was then recruited to join Richard Sher as co-host of WJZ's local talk show People Are Talking, which premiered on August 14, 1978. She also hosted the local version of Dialing for Dollars. In 1984, Winfrey relocated to Chicago to host WLS-TV's low-rated half-hour morning talk show, AM Chicago, after being hired by that station's general manager, Dennis Swanson. The first episode aired on January 2, 1984. Within months after Winfrey took over, the show went from last place in the ratings to overtaking Donahue as the highest-rated talk show in Chicago. The movie critic Roger Ebert persuaded her to sign a syndication deal with King World. Ebert predicted that she would generate 40 times as much revenue as his television show, At the Movies. It was then renamed The Oprah Winfrey Show and expanded to a full hour. The first episode was broadcast nationwide on September 8, 1986. Winfrey's syndicated show brought in double Donahue's national audience, displacing Donahue as the number-one daytime talk show in America. Their much-publicized contest was the subject of enormous scrutiny. According to Time magazine in August 1988: Few people would have bet on Oprah Winfrey's swift rise to host of the most popular talk show on TV. In a field dominated by white males, she is a black female of ample bulk. As interviewers go, she is no match for, say, Phil Donahue ... What she lacks in journalistic toughness, she makes up for in plainspoken curiosity, robust humor and, above all empathy. Guests with sad stories to tell are apt to rouse a tear in Oprah's eye ... They, in turn, often find themselves revealing things they would not imagine telling anyone, much less a national TV audience. It is the talk show as a group therapy session. TV columnist Howard Rosenberg said: "She's a roundhouse, a full course meal, big, brassy, loud, aggressive, hyper, laughable, lovable, soulful, tender, low-down, earthy, and hungry. And she may know the way to Phil Donahue's jugular." Newsday's Les Payne observed, "Oprah Winfrey is sharper than Donahue, wittier, more genuine, and far better attuned to her audience, if not the world" and Martha Bayles of The Wall Street Journal wrote, "It's a relief to see a gab-monger with a fond but realistic assessment of her own cultural and religious roots." In the early years of The Oprah Winfrey Show, the program was classified as a tabloid talk show. In the mid-1990s, Winfrey began to host shows on broader topics such as heart disease, geopolitics, spirituality, and meditation. She interviewed celebrities on social issues they were directly involved with, such as cancer, charity work, or substance abuse, and hosted televised giveaways. The later years of the show faced accusations that Winfrey was promoting junk science. This has manifested as criticisms of Winfrey for promoting particular guests whose medical commentaries (both on her show and in the wider media) frequently lack supporting science. Common targets of this criticism include Jenny McCarthy's unfounded assertions about vaccines, and Suzanne Somers's promotion of bioidenticals. In addition to her talk show, Winfrey moderated three ABC Afterschool Specials from 1992 to 1994 and also produced and co-starred in the drama miniseries The Women of Brewster Place (1989) and its short-lived spin-off, Brewster Place. As well as hosting and appearing on television shows, Winfrey co-founded the women's cable television network Oxygen, which was the initial network for her Oprah After the Show program from 2002 to 2006 before moving to Oprah.com when Winfrey sold her stake in the network. She is also the president of Harpo Productions (Oprah spelled backwards), a film and TV production company behind The Oprah Winfrey Show, Dr. Phil, Rachael Ray, The Dr. Oz Show and many others. Dr. Phil has been criticized as being at best, simplistic and, at worst, ineffective or harmful. The National Alliance on Mental Illness has called Dr. Phil's conduct "unethical" and "incredibly irresponsible". Dr. Oz (Mehmet Oz) has been criticized by various medical publications and physicians for spreading pseudoscience Dr. Oz's promotion of various "miracle pills" (especially those aimed at weight loss), One website, Science-Based Medicine, said "No other show on television can top The Dr. Oz Show for the sheer magnitude of bad health advice it consistently offers, all while giving everything a veneer of credibility". Multiple publications have called on Winfrey to denounce medical statements made by her former proteges long after her show ended. For example, there were calls for her to denounce Dr. Oz in 2020 reaction to his comments about coronavirus and his promotion of a poorly vetted drug as a cure. On January 15, 2008, Winfrey and Discovery Communications announced plans to change Discovery Health Channel into a new channel called OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network. It was scheduled to launch in 2009 but was delayed, and actually launched on January 1, 2011. The series finale of The Oprah Winfrey Show aired on May 25, 2011. In January 2017, CBS announced that Winfrey would join 60 Minutes as a special contributor on the Sunday evening news magazine program starting in September 2017. The National Museum of African American History and Culture in 2018 opened a special exhibit on Winfrey's cultural influence through television. Winfrey left 60 Minutes by the end of 2018. In June 2018, Apple announced a multi-year content partnership with Winfrey, in which it was agreed that Winfrey would create new original programs exclusively for Apple's streaming service, Apple TV+. The first show under the deal, Oprah's Book Club, premiered on November 1, 2019. Oprah's Book Club is based on the segment of the same name from The Oprah Winfrey Show. The second show under the deal, Oprah Talks COVID-19, debuted on March 21, 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic. A third show, The Oprah Conversation debuted on July 30, 2020, with Winfrey "[continuing] to explore impactful and relevant topics with fascinating thought leaders from all over the world". === Celebrity interviews === In 1993, Winfrey hosted a rare prime-time interview called, Michael Jackson Talks ... to Oprah with Michael Jackson, which became the fourth most-watched event in American television history as well as the most watched interview ever, with an audience of 36.5 million. On December 1, 2005, Winfrey appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman for the first time in 16 years, to promote the new Broadway musical, The Color Purple, which she produced. The episode was hailed by some as the "television event of the decade" and helped Letterman attract his largest audience in more than 11 years: 13.45 million viewers. Although a much-rumored feud was said to have been the cause of the rift, both Winfrey and Letterman balked at such talk. "I want you to know, it's really over, whatever you thought was happening," said Winfrey. On September 10, 2007, Letterman made his first appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show, as its season premiere was filmed in New York City. In 2006, rappers Ludacris, 50 Cent, and Ice Cube criticized Winfrey for what they perceived as an anti-hip hop bias. In an interview with GQ magazine, Ludacris said that Winfrey gave him a "hard time" about his lyrics, and edited comments he made during an appearance on her show with the cast of the film Crash. He also said that he wasn't initially invited on the show with the rest of the cast. Winfrey responded by saying that she is opposed to rap lyrics that "marginalize women," but enjoys some artists, including Kanye West, who appeared on her show. She said she spoke with Ludacris backstage after his appearance to explain her position and said she understood that his music was for entertainment purposes, but that some of his listeners might take it literally. In September 2008, Winfrey received criticism after Matt Drudge of the Drudge Report reported that Winfrey refused to have Sarah Palin on her show, allegedly because of Winfrey's support for Barack Obama. Winfrey denied the report, maintaining that there never was a discussion regarding Palin's appearing on her show. She said that after she made public her support for Obama, she decided that she would not let her show be used as a platform for any of the candidates. Although Obama appeared twice on her show, those appearances were prior to his declaration as a presidential candidate. Winfrey added that Palin would make a fantastic guest and that she would love to have her on the show after the election, which she did on November 18, 2009. In 2009, Winfrey was criticized for allowing actress Suzanne Somers to appear on her show to discuss hormone treatments that are not accepted by mainstream medicine. Critics have also suggested that Winfrey is not tough enough when questioning celebrity guests or politicians whom she appears to like. Lisa de Moraes, a media columnist for The Washington Post, stated: "Oprah doesn't do follow-up questions unless you're an author who's embarrassed her by fabricating portions of a supposed memoir she's plugged for her book club", referring to the controversy around James Frey's A Million Little Pieces. In 2021, she conducted an interview with Meghan, Duchess of Sussex, and her husband Prince Harry, which was broadcast globally and received international media attention. In 2024, ABC aired a new television special titled "AI and the Future of Us: An Oprah Winfrey Special". The one-hour show aimed to delve into the impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on daily life. It featured interviews with prominent figures from the tech industry, including OpenAI CEO Sam Altman and Bill Gates. == Other media == === Film === Winfrey co-starred in Steven Spielberg's The Color Purple (1985), as distraught housewife Sofia. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance. The Alice Walker novel later became a Broadway musical which opened in late 2005, with Winfrey credited as a producer. In October 1998, Winfrey produced and starred in the film Beloved, based on Toni Morrison's Pulitzer Prize–winning novel of the same name. To prepare for her role as Sethe, the protagonist and former slave, Winfrey experienced a 24-hour simulation of the experience of slavery, which included being tied up and blindfolded and left alone in the woods. Despite major advertising, including two episodes of her talk show dedicated solely to the film, and moderate to good critical reviews, Beloved opened to poor box-office results, losing approximately $30 million. While promoting the movie, co-star Thandiwe Newton described Winfrey as "a very strong technical actress and it's because she's so smart. She's acute. She's got a mind like a razor blade." Harpo Productions released a film adaptation of Zora Neale Hurston's 1937 novel Their Eyes Were Watching God in 2005. The made-for-television film was based upon a teleplay by Suzan-Lori Parks and starred Halle Berry in the lead female role. In late 2008, Winfrey's company Harpo Films signed an exclusive output pact to develop and produce scripted series, documentaries, and movies exclusively for HBO. In 2013, Winfrey starred in the film The Butler directed by Lee Daniels. Though her performance garnered significant Oscar buzz, she was not nominated for the award. Oprah voiced Gussie the goose in Charlotte's Web (2006) and voiced Judge Bumbleton in Bee Movie (2007), co-starring the voices of Jerry Seinfeld and Renée Zellweger. In 2009, Winfrey provided the voice for the character of Eudora, the mother of Princess Tiana, in Disney's The Princess and the Frog and in 2010, narrated the US version of the BBC nature program Life for Discovery. In 2018, Winfrey starred as Mrs. Which in the film adaptation of Madeleine L'Engle's novel A Wrinkle in Time. She also lent her voice to an animated virtual-reality short film written and directed by Eric Darnell, starring John Legend, titled Crow: The Legend, telling a Native American origin tale. === Publishing and writing === Winfrey has co-authored five books. At the announcement of a weight-loss book in 2005, co-authored with her personal trainer Bob Greene, it was said that her undisclosed advance fee had broken the record for the world's highest book advance fee, previously held by the autobiography of former U.S. President Bill Clinton. In 2015, her memoir, The Life You Want, was announced following on her tour of the same name, and scheduled for publication in 2017, but was "indefinitely postponed" in 2016. Winfrey publishes the magazine Oprah Daily and from 2004 to 2008 also published a magazine called O At Home. In 2002, Fortune called O, the Oprah Magazine the most successful start-up ever in the industry. Although its circulation had declined by more than 10 percent to 2.4 million from 2005 to 2008, the January 2009 issue was the best selling issue since 2006. The audience for her magazine is considerably more upscale than for her TV show; the average reader earns well above the median for U.S. women. In July 2020, it was announced that O Magazine would end its regular print publications after the December 2020 issue. In the December 2020 issue, Winfrey thanked readers and acknowledged it was the magazine's "final monthly print edition". === Online === Winfrey's company created the Oprah.com website to provide resources and interactive content related to her shows, magazines, book club, and public charity. Oprah.com averages more than 70 million page views and more than six million users per month, and receives approximately 20,000 e-mails each week. Winfrey initiated "Oprah's Child Predator Watch List", through her show and website, to help track down accused child molesters. Within the first 48 hours, two of the featured men were captured. === Radio === On February 9, 2006, it was announced that Winfrey had signed a three-year, $55-million contract with XM Satellite Radio to establish a new radio channel. The channel, Oprah Radio, features popular contributors to The Oprah Winfrey Show and O, The Oprah Magazine including Nate Berkus, Dr. Mehmet Oz, Bob Greene, Dr. Robin Smith, and Marianne Williamson. Oprah & Friends began broadcasting at 11:00 am ET, September 25, 2006, from a new studio at Winfrey's Chicago headquarters. The channel broadcasts 24 hours a day, seven days a week on XM Radio Channel 156. Winfrey's contract requires her to be on the air 30 minutes a week, 39 weeks a year. == Personal life == === Homes === Oprah's extensive and continuously evolving real-estate portfolio has garnered heightened attention throughout her life and career, with many prominent industry outlets branding her a "tycoon" regarding her investments which as of 2022, are estimated to total approximately $127 million. As her talk show was beginning, Oprah first purchased a condominium in Chicago's Water Tower Place in 1985, before purchasing the condos adjoining and directly below it in 1992, 1993, and 1994, respectively. In 1988, she purchased an 164-acre property including main and guest residences, orchard, and stables in Rolling Prairie, Indiana as her weekend refuge. In 1992, she purchased an 80-acre compound in Telluride, Colorado, which she would go on to sell in approximately late 2000. In 1994, she also purchased an apartment at the Four Seasons Hotel Chicago. Between 1996 and 2000 she purchased a total of five condos in different development areas of Fisher Island, Florida. In 2000, through her Chicago-based LLC Overground Railroad, Oprah purchased her friend Gayle King an estate in Greenwich, Connecticut. In 2001, Oprah sold all five of her Fisher Island condos and purchased what would become her "main home base" she has also called "The Promised Land" (where she currently lives as of 2022), a (then) 42-acre (17 ha) estate with ocean and mountain views in Montecito, California. Additionally that year, she also purchased homes in both Elmwood Park, Illinois and Merrillville, Indiana for other family members and friends. Similarly, in 2002, she purchased her father's home in Franklin, Tennessee and a lakefront condo in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In 2003 she listed her compound in Rolling Prairie, Indiana, and sold it in 2004. From 2003 to 2005, Oprah acquired several properties totaling 163 acres in Kula and Hana, Hawaii as well as a penthouse apartment in Atlanta, Georgia. In 2005, she purchased a home in Douglasville, Georgia which was gifted in 2011 to a family member. In 2006, Oprah purchased a co-op apartment along Lake Shore Drive in downtown Chicago, reportedly with plans to permanently move there from her prior adjoined-condo unit in Water Tower Place for the duration of her show; for reasons unknown, the property sat entirely unused until she sold it in 2012. In 2008, she sold her penthouse apartment in Atlanta. That year, she also listed Gayle King's estate and purchased her (through her second LLC Sophie's Penthouse) a penthouse apartment in midtown Manhattan, New York City which would later be sold in 2012. In early 2014, she listed her combined-unit Chicago duplex on the market. Later that year, Oprah came back to Telluride, Colorado to purchase a 60-acre lot with plans to build on the property. A lawsuit filed against her that year by a retired nuclear physicist living in the area regarding trail access rights was dismissed later that year with the judge citing little case law to support his case, among other issues. The extent of the agreement between all the parties and jurisdictions regarding her subsequent development on the property remains undisclosed. In 2015, Oprah purchased another property in Telluride, and later that year, expanded her Montecito compound with another 23-acre estate and yet another 44-acre dedicated crop and equestrian preserve. That year she also sold both of her downtown Chicago homes. In 2018, Oprah obtained two adjoining parcels of land totaling 23 acres including the Madroneagle compound on Orcas Island, Washington and sold her last home property in the Chicago area from Elmwood Park. In late 2019, Oprah yet again expanded her Montecito home-base compound, this time to 70 contiguous acres, with the purchase of a four-acre complex from actor Jeff Bridges. In 2021, she sold her Orcas Island compound as she said she was too busy to use it and purchased another compound in Montecito further away from her home-base compound, flipping the latter in 2022 with split properties, one of which was sold to her property manager and longtime personal trainer Bob Greene, and the other to actress Jennifer Aniston. In 2023, Winfrey also purchased 870 acres of land in Maui for $6.6 million. === Romantic history === Winfrey's high school sweetheart Anthony Otey recalled an innocent courtship that began in Winfrey's senior year of high school, from which he saved hundreds of love notes; Winfrey conducted herself with dignity and was a model student. The two spoke of getting married, but Otey claimed to have always secretly known that Winfrey was destined for a far greater life than he could ever provide. She broke up with him on Valentine's Day of her senior year. In 1971, several months after breaking up with Otey, Winfrey met William "Bubba" Taylor at Tennessee State University. According to CBS journalist George Mair, Taylor was Winfrey's "first intense, to-die-for love affair". Winfrey helped get Taylor a job at WVOL, and according to Mair, "did everything to keep him, including literally begging him on her knees to stay with her". Taylor, however, was unwilling to leave Nashville with Winfrey when she moved to Baltimore to work at WJZ-TV in June 1976. "We really did care for each other," Winfrey would later recall. "We shared a deep love. A love I will never forget." In the 1970s, Winfrey had a romantic relationship with John Tesh. Biographer Kitty Kelley claims that Tesh split with Winfrey over the pressures of an interracial relationship. When WJZ-TV management criticized Winfrey for crying on air while reporting tragedies and were unhappy with her physical appearance (especially when her hair fell out as a result of a bad perm), Winfrey turned to reporter Lloyd Kramer for comfort. "Lloyd was just the best," Winfrey would later recall. "That man loved me even when I was bald! He was wonderful. He stuck with me through the whole demoralizing experience. That man was the most fun romance I ever had." According to Mair, when Kramer moved to NBC in New York, Winfrey had a love affair with a married man who had no intention of leaving his wife. Winfrey would later recall: "I'd had a relationship with a man for four years. I wasn't living with him. I'd never lived with anyone—and I thought I was worthless without him. The more he rejected me, the more I wanted him. I felt depleted, powerless. At the end, I was down on the floor on my knees groveling and pleading with him". Winfrey became so depressed that on September 8, 1981, she wrote a suicide note to best friend Gayle King instructing King to water her plants. "That suicide note had been much overplayed" Winfrey told Ms. magazine. "I couldn't kill myself. I would be afraid the minute I did it, something really good would happen and I'd miss it." According to Winfrey, her emotional turmoil gradually led to a weight problem: "The reason I gained so much weight in the first place and the reason I had such a sorry history of abusive relationships with men was I just needed approval so much. I needed everyone to like me, because I didn't like myself much. So I'd end up with these cruel self-absorbed guys who'd tell me how selfish I was, and I'd say 'Oh thank you, you're so right' and be grateful to them. Because I had no sense that I deserved anything else. Which is also why I gained so much weight later on. It was the perfect way of cushioning myself against the world's disapproval." Winfrey later confessed to smoking crack cocaine with a man she was romantically involved with during the same era. She explained on her show: "I always felt that the drug itself is not the problem but that I was addicted to the man." She added: "I can't think of anything I wouldn't have done for that man." Winfrey was allegedly involved in a second drug-related love affair. Self-proclaimed former boyfriend Randolph Cook said they lived together for several months in 1985 and did drugs. In 1997, Cook tried to sue Winfrey for $20 million for allegedly blocking a tell-all book about their alleged relationship. In the mid-1980s, Winfrey briefly dated movie critic Roger Ebert, whom she credits with advising her to take her show into syndication. In 1985, before Winfrey's Chicago talk show had gone national, Haitian filmmaker Reginald Chevalier claims he appeared as a guest on a look-alike segment and began a relationship with Winfrey involving romantic evenings at home, candlelit baths, and dinners with Michael Jordan and Danny Glover. Chevalier says Winfrey ended the relationship when she met Stedman Graham. Winfrey and her partner Stedman Graham have been together since 1986. They were engaged to be married in November 1992, but the ceremony never took place. === Close friends === Winfrey's best friend since their early twenties is Gayle King. King was formerly the host of The Gayle King Show and is currently an editor of O, the Oprah Magazine. Since 1997, when Winfrey played the therapist on an episode of the sitcom Ellen in which Ellen DeGeneres came out of the closet, Winfrey and King have been the target of persistent rumors that they were gay. "I understand why people think we're gay," Winfrey says in the August 2006 issue of O magazine. "There isn't a definition in our culture for this kind of bond between women. So I get why people have to label it—how can you be this close without it being sexual?" "I've told nearly everything there is to tell. All my stuff is out there. People think I'd be so ashamed of being gay that I wouldn't admit it? Oh, please." Winfrey has also had a long friendship with Maria Shriver, after they met in Baltimore. Winfrey considered Maya Angelou, author of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, her mentor and close friend; she called Angelou her "mother-sister-friend". Winfrey hosted a week-long Caribbean cruise for Angelou and 150 guests for Angelou's 70th birthday in 1998, and in 2008, threw her "an extravagant 80th birthday celebration" at Donald Trump's Mar-a-Lago club in Palm Beach, Florida. === Personal wealth === Born in rural poverty, and raised by a mother dependent on government welfare payments in a poor urban neighborhood, Winfrey became a millionaire at the age of 32 when her talk show received national syndication. Winfrey negotiated ownership rights to the television program and started her own production company. At the age of 41, Winfrey had a net worth of $340 million and replaced Bill Cosby as the only African American on the Forbes 400. By 2000, with a net worth of $800 million, Winfrey is believed to have been the richest African American of the 20th century. There has been a course taught at the University of Illinois focusing on Winfrey's business acumen; namely, "History 298: Oprah Winfrey, the Tycoon". Winfrey was the highest-paid television entertainer in the United States in 2006, earning an estimated $260 million during the year, five times the sum earned by second-place music executive Simon Cowell. By 2008, her yearly income had increased to $275 million. Forbes' list of The World's Billionaires has listed Winfrey as the world's only black billionaire from 2004 to 2006 and as the first black woman billionaire in the world that was achieved in 2003. One of the richest celebrities ever, as of 2014, Winfrey had a net worth in excess of 2.9 billion dollars and had overtaken former eBay CEO Meg Whitman as the richest self-made woman in America. === Religious views === Oprah was raised a Baptist. In her early life, she would speak at local, mostly African American congregations of the Southern Baptist Convention that were often deeply religious and familiar with such themes as evangelical Protestantism, the Black church, and being born-again. She was quoted as saying: "I have church with myself: I have church walking down the street. I believe in the God force that lives inside all of us, and once you tap into that, you can do anything." She also stated, "Doubt means don't. When you don't know what to do, do nothing until you do know what to do. Because the doubt is your inner voice or the voice of God or whatever you choose to call it. It is your instinct trying to tell you something is off. That's how I have found myself to be led spiritually, because that's your spiritual voice saying to you, 'let's think about it.' So when you don't know what to do, do nothing." Oprah has stated that she is a Christian and her favorite Bible verse is Acts 17:28. Oprah attends The Potter's House, an Evangelical church in Dallas. === Other === After the loss of her infant child at age 14, Winfrey did not want more children. In a 2017 interview with Vanity Fair, she explained "I didn't want babies. I wouldn't have been a good mom for babies. I don't have the patience. I have the patience for puppies but that's a quick stage!" == Influence == === Rankings === Winfrey was called "arguably the world's most powerful woman" by CNN and TIME, "arguably the most influential woman in the world" by The American Spectator, "one of the 100 people who most influenced the 20th Century" and "one of the most influential people" from 2004 to 2011 by TIME. Winfrey is the only person to have appeared in the latter list on ten occasions. At the end of the 20th century, Life listed Winfrey as both the most influential woman and the most influential black person of her generation, and in a cover story profile the magazine called her "America's most powerful woman". In 2007, USA Today ranked Winfrey as the most influential woman and most influential black person of the previous quarter-century. Ladies' Home Journal also ranked Winfrey number one in their list of the most powerful women in America and then Senator Barack Obama in 2007 said she "may be the most influential woman in the country". In 1998, Winfrey became the first woman and first African American to top Entertainment Weekly's list of the 101 most powerful people in the entertainment industry. Forbes named her the world's most powerful celebrity in 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010, and 2013. As chairman of Harpo Inc., she was named the most powerful woman in entertainment by The Hollywood Reporter in 2008. She has been listed as one of the world's 100 most powerful women by Forbes, ranking 14th in 2014 and 31st in 2023. In 2010, Life magazine named Winfrey one of the 100 people who changed the world, alongside Jesus Christ, Elvis Presley, and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. Winfrey was the only living woman to make the list. Columnist Maureen Dowd seems to agree with such assessments. Interviewed by The Guardian in 2006, Dowd said: "She is the top alpha female in this country. She has more credibility than the president. Other successful women, such as Hillary Clinton and Martha Stewart, had to be publicly slapped down before they could move forward. Even Condi has had to play the protégé with Bush. None of this happened to Oprah – she is a straight ahead success story." Vanity Fair wrote: "Oprah Winfrey arguably has more influence on the culture than any university president, politician, or religious leader, except perhaps the Pope. Bill O'Reilly said: "this is a woman that came from nothing to rise up to be the most powerful woman, I think, in the world. I think Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in the world, not just in America. That's – anybody who goes on her program immediately benefits through the roof. I mean, she has a loyal following; she has credibility; she has talent; and she's done it on her own to become fabulously wealthy and fabulously powerful." In 2005, Winfrey was named the greatest woman in American history as part of a public poll as part of The Greatest American. She was ranked No. 9 overall on the list of greatest Americans. However, polls estimating Winfrey's personal popularity have been inconsistent. A November 2003 Gallup poll estimated that 73% of American adults had a favorable view of Winfrey. Another Gallup poll in January 2007 estimated the figure at 74%, although it dropped to 66% when Gallup conducted the same poll in October 2007. A December 2007 Fox News poll put the figure at 55%. According to Gallup's annual most admired poll, Americans consistently rank Winfrey as one of the most admired women in the world. Her highest rating came in 2007 when she was statistically tied with Hillary Clinton for first place. In a list compiled by the British magazine New Statesman in September 2010, she was voted 38th in the list of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010". In 1989, she was accepted into the NAACP Image Award Hall of Fame. === "Oprahfication" === The Wall Street Journal coined the term "Oprahfication", meaning public confession as a form of therapy. By confessing intimate details about her weight problems, tumultuous love life, and sexual abuse, and crying alongside her guests, Winfrey has been credited by Time magazine with creating a new form of media communication known as "rapport talk" as distinguished from the "report talk" of Phil Donahue: "Winfrey saw television's power to blend public and private; while it links strangers and conveys information over public airwaves, TV is most often viewed in the privacy of our homes. Like a family member, it sits down to meals with us and talks to us in the lonely afternoons. Grasping this paradox, ... She makes people care because she cares. That is Winfrey's genius, and will be her legacy, as the changes she has wrought in the talk show continue to permeate our culture and shape our lives." Observers have also noted the "Oprahfication" of politics such as "Oprah-style debates" and Bill Clinton being described as "the man who brought Oprah-style psychobabble and misty confessions to politics". Newsweek stated: "Every time a politician lets his lip quiver or a cable anchor 'emotes' on TV, they nod to the cult of confession that Oprah helped create." The November 1988 Ms. observed that "in a society where fat is taboo, she made it in a medium that worships thin and celebrates a bland, white-bread prettiness of body and personality [...] But Winfrey made fat sexy, elegant – damned near gorgeous – with her drop-dead wardrobe, easy body language, and cheerful sensuality." ==== Daytime talk show's impact on LGBT people ==== While Phil Donahue has been credited with pioneering the tabloid talk show genre, Winfrey's warmth, intimacy, and personal confession popularized and changed it. Her success at popularizing the tabloid talk show genre opened up a thriving industry that has included Ricki Lake, The Jenny Jones Show, and The Jerry Springer Show. In the book Freaks Talk Back, Yale sociology professor Joshua Gamson credits the tabloid talk show genre with providing much needed high-impact media visibility for gay, bisexual, transsexual, and transgender (LGBT) people and doing more to make them mainstream and socially acceptable than any other development of the 20th century. In the book's editorial review, Michael Bronski wrote, "In the recent past, lesbians, gay men, bisexuals, and transgendered people had almost no presence on television. With the invention and propagation of tabloid talk shows such as Jerry Springer, Jenny Jones, Oprah, and Geraldo, people outside the sexual mainstream now appear in living rooms across America almost every day of the week." Gamson credits the tabloid talk show with making alternative sexual orientations and identities more acceptable in mainstream society. Examples include a Time magazine article on early 21st-century gays coming out of the closet at an increasingly younger age and on plummeting gay suicide rates. Gamson also believes that tabloid talk shows caused gays to be accepted on more traditional forms of media. In April 1997, Winfrey played the therapist in "The Puppy Episode" on the sitcom Ellen to whom the character (and the real-life Ellen DeGeneres) came out as a lesbian. === "The Oprah Effect" === The power of Winfrey's opinions and endorsement to influence public opinion, especially consumer purchasing choices, has been dubbed "the Oprah Effect". The effect has been documented or alleged in domains as diverse as book sales, beef markets, and election voting. Late in 1996, Winfrey introduced the Oprah's Book Club segment to her television show. The segment focused on new books and classics and often brought obscure novels to popular attention. The book club became such a powerful force that whenever Winfrey introduced a new book as her book-club selection, it instantly became a best-seller; for example, when she selected the classic John Steinbeck novel East of Eden, it soared to the top of the book charts. Being recognized by Winfrey often means a million additional book sales for an author. In Reading with Oprah: The Book Club that Changed America (2005), Kathleen Rooney describes Winfrey as "a serious American intellectual who pioneered the use of electronic media, specifically television and the Internet, to take reading – a decidedly non-technological and highly individual act – and highlight its social elements and uses in such a way to motivate millions of erstwhile non-readers to pick up books." When author Jonathan Franzen's book was selected for the Book Club, he reportedly "cringed" and said selected books tend to be "schmaltzy". After James Frey's A Million Little Pieces was found to contain fabrications in 2006, Winfrey confronted him on her show over the breach of trust. In 2009, Winfrey apologized to Frey for the public confrontation. During a show about mad cow disease with Howard Lyman (aired on April 16, 1996), Winfrey said she was stopped cold from eating another burger. Texas cattlemen sued her and Lyman in early 1998 for "false defamation of perishable food" and "business disparagement," claiming that Winfrey's remarks sent cattle prices tumbling, costing beef producers $11 million. Winfrey was represented by attorney Chip Babcock and, on February 26, after a two-month trial in an Amarillo, Texas, court, a jury found Winfrey and Lyman were not liable for damages. Winfrey's ability to launch other successful talk shows such as Dr. Phil, The Dr. Oz Show, and Rachael Ray has also been cited as examples of "The Oprah Effect". === Politics === Matthew Baum and Angela Jamison performed an experiment testing their hypothesis, "Politically unaware individuals who consume soft news will be more likely to vote consistently than their counterparts who do not consume soft news". In their studies, they found that low-awareness individuals who watch soft news shows, such as The Oprah Winfrey Show are 14% more likely to vote consistently than low-awareness individuals who only watch hard news. Winfrey states she is a political independent who has "earned the right to think for myself and to vote for myself". She endorsed presidential candidate Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election. On September 25, 2006, Winfrey made her first endorsement of Obama for president on Larry King Live, the first time she endorsed a political candidate running for office. Two economists estimate that Winfrey's endorsement was worth over a million votes in the Democratic primary race and that without it, Obama would have lost the nomination. Winfrey held a fundraiser for Obama on September 8, 2007, at her Santa Barbara estate. In December 2007, Winfrey joined Obama for a series of rallies in the early primary states of Iowa, New Hampshire, and South Carolina. The Columbia, South Carolina, event on December 9, 2007, drew a crowd of nearly 30,000, the largest for any political event of 2007. An analysis by two economists at the University of Maryland, College Park estimated that Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for between 420,000 and 1,600,000 votes for Obama in the Democratic primary alone, based on a sample of states that did not include Texas, Michigan, North Dakota, Kansas, or Alaska. The results suggest that in the sampled states, Winfrey's endorsement was responsible for the difference in the popular vote between Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton. The governor of Illinois, Rod Blagojevich, reported being so impressed by Winfrey's endorsement that he considered offering Winfrey Obama's vacant senate seat, describing Winfrey as "the most instrumental person in electing Barack Obama president," with "a voice larger than all 100 senators combined". Winfrey responded by stating that although she was absolutely not interested, she did feel she could be a senator. The Topps trading card company memorialized Oprah's involvement in the campaign by featuring her on a card in a set commemorating Obama's road to the White House. In April 2014, Winfrey spoke for more than 20 minutes at a fundraiser in Arlington, Virginia, for Lavern Chatman, a candidate in a primary to nominate a Democratic Party candidate for election to the U.S. House of Representatives. Winfrey participated in the event even after reports had revealed that Chatman had been found liable in 2001 for her role in a scheme to defraud hundreds of District of Columbia nursing-home employees of at least $1.4 million in owed wages. Winfrey endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 election, and referred to Republican candidate Donald Trump as a "demagogue". In 2018, Winfrey canvassed door-to-door for Georgia gubernatorial Democratic nominee Stacey Abrams and donated $500,000 to the March for Our Lives student demonstration in favor of gun control in the United States. Winfrey has at times been the subject of media speculation that she may run for president herself, most notably in the lead-up to the 2020 election in which some reports claimed that she was actively considering launching a campaign for the Democratic nomination. Winfrey ultimately denied any plans to run for president, saying in 2018 that while it was "a humbling thing to have people think you can run the country", she "would not be able to do it. It's not a clean business. It would kill me." Winfrey suggested that she would publicly endorse a candidate in the 2020 Democratic primaries, however she ultimately did not do so. She later campaigned for Joe Biden during the general election. In early 2018, Winfrey met with Mohammad bin Salman, the crown prince and de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia, when he visited the United States. In the 2022 Pennsylvania Senate election, Winfrey endorsed Democrat John Fetterman over Republican Mehmet Oz, whose show she promoted. In the 2022 Maryland gubernatorial election, she endorsed Baltimore author Wes Moore in the Democratic primary, co-hosting a virtual fundraiser for him in June. Winfrey later attended and spoke at Moore's gubernatorial inauguration on January 18, 2023. In 2022, Winfrey set up OWN Your Vote, a nonpartisan group dedicated to voter registration and a get-out-the-vote campaign focused on providing Black women with tools and resources to vote in the November election. Their partners include Advancement Project, African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), Color Of Change, Delta Sigma Theta sorority, The King Center, The Lawyers' Committee, NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, National Action Network, National Bar Association, National Council of Negro Women, Sigma Gamma Rho, Southern Poverty Law Center, VoteRunLead, and Vote.org. On August 21, 2024, Winfrey endorsed Kamala Harris in the 2024 United States presidential election at the 2024 Democratic National Convention. === Spiritual leadership === In 2000, she was awarded the Spingarn Medal from the NAACP. In 2002, Christianity Today published an article called "The Church of O" in which they concluded that Winfrey had emerged as an influential spiritual leader. "Since 1994, when she abandoned traditional talk-show fare for more edifying content, and 1998, when she began 'Change Your Life TV', Oprah's most significant role has become that of a spiritual leader. To her audience of more than 22 million mostly female viewers, she has become a postmodern priestess—an icon of church-free spirituality." The sentiment was echoed by Marcia Z. Nelson in her book The Gospel According to Oprah. Since the mid-1990s, Winfrey's show has emphasized uplifting and inspirational topics and themes and some viewers say the show has motivated them to perform acts of altruism such as helping Congolese women and building an orphanage. A scientific study by psychological scientists at the University of Cambridge, University of Plymouth, and University of California used an uplifting clip from The Oprah Winfrey Show in an experiment that discovered that watching the 'uplifting' clip caused subjects to become twice as helpful as subjects assigned to watch a British comedy or nature documentary. In 1998, Winfrey began an ongoing conversation with Gary Zukav, an American spiritual teacher, who appeared on her television show 35 times. Winfrey has said she keeps a copy of Zukav's The Seat of the Soul at her bedside, a book that she says is one of her all-time favorites. On the season premiere of Winfrey's 13th season, Roseanne Barr told Winfrey "you're the African Mother Goddess of us all" inspiring much enthusiasm from the studio audience. The animated series Futurama alluded to her spiritual influence by suggesting that "Oprahism" is a mainstream religion in 3000 AD. Twelve days after the September 11 attacks, New York mayor Rudy Giuliani asked Winfrey to serve as host of a Prayer for America service at New York City's Yankee Stadium, which was attended by former president Bill Clinton and New York senator Hillary Clinton. Leading up to the U.S.-led 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, less than a month after the September 11 attacks, Winfrey aired a controversial show called "Islam 101" in which she portrayed Islam as a religion of peace, calling it "the most misunderstood of the three major religions". In 2002, George W. Bush invited Winfrey to join a US delegation that included adviser Karen Hughes and Condoleezza Rice, planning to go to Afghanistan to celebrate the return of Afghan girls to school. The "Oprah strategy" was designed to portray the war on terror in a positive light; however, when Winfrey refused to participate, the trip was postponed. Leading up to the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, Winfrey's show received criticism for allegedly having an anti-war bias. Ben Shapiro of Townhall.com wrote: "Oprah Winfrey is the most powerful woman in America. She decides what makes The New York Times Best Seller lists. Her touchy-feely style sucks in audiences at the rate of 14 million viewers per day. But Oprah is far more than a cultural force, she's a dangerous political force as well, a woman with unpredictable and mercurial attitudes toward the major issues of the day." In 2006, Winfrey recalled such controversies: "I once did a show titled Is War the Only Answer? In the history of my career, I've never received more hate mail – like 'Go back to Africa' hate mail. I was accused of being un-American for even raising the question." Filmmaker Michael Moore came to Winfrey's defense, praising her for showing antiwar footage no other media would show and begging her to run for president. A February 2003 series, in which Winfrey showed clips from people all over the world asking America not to go to war, was interrupted in several East Coast markets by network broadcasts of a press conference in which President George W. Bush and Colin Powell summarized the case for war. In 2007, Winfrey began to endorse the self-help program The Secret. The Secret claims that people can change their lives through positive thoughts or 'vibrations', which will then cause them to attract more positive vibrations that result in good things happening to them. Peter Birkenhead of Salon magazine argued that this idea is pseudoscience and psychologically damaging, as it trivializes important decisions and promotes a quick-fix material culture, and suggests Winfrey's promotion of it is irresponsible given her influence. In 2007, skeptic and magician James Randi accused Winfrey of being deliberately deceptive and uncritical in how she handles paranormal claims on her show. In 2008, Winfrey endorsed author and spiritual teacher Eckhart Tolle and his book, A New Earth: Awakening to Your Life's Purpose, which sold several million extra copies after being selected for her book club. During a Webinar class, in which she promoted the book, Winfrey stated "God is a feeling experience and not a believing experience. If your religion is a believing experience [...] then that's not truly God." Frank Pastore, a Christian radio talk show host on KKLA, was among the many Christian leaders who criticized Winfrey's views, saying "if she's a Christian, she's an ignorant one because Christianity is incompatible with New Age thought". Winfrey was named as the 2008 Person of the Year by animal-rights group People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) for using her fame and listening audience to help the less fortunate, including animals. PETA praised Winfrey for using her talk show to uncover horrific cases of cruelty to animals in puppy mills and on factory farms, and Winfrey even used the show to highlight the cruelty-free vegan diet that she tried. In 2009, Winfrey filmed a series of interviews in Denmark highlighting its citizens as the happiest people in the world. In 2010, Bill O'Reilly of Fox News criticized these shows for promoting a left-wing society. Following the launch of the Super Soul Sunday and SuperSoul Sessions programs on Harpo Productions' SuperSoul TV, in 2016 Winfrey selected 100 people for the SuperSoul 100 list of "innovators and visionaries who are aligned on a mission to move humanity forward". On using the N-word, Winfrey said, "You cannot be my friend and use that word around me. ... I always think of the...people who heard that as their last word as they were hanging from a tree." === Fan base === The viewership for The Oprah Winfrey Show was highest during the 1991–92 season, when about 13.1 million U.S. viewers were watching each day. By 2003, ratings declined to 7.4 million daily viewers. Ratings briefly rebounded to approximately 9 million in 2005 and then declined again to around 7.3 million viewers in 2008, though it remained the highest-rated talk show. In 2008, Winfrey's show was airing in 140 countries internationally and seen by an estimated 46 million people in the US weekly. According to the Harris poll, Winfrey was America's favorite television personality in 1998, 2000, 2002–06, and 2009. Winfrey was especially popular among women, Democrats, political moderates, Baby Boomers, Generation X, Southern Americans, and East Coast Americans. Outside the U.S., Winfrey has become increasingly popular in the Arab world. The Wall Street Journal reported in 2007 that MBC 4, an Arab satellite channel, centered its entire programming around reruns of her show because it was drawing record numbers of female viewers in Saudi Arabia. In 2008, The New York Times reported that The Oprah Winfrey Show, with Arabic subtitles, was broadcast twice each weekday on MBC 4. Winfrey's modest dress, combined with her attitude of triumph over adversity and abuse has caused some women in Saudi Arabia to idealize her. === Philanthropy === In 2004, Winfrey became the first Black person to rank among the 50 most generous Americans and she remained among the top 50 until 2010. By 2012, she had given away about $400 million to educational causes. As of 2012, Winfrey had also given over 400 scholarships to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia. Winfrey was the recipient of the first Bob Hope Humanitarian Award at the 2002 Emmy Awards for services to television and film. To celebrate two decades on national TV, and to thank her employees for their hard work, Winfrey took her staff and their families (1,065 people in total) on vacation to Hawaii in the summer of 2006. In 2013, Winfrey donated $12 million to the Smithsonian's National Museum of African American History and Culture. President Barack Obama awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom later that same year. Winfrey purchased 2,130 acres of land in Maui and set up a bed and breakfast for entertaining friends as well as a (unprofitable) organic farm; she is dedicated to keeping the area unoccupied and growing native species to aid in the restoration of damaged watersheds. She distributed pillows, diapers and other supplies to survivors of a devastating fire and, with Dwayne “The Rock” Johnson, set up the People’s Fund of Maui, personally donating $25 million of her own towards the cause. ==== Oprah's Angel Network ==== In 1998, Winfrey created Oprah's Angel Network, a charity that supported charitable projects and provided grants to nonprofit organizations around the world. Oprah's Angel Network raised more than $80 million ($1 million of which was donated by Jon Bon Jovi). Winfrey personally covered all administrative costs associated with the charity, so 100% of all funds raised went to charity programs. In May 2010, with Oprah's show ending, the charity stopped accepting donations and was shut down. ==== South Africa ==== In 2004, Winfrey and her team filmed an episode of her show, "Oprah's Christmas Kindness", in which Winfrey travelled to South Africa to bring attention to the plight of young children affected by poverty and AIDS. During the 21-day trip, Winfrey and her crew visited schools and orphanages in poverty-stricken areas, and distributed Christmas presents to 50,000 children, with dolls for the girls and soccer balls for the boys, and school supplies. Throughout the show, Winfrey appealed to viewers to donate money to Oprah's Angel Network for poor and AIDS-affected children in Africa. From that show alone, viewers around the world donated over $7 million. Winfrey invested $40 million and some of her time establishing the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in Henley on Klip south of Johannesburg, South Africa. The school, set over 22 acres, opened in January 2007 with an enrollment of 150 pupils (increasing to 450) and features state-of-the-art classrooms, computer and science laboratories, a library, a theatre, and a beauty salon. Nelson Mandela praised Winfrey for overcoming her own disadvantaged youth to become a benefactor for others. Critics considered the school elitist and unnecessarily luxurious. Winfrey rejected the claims, saying: "If you are surrounded by beautiful things and wonderful teachers who inspire you, that beauty brings out the beauty in you." Winfrey, who has no surviving biological children, described maternal feelings towards the girls at Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls. Winfrey teaches a class at the school via satellite. == Filmography == == Bibliography == By Oprah Winfrey Winfrey, Oprah (1996). The Uncommon Wisdom of Oprah Winfrey: A Portrait in Her Own Words Winfrey, Oprah (1998). Journey to Beloved (Photography by Ken Regan) Winfrey, Oprah (1998). Make the Connection: Ten Steps to a Better Body and a Better Life (co-authored with Bob Greene) Winfrey, Oprah (2000). Oprah Winfrey: The Soul and Spirit of a Superstar Winfrey, Oprah (2014). What I Know for Sure Winfrey, Oprah (2016). Mr. or Ms. Just Right (co-authored with B. Grace) Winfrey, Oprah (2017). Food, Health and Happiness Winfrey, Oprah (2017). The Wisdom of Sundays: Life-Changing Insights from Super Soul Conversations Winfrey, Oprah (2017). The Wisdom Journal: The Companion to The Wisdom of Sundays Winfrey, Oprah (2019). The Path Made Clear: Discovering Your Life's Direction and Purpose Winfrey, Oprah (2021). What Happened to You?: Conversations on Trauma, Resilience, and Healing (co-authored with B. Perry) == Awards, honors, and recognition == American Library Association Honorary Membership (1997) Honorary degrees from: Princeton University, Howard University, Duke University, Harvard University, University of Massachusetts Lowell, University of the Free State, Tennessee State University, Spelman College, Colorado College, Smith College, Skidmore College Mural including her image by Shawn Michael Warren in Chicago (painted in 2020) Portrait of her by Shawn Michael Warren for the National Portrait Gallery (unveiled in 2023) == See also == African Americans in Mississippi == Notes == == References == == Sources == Mair, George (1994). Oprah Winfrey: The Real Story. Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 1-55972-250-9. (Mair (1995). updated.) (updated 2001) Moore, Michael (2003). Dude, Where's My Country?. Warner Books. ISBN 0-446-53223-1. Cooper, Irene (2007). Oprah Winfrey. Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-06162-4. == External links == Official website Oprah Winfrey at IMDb NPR "Oprah: The Billionaire Everywoman". Audio file, video and biography. Retrieved September 17, 2010 Works by Oprah Winfrey at Open Library Oprah Winfrey (Archived February 16, 2013, at the Wayback Machine)—Video produced by Makers: Women Who Make America Appearances on C-SPAN Watching Oprah (Archived April 17, 2021, at the Wayback Machine)—Smithsonian exhibition on the Oprah Show and Winfrey
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Catharina_Bischoff#:~:text=Anna%20Catharina%20Bischoff%20(23%20March,of%20the%20pastor%20Lucas%20Gernler.	Anna Catharina Bischoff	Anna Catharina Bischoff (23 March 1719 – 30 August 1787), also known as the "Lady (or mummy) of the Barfüsser Church" was the wife of the pastor Lucas Gernler. She gained popularity in 1975, when her mummified corpse was found in a shaft at the Barfüsser Church in Basel in Switzerland. == History == In 1975, the Barfüsser Church underwent a thorough renovation, during which the archaeological department of the city of Basel excavated and documented hundreds of burial sites. == Discovery == On 20 October 1975, workers discovered a brick-walled grave chamber in front of the choir, containing two well-preserved coffins sitting on a pile of bones. The upper coffin contained the skeleton of a female while the smaller coffin beneath contained the completely mummified corpse of a woman, who would later be known as the "Lady/Mummy of the Barfüsser Church." == First examinations == The woman was buried in a simple spruce wood coffin, her left hand holding her right arm above the wrist. The mummy was mostly intact: only the head and feet had decomposed while parts of her dress and hair were conserved. Her height was 142 cm. Skinfolds point at a stout body. A first examination in 1976 by anthropologist Bruno Kaufmann revealed that Mercury sulfide (found in the whole body, especially in the lungs), prevented decay and was responsible for the mummification. Atmospheric conditions within the coffin and grave chamber also prevented microbes from breaking down the corpse. == Recent research == Since 2015, the mummy has been investigated using modern methods at the Natural History Museum of Basel. Computer tomography revealed atherosclerosis of the abdominal aorta and gallstones, pointing at a diet consisting mainly of carbohydrates and fatty meat. During her lifetime, the woman had lost all the teeth in her upper jaw due to a sugary diet and oral hygiene neglect; her lower incisors and canines, although decayed, were preserved. The detection of Mercury in the lungs and other organs of Anna Catharina Bischoff led the medical historians of the 1970s to the conclusion that the woman had undergone a mercury inhalation therapy. In those days, it was the usual method of treatment, which, however, was only administered to patients with severe cases of syphilis. Modern analytical methods for measuring the level of mercury exposure indicate that the amount administered was below the threshold to have caused mercury poisoning. Mercury was indeed found in the body of Anna Catharina Bischoff, but with the data available at present, it is not possible to ascertain whether this had actually led to her death. Thus, the cause of her death cannot be proven beyond doubt. Further investigation is necessary to indicate whether this was caused by the syphilis or a combination of syphilis and mercury exposure. == Identification == According to the prominent position of her grave, it can be deduced that the deceased was a member of a privileged class—the location was reserved for members of the high clergy or dignitaries. Church archive documents show that the shaft in front of the choir had been opened once before 1843 when the nave of the church was transformed into a commercial warehouse. When the workers lifted the memorial slab labeled number 11, they discovered a grave underneath with three coffins. In 2016, Marie-Louise Gamma and Diana Gysin, members of Basel's citizen-researchers who discover and transcribe historic sources, discovered the relevant text in contractor Blendinger's notes, describing the text on the memorial slab as follows (in the original in German): Memorial slab no. 11, walled grave, contains 3 coffins. Here rests with God the noble and honorable Isaak Byschoff, former Hospital Master, died peacefully on 2 November 1709. At the age of 67 years minus ... months. Awaiting his Blissful resurrection in Jesus Christ. Here rests with God the honorable and virtuous Catharina Gyssendorfferin, housemistress, wife of Isaak Byschoff, the former Hospital Master. Died blissfully on 9 August ao 1697, aged 41 years. Awaiting blissful resurrection. (105) The number 105 references the memorial slab register of the Barfüsser Church of 1771, containing 110 family gravesites and information about the buried. It is kept in the State Archive of Basel City as StABS Bauakten JJ 32 bis 33’. In position 105 for the gravesite of the Hospital Master Bischoff, it is noted that his granddaughter Anna Catharina Bischoff was buried in August 1787. Moreover, Blendinger noted: N.b. Under this slab there was a walled grave (without soil), wherein 2 black and one yellow coffins, all well-preserved, were located. In the two black coffins were male, in the yellow one a small female corpse. They were all well preserved and resembled mummies, for their bodies were dried out only, their clothes still pleated; hair, teeth and fingernails still intact. Once they were taken out and inspected, they were buried again in the crypt, but covered with soil. Thus for the first time there was a name for the mummy. Blendinger's description of the "small female corpse" coincides with the mummy of Anna Catharina Bischoff exhumed in 1975 for the second time. == Genealogy == A research team of the Institute of Mummy Research of Eurac Research in Bozen succeeded in isolating the mitochondrial DNA of the mummy and identifying a variant of the haplogroup U, providing the basis for scientific identification. Female descendants of the mummy needed to be found to compare their saliva with the mummy's DNA. The team of genealogists of Basel's citizen-researchers undertook this painstaking task and drew a family tree of the female line with information drawn from church and marriage records and internet groups. (A further project of the Citizen Science was, for example, the research on Theo the Pipe Smoker.) Justina Froben, born 1512, was identified as Anna Catharina Bischoff's oldest ancestor, seven generations back: the daughter of the printer Johann Froben in Basel. From her, Marie-Louise Gamma and Diana Gysin were able to reconstruct an uninterrupted female line over 15 generations, from the beginning of the 16th century to Rosemary Probst-Ryhiner in the present. Among Justina Froben's matrilineal descendants was also the theatre pioneer Abel Seyler. A second line was identified in the US, to where one of Anna Catharina Bischoff's descendants had emigrated in the 19th century. DNA samples of both families were analysed, both revealing a coincidence with the mummy's DNA of over 99.8%. It was thereby proven that Anna Catharina Bischoff, born on 23 March 1719 in Strasbourg, was buried on 30 August 1787 in Basel. A direct connection through Anna Catharina Bischoff's son-in-law Christian Friedrich Pfeffel von Kriegelstein leads to the British politician Boris Johnson; his great-grandmother was Marie Luise von Pfeffel. A World News BBC team travelled to the media event in Basel's Natural History Museum in January 2018 to report on the forebear of the prominent politician. == Life == Anna Catharina Bischoff, granddaughter to Hospital Master Isaak Bischoff, stemmed from an old Basel lineage. She was born on 23 March 1719 as the oldest of five siblings, of which only her younger sister Anna Margaretha survived past childhood. Her parents were the reformed pastor Johann Jakob Bischoff (1683–1733) and Augusta Margaretha Burckhardt (1697–1735). The family was well-off and lived in the centre of Strasbourg in a ten-room, two-story house with a maid. Her father died in 1733 aged 49, when Anna Catharina was 14. The same year, the widow Augusta Margaretha Burckhardt returned with her two young daughters to Basel, her city of origin. Just before the move, Anna Catharina met her future husband, Lucas Gernler (1704–1781), 15 years her senior. In 1732/33 he acted as a substitute for her father in Wolfisheim, where services were held. Later, he would be his successor. After their wedding in 1738 in Basel, the couple returned to Strasbourg, where Anna Catherina gave birth to seven children, of which only two daughters survived past childhood. Augusta remained single and the other, Anna Katharina Gernler (1739–1776), married the German historian and diplomat Christian Friedrich Pfeffel von Kriegelstein. She died in Versailles in 1776 aged 37. In 1781, Lucas Gernler died from a stroke aged 77, leaving behind countless letters and a church hymnal; a year later, Anna Catharina, then 62, moved to Basel. Until her death she likely lived with her younger sister Anna Margareta Geymüller-Bischoff (1724–1804), who had married a wealthy trader. Anna Catharina's great-grandson Karl Maximilian von Pfeffel (1811–1890) later married the illegitimate daughter of Prince Paul of Württemberg, Karoline von Rothenburg. The couple are the great-great-grandparents of Boris Johnson, who thereby is a descendant of the lady of the Barfüsser Church in the seventh generation. == Open questions == A team of 40 from the fields of anthropology, genealogy, forensic medicine, molecular biology, history of medicine and toxicology conducted the research underpinning the identification of the dead woman. Despite these comprehensive inquiries, several questions remain open, such as: What is the significance of the striking position of the hands? What happened to the two mummies of males mentioned 1843 by Blendinger? What is the origin of the skeleton found in 1975 in the upper coffin? The skull belongs to a roughly 25-year-old man, the rest of the skeleton to a roughly 40-year-old woman. It could be the remains of Catharina's grandmother Catharina Gysendörffer, buried in 1697 aged 41. The identity of the male, to whom the skull belonged, has not been ascertained. Was there a correspondence between Anna Catharina Bischoff and her daughter Katharina Gernler (1739-1776)? If yes, in which archive could the letters been found? Is there a portrait of Anna Catharina Bischoff and her husband Lucas Gernler? The team keeps researching with the objective to answer the open questions and to make the life and work of Anna Catharina Bischoff available to a wider interested public in form of a book. The research is undertaken in cooperation with the History Department of the University of Basel and coordinated at the Basel's Museum of Natural History. == References == === Citations === == External links == Natural History Museum of Basel: photos, family tree Alois Feusi, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, january 2018 Guardian, january 2018
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donjuan_Triumphant#:~:text=in%20the%20world.-,Stud%20career,a%20fee%20of%20%E2%82%AC4%2C000.	Donjuan Triumphant	Donjuan Triumphant (foaled 24 March 2013) is an Irish-bred Thoroughbred racehorse who excelled over sprint distances. He was rated one of the best two-year-olds in Europe when he won three of his eight races including the Rockingham Stakes and the Critérium de Maisons-Laffitte. He failed to win in the following year but ran second in both the Temple Stakes and the Prix Maurice de Gheest. After changing stables as a four-year-old he won the 32Red Gold Cup in 2017 and the Wentworth Stakes in 2018. In 2019 he was beaten in his first six starts but recorded his biggest win on his final racecourse appearance when he took the British Champions Sprint Stakes. == Background == Donjuan Triumphant is a bay stallion with no white markings bred in Ireland by Patrick Cosgrove & Dream Ahead Syndicate. As a foal in November 2013 he was consigned by Kilcarn Park to Goffs sale and was bought for €58,000 by the Lynn Lodge Stud. He returned to the Goffs sales ring as a yearling but failed to reach his reserve price. In early 2015, the two-year-old colt was entered in the Tattersalls "breeze-up" sale (in which the horses are publicly galloped before being auctioned) and was bought for 30,000 guineas by Middleham Park Racing. He was sent into training with Richard Fahey at Malton, North Yorkshire. His name is a reference to the fictional opera written by the title character in the novel The Phantom of the Opera. He was from the first crop of foals sired by Dream Ahead, an outstanding sprinter from the Godolphin Arabian sire-line whose wins included the Prix Morny, Middle Park Stakes, July Cup, Haydock Sprint Cup and Prix de la Forêt. As a breeding stallion, his other progeny have included Glass Slippers, Dream of Dreams and Al Wukair (Prix Jacques Le Marois). Donjuan Triumphant' dam Mathuna showed modest racing ability, winning on her debut, but failing to repeat that success in eight subsequent starts. She was descended from the Mariella who won the Premio Roma and was a half-sister to Sagaro. == Racing career == === 2015: two-year-old season === Donjuan Triumphant made his racecourse debut in a maiden race over six furlongs at Redcar Racecourse on 20 June 2015 in which he started at odds of 4/1 and finished second of the eight runners, beaten a head by Receding Waves. He then sustained similarly narrow defeats in maidens at Ayr and Carlisle in July before being beaten a short head by Receding Waves in a nursery (a handicap race for juveniles) at Haydock Park on 5 September. Two weeks later the colt started at odds of 4/1 in an eighteen-runner nursery at Ayr in which he was ridden by the apprentice jockey Jack Garritty and recorded his first victory as he took the lead a furlong out and drew away to win "readily" by three and a quarter lengths. At York Racecourse on 10 October Donjuan Triumphant was stepped up in class for the Listed Rockingham Stakes and was made the 9/4 favourite against seven opponents. With Garritty again in the saddle he tracked the leaders before producing a strong late run to take the lead 50 yards from the finish and won by one and a half lengths from Dhamaan. Six days after his win at York the colt was sent to France to contest the Group 2 Critérium de Maisons-Laffitte over 1200 metres on soft ground in which he was partnered by Alexis Badel. He went off the 10.5/1 fifth choice in a seven-runner field which also included Smash Williams (Round Tower Stakes), Log Out Island (Two-Year-Old Trophy) and Yakaba (Prix d'Arenberg). After being restrained in the early stages, Donjuan Triumphant took the lead 200 metres from the finish and pulled clear in the final stages to win by five and a half lengths. Middleham Park Racing's representative Ian Alexander said "He has really improved in his last three runs, going from strength to strength, and that was a great performance... The soft ground was an unknown factor, but when Alexis pressed the button he flew." On his final run of the year Donjuan Triumphant returned to France and started favourite for the Critérium International over 1400 metres at Saint-Cloud Racecourse on 1 November, but never looked likely to win and finished fourth behind Johannes Vermeer, Stormy Antarctic and Attendu. In the official European classification of two-year-olds for 2015, Donjuan Triumphant was given a rating of 115, nine pounds behind the top-ranked Air Force Blue, making him the tenth best juvenile of the season. === 2016: three-year-old season === Donjuan Triumphant began his second season by finishing second to the filly Quiet Reflection in the Temple Stakes at Haydock on 28 May and then ran unplaced behind the same filly in the Commonwealth Cup at Royal Ascot in June. On 7 August he was sent to France for the third time and produced his best run of the season as he finished second to Signs of Blessing in the Group 1 Prix Maurice de Gheest over 1300 metres at Deauville Racecourse making steady progress in the last 300 metres without ever seriously challenging the winner. In his next two races he made little impact as he finished towards the rear of the field behind Quiet Reflection in the Haydock Sprint Cup and The Tin Man in the British Champions Sprint Stakes. Towards the end of the year the colt was campaigned in minor races on synthetic tracks, finishing third in minor events at Kempton and Lingfield in November and second in a stakes race at Chelmsford on 22 December. === 2017: four-year-old season === Before the start of the 2017 Donjuan Triumphant was bought privately by Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha and transferred to the stable of Andrew Balding at Kingsclere in Hampshire. He was officially owned by Abudiencia Co Ltd until switching to Srivaddhanaprabha's King Power Racing in July of that and carried their blue and white colours for the rest of his track career. In April the horse finished unplaced on the polytrack at Lingfield and third in the King Richard III Stakes at Leicester Racecourse before returning from a lengthy absence to finish ninth under a weight of 131 pounds in the Stewards' Cup at Goodwood Racecourse on 7 August. A month later Donjuan Triumphant was ridden by P. J. McDonald in a minor race over seven furlongs at Haydock and recorded his first win since 2015 as he led from the start and came home one and a quarter lengths in front of his five opponents. He was scheduled to contest the Ayr Gold Cup at Ayr Racecourse at on 23 September but when the Scottish track was found to be unraceable because of waterlogging the race was transferred to Haydock and run a week later. With McDonald in the saddle he went off at odds of 13/2 in a seventeen-runner field, carrying top weight of 136 pounds. He started slowly but made ground steadily in the last quarter mile, caught the leader Stake Acclaim in the final strides, and won by a short head. On 21 October Donjuan Triumphant was moved back up to Group 1 class for the British Champions Sprint Stakes at Ascot but made little impact and finished eighth of the twelve runners behind Librisa Breeze. === 2018: five-year-old season === After beginning his fourth campaign on polytrack, finishing fifth at Kempton in January and at Southwell Racecourse in March, Donjuan Triumphant returned to the turf in April and finished runner-up to Emmaus in his second attempt to win the King Richard III Stakes. He continued to be campaigned over seven furlongs on his next two starts and finished a close fourth to Sir Dancealot in the Lennox Stakes at Goodwood before coming home last of the nine runners behind Expert Eye in the City of York Stakes at York in August. When dropped back to six furlongs he showed improved form against top class sprinters, finishing fourth to The Tin Man in the Haydock Sprint Cup and third to Sands of Mali in the British Champions Sprint Stakes. A week after Donjuan Triumphant's defeat at Ascot Vichai Srivaddhanaprabha was killed in the 2018 Leicester helicopter crash. On 10 November on soft ground at Doncaster Racecourse the horse was dropped to Listed class for the Wentworth Stakes, in which he was ridden by James Doyle and started the 2/1 favourite against thirteen opponents. After being in contention from the start he took second place a furlong found and caught the leader Hey Jonesey in the final strides to win by a head. Andrew Balding commented on the death of the owner, saying "It puts horse racing and the triviality of other things in life into perspective" before saying of the winner "He really loves this ground. The punters thought he had a really good chance today, and he's just so tough." === 2019: six-year-old season === In all of his races as a six-year-old Donjuan Triumphant was ridden by Silvestre de Sousa who usually employed front-running tactics. The horse began his campaign by finishing last of six behind Hey Gaman in his third attempt in the Richard III Stakes and then ran second to Brando in the Clyde Stakes at Hamilton Park in June. In July he finished fourth to German horse Waldpfad in the Hackwood Stakes at Newbury Racecourse and then finished eighth of nine behind Sir Dancealot in the Lennox Stakes. In August at Newbury he finished sixth of seven behind Glorious Journey in the Hungerford Stakes after leading until the final furlong. The Bengough Stakes at Ascot on 5 October saw a change of tactics as the horse was restrained in the early stages before finishing strongly to take second place behind the favourite Cape Byron. Two weeks after his second place in the Bengough Stakes, Donjuan Triumphant made his fourth attempt to win the British Champions Sprint Stakes and started a 33/1 outsider in a seventeen-runner field. Advertise and One Master started joint-favourites while the other contenders included Hello Youmzain, Cape Byron, The Tin Man, Sands of Mali, Librisa Breeze, Brando and Mabs Cross. After racing in mid-division Donjuan Triumphant was repeatedly hampered as he struggled to obtain a clear run in the last quarter mile before making a strong late run to take the lead 75 yards from the finish and win by a length from One Master. After the race Balding said "I'm just so thrilled. He was the first one 'The Chairman' (Srivaddhanaprabha) ever bought, and he'd be so proud of him right now. I'm just so pleased to get a Group 1 for King Power and for a horse like this that has been knocking on the door for so long. He's due to go to stud in France now, and I hope he has a long and happy life." In the 2019 World's Best Racehorse Rankings Donjuan Triumphant was given a rating of 118, making him the 78th best racehorse in the world. == Stud career == Donjuan Triumphant was retired at the end of 2019 and began his career as a breeding stallion at the Haras de la Barbottiere, Sablé-sur-Sarthe in 2020 at a fee of €4,000. == Pedigree == == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allene_Jeanes#:~:text=Early%20life%20and%20education,-Jeanes%20was%20born&text=Allene%20graduated%20with%20honors%20from,the%20University%20of%20California%2C%20Berkeley.	Allene Jeanes	Allene Rosalind Jeanes (July 19, 1906 – December 11, 1995) was an American chemist whose pioneering work significantly impacted carbohydrate chemistry. Born in 1906 in Texas, Jeanes' notable contributions include the development of Dextran, a lifesaving blood plasma substitute used in the Korean and Vietnam wars, and Xanthan gum, a polysaccharide commonly used in the food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries. Jeanes' innovations have had a lasting influence on medical treatments and everyday consumer products, highlighting her role as a key figure in applied carbohydrate science. Her achievements earned her numerous accolades, including being the first woman to receive the Distinguished Service Award from the U.S. Department of Agriculture. == Early life and education == Jeanes was born July 19, 1906, in Waco, Texas, to Viola (Herring) and Largus Elonzo ("Lonnie") Jeanes, a switchman and later a yardmaster for the Cotton Belt Route of the St. Louis Southwestern Railway. Allene graduated with honors from Waco High School in 1924. In 1928, she received a bachelor's degree from Baylor University and graduated summa cum laude; in 1929, Jeanes obtained a master's degree in organic chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley. From 1930 to 1935, Jeanes was employed as the head science teacher at Athens College in Athens, Alabama. From 1936 to 1937, she held a position as chemistry instructor at the University of Illinois. She received her PhD in organic chemistry from University of Illinois in 1938, after working with Roger Adams. == Career == In 1938, Dr. Jeanes decided to accept a position at the National Institutes of Health in Washington D.C. And, from 1938 to 1940, Jeanes served as a corn industries research foundation fellow for the National Institutes of Health (NIH) with Claude Hudson and worked at the National Bureau of Standards with Horace S. Isbell.In 1941 she joined Roy L. Whistler at the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Northern Regional Research Lab (NRRL) in Peoria, Illinois, as a chemical researcher. She worked there until 1976. Jeanes is credited with "a prominent role in making NRRL a world-class center for applied carbohydrate science". Jeanes' area of research was natural polysaccharides, including starch (found in wheat, corn, rice, and potatoes), cellulose (found in cotton, wood, and paper), and dextran. Jeanes was able to isolate dextran-producing bacteria from samples of bacteria-contaminated root beer supplied by a local Peoria company. This discovery was the basis for development of a mass production process for dextran, and its use in a dextran-based blood plasma extender. This plasma substitute was used by medical personal in the Korean and Vietnam wars. It was believed that using this sort of substance would keep someone who had lost a great deal of blood alive longer. So, the United States began using dextran to treat injured soldiers. As a result of her work, Jeanes was the first woman to receive the Distinguished Service Award given by the Department of Agriculture, in 1953. She was also awarded the Garvan Medal in 1956. Jeanes was also part of the team that developed xanthan gum. Xanthan gum, derived from Xanthomonas campestris bacteria, completely revolutionized food processing due to its unique thickening and stabilizing properties. It's extensively used in products such as salad dressings, sauces, and baked goods to maintain texture and consistency. In the cosmetics industry, xanthan gum improves the texture of creams and lotions, making them more appealing to consumers. In medicine, xanthan gum plays a role in creating more appetizing and stable pharmaceutical products. It's also essential in gluten-free baking, providing a substitute that mimics the texture and properties of gluten, greatly benefiting those with gluten intolerances or celiac disease. Moreover, xanthan gum has applications beyond these industries. It is used in the oil and gas sector for drilling operations, demonstrating the versatility of Jeanes' innovation. The environmental friendliness of xanthan gum, as it is a biodegradable and non-toxic substance, aligns perfectly with current sustainable and environmentally friendly trends, making it a preferred ingredient in various sectors. Overall, Jeanes' work in this development has had a far-reaching impact, contributing significantly to advancements in food science, cosmetics, medicine, and even energy, thereby enhancing various aspects of everyday life. Her innovation and contributions are still in use today in many ways. In her last published paper, "Immunological and Related Interactions with Dextrans Reviewed in Terms of Improved Structural Information," which was published in 1986, Jeanes shows her dedication to her work. Over the course of her entire career, Allene Jeanes was awarded ten patents and produced sixty publications. These were all related to her work and discoveries. She was ultimately honored with a plethora of awards. She was a member of the American Chemical Society, Sigma Xi, and Iota Sigma Pi. == Later life == Jeanes died on December 11, 1995 in Urbana, Illinois. She was 89 years old. == Awards == 1953 – Distinguished Service Award from the USDA. 1956 – Garvan Medal from the American Chemical Society. 1962 – Federal Woman's Award from the U.S. Civil Service Commission. 1968 – Superior Service Award to the Xanthan gum team, from the United States Department of Agriculture 1999 – posthumously inducted into the Agricultural Research Service Science Hall of Fame for her works in microbiological research that created life-saving polymers made from agricultural products. 2017 – posthumously inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame. == References == == Further reading == Shearer, Benjamin F. (1997). Notable women in the physical sciences : a biographical dictionary (1. publ. ed.). Westport, Conn. [u.a.]: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313293031. Wayne, Tiffany K. (2011). American women of science since 1900. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598841596. OCLC 702118874. "Historical Inventors". LEMELSON-MIT. Archived from the original on 2020-09-21. Retrieved 2019-03-22. Busch-Vishniac, Ilene; Busch, Lauren; Tietjen, Jill (2024). "Chapter 16. Allene Jeanes". Women in the National Inventors Hall of Fame: The First 50 Years. Springer Nature. ISBN 9783031755255.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Dukakis	Michael Dukakis	Michael Stanley Dukakis ( duu-KAH-kiss; born November 3, 1933) is an American politician and lawyer who was governor of Massachusetts from 1975 to 1979 and from 1983 to 1991. He is the longest-serving governor in Massachusetts history and the second Greek-American governor in U.S. history, after Spiro Agnew. He was nominated by the Democratic Party for president in the 1988 election, losing to the Republican nominee, Vice President George H. W. Bush. Born in Brookline, Massachusetts, to Greek immigrants, Dukakis attended Swarthmore College before enlisting in the United States Army. After graduating from Harvard Law School, he won election to the Massachusetts House of Representatives, serving from 1963 to 1971. He won the 1974 Massachusetts gubernatorial election but lost his 1978 bid for re-nomination to Edward J. King. He defeated King in the 1982 gubernatorial primary and was again governor from 1983 to 1991, presiding over a period of economic growth known as the "Massachusetts Miracle". Building on his popularity as governor, Dukakis sought the Democratic presidential nomination for the 1988 presidential election. He prevailed in the Democratic primaries and was formally nominated at the 1988 Democratic National Convention. Dukakis chose Senator Lloyd Bentsen of Texas as his running mate, while the Republicans nominated a ticket of George H. W. Bush and Senator Dan Quayle. Dukakis made history as the first Greek-American and Aromanian presidential candidate, first Greek Orthodox major-party nominee, and the first major-party nominee with ancestry outside Europe. Although he lost the election, carrying only ten states and Washington, D.C., he improved on the Democratic performances in the previous two elections. After the election, Dukakis announced that he would not seek another term as governor, and he left office in 1991. Since the death of Jimmy Carter in 2024, Dukakis is the oldest living presidential nominee. Since leaving office, Dukakis has served on the board of directors for Amtrak and taught political science at Northeastern University and UCLA. He was mentioned as a potential appointee to the Senate in 2009 to fill the vacancy caused by Ted Kennedy's death, but Governor Deval Patrick chose Paul G. Kirk. In 2012, Dukakis backed the successful Senate campaign of Elizabeth Warren, whom he also supported in the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries. == Early life and education == Dukakis was born in Brookline, Massachusetts, on November 3, 1933. His father Panos was a Greek immigrant from Edremit in Turkey. Panos Dukakis settled in Lowell, Massachusetts, in 1912, and graduated from Harvard Medical School twelve years later, subsequently working as an obstetrician. Dukakis's mother Euterpe (née Boukis) was born in Larissa, to Aromanian parents from Vrysochori. She and her family emigrated to Haverhill, Massachusetts, in 1913. Dukakis attended Brookline High School in his hometown, where he was an honor student and a member of the basketball, baseball, tennis, and cross-country teams. As a 17-year-old senior in high school, he ran the Boston Marathon. He graduated from Swarthmore College in 1955 with a Bachelor of Arts in political science. Although Dukakis had been accepted into Harvard Law School, he chose to enlist in the United States Army. After basic training at Fort Dix and advanced individual training at Camp Gordon, he was assigned as radio operator to the 8020th Administrative Unit in Munsan, South Korea. The unit was a support group to the United Nations delegation of the Military Armistice Commission Dukakis served from 1955 to 1957. He then received his J.D. degree from Harvard Law School in 1960. Dukakis is also an Eagle Scout and recipient of the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award from the Boy Scouts of America. Dukakis began his political career as an elected town meeting member in the town of Brookline. In 1963, he married Katherine "Kitty" Dickson (who adopted his surname), and they remained together until Kitty's death in March 2025. Dukakis had a brother named Stelian, three years his elder. Michael looked up to Stelian as a child, but Stelian suffered a mental breakdown and attempted to commit suicide when Michael was seventeen years old. He was institutionalized for years afterward, but eventually became a teacher for the North Attleborough public school system, a professor at Boston State College, and an assistant city manager for the cities of Waltham and Malden. Despite his own career, Stelian developed a resentment for his brother's successes and unsuccessfully attempted to sabotage Michael's campaign for the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1964, distributing anti-Michael Dukakis pamphlets in their hometown of Brookline. He also sought electoral office, running unsuccessfully twice for the Brookline Board of Selectmen and once in 1972 for the Massachusetts House of Representatives as a Republican. In 1973, Stelian was struck by a car while cycling, being critically injured and dying months later. Stelian's death had a significant impact on Dukakis. == State legislature == Dukakis served four terms in the Massachusetts House of Representatives between 1962 and 1970. In 1966, Dukakis unsuccessfully ran for Attorney General of Massachusetts. In 1970, Dukakis was the Democratic nominee for lieutenant governor on a ticket led by Boston mayor Kevin White. However, the Democratic ticket lost the 1970 gubernatorial election. After losing his bid for lieutenant governor, Dukakis returned to the private sector, practicing law and becoming a partner at Hill and Barlow. == Governor of Massachusetts == === 1974 election === === First term === Dukakis was elected governor in 1974, defeating the incumbent Republican Francis Sargent during a period of fiscal crisis. Dukakis won in part by promising to be a "reformer" and pledging a "lead pipe guarantee" of no new taxes to balance the state budget. He would later reverse his position after taking office. He also pledged to dismantle the powerful Metropolitan District Commission (MDC), a bureaucratic enclave that served as home to hundreds of political patronage employees. The MDC managed state parks, reservoirs, and waterways, as well as the highways and roads abutting those waterways. In addition to its own police force, the MDC had its own maritime patrol force, and an enormous budget from the state, for which it provided minimal accounting. Dukakis's efforts to dismantle the MDC failed in the legislature, where the MDC had many powerful supporters. As a result, the MDC would withhold its critical backing of Dukakis in the 1978 gubernatorial primary. Governor Dukakis hosted President Gerald Ford and Britain's Queen Elizabeth II during their visits to Boston in 1976 to commemorate the bicentennial of the United States. He gained some notice as the only politician in the state government who went to work during the Blizzard of 1978, during which he went to local TV studios in a sweater to announce emergency bulletins. Dukakis is also remembered for his 1977 exoneration of Sacco and Vanzetti, two Italian anarchists whose trial sparked protests around the world. During his first term in office, Dukakis commuted the sentences of 21 first-degree murderers and 23 second-degree murderers. His first term performance proved to be insufficient to offset a backlash against the state's high sales and property tax rates, which turned out to be the predominant issue in the 1978 gubernatorial campaign. Dukakis, despite being the incumbent Democratic governor, was refused renomination by his own party. The state's Democratic Party chose to support Director of the Massachusetts Port Authority Edward J. King in the primary, partly because King rode the wave against high property taxes, but more significantly because state Democratic Party leaders lost confidence in Dukakis's ability to govern effectively. King also enjoyed the support of the power brokers at the MDC, who were unhappy with Dukakis's attempts to dismantle their powerful bureaucracy. King also had support from state police and public employee unions. Dukakis suffered a scathing defeat in the primary, a disappointment that his wife Kitty called "a public death". === Cabinet === === Between governorships === Following his first governorship, Dukakis taught at Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government. In 1980, Dukakis published his book State and Cities: The Massachusetts Experience. === Second and Third terms === Four years later, having made peace with the state Democratic Party, MDC, the state police and public employee unions, Dukakis defeated King in a re-match in the 1982 Democratic primary. He went on to defeat his Republican opponent, John Winthrop Sears, in the November election. Future United States senator, 2004 Democratic presidential nominee, and US Secretary of State John Kerry was elected lieutenant governor on the same ballot with Dukakis, and served in the Dukakis administration from 1983 to 1985. Dukakis served as governor during which time he presided over a high-tech boom and a period of prosperity in Massachusetts while simultaneously earning a reputation as a 'technocrat'. The National Governors Association voted Dukakis the most effective governor in 1986. Residents of the city of Boston and its surrounding areas remember him for the improvements he made to Boston's mass transit system, especially major renovations to the city's trains and buses. He was known for riding the subway to work every day as governor. In 1988, Dukakis and Rosabeth Moss Kanter, his economic adviser in the 1988 presidential elections, wrote a book entitled Creating the Future: the Massachusetts Comeback and Its Promise for America, an examination of the Massachusetts Miracle. === Cabinet === == 1988 presidential campaign == === Primaries === Using the phenomenon termed the "Massachusetts Miracle" to promote his campaign, Dukakis sought the Democratic Party nomination for President of the United States in the 1988 United States presidential election, prevailing over a primary field that included Jesse Jackson, Dick Gephardt, Paul Simon, Gary Hart, Joe Biden and Al Gore, among others. Composer John Williams wrote a "Fanfare for Michael Dukakis" in 1988 at the request of Dukakis's father-in-law, Harry Ellis Dickson. The piece was premiered under the baton of Dickson (then the Associate Conductor of the Boston Pops) at that year's Democratic National Convention. Dukakis won the Democratic nomination, with 2,877 out of 4,105 delegates. He chose Senator Lloyd Bentsen of Texas to be his vice presidential running mate. Dukakis was pro-choice on the issue of abortion. Dukakis made history as the first non-Western European American nominated for president by a major party, and was, until President Obama's nomination in 2008, the only major presidential nominee in history with ancestry from outside Northwestern Europe. Every United States presidential nominee except for Martin Van Buren (who was of entirely Dutch ancestry) has had ancestry from the British Isles. As the first ethnic Greek nominated for the presidency by a major party, Dukakis enjoyed strong support among the Greek American community. The Associated Press reported in April 1988 that there was an "outpouring of pride in Dukakis", which was especially strong and sentimental among older generations of Greek Americans. Dukakis stressed his working-class background as the son of impoverished immigrants, and his fluency in Greek among several other languages. Touching on his immigrant roots, Dukakis used Neil Diamond's ode to immigrants, "America", as the theme song for his campaign. This was seen as a sharp departure from his previous political campaigns in heavily white Massachusetts, in which the Washington Post reported that Dukakis rarely, if at all, made a point of his ethnicity (hence the reported colloquial saying "I knew Michael Dukakis before he was Greek"). Although George H.W Bush's campaign did not make a point of it in their attack ads, researchers and pollsters often discussed the vulnerability of Dukakis embracing his heritage. Conservative analyst William Schneider Jr. said that Dukakis' Greekness was the "great unspoken issue" of the election. The Post assessed that Bush's desirability as a WASP would inevitably make a victory more difficult for Dukakis in the long run. Regardless of community support, Dukakis had trouble with the personality that he projected to the voting public. His reserved and stoic nature was easily interpreted to be a lack of passion; Dukakis was often referred to as "Zorba the Clerk". Nevertheless, Dukakis is considered to have done well in the first presidential debate with George H.W. Bush, with The New York Times reporting, "Democratic and Republican analysts generally agreed that Mr. Dukakis had turned in the better performance in the first of two Presidential debates, frequently managing to put Mr. Bush on the defensive." In the second debate, his performance was poor and played to his reputation as being cold. During the campaign, Dukakis's mental health became an issue when he refused to release his full medical history and there were, according to The New York Times, "persistent suggestions" that he had undergone psychiatric treatment in the past. The issue gained further traction after a White House press conference, during which President Ronald Reagan flippantly referred to Dukakis as an "invalid". In the 2008 film Boogie Man: The Lee Atwater Story, journalist Robert Novak revealed that Republican strategist Lee Atwater had personally tried to get him to spread these mental health rumors. Editors at The Washington Times contributed to these rumors when they ran a story headlined "Dukakis Kin Hints at Sessions", suggesting that a member of the Dukakis family had said "it is possible" that Dukakis saw a psychiatrist. A week later the reporter, Gene Grabowski, revealed that Times editors had taken the full quote out of context. The full quote was "It's possible, but I doubt it." Dukakis's general election campaign was subject to several criticisms and gaffes on issues such as capital punishment, the pledge of allegiance in schools, and a photograph of Dukakis in a tank which was intended to portray him as a sound choice for commander-in-chief but which was widely perceived to have backfired. Like the allegations of psychiatric problems, these were vulnerabilities which Atwater identified and exploited. In 1991, shortly before his death from a brain tumor, Atwater apologized to Dukakis for the "naked cruelty" of the 1988 campaign. === Crime === During the campaign, Vice President George H. W. Bush, the Republican nominee, criticized Dukakis for his traditionally liberal positions on many issues, calling him a "card-carrying member of the ACLU". Dukakis's support for a prison furlough program was a major election subject. During his first term as governor, he had vetoed a bill that would have stopped furloughs for first-degree murderers. During his second term, that program resulted in the release of convicted murderer Willie Horton, who committed a rape and assault in Maryland after being furloughed. George H. W. Bush mentioned Horton by name in a speech in June 1988, and a conservative political action committee (PAC) affiliated with the Bush campaign, the National Security Political Action Committee, aired an ad entitled "Weekend Passes", which used a mug shot image of Horton. The Bush campaign refused to repudiate the ad. It was followed by a separate Bush campaign ad, "Revolving Door", criticizing Dukakis over the furlough program without mentioning Horton. The legislature canceled the program during Dukakis's last term. === Tank photograph === Dukakis was criticized during the campaign for a perceived softness on defense issues, particularly the controversial "Star Wars" program, which he promised to weaken. In response to this, Dukakis orchestrated what would become the key image of his campaign, although it turned out quite differently from what he intended. On September 13, 1988, Dukakis visited the General Dynamics Land Systems plant in Sterling Heights, Michigan, to take part in a photo op in an M1 Abrams tank. The prime minister of the United Kingdom, Margaret Thatcher, had been photographed in 1986 riding in a Challenger tank while wearing a scarf, which turned out very successfully and helped in her 1987 reelection. General Dynamics protocol requires one to wear the protective helmet for safety and communication when the tank is running at full speed, although Dukakis campaign staffers were aware that a politician putting on any headgear was a faux pas. A member of the press did photograph Dukakis without the helmet when the tank exited the garage at a slow speed, but the rest of the photographers snapped shots of Dukakis wearing a helmet when the tank made a high speed pass. The image of Dukakis wearing a helmet while riding the tank was ridiculed by Bush and the media. The following week, a poll found that 25 percent of respondents said they were less likely to support him because of the tank ride. Footage of Dukakis in the tank was used in a television ad by the Bush campaign which aired during the World Series. The Dukakis campaign produced a 60-second response ad that featured a television set playing Bush's ad, which is flicked off the screen by a finger later revealed to be Dukakis as he proclaims that he is fed up with "George Bush's negative TV ads", but this "pin-the-tail-on-the-donkey advertising" only ended up drawing further attention to the tank ride. The phrase "Dukakis in the tank" remains a shorthand for backfired public relations outings. In 2008, when asked about the photograph, Dukakis said "Should I have been in the tank? Probably not, in retrospect. But these days when people ask me, 'Did you get here in a tank?' I always respond by saying, 'No, and I've never thrown up all over the Japanese prime minister'." === Result === The Dukakis/Bentsen ticket lost the election by a decisive margin in the Electoral College to George H. W. Bush and Dan Quayle, carrying only 10 states and the District of Columbia. Many believed he should have been campaigning across the country. During this time, his 17-point lead in opinion polls completely disappeared, as his lack of visibility allowed Bush to define the issues of the campaign. A large number of Democrats believed that the loss was to blame on Dukakis's delayed response to Bush and underestimating Bush's strength as a candidate. Dukakis has since stated that the main reason he lost was his decision "not to respond to the Bush attack campaign, and in retrospect it was a pretty dumb decision." Despite Dukakis's loss, his performance was a marked improvement over the previous two Democratic efforts, both in the popular vote and the Electoral College. Though Bush still won a majority of the popular vote, Dukakis's margin of loss (7.8%) nationally was narrower than Jimmy Carter's in 1980 (9.7%) or Walter Mondale's in 1984 (18.2%), and earned 41.8 million votes nationally. Dukakis made some strong showings in states that had voted for Republicans Ronald Reagan and Gerald Ford. He managed to pull off a close win in New York, which at the time was the second largest state in terms of electoral votes; he also scored victories in Rhode Island, Hawaii, his home state of Massachusetts, Oregon, and Washington. Walter Mondale had lost all six states, and since then, all six states have remained in the Democratic column at presidential elections. He swept Iowa, winning by 10 points in a state that had voted Republican in the last five presidential elections. His proportion of the popular vote would not be matched by any subsequent Democratic presidential candidate in South Dakota (46.51%), Kansas (42.56%), Oklahoma (41.28%), Wyoming (38.01%), or Idaho (36.01%). Although Dukakis cut into the Republican hold in the Midwest, he failed to dent the emerging GOP stronghold in the South that had been forming since the end of World War II with a temporary reprieve with Jimmy Carter (along with future President and Southern Democrat Bill Clinton, albeit to a much lesser extent). He lost most of the South by a wide margin, with Bush's popular vote margins exceeding 15% in most states. He carried most of the southern-central parishes of Louisiana, which was also his best Southern popular vote margin. His second-lowest Southern margin was Texas, where four overwhelmingly Mexican-American counties of South Texas delivered more than 81% of the vote to Dukakis, and were among his top five counties or county-equivalents nationally. In 2008, Dukakis stated during an interview with Katie Couric that he "owe[d] the American people an apology" because "if I had beaten the old man [i.e. George H. W. Bush], we never would have heard of the kid [i.e. George W. Bush], and we wouldn't be in this mess." == Post-1988 political career == His final two years as governor were marked by increased criticism of his policies and significant tax increases to cover the economic effects of the U.S. economy's "soft landing" at the end of the 1980s and the recession of 1990. He announced in early 1989 that he would not seek reelection to a fourth term. After the end of his term, Dukakis served on the board of directors for Amtrak, and became a professor of political science at Northeastern University, a visiting professor of political science at Loyola Marymount University, and visiting professor in the Department of Public Policy at the Luskin School of Public Affairs at UCLA. He had retired from his teaching roles by 2021. Along with a number of other notable Greek-Americans, he is a founding member of The Next Generation Initiative: a leadership program aimed at getting students involved in public affairs. In November 2008, Northeastern named its Center for Urban and Regional Policy after Michael Dukakis and his wife Kitty. Dukakis is a member of the ReFormers Caucus of Issue One. Dukakis retired from Northeastern at age 90 in 2024. Dukakis: Recipe for Democracy, a documentary film about Dukakis's life as professor at Northeastern, premiered on October 22, 2024. In August 2009, the 75-year-old Dukakis was mentioned as one of two leading candidates as a possible interim successor to Ted Kennedy in the U.S. Senate, after Kennedy's death. Instead, Gov. Patrick named Paul G. Kirk, the other leading candidate and favorite of the Kennedy family who promised not to run in the special election, to fill the seat. Dukakis has also been an advocate for effective public transportation and high-speed rail as a solution to automobile congestion and the lack of space at airports; and for extended learning time initiative in public schools. Dukakis stated on January 31, 2014, that he was not in favor of an effort to rename South Station as the "Gov. Michael S. Dukakis Transportation Center", although it was later renamed to that name. He went on to state that he would not object to the naming of the as-yet unbuilt North-South Rail Link after him. In 2012, Dukakis worked to support the successful candidacy of fellow Democrat Elizabeth Warren to the U.S. Senate. During the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primaries, Dukakis endorsed the campaign of Hillary Clinton. Dukakis endorsed Setti Warren's unsuccessful 2018 candidacy for the Massachusetts Democratic gubernatorial nomination. Dukakis endorsed Elizabeth Warren's candidacy in the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries. He later endorsed Democratic nominee, Joe Biden during the general election. He and his wife also endorsed Ed Markey for reelection to his Massachusetts U.S. senate seat in 2020 during both the primary and general elections. == Electoral history == == Family == Dukakis was married to Kitty Dukakis (née Dickson) for 61 years, from June 20, 1963, until her death on March 21, 2025. Their first child together, a daughter, died from anencephaly soon after being born. They later had two daughters, Andrea and Kara. A son, John Dukakis (né Chaffetz) was born in 1958 to Kitty and her first husband, Phoenix businessman John Chaffetz (who later fathered former Congressman Jason Chaffetz); Michael Dukakis adopted John Jr. Dukakis is the cousin of Academy Award–winning actress Olympia Dukakis. In 1988, Michael and Kitty Dukakis said that they attended both Greek Orthodox and Jewish worship services out of respect for both of the spouses' faiths. The Dukakises primarily lived in a home they had bought in the early 1970s in their shared hometown of Brookline, Massachusetts. However, they also maintained a home in Los Angeles during his teaching career at UCLA. == See also == Ward Commission == References == Informal references Citations == Further reading == Carlson, Margaret (June 20, 1988). "A Tale of Two Childhoods". Time. Archived from the original on March 12, 2007. Didion, Joan (October 27, 1988). "Insider Baseball". The New York Review of Books. 35 (16). ISSN 0028-7504. Ducat, Stephen J. (2004). The Wimp Factor: Gender Gaps, Holy Wars, and the Politics of Anxious Masculinity. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 84–99. ISBN 0-8070-4344-3. Nyhan, David (1988). The Duke: The Inside Story of a Political Phenomenon. Warner Books. ISBN 0-446-35454-6. Ruttman, Larry (2005). Voices of Brookline. Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Peter E. Randall. pp. xvii–xx and 194–198. ISBN 1-931807-39-6. == External links == Michael Dukakis at IMDb Faculty Page at the Northeastern University Department of Political Science Faculty Page at UCLA (Archived May 16, 2016, at the Wayback Machine) The Michael S. Dukakis Presidential Campaign records, 1962–1989 (bulk 1987–1988) (Archived October 12, 2008, at the Wayback Machine) are located in the Northeastern University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections Department, Boston, MA. The Joseph D. Warren papers, 1972–2003 (bulk 1980–1990) are located in the Northeastern University Libraries, Archives and Special Collections Department, Boston, MA. Dukakis discusses presidential debates as reported in the Harvard Law Record Dukakis mentioned on MSNBC's Morning Joe: The Scoop on 'Boogie Man' Appearances on C-SPAN
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countdown_(game_show)	Countdown (game show)	Countdown is a British game show involving word and mathematical tasks that began airing in November 1982. It is broadcast on Channel 4 and is most recently presented by Colin Murray, assisted by Rachel Riley with lexicographer Susie Dent. It was the first programme to be broadcast on Channel 4 and 92 series have been broadcast since its debut on 2 November 1982. With more than 8,000 episodes, Countdown is one of Britain's longest-running game shows; the original French version, Des chiffres et des lettres (Numbers & Letters), ran on French television almost continuously from 1965 until 2024. The two contestants in each episode compete in three game types: ten letters rounds, in which they attempt to make the longest word possible from nine randomly chosen letters; four numbers rounds, in which they must use arithmetic to reach a random target figure from six other numbers; and the conundrum, a buzzer round in which the contestants compete to solve a nine-letter anagram. During the series heats, the winning contestant returns the next day until they either lose or retire with eight wins as an undefeated "Octochamp". The best eight contestants are invited back for the series finals, which are decided in knockout format. Contestants of exceptional skill have received national media coverage and the programme, as a whole, is widely recognised and parodied within British culture. Countdown was produced by Yorkshire Television and was recorded at The Leeds Studios for 27 years, before moving to the Manchester-based Granada Studios in 2009. Following the development of MediaCityUK, Countdown moved again in 2013 to the new purpose-built studios at Dock10 in Greater Manchester. == Presenters == The programme was presented by Richard Whiteley for 23 years until his death on 26 June 2005. It was then presented by Des Lynam from October 2005 until December 2006, Des O'Connor from January 2007 until December 2008, Jeff Stelling from January 2009 until December 2011 and Nick Hewer from January 2012 until his retirement in June 2021, with Colin Murray standing in for Nick Hewer during part of the COVID-19 pandemic. The programme was then presented by Anne Robinson from June 2021 until July 2022. Murray then returned on 14 July as a stand-in host. On 25 July 2022, it was announced that Les Dennis would guest host the show from 4 to 15 August followed by Jenny Eclair from 16 to 19 August after Murray tested positive for COVID-19. Guest hosts returned later that year as part of the show's 40th anniversary celebrations, with Floella Benjamin, Richard Coles, Trevor McDonald (for a second time) and Moira Stuart each hosting one week's episodes. Murray was announced as the programme's new permanent host in January 2023. In the early years, the show had multiple assistant presenters, including Carol Vorderman who was hired for Series 1 and originally appeared as "vital statistician", a role in which she alternated with Dr Linda Barrett until Barrett's departure after Series 2. Letters were placed on the board initially by Cathy Hytner, who was then followed by Karen Loughlin in Series 14 (1987) and Lucy Summers for Series 17 in early 1989. Numbers were originally put up on the board by Beverley Isherwood and this was taken over by Hytner mid-way through Series 3. From the start of Series 18 in July 1989, after Summers left the show, Vorderman began putting up the letters and numbers on a permanent basis. After 26 years, she left the show in December 2008 (at the same time as O'Connor) and was replaced by Rachel Riley who has appeared in the role since January 2009. Dr Anne-Marie Imafidon stood in for Riley from December 2021 to March 2022 whilst Riley was on maternity leave. Dr Tom Crawford, an Oxford and Cambridge university lecturer, stood in for Riley for three weeks in early 2025, making his first appearance on 24 February as the show's first-ever male arithmetician. Susie Dent first appeared on the show in June 1992 as one of the regularly rotated lexicographers; however, it was not until 2003 that she became a recurring member of the now reduced on-screen team. Since 2005 she is the sole lexicographer on the show and has been credited as a co-presenter since January 2015; in each episode she appears in "Dictionary Corner" alongside a celebrity guest who changes from week to week. The other more notable past lexicographers, that have appeared in more than 100 episodes, include Catherine Clarke, Damian Eadie, Alison Heard, Mark Nyman, Richard Samson, Julia Swannell, Della Thompson, Freda Thornton and Yvonne Warburton. === Timeline === The timeline below includes all main, co and guest presenters alongside notable past lexicographers as stated above. == Background and origin == Countdown originated from the format of the French game show Des chiffres et des lettres (Numbers and Letters), created by Armand Jammot. The game debuted in September 1965 and initially featured only letters rounds, under the name Le Mot Le Plus Long (The Longest Word), before numbers were introduced to the revised format for its return in January 1972. After watching the programme, Belgian record executive Marcel Stellman brought the format to Britain on the belief it could be popular overseas and proposed his concept for the British version to several networks. The concept was purchased in 1981 by Yorkshire Television, which, after producing two non-televised pilot episodes, commissioned a full series of eight shows under the title Calendar Countdown, which were broadcast over eight weeks between April and June 1982. Aimed at being a spin-off of their regional news programme Calendar, the programme's host deemed the natural choice for the concept. The spin-off was aired only in the Yorkshire area, with Richard Whiteley earning the nickname of "Twice Nightly Whiteley" because of his daily appearances on both programmes. He was assisted by Cathy Hytner and Denise McFarland-Cruickshanks, who handled the letters and numbers rounds respectively. Both Whiteley and Hytner appeared in the pilot episodes; alongside Robina Sharp, who handled the selection of numbers tiles and operated a one-armed bandit type "fruit machine" to choose the three-digit target, and Angela Garbut as the vital statistician. There was no lexicographer present at this time; they were introduced when the programme went to national television, with Ted Moult appearing in the pilot episodes and throughout the regional series as the celebrity guest. Moult would return as the shows very first Dictionary Corner guest when the programme debuted on Channel 4; however, he only did the first seven episodes and never returned. By 1982, after an additional pilot episode was made with a refined format – an episode that was never broadcast – the show was bought by Channel 4, a new British television channel set to launch in November 1982, based on the refined concept. While Whiteley and Hytner from the original pilot were retained, the programme was renamed Countdown, and the format was expanded to include additional members in the hosting team, including letters and number experts. It was commissioned to be broadcast four times a week for seven weeks initially, but was such a success that it is still being recommissioned as of 2024. An additional spin-off to the programme for young contestants was proposed at the time, dubbed Junior Countdown – the concept would be similar in format, but hosted by Gyles Brandreth and Ted Moult – but while a pilot was created, the proposal was abandoned after it was found to be highly flawed. Countdown was the first programme broadcast by Channel 4 when it launched on 2 November 1982, with Whiteley opening the programme with the line: As the countdown to a brand new channel ends, a brand new Countdown begins. == History == === Whiteley tenure === Alongside the original cast from Calendar Countdown, the new format of the gameshow led to production staff seeking out further hostesses through advertising in national newspapers for young women to become a member of the programme's cast, with notable conditions about their involvement; in particular, those recruited for calculations found it made clear that as an applicant, their appearance would be less important than their skill as a mathematician. Amongst those recruited, Beverley Isherwood was hired to work alongside Hytner in handling the selection of number and letter tiles respectively, while Linda Barrett and Carol Vorderman were recruited for checking over calculations by contestants in the numbers round. In addition, a lexicographer was also required to form part of the format's "Dictionary Corner" segment, to verify words given by contestants in the letters round (see Letters round rules) and to point out any longer or otherwise interesting words available; such a role was aided by the show's producers, with no assistance from any computer program and accompanied by a celebrity guest for a set period on the programme – contributing words and providing entertainment through anecdotes, puzzles, poems and stories. The role of lexicographer was traditionally occupied by a member of the Oxford University Press or sometimes by a member of the show's production team. Amongst these who have appeared on the programme in "Dictionary Corner" are Nigel Rees, Jo Brand, Martin Jarvis, Richard Digance, Geoffrey Durham, Ken Bruce, Magnus Magnusson, Pam Ayres, Paul Zenon, Jenny Eclair, Al Murray, John Sergeant and Gyles Brandreth. Over time, the additional hostesses on the programme were dropped by production staff who retained Vorderman and assigned her primarily to handle the selection of letter and number tiles, as well as verifying contestant calculations. The programme frequently rotated between more than thirty different lexicographers all with varying tenures, including Richard Samson and Alison Heard, for each series, until January 2005, when the role was permanently given to Susie Dent, after her debut on Countdown in 1992. On 26 June 2005, Richard Whiteley died after a failed heart operation. At the time, he had been slowly recovering from pneumonia earlier that year, which had prevented him recording further episodes. His death impacted the show, causing the episode scheduled for that day to be postponed by Channel 4 as a mark of respect, with no episode airing at all. The remaining episodes he had completed were aired after his death, the first of which was preceded by a tearful tribute from Carol Vorderman. After the series' conclusion, Countdown was placed into hiatus from 1 July to determine how to proceed; while the hiatus occurred, no Countdown episode repeats were aired on Channel 4. === Post-Whiteley === In October 2005, Channel 4 announced that Des Lynam would take over as the main presenter, having previously participated in the celebrity edition (Celebrity Countdown) in April 1998. Lynam's tenure ran until December 2006, whereupon his demanding filming schedule forced him to resign from the programme. Channel 4 proposed reducing his travelling by moving filming from Leeds to a site closer to his residence in Worthing, West Sussex, but viewers reacted angrily to the idea and Lynam decided it would cause considerable disruption for many of the programme's camera crew. In January 2007, Des O'Connor took over as the main presenter. During his tenure as host, Susie Dent went on maternity leave over the winter of 2007–2008 and Alison Heard temporarily replaced her on the programme until 6 February 2008. By July 2008, both Des O'Connor and Carol Vorderman had announced that they would be leaving by the end of that year after the end of Series 59. While Des O'Connor was forced to leave in order to concentrate on other projects, Carol Vorderman left after her offer to take a 33% salary decrease was rejected and production staff asked her to take a 90% pay cut; her agent stated that staff had told her that the show had survived without Richard Whiteley and could "easily survive without you". Some media reports suggested that the new presenter would be either Rory Bremner, the early favourite or Alexander Armstrong, but both ruled themselves out of the job. At the same time there was speculation that several prominent women, including Anthea Turner, Ulrika Jonsson and Myleene Klass were strong candidates to take over Carol Vorderman's job, but Channel 4 revealed that the role was to be assigned to a previously unknown male or female arithmetician with "charm and charisma". When Des Lynam became the new presenter after Richard Whiteley's death in 2005, the show regularly drew an average 1.7 million viewers every day; this was around half a million more than in the last few years of Richard Whiteley presenting. The Series 54 final on 26 May 2006 attracted 2.5 million viewers. 3–4 million viewers had watched the show daily in its previous 16:15 slot. The drop in viewing figures following the scheduling change coupled with the show's perceived educational benefits, even caused Labour MP Jonathan Shaw to table a motion in the UK Parliament requesting that the show be returned to its later time. Minor scheduling changes have subsequently seen the show move from 15:15 to 15:30, 15:45, 15:25 and 15:10. As of 2025, it is broadcast at 14:10. In November 2008, Jeff Stelling was confirmed as the new host, while Oxford maths graduate Rachel Riley was confirmed as Carol Vorderman's replacement. Jeff Stelling remained with the programme until the end of 2011, when his football commitments with Sky Sports forced him reluctantly to leave Countdown. Before his departure, The Apprentice star Nick Hewer was announced as his replacement and he took over as the main presenter when his first episode aired on 9 January 2012. In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, it was announced that Colin Murray (a frequent Dictionary Corner guest) would fill in for Nick Hewer while he spent a period of time in isolation during the UK's second lockdown. Des O'Connor died on 14 November 2020 after suffering a fall at home the previous week; the episode that aired two days later was dedicated to his memory. On 7 December 2020, Nick Hewer announced that he would be stepping down as the host of Countdown at the end of Series 83 in Summer 2021. Nick Hewer said it had been "privilege and a pleasure to take the helm of Countdown". It was then announced on 15 February 2021 that Anne Robinson, who first appeared on the show as a guest in Dictionary Corner in 1987, would take over from Nick Hewer at the start of Series 84. Nick Hewer's final show aired on 25 June 2021. On 28 June 2021, Anne Robinson became the show's first female host in its 39-year history. In May 2022, it was announced that she would be leaving the show after just one year with Colin Murray taking over for the majority of Series 86. In total, Anne Robinson recorded 265 episodes, which equates to two full series and the first three weeks of Series 86. === Character === Countdown quickly established cult status within British television – an image which it maintains today, despite the loss of key presenters. The programme's audience comprises mainly students, homemakers and pensioners, because of the "teatime" broadcast slot and inclusive appeal of its format and presentation. Countdown has been one of Channel 4's most-watched programmes for more than twenty years, but has yet to win a major television award. On each episode, the prize for defeating the reigning champion (or for claiming the championship when two new contestants compete) is a teapot that is styled to resemble the renowned clock used in each round. Introduced in December 1998, the teapot is custom-made and can only be obtained by winning a game on the programme. Defeated contestants and retiring undefeated champions receive an assortment of Countdown-themed merchandise as a parting gift. At first, the prize for the series winner was a leather-bound copy of the twenty-volume Oxford English Dictionary, worth over £4,000. David Acton (winner of Series 31) opted for a CD-ROM version of the dictionaries, not wanting to accept leather-bound books owing to his strict veganism, and donated the monetary difference in the prices to charity. Between 2011 and 2021, the prize consisted of ordinary hardback twenty-one-volume dictionaries, a laptop computer and a lifetime subscription to Oxford Online (replaced by a MacBook Pro laptop by Series 68). The physical dictionaries were discontinued as a prize after Series 83, as they were deemed obsolete. As of Series 54 in 2006, the series champion also receives the Richard Whiteley Memorial Trophy in memory of the show's original presenter. Runner-up prizes in the finals increased over the years from a £100 book voucher to £250, later to £500 and then £1,000. Beginning with Series 68, the runner-up in the finals wins a laptop. === Celebrations === The first episode of Countdown was repeated on 1 October 2007 on More4 and also on 2 November 2007 on Channel 4; this was as part of Channel 4 at 25, a season of programmes to celebrate its 25th birthday. On 2 November 2007, Countdown celebrated its 25th anniversary and aired a special 'birthday episode'. The two players were 2006 winner Conor Travers and 2002 winner Chris Wills. However, for the rounds, VIP guests selected the letters and numbers. Guests included Gordon Brown, Amir Khan and Richard Attenborough. A statement from the French TV network France Télévisions was read out on air by Carol Vorderman to commend Channel 4 on its success of Countdown. On 26 March 2010, Queen Elizabeth II congratulated Countdown for amassing 5,000 episodes. On 5 September 2014, the programme received a Guinness World Record at the end of its 6,000th show for the longest-running television programme of its kind during the course of Series 71. In September 2014, Countdown entered the Guinness World Records for the most series of a TV game show broadcast. == Format == Countdown has occupied a daytime broadcast slot since its inception, originally in a 30-minute format. Since 2001, an episode lasts around 45 minutes including advertising breaks. During the normal series, the winner of each game returns for the next day's show. A player who wins eight games is declared an "octochamp" and retires from the programme. At the end of the series, the eight best players (ranked first by number of wins, then by total score if required to break a tie) are invited back to compete in the series finals. They are seeded in a knockout tournament, with the first seed playing the eighth seed, the second playing the seventh and so on. The winner of this knockout, which culminates in the Grand Final, becomes the series champion. Each series lasts approximately six months with approximately 125 episodes. Approximately every four series, a Champion of Champions tournament takes place. For this, sixteen of the best players to have appeared since the previous Championship are invited back for another knockout tournament. The producer, former contestant Damian Eadie, decides which players to include, but typically the tournament includes the series winners and other noteworthy contestants. Series 33 was designated a "Supreme Championship", in which 56 of the best contestants from all the previous series returned for another knockout tournament. Series 10 champion Harvey Freeman was declared Supreme Champion after beating Allan Saldanha in the final. There are also occasional special episodes, in which past contestants return for themed matches. For example, David Acton and Kenneth Michie returned for a rematch of their Series 31 final, while brothers and former contestants Sanjay and Sandeep Mazumder played off against each other on 20 December 2004. Since the change to 45-minute episodes, the game has been split into three sections, separated by advertising breaks. The first section contains two letters rounds and one numbers round, the second has two letters rounds and one numbers round followed by the anecdote from the Dictionary Corner guest and then a further two letters rounds and one numbers round, while the last section has two letters rounds, Susie Dent's "Origins of Words" item since September 2007, two further letters rounds, one numbers round and a final "Conundrum" puzzle. With the exception of the Conundrum, the contestants swap control after every round so that each of them has control for five letters rounds and two numbers rounds. At the end of the first two sections, the host poses a "Teatime Teaser" for the viewers since series 46 in 2001, giving a set of short words and a cryptic clue to a single word that can be anagrammed from them. The solution is revealed at the start of the next section. (Example: Given the words SAD MOODY and the clue "We'll all be sad and moody when this arrives", the solution would be DOOMSDAY.) The length of the Teatime Teaser anagram has varied between seven and nine letters since its introduction. === Letters Round === The contestant in control chooses between two stacks of face-down letter tiles, one containing vowels (A-E-I-O-U only) and the other consonants, and the assistant reveals the top tile from that stack and places it on the board. This is done nine times and the final grouping must contain at least three vowels and four consonants. The contestants then have 30 seconds to form the longest single word they can, using the nine revealed letters; no letter may be used more often than it appears in the selection. The frequencies of the letters within each stack are weighted according to their frequency in natural English, in the same manner as Scrabble. For example, there are many Ns and Rs in the consonant stack, but very few tiles for rarely used letters such as Q and J. The letter frequencies are altered by the producers from time to time, so any published list does not necessarily reflect the letters used in any particular programme. The two stacks of tiles are not replenished between rounds. Both contestants write down the words they form, in case they select the same one. After time runs out, the host asks the contestants to declare their word lengths, starting with the contestant who chose the letters. The host then asks the discovered words, starting with the shorter declared length. If one contestant has not written their word down in time, they must state this fact; if both then declare the same length, that contestant must give their word first to prevent cheating. If both contestants state that they have not written their words, the host allows them a moment to do so; this is typically edited out of the final broadcast. The contestant with the longer valid word scores one point per letter, or 18 points if they have used all nine. If the words are identical or of the same length, both contestants score. In the former case, the contestants must show their written words to each other as proof that they are the same. If a contestant is visually impaired, Dictionary Corner will verify the word. Contestants who inaccurately declare the length of their word score zero, even if the word is valid. Each round ends with Dictionary Corner revealing the longest words and/or any unusual ones that can be formed from the available letters, aided by the production team. Most words which appear in the Oxford Dictionary of English are valid, as well as accepted forms of them that may not be explicitly listed. Examples are: Common nouns and their plurals Verbs and their inflections (e.g. "escape", "escaped", "escaping") Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives (if the adjective is more than one syllable, the form must be explicitly listed) Plurals of foods specified as mass nouns that may be ordered in restaurants (e.g. "pastas", as in "We'll have two pastas") Words that are not allowed include: Terms which are always capitalised, including proper nouns (e.g. "Jane" or "London") Words spelled with an apostrophe (e.g. "Didn't" or "Wouldn't") Hyphenated terms Words that are never used alone (e.g. "gefilte"; only used as part of "gefilte fish") Since 2002, American spellings of words are not allowed (e.g. "flavour" and "signalled" are allowed, but "flavor" and "signaled" are not). Notably, though, words with the suffix -ize (e.g. "realize") and derived words thereof (e.g. "realizing") are permitted in addition to the corresponding -ise spellings (e.g. "realise"), as the Oxford Dictionary of English regards both as British English spellings per the Oxford spelling convention. Example: Contestant One chooses five consonants, then three vowels, then another consonant. Selection is: G Y H D N O E U R Contestant One declares 7, while Contestant Two declares 8. Contestant One declares younger, but Contestant Two declares hydrogen and scores 8 points. Contestant One does not score. Dictionary Corner notes greyhound, which would have scored 18 points for using all nine letters. === Numbers Round === The contestant in control chooses six of 24 shuffled face-down number tiles, arranged into two groups: 20 "small numbers" (two each of 1 to 10) and four "large numbers" of 25, 50, 75 and 100. The contestant decides how many large numbers are to be used, from none to all four, after which the six tiles are randomly drawn and placed on the board. A random three-digit target figure from 100 to 999 is then generated by an electronic machine, known as "CECIL" (which stands for Countdown's Electronic Calculator In Leeds). The contestants have 30 seconds to work out a sequence of calculations with the numbers whose final result is as close to the target number as possible. They may use only the four basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and do not have to use all six numbers. A number may not be used more times than it appears on the board. Division can only be performed if the result has no remainder (i.e., the divisor is a factor of the dividend). Fractions are not allowed and only positive integers may be obtained as a result at any stage of the calculation. As in the letters rounds, both contestants must declare their results and any contestant who has not fully written their calculations down in time must go first if both declare the same result. In addition, both contestants must show their written work to each other if their results and calculations are identical. The contestant who has declared a result closer to the target is called upon to state their calculations first. Only if they make a mistake or if both contestants are equally close to the target, is the opponent called upon. Only the contestant whose result is closer to the target scores points: ten for reaching it exactly, seven for being between one and five from the target and five for being within six and ten from the target. Contestants score no points for being more than ten away, if their calculations are flawed or if they take too long to give a solution or after saying they have not written it down. Both score if they reach the same result or if their results are the same distance away. Should neither contestant reach the target exactly, the assistant is called upon to attempt a solution, either immediately or at a later time during the episode. Example: Contestant One requests two large numbers and four small numbers. Selection is: 75 50 2 3 8 7 Randomly generated target is: 812 Contestant One declares 813, while Contestant Two declares 815. Contestant One is closer and so reveals: 75 + 50 – 8 = 117, and 117 × 7 – (3 × 2) = 813, which scores 7 points for being 1 away. Contestant Two does not score. Assistant notes: 50 + 8 = 58, and 7 × 2 × 58 = 812, which would have scored 10 points. In some games, there are many ways to reach the target exactly; the example target above could also be reached by 7 × (75 + 50 + 2 – 8 – 3) = 812. Not all games are solvable, and for a few selections it is impossible even to get within 10, most commonly when a contestant picks six small numbers and the target number is quite large. There is a tactical element in selecting how many large numbers to include. One large and five small numbers is the most popular selection, despite two large numbers giving the best chance of the game being solvable exactly. Selections with zero or four large numbers are generally considered the hardest. The 24 tiles are laid out in four rows, the topmost of which contains only the four large numbers. The contestant may specify how many tiles to draw from each row, or simply state how many large and small numbers will be used; in the latter case, the assistant draws the tiles randomly. The numbers are usually placed on the board from right to left, starting with the small ones, but have occasionally been displayed in scrambled order. On rare occasions, the contestant has declined to make any choices, in which case the assistant selects the tiles. Unlike the letters round, the pool of tiles is fully replenished after each numbers round. Example: Contestant requests one from the top (large), two from the second row (small), and three more from the top (large). Selection is (in disorder): 50 10 6 25 100 75 A special edition, broadcast on 15 March 2010, for two previous series champions, Kirk Bevins and Chris Davies, used instead of the usual four large numbers, the numbers 12, 37 and two numbers unrevealed for the duration of the show. In a further special broadcast on 16 August 2010 between the Series 59 finalists Charlie Reams and Junaid Mubeen, the other two numbers were revealed to be 62 and 87. === Conundrum === The final round of the game is the Countdown Conundrum, in which the contestants are shown a combination of two or three words with a total of nine letters. They have 30 seconds to form a single word using all the letters and must buzz in to respond (a bell for the champion and a buzzer for the challenger). Each contestant is allowed only one guess and the first to answer correctly scores 10 points. If a contestant buzzes-in and either responds incorrectly or fails to give any response, they are frozen out and the remaining time is given to the opponent. If neither contestant can solve it, the presenter asks whether anyone in the audience knows the answer and if so, chooses someone to call it out (this practice was stopped temporarily in 2009 to avoid difficulties with camera angles after the studio layout was changed). The Conundrum is designed to have only one solution, but on occasion more than one valid word is found by happenstance (e.g. MISSATTEE can become both ESTIMATES and STEAMIEST). If this happens, any of these results are accepted. On rare occasions, the Conundrum is presented as a single nine-letter word that must be anagrammed into another one (e.g. SMARTENED becoming TRADESMEN). If the contestants' scores are within ten points of each other going into this round, it is referred to as a "Crucial Countdown Conundrum." Since ten points are at stake, the contestant who solves it (if any) will either win the game or force a tiebreaker. If the scores are tied after the Conundrum, additional Conundrums are played until the tie is broken. There have been several instances in which two Conundrums were used to decide the winner, but only a handful of episodes have required three. There have also been cases when even more Conundrums have been required to provide a winner, but not all have been included in the transmitted programme. Example: Conundrum is revealed: C H I N A L U N G Contestant One buzzes-in and says launching. This answer is revealed to be correct and Contestant One scores 10 points. == Evolution == The rules of Countdown are derived from those of Des chiffres et des lettres. Perhaps the biggest difference is the length of the round; DCedL's number rounds are each 45 seconds long to Countdown's 30. DCedL also features "duels", in which players compete in short tasks such as mental arithmetic problems, forming two themed words from a set of letters, or being asked to spell a word correctly. Other minor differences include a different numbers scoring system (9 points for an exact solution, or 6 points for the closest inexact solution in DCedL) and the proportion of letters to numbers rounds (10 to 4 in Countdown, 8 to 4 in DCedL). The pilot episode followed significantly different rules from the current ones. Most noticeably, only eight letters were selected for each letters round. If two contestants offered a word of the same length, or an equally close solution to a numbers game, then only the contestant who made the selection for that round was awarded points. Also, only five points were given for an exact numbers solution, three for a solution within 5, and one point for the closer solution, no matter how far away. Though the style and colour scheme of the set have changed many times (and the show itself moved to Manchester after more than 25 years in Leeds), the clock has always provided the centrepiece and like the clock music (composed by Alan Hawkshaw), it is an enduring and well-recognised feature of Countdown. Executive producer John Meade once commissioned Alan Hawkshaw to revise the music for extra intensity to introduce at the start of Series 31 in January 1996; after hundreds of complaints from viewers, the old tune was reinstated after just 12 shows. The original set, known as the Pastel set, was used from its launch in 1982 until Series 17 in early 1989. A new brown wooden set was introduced in Series 18 in July 1989 but remained in use for less than two years. Series 22 from July 1991 saw the introduction of the familiar and long-lived "Wings" set which was used in its original form, a red colour scheme, until 1995. Series 31 in January 1996 saw its colour scheme change to purple and changed again to tangerine at the end of 1999 alongside updated displays for the scores and CECIL. January 2003 saw the set updated to a new pink and purple striped theme with the letters and numbers boards now on separate islands rather than being integrated into the set. Six years later, in January 2009, the set received another redesign with a numerical blue theme and the letters and numbers boards mounted on opposite sides of a single display stand. New modern displays for the scores and the numbers round came in January 2013 while the set received a slight redesign in July 2017 while retaining the blue background which has been used to up to the most recent series. The original clock featured until September 2013, when it was replaced. Until the end of Series 21, if the two contestants had equal scores after the first conundrum, the match was declared a draw and they both returned for the next show. A significant change in the format occurred in September 2001, when the show was expanded from nine rounds and 30 minutes to the current fifteen rounds and 45 minutes. The older format was split into two halves, each with three letters and one numbers game, plus the conundrum at the end of the second half. When the format was expanded to fifteen rounds, Richard Whiteley continued to refer jokingly to the three segments of the show as "halves". Under the old format, Grand Finals were specially extended shows of fourteen rounds, but now all shows use a fifteen-round format. The rules regarding which words are permitted have changed with time. American spelling was allowed until 2002 and more unspecified inflections were assumed to be valid. In September 2007, an "Origin of Words" feature was added to the show, in which Susie Dent explains the origin of a word or phrase she has been researching. This feature follows the eighth letters round, partway through the third section of each episode. The feature was omitted during the time that she was absent for maternity leave and was reinstated upon her return. When the 15-round format was first introduced in September 2001, the composition of the rounds was different from that used by the programme today. The three sections each had five rounds; four letters rounds and one numbers round in each of the first two sections with three letters rounds, one numbers round and the conundrum in the third section. This meant that there was a slight imbalance, whereby one contestant made the letters sections for six rounds, but had the choice of the numbers selection just once, whereas the other contestant chose letters five times and numbers twice. The Dictionary Corner guest's spot was immediately before the first advertising break and Susie Dent's Origin of Words spot preceded the second numbers game shortly before the second break. The change to the present format was made on 25 March 2013, three weeks into the second section of Series 68, to comply with Channel 4's decision to increase the amount of advertising and to alter the times when they occur during the programme, therefore reducing Countdown's actual show length from 36 to 35 minutes. == Notable contestants == Since the debut of Countdown in 1982, there have been more than 8,500 televised episodes and 91 complete series. There have also been sixteen Champion of Champions tournaments, the most recent in January 2023. Several of the programme's most successful contestants have received national media coverage. Teenager Julian Fell set a record score of 146 in December 2002. In 2006, 14-year-old Conor Travers became the youngest series champion in the show's history, and 11-year-old Kai Laddiman became the youngest octochamp for 20 years. Conor Travers went on to win the 30th Anniversary Champion of Champions series in March 2013 with a record-equalling top score of 146. On 17 January 2019, in the quarter-final of the 15th Champion of Champions tournament, Zarte Siempre, who eventually won that tournament set a new record score of 150. This record was beaten in May 2019 by Elliott Mellor's score of 152. A new record was set on 29 September 2022 when contestant Tom Stevenson scored 154. This record score of 154 was equalled by contestant Cillian McMulkin on 31 January 2023. At eight years old, Tanmay Dixit was the youngest player ever to appear on the show, achieving two wins in March 2005. He also received press attention for his offerings in the letters round, which included fannies and farted. On Christmas Day 1987, Nic Brown set the highest score difference ever achieved in a standard 14-round game, beating Joel Salkin 108–36, a margin of 72 points. Brown also went on to become one of the only two contestants ever to achieve an undefeated 'grand slam' – becoming an Octochamp, winning a series, and winning a Championship of Champions. In April 2013, Giles Hutchings, a student at Royal Grammar School, Guildford broke the record for the highest octochamp score, amassing 965 points over 8 games. He went on to win Series 68. The record was beaten by Dylan Taylor, who achieved an octochamp score of 974 in August 2013, but he lost the Grand Final of that series. In 2019 the record was beaten by 87 points by teenager Elliott Mellor, who became the first octochamp to break the 1,000-point barrier scoring a total of 1,061 over his eight preliminary games. Echoing Dylan's appearance, Mellor was pipped to the series title, finishing as runner up. Three former contestants have returned to Countdown as part of the production team: Michael Wylie, Mark Nyman (as producer, and occasional lexicographer in Dictionary Corner) and Damian Eadie (the current series producer). In 1998, sixteen celebrities were invited to play Celebrity Countdown, a series of eight games broadcast every Thursday evening over the course of eight weeks. The celebrities included Whiteley's successor Des Lynam, who beat Siân Lloyd. The highest and lowest scores were posted in the same game when TV's Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall beat wine critic Jilly Goolden 47–9. Richard Whiteley and Carol Vorderman competed in another special episode on Christmas Day 1997. For this game, the presenter's chair was taken by William G. Stewart, the host of fellow Channel 4 game show Fifteen to One. Susie Dent took over Carol Vorderman's duties, and Mark Nyman occupied Dictionary Corner, accompanied by Magnus Magnusson. The game was close-fought and decided only by the crucial Countdown conundrum mistletoe which Carol Vorderman solved in two seconds, after Richard Whiteley had inadvertently buzzed after one second because when he regularly hosted the show, he hit the button to reveal the conundrum and kept his old habit up. Contestants who have or had become notable for other reasons include Nuts magazine editor-at-large Pete Cashmore, rugby player Ayoola Erinle, footballers Neil MacKenzie, Clarke Carlisle and Matt Le Tissier, musicians Jon Marsh and Nick Saloman, comedian Alex Horne, noted Irish playwright Peter Sheridan and professional darts referee Kirk Bevins, who won Series 60 and was a quarter-finalist in the 30th Birthday Championship. == In popular culture == Countdown is often referenced and parodied in British culture. === Assorted allusions === In 1992, Saint Etienne used a sample of the host's lead-in for "today's Countdown Conundrum" as the opening for the track "Stoned to Say the Least". In the 2002 film About a Boy, protagonist Will Freeman is a regular viewer of Countdown. The Doctor Who episode "Bad Wolf" (2005) mentions a futuristic version of Countdown, in which the goal is to stop a bomb from exploding in 30 seconds. Countdown was referenced again in a later series in "Last of the Time Lords" (2007), where Professor Docherty expresses a keen fondness for the show and how it "hasn't been the same since Des took over—both Deses.” Fairport Convention guitarist Simon Nicol titled one of his solo albums Consonant Please Carol, echoing one of the show's catchphrases. Mentioned in episode one (2012) of series 4 of TV series Misfits. === Video game === A Countdown video game was released for the Nintendo DS and Nintendo Wii in 2009. There have also been mobile apps of the game released. === Outtakes === Countdown has also generated a number of widely viewed outtakes, with the letters occasionally producing a word that was deemed unsuitable for the original broadcast. A round in which Dictionary Corner offered the word gobshite featured in TV's Finest Failures in 2001 (the actual episode aired on 10 January 2000), and in one episode from 7 January 1991, contestants Gino Corr and Lawrence Pearse both declared the word wankers. This was edited out of the programme but has since appeared on many outtakes shows. When contestant Charlie Reams declared wankers on 21 October 2008 edition, the declaration was kept in but the word itself was bleeped. Other incidents with only marginally rude words (including wanker, singular) have made it into the programme as they appeared, such as those with Tanmay Dixit referenced above, a clip from a 2001 episode in which the word fart appeared as the first four letters on the board (which also featured on 100 Greatest TV Moments from Hell), and a round where an anagram of the word fucked appeared on the board in the string "A U O D F C K E G", although neither player chose to use the word and Dictionary Corner was able to find two seven-letter words that could have been made from the board's offerings. On 2 February 2017, the board for the letters round was "M T H I A E D H S", and with both players offering sevens, Dictionary Corner found the word "shithead", which was bleeped out in the audio and censored on-screen with the poo emoji. === Humour === The programme is mentioned in an episode of Irish sitcom Father Ted entitled "The Old Grey Whistle Theft", Still Game (in the episode "Wireless") and is also referenced in the very first episode of Little Britain from 2003. BBC impression sketch show Dead Ringers parodies Countdown numerous times, and another television programme, The Big Breakfast, parodied Countdown in a feature called "Countdown Under". In a sketch "Countdown to Hell" from the comedy show A Bit of Fry and Laurie, Stephen Fry lampooned Richard Whiteley's punning style and Hugh Laurie played one of the contestants, while Gyles Brandreth (played by Steve Steen), presented with the letters "bollocsk", got the (non-)word "sloblock" (supposedly meaning exactly the same as "bollocks"). The show also has a fleeting reference in British sitcom The Office when Chris 'Finchy' Finch attempts to insult temporary worker Ricky when he explains he had a job to pay for his studies. Finchy states that it probably was 'professor in charge of watching Countdown every day', commenting on its student audience, and referring to the fact anyone watching Countdown during its 'hometime' time slot cannot be out at work. The format of the show has been parodied on Have I Got News for You. In 1999, when Whiteley was a guest, the numbers game was copied along with the clock music and at the end of the show was a conundrum, "PHANIOILS", to which the answer was Ian Hislop. In 2004, when Vorderman was a guest, one of the usual rounds was replaced with a conundrum round based on the week's news. When Vorderman hosted Have I Got News in 2006, one of the rounds was the "Spinning Conundrum Numbers Round", altering the "Spinning Headlines" round by adding a number to a picture relating to the week's news; at the end of the round, the six numbers from the picture were used for a numbers game. Richard Whiteley was the victim of a practical joke while presenting the show in 1998. The contestants and rounds had been planted as part of a "Gotcha!", a regular prank feature on the light entertainment show Noel's House Party. In the prank, both the two contestants and Dictionary Corner missed the word something from the letters OMETHINGS, and from another selection, both of the contestants declared "I've got diarrhoea" referring to the selection. In the numbers round that followed, the male contestant "answered" the puzzle by concatenating 6, 2, and 3 to make the target of 623. Whiteley did not uncover the joke until House Party presenter Noel Edmonds appeared on the set, having revealed the unusually short conundrum of HOGCAT to be "gotcha" at the end of the programme. In a 2003 episode of Top Gear, Richard Whiteley participated in the "Star in a Reasonably Priced Car" segment. Before Whiteley's lap was shown, presenter Jeremy Clarkson played a game of Countdown with Whiteley, using words such as imin (Mini), sexul (Lexus), nevor lard (Land Rover), mushi bits(Mitsubishi) and pianos shiazu (Hispano-Suiza). It was also referred to on Harry Hill's TV Burp twice. The first time it was referred to was when "Dev" (Coronation Street) made a sound like Countdown end of thirty seconds time. The second time was when the competition "Where Has The Knitted Character Been This Week?" had the answer "on Rachel Riley's chair". On 2 July 2010, the game was featured in the series 4 episode "The Final Countdown" of The IT Crowd. Moss stuns everyone, including Jeff Stelling and Rachel Riley (both playing themselves), by declaring that the 9 letter string TNETENNBA is in fact a word. Later, Moss becomes an octochamp and is consequently invited into an underground club named "8+", where he competes in a game of "Street Countdown" as part of a spoof of Boogie Town. The episode featured a cameo from Gyles Brandreth, a regular contributor to Dictionary Corner. British entertainer Stevie Riks has parodied the show in one of his many YouTube comedy videos. In an episode from spring 2011, the Blackpool-supporting producer of the show arranged the conundrum PNECRISIS ("priciness"), poking fun at their local rivals Preston North End's relegation from the Championship in the 2010–11 season. === Non-canon games === The game has also been played on a number of different programmes, notably as the first challenge in "What's Next" on Ant and Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway, featuring the pair versus one of the duo's old head teachers. In 2010, it was played as a shopping task on the final Channel 4 series of Celebrity Big Brother, with a team of housemates competing in the house against the then current champion, Chris Davies, in the Countdown studio via satellite. The housemates failed this task. == Community == In 2008, Charlie Reams, who was runner up of Series 59 in 2008, created a website called Apterous, which allows people to play simulated games of Countdown online. Members of this site are called Apterites. Every series champion since 2008 inclusive has been a member. Since 2005, Ben Wilson, the champion of Series 46, has organised a Countdown event in Lincoln, abbreviated COLIN. The event usually takes place on a Saturday in January. COLIN is played across three rounds. Players are drawn onto tables of three (if the number of humans participating is not a multiple of three, bots are used). There are three games per round per table - each contestant takes one turn at hosting the game, and two turns as a contestant. In Round 1, tables are allocated randomly. In Rounds 2 and 3, players are allocated tables based on how well they’ve performed up to that point. Afterwards, a final takes place between the two best players (sorted by number of wins and then by number of points). Whoever wins the final is declared the overall winner of the event. Since 2014, a hangover takes place the main day after the main COLIN. The hangover takes place over two rounds. For the hangover, players are allocated one of two teams; there is a White team and a Blue team. In person events have since expanded to other locations (e.g. Bristol, Edinburgh) Since 2016, most Countdown events have been part of “FOCAL” (Finals of the Co-events Annual League). Players earn points based on how well they have done at their events. The top 8 are invited to a final, where they play against the seven other finalists. Afterwards, a final takes place between the two best players (sorted by number of wins and then by number of points). Whoever wins the final is declared FOCAL Champion. == Transmissions == === Regular === === Masters === === Celebrity === === Specials === == Spin-offs == Countdown Masters was a regular feature segment within The Channel Four Daily, throughout its run from 1989 to 1992. It had the same hosts and rules as the standard game but was played in shorter bite-sized chunks. It was abbreviated: for example, the letters were chosen all in one go as "x vowels and y consonants" and there was no celebrity guest in "Dictionary Corner". 8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown has comedian Jimmy Carr as host and team captains Jon Richardson and Sean Lock (until his death in 2021) as regular contestants. Susie Dent and Rachel Riley fill their normal roles. It uses similar rules to the standard game, but has a strong comedy element, a reduced number of rounds, and is two against two. It began in 2012 and continues airing new episodes; as of 31 January 2025, 167 episodes of 8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown have aired. Celebrity Countdown had celebrities competing on the show without the cast of 8 Out of 10 Cats and with its usual presenters. Only two series have been broadcast; Series 1 in 1998 and Series 2 in 2019–2020. Both series used a modified format and were broadcast in the evening, the second of which was aired on More4. == See also == List of Countdown champions International versions of Countdown == Notes == == References == Countdown: Spreading the Word (Granada Media, 2001) ISBN 0-233-99976-0 == External links == Countdown on Channel 4 Countdown at IMDb Countdown at the BFI's Screenonline The Countdown Page, results from every game up to 16 December 2011 The Countdown Wiki An analysis of the game based on a scientific article published at the 2015 Global Conference on Artificial Intelligence Countdown Solver
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Biswas_(politician)	Anil Biswas (politician)	Anil Biswas (2 March 1944 – 26 March 2006), often referred to as Keru, was an Indian communist politician. He was the secretary of the West Bengal State Committee of Communist Party of India (Marxist) and member of the party's politburo beginning in 1998 until his death in 2006. == Early life == Biswas born in a middle class Mahishya family of Darermath village near Karimpur, Nadia district, to Ashutosh Biswas and Prafulla Kumari Debi. He lost his father at a tender age. While in high school he was attracted to the Left movement in the area. in 1961 he joined the Krishnagar Government College and came under the influence of Marxist leaders like Harinarayan Adhikari and Dinesh Majumdar and also became an active member of the Students' Federation of India. He was a student leader in College elections. After taking an Honours degree in Political science, he shifted to Kolkata to pursue his academic career. == Politics == He became the full-fledged party member of the CPI(M) in 1965. In the same year he was arrested under the Defence of India Rules 1962 and was imprisoned for 11 months. From jail custody he completed the master's degree in political science. In 1969, he became a whole timer of the party and began his party work as a journalist in the Ganashakti, the party's daily organ. Biswas was elected to the CPIM West Bengal state committee in 1978 and elected to the state secretariat in 1982. Biswas remained closely associated with Ganashakti and edited it between 1983 and 1998. It was during his editorship the newspaper reached the height of circulation. Biswas became member of the Central Committee of the party in the year of 1985. "It was due to his guidance that the Ganashakthi became a full-fledged and comprehensive newspaper," CPIM said in homage to Biswas. In 1998, he became a member of the Polit Bureau. He was mentored by Pramod Dasgupta. In 1998, took charge as the secretary of the State committee after his predecessor Sailen Dasgupta resigned owing to ill-health and old age. He was reelected as state secretary in 2002 and 2005. He was the editor of Marxbadi Path (The Road of the Marxist), the theoretical quarterly in West Bengal. He was known to be a deft strategist and the brain behind the party's important decisions in West Bengal politics. In one of his genius decisions, he influenced the party to name Buddhadeb Bhattacharjee as Chief Minister of West Bengal replacing Jyoti Basu before the 2000 West Bengal Legislative Assembly Elections. This was a strategically shrewd decision because people of West Bengal were frustrated by the same Chief Minister for more than 20 years. It got the Left front a huge victory in spite of strong opposition from Mamata Banerjee's TMC. Because of Anil Biswas' organized election tactics as the State General Secretary in the 2006 West Bengal Assembly Election, the opposition reduced to significantly small number of seats. He used to manage the media and the ground-workers so well that he knew the pulse of the general public in and out. It is largely believed that the demise of Anil Biswas and other important ground-leaders such as Subhas Chakraborty paved the way for the opposition to come into power replacing the Left Front. == Death == He died on 26 March 2006 after being hospitalised by a brain haemorrhage on 18 March. His body was donated to NRS Medical College and Hospital according to his last wishes. He is survived by his wife Gita and daughter Ajanta. == References == == Sources == Obituary on sify.com "Anil Biswas dead" - The Hindu article dated 26 March 2006 "CPI(M) leader Anil Biswas dead" - Hindustan Times article dated 26 March 2006 "Homage to Comrade Anil Biswas" "Anil Biswas: Farewell Beloved Comrade!" People's Democracy article dated 2 April 2006
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saul_Rosen#:~:text=Saul%20Rosen%20(February%208%2C%201922,which%20influenced%20the%20ALGOL%20language.	Saul Rosen	Saul Rosen (February 8, 1922 – June 9, 1991) was an American computer science pioneer. He is known for designing the software of the first transistor-based computer Philco Transac S-2000, and for his work on programming language design which influenced the ALGOL language. In 1947, he was involved in establishing the Association for Computing Machinery; in particular he was the first editor of its journal Communications of the ACM. In 1979 he co-founded the journal Annals of the History of Computing, then published by AFIPS. == Selected publications == Saul Rosen (1953). "Modular transformation of certain series". Duke Mathematical Journal. 20 (4): 593–599. doi:10.1215/s0012-7094-53-02060-2. Saul Rosen (Jan 1967). Programming Systems and Languages. McGraw Hill Computer Science Series. New York/NY: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0070537089. Saul Rosen (Jul 1968). Electronic Computers —- A Historical Survey in Print (Computer Science Technical Report). Purdue University Department. Saul Rosen (1990). The Origins of Modern Computing (Computer Science Technical Report / Purdue e-Pubs). Purdue University. Saul Rosen (Sep 1990). "The Origins of Modern Computing". Computing Reviews. 31 (9): 449–481. Saul Rosen (Jun 1991). PHILCO: Some Recollections of the PHILCO TRANSAC S-2000 (Computer Science Technical Reports / Purdue e-Pubs). Purdue University. == See also == List of pioneers in computer science == References == == External links == Saul Rosen at the Mathematics Genealogy Project Vita at rcac.purdue.edu Publications at DBLP Pictures of Rosen via cs.purdue.edu: 5 Apr 1966, handling a magnetic tape 5 Apr 1966, at the typewriter 30 Jul 1968, portrait
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vault_7#:~:text=On%2010%20August%202017%2C%20WikiLeaks,into%20other%20people's%20surveillance%20systems.	Vault 7	Vault 7 is a series of documents that WikiLeaks began to publish on 7 March 2017, detailing the activities and capabilities of the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to perform electronic surveillance and cyber warfare. The files, dating from 2013 to 2016, include details on the agency's software capabilities, such as the ability to compromise cars, smart TVs, web browsers including Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox, and Opera, the operating systems of most smartphones including Apple's iOS and Google's Android, and computer operating systems including Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux. A CIA internal audit identified 91 malware tools out of more than 500 tools in use in 2016 being compromised by the release. The tools were developed by the Operations Support Branch of the CIA. The Vault 7 release led the CIA to redefine WikiLeaks as a "non-state hostile intelligence service." In July 2022, former CIA software engineer Joshua Schulte was convicted of leaking the documents to WikiLeaks, and in February 2024 sentenced to 40 years' imprisonment, on espionage counts and separately to 80 months for child pornography counts. == History == In February 2017, WikiLeaks began teasing the release of "Vault 7" with a series of cryptic messages on Twitter (Now X), according to media reports. Later on in February, WikiLeaks released classified documents describing how the CIA monitored the 2012 French presidential election. The press release for the leak stated that it was published "as context for its forthcoming CIA Vault 7 series." In March 2017, US intelligence and law enforcement officials said to the international wire agency Reuters that they had been aware of the CIA security breach which led to Vault 7 since late 2016. Two officials said they were focusing on "contractors" as the possible source of the leaks. In 2017, federal law enforcement identified CIA software engineer Joshua Adam Schulte as a suspected source of Vault 7. Schulte plead not guilty and was convicted in July 2022 of leaking the documents to WikiLeaks. On 13 April 2017, CIA director Mike Pompeo declared WikiLeaks to be a "hostile intelligence service." In September 2021, Yahoo! News reported that in 2017 in the wake of the Vault 7 leaks, the CIA considered kidnapping or assassinating Julian Assange, the founder of WikiLeaks. The CIA also considered spying on associates of WikiLeaks, sowing discord among its members, and stealing their electronic devices. After many months of deliberation, all proposed plans had been scrapped due to a combination of legal and moral objections. Per the 2021 Yahoo News article, a former Trump national security official stated, "We should never act out of a desire for revenge". The Vault 7 release led the CIA to redefine WikiLeaks as a "non-state hostile intelligence service." In July 2022, former CIA software engineer Joshua Schulte was convicted of leaking the documents to WikiLeaks, and in February 2024 sentenced to 40 years' imprisonment. == Publications == === Part 1 – "Year Zero" === The first batch of documents, named "Year Zero", was published by WikiLeaks on 7 March 2017. Purportedly from the Center for Cyber Intelligence, Year Zero consisted of 7,818 web pages with 943 attachments, more pages than former NSA contractor and leaker Edward Snowden's 2013 NSA release. WikiLeaks had placed Year Zero online in a locked archive earlier in the week, and revealed the passphrase on the 7th. The passphrase referred to a President John F. Kennedy quote, stating that he wanted “to splinter the CIA in a thousand pieces and scatter it to the winds”. WikiLeaks did not name their source, but said that the files had, "circulated among former U.S. government hackers and contractors in an unauthorized manner, one of whom has provided WikiLeaks with portions of the archive." According to WikiLeaks, the source, "wishes to initiate a public debate about the security, creation, use, proliferation and democratic control of cyberweapons," since these tools raise questions that, "urgently need to be debated in public, including whether the C.I.A.'s hacking capabilities exceed its mandated powers and the problem of public oversight of the agency." WikiLeaks attempted to redact names and other identifying information from the documents before releasing them and faced criticism for leaving some key details unredacted. WikiLeaks also attempted to allow for connections between people to be drawn via unique identifiers generated by WikiLeaks. It also said that it would postpone releasing the source code for the cyber weapons, which is reportedly several hundred million lines long, "until a consensus emerges on the technical and political nature of the C.I.A.'s program and how such 'weapons' should be analyzed, disarmed and published." WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange claimed this was only part of a larger series. The CIA released a statement saying, "The American public should be deeply troubled by any WikiLeaks disclosure designed to damage the Intelligence Community's ability to protect America against terrorists or other adversaries. Such disclosures not only jeopardize US personnel and operations, but also equip our adversaries with tools and information to do us harm." In a statement issued on 19 March 2017, Assange said the technology companies who had been contacted had not agreed to, disagreed with, or questioned what he termed as WikiLeaks' standard industry disclosure plan. The standard disclosure time for a vulnerability is 90 days after the company responsible for patching the software is given full details of the flaw. According to WikiLeaks, only Mozilla had been provided with information on the vulnerabilities, while "Google and some other companies" only confirmed receiving the initial notification. WikiLeaks stated: "Most of these lagging companies have conflicts of interest due to their classified work with US government agencies. In practice such associations limit industry staff with US security clearances from fixing holes based on leaked information from the CIA. Should such companies choose to not secure their users against CIA or NSA attacks users may prefer organizations such as Mozilla or European companies that prioritize their users over government contracts". === Part 2 – "Dark Matter" === On 23 March 2017 WikiLeaks published the second release of Vault 7 material, entitled "Dark Matter". The publication included documentation for several CIA efforts to hack Apple's iPhones and Macs. These included the Sonic Screwdriver malware that could use the Thunderbolt interface to bypass Apple's password firmware protection. === Part 3 – "Marble" === On 31 March 2017, WikiLeaks published the third part, "Marble". It contained 676 source code files for the CIA's Marble Framework. It is used to obfuscate, or scramble, malware code in an attempt to make it so that anti-virus firms or investigators cannot understand the code or attribute its source. According to WikiLeaks, the code also included a de-obfuscator to reverse the obfuscation effects. === Part 4 – "Grasshopper" === On 7 April 2017, WikiLeaks published the fourth set, "Grasshopper". The publication contains 27 documents from the CIA's Grasshopper framework, which is used by the CIA to build customized and persistent malware payloads for the Microsoft Windows operating systems. Grasshopper focused on Personal Security Product (PSP) avoidance. PSPs are antivirus software such as MS Security Essentials, Symantec Endpoint or Kaspersky IS. === Part 5 – "HIVE" === On 14 April 2017, WikiLeaks published the fifth part, "HIVE". Based on the CIA top-secret virus program created by its "Embedded Development Branch" (EDB). The six documents published by WikiLeaks are related to the HIVE multi-platform CIA malware suite. A CIA back-end infrastructure with a public-facing HTTPS interface used by CIA to transfer information from target desktop computers and smartphones to the CIA, and open those devices to receive further commands from CIA operators to execute specific tasks, all the while hiding its presence behind unsuspicious-looking public domains through a masking interface known as "Switchblade" (also known as Listening Post (LP) and Command and Control (C2)). === Part 6 – "Weeping Angel" === On 21 April 2017, WikiLeaks published the sixth part, "Weeping Angel" (named for a monster in the TV show Doctor Who), a hacking tool co-developed by the CIA and MI5 used to exploit a series of early smart TVs for the purpose of covert intelligence gathering. Once installed in suitable televisions with a USB stick, the hacking tool enables those televisions' built-in microphones and possibly video cameras to record their surroundings, while the televisions falsely appear to be turned off. The recorded data is then either stored locally into the television's memory or sent over the internet to the CIA. Allegedly both the CIA and MI5 agencies collaborated to develop that malware in Joint Development Workshops. === Part 7 – "Scribbles" === On 28 April 2017, WikiLeaks published the seventh part, "Scribbles". The leak includes documentation and source code of a tool intended to track documents leaked to whistleblowers and journalists by embedding web beacon tags into classified documents to trace who leaked them. The tool affects Microsoft Office documents, specifically "Microsoft Office 2013 (on Windows 8.1 x64), documents from Office versions 97-2016 (Office 95 documents will not work) and documents that are not locked, encrypted, or password-protected". When a CIA watermarked document is opened, an invisible image within the document that is hosted on the agency's server is loaded, generating a HTTP request. The request is then logged on the server, giving the intelligence agency information about who is opening it and where it is being opened. However, if a watermarked document is opened in an alternative word processor the image may be visible to the viewer. The documentation also states that if the document is viewed offline or in protected view, the watermarked image will not be able to contact its home server. This is overridden only when a user enables editing. === Part 8 – "Archimedes" === On 5 May 2017, WikiLeaks published the eighth part, "Archimedes". According to U.S. SANS Institute instructor Jake Williams, who analyzed the published documents, Archimedes is a virus previously codenamed "Fulcrum". According to cyber security expert and ENISA member Pierluigi Paganini, the CIA operators use Archimedes to redirect local area network (LAN) web browser sessions from a targeted computer through a computer controlled by the CIA before the sessions are routed to the users. This type of attack is known as man-in-the-middle (MitM). With their publication WikiLeaks included a number of hashes that they claim can be used to potentially identify the Archimedes virus and guard against it in the future. Paganini stated that potential targeted computers can search for those hashes on their systems to check if their systems had been attacked by the CIA. === Part 9 – "AfterMidnight" and "Assassin" === On 12 May 2017, WikiLeaks published part nine, "AfterMidnight" and "Assassin". AfterMidnight is a piece of malware installed on a target personal computer and disguises as a DLL file, which is executed while the user's computer reboots. It then triggers a connection to the CIA's Command and Control (C2) computer, from which it downloads various modules to run. As for Assassin, it is very similar to its AfterMidnight counterpart, but deceptively runs inside a Windows service process. CIA operators reportedly use Assassin as a C2 to execute a series of tasks, collect, and then periodically send user data to the CIA Listening Post(s) (LP). Similar to backdoor Trojan behavior. Both AfterMidnight and Assassin run on Windows operating system, are persistent, and periodically beacon to their configured LP to either request tasks or send private information to the CIA, as well as automatically uninstall themselves on a set date and time. === Part 10 – "Athena" === On 19 May 2017, WikiLeaks published the tenth part, "Athena". The published user guide, demo, and related documents were created between September 2015 and February 2016. They are about a malware allegedly developed for the CIA in August 2015, about a month after Microsoft released Windows 10 with their firm statements about how difficult it was to compromise. Both the primary "Athena" malware and its secondary malware named "Hera" are similar in theory to Grasshopper and AfterMidnight malware but with some significant differences. One of those differences is that Athena and Hera were developed by the CIA with a New Hampshire private corporation called Siege Technologies. During a Bloomberg 2014 interview the founder of Siege Technologies confirmed and justified their development of such malware. Athena malware completely hijacks Windows' Remote Access services, while Hera hijacks Windows Dnscache service. Both Athena and Hera also affect all then current versions of Windows including Windows Server 2012 and Windows 10. Another difference is in the types of encryption used between the infected computers and the CIA Listening Posts (LP). As for the similarities, they exploit persistent DLL files to create a backdoor to communicate with CIA's LP, steal private data, then send it to CIA servers, or delete private data on the target computer, as well as Command and Control (C2) for CIA operatives to send additional malicious software to further run specific tasks on the attacked computer. All of the above designed to deceive computer security software. Beside the published detailed documents, WikiLeaks did not provide any evidence suggesting the CIA used Athena or not. === Part 11 – "Pandemic" === On 1 June 2017, WikiLeaks published part 11, "Pandemic". This tool is a persistent implant affecting Windows machines with shared folders. It functions as a file system filter driver on an infected computer, and listens for Server Message Block traffic while detecting download attempts from other computers on a local network. "Pandemic" will answer a download request on behalf of the infected computer. However, it will replace the legitimate file with malware. In order to obfuscate its activities, "Pandemic" only modifies or replaces the legitimate file in transit, leaving the original on the server unchanged. The implant allows 20 files to be modified at a time, with a maximum individual file size of 800MB. While not stated in the leaked documentation, it is possible that newly infected computers could themselves become "Pandemic" file servers, allowing the implant to reach new targets on a local network. === Part 12 – "Cherry Blossom" === On 15 June 2017, WikiLeaks published part 12, entitled "Cherry Blossom". Cherry Blossom used a command and control server called Cherry Tree and custom router firmware called FlyTrap to monitor internet activity of targets, scan for “email addresses, chat usernames, MAC addresses and VoIP numbers" and redirect traffic. === Part 13 – "Brutal Kangaroo" === On 22 June 2017, WikiLeaks published part 13, the manuals for "Brutal Kangaroo". Brutal Kangaroo was a project focused on CIA malware designed to compromise air-gapped computer networks with infected USB drives. Brutal Kangaroo included the tools Drifting Deadline, the main tool, Shattered Assurance, a server that automates thumb drive infection, Shadow, a tool to coordinate compromised machines, and Broken Promise, a tool for exfiltrating data from the air-gapped networks. === Part 14 – "Elsa" === On 28 June 2017, WikiLeaks published part 14, the manual for the project entitled "Elsa". Elsa was a tool used for tracking Windows devices on nearby WiFi networks. === Part 15 – "OutlawCountry" === On 29 June 2017, WikiLeaks published part 15, the manual for project "OutlawCountry". OutlawCountry was a kernel module for Linux 2.6 that let CIA agents spy on Linux servers and redirect outgoing traffic from a Linux computer to a chosen site. === Part 16 – "BothanSpy" === On 6 July 2017, WikiLeaks published part 16, the manual for project "BothanSpy". BothanSpy was a CIA hacking tool made to steal SSH credentials from Windows computers. === Part 17 – "Highrise" === On 13 July 2017, WikiLeaks published part 17, the manual for project "Highrise". The Highrise hacking tool, also known as Tidecheck, was used to intercept and redirect SMS messages to Android phones using versions 4.0 through 4.3. Highrise could also be used as an encrypted communications channel between CIA agents and supervisors. === Part 18 – "UCL / Raytheon" === On 19 July 2017, WikiLeaks published part 18, documents from Raytheon Blackbird Technologies for the "UMBRAGE Component Library" (UCL) project reports on malware and their attack vectors. According to WikiLeaks, it analysed malware attacks in the wild and gave "recommendations to the CIA development teams for further investigation and PoC development for their own malware projects." It mostly contained Proof-of-Concept ideas partly based on public documents. === Part 19 – "Imperial" === On 27 July 2017, WikiLeaks published part 19, manuals for project "Imperial". Imperial included three tools: Achilles, Aeris and SeaPea. Achilles turned MacOS DMG install files into trojan malware. Aeris was a malware implant for POSIX systems, and SeaPea was an OS X rootkit. === Part 20 – "Dumbo" === On 3 August 2017, WikiLeaks published part 20, manuals for project "Dumbo". Dumbo was a tool that the Agency used to disable webcams, microphones, and other surveillance tools over WiFi and bluetooth to allow field agents to perform their missions. === Part 21 – "CouchPotato" === On 10 August 2017, WikiLeaks published part 21, the manual for project CouchPotato. CouchPotato was a tool for intercepting and saving remote video streams, which let the CIA tap into other people's surveillance systems. === Part 22 – "ExpressLane" === On 24 August 2017, WikiLeaks published part 22, the "ExpressLane" project. These documents highlighted one of the cyber operations the CIA conducts against other services it liaises with, including the National Security Agency (NSA), the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). ExpressLane, a covert information collection tool, was used by the CIA to exfiltrate the biometric data collection systems of services it liaises with. ExpressLane was installed and run under the cover of upgrading the biometric software of liaison services by the CIA's Office of Technical Services (OTS) agents without their knowledge. === Part 23 – "Angelfire" === On 31 August 2017, WikiLeaks published part 23, the manual for the project Angelfire. Angelfire was a malware framework made to infect computers running Windows XP and Windows 7, made of five parts. Solartime was the malware that modified the boot sector to load Wolfcreek, which was a self-loading driver that loaded other drivers. Keystone was responsible for loading other malware. BadMFS was a covert file system that hid the malware, and Windows Transitory File System was a newer alternative to BadMFS. The manual included a long list of problems with the tools. === Part 24 – "Protego" === Protego, part 24 of the Vault 7 documents, was published on 7 September 2017. According to WikiLeaks, Protego "is a PIC-based missile control system that was developed by Raytheon." == Vault 8 == On 9 November 2017, WikiLeaks began publishing Vault 8, which it described as "source code and analysis for CIA software projects including those described in the Vault7 series." The stated intention of the Vault 8 publication was to "enable investigative journalists, forensic experts and the general public to better identify and understand covert CIA infrastructure components." The only Vault 8 release has been the source code and development logs for Hive, a covert communications platform for CIA malware. WikiLeaks published the Hive documentation as part of Vault 7 on 14 April 2017. In October 2021, a new backdoor based on the Hive source code was discovered being used "to collect sensitive information and provide a foothold for subsequent intrusions." Researchers called it xdr33 and released a report on it in January 2022. The malware targets an unspecified F5 appliance and allowed hackers to upload and download files. It also allowed network traffic spying and executing commands on the appliance. == Organization of cyber warfare == WikiLeaks said that the documents came from "an isolated, high-security network situated inside the CIA's Center for Cyber Intelligence (CCI) in Langley, Virginia." The documents allowed WikiLeaks to partially determine the structure and organization of the CCI. The CCI reportedly has a unit devoted to compromising Apple products. The cybersecurity firm Symantec analyzed Vault 7 documents and found some of the described software closely matched cyberattacks by "Longhorn," which it had monitored since 2014. Symantec had previously suspected that "Longhorn" was government-sponsored and had tracked its usage against 40 targets in 16 countries. === Frankfurt base === The first portion of the documents made public on 7 March 2017, Vault 7 "Year Zero", revealed that a top secret CIA unit used the German city of Frankfurt as the starting point for hacking attacks on Europe, China and the Middle East. According to the documents, the U.S. government uses its Consulate General Office in Frankfurt as a hacker base for cyber operations. WikiLeaks documents reveal the Frankfurt hackers, part of the Center for Cyber Intelligence Europe (CCIE), were given cover identities and diplomatic passports to obfuscate customs officers to gain entry to Germany. The chief Public Prosecutor General of the Federal Court of Justice in Karlsruhe Peter Frank announced on 8 March 2017 that the government was conducting a preliminary investigation to see if it will launch a major probe into the activities being conducted out of the consulate and also more broadly whether people in Germany were being attacked by the CIA. Germany's foreign minister Sigmar Gabriel from the Social Democratic Party responded to the documents of Vault 7 "Year Zero" that the CIA used Frankfurt as a base for its digital espionage operations, saying that Germany did not have any information about the cyber attacks. == UMBRAGE == The documents reportedly revealed that the agency had amassed a large collection of cyberattack techniques and malware produced by other hackers. This library was reportedly maintained by the CIA's Remote Devices Branch's UMBRAGE group, with examples of using these techniques and source code contained in the "Umbrage Component Library" git repository. === False flag conspiracy theories === On the day the Vault 7 documents were first released, WikiLeaks described UMBRAGE as "a substantial library of attack techniques 'stolen' from malware produced in other states including the Russian Federation," and tweeted, "CIA steals other groups virus and malware facilitating false flag attacks." According to WikiLeaks, by recycling the techniques of third parties through UMBRAGE, the CIA can not only increase its total number of attacks, but can also mislead forensic investigators by disguising these attacks as the work of other groups and nations. Among the techniques borrowed by UMBRAGE was the file wiping implementation used by Shamoon. According to PC World, some of the techniques and code snippets have been used by CIA in its internal projects, whose result cannot be inferred from the leaks. PC World commented that the practice of planting "false flags" to deter attribution was not a new development in cyberattacks: Russian, North Korean and Israeli hacker groups are among those suspected of using false flags. A conspiracy theory soon emerged alleging that the CIA framed the Russian government for interfering in the 2016 U.S. elections. Conservative commentators such as Sean Hannity and Ann Coulter speculated about this possibility on Twitter, and Rush Limbaugh discussed it on his radio show. Russian foreign minister Sergey Lavrov said that Vault 7 showed that "the CIA could get access to such 'fingerprints' and then use them." Cybersecurity writers and experts, such as Ben Buchanan and Kevin Poulsen, were skeptical of those theories. Poulsen said the theories were "disinformation" being taken advantage of by Russia and spread by bots. He also wrote, "The leaked catalog isn't organized by country of origin, and the specific malware used by the Russian DNC hackers is nowhere on the list." Robert M. Lee, who founded the cybersecurity firm Dragos, said the "narrative emerged far too quickly to have been organic." According to a study by Kim Zetter in The Intercept, UMBRAGE was probably much more focused on speeding up development by repurposing existing tools, rather than on planting false flags. Robert Graham, CEO of Errata Security told The Intercept that the source code referenced in the UMBRAGE documents is "extremely public", and is likely used by a multitude of groups and state actors. Graham added: "What we can conclusively say from the evidence in the documents is that they're creating snippets of code for use in other projects and they're reusing methods in code that they find on the internet. ... Elsewhere they talk about obscuring attacks so you can't see where it's coming from, but there's no concrete plan to do a false flag operation. They're not trying to say 'We're going to make this look like Russia'." == Marble framework == The documents describe the Marble framework, a string obfuscator used to hide text fragments in malware from visual inspection. Some outlets reported that foreign languages were used to cover up the source of CIA hacks, but technical analysis refuted the idea. According to WikiLeaks, it reached 1.0 in 2015 and was used by the CIA throughout 2016. In its release, WikiLeaks said "Marble" was used to insert foreign language text into the malware to mask viruses, trojans and hacking attacks, making it more difficult for them to be tracked to the CIA and to cause forensic investigators to falsely attribute code to the wrong nation. The source code revealed that Marble had examples in Chinese, Russian, Korean, Arabic and Persian. Analysts called WikiLeaks' description of Marble's main purpose inaccurate, telling The Hill its main purpose was probably to avoid detection by antivirus programs. Marble also contained a deobfuscator tool with which the CIA could reverse text obfuscation. Security researcher Nicholas Weaver from International Computer Science Institute in Berkeley told the Washington Post: "This appears to be one of the most technically damaging leaks ever done by WikiLeaks, as it seems designed to directly disrupt ongoing CIA operations." == Compromised technology and software == === CDs/DVDs === HammerDrill is a CD/DVD collection tool that collects directory walks and files to a configured directory and filename pattern as well as logging CD/DVD insertion and removal events. === Apple products === After WikiLeaks released the first installment of Vault 7, "Year Zero", Apple stated that "many of the issues leaked today were already patched in the latest iOS," and that the company will "continue work to rapidly address any identified vulnerabilities." On 23 March 2017, WikiLeaks released "Dark Matter", the second batch of documents in its Vault 7 series, detailing the hacking techniques and tools all focusing on Apple products developed by the Embedded Development Branch (EDB) of the CIA. The leak also revealed the CIA had been targeting the iPhone since 2008, and that some projects attacked Apple's firmware. The "Dark Matter" archive included documents from 2009 and 2013. Apple issued a second statement assuring that based on an "initial analysis, the alleged iPhone vulnerability affected iPhone 3G only and was fixed in 2009 when iPhone 3GS was released." Additionally, a preliminary assessment showed "the alleged Mac vulnerabilities were previously fixed in all Macs launched after 2013". === Cisco === WikiLeaks said on 19 March 2017 on Twitter that the "CIA was secretly exploiting" a vulnerability in a huge range of Cisco router models discovered thanks to the Vault 7 documents. The CIA had learned more than a year ago how to exploit flaws in Cisco's widely used internet switches, which direct electronic traffic, to enable eavesdropping. Cisco quickly reassigned staff from other projects to turn their focus solely on analyzing the attack and to figure out how the CIA hacking worked, so they could help customers patch their systems and prevent criminal hackers or spies from using similar methods. On 20 March, Cisco researchers confirmed that their study of the Vault 7 documents showed the CIA had developed malware which could exploit a flaw found in 318 of Cisco's switch models and alter or take control of the network. Cisco issued a warning on security risks, patches were not available, but Cisco provided mitigation advice. === Smartphones/tablets === The electronic tools can reportedly compromise both Apple's iOS and Google's Android operating systems. By adding malware to the Android operating system, the tools could gain access to secure communications made on a device. ==== Messaging services ==== According to WikiLeaks, once an Android smartphone is penetrated the agency can collect "audio and message traffic before encryption is applied". Some of the agency's software is reportedly able to gain access to messages sent by instant messaging services. This method of accessing messages differs from obtaining access by decrypting an already encrypted message. While the encryption of messengers that offer end-to-end encryption, such as Telegram, WhatsApp and Signal, wasn't reported to be cracked, their encryption can be bypassed by capturing input before their encryption is applied, by methods such as keylogging and recording the touch input from the user. Commentators, including Snowden and cryptographer and security pundit Bruce Schneier, observed that Wikileaks incorrectly implied that the messaging apps themselves, and their underlying encryption, had been compromised - an implication which was in turn reported for a period by the New York Times and other mainstream outlets. === Vehicle control systems === One document reportedly showed that the CIA was researching ways to infect vehicle control systems. WikiLeaks stated, "The purpose of such control is not specified, but it would permit the CIA to engage in nearly undetectable assassinations." This statement brought renewed attention to conspiracy theories surrounding the death of Michael Hastings. === Windows === The documents refer to a "Windows FAX DLL injection" exploit in Windows XP, Windows Vista and Windows 7 operating systems. This would allow a user with malicious intent to hide malware under the DLL of another application. However, a computer must have already been compromised through another method for the injection to take place. == Commentary == On 7 March 2017, Edward Snowden commented on the importance of the release, stating that it reveals the United States Government to be "developing vulnerabilities in US products" and "then intentionally keeping the holes open", which he considered highly reckless. On 7 March 2017, Nathan White, Senior Legislative Manager at the Internet advocacy group Access Now, wrote: Today, our digital security has been compromised because the CIA has been stockpiling vulnerabilities rather than working with companies to patch them. The United States is supposed to have a process that helps secure our digital devices and services — the 'Vulnerabilities Equities Process.' Many of these vulnerabilities could have been responsibly disclosed and patched. This leak proves the inherent digital risk of stockpiling vulnerabilities rather than fixing them. On 8 March 2017, Lee Mathews, a contributor to Forbes, wrote that most of the hacking techniques described in Vault 7 were already known to many cybersecurity experts. On 8 March 2017, some noted that the revealed techniques and tools are most likely to be used for more targeted surveillance revealed by Edward Snowden. On 8 April 2017, Ashley Gorski, an American Civil Liberties Union staff attorney called it "critical" to understand that "these vulnerabilities can be exploited not just by our government but by foreign governments and cyber criminals around the world." Justin Cappos, professor in the Computer Science and Engineering department at New York University asks "if the government knows of a problem in your phone that bad guys could use to hack your phone and have the ability to spy on you, is that a weakness that they themselves should use for counterterrorism, or for their own spying capabilities, or is it a problem they should fix for everyone?" On 8 April 2017, Cindy Cohn, executive director of the San Francisco-based international non-profit digital rights group Electronic Frontier Foundation, said: "If the C.I.A. was walking past your front door and saw that your lock was broken, they should at least tell you and maybe even help you get it fixed." "And worse, they then lost track of the information they had kept from you so that now criminals and hostile foreign governments know about your broken lock." Furthermore, she stated that the CIA had "failed to accurately assess the risk of not disclosing vulnerabilities. Even spy agencies like the CIA have a responsibility to protect the security and privacy of Americans." "The freedom to have a private conversation – free from the worry that a hostile government, a rogue government agent or a competitor or a criminal are listening – is central to a free society". On 12 May 2017 Microsoft President, Brad Smith, wrote that both NSA and CIA had stockpiled vulnerabilities, which were stolen from them and published on Wikileaks, resulting in security breaches for Microsoft customers. Smith requested, for a second time, a "digital Geneva Convention" which would require governments to report vulnerabilities to vendors. == See also == == References == == External links == Vault 7 at WikiLeaks Vault 8 at WikiLeaks Julian Assange Press Conference and Q&A on CIA/Vault7/YearZero, Thursday 9 March 2017, the official WikiLeaks YouTube channel
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Bennett_(cricketer,_born_1886)	Douglas Bennett (cricketer, born 1886)	Douglas Bennett (19 November 1886 – 14 August 1982) was a South African cricketer. He played in seven first-class matches from 1912–13 to 1923–24. == References == == External links == Douglas Bennett at ESPNcricinfo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Melville_Broughton	J. Melville Broughton	Joseph Melville Broughton Jr. (November 17, 1888 – March 6, 1949) was an American politician who served as the 60th governor of North Carolina from 1941 to 1945. He later briefly served as a United States senator from January 3, 1949, until his death in office approximately two months later. == Early life and education == Broughton was born on November 17, 1888, in Raleigh, North Carolina. He graduated from Wake Forest College, where he also played football, in 1910. Broughton attended Harvard Law School then worked as a school principal and journalist before actively entering the legal profession. == Political career == He served in the North Carolina Senate from 1927 to 1929. He later served one term as governor from 1941 to 1945. Identified with progressive politics, as characterized by his support of the social justice legislation of the Roosevelt Administration, a number of reforms were carried out during his term as governor. One of his major legacies was the extension of the public school term from six to nine months. The North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural Resources describes Broughton as the typical white moderate of the time. Broughton advocated for the improvement of the lives of African Americans, such as equalizing the salaries of black and white teachers and improving their housing. In one instance, Broughton even helped stop a lynching and then punish the leaders of the mob. In August 1941, Broughton deployed the North Carolina National Guard to protect Cy Winstead, a black man accused of raping a white woman, after Winstead was nearly lynched in Roxboro, North Carolina. Afterwards, Broughton had the police investigate the mobs, expressing interest in punishing the ringleaders. Ten white men was charged. To local shock, five of the men, Coy Harris, A.P. Spriggs, P.I. Holt, Johnny Holt, and Willie Aiken were found guilty on April 24, 1942. A jury acquitted them of the more serious charge of inciting to riot, but found them guilty of unlawful assembly for an unlawful purpose, a misdemeanor punishable by up to two years in prison. Harris and Spriggs were each sentenced to 18 months in the county jail, while the other three were sentenced to 12 months in the county jail. The jury had recommended mercy for the Colt brothers, whereas Aiken was the only defendant who did not deny his guilt. The verdict shocked the public, which had been sympathetic to the mob. In June 1942, 2,000 people submitted a petition demanding the parole or pardon of those convicted. Harris, Spriggs, P.L. Holt, and Aiken were paroled on July 23, 1942. Johnny Holt was denied parole since he was the prime suspect in a robbery in California. He was paroled some time between then and 1943, and all six men were discharged from parole in September 1943. Winstead himself later pleaded guilty to assault with intent to commit rape and was sentenced to two and a half years to five years in prison. In February 1943, the Person County chapter of the NAACP petitioned for his parole, expressing doubt over Winstead's guilt. However, Winstead refused to apply for parole, finding the conditions to be too strict. Nevertheless, Broughton resisted threats to segregation. In 1942, he urged African Americans not to start making demands at home as a result of World War II: "Negroes are ill-advised if they take the position they are for victory in this war if something is to be done for them. Negroes should put their full energy into the war effort, for failure means slavery of the worst sort for white and Negro alike. The man or woman who uses this emergency as a means of stirring up strife between the races is not a friend to either race and is not a good American." In 1943, Broughton wrote, "We believe in a policy of purity and high standard as to both races and we recognize the principle that race distinction does not imply race discrimination." He spurned criticism from the NAACP and claimed that racism had no impact on North Carolina's judicial system. Broughton was among twelve nominated at the 1944 Democratic National Convention to serve as Franklin D. Roosevelt's running mate in the presidential election that year. == Tenure in Senate == In 1948, Broughton was elected to the United States Senate, after defeating William B. Umstead, an appointed incumbent, in the Democratic primary. In November, Broughton won both a special election to complete the Senate term and an election for a full term. He took office on December 31, 1948, but his service in the Senate was brief. Appearing healthy, Broughton suddenly collapsed from a heart attack and died in Washington, D.C., on March 6, 1949. Governor W. Kerr Scott appointed Frank Porter Graham to fill his vacant office until the next election. == Family == Joseph Melville Broughton, Jr. was the son of Joseph Melville Broughton and Sallie Harris. He married Alice Willson in 1916, they had four children. He was the nephew of Needham B. Broughton and a first cousin of Carrie Lougee Broughton. He was also a first cousin of medical doctor and Baptist minister Len G. Broughton. Broughton and his wife lived in the Jolly-Broughton House, a Georgian Revival mansion located in Raleigh's Hayes Barton Historic District, before and after living in the North Carolina Executive Mansion. He was interred at Montlawn Memorial Park in Raleigh. == Legacy == In 1959, the State Hospital at Morganton for psychiatric patients was renamed Broughton Hospital in his memory. In addition, Broughton Hall at North Carolina State University was named in his honor. He was a member of Civitan International. == See also == List of members of the United States Congress who died in office (1900–1949) == References == === Works cited === Eamon, Tom (2014). The Making of a Southern Democracy: North Carolina Politics from Kerr Scott to Pat McCrory. UNC Press Books. ISBN 9781469606972. - View profile at Google Books == External links == United States Congress. "BROUGHTON, Joseph Melville (id: B000894)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. at Biographical Directory of the United States Congress National Governors Association biography North Carolina Historical Marker Archived 2012-02-16 at the Wayback Machine NCPedia - Joseph Melville Broughton
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyphipterix_saurodonta	Glyphipterix saurodonta	Glyphipterix saurodonta is a species of sedge moth in the genus Glyphipterix. It was described by Edward Meyrick in 1913. It is found in North America. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Roberts_(newscaster)#:~:text=On%20February%205%2C%202011%2C%20Southeastern%20hosted%20a%20ceremony%20to%20retire%20Roberts%27%20jersey%2C%20number%2021.%5B	Robin Roberts (newscaster)	Robin Roberts (born November 23, 1960) is an American television broadcaster who co-anchors ABC's Good Morning America. After growing up in Mississippi and attending Southeastern Louisiana University, Roberts was a sports anchor for local TV and radio stations. Roberts was a sportscaster on ESPN for 15 years (1990–2005) and the first woman to co-host NFL Primetime. She became co-anchor on Good Morning America in 2005. Roberts was inducted into the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame in 2012. Her treatment for myelodysplastic syndrome was chronicled on the program, which earned a 2012 Peabody Award for the coverage. == Early life == Roberts was born in Tuskegee, Alabama, and grew up in Pass Christian, Mississippi, where she played basketball and tennis, among other sports. She attended Pass Christian High School and graduated as the class of 1979 salutatorian. She is the daughter of Lucimarian (née Tolliver) and Colonel Lawrence E. Roberts, who was a Tuskegee Airman. In a 2006 presentation to the student body at Abilene Christian University, Roberts credited her parents with cultivating the "three 'D's: Discipline, Determination, and 'De Lord.'" She is the youngest of four, following siblings Sally-Ann, Lawrence Jr. (nicknamed Butch), and Dorothy. == Education == Roberts attended Southeastern Louisiana University in Hammond, Louisiana, graduating cum laude in 1983 with a degree in communication. She followed in the footsteps of her older sister Sally-Ann Roberts, an anchor at the CBS affiliate WWL-TV in New Orleans. Roberts noted on the January 14, 2007, edition of Costas on the Radio that she was offered a scholarship to play basketball at Louisiana State University, but thought the school was too big and impersonal after visiting the campus. On her way back to Pass Christian from that visit, she saw a road sign for Southeastern Louisiana University, stopped to visit and decided to enroll. The only scholarship left was a tennis scholarship, and she was promised that there would be a journalism scholarship by the time she would graduate. She went on to become a standout performer on the women's basketball team, ending her career as the school's third all-time leading scorer (1,446 points) and rebounder (1,034). Roberts is one of only three Lady Lions to score 1,000 career points and grab 1,000 career rebounds. During her senior season, she averaged a career-high 27.6 points per game. On February 5, 2011, Southeastern hosted a ceremony to retire Roberts' jersey, number 21. == Broadcasting career == Roberts began her career in 1983 as a sports anchor and reporter for WDAM-TV in Hattiesburg, Mississippi. In 1984, she moved to WLOX-TV in Biloxi, Mississippi. In 1986, she was sports anchor and reporter for WSMV-TV in Nashville, Tennessee. From 1988 to 1990 she was a sports anchor and reporter at WAGA-TV in Atlanta, Georgia. While in Atlanta, she was also a radio host for radio station V-103. === ESPN and ABC News === She joined ESPN as a sportscaster in February 1990, where she stayed until 2005. On SportsCenter, she used the catchphrase, "Go on with your bad self!" Roberts began to work for ABC News, specifically as a featured reporter for Good Morning America in June 1995. During this period, Roberts was also the host for ABC's Wide World of Sports from 1996 to 1998. Roberts worked at both ESPN and Good Morning America, contributing to both programs. During that time, she served primarily as the news anchor at GMA. In 2005, Roberts was promoted to co-anchor of Good Morning America. In December 2009, Roberts was joined by George Stephanopoulos as co-anchor of GMA after Diane Sawyer left to anchor ABC World News. Under their partnership, the Roberts-Stephanopoulos team led Good Morning America back to the top of the ratings; the program became the number-one morning show again in April 2012, beating NBC's Today, which had held the top spot for the previous 16 years. In the fall of 2005, Roberts anchored a series of emotional reports from the Mississippi Gulf Coast after it was devastated by Hurricane Katrina; her hometown of Pass Christian was especially hard hit, with her old high school reduced to rubble. On February 22, 2009, Roberts hosted the Academy Awards preshow for ABC, and did so again in 2011. In 2010, Roberts guest-starred on Disney Channel's Hannah Montana, appearing in season 4, episode 10, "Can You See the Real Me?" On May 30, 2010, Roberts drove the Pace Car for the 2010 Indianapolis 500. Roberts was inducted into the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame as part of the Hall's class of 2012 for her contributions to and impact on the game of women's basketball through her broadcasting work and play. In 2014 Roberts was named one of ESPNW's Impact 25. On May 19, 2018, Roberts co-anchored the wedding of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle at St. George's Chapel in Windsor. Roberts served as a guest host on Jeopardy! for five episodes airing July 19–23, 2021, following the death of Alex Trebek in November 2020. Roberts is the host of the Disney+ interview series Turning the Tables with Robin Roberts, which debuted in 2021. === Other activities === She performed as an a cappella backup singer/former member of the Barden Bellas in Pitch Perfect 2. In 2014, she started her own production company, Rock'n Robin Productions. Roberts, whose father was a Tuskegee Airman, executive-produced and narrated the one-hour documentary Tuskegee Airmen: Legacy of Courage which premiered on History on February 10, 2021. == Awards and honors == 2001: Mel Greenberg Media Award, presented by the WBCA. 2004: Billie Jean King Contribution Award 2008: WNBA Inspiration Award 2012: Inductee, Women's Basketball Hall of Fame 2014: Walter Cronkite Award for Excellence in Journalism 2016: inductee, the Sports Broadcasting Hall of Fame 2015: honorary Harlem Globetrotter, the tenth person to be given this award 2018: Radio Television Digital News Foundation's Lifetime Achievement Award recipient 2018: National Association of Broadcasters Distinguished Service Award 2019: NBA Sager Strong Award 2019: For their first match of March 2019, the women of the United States women's national soccer team each wore a jersey with the name of a woman they were honoring on the back; Alyssa Naeher chose to honor Roberts. April 2022: Roberts celebrated her 20th anniversary with Good Morning America, during which an on-air celebration was held with Roberts being honored with a plaque featuring her name on the grounds of Time Square. 2023: Out100 2024: Poynter Medal for Lifetime Achievement in Journalism, presented by the Poynter Institute == Personal life == Roberts is Presbyterian and a practitioner of Transcendental Meditation. Roberts began a romantic relationship with massage therapist Amber Laign in 2005. Though friends and co-workers had known about her same-sex relationships, Roberts publicly acknowledged her sexual orientation for the first time in late December 2013. In 2015, she was named by Equality Forum as one of their 31 Icons of the 2015 LGBT History Month. In September 2023, Roberts and Laign married. On October 10, 2018, Roberts was selected as a mentor for Disney's #DreamBigPrincess campaign. === Health === In 2007, Roberts was diagnosed with an early form of breast cancer. She underwent surgery on August 3, and by January 2008 had completed eight chemotherapy treatments. In 2012, she was diagnosed with myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS), a disease of the bone marrow. Be the Match Registry, a nonprofit organization run by the National Marrow Donor Program, experienced an 1,800 percent spike in donors the day Roberts went public with her illness. She took a leave from GMA to get a bone marrow transplant, and went home in October 2012. She returned to GMA on February 20, 2013. Roberts received a 2012 Peabody Award for how she engaged the public about her disease. The Peabody citation credits her for "allowing her network to document and build a public service campaign around her battle with rare disease" and "inspir[ing] hundreds of potential bone marrow donors to register and heighten[ing] awareness of the need for even more donors." ESPN awarded its Arthur Ashe Courage Award to Roberts at the 2013 ESPYs, and the National Basketball Association awarded her the Sager Strong Award at its award ceremony on June 20, 2019. == Books == Roberts, Robin (2007). From the Heart: Seven Rules to Live By (1st ed.). New York: Hyperion Books. ISBN 978-1401303334. Roberts, Robin (2008). From the Heart: Eight Rules to Live By. New York: Hyperion Books. ISBN 978-1401309589. Roberts, Robin (2014). Everybody's Got Something. Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1455578450. Roberts, Robin (2022). Brighter by the Day. Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1538710166. === Audiobooks === Roberts, Robin (2014). Everybody's Got Something Audiobook. Hachette Audio. ISBN 978-1478979630. == See also == Breakfast television Breast cancer awareness LGBT culture in New York City List of LGBT people from New York City New Yorkers in journalism NYC Pride March == References == == External links == Robin Roberts at IMDb "Robin Roberts". ABC News. Robin Roberts on Twitter "Roberts Q&A on post-Katrina trip", abcnews.go.com. Retrieved August 21, 2015. RocknRobin Official website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Luxon#cite_note-175	Christopher Luxon	Christopher Mark Luxon (born 19 July 1970) is a New Zealand politician and businessman who has served as the 42nd prime minister of New Zealand since 2023. A member of the National Party, he has been member of Parliament (MP) for Botany since 2020 and previously served as leader of the Opposition from 2021 to 2023. Prior to entering politics, he was the chief executive officer (CEO) of Air New Zealand from 2013 to 2019. Luxon grew up in Howick in East Auckland before studying commerce at the University of Canterbury. He joined Unilever in 1993 and held senior roles at Unilever Canada, becoming president and CEO of the subsidiary in 2008. In 2011, he left Unilever Canada and joined Air New Zealand as group general manager and became CEO in 2013. After stepping down as CEO of Air New Zealand in 2019, Luxon won the pre-selection for the safe National Party seat of Botany in East Auckland. He won the National Party leadership unopposed on 30 November 2021, eight months after giving his maiden speech, after the ousting of his predecessor. Luxon led his party to a plurality of seats at the 2023 general election. Luxon signed a coalition deal with ACT New Zealand and New Zealand First to form a majority, and was sworn in as prime minister on 27 November 2023. Under Luxon's premiership, the Sixth National Government of New Zealand has shrunk New Zealand's civil service and attempted to boost the economy through international tourism. The government introduced cuts to healthcare expenditure, reintroduced the three-strikes sentencing law and a pilot military-style boot camp for youth offenders, and enacted NZD$14.7 billion in tax cuts. The government replaced the Three Waters reform programme with the Local Water Done Well policy, and minimised co-governance initiatives while discouraging the use of the Māori language alongside the English language in the public service. His government has contributed to the construction of the City Rail Link metro system in Central Auckland, and agreed to support the controversial Treaty Principles Bill to its first reading. In foreign policy, his government has increased military spending and Five Eyes cooperation in a general pro-United States shift. Luxon's coalition dynamics with his deputy prime ministers Winston Peters and David Seymour have proved controversial, given they have openly challenged his authority. == Early life == Christopher Mark Luxon was born in Christchurch on 19 July 1970, to a Roman Catholic family of Irish, Scottish and English descent. He lived in Christchurch until the age of seven, when his family moved to Howick in Auckland. His father, Graham Luxon, worked for Johnson & Johnson as a sales executive and his mother, Kathleen Luxon (née Turnbull), worked as a psychotherapist and counsellor. After a year at Saint Kentigern College and another year at Howick College, the family returned to Christchurch and Luxon spent three years at Christchurch Boys' High School. While there, he won the prize for senior debating. He subsequently studied at the University of Canterbury from 1989 to 1992, gaining a Master of Commerce (Business Administration) degree. During his high school and university years, Luxon worked part-time at McDonald's and as a porter at the Parkroyal Hotel. == Business career == === Unilever === Luxon worked for Unilever from 1993 to 2011, starting in Wellington as a management trainee for two years, leaving for Sydney in 1995. He worked his way up in the company, working in Sydney until 2000, in London from 2000 to 2003, and then Chicago from 2003 to 2008, becoming "Global Deodorants and Grooming Category" Director. In 2008 when Unilever restructured, he became president of the company's Canadian operations, based in Toronto. === Air New Zealand === Luxon joined Air New Zealand as group general manager in May 2011 and was named the chief executive officer on 19 June 2012, taking up the role at the end of that year. During his eight-year leadership, Air New Zealand profits grew to record levels. Important contributors to this were a booming tourism market; the company's decision to stop operating under-performing regional routes; and the cutting of hundreds of jobs. The company was named Australia's most trusted brand several times. In 2014, Luxon joined the board of Virgin Australia representing Air New Zealand, which was then a major shareholder. In 2016, Air NZ decided it was no longer in its best interest to maintain a close connection with another airline so it sold its 25.9% stake in Virgin Australia. Luxon consequently left the Virgin board. Luxon resigned from Air NZ in 2019, and hinted at a possible career with the National Party. == Personal wealth == As at March 2024, his net worth was estimated to be between NZ$21 million and NZ$30 million, which makes him the second-wealthiest leader of the National Party, after former Prime Minister John Key. He then owned seven properties, including a home in Remuera valued at NZ$7.68 million, and a other assets collectively valued at over NZ$21 million. In late 2024, Luxon stated, "Let's be clear, I'm wealthy," in response to questions about his property sales and financial position. After becoming prime minister, Luxon stayed in his own Wellington apartment and claimed a NZ$52,000 accommodation allowance, to which he said he was entitled. After public scrutiny began, he quickly changed his position, saying: "It's clear that the issue of my accommodation allowance is becoming a distraction" and "As such, I have decided today that I will no longer claim the allowance and will repay anything I have received since I became Prime Minister." Luxon sold three of his properties in 2024 with Stuff estimating he could have made up to $769,500 in profit. == Early political career == === Member of Parliament === After Jami-Lee Ross resigned from National over accusations of fraud against the party, Luxon secured the National Party candidacy for the Botany electorate, which has always been won by National and was regarded as a safe seat for them, in November 2019. He won in a selection contest with National Party list MP Agnes Loheni, Howick Local Board deputy chair Katrina Bungard, cancer drug campaigner Troy Elliott, and tech businessman Jake Bezzant, who was later selected as National's candidate for Upper Harbour. === In Opposition (2020–2023) === Amid a sweep of National seats lost to Labour in the 2020 general election, Luxon won Botany with 52% of the vote. In his maiden speech, Luxon praised Martin Luther King Jr. and Kate Sheppard as part of a defence of Christians such as himself in public life, claiming that being Christian had become an identity that "it has become acceptable to stereotype as being extreme." He was appointed as the spokesperson for local government, research, science, manufacturing and land information, as well as associate spokesperson for transport in the Shadow Cabinet of Judith Collins. After the removal of Collins as party leader on 25 November, Luxon was cited as a potential replacement. On 30 November, following Bridges's withdrawal from the running at the National Party leadership election, Luxon was announced as the party's leader. As Leader of the Opposition, Luxon used public funding to pay for Māori language (te reo) lessons. Luxon defended using taxpayer money to pay for his Māori language lessons, stating that "developing better skills in te reo was highly relevant to his role as Opposition leader and a potential Prime Minister. Once he became Prime Minister, the National-led coalition government considered discontinuing incentive payments for public servants to learn the Māori language. == Prime Minister (2023–present) == On 14 October 2023, Christopher Luxon led the National Party to victory in the 2023 general election, winning 48 seats and 38.1% of the party vote – but not enough to govern outright. Luxon retained his Botany electorate seat with 67% of the vote. National required two coalition partners and his negotiations with ACT and New Zealand First took till 24 November. Luxon was sworn in as prime minister by Governor-General Dame Cindy Kiro on 27 November. New Zealanders can be positive about the future. Change won't be easy and it won't be quick, because Labour has left us a lot to repair and to rebuild, and the books are not in good shape. But I tell you there's nothing that can't be done by a Government that actually knows what it's doing. === Economic growth === On 18 February 2024 Luxon delivered his first State of the Nation address, in which he blamed the previous Labour Government for what he called the "precarious state of the economy". Luxon stated that his Government would focus on restoring the economy by cutting taxes (by $14.7 billion), reducing public spending and "red tape". Tax Justice Aotearoa have described the tax changes as regressive, arguing that they disproportionately benefit higher-income earners, landlords and property investors. Nevertheless, Luxon has made economic growth the central theme of his government's agenda, arguing it is the solution to New Zealand's problems and key to improving living standards for all Kiwis. His government is prioritising growth in sectors such as tourism, international education, mining, and agriculture, aiming to make it easier for these industries to expand and attract investment, and is using quarterly action plans to maintain momentum, monitor progress, and ensure the public service remains focused on delivery. However, much of the country's capital is tied up in unproductive and expensive housing, an issue which is not being addressed by Luxon's government. Productivity is also affected by stress and mental health issues of employees. Unions tend to see the Government as anti-worker, pointing to many changes that have had negative impacts on people and services, such as the abolition of Fair Pay Agreement laws and pay equity laws in May 2025. Concerns also exist about the government's structural deficit and the risk that tax cuts could undermine economic stability if not matched by spending restraint or genuine productivity gains. On 7 May 2025, Luxon and Tourism Minister Louise Upston announced the Government would end the requirement for overseas visitors to provide certified translations of supporting documents in a bid to boost international tourism. ==== Public sector cutbacks ==== As part of reducing Government spending, in late 2023, Luxon's government began implementing significant cutbacks to New Zealand's public service. He describes these measures as part of a drive for fiscal discipline, with the stated aim of reducing what the government describes as "wasteful spending" and redirecting resources towards frontline services and tax relief. In 2024 alone, more than 800 jobs were cut in a single day across five major departments, including Kāinga Ora, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, Statistics New Zealand, the New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA), and the Ministry of Education. Radio New Zealand reports that if vacancies are included in the calculation, 9,500 public sector jobs have been cut. More than 240 government programmes have been scaled down or scrapped, particularly those initiated under the previous Labour government. Luxon has consistently articulated the rationale for these cuts, amounting to about $6 billion and publicly defended the scale of job losses. ==== Health sector ==== Luxon's government has also focused on cutting public expenditures on healthcare. In 2024, Health New Zealand (Te Whatu Ora) faced serious financial challenges, with reports of a $130 million per month shortfall and a projected $1.4 billion deficit by year-end. The government cited a lack of financial controls and poor cash flow analysis within the organisation, leading to the replacement of the board with a commissioner to improve performance and accountability. Luxon claimed there was a bloated bureaucracy, with 14 layers of management between the chief executive and the patient. There have also been multiple high-profile resignations, including the Director-General of Health, the Chief Executive of Health NZ, and the Director of Public Health. Luxon claimed these were independent decisions, while critics linked them to ongoing sector pressures and unmet targets, especially around emergency department (ED) wait times. On 19 January 2025, Luxon announced that Simeon Brown would be appointed as the next Minister of Health, taking over from Shane Reti. Despite these frequent changes in personnel, little progress has been made. Emergency departments have experienced increased wait times and staffing shortages. Access to GPs and primary care has been difficult, with long waits for appointments and concerns about the sustainability of general practice. In response to concerns about long waiting lists, Luxon said that if he had an infection, he would rather see a nurse practitioner to get antibiotics. He told Kerre Woodham on NewstalkZB: "I don't need to book a GP appointment." ==== Taxing cigarettes ==== In February 2024, National-led coalition government repealed New Zealand's world leading smoke-free legislation which would have made it illegal for anyone born in 2008 or later to legally purchase tobacco. The decision to repeal New Zealand's smokefree legislation is likely to raise or preserve approximately NZ$10.3 billion in tobacco excise tax revenue for the government by 2040, helping to fund other tax cuts. Researchers from the University of Otago warned that thousands of New Zealanders will continue to die needlessly, and that the repeal "flies in the face of robust research evidence." Chris Hipkins suggested the government is "firmly in the pocket of the tobacco industry." ==== Overseas investment ==== On 1 September 2025, Luxon confirmed the Government would amend the Overseas Investment Amendment Act 2018 to allow investor visa holders to buy homes with a minimum value of NZ$5million. === Law and order === In May 2024, Luxon said violent crime was up 33 per cent and retail crime had more than doubled since 2018, and that restoring law and order was a government priority. In response, the coalition government introduced laws banning gang patches and insignia in public places; made gang membership an aggravating factor in sentencing, increased the penalties for gang-related offending, and enacted measures to prevent gang members from gathering in public and from communicating with each other. It has also empowered police with greater authority to search gang members for firearms, particularly through the Firearms Prohibition Orders Legislation Amendment Act 2024, which came into effect in March 2025. On 6 May 2024, Luxon and Police and Corrections Minister Mark Mitchell announced that the Government would allocate NZ$1.9 billion from the upcoming 2024 New Zealand budget to training 470 new corrections officers and adding 810 beds to Waikeria Prison. ==== Sentencing ==== Luxon's Government has reinstated the controversial "three-strikes" legislation, that was repealed by the Labour government in 2022. The new law has 42 qualifying offences and increases mandatory sentencing for repeat serious offenders. It comes into effect on 17 June 2025. The government has also abolished legal aid funding for section 27 cultural reports, which previously allowed for sentence reductions when the defendant had endured systemic deprivation growing up. To address the growing prison population, the Government has provided $78 million to extend rehabilitation programs to prisoners on remand and an additional $472 million for overall prison capacity and staff. ==== Youth crime ==== In mid November 2022, Luxon announced that the National Party's youth crime policies would include a new Young Serious Offender category for juvenile offenders and would establish boot camps known as Youth Offender Military Academies. In early March 2024, the Government confirmed the Military Style Academy would be run by Oranga Tamariki (the Ministry for Children), claiming it would be different from previous boot camps and have a rehabilitative and trauma-informed care approach. The three-month boot camp commenced on 29 July 2024 at an Oranga Tamariki youth justice facility in Palmerston North, followed by a nine-month community phase. Multiple studies, official data, and expert commentary spanning several decades indicate that boot camps do not reduce reoffending. When Chief Children's Commissioner Claire Achmad expressed concerns, Luxon defended the pilot programme, saying: "I don't care what you say about whether it does or doesn't work. We can have that intellectual conversation all day long, but we are, dammit, going to try something different because we cannot carry on getting the results that we've been getting (sic)." === Treaty Principles Bill === As part of the coalition agreement with David Seymour, Luxon agreed to support the Treaty Principles Bill at its first reading and send it to a select committee. Luxon made it clear that National would not support the bill beyond that stage or allow it to become law. He has emphasised that the bill does a disservice to the Treaty of Waitangi by oversimplifying 184 years of complex debate and discussion around the Treaty. The bill sparked heated debate in Parliament with MPs describing it as "divisive" and a "wrecking ball" to Crown-Māori relations. === Environmental issues === In early December 2023, Luxon along with Cyclone Recovery Minister Mark Mitchell and Transport and Local Government Minister Simeon Brown, visited Hawke's Bay to meet with local leaders and local National MPs Katie Nimon and Catherine Wedd to discuss government support for post-flood and Cyclone Gabrielle relief efforts in the region. During the visit, Luxon confirmed that the Government would pause work on restoring the Napier-Wairoa railway line to focus on repairing State Highway 2. On 11 February 2024, Luxon and Emergency Management and Recovery Minister Mark Mitchell announced that the Government would contribute NZ$63 million to aid the removal of sediment and debris caused by Cyclone Gabrielle in the Hawke's Bay and Gisborne District. === Cabinet reshuffles === In late April 2024, Luxon stripped Melissa Lee of her Media and Communications ministerial portfolio and Penny Simmonds of her Disability Issues portfolio during a cabinet reshuffle. Lee had faced criticism for her response to Warner Bros. Discovery's closure of Newshub while Simmonds had faced criticism over her handling of changes to disability funding and services. Lee was also relieved of her Cabinet position. Luxon appointed Paul Goldsmith to the Media and Communications portfolio, Louise Upston to the Disability Issues portfolio and promoted Climate Change and Revenue Minister Simon Watts to the Cabinet. === Local government === On 5 May 2024 Luxon, Local Government Minister Simeon Brown and Mayor of Auckland Wayne Brown jointly announced that Auckland would avoid a 25.8 percent rates increase as part of the Government's Local Water Done Well plan. During Local Government New Zealand's annual conference held on 21 August 2024, Luxon called on local and regional councils to focus on rubbish collection, water infrastructure and other local assets. He also criticised so-called "nice to have projects" such as the Tākina convention centre. Luxon also confirmed that Cabinet had agreed to revise the Local Government Act and scrap the four wellbeing provisions in that legislation. On 23 June 2025, Luxon said he was open to abolishing regional councils as part of the Government's reform of the Resource Management Act 1991. === Education === In early August 2024, Luxon and Education Minister Erica Stanford announced plans to introduce a new mathematics curriculum from early 2025 with a focus on raising student standards and achievement. In response, the New Zealand Educational Institute expressed concerns that rapid changes to the maths and literacy curriculum and the short teaching training timeframe would strain the teaching workforce without delivering on its goals. In early August 2025, Luxon and Stanford confirmed that the Government would scrap the National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA) secondary school qualification over the next five years. === Abuse survivors === On 10 November 2024, Luxon delivered the New Zealand Government's national apology to survivors of abuse in state and faith-based care at Parliament, stating "it was horrific. It was heartbreaking. It was wrong. And it should never have happened.." Luxon also announced that the Government was introducing legislation to combat abuse in care including banning strip searches on children and strengthening security checks for people working with children. === Social welfare === In August 2022, Luxon warned young unemployed people their "free ride" under Labour would come to an end if he won the 2023 election, saying: "To young people who don't want to work you might have a free ride under Labour, but under National, it ends". He further stated National would make sweeping cuts to the Ministry of Social Development in favour of privatised employment agencies and "not keep funding failure". In August 2024, Luxon and Louise Upston, announced a "traffic light" regime for welfare was introduced, setting out escalating consequences for beneficiaries who fail to meet job-seeking or other obligations. From early 2025, jobseeker beneficiaries are required to reapply for their benefit every six months, instead of annually, and a new community work sanction was introduced requiring beneficiaries to "build skills and confidence." When interviewed shortly afterwards on TVNZ and then on RNZ's Morning Report, Luxon was unable to answer questions about how much beneficiaries actually receive. In October 2025, Luxon and Upston confirmed that the Government would tighten welfare eligibility criteria for 18 and 19-year old teenagers; with those having parents earning over NZ$65,000 being ineligible for Jobseeker and other emergency benefits from November 2026. 18 and 19 year olds, with dependent children, or who were estranged from their parents would still be eligible for welfare assistance. He said: We're here to help and support as much as we can, but you also have to take responsibility for that and actually just consigning you to a life of welfare for 18 years is unacceptable. === Foreign affairs === Since becoming prime minister, Luxon has made overseas trips to Australia, the Pacific, south east Asia, Japan, the United States where he also met Chinese leaders. Details of these trips are described here: According to The Economist and Foreign Policy magazine, New Zealand foreign policy under the National-led coalition government had shifted away from China in favour of closer relations with its traditional Five Eyes partners, the United States, United Kingdom, Australia and Canada. During an interview with The Economist, Luxon said that he was looking to "diversify New Zealand's diplomatic and trade relationships away from its reliance on China." The magazine described this shift as New Zealand's biggest pivot since the ANZUS dispute in 1986 that was triggered by New Zealand's nuclear-free policy. Foreign Policy columnist Derek Grossman wrote that Luxon and Foreign Minister Winston Peters were continuing a thaw in New Zealand–United States relations that began under National prime minister John Key in 2010 and was continued by Labour prime minister Jacinda Ardern and Chris Hipkins. Notable examples of this pro-US shift included the Royal New Zealand Navy sending a ship to sail through the disputed Taiwan Strait and the National-led government's expressed interest in partnering with AUKUS and NATO. In late August 2024, Luxon expressed support for Taiwan's participation in the Pacific Islands Forum in response to Chinese plans to lobby for member states to exclude Taiwan from attending the Forum's 2025 event. ==== Defence spending ==== In April 2025, Luxon announced the Government will allocate $12 billion into defence spending over the next four years. Luxon said it was time New Zealand "pulls its weight" internationally. This will bring New Zealand's spending on defence up to 2% of its GDP, up from 1%. The Child Poverty Action Group pointed out that the $12 billion allocated for defence matches the Treasury's estimate needed to halve child poverty by 2028. The group notes the auditor-general's criticism of Luxon's government for its lack of a coherent plan to address rising child poverty, underscoring public concerns about resource allocation between defence and social welfare. ==== Australia ==== On 20 December 2023, Luxon made his first state visit as head of government to Sydney where he met Australian prime minister Anthony Albanese. During his visit, Luxon affirmed New Zealand's nuclear-free policy but expressed openness to joining the non-nuclear pillar of the AUKUS agreement, but also stated that New Zealand was keen to do its share of "heavy lifting" in the Australia–New Zealand defence relationship. Luxon and Albanese also talked about the contribution of New Zealander Australians to Australia. Between 9 and 10 August 2025, Luxon hosted Albanese in Queenstown for the annual bilateral head of government talks. During the meeting, the two heads of government discussed various trade and defence issues, the Gaza war and Australia's 501 deportation policy. Other local and civil society leaders attended the bilateral meeting including Mayor of Queenstown-Lakes Glyn Lewers, Southland MP Joseph Mooney, Ngai Tahu Tipene O'Regan and Edward Ellison, and New Zealand actor and film-maker Cliff Curtis. The two leaders also laid wreaths at a memorial to fallen ANZAC soldiers in Arrowtown on 10 August. ===== 501 deportation policy ===== Luxon has consistently expressed strong opposition to Australia's 501 deportation policy, particularly when it results in people with minimal ties to New Zealand being deported. He has repeatedly called the policy "regrettable" and "not right." He has expressed disappointment that Australia reversed its previous, more lenient approach, which took into account the length of time someone had lived in Australia and their family connections before deporting them. He has stated, "It's just not right that people who have no connection to New Zealand are deported to New Zealand." Following his discussions with Albanese, Luxon said: "We respect the fact that Australia has its own policies around deportation," but hoped that common sense would prevail. === Coalition dynamics === Luxon's leadership and ability to govern effectively have been challenged by the roles and actions of his coalition partners, David Seymour (ACT) and Winston Peters (NZ First). A recurring concern is his perceived lack of control over his coalition partners. A poll in April 2024 found that 51% of respondents say Luxon is the decision maker in government. David Seymour has openly challenged Luxon's authority, particularly around contentious issues like the Treaty Principles Bill. Seymour's public skepticism about Luxon's commitments and his willingness to contradict the prime minister in public have reinforced perceptions of Luxon's weak leadership. Seymour even asserts that Luxon cannot unilaterally sack ACT ministers which highlights the limits of Luxon's executive power within the coalition. On the other hand, Winston Peters is seen as an unpredictable and influential force, who has not hesitated to critique government policy or his own coalition's fiscal plans. In March 2024, he undercut finance minister Nicola Willis by claiming a $5.6b fiscal hole would result from her intended tax cuts. ==== Communication style ==== Luxon's background as a corporate executive is often cited as influencing his communication style, sometimes to his detriment. He has been criticised for using business jargon – such as referring to voters as "customers"- and for appearing out of touch with ordinary New Zealanders. Janet Wilson, former chief press secretary for the National Party said he memorises talking points and sounds like a 'talking robot'. Luxon has also been repeatedly criticised for avoiding direct answers to straightforward questions, particularly in high-profile media interviews. A notable example occurred during the Andrew Bayly resignation saga, where Luxon was pressed multiple times by Mike Hosking to state whether he would have sacked Bayly if he had not resigned. Luxon sidestepped the question for several minutes, eventually conceding that he would have "demoted" Bayly and that "you can call it sacked" – a performance that was widely described as evasive. Luxon's approach to coalition management and controversial legislation has also drawn criticism for being diffident and weak. His handling of the ACT Party's Treaty Principles Bill – supporting its introduction, but pledging to vote against it later – has been seen by some as lacking conviction and clarity, further reinforcing perceptions of indecisiveness. Luxon claimed that allowing the Treaty Principles Bill a first reading was "worth it to form government". === Public opinion === In April 2024, a 1News-Verian poll was released, showing the National-ACT-New Zealand First coalition government convincingly behind the left bloc of Labour, the Green Party and Te Pāti Māori. It also cast doubt on the strength of Luxon's leadership compared to that of his coalition partners Winston Peters and David Seymour, with 51% of respondents believing Luxon was the decision-maker in the government. A subsequent poll by Talbot Mills suggested a Labour-led government would have a bare majority of 62 seats, while Roy Morgan found 54% of those they surveyed believed New Zealand was heading in "the wrong direction", with just 35% believing it was in the right direction. In June, a poll showed Luxon fall behind opposition leader Chris Hipkins in net favourability for the first time. Opinion polls show that Luxon's lack of popularity has deepened over his first 18 months in office. His net favourability is notably lower than previous first-term Prime Ministers such as Helen Clark, John Key, and Jacinda Ardern. Max Rashbrooke, senior research associate at the Institute for Governance and Policy Studies at Victoria University of Wellington, says a common criticism is "Luxon's inability to articulate what he stands for" or what he is trying to achieve for the country. Six months later, in October 2025, The Post/Freshwater Strategy poll found that 27% of voters view Luxon positively, while 51% have an unfavourable view. == Political positions == Luxon is an evangelical Christian who is recognised as a social conservative. In his maiden parliamentary speech, Luxon defined himself as centre-right and moderate; the government he leads has been described as conservative and right-wing, and one of the most so since the 1990s. Luxon supports low taxes, making cuts to the Ministry of Social Development, establishing military-style boot-camps for young offenders, and introducing stringent anti-gang legislation, and is opposed to welfare dependency and to co-governance with Māori. In November 2019, Luxon said he was against abortion, euthanasia, and legalising recreational cannabis, though at the same time he supported medicinal use of cannabis. He also at the time supported a "no jab, no pay" policy for sanctioning welfare beneficiaries who did not vaccinate their children; however, following his election as leader of the National Party, Luxon said he did not support cutting the benefits of parents who do not vaccinate their children against COVID-19. Luxon has also firmly stood against efforts to reform New Zealand's water system. === Abortion === Luxon's views on abortion received media attention following his election as National's leader. He confirmed that his personal views are anti-abortion, but said National will not contest the Abortion Legislation Act 2020 should he become prime minister. After previously declining to answer when asked if he believes abortion to be tantamount to murder, he said in an interview with Newshub that he is "a pro-life person," and when asked again about the murder comparison, he responded "that's what a pro-life position is." === Conflict in Gaza === In response to the Gaza war, Luxon stated that he was shocked and saddened by Hamas's overnight attacks against Israel. Luxon condemned Hamas' attacks and stated that Israel had a right to defend itself. He later committed New Zealand to active military support, saying "I want us to be in lockstep with our partners who have common interests and actually be right there with them at that time." In January 2024, he authorised deployment of 6 NZDF personnel to support military action against Houthi forces in the Red Sea, saying "it's about us standing up for things that we believe in, and we can either talk about them or we can actually do something about it as well and make sure that we put real capability alongside our words". On 30 January 2024, Luxon announced that New Zealand would be suspending its annual NZ$1 million aid to UNRWA (the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in the Near East) following allegations that several UNRWA workers had participated in the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel. His announcement followed a decision by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade to review New Zealand's aid to UNRWA. On 29 February 2024, Luxon announced New Zealand's designation of Hamas in its entirety as a terrorist entity. As the war on Gaza unfolded, Luxon's position changed. On 2 December 2024, Luxon confirmed that New Zealand would comply with an International Criminal Court (ICC) arrest warrant in the event that Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu visited New Zealand. During a press conference, he stated, "We believe in the international rules-based system, we support the ICC, and we would be obligated to do so." In June 2025, he described New Zealand's sanctions on Israeli ministers Bezalel Smotrich and Itamar Ben-Gvir as "entirely appropriate". On 9 August 2025, Luxon and Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese called for a ceasefire in Gaza and opposed Israeli plans to occupy Gaza City. On 13 August 2025, Luxon made remarks in Parliament criticising Israel's conduct of its war in Gaza, describing it as "utterly, utterly appalling." He also said that "I think Netanyahu has gone way too far. I think he has lost the plot." === Conversion therapy === In late November 2021, Luxon said the practice of conversion therapy was "abhorrent". In early February 2022, he said he supports New Zealand's LGBT+ community and announced that National MPs would be allowed a conscience vote on the Conversion Practices Prohibition Legislation Bill. The Bill passed its third and final reading on 15 February 2022, with Luxon voting in favour of the Bill's passage. === COVID-19 pandemic === Although Luxon frequently criticised the Labour Government's strategy for managing the COVID-19 pandemic, on 8 January 2022, he stated that the National Party strongly support COVID-19 vaccination, and described vaccination as the best protection for people and their families. === Defence and security === In response to US president Donald Trump's announcement during the 2025 APEC Summit that the United States would resume nuclear testing, Luxon expressed disapproval of US plans to resume nuclear testing and reiterated his commitment to New Zealand's nuclear-free policy. === Extending parliamentary term === On 20 September 2024, Luxon said that the coalition government was open to holding a referendum to extend the parliamentary term from three to four years at the 2026 general election. On 27 February 2025, the government introduced the Term of Parliament (Enabling 4-year Term) Legislation Amendment Bill to conduct a referendum. === Immigration === On 3 May 2023, Luxon acknowledged the historical sensitivity around the dawn raids of the 1970s which disproportionately targeted Pasifika New Zealanders. However, he stated that Immigration New Zealand needed to "reserve the option" to use police raids against individuals involved in serious criminal offending or who posed a security risk to New Zealand. Luxon also stated there were 14,000 overstayers in New Zealand. Luxon's remarks came in response to media coverage of the agency's recent dawn raid tactics against visa overstayers, which had attracted criticism from Deputy Prime Minister Carmel Sepuloni for re-traumatising the Pasifika community. On 11 December 2023, Luxon stated that New Zealand's 118,000 annual net migration rate was unsustainable and that infrastructure needed to be managed better to support growth. Luxon made these remarks after the Australian Government announced a new migration strategy to address pressure on housing and infrastructure in Australia. === Māori issues === In late January 2023, Luxon stated that National opposed co-governance in the delivery of public services such as health, education and critical infrastructure. Nevertheless, he expressed support for "self-driven" initiatives within the Māori community such as Whānau Ora, kohanga reo and charter schools. On 25 January, Luxon stated that the existence of Māori seats "doesn't make a lot of sense." During Waitangi Day on 6 February 2023, Luxon described the Treaty of Waitangi as a "challenging, imperfect but ultimately inspiring document through which New Zealand had sought to understand what was intended by those who signed it." While acknowledging that the New Zealand Crown had not upheld the Treaty's promises and obligations, he expressed hope that the Treaty settlement process would be completed by 2030. During a Question Time in Parliament on 20 August 2024, Luxon said that he believed that Māori ceded sovereignty to the New Zealand Crown by signing the Treaty of Waitangi. When questioned by Green co-leader Chlöe Swarbrick, Luxon reiterated that the Treaty was New Zealand's founding document and said that it had protected both Māori and Crown interests. On 19 December 2024, Luxon confirmed that he would not be attending events at the Waitangi Treaty Grounds on 4 February 2025, stating that it was his intention to celebrate Waitangi Day around New Zealand with different iwi. National Waitangi Trust chairperson Pita Tipene expressed disappointment with Luxon's decision while Labour leader Chris Hipkins said that Luxon was "running away from problems of his own creation." === Monarchy === Luxon has described himself as a "soft republican" and believes that New Zealand will "ultimately" become a republic, but that the change would not happen "in my Government and in my time." === School meals === On 1 March 2025, Luxon said that the school lunch programme was experiencing "teething issues" in response to quality and delivery issues with the Government's new school lunch programme. He added that Associate Education Minister Seymour "will work his way through those issues... and I expect he will [find a solution]." On 4 March, Luxon stated during a press conference that parents who were dissatisfied with the school lunch programme should "make a marmite sandwich and put an apple in a bag". Luxon's remarks drew criticism from Hora Hora School principal and Tai Tokerau Principals' Association spokesman Pat Newman, Child Poverty Action Group executive officer Sarita Divis, East Otago High School principal Helen Newcombe, who argued that school lunches were needed to improve the health and educational outcomes of students and combat child poverty. In response to criticism, Luxon defended his remarks and reiterated the Government's commitment to addressing problems with the school lunch programme. === Sex education === While Luxon regards sex education as important to the school curriculum, in February 2024 he stated that it should be age appropriate and that parents should be able to withdraw their children from sex education classes if they choose. === Transgender rights === When asked in March 2023 if anti-transgender activist Posie Parker should be allowed to enter New Zealand, Luxon said that he affirmed people's right to free speech but that he "absolutely" supported the rights of New Zealand's transgender community. In mid-August, Luxon said that he believes there is no need for laws specifying which toilets transgender people can use. During a TVNZ debate with Prime Minister Chris Hipkins in September, he said that the participation of transgender people in sports is an issue that should be left to sporting bodies. == Personal life == === Family === Luxon met his wife Amanda at a church youth group and they married on 8 January 1994 when he was 23. They have a son and daughter. The couple share the same faith, saying "it quietly guides what they care about". In late July 2022, Luxon confirmed he was on a family holiday in Hawaii during the parliamentary recess when a Facebook video post published on 21 July implied he was visiting Te Puke at that time. Luxon attributed the confusion to a delay in his social media team updating his whereabouts over the previous week, which he said was a mistake. === Religion === Luxon had a Catholic upbringing, describes himself as a Christian or non-denominational Christian, and has been described as an evangelical Christian. He has attended a Baptist church in Auckland as a child; a Presbyterian church in Australia; an Anglican church in England; and non-denominational churches in the United States, Canada and New Zealand. After he returned to New Zealand in 2011 he attended the Upper Room church in Auckland. In 2021 he said he had not attended a church for five or six years. === Interests === Luxon enjoys DIY, listening to country music, waterskiing and fishing. Luxon is a supporter of the Crusaders rugby union team and Auckland FC in association football. He attended Auckland FC's first ever match in the A-League Men in 2024, where he was pranked by an Auckland FC fan who flicked his nose while posing for a photo. == Awards == In 2015, Luxon was named the Deloitte Top 200 CEO of the Year for his leadership at Air New Zealand. In 2019, Luxon won a BLAKE Award for his sustainability initiatives at Air New Zealand. == See also == List of current heads of state and government List of heads of the executive by approval rating == References == == External links == Profile on the New Zealand Parliament website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryon_Lane#:~:text=Maryon%20Lane%20was%20born%20as,Ocean%20coast%20of%20South%20Africa.	Maryon Lane	Maryon Lane (15 February 1931 – 13 June 2008) was a South African ballet dancer who became well known in Britain as a ballerina of the Sadler's Wells Theatre Ballet and as a soloist with the Royal Ballet. == Early life and training == Maryon Lane was born as Patricia Mills in Zululand, a district of Natal province (now KwaZulu-Natal) on the Indian Ocean coast of South Africa. When she was about 13 years old, in 1944, her family took her to Johannesburg, in the northern province of Transvaal (now Gauteng). There she studied with the best ballet teachers in the city, including Marjorie Sturman, a specialist in the Cecchetti method, and Reina Berman, who had been trained by the Cecchetti method before switching to the syllabus of the Royal Academy of Dancing (RAD). In 1946, soon after World War II had ended and peace had returned to Europe, Mills left South Africa and emigrated to the UK, having won an RAD scholarship to attend the Sadler's Wells Ballet School in London. After only a year's tuition there, she was taken into the corps of the Sadler's Wells Theatre Ballet. It was at this point that she adopted her professional name. The company then included a South African dancer named Patricia Miller, so a name change from Patricia Mills was essential: Maryon Lane, distinctively spelled, was her choice. == Professional career == The Sadler's Wells Theatre Ballet was then a small, young troupe founded by Ninette de Valois to nurture dancers and choreographers after the parent company, the Sadler's Wells Ballet, became resident at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden. Owing to the need to replenish the depleted roster of leading dancers, Lane rose rapidly through the ranks. By 1948, at age 17, she had been named a principal dancer and was appearing in prominent roles in works by de Valois and Frederick Ashton, the chief choreographer of the company. Petite, with dark hair, a pretty, oval face, and ideal proportions, she possessed a vivid personality, a firm technique, and an innate musicality. De Valois considered Lane the type of dancer that was most valuable of all: not a great star but a repertory dancer capable of demi-caractère and dramatic work as well as the purely classical. Throughout her career, Lane was admired for her musicality, attack, and sheer domination of the stage. In repertory works, she displayed great charm in such lighthearted roles as Swanilda in Coppélia, Lise in Ashton's La Fille Mal Gardée, and the title characters in John Cranko's Pineapple Poll and Léonide Massine's Mam'zelle Angot, but she was also effective as the vapid Ballerina in Michel Fokine's Petrushka, as the Betrayed Girl in de Valois's The Rake's Progress, and as the adulterous, runaway Bride in Alfred Rodrigues's Blood Wedding. She was praised for her execution of the notoriously demanding and often unrewarding fairy variations in the prologue to The Sleeping Beauty as well as for her performance as the Princess Aurora, the title role. Her greatest contribution at the time, however, was the part she played in the creation of new ballets, in particular those of the young Kenneth MacMillan. In 1955, MacMillan cast Lane in a principal role in Danses Concertantes, set to the Stravinsky score and with designs by Nicholas Georgiadis, then also at the beginning of a great career. The success of the ballet was such that de Valois immediately transferred it, and Lane, to the main company at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden. Lane would finish her performing career there as a solo dancer in 1968. == Roles created == Among the roles that Lane created in new works or productions are the following. 1947. Valses Nobles et Sentimentales, choreography by Frederick Ashton, music by Maurice Ravel. Role: principal dancer. 1950. Trumpet Concerto, choreography by George Balanchine, music by Franz Joseph Haydn. Role: principal dancer, with Svetlana Beriosova, David Blair, Elaine Fifield, David Poole, Pirmin Trecu, and corps de ballet. 1951. Casse Noisette (The Nutcracker), choreography by Frederick Ashton, music by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky. Role: Crystallized Flower, leader of the corps de ballet in "Waltz of the Flowers." 1953. Somnamabulism, choreography by Kenneth MacMillan, music by Stan Kenton, arranged by John Lanchbery. Role: pas de trois with David Poole and Kenneth MacMillan. 1954. Café des Sports, choreography by Alfred Rodrigues, music by Antony Hopkins. Role: Urchin. 1954. Laiderette, choreography by Kenneth MacMillan, music by Frank Martin. Role: Clown, dancing an extended pas de deux with David Poole and a pas de trois with Poole and Johaar Mosaval; an all-South African cast. 1955. Danses Concertantes, choreography by Kenneth MacMillan, music by Igor Stravinsky. Role: principal dancer. 1955. House of Birds, choreography by Kenneth MacMillan, music by Federico Mompou, arranged by John Lanchbery. Role: pas de trois with David Poole and Doreen Tempest. 1955. Madame Chrysanthème, choreography by Frederick Ashton, music by Alan Rawsthorne. Role: Madame Chrysanthème, at the New York premiere at the Metropolitan Opera House. 1956. Noctambules, choreography by Kenneth MacMillan, music by Humphrey Searle. Role: Hypnotist's Assistant, with Leslie Edwards as the Hypnotist, Nadia Nerina as the Faded Beauty, Desmond Doyle as the Rich Man, Anya Linden as the Poor Girl, and Brian Shaw as the Soldier. 1957. The Prince of the Pagodas, choreography by John Cranko, music by Benjamin Britten. Role: Belle Rose. 1958. Ondine, choreography by Frederick Ashton, music by Hans Werner Henze. Role: dancer in lead couple, with Brian Shaw, of a divertissement with Merle Park, Doreenb Wells, Peter Clegg, Pirmin Trecu, and corps de ballet. 1958. Agon, choreography by Kenneth MacMillan, music by Igor Stravinsky. Role: principal dancer. 1961. Diversions, choreography by Kenneth MacMillan, music by Arthur Bliss. Role: a pas de quatre with Svetlana Beriosova, Donald MacLeary, and Graham Usher. == Personal and later life == Lane was married to her Royal Ballet colleague David Blair, with whom she had twin daughters in 1960. In 1961, Blair was promoted to be Margot Fonteyn's regular partner but was soon overshadowed by the arrival of Rudolf Nureyev in 1962. Both Lane and Blair, along with other leading dancers of the company, sank into relative obscurity in the blaze of publicity about the partnership of Fonteyn and Nureyev. After leaving the Royal Ballet in 1968, Lane occasionally made guest appearances with London Festival Ballet, Ballet Rambert, and her former home company. She found a new vocation, however, as an inspired and inspiring teacher at the London Ballet Centre. She then taught at the Royal Ballet and Ballet Rambert schools and with other companies, schools and seminars. In middle age, after her husband died in 1976, she went to live in Cyprus, a former British stronghold in the eastern Mediterranean. There she settled in the Greek Cypriot town of Kyrenia, a thriving cultural centre and popular tourist destination on the northern coast of the island, where she founded her own small school, the Maryon Lane Ballet Academy. After some years of teaching local students, she died in 2008, at age 77. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_Pride_(Washington,_D.C.)#:~:text=1983%20was%20the%20year%20the,a%20difference%20in%20their%20communities.	Capital Pride (Washington, D.C.)	Capital Pride is an annual LGBT pride festival held in early June each year in Washington, D.C. It was founded as Gay Pride Day, a one-day block party and street festival, in 1975. In 1980 the P Street Festival Committee formed to take over planning. It changed its name to Gay and Lesbian Pride Day in 1981. In 1991, the event moved to the week prior to Father's Day. Financial difficulties led a new organization, One In Ten, to take over planning of the festival. Whitman-Walker Clinic (WWC) joined One In Ten as co-sponsor of the event in 1997, at which time the event's name was changed to Capital Pride. Whitman-Walker became the sole sponsor in 2000. But the healthcare organization came under significant financial pressures, and in 2008 turned over producing duties to a new organization, Capital Pride Alliance. The event drew 2,000 people its first year and grew to 10,000 people covering 3 blocks in 1979. By 1984, it had expanded to a week-long event and by 1987 an estimated 28,000 attendees came to the street festival and parade. Attendance began fluctuating in the late 1980s, but stabilized in the 1990s. The festival was the fourth-largest gay pride event in the United States in 2007. Capital Pride saw record attendance for its 35th anniversary celebration in 2010. An estimated 100,000 people turned out for the parade and another 250,000 for the street festival in 2012. == History == === 1970s === The festival was first held on Father's Day in 1975. Deacon Maccubbin, owner of the LGBT bookstore Lambda Rising, organized the city's first annual gay pride event. It was a one-day community block party held on 20th Street NW between R and S Streets NW in Washington, D.C. (the same block where Lambda Rising was then located). Two vending trucks, one loaded with beer and another with soft drinks, served the crowd. About 2,000 people attended and visited about a dozen organizational booths and vendors. In a surprising political move indicative of the growing political power of gays and lesbians in the city, several candidates for the D.C. City Council also attended and shook hands for several hours. In 1981, Gay Pride Day first hosted a parade in addition to the street festival. The growing festival drew more than 10,000 attendees that year. Washington Mayor Marion Barry, elected the previous November, attended his first Gay Pride Day in 1979—and would for the rest of his time in office as mayor. === 1980s === Following the 1979 event, with crowds growing larger than could be accommodated at the original location, Maccubbin turned the planning of the event over to a new non-profit group, The P Street Festival Committee, formed in 1980 to take over the growing event. The committee established a board of directors to oversee planning and administer the festival's finances, and widened planning and participation to include a number of prominent LGBT organizations in the D.C. metro area. Gay Pride Day (as the festival was then known) moved that year to Francis Junior High School at 24th and N Streets NW, next to Rock Creek Park. In 1981, a parade route had also been established. The parade began at 16th Street NW and Meridian Hill Park, traveled along Columbia Road NW and then Connecticut Avenue NW, and ended at Dupont Circle. 1983 was the year the first woman and person of color was named Grand Marshal of the Gay Pride Day parade. In 1984, festival organizers began bestowing the "Heroes of Pride" award to members of racial and ethnic minorities who made a difference in their communities. Attendance at Gay Pride Day events reached 11,000 people in 1981, 15,000 in 1982, and 20,000 in 1983. By 1984, the one-day festival had become a week-long series of meetings, speeches, dances, art exhibits, and parties. At its 10th anniversary in 1985, D.C. Gay Pride Day drew an estimated 28,000 attendees to the street festival and parade. But attendance began varying dramatically from year to year in the late 1980s. In 1986, only about 7,000 people watched the parade, and another 1,000 stayed for events at Francis Junior High. A year later, attendance was estimated variously between 7,000 and 10,000 people. === 1990s === Financial problems and growing concerns about the organization's lack of inclusiveness led the P Street Festival Committee to disband in 1990 in favor of a successor organization, Pride of Washington. Several changes to the event occurred in 1991. The District of Columbia's African American gay community sponsored the first "Black Lesbian and Gay Pride Day" on May 25, 1991. The event was created not as a competitor to the June gay pride event but rather as a way of enhancing the visibility of the African American gay and lesbian community. 1991 also saw the Gay Pride Day parade and festival move away from its traditional date for the first time. Organizers shifted the event to the week prior to Father's Day to give people a chance to spend the holiday with their families. 1991 was also the year that the street festival expanded to more than 200 booths, and the first year that active-duty and retired American military personnel marched in the parade. The parade made national headlines when U.S. Air Force Captain Greg Greeley, who led the active-duty group, was later questioned by military security officers and told his pending discharge was on hold because of his participation in Gay Pride day. No further action against Greeley was taken, and he eventually received an honorable discharge. The festival suffered from financial difficulties in the early 1990s. Rain during the parade and street festival significantly reduced attendance several years in a row. Unfortunately, festival organizers had decided, as a cost-saving move, to not take out weather cancellation insurance. The festival lost significant amounts of money, and came close to bankruptcy. In 1995, One In Ten, a D.C.-based arts organization which hosted the Reel Affirmations film festival, assumed responsibility for organizing Gay Pride Day events. One In Ten moved the street festival from Francis Junior High to Freedom Plaza near the White House on Pennsylvania Avenue NW. The parade route also changed. Instead of traveling westward from Dupont Circle on P Street NW to finish at Francis Junior High School, the parade now began at the school, moved east along P Street to 14th Street NW, and then traveled south on 14th Street NW to Freedom Plaza. The change in sponsorship and significant organizational and promotional changes led to sharply higher attendance. The parade and festival drew only about 25,000 attendees in 1994, but this soared to more than 100,000 by 1996. However, the financial and organizational strain of producing the event proved too heavy for the small arts group. In 1997, Whitman-Walker Clinic joined One In Ten as a co-sponsor of the festival, and the event was renamed Capital Pride. The street festival was moved off Freedom Plaza and onto Pennsylvania Avenue NW between 14th and 10th Streets NW. Corporate sponsorships also rose dramatically, reflecting the festival's growing commercial nature. Corporate sponsorships reached $247,000 in 1999, up from $80,000 in 1998. 1997 also saw the city's first Youth Pride Day event. Sponsored by the Youth Pride Alliance, an umbrella group of LGBT organizations supporting the sexual orientation and gender expression needs of young people, the event was held first held in late April (although after 2010 it moved to a date closer to Capital Pride). === 2000s === Whitman-Walker Clinic became the sole sponsor of Capital Pride in 2000. The festival was moved to Pennsylvania Avenue NW between 4th and 7th Streets NW, and the festival's main stage repositioned so that the United States Capitol building was in the background. As a cost-saving move, in 2002 the parade was moved to early evening on Saturday while the festival continued to occur on Sunday afternoon. The same year, the number of parade contingents reached 200 for the first time. In 2004, 100,000 people attended Capital Pride events. But financial problems once more plagued Capital Pride. The event had come to be billed as a fund-raiser for the clinic, although net revenues were also shared with other organizations. In July 2005 (after Capital Pride was over), Whitman-Walker Clinic revealed that it had asked the Human Rights Campaign, a national gay rights advocacy group, for an emergency donation of $30,000. The clinic had also asked D.C. Mayor Anthony A. Williams to waive more than $40,000 in street closing and police overtime fees. Both requests were granted. Unnamed sources quoted by the Washington Blade, a local LGBT newspaper, said Whitman-Walker's financial problems had spilled over into Capital Pride planning. Had the financial help not been forthcoming, the 2005 festival would have been significantly curtailed. Whitman-Walker officials strongly disputed the claims about the organization's finances, but did not deny that the financial requests had been made. WWC estimated the day after the festival ended that net proceeds from Capital Pride were $30,000 in 2005. A week after the financial problems were revealed, Robert York, the Whitman-Walker staffer who had served as executive director of Capital Pride since 1999, unexpectedly resigned from the Clinic and as Capital Pride organizer. York's departure followed a series of resignations by the clinic's upper- and middle-level managers. York was replaced by clinic staff member David Mallory. Financial difficulties at Whitman-Walker Clinic led to speculation that the healthcare organization would spin off Capital Pride as an independent body or permit another group to take it over. The Washington Blade quoted unnamed Whitman-Walker staffers as saying that Capital Pride consumed a significant amount of the clinic's time, resources, and staff but did not generate large revenues in return. In April 2005, The Center, an LGBT organization attempting to build a gay and lesbian community center in the District of Columbia, approached Whitman-Walker officials and asked if they would turn Capital Pride over to them. Whitman-Walker refused the offer, citing The Center's own financial difficulties and small staff. The financial distress and staff changes did not appear to change the event's appeal, however. Capital Pride attracted more than 200,000 people in 2006, making it the fourth-largest gay pride event in the United States. The festival included four major dance parties, a youth prom, and a transgender dinner. D.C. Leather Pride held its first events in 2006 as well, which included a Mr. and Ms. Capital Pride Leather competition. Whitman-Walker expanded organizational oversight of Capital Pride in 2007. Although the healthcare organization remained the sole sponsor of the festival, 11 other local non-profit organizations joined with WWC to form the Capital Pride Planning Committee. This committee contributed staff and organizational resources to help produce the event. 2007 also saw the city's first Trans Pride. Organized by the D.C. Trans Coalition, an umbrella group of organizations and activists supporting the needs of transgender people, the addition of Trans Pride to Capital Pride was a direct outcome of the expanded organizational planning group. D.C. Latino Pride also held its first events in 2007 as well. Hosted by the Latino LGBT History Project, it featured an exhibit and panel discussion (which has led some to date the founding of D.C. Latino Pride to 2007's expanded events rather than 2006). But the financial pressures on Whitman-Walker did not abate. With the clinic itself under significant financial pressure, WWC issued a Request for Proposal in the second week of January 2008 asking for one or more groups to replace WWC as the organizer and sponsor of Capital Pride. On January 11, 2008, Whitman-Walker Clinic disclosed, for the first time in years, the financial status of Capital Pride. WWC revealed that the 2007 Capital Pride festival ran a deficit of $32,795 on $167,103 in revenue. The clinic also reported that this included reimbursing itself for $100,000 in "up-front money" to pay for festival-related expenses occurred far in advance of the festival. Twelve other local organizations were also reimbursed $28,000 in up-front money as well. In March 2008, Whitman-Walker Clinic awarded the production rights to Capital Pride to the Capital Pride Alliance—a group of volunteers and organizations formed by members of the Capital Pride Planning Committee. Capital Pride Alliance won the bid over The Center, Westminster Presbyterian Church, and Jansi LLC (the parent company of the local LGBT newsweekly, Metro Weekly). WWC last helped to produce Capital Pride in 2008. Capital Pride Alliance was the sole producer of the event beginning in 2009. === 2010s === The 35th anniversary of Capital Pride occurred in 2010. Organizers and affiliate organizations hosted 60 events over 10 days. According to organizers, a record attendance of more than 250,000 people turned out just for the Pride street festival. Capital Pride continued to flourish over the next several years. Per policy, city officials and police declined to provide a crowd estimate in 2011, but event organizers said 200,000 to 250,000 people attended both the parade and the street festival. In 2012, the Capital Pride parade extended for more than 1.5 miles (2.4 km), and was expected to draw about 100,000 spectators. Although about 200,000 attendees were expected at the street festival the next day, organizers put actual attendance at about 250,000. More than 300 vendors participated in the street fest, and D.C. Latino Pride expanded to four days of events. A contingent from the Washington National Cathedral marched in the Capital Pride parade for the first time in 2013. Leading the group of 30 staffers was the Very Reverend Gary Hall, Dean of the cathedral. The Washington Post described the cathedral group's participant as "a stunner for some". The Washington Blade reported attendance at the 2013 parade at 100,000. Changes to the parade included a turn north rather than south on 14th Street NW. The street festival started an hour later (noon), and ended an hour later (9:00 P.M.) to take advantage of the summer sunlight hours. A less positive change was a split among organizers of D.C. Latino Pride. A group of 11 organizations questioned the Latino LGBT History Project's control over and use of the event as a fundraising mechanism. They also claimed that transgender groups were being excluded from the event, and it was focused on national issues at the expense of grassroots organizing and community groups. The Latino GLBT History Project strongly denied both claims. The 11 dissenting groups split from the D.C. Latino Pride effort, and both groups of Latino organizations held competing events and parties in early June 2013. On June 7, 2014, a United States Armed Forces color guard led the way and retired the colors in the Capital Pride parade. It was the first time in American history that an officially sanctioned United States Armed Forces color guard marched in a gay pride parade. Although several gay pride parade organizers nationwide had requested a color guard since the demise of the military's "don't ask, don't tell" policy in 2011, none had ever been approved. The eight-person color guard represented each branch of the United States armed forces. The Military District of Washington provided the color guard, which also presents colors for the President of the United States, members of Congress, and at official state functions. The 2014 parade attracted more than 100,000 people, while festival organizers estimated that more than 250,000 people attended events during the entire week-long Capital Pride celebration. The 2015 parade drew roughly 150,000 people. On June 8, 2019, reports of gunfire at the parade in Dupont Circle caused people to flee through the streets in a panic. Police responded to the scene but determined that no shots were fired; the sounds of gunshots were most likely falling crowd-control barriers. A man with a BB gun was arrested for causing the panic and for possession of an illegal weapon; he pointed the BB gun at another person in Dupont Circle who was assaulting his female "significant other", according to a police report. Seven people were hospitalized with non-life-threatening injuries from the stampede. === 2020s === No Capital Pride was held in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Washington, D.C., and the event was conducted virtually in 2021. Capital Pride resumed in-person events in 2022, including a parade, and a festival where Vice President Kamala Harris surprised the audience. == Organization == Capital Pride was originally called Gay Pride Day. It changed its name to Gay and Lesbian Pride Day in 1981, and to Capital Pride in 2000. The event was initially organized in 1975 by Deacon Maccubbin, owner of Lambda Rising Bookstore, with the help of the bookstore's employees, volunteers, and a part-time executive director, Bob Carpenter. Maccubbin and Lambda Rising hosted the event for the first five years of its existence, until it grew to 10,000 attendees and spread over three blocks. At that point, it became too large for the space available, so Maccubbin began looking for an alternative location. In 1980, a group of community activists incorporated as the P Street Festival Committee and Maccubbin turned the event over to that group. Financial problems and growing concerns about the organization's lack of inclusiveness led the committee to disband in 1990 in favor of a successor organization, Pride of Washington. Further financial problems led Pride of Washington to transfer the event to a local LGBT arts organization, One In Ten, in 1995. In 1997, One In Ten partnered with Whitman-Walker Clinic to co-produce the festival. Whitman-Walker Clinic became the sole sponsor in 2000. Whitman-Walker turned the event over to a new group, the Capital Pride Alliance, in 2008. Capital Pride Alliance has continued to produce festival. Although the Capital Pride Alliance was formed by 11 organizations, it now has a self-perpetuating board of directors. == Cultural references == In 2005, an exhibit at The Warehouse Gallery, an art gallery and museum in the District of Columbia, documented the history and meaning of Capital Pride for area residents. The exhibit, "Queering Sight—Queer Insight," opened on June 3, 2005, and ran for a month. In 2006, Capital Pride was featured in the comedy film Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan. One In Ten sponsored a second exhibit about Capital Pride's history in 2007. The exhibit was installed at The Sumner School, a city-owned museum in a historic former school building in midtown D.C. The exhibit ran from March to June 2007. The New York Times in May 2014 called Capital Pride one "of the more notable Pride festivals and parades around the country". == See also == Gay Men's Chorus of Washington, D.C. D.C. Black Pride LGBT rights in the District of Columbia == References == == External links == Capital Pride Web site
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doki_Doki_Morning	Doki Doki Morning	"Doki Doki Morning" (ド・キ・ド・キ☆モーニング, Doki Doki Mōningu; lit. "Heart-Pounding Morning", stylized as "Doki Doki ☆ Morning" and formerly "Do・Ki・Do・Ki ☆ Morning") is a song by the Japanese heavy metal band Babymetal. The song was released in Japan as an independent DVD single on October 22, 2011, serving as the first single off the debut album Babymetal. == Background and release == The song introduced all three members to heavy metal music; Nakamoto commenting how she had never heard such musical heaviness before, while Mizuno initially had more interest in dancing to the music rather than singing. During song production, the signature Kitsune hand gesture (similar to the sign of the horns) was formed. Vocals for the song were recorded on October 30, 2010. The song's first release was in the Sakura Gakuin album Sakura Gakuin 2010 Nendo: Message, released on April 27, 2011, as part of the Jūonbu ("heavy music club") sub-unit. The song was later announced as a limited-edition DVD single on October 12, 2011, and later released also as a standard digital download available on October 22 and 23, 2011 for pre-sale at the Sakura Gakuin Festival 2011 held at Mt. Rainier Hall "Shibuya Pleasure Pleasure", and later sold in limited quantities on ASmart, Amazon, Tower Records Online, and Tower Records Shinjuku starting October 24. The limited edition included a DVD with the "Doki Doki ☆ Morning" music video and a cut of the original video focusing on the choreography for live performances of the song, and a towel embossed with either the logo of the band or the label Juonbu Records. The single was later released as a CD single on April 6, 2012, packaged with a T-shirt. The song was later released as a promotional single in the United Kingdom on December 13, 2015. == Composition == The song has a "modern heaviness" sound in its music, with dark, atmospheric instrumentals that reverse into a catchier and brighter melody with lyrics such as "Rin rin rin! Ohayō, wake up" (Ring ring ring! Good morning, wake up). Kikuchi noted how the tone of the song was directly opposite to Japanese kei-on music (light music); as a result, the band formed under the label Jūonbu (heavy music club) to signify the contrast. Nakamoto, whose vocals were recorded separately from those of Mizuno and Kikuchi, needed to speak quickly but clearly in the verses. == Reception == The song managed to peak at number 80 on the Billboard Japan Top Independent Albums and Singles chart on the week dated November 7, 2011. == Music video == Directed by Shimon Tanaka, shooting for the video was completed by October 2011. According to Nakamoto, Tanaka had wanted to appear in the video, but found the choreography difficult to execute. The video was released in an abridged form to the Toy's Factory YouTube channel on October 12, 2011, with the full version posted on the official Babymetal channel over a year later, on November 8, 2012. Metal Injection ranked the music video at number nine on the list of "The Top 15 Metal Viral Videos of the Year" on December 8, 2011. == Live performances == The song premiered at the Sakura Gakuin concert Sakura Gakuin Festival 2010 at the Yokohama Red Brick Warehouse No. 1 on November 28, 2010. Regarding the group's first performance of the song, Su-metal explained, "What I remember clearly was during the interlude […] we all pretend to fall to the ground...I was afraid that people would just laugh at us and it would be embarrassing, but their reaction made me feel happy and at that time I thought this is who Su-metal is, this is what Babymetal is." == Track listings and formats == DVD single "Doki Doki ☆ Morning" (music video) (ド・キ・ド・キ☆モーニング -Music Clip-) – 3:53 "Doki Doki ☆ Morning" (Air Metal Dance ver.) – 4:04 Digital download "Doki Doki ☆ Morning" (ド・キ・ド・キ☆モーニング) – 3:45 CD single "Doki Doki ☆ Morning" (ド・キ・ド・キ☆モーニング) – 3:45 "Doki Doki ☆ Morning" (Air Vocal ver.) – 3:48 UK promotional single "Doki Doki ☆ Morning" (album version) – 3:44 "Doki Doki ☆ Morning" (UK radio edit) – 3:32 == Credits and personnel == Credits adapted from album liner notes of Sakura Gakuin 2010 Nendo: Message and Babymetal. Suzuka Nakamoto (SU-METAL) – vocals (lead) Moa Kikuchi (MOAMETAL) – vocals (lead and background) Yui Mizuno (YUIMETAL) – vocals (lead and background) Millennium Japan (millennium-JAPAN) – producer SOH (O! S-D) – guitar, arrangement Norikazu Nakayama (ナカメタル) – lyrics, music Norizo (のりぞー) – music Motonari Murakawa (村カワ基成) – music, arrangement Seiji Toda (S.O.L.I.D sound lab) (戸田清章) – recording and audio mixing Yuji Nakamura (中村悠二) – assistant engineer == Charts == == Cover versions == On March 4, 2012, the song was covered by fellow Sakura Gakuin members Marina Horiuchi, Ayaka Miyoshi, and Airi Matsui as a "Shuffle Unit" during the Sakura Gakuin concert Sakura Gakuin Hōkago Anthology at the Nihonbashi Mitsui Hall, where members of different sub-units would cover other sub-units' songs. On December 8, 2013, Hana Taguchi, Saki Ooga, and Aiko Yamaide covered the song as another "Shuffle Unit" in the concert Sakura Gakuin 3rd Anniversary: Live at the Amuse Musical Theater. Kiba of Akiba covered the song on the joint single "Babymetal × Kiba of Akiba". == Release history == == References == == External links == Discography on the Babymetal official website BABYMETAL – Doki Doki Morning (OFFICIAL) on YouTube BABYMETAL – Doki Doki Morning – Live on October 6, 2012 at Shibuya O-EAST (Short ver.) on YouTube Discography on the TOY'S FACTORY official website BABYMETAL – Doki Doki Morning (Edit ver.) on YouTube
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polanyi_Medal#:~:text=1982,Brian%20Thrush	Polanyi Medal	The Polanyi Medal is a biennial award of the Royal Society of Chemistry for outstanding contributions to the field of gas kinetics. The medal is presented at the International Symposium on Gas Kinetics after a plenary lecture given by the prize winner. The award is named after the Hungarian-British polymath Michael Polanyi, 1891-1976, whose research helped to establish the topic of gas kinetics and reaction dynamics. His son, John Polanyi, received the Polanyi Medal in 1988. == Winners == Source: == See also == List of chemistry awards == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._H._Raza	S. H. Raza	Sayed Haider Raza (22 February 1922 – 23 July 2016) was an Indian painter who lived and worked in France for most of his career. Born on 22 February 1922 in Kakkaiya (District Mandla), Central Provinces, British India (present-day Madhya Pradesh), Raza moved to France in 1950, marrying the French artist Janine Mongillat in 1959. Following her death from cancer in 2002, Raza returned to India in 2010, where he would live until his death on 28 July 2016. Having maintained strong ties with India throughout his career, Raza was an acclaimed for his art both there and in France. He was awarded the Padma Shri in 1981, Fellowship of the Lalit Kala Academi in 1984, Padma Bhushan in 2007, and Padma Vibhushan in 2013. He was conferred with the Commandeur de la Légion d'honneur (Legion of Honour) on 14 July 2015. His seminal work Saurashtra sold for ₹16.42 crore ($3,486,965) at a Christie's auction in 2010. == Early life and education == Sayed Haider Raza was born in Kakkaiya, Mandla district, Madhya Pradesh, to Sayed Mohammed Razi, the Deputy Forest Ranger of the district and Tahira Begum. It was here where he spent his early years, completed primary education, and took to drawing at the age of 12. He moved to Damoh (also in Madhya Pradesh) at 13; where he completed his high school education from Government High School, Damoh. After high school, he studied further at the Nagpur School of Art, Nagpur (1939–43), followed by Sir J. J. School of Art, Mumbai (1943–47), before moving to France in October 1950 to study at the École Nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts (ENSB-A), Paris (1950-1953) on a Government of France scholarship. After his studies, he traveled across Europe, and continued to live and exhibit his work in Paris. He was later awarded the Prix de la critique in Paris in 1956, becoming the first non-French artist to receive the honor. == Art career == === Early career === Sayed Haider Raza, had his first solo show when he was 24 in 1946 at Bombay Art Society Salon, and was awarded the Silver Medal of the society. His work evolved from painting expressionistic landscapes to abstract ones. From his fluent watercolours of landscapes and townscapes executed in the early 1940s, he moved toward a more expressive language, painting landscapes of the mind. Raza carefully crafted his career to become an inspiration to two generations of artists. The year of 1947 proved to be a very important year for him. First, his mother died. Then, he co-founded the revolutionary Bombay Progressive Artists' Group (PAG) (1947–1956) along with K. H. Ara and F. N. Souza. This group set out to break free from the influences of European realism in Indian art and bring Indian inner vision (Antar gyan) into the art. The group had its first show in 1948. A revolutionary amount of art was created by the people in this group from 1940 to 1990. Raza's father died the same year his mother had died in Mandla. The majority of his four brothers and sister, migrated to Pakistan, after the partition of India. In the early years, the group continued its close rapport. Krishen Khanna speaks of the first exhibition Raza, Akbar Padamsee and F. N. Souza mounted together at the Gallery Cruz in Paris. "Souza and Padamsee painted in a quasi-modern fashion. Raza, however, made a throwback to the Mughal period, creating jewel-like watercolours, with the pigment rubbed in with a shell. He was vastly successful and acquired by important collectors." Once in France, he continued to experiment with currents of Western Modernism, moving from Expressionist modes towards greater abstraction and eventually incorporating elements of Tantrism from Indian scriptures. Whereas his fellow contemporaries dealt with more figural subjects, Raza chose to focus on landscapes in the 1940s and 50s, inspired in part by a move to France. In 1956, he was awarded the prestigious Prix de la Critique, this was a monumental award to the art scene in India. In 1962, he became a visiting lecturer at the University of California in Berkeley, USA. Raza was initially enamored of the bucolic countryside of rural France. Eglise is part of a series which captures the rolling terrain and quaint village architecture of this region. Showing a tumultuous church engulfed by an inky blue night sky, Raza uses gestural brushstrokes and a heavily impasto-ed application of paint, stylistic devices which hint at his later 1970s abstractions. === The "Bindu" and beyond === By the 1970s Raza had grown increasingly unhappy and restless with his own work and wanted to find a new direction and deeper authenticity in his work, and move away from what he called the 'plastic art'. His trips to India, especially to caves of Ajanta - Ellora, followed by those to Varanasi, Gujarat and Rajasthan, made him realize his role and study Indian culture more closely, the result was "Bindu", which signified his rebirth as a painter. The Bindu came forth in 1980, and took his work deeper and brought in, his new-found Indian vision and Indian ethnography. One of the reasons he attributes to the origin of the "Bindu", have been his elementary school teacher, who on finding him lacking adequate concentration, drew a dot on the blackboard and asked him to concentrate on it. The "Bindu" is related to Indian philosophy of being the point of all creation. The reason this interested Raza so much is because he was looking for new inspiration for his art and this created a new point of creation for himself. After the introduction of "BUNDU" (a point or the source of energy), he added newer dimensions to his thematic oeuvre in the following decades, with the inclusion of themes around the Tribhuj (Triangle), which bolstered Indian concepts of space and time, as well as that of "prakriti-purusha" (the cosmic substance and the energy or the spirit respectively), his transformation from an expressionist to a master of abstraction and profundity, was complete. His multiple works of art with the bindu is what truly tied him to his Indian roots and culture. This art created a sense of pride for his culture. The bindu is now widely regarded as a trademark for Raza and he said in 2010 that "It's the centre of my life". Raza abandoned the expressionistic landscape for a geometric abstraction and the "Bindu". Raza perceived the Bindu as the center of creation and existence progressing towards forms and color as well as energy, sound, space and time. His work took another leap in 2000, when he began to express his increasingly deepened insights and thoughts on Indian spiritual, and created works around the Kundalini, Nagas, and the Mahabharat. == Public contributions == For the promotion of art among Indian youth, he established the Raza Foundation in India which gives the Annual Raza Foundation Award to young artists in India. The Raza Foundation in France, based in the artist village of Gorbio, runs the Estate of Sayed Haider Raza. == Later years and death == In 2011, a few years after the death of his wife, S.H. Raza decided to move back from France to New Delhi, where he continued to work several hours a day up until his death on 22 July 2016, at the age of 94, in New Delhi. His last wish being laid to rest in his hometown Mandla beside his father's grave was fulfilled. He was buried in Mandla city's kabristan. == Awards == 1946: Silver Medal, Bombay Art Society, Mumbai 1948: Gold Medal, Bombay Art Society, Mumbai 1956: Prix de la critique, Paris 1981: Padma Shri; the Government of India 1984: Fellowship of the Lalit Kala Akademi, New Delhi 1992–1993: Kalidas Samman, Government of Madhya Pradesh 2004: Lalit Kala Ratna Puraskar, Lalit Kala Academy, New Delhi 2007: Padma Bhushan; the Government of India 2013: Padma Vibhushan; the Government of India 2013: one of the greatest living global Indian legends ... NDTV INDIA 2014: D. Litt (Honoris Causa), Indira Kala Sangit Vishwavidyalaya, Khairagarh, Chhattisgarh 2015: Commandeur de la Légion d’Honneur (the Legion of Honour); Republic of France 2015: D. Litt (Honoris Causa), Shiv Nadar University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh == Solo exhibitions == 2016; Nirantar, Delhi, Mumbai and Kolkata 2015: Galerie Lara Vincy, Paris, "Raza: Paintings" 2015: Akar Prakar, Kolkata, "Aarambh – Raza at 93" 2015: Art Musings, Mumbai, "Aarambh @ 93: Solo Show of SH Raza" 2014: Grosvenor Vadehra, London, "SH Raza – Pyaas" 2014: Sovereign FZE, Dubai, "Raza: Paysage, Select Works 1950s – 1970s" 2014: Vadehra Art Gallery, New Delhi, "SH Raza - Parikrama – Around Gandhi" 2013: Akar Prakar, Kolkata, "Shabd- bindu – A show of recent works by SH Raza & poetry by Ashok Vajpeyi" 2013: Vadehra Art Gallery, New Delhi, "Antardhwani" 2012: ICIA, The Art Trust, Mumbai, "SH Raza – Solo Show" 2012: Art Musings, Mumbai, "SH Raza: Vistaar" 2012: Grosvenor Gallery, London, "Bindu Vistaar" 2011: Vadehra Art Gallery & Lalit Kala Akademi, New Delhi, "SH Raza, Punaraagman" 2010: Flora Jansem Gallery, Raza Ceramiques, Paris 2010: Galerie Patrice Trigano, Paris, "Sayed Haider Raza, Œuvres 1950-2001" 2010: Akar Prakar Art Gallery, Kolkata, Ahmadabad, Jaipur, Delhi, INDIA in 2010 2010: Vadehra Art Gallery, New Delhi, "Recent Works – SH Raza" 2008: Art Alive Art Gallery, Delhi, India in 2008 Exhibition Magnificent Seven at Art Alive Gallery 2007: Ayran Art Gallery, Mumbai, New Delhi, Hong Kong, "SH Raza - Celebrating 85 Years of living Legend" 2007: RL Fine ARTS, New York, "SH Raza: Master of Colors – Selected Works" 2007: The Arts Trust at the ICIA, Mumbai, "SH Raza- Solo Show" 2007: National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi, "Swati – S.H. Raza" 2006: TAO Art Gallery, Mumbai, "Rang Ras – S.H. Raza" 2006: RL Fine Arts, New York, SH Raza: Selected Works 2006: Vadehra Art Gallery, New Delhi, "Raza" 2006: Hong Kong, Aryan Art Gallery, "Raza: Metamorphosis" 2005: Aryan Art Gallery, New Delhi, "Raza – Recent Works" 2005: Saffronart & Berkeley Square Gallery, London & New York, "SH Raza: Summer 2005" 2004: Art Musings, Mumbai, "SH Raza" 2003: Berlin, The Fine Art Resource, "SH Raza: Paintings from 1996 to 2003" 2001: Delhi Art Gallery, New Delhi, "Mindscapes: The Sacred Search: a select collection of works from 1951- 2002 by Raza" 1999: Gallery 54, New York, "Raza" 1997: Roopankar Museum of Fine Arts, Bharat Bhavan, Bhopal 1997: Jehangir Art Gallery Mumbai 1997: National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi. 1997: Vadhera Art Gallery & Chemould Gallery, Bhopal, Mumbai & New Delhi, "Raza: Avartan 1991-1996" 1994: The Art Rental Corporate, Group Michael Ferrier, Échirolles, Grenoble 1992: Jehangir Nicholson Museum, National Centre for Performing Arts, Mumbai 1992: Courses Arts Lalouvesc, France 1991: Gallery Eterso, Cannes, "Bindu ou la quête de l'essentiel", 28 June – 17 August 1991: Palais de Carnolès, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Menton, "Raza: Rétrospective 1952-1991" 1991: Chemould Gallery, Bombay, "Raza Anthology 1980-1990" 1988: Chemould Gallery, Bombay; Koloritten Galleri, Stavanger, Norway 1987: The Head of the artist, Grenoble 1985: Galerie Pierre Parat, Paris 1984: Chemould Gallery, Bombay 1982: Gallery Loeb, Bern, Switzerland; Gallery JY Noblet, Grenoble 1980: Galleriet, Oslo 1976: Mumbai, Gallery Chemould at the Jehangir Art Gallery, Raza, 26 February – 1 March 1976. 1975: Sanremo, Galleria Matuzia, Raza, 4 – 31 October 1975. 1969: Paris, Galerie Lara Vincy, Raza: Peintures Recentes, 27 November 1969 – 5 January 1970. 1968: Bombay, Gallery Chemould, Raza, 15 – 27 April 1968. 1968: Toronto, Gallery Dresdnere, Raza – Recent Oil Paintings, 25 October – 9 November 1968. 1968: Cologne, Dom Galerie, Sayed Haider Raza, 26 March – 4 May 1968. 1967: Paris, Galerie Lara Vincy, 1967. 1966: Düsseldorf, Tecta Galerie, Raza – Paris: 25 Oil Paintings from 1962- 1966, 6 October – 10 November 1966. 1963 Cologne, Dom Galerie, Raza, June – July 1963. 1964: Paris, Galerie Lara Vincy, Raza: Peintures récentes, 18 November 1964 – 10 January 1965. 1962: Galerie Dresdnere, Montreal 1962: Galerie Lara Vincy, Paris, Raza, 15 July 1962. 1961: Paris, Galerie Lara Vincy, Raza, 19 April- 18 May 1961. 1960: Montreal, Galerie Dresdnere, Autumn 1960. 1959: Montreal, Galerie Dresdnere, Raza: Peintures et Gouaches, 5th – 19th MAY 1959. 1958: Galerie Lara Vincy, Paris, "Raza - Prix de la Critique 1956. Peintures et gouaches" (April–May) 1956: Galerie Saint-Placide, Paris, "Raza" 1950: Charles Petrat's Institute of foreign Languages, Mumbai (September) 1950: The IFL International Centre, Bombay, "SH Raza: Farewell Exhibition of Paintings" (September) 1948: Exhibition Hall, New Delhi, "Raza: 100 paintings of Kashmir", organised by Rudolf Von Leyden, (September) 1947: Bombay Art Society, "Raza's Watercolour Landscapes", (November) 1946: First solo exhibition at the Bombay Art Society Salon == Selected Biennales == 1956: Venice Biennale, Italy. 1957: Biennale 57, Pavillon de Marsan, Paris, France. 1958: Bienal de São Paulo, Brazil. 1958: Biennale, Brussels, Belgium. 1958: Biennale of Young Contemporary Painters, Bruges, Belgium. 1958: Venice Biennale, Italy. 1961: Biennale of Tokyo, Japan. 1962: Salon Comparaisons, Paris, France. 1963: Biennale du Maroc, Rabat, Morocco. 1964: Biennale de Menton, France. 1966: Biennale de Menton, France. 1966: Salon Comparaisons, Paris. 1968: Biennale de Menton, France. 1972: Biennale de Menton, France. 1976: Biennale de Menton, France. 1978: Biennale de Menton, France. 1986: Bienal de la Habana, Havana, == Further reading == S.H Raza, by Soufiane Bensabra, Les Éditions de la Différence, Paris, 2020 "Yet Again: Nine New Essays on Raza", by Ashok Vajpeyi, Mapin Publishing Pvt, Ahmedabad, India, 2015. "SH Raza: The Journey of a Master", published by Vadehra Art Gallery, New Delhi, 2014. "Understanding Raza: Many Ways of Looking at a Master", Ashok Vajpeyi (ed.), Vadehra Art Gallery, New Delhi, 2013. "My Dear: Letters Between Sayed Haider Raza & Krishen Khanna", Ashok Vajpeyi, The Raza Correspondence, Vadehra Art Gallery, New Delhi, 2013. "SH Raza: Vistaar", by Ranjit Hoskote, Ashok Vajpeyi, Yashodhara Dalmia and Avni Doshi, Afterimage Publishing, Mumbai, 2012. "Mandalas", by Olivier Germain-Thomas, Art Alive Gallery, 2009 (originally published in French by Éditions Albin Michel, Paris, 2004) Raza by Alain Bonfand, Les Éditions de la Différence, Paris, 2008. (French and English Edition. Lithographs Estampes - Éditions de La Différence edited by Éditions de la Différence, Paris) A Life in Art: S.H. Raza, by Ashok Vajpeyi, Art Alive Masters Series Books, New Delhi, 2007 Raza: A Life in Art, by Ashok Vajpeyi, 2007, Art Alive Gallery, New Delhi. ISBN 978-81-901844-4-1. Passion....Life and Art of Raza, by Sayed Haider Raza, Ashok Vajpeyi (Ed.). 2005, Rajkamal Books. ISBN 81-267-1040-3. "Atma Ka Taap", by Rajkamal Prakashan, S.H. Raza et Ashok Vajpeyi, New Delhi, 2004. "Raza. An Introduction to his Painting", by Michel Imbert, Rainbow Publishers, Noida, 2003. "Raza: Text-Interview-Poetry, Ravi Kumar" by ashok Vajpeyi, New Delhi, 2002. Bindu: Space and time in Raza's vision, by Geeti Sen. Media Transasia, 1997. ISBN 962-7024-06-6. Jacques Lassaigne, "Raza", in Cimaise, n°79, Paris, January–February–March 1967 == References == == External links == The Raza Foundation Profile on AstaGuru Documentary produced by NDTV Interview with Sansad TV (in Hindi)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nils_Jerlov	Nils Jerlov	Nils Gunnar Jerlov (1909–1990) was a Swedish oceanographer, physicist, scientist, and researcher who studied how light interacts with water. He was a scientist in the field of ocean optics, and his water types are used to define the color and characteristics of natural water bodies. == Biography == Nils Jerlov was born October 12, 1909, in Bosjokloster parish in what was then Malmöhus County, Sweden. Nils Jerlov was the son of David Johnson and Hilma Henriksson. He was the nephew of Sigbert and Emil Jerlov. Jerlov attended the University of Lund, Sweden. He received a Master of Philosophy in 1932 and graduated with a Ph.D. in 1939. During that time, he became an assistant at the Swedish Hydrographic-Biological Commission in 1935 and worked in a laboratory there. In 1949 he married Elwi Galeen (1913–2008), the daughter of German director Henrik Galeen and his Swedish wife Elvira Adler. Jerlov became an associate professor of oceanography at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden in 1953. He worked at the Swedish Fisheries Board from 1948 to 1958, at the Oceanographic Institute from 1957 to 1961, and managed a laboratory in oceanography in Gothenburg in 1961. In 1963 he was appointed professor of physical oceanography in Copenhagen, Denmark. Jerlov participated in the Swedish deep-sea Albatross expedition in 1947–1948, a joint Italian-Swedish oceanographic expedition in 1955, Auguste Piccard's diving expedition with the Bathyscaphe deep-sea submersible in the Mediterranean in 1957, and the international oceanographic expedition with RRS Discovery II in 1959. He became a member of the Royal Society of Arts and Sciences in Gothenburg in 1954, a Fellow of International Oceanographic Foundation and Member of Corporation of Bermuda Biological Station in 1958, and Chairman of the Commission on Radiant Energy in the Sea in 1960. Beyond ocean optics, Jerlov also researched nuclear physics, environmental pollution, and the ocean heat budget. He was a knight of the Order of the North Star. Aboard the Albatross expedition in the 1940s, Jerlov began to observe the variability in the color and light-absorbing properties of ocean waters. He proposed a water mass classification scheme for different water bodies based on their optical properties. After becoming a professor at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark in 1963, he wrote a book called Optical Oceanography (1968), later renamed Marine Optics (1976), a fundamental text to the field of oceanography. He served on the International Association for Physical Oceanography, the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research, the Nordic Committee on Physical Oceanography, and the Danish National Board for Oceanography. Jerlov retired in 1978. Jerlov died May 29, 1990, in Haga, Gothenburg, Sweden. He is buried in the memorial grove at Kviberg Cemetery in Gothenburg. == Published works == 1939: Effect of Chemical Combination on X-Ray Emission Spectra (Doctoral Thesis) 1951: Optical Studies of Ocean Water. Reports of the Swedish Deep-Sea Expedition 1953: Particle Distribution in the Ocean 1956: The Equatorial Currents in the Pacific 1958: Maxima in the vertical Distribution of Particles in the Sea 1961: Optical Measurements in the eastern North Atlantic. Discovery II exp. of August and September 1959, Medd. Oceanogr. Inst. Goteborg 1964: Factors influencing the colour of the oceans, in: Studies on Oceanography 1968: Optical Oceanography 1964: Optical classification of ocean water, in: Physical Aspects of Light in the Sea: A Symposium (University of Hawaii Press), J. E. Tyler, Ed. 1976: Marine Optics == Jerlov Water Types == Jerlov is perhaps best known for his classification of water bodies by their color and optical properties into several "water types" that group waters by their light absorption and scattering properties. They range from pure blue ocean waters to darker, greener coastal waters, with "Baltic Sea", and "Black Sea" representing the darkest, most turbid water types. Jerlov water types are used by researchers in many fields to understand the heat content and transparency of lakes, rivers, estuaries, and oceans. For example, Jerlov water types are a feature of hydrodynamic computer models of the ocean (for example, ROMS) to more accurately simulate how water will absorb heat and light. Dark water bodies absorb more energy than bright blue waters of the open ocean. His water types remain useful for climate modeling and ocean circulation research, among many other applications. == Recognition == The Oceanography Society presents an award in Jerlov's honor every two years to a prominent researcher in the field of ocean optics. The Jerlov Award is presented at the Ocean Optics conference with support from the NASA and the U.S. Office of Naval Research, with a pin designed by Judith Munk. == See also == Albatross expedition Color of water Ocean color Ocean optics The Oceanography Society == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Olympia	SS Olympia	SS Olympia was a steamship that served the northwest United States and Alaska during the Klondike Gold Rush. She was wrecked in 1910. Olympia was laid down as SS Doune Castle but launched as SS Dunbar Castle in 1883 by Barclay, Curle and Co. of Glasgow, Scotland, for the Castle Mail Packet Company. In 1895, Dunbar Castle was sold to Fairfield Ship Building and Engineering Co. and renamed SS Olympia. In 1897, the Scottish American Steamship Company bought her, and later that year she was bought by the Northern Pacific Steamship Line. In 1898, she operated with the North America Mail Steamship Company of Tacoma, Washington. In 1903, she operated under the North Western Steam Ship Company of Seattle, Washington, which sold her to the Alaska Steam Ship Company in 1904. That year, lifeboats were installed. On 10 December 1910, Olympia ran aground on Bligh Reef off Alaska′s Prince William Sound and sank without loss of life. Following the sinking, steamboat inspectors accused Captain Daniels, in command of Olympia when she ran aground, of "unskillful navigation." == Notes == "Details of the Wreck of the S.S. Olympia", Fairbanks Daily News-Miner. 3 January 1911. Page 2. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlow_Award#:~:text=1973,Karl%20F.%20Freed	Marlow Award	The Marlow Medal and Prize is an early-career award in physical chemistry given by the Royal Society of Chemistry. One or two prizewinners each year, who must be junior researchers under 35 or within 10 years of completing their doctorate, receive £2000 and hold lectures at universities in the UK. The award was established in 1957 and commemorates the chemist George Stanley Withers Marlow (1889–1948). Award winners are also entitled to £3000 in travel expenses to give a lecture tour in Australia, New Zealand, Singapore or Malaysia. This lecture series, instituted in 1981, is named for Robert Anthony Robinson (1903–1979). == Winners == == See also == List of chemistry awards == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doni_Tondo	Doni Tondo	The Doni Tondo or Doni Madonna is the only finished panel painting by the mature Michelangelo to survive. Now in the Uffizi in Florence, Italy, and still in its original frame, the Doni Tondo commissioned by Agnolo Doni, probably to commemorate his marriage to Maddalena Strozzi, the daughter of a powerful Tuscan family. The painting is in the form of a tondo, meaning in Italian 'round', a shape which is frequently associated during the Renaissance with domestic ideas. The Doni Tondo portrays the Holy Family (the child Jesus, Mary, and Joseph) in the foreground, along with John the Baptist in the middle-ground, and contains five nude male figures in the background. The inclusion of these nude figures has been interpreted in a variety of ways. == History == Vasari tells us that the work was commissioned by Agnolo Doni (portrait). The occasion may have been to celebrate his marriage in January 1504 to Maddelena Strozzi (portrait); the blazon of the Strozzi family with three crescent moons is carved in the frame. Alternatively, it could have been commissioned to commemorate the birth of his daughter Maria in 1507. This last theory is supported by the noticeable influence that the Laocoon was unearthed in January 1506 in the presence of Michelangelo, and the similarities between the Doni Virgin and the Sybils in the Sistine Chapel frescoes, painted the following year. In either case, Michelangelo completed it before started work in his frescoes in the Sistine Chapel ceiling, in 1508. == Description == Mary is the most prominent figure in the composition, taking up much of the center of the image. She sits directly on the ground without a cushion between herself and the grass, to better communicate the theme of her relationship to the earth (?). Joseph is positioned higher in the image than Mary, although this is an unusual feature in compositions of the Holy Family. Mary is seated between his legs, as if he is protecting her, his great legs forming a kind of de facto throne. There is some debate as to whether Mary is receiving the Child from Joseph or vice versa. Saint John the Baptist, the patron saint of Florence, is very commonly included in Florentine works depicting the Madonna and Child. He is in the middle-ground of the painting, between the Holy Family and the background. The scene appears to be a rural one, with the Holy Family enjoying themselves on the grass and separated from the curiously (seemingly) unrelated group at the back by a low wall. The painting is still in its original frame, one that Michelangelo might have influenced or helped design. The frame is ornately carved and rather unusual for the five heads it contains which protrude three-dimensionally into space. Similar to the nudes of the background, the meanings of these heads has been the subject of speculation. The frame also contains carvings of crescent moons, stars, vegetation, and lions' heads. These symbols are, perhaps, references to the Doni and Strozzi families, taken from each one's coat of arms. As depicted on the frame, "the moons are bound together with ribbons that interlock with the lions", possibly referring to the marriage of the two families. There is a horizontal band, possibly a wall, separating the foreground and background. The background figures are five nudes, whose meaning and function are subject to much speculation and debate. Because they are much closer to us, the viewers, the Holy Family is much larger than the nudes in the background, a device to aid the illusion of deep space in a two-dimensional image. Behind Saint John the Baptist is a semi-circular ridge, against which the Sistine ignudi are leaning, or upon which they are sitting. This semi-circle reflects or mirrors the circular shape of the painting itself and acts as a foil to the vertical nature of the principal group (the Holy family). Mary and Joseph gaze at Christ, but none of the background nudes looks directly at him. The far background contains a mountainous landscape rendered in atmospheric perspective. == Technique == The Doni Tondo is believed to be the only existing panel picture Michelangelo painted without the aid of assistants; and, unlike his Manchester Madonna and Entombment (both National Gallery, London), the attribution to him has never been questioned. The juxtaposition of bright colors foreshadows the same use of color in Michelangelo's later Sistine Ceiling frescoes. The folds of the drapery are sharply modelled, and the modelling of the figures is distinctly sculptural, suggesting they are carved in medium marble. The nude figures in the background have softer modelling and look to be precursors to the ignudi, the male nude figures in the Sistine Ceiling frescoes. Michelangelo's technique includes shading from the most intense colors first to the lighter shades on top, using the darker colors as shadows. By applying the pigment in a certain way, Michelangelo created an "unfocused" effect in the background and focused detail in the foreground. The most vibrant color is located within the Virgin's garments, signifying her importance within the image. The masculinity of Mary could be explained by Michelangelo's use of male models for female figures, as was done for the Sistine Chapel. Michelangelo used a limited palette of pigments comprising Lead White, Azurite, Verdigris and a few others. He avoided ochres and used very little vermilion. == Influences == The composition is, most likely, partially influenced by the cartoon (a term referring to a detailed later-stage preliminary drawing) for Leonardo da Vinci's The Virgin and Child with St. Anne. Michelangelo's Holy Family forms a tight, separated group in the centre foreground of the image, with the Virgin's figure constructing a typical Renaissance pyramid or triangle. Michelangelo saw the drawing in 1501 while in Florence working on the David. The Doni Tondo is also associated with Luca Signorelli's Medici Madonna in the Uffizi. Michelangelo probably knew of the work and its ideas, and he wanted to incorporate those ideas into his own work. Signorelli's Madonna similarly uses a tondo form, depicts nude male figures in the background, and displays the Virgin sitting directly on the earth. Three aspects of the painting can be attributed to an antique sardonyx cameo and a 15th-century relief from the circle of Donatello, available to Michelangelo in the Palazzo Medici: the circular form, the masculinity of Mary, and the positioning of the Christ Child. The Virgin's right arm mirrors the arm of the satyr in the cameo, and the cameo also depicts an infant located on the shoulders of the satyr, a position similar to the Christ Child being passed over the right arm of Mary. Additionally, some scholars suggest that Michelangelo was inspired by the famous Greco-Roman group of Laocoön and His Sons, excavated in 1506 in Rome, an event at which Michelangelo is believed to have been present. The pose of the nude figure in the background immediately behind Saint Joseph, to our right, appears to have been influenced by the twisting contortions of the figures captured by the serpent in the Laocoön (again, if this were so, it would alter the date of the Doni Tondo by several years). Furthermore, the inclusion of the five protruding heads in the paintings frame is often seen as a reference to a similar motif found on Ghiberti's Porta del Paradiso, the bronze doors of the Florence Baptistry which Michelangelo is known to have greatly admired. == Plant symbolism == The plant in front of John the Baptist has aspects of both hyssop and cornflower, yet is most likely a hyssop because it grows from a wall. Cornflower is an attribute of Christ and symbolizes Heaven while hyssop symbolizes both the humility of Christ and baptism. There is a citron tree in the background, which represents the Cedar of Lebanon. Michelangelo uses the hyssop and tree as a visual representation of a quote by Rabanus Maurus, "From the Cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop which grows on a stony wall we have an explanation of the Divinity which Christ has in his Father and of the humanity that he derives from the Virgin Mary." The clover in the foreground represents the Trinity and salvation. The anemone plant represents the Trinity and the Passion of Christ. == Scholarly theories == There is a multitude of interpretations for the various parts of the work. Most interpretations differ in defining the relationship between the Holy Family and the figures in the background. Paul Barolsky argues that the Doni Tondo is a "devotional image […] more than an example of style, symbolism, [or] iconography". Barolsky bases much of his thesis on the language used by Giorgio Vasari in his work Lives of the Most Excellent Italian Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, from Cimabue to Our Times. His support for the idea of devotion comes from Christ being presented in the painting like a gift, which he links to the painting's patron due to a perceived pun on the Italian word for "gift", donare, and the patron's name, Doni (meaning literally, in Italian, 'gifts'). Furthering the Christ-as-gift metaphor, Mary's holding of Christ in the painting is seen to reference the elevating of the host during mass. Mirella Levi D'Ancona argues that the image reflects Michelangelo's views on the roles of the members of the Holy Family in human salvation and the soul's immortality. The Virgin's placement and emphasis is due to her role in human salvation. She is both the mother of Christ and the best intercessor for appealing to him. Michelangelo, who had been strongly influenced by the Dominican Fra Girolamo Savonarola in Florence, is using the picture to defend the Maculist point of view, a philosophy of the Dominican order rejecting the idea of the Immaculate Conception of Mary. The Maculist view is that the Virgin did not receive her sanctification at birth but at the moment of the incarnation of Christ; thus, the image depicts the moment of Mary's sanctification by showing the Christ Child blessing her. Michelangelo depicts Christ as if he is growing out of Mary's shoulder to take human form, one leg hanging limply and the other not visible at all, therefore making him a part of Mary. Moreover, his muscles and balance convey an upward movement, as if he is growing out of her, although he is above Mary, asserting his superiority to her. Furthermore, she argues that the nudes are to be interpreted as sinners who have removed their clothes for cleansing and purification through baptism. The water, which separates the sinners from the Holy Family, just beyond the horizontal band in the middle of the painting, can therefore be seen as the "waters of separation" mentioned in the Bible. She also argues that the five figures may represent the five parts of the soul: the higher soul (soul and intellect) on the left and the lower soul (imagination, sensation, and nourishing faculty) on the right, a visual depiction of the views of Marsilio Ficino, whom Michelangelo references in other works. Additionally, in looking at them as separate groupings, she suggests that the two figures on Mary's right represents the human and divine natures of Christ, while the three on her left represent the Trinity. Andrée Hayum argues that the commissioning of the tondo by the Doni family helped to emphasize the "secular and domestic ideals" of the painting rather than seeing it as a "devotional object". In choosing a tondo as the format for the picture, Michelangelo is referencing the form's long association with depicting the "Adoration of the Magi, the Nativity, [and] the Madonna and Child." Hayum also finds many allusions to Noah throughout the work. She posits a referencing of the Madonna to Noah's daughter-in-law, a sibyl, which thus makes Joseph an embodiment of Noah himself. Hayum further supports this by acknowledging the direct link between Joseph and Noah as depicted in Michelangelo's Sistine Ceiling paintings. This link to Noah also gives an explanation to the nudes in the background, whose forms may have inspired the sons in the Drunkenness of Noah. The allusion to the Noah story also brings up themes of baptismal water, thus giving rise to an interpretation of the nudes similar to D'Ancona's: "catechumens awaiting baptism" from John the Baptist, whose "isolation within a pit-like space" indicates his special role as baptizer. Roberta Olson states that the painting depicts the "importance of the family" and is related to "Doni’s hoped-for descendants". One of the ways in which the painting depicts a "good marriage" is by the seemingly "reciprocal action" of the handling of Jesus between Joseph and Mary. Much importance is given to Joseph by way of the colors of his clothes: yellow, indicating the divine aspect of the family as well as "truth", and purple, standing for royal lineage tracing from the House of David. Additionally, Joseph is important to the painting by referencing the middle name of the "Doni's third child who lived beyond infancy". The theme of baptism is also suggested on the painting's frame through a possible reference to Ghiberti's Porta del Paradiso – being one of the three sets of doors of the Florence Baptistery (two of which by Ghiberti) – the sculpted details indirectly referring to the rite of Baptism, important for the Donis and their desire for a child as the product of a good marriage, exemplified by the Holy Family, perhaps one reason behind the commissioning of the work. == See also == Media related to Tondo Doni at Wikimedia Commons List of works by Michelangelo == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Barolsky, Paul (2003). "Michelangelo's Doni Tondo and the Worshipful Beholder". Notes in the History of Art. 22 (3): 8–11. doi:10.1086/sou.22.3.23206720. S2CID 192987028. Buzzegoli, Ezio (December 1987). "Michelangelo as a Colourist, Revealed in the Conservation of the Doni Tondo". Apollo: 405–408. d’Ancona, Mirella Levi (1968). "The Doni Madonna by Michelangelo: An Iconographic Study". The Art Bulletin. 50 (1). Taylor & Francis: 43–50. doi:10.2307/3048510. ISBN 978-0-8153-1823-1. JSTOR 3048510. Hartt, Frederick; David G. Wilkins (2003). History of Italian Renaissance Art: Fifth Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. pp. 506–508. Hayum, Andrée. "Michelangelo's Doni Tondo: Holy Family and Family Myth". Studies in Iconography. 7/8.1981/82(1982), No. 1: 209–251. Olson, Roberta J. M. (1993). "Lost and Partially Found: The Tondo, a Significant Florentine Art Form, in Documents of the Renaissance". Artibus et Historiae. 14 (27): 31–65. doi:10.2307/1483444. JSTOR 1483444. Olsen, Roberta J.M. (2000). "Painted Devotional Tondi: Michelangleo Buonarotti's Doni Tondo". The Florentine Tondo. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 219–226. Smith, Graham (1975). "A Medici Source for Michelangelo's Doni Tondo". Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte. 38 Bd., H. 1 (1). Taylor & Francis: 84–85. doi:10.2307/1481909. ISBN 978-0-8153-1823-1. JSTOR 1481909. Zimmer, William (1991). "The Tondo". Art Journal. 50 (1): 60–63. doi:10.2307/777088. JSTOR 777088. Natali, Antonio (2014), Michelangelo. Inside and outside the Uffizi, Florence: Maschietto Editore, 2014. ISBN 978-88-6394-085-5 Michelangelo Buonarroti, Doni Tondo, ColourLex E. Buzzegoli, R. Bellucci, Michelangelo’s Doni Tondo investigated with non-invasive analytical techniques, in Studying old master paintings, Technology and Practice, ed. by M. Spring, London 2011
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rare_(Selena_Gomez_album)	Rare (Selena Gomez album)	Rare is the third studio album by American singer Selena Gomez, released by Interscope Records on January 10, 2020. As the executive producer, she worked with many producers, including Ian Kirkpatrick, Jason Evigan, Mattman & Robin, Sir Nolan, Simon Says, The Monsters & Strangerz and David Pramik. Described by Gomez as her "diary from the past few years", Rare is a midtempo pop and dance-pop record, taking cues from electronic, Latin pop and R&B styles. Lyrically, the album explores themes of self-love, self-empowerment, self-acceptance, and self-worth. Guest features on Rare are from singer 6lack and rapper Kid Cudi. The album was promoted by two singles prior to its release: The lead single "Lose You to Love Me" was released on October 23, 2019. The song topped the Billboard Hot 100 and became Gomez's first number-one single in the United States. "Look at Her Now" was released a day after the lead single, peaking at number 27 on the chart. Coinciding with the album release, the title track was made the third single, peaking at number 30 on the Hot 100. Rare received positive reviews from music critics, who praised its production and cohesiveness, with many calling it Gomez's best album to date. The album debuted at number one in Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Estonia, Lithuania, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Scotland, and the United States. Rare has since been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of over 1 million equivalent units in the United States. A Target-exclusive edition of Rare additionally includes five of Gomez's standalone singles released in 2017–2018: "Bad Liar", "Fetish" featuring Gucci Mane, "It Ain't Me" with Kygo, "Back to You", and "Wolves" with Marshmello. The vinyl edition of Rare adds "Feel Me" as a bonus track. A deluxe edition with three new tracks, including the third single "Boyfriend", was released on April 9, 2020. == Background and release == Speaking in a November 2019 interview for Apple Music on the subject of her upcoming studio album Rare, Gomez admitted that the unreleased tracks were where she currently was. She also said that the songs on the tracklist went well with each other, after putting them in order. Gomez appeared on the radio program On Air with Ryan Seacrest and stated that she had "a million ideas and it's just going to be cooler and it's going to be stronger and it's going to be better." She stated on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon that the album would have a "sense of strong pop", and that she experimented with electric guitar. She also said that it took her "four years now to even feel at a good place with this album". According to Semrush, Rare was one of 2020's three most-searched albums on Google, collecting 1.2 million monthly searches; the other two are Taylor Swift's Folklore and J Balvin's Colores. == Music and lyrics == Rare is primarily a pop and dance-pop record with a dark tone, deriving elements from various musical styles, such as R&B, electro, funk-pop, reggaeton, alternative pop and electronic music. The main themes are of "love, loss and dating". Gomez herself stated that the album is "honest, empowering and uplifting", while its main messages are "self-love, acceptance and empowerment". She also added that the songs on Rare are "the most honest music I've ever made". === Songs === The standard edition of Rare contains 13 tracks. The opener and title track is a "quiet but impactful self-love anthem" with lyrics discussing "the wavering interests of a lover" and the singer realizing "her love interest isn't valuing her in the way she deserves". Its sound has been referred to as "backing vocals and instrumentals muffled as if the whole thing has been dunked underwater". The following track, "Dance Again", is a blend of multiple genres, including funk, dance, electro, and electropop. It encompasses an "infectious" and "mellifluous" melody, "Cure-like" bass, "fuzzy" synths and a "walloping disco bassline". It has been described as "lite-Daft Punk" and "low-key yet deeply infectious". Co-written with Julia Michaels and Justin Tranter, "Look at Her Now" is an upbeat dance-pop and electropop track which explores "being better off without the bad ones" and getting over the end of a relationship. The fourth song, "Lose You to Love Me", is the only ballad on Rare. Its "bare-bones" production incorporates "plucked" violins, "booming" bass, "tearjerker" piano, an orchestra, and "multi-tracked Gomez voices cascading against each other". The song is about self-love and finding out one's true self while losing a lover in the process. Critics speculated that it may reference about Gomez's relationship with Justin Bieber. The Latin-infused "Ring", which deals with "toying with noncommittal lovers", drew comparisons to the works of Camila Cabello (namely her 2017 hit single "Havana"), Gotye's "Somebody That I Used to Know", as well as Santana's "Smooth". Produced by the Monsters & Strangerz with Jon Bellion, "Vulnerable" is a "warm" disco and electropop record with a "moody synth groove" and elements of italo disco and tropical house. Influences of Latin music are also present on the upbeat and "dancefloor-ready" "Let Me Get Me". The first of Rare's two collaborations, "Crowded Room", is an R&B song which features singer 6lack. Tracks 10, 11, and 12 all have a funk sound. "Kinda Crazy" is a "tongue-in-cheek tune" and "sinuous kiss-off" driven by a "clean bluesy guitar lick and accompanying horns". "Cut You Off" is a "slinky" funk-inflected downtempo pop song and a slow jam about "saying goodbye to a relationship that's dragging you down". It has been compared to the works of Taylor Swift. Rare concludes with "A Sweeter Place": A collaboration with rapper Kid Cudi, the song "documents the life lessons [Gomez] has learned and expresses hope that brighter days lie ahead". The vinyl and digital bonus track editions of Rare feature the song "Feel Me", which was previously featured on the setlist of Gomez's 2016 Revival Tour. Gomez released the song on digital platforms on February 21, 2020, the day of the vinyl release. == Promotion == The album and its title were first announced on Gomez's Instagram page, where she revealed the cover art and included a snippet of the title track. The standard edition of the studio album was promoted and preceded by the release of "Lose You to Love Me" released October 23, 2019, and "Look at Her Now" on October 24, 2019. On November 24, 2019, Gomez performed "Lose You to Love Me" and "Look at Her Now" at the 2019 American Music Awards to promote the album. The title track was released as the second single the same day the album came out. Gomez also appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, The Ellen Degeneres Show, and The Kelly Clarkson Show to promote the album. In addition, "Dance Again" was scheduled to be used to promote CBS Sports and Turner Sports' coverage of the 2020 NCAA tournament. However, the song was never used, as the event was canceled over concerns of the COVID-19 pandemic. A part of the proceeds from "Dance Again" went toward the MusiCares COVID-19 Relief Fund. A performance video of the track was posted on YouTube on March 26, 2020. == Critical reception == Rare received positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has an average score of 76 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Jem Aswad of Variety labeled Rare "one of the best pop albums to be released in recent memory" and described it as "sophisticated, precisely written and expertly produced music". While calling it "shockingly, and beautifully, upbeat", Brittany Spanos of Rolling Stone opined that the album is "an act of divine ruthlessness, full of dance-y, mid-tempo clarity". Writing for NME, Rhian Daly called the album "a beautifully confident return from one of pop's most underrated stars, and a quietly defiant wrestling back of the narrative surrounding her", while Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly praised the album's "lightness" despite its "heavy messaging". Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times named Rare as Gomez's "most meaningful solo disc" and opined that it embraces "an infectious spirit of adventure". Similarly, Vulture's Craig Jenkins wrote that the album is "almost inarguably Selena Gomez's best album". In a mixed review, Pitchfork's Quinn Moreland stated that the album was her "most cohesive record to date" but that "[Gomez's] introspection can only go so deep when it's paired with sleek, easy songwriting that lets her slip by". In concurrence, Alexandra Pollard of The Independent gave the album three stars out of five, deeming it "an accomplished, coherent record, with moments of ecstasy and others of pathos" but concluding that it "never quite gets out from beneath the shadow of half a decade of behemothic bangers". Idolator listed Rare among the 20 best pop albums of 2020, for being an "extraordinarily accomplished pop album that tackles serious issues like self worth and mental health" while complimenting "Lose You to Love Me" as a "Grammy-worthy ballad"; the tracks "Vulnerable", "Ring", "People You Know" and "A Sweeter Place" were highlighted as the "delights" from the album. === Year-end lists === Rare was featured on several year-end list of best albums. It was listed at number 30 on Uproxx's "The Best Albums of 2020" list, with the editors commenting "Coming into her adulthood necessarily meant facing down those two demons, and she does it with idiosyncratic lyrics, outstanding vocal performances, and earworm hooks." Rolling Stone ranked it at number 24 on "The Best Albums of 2020" list, with Julia Childing stating that "it's cathartic to hear Gomez dump out the bad years like they're just burned toast". The publication also listed "Cut You Off", a song from the album as the 19th best song of 2020. Billboard listed the title track as one of the best pop songs of 2020. UMI Yearlies named Rare album of the year in 2020. == Commercial performance == In the United States, Rare debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200, earning 112,000 album-equivalent units (including 53,000 copies as pure album sales) in its first week. This became Gomez's third US number-one debut and the first album released in the 2020s to top the chart. The album also accumulated a total of 79.3 million on-demand streams for album's tracks that week. In its second week, the album dropped to number six on the chart, earning an additional 38,000 units. As of December 2020, the album has earned 703,000 album-equivalent units in the US, according to Nielsen Music/MRC Data. In July 2021, Rare had sold 123,000 pure copies in the US. In the United Kingdom, the album debuted at number two on the UK Albums Chart earning 17,661 album-equivalent units in its first week. It became her highest-charting album in the country and highest-selling album in the country, being certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) in April 2021 for sales of 100,000 album units. In Australia, the album debuted at number one on the ARIA Top 100 Albums Chart, becoming Gomez's first number-one debut in the country. It also became her first number-one album in Argentina, Belgium (Flanders), Lithuania, Portugal and Scotland. == Track listing == Notes ^[a] signifies a producer and vocal producer ^[b] signifies a vocal producer ^[c] signifies an additional producer ^[d] signifies a co-producer ^[e] signifies an additional vocal producer The Japanese limited edition includes all the bonus tracks of the standard edition and a bonus DVD which features the behind the scenes and music videos of "Lose You to Love Me", and "Look at Her Now". The Japanese special edition features the standard edition track listing order and includes all the bonus tracks from the deluxe edition at the end of the album. Additionally, it comes with a bonus DVD, offering exclusive behind the scenes footage, the music video, and a live performance from the Village Studio of "Rare", the performance video of "Dance Again", the live performance from the Revival Tour of "Feel Me", and the music video of "Boyfriend". Fifth anniversary edition CDs include an exclusive snippet of "Sunset Blvd", with Benny Blanco, from their 2025 collaborative album I Said I Love You First. == Personnel == Credits adapted from the liner notes of Rare. === Vocals === === Instrumentation === === Production === === Technical === === Design === Petra Collins – photography Max Angles – design Dina Hovsepian – art direction == Charts == == Certifications and sales == == Release history == == See also == List of 2020 albums List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2020 List of number-one albums of 2020 (Australia) List of number-one albums of 2020 (Belgium) List of number-one albums of 2020 (Canada) List of number-one albums of 2020 (Mexico) List of number-one albums of 2020 (Norway) List of number-one albums of 2020 (Portugal) List of number-one albums of 2020 (Scotland) List of UK top-ten albums in 2020 == References == === Footnotes === === Citations ===
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwen_Ifill	Gwen Ifill	Gwendolyn L. Ifill ( EYE-fəl; September 29, 1955 – November 14, 2016) was an American journalist, television newscaster, and author. In 1999, she became the first African-American woman to host a nationally televised U.S. public affairs program with Washington Week in Review. She was the moderator and managing editor of Washington Week and co-anchor and co-managing editor, with Judy Woodruff, of the PBS NewsHour, both of which air on PBS. Ifill was a political analyst and moderated the 2004 and 2008 vice-presidential debates. She authored the best-selling book The Breakthrough: Politics and Race in the Age of Obama. == Early life and education == Gwendolyn L. Ifill was born on September 29, 1955, in Jamaica, Queens, in New York City. According to The New York Times, she disliked her middle name and never publicly used it beyond the initial. She was the fifth of six children of African Methodist Episcopal (AME) minister (Oliver) Urcille Ifill Sr., a Panamanian of Barbadian descent who emigrated from Panama, and Eleanor Ifill, who was from Barbados. Her father's ministry required the family to live in several cities in New England and on the Eastern Seaboard during her youth, where he pastored AME churches. As a child, she lived in Pennsylvania and Massachusetts church parsonages and in federally subsidized housing in Buffalo and New York City. Ifill graduated from Springfield Central High School (then Classical High School) in Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1973. She graduated in 1977 with a Bachelor of Arts in communications from Simmons College, a women's college in Boston. == Career == While at Simmons College, Ifill interned for the Boston Herald-American. One day at work, she discovered a note on her desk that read, "Nigger go home." After showing the note to editors at the newspaper, who "were horrified," they offered her a job when she graduated from college in 1977. Ifill's close friend Michele Norris stated that Ifill said, "'That was really unfortunate, but I have work to do.' And that's how she got the job. She didn't get the job out of sympathy. She got the job because she didn't let that slow her down." Ifill went on to work for the Baltimore Evening Sun from 1981 to 1984 and for The Washington Post from 1984 to 1991. She left the Post after being told she was not ready to cover Capitol Hill, but was hired by The New York Times, where she covered the White House from 1991 to 1994. Her first job in television was with NBC, where she was the network's Capitol Hill reporter in 1994. In October 1999, she became the moderator of the PBS program Washington Week in Review, the first black woman to host a national political talk show on television. She was a senior correspondent for PBS NewsHour. Ifill appeared on various news shows, including Meet the Press, Face the Nation, Charlie Rose, Inside Washington, and The Tavis Smiley Show. In November 2006, she co-hosted Jamestown Live!, an educational webcast commemorating the 400th anniversary of Jamestown, Virginia. Ifill served on the boards of the Harvard Institute of Politics, the Committee to Protect Journalists, the Museum of Television and Radio, and the University of Maryland's Philip Merrill College of Journalism. In 2017, the Committee to Protect Journalists renamed the Burton Benjamin Memorial Award, which was first presented in 1991, to the Gwen Ifill Press Freedom Award. The award has been given to Judy Woodruff in 2017, Maria Ressa in 2018, Zaffar Abbas in 2019, Amal Clooney in 2020, Jimmy Lai in 2021, Galina Timchenko in 2022, Alberto Ibargüen in 2023, and Christophe Deloire in 2024. === 2004 and 2008 vice-presidential debates === On October 5, 2004, Ifill moderated the vice-presidential debate between the Republican Vice President Dick Cheney and the Democratic candidate and U.S. Senator from North Carolina, John Edwards. Howard Kurtz described the consensus that Ifill "acquitted herself well" as moderator. She was the first African-American woman to moderate a vice-presidential debate. Ifill also moderated the vice-presidential debate on October 2, 2008, between the Democratic U.S. Senator from Delaware Joe Biden and the Republican governor of Alaska, Sarah Palin, at Washington University in St. Louis. The debate's format offered Ifill freedom to cover domestic and international issues. Before the 2008 debate, Ifill's objectivity was questioned by conservative talk radio, blogs, cable news programs and some independent media analysts because of her book The Breakthrough: Politics and Race in the Age of Obama, which was scheduled to be released on Inauguration Day 2009, but whose contents had not been disclosed to the debate commission or the campaigns. The book was mentioned in The Washington Times and appeared in trade catalogues as early as July 2008, well before Ifill was selected by the debate committee. Several analysts viewed Ifill's book as creating a conflict of interest, including Kelly McBride of the Poynter Institute for Media Studies, who said, "Obviously the book will be much more valuable to her if Obama is elected." John McCain, the Republican presidential nominee, said in an interview on Fox News Channel, "I think she will do a totally objective job because she is a highly respected professional." Asked about the forthcoming book, McCain responded, "Does this help...if she has written a book that's favorable to Senator Obama? Probably not. But I have confidence that Gwen Ifill will do a professional job." To critics Ifill responded, I've got a pretty long track record covering politics and news, so I'm not particularly worried that one-day blog chatter is going to destroy my reputation. The proof is in the pudding. They can watch the debate tomorrow night and make their own decisions about whether or not I've done my job. After the debate Ifill received praise for her performance. The Boston Globe reported that she received "high marks for equal treatment of the candidates". Ifill's moderation of the debates won her pop-culture recognition when the debates were parodied on Saturday Night Live, with Queen Latifah portraying Ifill. PBS ombudsman Michael Getler twice wrote about letters he received complaining of bias in Ifill's news coverage. He dismissed complaints that Ifill appeared insufficiently enthusiastic about Sarah Palin's speech at the 2008 Republican National Convention, and concluded that Ifill had played a "solid, in my view, and central role in PBS coverage of both conventions." === 2009–2016 === On August 18 and 19, 2009, Ifill appeared as the guest expert lifeline on the 10th Anniversary Primetime Celebration of ABC's "Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?" which was hosted by Regis Philbin. In order of appearance other experts during the run were Sam Donaldson, George Stephanopoulos, Wolf Blitzer, Cokie Roberts, Candy Crowley, Connie Chung, Jodi Picoult, Ken Jennings, Mo Rocca, and Bill Nye. She was used as a lifeline just once, by Nik Bonaddio, who was accurately told by Ifill that the quote "The first thing we do, let's kill all the lawyers" was a line from Shakespeare's "Henry VI, Part II". In September 2011, Ifill was a presenter at the 32nd News & Documentary Emmy Awards. On August 6, 2013, NewsHour named Ifill and Judy Woodruff as co-anchors and co-managing editors. They shared anchor duties Monday through Thursday; Woodruff was the sole anchor on Friday. In November 2015, Ifill was the master of ceremonies at the 2015 LBJ Liberty & Justice For All Award ceremony. In February 2016, she and Woodruff, moderating the debate between Hillary Clinton and Bernie Sanders, became the first team of women to moderate a Democratic presidential debate. == Published works == Ifill's book The Breakthrough: Politics and Race in the Age of Obama was published on January 20, 2009, the Inauguration Day of President Obama. The book focused on several African-American politicians, including Obama and other up-and-comers such as then-member of Congress Artur Davis, then-Massachusetts governor Deval Patrick, and then mayor of Newark, New Jersey Cory Booker. The publisher, Random House, described the book as showing "why this is a pivotal moment in American history" through interviews with black power brokers and through Ifill's observations and analysis of issues. The book was a New York Times best-seller. == Honors and awards == Ifill was awarded the Women in Film and Video Women of Vision Award in 2000. In 2004, she received the Gracie Allen Tribute Award from the Foundation for American Women in Radio and Television. She was awarded a Peabody Award in 2008 for her work on Washington Week. In 2009, she was honored with the First Amendment Award by Ford Hall Forum, and Harvard University honored her the same year with the Goldsmith Career Award for Excellence in Journalism. The following year, she received the 17th Fred Friendly First Amendment Award from Quinnipiac University. On February 7, 2011, Ifill was named an honorary member of Delta Sigma Theta during the sorority's 22nd Annual Delta Days in Washington, D.C. In June 2009, Gwen Ifill was inducted into the Washington, DC Journalism Hall of Fame by the Washington DC chapter of the Society of Professional Journalists. In 2012, Ifill was inducted into the National Association of Black Journalists Hall of Fame. In 2014, she was awarded the Al Neuharth Award for Excellence in Journalism. Her work on the PBS town hall special America After Ferguson earned her a nomination for Outstanding Host in a Talk, Reality, News/ Information or Variety (Series or Special) at the 46th NAACP Image Awards. In November 2015, she accepted the Lifetime Achievement award from the Women's Media Center at the annual Women's Media Awards ceremony. She received the Fourth Estate Award from the National Press Club in 2015. Columbia University awarded Ifill the John Chancellor Award for Excellence in Journalism in 2016, but she died two days before the scheduled ceremony. Ifill received more than 20 honorary doctorates from universities around the world, including Georgetown University, Smith College, Bates College and Skidmore College. In May 2011, she served as a commencement speaker at Morehouse College. On the first anniversary of her death, November 14, 2017, Ifill's alma mater Simmons College announced that they would be launching a school in 2018, named in her honor as the "Gwen Ifill College of Media, Arts and Humanities". On January 30, 2020, Ifill was honored on a U.S. postage stamp. On June 17, 2021, the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation renamed Railroad Park in Queens for her. Gwen Ifill was posthumously awarded the Dunnigan-Payne Prize for lifetime career achievement on April 29, 2023, at the White House Correspondents' Dinner. == Personal life == Ifill attended Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church from 1989 until her death. She was close to her large extended family, socialized with Washington luminaries as well as colleagues, and supported and mentored young journalists. Sherrilyn Ifill, a cousin and president and director-counsel of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, stated at the funeral service that her cousin "represented the most American of success stories." In her spare time, Ifill was an avid reader. She never married and had no children. == Death == Ifill died of breast and endometrial cancer on November 14, 2016, at age 61. According to CNN, she spent her final days at a Washington, D.C. hospice, surrounded by family and friends. On November 14, PBS NewsHour devoted their full show in tribute to her. Over the course of the following week, this developed into a series of tributes on various NewsHours as "Remembering Gwen." Sara Just of PBS and WETA-TV called Ifill "a journalist's journalist". President Obama extended his condolences to Ifill's family, saying that he "always appreciated [her] reporting even when [he] was at the receiving end of one of her tough interviews." Speaker of the House Paul Ryan, in expressing his condolences, described Ifill as "an incredibly talented and respected journalist." First Lady Michelle Obama was among the thousands of mourners who attended Ifill's funeral at the Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church in Washington, D.C. == In popular culture == Ifill was featured in a PBS Kids series, Xavier Riddle and the Secret Museum in the episode, "I Am Gwen Ifill". Ifill was portrayed by Queen Latifah in the cold open of Episode 4 of Season 34 of Saturday Night Live. Ifill is featured on a United States Postal Service stamp issued in 2019 as part of the postal service’s Black Heritage series. == References == == External links == Gwen Ifill at PBS NewsHour Gwen Ifill Archived September 29, 2014, at the Wayback Machine at Washington Week Appearances on C-SPAN Gwen Ifill at IMDb Gwen Ifill at The Interviews: An Oral History of Television
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Esteve-Coll#:~:text=Esteve%2DColl%20was%20head%20of,the%20University%20of%20Surrey%20Library.	Elizabeth Esteve-Coll	Dame Elizabeth Anne Loosemore Esteve-Coll (née Kingdon; 14 October 1938 – 16 September 2024) was a British academic, museum director and librarian. == Early life and education == Esteve-Coll was born in Ripon, West Riding of Yorkshire, the daughter of Percy Kingdon, a bank clerk, and his wife Nora Rose. She was educated at Darlington High School and read English and Spanish at Trinity College, Dublin and Art History at Birkbeck College (now Birkbeck, University of London). == Career == Esteve-Coll was head of learning resources at Kingston Polytechnic (now Kingston University London) from 1977 to 1982. In 1982 she became the first female director of the University of Surrey Library. In 1985 she became the Keeper of the National Art Library at the Victoria and Albert Museum. She then instigated various changes to make the library more accessible to a broader audience. Esteve-Coll became the UK's first woman director of a national arts collection when she was appointed director of the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1987, succeeding Sir Roy Strong. She resigned in 1994, midway through her second term as director, to take up the Vice-Chancellorship of the University of East Anglia. Alan Borg succeeded her as its new director, taking the post on 1 October 1995. Esteve-Coll served as Vice-Chancellor of the University of East Anglia from 1995 to 1997, but was forced to step down after being diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. She said at the time: "It is with real sadness and disappointment that I must acknowledge that I am not able to lead the university into the 21st century." She served as Chancellor of University of Lincoln for seven years, as well as being a Trustee of the Sainsbury Institute for the Study of Japanese Arts and Cultures since its foundation in January 1999. == Marriage == At the age of 21, she married Spanish refugee sea captain José Esteve-Coll, 30 years her senior. He died in 1980. == Honours == Esteve-Coll was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the Queen's Birthday Honours list in 1995. She received the Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Neck Ribbon (3rd class) in November 2005 in recognition of her "outstanding contribution to the promotion of Japanese culture and studies to British people". In November 2008, she was presented with an honorary doctorate of arts and made Chancellor Emerita by the University of Lincoln during her farewell ceremony at Lincoln Cathedral. == Death == Esteve-Coll died on 16 September 2024, at the age of 85. == Bibliography == Books by My Bedside (1989) == References == == External links == IFLA Section of Art Libraries Annual Report — September 1997 – August 1998 Interview with Dame Elizabeth Esteve-Coll Elizabeth Esteve-Coll on Desert Island Discs
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Mond_Award#:~:text=2008%3A%20Robert%20H.%20Crabtree	Ludwig Mond Award	The Ludwig Mond Award is run annually by the Royal Society of Chemistry. The award is presented for outstanding research in any aspect of inorganic chemistry. The winner receives a monetary prize of £2000, in addition to a medal and a certificate, and completes a UK lecture tour. The winner is chosen by the Dalton Division Awards Committee. In 2020 the Ludwig Mond Award was merged with the Nyholm Prize for Inorganic Chemistry to form the Mond-Nyholm Prize for Inorganic Chemistry. == Award History == The award was established in 1981 to commemorate the life and work of the chemist Dr Ludwig Mond and followed an endowment from ICI (Imperial Chemical Industries). Mond was born in Kassel, Germany in 1839, and became a noted chemist and industrialist who eventually took British nationality. == Recipients == Source: == See also == List of chemistry awards == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Women_in_Mathematics#Presidents	Association for Women in Mathematics	The Association for Women in Mathematics (AWM) is a professional society whose mission is to encourage women and girls to study and to have active careers in the mathematical sciences, and to promote equal opportunity for and the equal treatment of women and girls in the mathematical sciences. The AWM was founded in 1971 and incorporated in the state of Massachusetts. AWM has approximately 5200 members, including over 250 institutional members, such as colleges, universities, institutes, and mathematical societies. It offers numerous programs and workshops to mentor women and girls in the mathematical sciences. Much of AWM's work is supported through federal grants. == History == The Association was founded in 1971 as the Association of Women Mathematicians, but the name was changed almost immediately. As reported in "A Brief History of the Association for Women in Mathematics: The Presidents' Perspectives", by Lenore Blum: As Judy Green remembers (and Chandler Davis, early AWM friend, concurs): The formal idea of women getting together and forming a caucus was first made publicly at a MAG [Mathematics Action Group] meeting in 1971 ... in Atlantic City. Joanne Darken, then an instructor at Temple University and now at the Community College of Philadelphia, stood up at the meeting and suggested that the women present remain and form a caucus. I have been able to document six women who remained: me (I was a graduate student at Maryland at the time), Joanne Darken, Mary Gray (she was already at American University), Diane Laison (then an instructor at Temple), Gloria Olive (a Senior Lecturer at the University of Otago, New Zealand who was visiting the U.S. at the time) and Annie Selden... It's not absolutely clear what happened next, except that I've personally always thought that Mary was responsible for getting the whole thing organized .... Mary Gray, an early organizer and first president, placed an advertisement in the February 1971 Notices of the AMS, and wrote the first issue of the AWM Newsletter that May. Early goals of the association focused on equal pay for equal work, as well as equal consideration for admission to graduate school and support while there; for faculty appointments at all levels; for promotion and for tenure; for administrative appointments; and for government grants, positions on review and advisory panels and positions in professional organizations. Alice T. Schafer, who succeeded Mary Gray as second president of the AWM, set up an AWM office at Wellesley College. At this point, AWM began to be a recognized established presence in the mathematics scene. In 1973 AWM was legally incorporated, and in 1974 it received tax-exempt status. The AWM holds an annual meeting at the Joint Mathematics Meetings. In 2011, during its fortieth-anniversary celebration 40 Years and Counting, the association initiated a biennial research symposium. The Association for Women in Mathematics Newsletter is the member journal of the organization. The first issue was published in May 1971, a few months after AWM was founded. All regular members of AWM can request that hard copies of the newsletter be sent to them. The newsletter is now open access and anyone can read or download a pdf file of recent or past issues from the AWM website. == Lectures == The AWM sponsors three honorary lecture series. The Noether Lectures – honor women who "have made fundamental and sustained contributions to the mathematical sciences". Presented in association with the American Mathematical Society, the lecture is given at the annual Joint Mathematics Meetings. The Falconer Lectures – honor women who "have made distinguished contributions to the mathematical sciences or mathematics education. Presented in association with the Mathematical Association of America, the lecture is given at the annual MathFest. The Kovalevsky Lectures – honor women who have "made distinguished contributions in applied or computational mathematics". Presented in association with the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM), the lecture is given at the SIAM Annual Meeting. The lecture series is named for the mathematician Sonia Kovalevsky. == Awards == The AWM sponsors several awards and prizes. Alice T. Schafer Prize – given each year "to an undergraduate woman for excellence in mathematics". Louise Hay Award – given each year for "outstanding achievements of a woman in mathematics education". M. Gweneth Humphreys Award – given each year for "outstanding mentorship activities of a woman in the mathematical sciences". Ruth I. Michler Memorial Prize – given each year to a woman recently tenured in mathematics. The prize funds a semester in residence at Cornell University without teaching obligations. AWM Service Award - given each year to women helping to promote and support women in mathematics through exceptional voluntary service to the Association for Women in Mathematics. Three recently created prizes for early-career women are also sponsored by the AWM. AWM-Birman Research Prize – given every other year beginning in 2015 for "exceptional research in topology/geometry". AWM-Microsoft Research Prize – given every other year beginning in 2014 for "exceptional research in algebra/number theory". AWM-Sadosky Research Prize – given every other year beginning in 2014 for "exceptional research in analysis". The AWM Fellows program recognizes "individuals who have demonstrated a sustained commitment to the support and advancement of women in the mathematical sciences". == Presidents == == See also == African Women in Mathematics Association European Women in Mathematics Femmes et Mathématiques List of women in mathematics Timeline of women in mathematics == References == == Further reading == Blum, Leonore (September 1991). "A Brief History of the Association for Women in Mathematics: The Presidents' Perspectives". Notices of the American Mathematical Society. 38 (7): 738–774. Taylor, Jean E.; Sylvia M. Wiegand (January 1999). "AWM in the 1990s: A Recent History of the Association for Women in Mathematics" (PDF). Notices of the American Mathematical Society. 46 (1): 27–38. An expanded version appeared in parts in the AWM Newsletter "Women in Mathematics Association". Maths History. School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. 2018. == External links == Official website Association for Women in Mathematics records at the Sophia Smith Collection, Smith College Special Collections
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arshad_Sauleh#:~:text=2011%2DMerit%20Award%20by%20State,Art%20Culture%20and%20Language%20Srinagar.	Arshad Sauleh	Arshad Sauleh (Urdu: ارشر صالح) is an artist and a radio broadcaster born in a Muslim family at Srinagar in the summer capital of Kashmir who has remained host/judge of several noted art exhibitions besides he is teaching art at Government College of Education in Srinagar. == Contribution and awards == Arshid Sauleh represented India in the 2002 International Exhibition of Quranic paintings in Iran. He was honored by Ministry of Heritage and Islamic Guidance, Government of Iran to the tenth International Exhibition on Quranic Paintings. During Kashmir conflict 2011-Merit Award by State Academy of Art Culture and Language Srinagar. == See also == M F Husain == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Esteve-Coll#	Elizabeth Esteve-Coll	Dame Elizabeth Anne Loosemore Esteve-Coll (née Kingdon; 14 October 1938 – 16 September 2024) was a British academic, museum director and librarian. == Early life and education == Esteve-Coll was born in Ripon, West Riding of Yorkshire, the daughter of Percy Kingdon, a bank clerk, and his wife Nora Rose. She was educated at Darlington High School and read English and Spanish at Trinity College, Dublin and Art History at Birkbeck College (now Birkbeck, University of London). == Career == Esteve-Coll was head of learning resources at Kingston Polytechnic (now Kingston University London) from 1977 to 1982. In 1982 she became the first female director of the University of Surrey Library. In 1985 she became the Keeper of the National Art Library at the Victoria and Albert Museum. She then instigated various changes to make the library more accessible to a broader audience. Esteve-Coll became the UK's first woman director of a national arts collection when she was appointed director of the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1987, succeeding Sir Roy Strong. She resigned in 1994, midway through her second term as director, to take up the Vice-Chancellorship of the University of East Anglia. Alan Borg succeeded her as its new director, taking the post on 1 October 1995. Esteve-Coll served as Vice-Chancellor of the University of East Anglia from 1995 to 1997, but was forced to step down after being diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. She said at the time: "It is with real sadness and disappointment that I must acknowledge that I am not able to lead the university into the 21st century." She served as Chancellor of University of Lincoln for seven years, as well as being a Trustee of the Sainsbury Institute for the Study of Japanese Arts and Cultures since its foundation in January 1999. == Marriage == At the age of 21, she married Spanish refugee sea captain José Esteve-Coll, 30 years her senior. He died in 1980. == Honours == Esteve-Coll was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the Queen's Birthday Honours list in 1995. She received the Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Neck Ribbon (3rd class) in November 2005 in recognition of her "outstanding contribution to the promotion of Japanese culture and studies to British people". In November 2008, she was presented with an honorary doctorate of arts and made Chancellor Emerita by the University of Lincoln during her farewell ceremony at Lincoln Cathedral. == Death == Esteve-Coll died on 16 September 2024, at the age of 85. == Bibliography == Books by My Bedside (1989) == References == == External links == IFLA Section of Art Libraries Annual Report — September 1997 – August 1998 Interview with Dame Elizabeth Esteve-Coll Elizabeth Esteve-Coll on Desert Island Discs
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Lattes	César Lattes	Cesare Mansueto Giulio Lattes (11 July 1924 – 8 March 2005), also known as César Lattes, was a Brazilian experimental physicist, one of the discoverers of the pion, a subatomic particle composed of a quark and an antiquark. == Life == Lattes was born to a family of Italian immigrants in Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil. He began his basic studies at his home state but later on moved to São Paulo, where he finished high school. He proceeded to enroll in the University of São Paulo, graduating in 1943, in mathematics and physics. He was part of an initial group of young Brazilian physicists who worked under European teachers such as Gleb Wataghin and Giuseppe Occhialini. Lattes was considered the most brilliant student in his group and was noted at a very young age as a bold researcher. His colleagues, who also became important Brazilian scientists, were Oscar Sala, Mário Schenberg, Roberto Salmeron, Marcelo Damy de Souza Santos and Jayme Tiomno. At the age of 25, he was one of the founders of the Brazilian Center for Physical Research (Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas) in Rio de Janeiro. From 1946 to 1948, Lattes launched on his main research line by studying cosmic rays. He travelled to England arriving in February 1946, to join his teacher Occhialini who had arrived the previous year, to work in the group directed by Cecil Powell at the H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory of the University of Bristol. There, he improved on the nuclear emulsion used by Powell by adding more boron to it. In 1947, he collaborated with Powell, Occhialini and Hugh Muirhead in the experimental discovery of the pion (or pi meson). In the same year he, along Powell and Occhialini, determined the mass of the new particle. In April 1947 he visited a weather station on top of the 5,200-meter-high Chacaltaya mountain in Bolivia, using photographic plates to register rays and reveal more 'pion decay events'. A year later, working with Eugene H. Gardner (1913-1950) at UC Berkeley, Lattes was able to detect the artificial production of pions in the lab's cyclotron by bombarding carbon atoms with alpha particles. He was just 24 years old. In 1949, Lattes returned as a professor and researcher with the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro and the Brazilian Center for Physical Research. After another brief stay in the United States from 1955 to 1957, he returned to Brazil and accepted a position at his alma mater, the Department of Physics of the University of São Paulo. In 1967, Lattes accepted a position of full professor with the new Institute of Physics "Gleb Wataghin" at the State University of Campinas (Unicamp), which he helped to found. He became the chairman of the Department of Cosmic Rays, Chronology, High Energies and Leptons. In 1969, he and his group discovered the mass of the so-called fireballs, a phenomenon induced by naturally occurring high-energy collisions, which was detected by means of special lead-chamber nuclear emulsion plates invented by him and placed at the Chacaltaya peak of the Bolivian Andes. Lattes retired in 1986, when he received from Unicamp the title of doctor honoris causa and professor emeritus. After retirement he continued to live in a house in the suburban area close to the university's campus. He died of a heart attack on March 8, 2005, in Campinas, São Paulo. == Legacy == Lattes is one of the most widely recognized and honored Brazilian physicists, and his work was fundamental for the development of atomic physics. He was considered one of the greatest scientific leaders of Brazilian Physics and was one of the main personalities behind the creation of the important Brazilian National Research Council (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico). Due to his contribution in this process, the Brazilian national science database was named Lattes Platform after him. He is one of the few Brazilian scientists with an article in the Encyclopædia Britannica. Although he was the main researcher and the first author of the historical Nature article describing the pion, only Cecil Powell was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1950 for "his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method". The reason for this apparent neglect is that the Nobel Committee policy until 1960 was to give the award to the research group head only. He received the TWAS Prize in 1987. After his death Unicamp decided to give his name to its central library. On 11 July 2024, Google celebrated his 100th birthday with a Google doodle. == Quote == "Science should be universal, without a doubt. However, one should not believe unconditionally in this." == Culture == Gilberto Gil's Grammy-winning 1998 album Quanta includes a song dedicated to Lattes, called "Ciência e Arte". == References == == Bibliography == C.M.G. Lattes; H. Muirhead; G.P.S. Occhialini; C.F. Powell (1947). "Processes involving charged mesons". Nature. 159 (4047): 694–697. Bibcode:1947Natur.159..694L. doi:10.1038/159694a0. S2CID 4152828. C.M.G. Lattes; G.P.S. Occhialini; C.F. Powell (1948). "A determination of the ratio of the masses of pi-meson and mu-meson by the method of grain-counting". Proceedings of the Physical Society. 61 (2): 173–183. Bibcode:1948PPS....61..173L. doi:10.1088/0959-5309/61/2/308. E. Gardner; C.M.G. Lattes (1948). "Production of mesons by the 184-inch Berkeley cyclotron". Science. 107 (2776): 270–271. Bibcode:1948Sci...107..270G. doi:10.1126/science.107.2776.270. PMID 17844504. C.M.G. Lattes; C.Q. Orsini; I.G. Pacca; M.T. Cruz; E. Okuno; Y. Fujimoto; K. Yokoi (1963). "Observation of extremely high energy nuclear events with emulsion chamber exposed on Mt. Chacaltaya". Il Nuovo Cimento. 28 (3): 2160. Bibcode:1963NCim...28..614L. doi:10.1007/bf02828877. S2CID 121405654. == Further reading == Lima, Gabriel Augusto Câmara Paiva; Sapunaru, Raquel Anna (2020). "César Lattes: A life to be told". Revista Científica Multidisciplinar Núcleo do Conhecimento. 05 (10 ed.): 181–196. doi:10.32749/nucleodoconhecimento.com.br/filosofia/cesar-lattes. ISSN 2448-0959. S2CID 228900123. Archived from the original on 2021-11-03. == External links == C.M.G. Lattes. Encyclopædia Britannica. Special Dedication to Cesar Lattes. UNICAMP Archive System, March 2005. To Cesar What Belongs to Lattes. State University of Campinas (in Portuguese). Cesar Lattes, a Brief Biography. Brazilian Center of Physical Research (in Portuguese). Photos of César Lattes at Chacaltaya, Bolivia. Lattes Platform (in Portuguese).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise_Elliott	Louise Elliott	Louise Elliott (born 1969, in Ashington) is a Welsh broadcaster and journalist. == Biography == Born in Ashington, Northumberland, her father Dave Elliott was a professional football player at Sunderland and Newcastle United. At the age of five, her family moved to Wales - she was brought up at Llandegfan near Menai Bridge on Anglesey. === Newspapers === After competing her A Levels, Elliott joined the North Wales Chronicle in Bangor as a trainee reporter. She then worked on local newspapers in Colwyn Bay and Rhyl, before moving to the Wrexham Evening Leader, where she covered the Hillsborough disaster. Four years later, she became education correspondent for the Preston-based Lancashire Evening Post. After a year, Elliott joined the Daily Post, where, for reports including one from Bosnia with the Red Cross on the Mostar massacre, she twice won the regional Young Journalist of the Year award. She then became news editor of three editions of the Daily Post, becoming at the age of 26, one of the youngest news editors in regional newspapers. === Broadcasting === Elliott then took a job with HTV Wales as a North Wales correspondent for Wales Tonight, based at the station's Colwyn Bay newsroom. She then moved to BBC Wales' Bangor newsroom as a North Wales reporter, before relocating to Cardiff to become education correspondent. As part of her BBC training, she also reported for BBC Radio 4, Radio 5 Live and later the BBC News Channel, as both a regional and special UK correspondent. She later became the presenter of BBC Wales' flagship current affairs series Week In, Week Out and the consumer affairs programme X-ray. Elliott later switched to radio, joining Jamie Owen in 2007 as host of a weekday morning show on BBC Radio Wales. On 24 September 2012, she became the host of the station's weekday afternoon show, replacing Roy Noble, but quit just over a year later in order to pursue writing ambitions. She returned to BBC Radio Wales in February 2015 as the new main presenter of the flagship breakfast news programme, Good Morning Wales, alongside Oliver Hides. Elliott left the programme ten months later. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debbie_Allen#:	Debbie Allen	Deborah Kaye Allen (born January 16, 1950) is an American actress, dancer, choreographer, singer, director, producer, and a former member of the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities. She has been nominated for 22 Emmy Awards (winning five), and two Tony Awards. She has won a Golden Globe Award, and received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1991. In 2025, she received an Academy Honorary Award. Allen is best known for her work in the musical-drama television series Fame (1982–1987), where she portrayed dance teacher Lydia Grant, and served as the series' principal choreographer. For this role in 1983, she received a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy and two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Choreography and also received four nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series. Allen later began working as director and producer, most notably producing and directing 83 of 144 episodes of the NBC comedy series A Different World (1988–1993). She returned to acting, playing the leading role in the NBC sitcom In the House from 1995 to 1996, and in 2011, began playing Dr. Catherine Avery in the ABC medical drama Grey's Anatomy also serving as an executive producer/director. She has directed more than 50 television and film productions. In 2001, Allen opened the Debbie Allen Dance Academy in Los Angeles, where she currently teaches young dancers. She also taught choreography to former Los Angeles Lakers dancer-turned-singer, Paula Abdul. She is the younger sister of actress/director/singer Phylicia Rashad. == Early life == Allen was born in Houston, Texas, the third child of orthodontist Andrew Arthur Allen and artist, poet, playwright, scholar, and publisher, Vivian (née Ayers) Allen. She earned a B.A. degree in classical Greek literature, speech, and theater from Howard University and studied acting at HB Studio in New York City. She was a member of Chi Delta Mu Health Professional Fraternity. She holds honoris causa doctorates from Howard University and the University of North Carolina School of the Arts. === Challenges === Debbie Allen auditioned at the Houston Ballet Academy at the age of twelve, but was denied admission. After another chance, she was admitted a year later by a Russian instructor who accidentally saw her perform in a show. Once recruiters from the academy became aware of the situation, they allowed her to stay because they recognized her talent. While at the academy, she trained under Suzelle Poole. Her experience at the Houston Ballet Academy is not the only time Allen was refused. When she was sixteen, she had a successful audition for the North Carolina School of the Arts and was given an opportunity to demonstrate dance techniques to other prospective students applying to the institution. However, she was refused admission and was told her body was not suited to ballet. After numerous rejections, she decided to focus on her academic studies and was on her way to the start of her acting career. == Career == === 1970–1981: Early works === Allen began her career appearing on Broadway theatre. Allen had her Broadway debut in the chorus of Purlie in 1970. She later created the role of Beneatha in the Tony Award-winning musical Raisin (1973), and appeared in Truckload, and Ain't Misbehavin'. In 1980, she received critical attention for her performance as Anita in the Broadway revival of West Side Story which earned her a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical and won her a Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical. In 1976, Allen made her television debut appearing in the CBS sitcom Good Times in a memorable 2-part episode titled "J.J.'s Fiancée" as J.J.'s drug-addicted fiancée, Diana. The following year, she went to star in the NBC variety show 3 Girls 3. Allen later was selected to appear in the 1979 miniseries Roots: The Next Generations by Alex Haley where she plays the wife of Haley. Also, that year, she made her big screen debut appearing in a supporting role in the comedy film The Fish That Saved Pittsburgh. In 1981, she had the important role of Sarah in the movie version of the best-selling novel Ragtime, a role that earned Audra McDonald a Tony Award for in the Broadway musical. === 1982–1987: Fame === In the film Fame (1980), Allen played the role of Lydia Grant. Though the film role was relatively small, Lydia became a central figure in the television adaptation, which ran from 1982 to 1987. During the opening montage of each episode, Grant told her students: "You've got big dreams? You want fame? Well, fame costs. And right here is where you start paying ... in sweat." Allen was nominated for the Emmy Award for Best Actress four times during the show's run. She is the only actress to have appeared in all three screen incarnations of Fame, playing Lydia Grant in both the 1980 film and 1982 television series and playing the school principal in the 2009 remake. Allen was also lead choreographer for the film and television series, winning two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Choreography and one Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy. She became the first Black woman to win a Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Television Series—Musical or Comedy. In 1986, Allen received a second Tony Award nomination, at that time for Best Leading Actress in a Musical, for her performance in the title role of Bob Fosse's Sweet Charity. Also that year, she had a supporting role in the comedy-drama film Jo Jo Dancer, Your Life Is Calling directed, produced by and starring Richard Pryor. === 1988–present === After Fame, Allen focused on working off-camera and as a choreographer. She choreographed the 1988 Broadway adaptation of Stephen King's “Carrie.” Carrie was a collaboration with her fellow “Fame” alumni Michael Gore, Dean Pitchford, and Gene Anthony Ray. The show opened to mixed reviews and closed after only 16 previews and 5 performances. ==== A Different World ==== In an article from the Museum of Broadcast Communications, The Hollywood Reporter commented on Allen's impact as the producer-director of the television series, A Different World. The show dealt with the lives of students at the fictional historically black college, Hillman. The show ran for six seasons on NBC. The Hollywood Reporter is quoted as stating that when Debbie Allen became the producer (and usually director) of A Different World after the first season, she transformed it "from a bland Cosby spin-off into a lively, socially responsible, ensemble situation comedy." She directed a total of 83 episodes. ==== Singing and choreographing ==== Allen has released two solo albums, Sweet Charity (1986) and Special Look (1989), which also produced several singles. Also that year, she directed musical film Polly. She later directed crime drama film Out-of-Sync (1995) as well as a number of television films. She choreographed the Academy Awards for ten years, six of which were consecutive. In 1995, Allen directed the voice cast and lent her voice to the children's animated series C Bear and Jamal for Film Roman and Fox Kids. That same year, she starred in the NBC sitcom In the House which ran for five seasons. She co-produced the 1997 Steven Spielberg historical drama film Amistad receiving a Producers Guild of America Award. ==== Debbie Allen Dance Academy and So You Think You Can Dance ==== In 2001, Allen founded the Debbie Allen Dance Academy, a 501(c)3 non-profit organization. Since 2007, Allen has participated as a judge and mentor for the U.S. version of So You Think You Can Dance. During Season 4, she stepped aside as a judge at the end of Vegas week to avoid perception of bias, since one of her former dancers, Will, had made it to the top 20. ==== Cat on a Hot Tin Roof ==== In 2008, Allen directed the all-African-American Broadway production of Tennessee Williams' Pulitzer Prize-winning drama Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, starring stage veterans James Earl Jones (Big Daddy), her sister Phylicia Rashad (Big Mama) and Anika Noni Rose (Maggie the Cat), as well as film actor Terrence Howard, who made his Broadway debut as Brick. The production, with some roles recast, had a limited run (2009 – April 2010) in London. She also directed and starred in the 2001 play and its television adaptation The Old Settler. ==== Television director and Grey's Anatomy ==== In 2000s and 2010s, Allen directed television shows, including 44 episodes of All of Us, as well as Girlfriends, Everybody Hates Chris, How to Get Away with Murder, Empire, Scandal, and Jane the Virgin. In 2011, she joined the cast of ABC medical drama Grey's Anatomy playing the role of Dr. Catherine Fox. As of the 12th season, she served as an executive producer. In 2020, she directed the musical film Christmas on the Square starring Dolly Parton for Netflix. == Personal life == Allen is married to former NBA player Norm Nixon; the couple have three children: dancer Vivian Nichole Nixon (who played Kalimba in the Broadway production of Hot Feet), basketball player Norman Ellard Nixon Jr. (Wofford College and Southern University), and DeVaughn Nixon. Allen was previously married to Win Wilford from 1975 to 1983. She is the sister of actress/director/singer Phylicia Rashad (she guest starred in an episode of The Cosby Show and Rashad in an episode of In the House and also Grey's Anatomy), Tex Allen (Andrew Arthur Allen III, born 1945), a jazz composer, and Hugh W. Allen, a real estate banker, who appeared on three episodes of A Different World as Quincy Tolleson. == Filmography == === Film === === Television === === Director === === Writer === Movement magazine, regular columnist since 2006 Dancing in the Wings paperback, by Debbie Allen (Author), Kadir Nelson (Illustrator) === Discography === Special Look (1989) == Awards and nominations == === Academy Awards === === Drama Desk Awards === === Emmy Awards === === Golden Globe Awards === === Tony Awards === === Miscellaneous honors === Allen has held the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Choreography record for most wins and most nominations. Allen was appointed by President George W. Bush in 2001 as a member of the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities. For her contributions to the television industry, Debbie Allen was honored in 1991 with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6904 Hollywood Boulevard in the center of Hollywood directly opposite the Dolby Theatre at Hollywood & Highland Center. Allen was presented with the George and Ira Gershwin Award for Lifetime Musical Achievement, at the 1992 UCLA Spring Sing. 10 NAACP Image Awards as a director, actress, choreographer, and producer for Fame, A Different World, Motown 25, The Academy Awards, The Debbie Allen Special and Amistad. On February 4, 2009, Debbie Allen was honored for her contributions to dance and was presented with a Lifetime Achievement Award by Nia Peeples at The Carnival: Choreographer's Ball 10th anniversary show. Allen was awarded an honorary doctorate from the North Carolina School of the Arts, as well as from her alma mater, Howard University. 2020 Kennedy Center Honoree == References == == External links == Debbie Allen on Twitter Debbie Allen at Playbill Vault (archive) Debbie Allen at the Internet Broadway Database Debbie Allen at IMDb Debbie Allen at The Interviews: An Oral History of Television
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_(musical)#Act_I	Hamilton (musical)	Hamilton: An American Musical is a sung-and-rapped-through biographical musical with music, lyrics, and a book by Lin-Manuel Miranda. Based on the 2004 biography Alexander Hamilton by Ron Chernow, the musical covers the life of American Founding Father Alexander Hamilton and his involvement in the American Revolution and the political history of the early United States. Composed from 2008 to 2015, the music draws heavily from hip hop, as well as R&B, pop, soul, and traditional-style show tunes. It casts non-white actors as the Founding Fathers of the United States and other historical figures. Miranda described Hamilton as about "America then, as told by America now". From its opening, Hamilton received near-universal acclaim. It premiered off-Broadway on February 17, 2015, at the Public Theater in Lower Manhattan, with Miranda playing the role of Alexander Hamilton, where its several-month engagement was sold out. The musical won eight Drama Desk Awards, including Outstanding Musical. It then transferred to the Richard Rodgers Theatre on Broadway, opening on August 6, 2015, where it received uniformly positive reviews and high box office sales. At the 70th Tony Awards, Hamilton received a record-breaking 16 nominations and won 11 awards, including Best Musical. It received the 2016 Pulitzer Prize for Drama. In 2020, a filmed version of the Broadway production was released on Disney+, followed by a theatrical release in 2025 by Walt Disney Pictures. The Chicago production of Hamilton began preview performances at the CIBC Theatre in September 2016 and opened the following month. The West End production opened at the Victoria Palace Theatre in London on December 21, 2017, following previews from December 6, winning seven Olivier Awards in 2018, including Best New Musical. The first U.S. national tour began in March 2017. A second U.S. tour opened in February 2018. Hamilton's third U.S. tour began January 11, 2019, with a three-week engagement in Puerto Rico in which Miranda returned to the role of Hamilton. The first non-English production opened in Hamburg in October 2022 for which it had been translated into German. As of 2025, no amateur or professional licenses have been granted for Hamilton. == Synopsis == Hamilton narrates Alexander Hamilton's life in two acts, and details among other things his involvement in the American Revolutionary War as an aide-de-camp to George Washington, his marriage to Eliza Schuyler, his career as a lawyer and Secretary of the Treasury, and his interactions with Aaron Burr (the main narrator for most of the musical), which culminates in their duel that ends Hamilton's life. === Act I === The orphan Alexander Hamilton experiences a difficult early life, but through his wits and the charity of the people of his hometown, he escapes his home—the island of St. Croix—and immigrates to New York City ("Alexander Hamilton"). As a student at King's College in 1776, Hamilton meets Aaron Burr, John Laurens, the Marquis de Lafayette, and Hercules Mulligan ("Aaron Burr, Sir"), and impresses them with his rhetorical skills ("My Shot"). The latter three and Hamilton affirm their revolutionary goals to each other, while Burr remains apprehensive ("The Story of Tonight"). Later, the daughters of the wealthy Philip Schuyler—Peggy, Angelica, and Eliza—go into town and share their excitement about the upcoming revolution ("The Schuyler Sisters"), while loyalist bishop Samuel Seabury argues against the revolution ("Farmer Refuted") and King George III insists on his authority ("You'll Be Back"). During the New York and New Jersey campaign, Hamilton accepts a position as George Washington's aide-de-camp despite longing for field command ("Right Hand Man"). At a ball hosted by Philip Schuyler ("A Winter's Ball"), Eliza falls helplessly in love with Hamilton, who reciprocates her feelings to the point of marriage ("Helpless"), as Angelica suppresses her own feelings for the sake of their happiness ("Satisfied"). After the wedding, Burr and Hamilton congratulate each other's successes ("The Story of Tonight (Reprise)"), and Burr reflects on Hamilton's swift rise compared to his own more cautious career, as well as his affair with Theodosia, the wife of a British officer ("Wait for It"). As conditions worsen for the Continental Army with the Battle of Monmouth ("Stay Alive"), Hamilton aids Laurens in a duel against disgraced Major General Charles Lee ("Ten Duel Commandments"), for which Washington temporarily suspends him from the army ("Meet Me Inside"). Back home, Eliza reveals that she is pregnant with their first child, Philip, and asks Hamilton to slow down to take in the good that has happened in their lives ("That Would Be Enough"). Lafayette convinces Washington to recall Hamilton and grant him field command for the Battle of Yorktown ("Guns and Ships"). Knowing that Hamilton would die a martyr, Washington tells him that he should carefully consider his actions because whatever he does will be remembered for all time ("History Has Its Eyes on You"). At Yorktown, Hamilton works with Lafayette to take down the British and reveals that Mulligan has been working as a spy, helping them trap the British and win the war ("Yorktown (The World Turned Upside Down)"). Soon after the victory of Yorktown, King George asks the newborn America how it will succeed on its own ("What Comes Next?"). Hamilton's son Philip is born, while Burr has a daughter, Theodosia, and the two new fathers promise their children that they will do anything to protect them ("Dear Theodosia"). Hamilton receives word that Laurens has been killed in a pointless battle with evacuating British troops after the war was already over and responds to his grief by throwing himself into his work ("Tomorrow There'll Be More of Us (The Laurens Interlude)"). Over the next decade, both Hamilton and Burr return to New York and work as lawyers. Through his work and writing, Hamilton rapidly gains influence, participates in the Constitutional Convention, co-authors The Federalist Papers and is selected as Secretary of the Treasury by newly elected President Washington, amidst Eliza begging him to slow down and Angelica moving to London with her new husband ("Non-Stop"). === Act II === In 1789, Thomas Jefferson returns to America from being the U.S. ambassador to France, taking up his newfound position as Secretary of State ("What'd I Miss"). Jefferson and James Madison debate against Hamilton's financial proposals at a Cabinet meeting. Washington orders Hamilton to figure out a compromise to push his plan through Congress ("Cabinet Battle #1"). Eliza and her family—along with Angelica, visiting from London—travel upstate during the summer, while Hamilton stays home to work on the compromise ("Take a Break"). Hamilton begins an affair with Maria Reynolds, making him vulnerable to her husband's extortion ("Say No to This"). Hamilton, Jefferson, and Madison finally reach a compromise over a private dinner: they will push through Hamilton's financial plan in exchange for placing the country's permanent capital on the Potomac River. Burr is envious of Hamilton's sway in the government and wishes that he had similar power ("The Room Where It Happens"). Burr switches political parties and defeats Hamilton's father-in-law Philip Schuyler in a race for the Senate, now making Hamilton a rival ("Schuyler Defeated"). In another Cabinet meeting, Jefferson and Hamilton argue over whether the United States should assist France in its conflict with Britain. President Washington ultimately agrees with Hamilton's argument for remaining neutral ("Cabinet Battle #2"). In the wake of this, Jefferson, Madison, and Burr decide to join forces to find a way to discredit Hamilton ("Washington on Your Side"). Washington retires from the presidency after his second term, and Hamilton assists in writing his farewell address ("One Last Time"). A flabbergasted King George receives word that George Washington has stepped down, and will be replaced by John Adams ("I Know Him"). Adams fires Hamilton, who, in response, publishes an inflammatory critique of the new president ("The Adams Administration"). Jefferson, Madison, and Burr confront Hamilton about James Reynolds's blackmail years earlier, accusing him of embezzlement ("We Know"). Desperate to salvage his political career by proving that he was merely lustful and not corrupt, Hamilton reminisces over his life and how writing has always saved him ("Hurricane"), before preemptively publicizing his affair in the Reynolds Pamphlet, which wrecks his own reputation ("The Reynolds Pamphlet"). It also ruins his relationship with Eliza, who, in heartbroken retaliation, burns all the letters Hamilton wrote her, trying to erase herself from history ("Burn"). At 19 years old, Hamilton's son Philip attempts to defend his father's honor in a duel with George Eacker ("Blow Us All Away"), but is fatally shot ("Stay Alive (Reprise)"), eventually leading to reconciliation between Alexander and Eliza ("It's Quiet Uptown"). Hamilton's surprising endorsement of longtime political enemy Jefferson over Burr in the 1800 presidential election ("The Election of 1800") dramatically intensifies the animosity between Hamilton and Burr, who reaches his breaking point and challenges Hamilton to a duel via an exchange of letters ("Your Obedient Servant"). Hamilton writes his last letter in a rush while Eliza tells him to go back to bed ("Best of Wives and Best of Women"). Burr reflects on the events leading up to the duel, while Hamilton reflects on his legacy, before throwing away his shot. Burr fatally shoots Hamilton, and laments that though he survived, he is destined to be remembered by history as the villain who killed Hamilton ("The World Was Wide Enough"). The musical closes with a reflection on historical memory. Jefferson and Madison reflect on Hamilton's legacy, while Eliza tells how she reinserted herself in history and ensured Hamilton's memory by recording the memories of fellow veterans, raising funds for the Washington Monument, speaking out against slavery, and establishing the first private orphanage in New York City ("Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story"). Eliza then turns toward the audience and lets out a tearful gasp. == Principal casts == === Original production principal casts === Notes ==== Off-Broadway ==== King George III – Jonathan Groff ==== Broadway ==== Alexander Hamilton – Javier Muñoz, Michael Luwoye, Ryan Vasquez, Miguel Cervantes, Jon Rua (standby) Aaron Burr – Brandon Victor Dixon, Daniel Breaker, Jin Ha, Nik Walker, Nicholas Christopher Eliza Hamilton – Lexi Lawson, Denée Benton, Krystal Joy Brown Angelica Schuyler – Mandy Gonzalez George Washington - Nicholas Christopher Marquis de Lafayette/Thomas Jefferson – Seth Stewart, James Monroe Iglehart, Kyle Scatliffe John Laurens/Philip Hamilton – Jordan Fisher King George III – Andrew Rannells, Rory O'Malley, Taran Killam, Brian d'Arcy James, Euan Morton, Neil Haskell, Jarrod Spector ==== Chicago ==== Aaron Burr – Wayne Brady, Daniel Breaker, Jin Ha Angelica Schuyler – Montego Glover ==== West End ==== Alexander Hamilton - Alex Sawyer Angelica Schuyler – Allyson Ava-Brown, Ava Brennan George Washington – Trevor Dion Nicholas King George III – Jon Robyns, Daniel Boys Peggy Schuyler/Maria Reynolds - Courtney-Mae Briggs ==== Third U.S. Tour ==== Alexander Hamilton - Lin-Manuel Miranda ==== Australian Tour ==== King George III – Rowan Witt ==== Notable Broadway ensemble members ==== Ariana DeBose (2015–2016, original Broadway cast) Ephraim Sykes (2015–2016, original Broadway cast) Thayne Jasperson (2015–present, original Broadway cast) Jon Rua (2015–2017, original Broadway cast) Sasha Hutchings (2015–2016, original Broadway cast) JJ Niemann (2025) == Musical numbers == Notes === Recordings === ==== Original Broadway cast album (2015) ==== The original Broadway cast recording for Hamilton was made available to listeners by NPR on September 21, 2015. It was released by Atlantic Records digitally on September 25, 2015, and physical copies were released on October 16, 2015. The cast album has also been released on vinyl. The album debuted at number 12 on the Billboard 200 albums chart, the highest entrance for a cast recording since 1963. It went on to reach number 2 on the Billboard 200 and number 1 on the Billboard Rap albums chart. The original cast recording won a Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album. ==== The Hamilton Mixtape (2016) ==== The Hamilton Mixtape, a collection of remixes, covers, and samples of the musical's songs, was released on December 2, 2016. It debuted at number 1 on the Billboard 200. ==== The Hamilton Instrumentals (2017) and Hamiltunes ==== The Hamilton Instrumentals, an instrumental edition of the original Broadway cast recording without the cast's vocals, was released on June 30, 2017. In conjunction with the release, the producers of Hamilton announced that they were officially authorizing free sing-along programs for fans, and offering organizers the Hamiltunes name and logo to promote the events. A series of unauthorized Hamilton sing-alongs under that name, starting with Hamiltunes L.A. in early 2016, had already taken place in Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Washington D.C., with spinoff events nationwide. ==== Hamildrops (2017–2018) ==== Miranda announced a new series of 13 Hamilton-related recordings called Hamildrops, releasing once a month from December 2017 to December 2018. The first release, on December 15, 2017, was "Ben Franklin's Song" by The Decemberists, containing lyrics Miranda wrote during the development of Hamilton for an unused song that was never set to music. Miranda had long imagined Benjamin Franklin singing in a "Decemberist-y way", and ultimately sent the lyrics to Colin Meloy, who set them to music. The second release, on January 25, 2018, was "Wrote My Way Out (Remix)", a remixed version of a song on The Hamilton Mixtape, featuring Royce Da 5'9", Joyner Lucas, Black Thought and Aloe Blacc. The third release, on March 2, 2018, was "The Hamilton Polka" by "Weird Al" Yankovic, a polka medley of some of the songs from the musical. A fan of Yankovic since childhood, Miranda became friends with him after they tried to develop a musical together. About the origin of the song, Yankovic said, "Lin pitched it to me as a polka medley way more hesitantly than [he] should have. He was like, 'Would you want to do a polka medley?' I was like, 'Of course I do!'" Since Yankovic was busy working on his new tour, he wouldn't be able to release the song in February, so he suggested calling March 2 "February 30th". Miranda said it was "the most perfect 'Weird Al' creative problem solving possible". After Hamilton had premiered on Disney+ in July 2020, Yankovic released a video version of "The Hamilton Polka" that synched his song to video clips from the show. The fourth release, on March 19, 2018, was "Found/Tonight" by Lin-Manuel Miranda and Ben Platt. A mash-up of the songs "You Will Be Found" from the 2015 stage musical Dear Evan Hansen and "The Story of Tonight", part of the proceeds were destinated to the initiative March for Our Lives, created after the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting. Miranda said the song was his way "of helping to raise funds and awareness for [the efforts of the students in Parkland, Florida], and to say Thank You, and that we are with you so let's keep fighting, together". Platt added that he hoped the song could "play some small part in bringing about real change [in gun control laws]". The fifth release, on April 30, 2018, was "First Burn", featuring five actresses who played Eliza Hamilton at productions of the musical: Arianna Afsar (original Chicago company), Julia Harriman (first national tour), Shoba Narayan (original second national tour company), Rachelle Ann Go (original West End company) and Lexi Lawson (Broadway). The song is the first draft written by Miranda of "Burn". Miranda described Eliza's portrayal in the first version of the song as "angrier" and "entirely reactive", while in the final version "she has agency", and explained that "it works as a song but not as a scene". The sixth release, on May 31, 2018, was a cover of "Helpless" by The Regrettes. Miranda credited Mike Elizondo, a producer who worked with the band, as having suggested the idea, which he immediately accepted. The seventh release, on June 18, 2018, was "Boom Goes the Cannon..." by Mobb Deep. The song, which incorporates a sample of the musical's "Right Hand Man", was one of the last recorded by Havoc and Prodigy, before Prodigy's passing in June 2017. Havoc expressed that the release of the record was "a great way to pay homage to [Prodigy] and continue not only Mobb's legacy, but his as well". Miranda dedicated it to Queensbridge. The eighth release, "Rise Up, Wise Up, Eyes Up" by French duo Ibeyi, was released on August 31, 2018. The ninth release, entitled "A Forgotten Spot (Olvidado)", features Puerto Rican singers Zion & Lennox, De La Ghetto, Ivy Queen, PJ Sin Suela and Lucecita Benítez. It was released on September 20, 2018, by Atlantic Records and Warner Music Group. The song was written by Miranda, along with the rest of the collaborators. The song was released on the one-year anniversary of Hurricane Maria which directly struck Puerto Rico in 2017. The tenth release, a rendition of "Theodosia Reprise" by Sara Bareilles, debuted on the eve of Halloween 2018. It featured show orchestrator Alex Lacamoire on piano and Questlove of The Roots on drums. The song, sharing a moment between Aaron Burr and his daughter, was to appear in Act 2 but was cut from the final production. The eleventh release was "Cheering For Me Now", an original song with music by John Kander and lyrics by Miranda based on the 1788 Federal Procession in New York City. It was released on November 20, 2018. The release features Miranda performing as Alexander Hamilton and an arrangement by Alex Lacamoire. On December 20, 2018, the final song was released. "One Last Time (44 Remix)" features the vocals of original Broadway portrayer of George Washington, Christopher Jackson, gospel and R&B singer BeBe Winans, and former U.S. president Barack Obama, reciting the lines from George Washington's farewell address. It is based on "One Last Time" with a revamped gospel type of music. The 44 in the title stands for Obama being the 44th president of the United States. == Instrumentation == The Broadway show's orchestration consists of the following: Two keyboards Bass (doubling on electric bass, acoustic bass, and synth bass) Guitar (doubling on electric, acoustic, and tenor banjo) Drums Percussion Three violins (one doubling on viola) Cello The first keyboard part is played by the conductor. == Background == While on vacation from performing in his hit Broadway show In the Heights, Lin-Manuel Miranda read a copy of the 2004 biography Alexander Hamilton by Ron Chernow. After finishing the first few chapters, Miranda began to envision the life of Hamilton as a musical, and researched whether a stage musical of Hamilton's life had been created: all he found was that a play of Hamilton's story had been done on Broadway in 1917, starring George Arliss as Alexander Hamilton. Miranda began a project titled The Hamilton Mixtape. On May 12, 2009, Miranda was invited to perform music from In the Heights at the White House Evening of Poetry, Music and the Spoken Word. Instead, he performed the first song from The Hamilton Mixtape, an early version of what would later become "Alexander Hamilton", Hamilton's opening number. He spent a year after that working on "My Shot", another early number from the show. Although Miranda took some dramatic license in recounting the events of Hamilton's life, both the story and the lyrics in the musical numbers were heavily researched. Many of the songs included in the show contain lines lifted directly from primary source documents including personal letters and other documents such as The Federalist Papers and the infamous Reynolds Pamphlet. Miranda has also cited the television series The West Wing as an inspiration for his approach to the musical. Miranda performed in a workshop production of the show, then titled The Hamilton Mixtape, at the Vassar College and New York Stage and Film Powerhouse Theater on July 27, 2013. The workshop production was directed by Thomas Kail and musically directed by Alex Lacamoire. The workshop consisted of the entirety of the first act of the show and three songs from the second act. The workshop was accompanied by Lacamoire on the piano. The cast included Miranda as Hamilton, Utkarsh Ambudkar as Burr, Christopher Jackson as Washington, Daveed Diggs as Lafayette/Jefferson, Ana Nogueira as Eliza, Anika Noni Rose as Angelica, Javier Muñoz as Laurens, Presilah Nunez as Peggy/Maria, and Joshua Henry as Mulligan/Madison/King George. Of the Vassar workshop cast, only three principal cast members played in the off-Broadway production: Miranda, Diggs, and Jackson. Ambudkar, who played Aaron Burr at Vassar later stated that while the part was written with him in mind, his alcoholism at the time led to him being replaced. The original off-Broadway cast moved to Broadway, except for Brian d'Arcy James, who was replaced by Jonathan Groff as King George III. In 2014, there was a workshop production at the 52nd Street Project starring Miranda as Hamilton, Leslie Odom Jr. as Burr, Diggs as Lafayette/Jefferson, Phillipa Soo as Eliza, Renée Elise Goldsberry as Angelica, Anthony Ramos as Laurens/Philip, Okieriete Onaodowan as Mulligan/Madison, Ciara Renée as Peggy/Maria, James as King George III, and Isaiah Johnson as Washington. An audio recording of this production is available on YouTube. == Productions == === Off-Broadway (2015) === Directed by Thomas Kail and choreographed by Andy Blankenbuehler, the musical received its world premiere Off-Broadway at The Public Theater, under the supervision of the Public's Artistic Director Oskar Eustis, with previews starting on January 20, 2015, and officially opening on February 17. The production was extended twice, first to April 5 and then to May 3. Chernow served as historical consultant to the production. The show opened to universal acclaim according to review aggregator Did He Like It. According to New York Post gossip columnist Michael Riedel, producer Jeffrey Seller wanted to take the show to Broadway before the end of the 2014–2015 season in order to capitalize on public interest in the show and qualify for eligibility for that year's Tony Awards (Seller had made a similar decision as a producer of the musical Rent, which opened off-Broadway in January 1996, and quickly moved to Broadway in April); however, he was overruled by Miranda and Kail, as Miranda wanted more time to work on the show. Changes made between off-Broadway and Broadway included the cutting of several numbers, a rewrite of Hamilton's final moments before his death, and a cutting-down of the song "One Last Ride" (now titled "One Last Time") to focus simply on Washington's decision not to run for a third term as president. === Broadway (2015–present) === Hamilton premiered on Broadway at the Richard Rodgers Theatre (also home to Miranda's 2008 Broadway debut In the Heights) on July 13, 2015, in previews, and opened on August 6, 2015. As in the off-Broadway production, the show is produced by Seller, Jill Furman and Sandy Jacobs with sets by David Korins, costumes by Paul Tazewell, lighting by Howell Binkley and sound by Nevin Steinberg. The production was critically acclaimed and won 11 Tony Awards. In April 2016, the cast reached an agreement with the show's producers for a profit-sharing deal, an uncommon arrangement in theater. On March 12, 2020, the show suspended production due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Performances resumed on September 14, 2021. === Chicago (2016–2020) === Hamilton began previews at the CIBC Theatre in Chicago on September 27, 2016. The Chicago production cast included Miguel Cervantes as Alexander Hamilton, Joshua Henry as Aaron Burr, Karen Olivo as Angelica Schuyler, Arianna Afsar as Eliza Schuyler, Alexander Gemignani as King George III, Jonathan Kirkland as George Washington, and Samantha Marie Ware as Peggy/Maria Reynolds. On its opening in October, attended by author Miranda, the Chicago production received strongly positive reviews. The Chicago run closed on January 5, 2020, after 1,341 shows. The production grossed $400 million, breaking the box office record for theater in Chicago. According to Chris Jones, the success was made possible by the larger number of seats the CIBC Theatre holds and can sell compared with, for example, the show's smaller New York City venue. Overall, "more than 2.6 million people took in Hamilton during its Chicago run", including the "31 thousand public school students who saw it through the Hamilton Education Program". === North American touring productions (2017–present) === ==== Angelica Tour (2017–2023, 2024-present) and Phillip Tour (2018–2025) ==== Plans for a national tour of Hamilton emerged near the end of January 2016. The tour was initially announced with over 20 stops, scheduled from 2017 through at least 2020. Tickets to the tour's run in San Francisco—its debut city—sold out within 24 hours of release; the number of people who entered the online waiting room to purchase tickets surpassed 110,000. The first national touring production began preview performances at San Francisco's SHN Orpheum Theatre on March 10, 2017, and officially opened on March 23. The production ran in San Francisco until August 5, when it transferred to Los Angeles's Hollywood Pantages Theatre for a run from August 11 to December 30, 2017. Just days after the first U.S. tour began performances in San Francisco, news emerged that a second U.S. tour of Hamilton would begin in Seattle for a six-week limited engagement before touring North America concurrently with the first tour. To distinguish the first and second touring productions, the production team has labeled them, respectively, the "Angelica Tour" and the "Philip Tour". The Philip tour began preview performances at the Paramount Theatre in Seattle on February 6, 2018, before officially opening on February 15, 2018. The Angelica tour alone requires 14 truckloads of cargo and a core group of over 60 traveling cast, crew, and musicians. The production team insisted that each tour must be able to duplicate the original Broadway show's choreography, which utilizes two concentric turntables on the stage. This led to the construction of four portable sets, two for each tour, so that one set can be assembled well in advance at the next stop while the tour is still playing at the last stop. Hamilton premiered in Canada when the Philip tour began a planned three-month run at the Ed Mirvish Theatre in Toronto, Ontario on February 11, 2020. The show was slated to run until May 17, 2020, but was cancelled from March 14 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Angelica tour concluded its run on June 25, 2023, at the Centro de Bellas Artes Luis A. Ferré in Puerto Rico. The Angelica tour re-opened on September 4, 2024, at the Hollywood Pantages Theatre and is currently running along with the Phillip tour again after a resurgence of popularity for Hamilton. ==== And Peggy Tour (2019–2023) ==== Producers announced the formation of a third touring company on November 8, 2017, dubbed the "And Peggy Tour". It was to debut in a January 8–27, 2019 run at the University of Puerto Rico's Teatro UPR in San Juan, with Lin-Manuel Miranda reprising the title role, then to become a San Francisco production with a different lead. The Teatro UPR stage, damaged by 2017's Hurricane Maria, was repaired in a months-long restoration in anticipation of the show. On December 21, 2018, less than a month away from opening night, negotiations between the show's production and the local faculty and staff union shifted the three-week engagement to the Luis A. Ferré Performing Arts Center, and shortening it by three days to January 11–27. This followed weeks of warnings from the union of possible protests outside the theater over budget cuts that the University of Puerto Rico administration was considering that would affect university staff and employees. In response to the prospect of union and pro-statehood protestors, a line of police stood outside the theater on opening night. Miranda's performance in the Luis A. Ferré Performing Arts Center marked his return to the venue nine years after he reprised the role of Usnavi for the San Juan stop of the North American touring production of In the Heights. The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon taped segments in Puerto Rico to help tourism, one of them with the "And Peggy Tour" cast performing a version of "The Story of Tonight", where Jimmy Fallon joined in as a second Alexander Hamilton next to Miranda, changing the final song lyric to "they'll tell the story of Tonight Show", and ending the performance with a salsa version of Fallon's Tonight Show opening song. In a review of the Puerto Rico production, Chris Jones said Miranda's performance demonstrated "deeper on-stage emotions", as well as improved vocal and dance technique than on his original run on Broadway. Jones praised Miranda's "signature warmth" as well as Donald Webber Jr., calling Webber's performance as Aaron Burr "exceptional". The sold-out three-week engagement raised about $15 million for Miranda's Flamboyán Arts Fund, which benefits arts in Puerto Rico; the first beneficiary having been the restoration of the Teatro UPR, where the three-week engagement would have originally taken place. A filmed version of "Alexander Hamilton" was created featuring the Puerto Rico production and was shown as the final part of Hamilton: The Exhibition in 2019. Julius Thomas III took over the role of Alexander Hamilton when the And Peggy tour moved to San Francisco, where it opened on February 21, 2019. Despite billing as a tour (as is the common theatrical convention with West Coast sit-down productions), the And Peggy Tour was fixed in San Francisco for a lengthy residency with no scheduled traveling dates. The San Francisco production was given a separate tab on the show's website from the two traveling North American tours. The production stopped performances on March 11, 2020, due to the COVID-19 Pandemic. The San Francisco production reopened on August 10, 2021, and closed on September 5, 2021, to resume touring. The And Peggy Company had their final performance in Toronto on August 20, 2023. ==== Eliza Tour (2021–2022) ==== A new production in Los Angeles was to run from March 12 to November 22, 2020, at the Hollywood Pantages Theatre, but was suspended on the date of its intended debut in response to the coronavirus pandemic. The production finally opened on August 27, 2021, and ran until March 20, 2022. It was named the Eliza Tour by the production team. === West End (2017–present) === Cameron Mackintosh produced a London production that re-opened the Victoria Palace Theatre on December 21, 2017, following previews from December 6. Initial principal casting was announced on January 26, 2017. The London production received strongly positive reviews. In 2018, Prince Harry attended a charity performance of the London production, where he sung a few bars of "You'll Be Back," sung in the show by his sixth great-grandfather King George III. The show was forced to close from March 16, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic in England. It was announced in June 2020 that it would not reopen until 2021. It reopened on August 19, 2021. === Australia (2021–2023) === Hamilton had its Australian premiere at Sydney Lyric, with previews beginning March 17, 2021. The Australian company is led by Jason Arrow as Alexander Hamilton, Chloé Zuel as Eliza Hamilton, Lyndon Watts as Aaron Burr, Akina Edmonds as Angelica Schuyler, Matu Ngaropo as George Washington, Victory Ndukwe as Marquis de Lafayette/Thomas Jefferson, Shaka Cook as Hercules Mulligan/James Madison, Marty Alix as John Laurens/Philip Hamilton, Elandrah Eramiha as Peggy Schuyler/Maria Reynolds and Brent Hill as King George III. The production was forced to suspend performances due to Sydney's Second Wave of the COVID-19 pandemic on June 25, 2021. Performances resumed on October 19, following a significant uptake in COVID-19 vaccines. The production opened in Melbourne at Her Majesty's Theatre on March 15, 2022, one year following the opening in Sydney. The company performed a Ham4Ham show on March 22, 2022, before the official opening night on the 24th. A mashup of iconic Australian songs mixed with the Hamilton soundtrack was performed by the cast and written by Alex Lacamoire. The Melbourne production received overwhelming positive reviews, with Jason Arrow's performance praised, with The Age saying that Arrow "wipes the floor with Miranda's performance in the Disney+ version". Standby Tigist Strode performed the role of Eliza on opening night and was also received positively by reviewers. In September 2022, Sami Afuni took over the role of Hercules Mulligan/James Madison whilst Rowan Witt joined the company for the remainder of the Melbourne Season as King George. The Melbourne season ended on January 15, following a nine-month run. The Australian tour continued in 2023, playing at the Lyric Theatre, QPAC in Brisbane from January, where it concluded its run on April 23. === Hamburg (2022–2023) === According to a report in Forbes, Stage Entertainment announced a German production in 2019 to open at the Operettenhaus in Hamburg. Originally scheduled for November 2021, the opening was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Previews started on September 24, 2022, and the opening night eventually took place on October 6, 2022. It was the first official non-English production of the show. The translation of the lyrics was done by German musical author Kevin Schroeder and German rapper Sera Finale. In March 2023 it was announced that the production will end in October 2023 after only one year due to disappointing ticket sales. The production then closed on October 15, 2023. === International Tour (2023) === The Australian producers, Michael Cassel Group, announced an international tour to commence in Auckland, New Zealand at Spark Arena in May 2023. The production will feature the Australian cast, and be the first to be staged in an arena. On March 28, 2023, through the GMG Productions social media pages, Miranda announced that the musical would have its Asian premiere in Manila, Philippines, in September at the Solaire Resort & Casino's theatre. The tour started previews in Manila on September 21, 2023, before having an opening night on November 11, 2023. Several Australian cast members, including Jason Arrow as Alexander Hamilton, returned for the first Asian production, The Manila run of the production performed there until November 26, 2023. Filipino actress Rachelle Ann Go reprised her role as Eliza from the original West End production. After the Manila run, the production moved to Abu Dhabi in 2024, where it ran from January 17 to February 11 at the Etihad Arena. Subsequently, the show will be transferred to Singapore starting on April 19 at the Sands Theatre, Marina Bay Sands. === UK and Ireland Tour (2023) === A UK and Ireland tour began at the Palace Theatre, Manchester on November 11, 2023, before it will be touring to Edinburgh, Bristol, Birmingham, Dublin, Cardiff, Bradford, Southampton, Liverpool, Sunderland, Plymouth and Norwich. The full cast was announced on 21 September, with Shaq Taylor taking on the titular role. == Box office and business == === Opening and box office records === Hamilton's off-Broadway engagement at The Public Theater was sold out, and when the musical opened on Broadway, it had a multimillion-dollar advance in ticket sales, reportedly taking in $30 million before its official opening. By September 2015, the show was sold out for most of its Broadway engagement. It was the second-highest-grossing show on Broadway for the Labor Day week ending September 6, 2015 (behind only The Lion King). Hamilton set a Broadway box office record for the most money grossed in a single week in New York City in late November 2016, when it grossed $3.3 million for an eight-performance week, the first show to break $3 million in eight performances. === Ticket lottery and Ham4Ham === Hamilton, like some other Broadway musicals, offers a ticket lottery before every show. Initially, 21 front-row seats (and occasional standing room tickets) were offered in each lottery. Hamilton creator Lin-Manuel Miranda began preparing and hosting outdoor mini-performances shortly before each daily drawing, allowing lottery participants to experience a part of the show even when they did not win tickets. These were dubbed the "Ham4Ham" shows, because lottery winners were given the opportunity to purchase two tickets at the reduced price of one Hamilton ($10 bill) each. The online theatrical journal HowlRound characterized Ham4Ham as an expression of Miranda's cultural background: Ham4Ham follows a long tradition of Latina/o (or the ancestors of present-day Latina/os) theatremaking that dates back to when the events in Hamilton were happening. ... The philosophy behind this is simple. If the people won't come to the theatre, then take the theatre to the people. While El Teatro Campesino's 'taking it to the streets' originated from a place of social protest, Ham4Ham does so to create accessibility, tap into social media, and ultimately generate a free, self-functioning marketing campaign. In this way, Ham4Ham falls into a lineage of accessibility as a Latina/o theatremaking aesthetic. As a result of the Ham4Ham shows, Hamilton's lottery drew unusually large crowds of people who created congestion on West 46th Street. To avoid increasingly dangerous crowding and traffic conditions, an online ticket lottery began operating in early January 2016. On the first day of the online lottery, more than 50,000 people entered, crashing the website. After Miranda left the show on July 9, 2016, Rory O'Malley, then playing King George III, took over as the host of Ham4Ham. The Ham4Ham show officially ended on August 31, 2016, after more than a year of performances. The online lottery continued, with an official mobile app released in August 2017 that expanded the lottery by offering tickets for touring productions of Hamilton as well as the Broadway show. == Critical response == Marilyn Stasio, in her review of the off-Broadway production of the show for Variety, wrote, "The music is exhilarating, but the lyrics are a big surprise. The sense, as well as the sound of the sung dialogue, has been purposely suited to each character. George Washington, a stately figure in Jackson's dignified performance, sings in polished prose. ... In the end, Miranda's impassioned narrative of one man's story becomes the collective narrative of a nation, a nation built by immigrants who occasionally need to be reminded where they came from." In his review of the off-Broadway production, Jesse Green in New York wrote, "The conflict between independence and interdependence is not just the show's subject but also its method: It brings the complexity of forming a union from disparate constituencies right to your ears. ... Few are the theatergoers who will be familiar with all of Miranda's touchstones. I caught the verbal references to Rodgers and Hammerstein, Gilbert and Sullivan, [Stephen] Sondheim, West Side Story, and 1776, but other people had to point out to me the frequent hat-tips to hip-hop ... Whether it's a watershed, a breakthrough, and a game-changer, as some have been saying, is another matter. Miranda is too savvy (and loves his antecedents too much) to try to reinvent all the rules at once. ... Those duels, by the way—there are three of them—are superbly handled, the highlights of a riveting if at times overbusy staging by the director Thomas Kail and the choreographer Andy Blankenbuehler." Although giving a positive review, Elisabeth Vincentelli, of the New York Post (which was founded by Hamilton himself), wrote that Hamilton and Burr's love/hate relationship "fails to drive the show—partly because Miranda lacks the charisma and intensity of the man he portrays", and that "too many of the numbers are exposition-heavy lessons, as if this were 'Schoolhouse Rap!' The show is burdened with eye-glazingly dull stretches, especially those involving George Washington." Reviewing the Broadway production in The New York Times, Ben Brantley wrote, "But Hamilton, directed by Thomas Kail and starring Mr. Miranda, might just about be worth it...Washington, Jefferson, Madison—they're all here, making war and writing constitutions and debating points of economic structure. So are Aaron Burr and the Marquis de Lafayette. They wear the clothes (by Paul Tazewell) you might expect them to wear in a traditional costume drama, and the big stage they inhabit has been done up (by David Korins) to suggest a period-appropriate tavern, where incendiary youth might gather to drink, brawl and plot revolution." Melanie McFarland of Salon.com wrote, "Enthralling [and] uplifting". In Time Out New York, David Cote wrote, "I love Hamilton... A sublime conjunction of radio-ready hip-hop (as well as R&B, Britpop and trad showstoppers), under-dramatized American history and Miranda's uniquely personal focus as a first-generation Puerto Rican and inexhaustible wordsmith, Hamilton hits multilevel culture buttons, hard. ... The work's human drama and novelistic density remain astonishing." Cote chose Hamilton as a Critics' Pick, and gave the production five out of five stars. In an issue of Journal of the Early Republic, Andrew Schocket wrote that while Hamilton makes bold choices to stray away from what he calls the "American Revolution Rebooted" genre, it remains "forged in the mold of this genre, and despite its casting and hip-hop delivery, is more representative of it than we might think". In the same issue, Marvin McAllister noted that the production's heavy hip-hop influence works so well because "Miranda elevates the form through this marriage with musical theater storytelling, and in the process, ennobles the culture and the creators." A review in The Economist summed up the response to Hamilton as "near-universal critical acclaim". Barack Obama joked in 2016 that admiration for the musical is "the only thing Dick Cheney and I agree on". In 2019, writers for The Guardian ranked Hamilton the second-greatest theatrical work since 2000. Some feminist scholars have criticized Hamilton for its depiction of women. Theatre professor Stacy Wolf finds that female characters are assigned "limited and stereotypical roles" within a male-dominated story dominated by masculine perspectives and aesthetics. Musicologist Cheryl L. Keyes argues that the main character's three love interests — Eliza Hamilton, Angelica Schuyler, and Maria Reynolds — conform to a trifecta of female character tropes defined by the male gaze and found in hip hop music: the "good wife", the "gold digger", and the "whore". == Honors and awards == === Original off-Broadway productions === ‡ Blankenbuehler received a Special Drama Desk Award for "his inspired and heart-stopping choreography in Hamilton, which is indispensable [sic] to the musical's storytelling. His body of work is versatile, yet a dynamic and fluid style is consistently evident. When it's time to 'take his shot,' Blankenbuehler hits the bulls-eye." === Original Broadway production === The musical currently holds the record for most Tony Award nominations with 16 nominations (though due to multiple nominations in the two 'actor' categories, it could have only won 13 awards unless a tie occurred). It eventually won 11 awards, the second-most ever given to a single production, behind only the original Broadway production of The Producers (2001), which won twelve. === Original West End production === === Original Australian production === === Accolades === == Concept == According to The New Yorker, the show is "an achievement of historical and cultural reimagining". The costumes and set reflect the period, with "velvet frock coats and knee britches. The set ... is a wooden scaffold against exposed brick; the warm lighting suggests candlelight". The musical is mostly sung and rapped all the way through, with little dialogue isolated outside of the musical score. === Casting diversity === Miranda said that the portrayal of Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, and other white historical figures by black, Latino and Asian actors should not require any substantial suspension of disbelief by audience members. "Our cast looks like America looks now, and that's certainly intentional", he said. "It's a way of pulling you into the story and allowing you to leave whatever cultural baggage you have about the founding fathers at the door." He noted "We're telling the story of old, dead white men but we're using actors of color, and that makes the story more immediate and more accessible to a contemporary audience." The pro-immigration message of Hamilton is at the forefront, as the show revolves around the life of one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, Alexander Hamilton, and how he made his mark in American politics as an immigrant. Instead of being characterized as a white person, Alexander Hamilton's immigrant status is referenced throughout the show, along with the virtue and prowess of Hamilton ("by working a lot harder, by being a lot smarter, by being a self-starter", described in the show's opening, and later stating "immigrants, we get the job done"), in order to foster a positive image of immigrants. Alongside this, the casting of Black, Latino, and Asian American leads allowed audiences to literally view America as a nation of immigrants, and illustrate the "complex racial history and identity of America". "Hamilton is a story about America, and the most beautiful thing about it is ... it's told by such a diverse cast with such diverse styles of music", according to Renee Elise Goldsberry, who played Angelica Schuyler. "We have the opportunity to reclaim a history that some of us don't necessarily think is our own." Miranda has stated that he is "totally open" to women playing the Founding Fathers. Casting for the British production featured predominantly black British artists. === Historical accuracy === ==== Chronology and events ==== Although Hamilton was based on historical events and people, Miranda did use some dramatic license in retelling the story. Here are the most prominent examples: In "Aaron Burr, Sir", Alexander Hamilton is depicted as having come to the United States in 1776; he came in 1773. In the same song, Hamilton meets with John Laurens, Hercules Mulligan, and Marquis de Lafayette shortly after arriving in New York. While it's true that Hamilton met Mulligan early during his time in New York, he only met Laurens and Lafayette after becoming George Washington's aide-de-camp. In addition, Lafayette did not come to the United States until after the war had started. In "My Shot", Hamilton describes himself as an abolitionist. Hamilton generally opposed slavery, but scholars have disputed if he could be described as an abolitionist. Despite once being the president of the New York Manumission Society, the fight against slavery wasn't considered a "mission" to him. His business dealings sometimes involved him in it; his father-in-law, Philip Schuyler, was a slave owner, as was George Washington. In the song "Stay Alive", Laurens says that he and Hamilton wrote essays against slavery; Hamilton didn't write any essays against slavery. There is also some evidence that Hamilton could have owned slaves himself. While Angelica did have a strong relationship with Hamilton, it was exaggerated in the show. During "Satisfied", Angelica explains why Hamilton is not suitable for her despite wanting him; in particular, she states, "I'm a girl in a world in which my only job is to marry rich. My father has no sons so I'm the one who has to social climb for one." In actuality, Angelica had less pressure on her to do this: by 1780, Philip Schuyler actually had fourteen children, including two sons who survived into adulthood (one of whom was New York State Assemblyman Philip Jeremiah Schuyler); Philip Schuyler's fifteenth and last child, a daughter, was born in 1781. Angelica also eloped with John Barker Church three years before she met Hamilton at her sister's wedding, when she was already a mother of two of her eight children with Church. In addition, in "Take a Break", Angelica mentions that Hamilton put a comma in the wrong place in a letter to her, writing "my dearest,...". In reality, it was Angelica who did that. Hamilton noticed, and asked about it, with seemingly a bit of flirtatious hope in his question. Miranda stated that "[he] conveniently forgot that" for two reasons: because it is stronger dramatically if Angelica is available but cannot marry him; and, according to Hamilton: The Revolution, "in service of a larger point: Angelica is a world-class intellect in a world that does not allow her to flex it." In Act I, Aaron Burr's role in Hamilton's life is overstated, and much of the early interactions between the two men in the show are fictionalized (Miranda even explicitly notes that "Aaron Burr, Sir" is a fictional first meeting between Hamilton and Burr in Hamilton: The Revolution). For example, while Burr was present at the Battle of Monmouth, Burr did not serve as Charles Lee's second in his duel with John Laurens as seen in "Ten Duel Commandments"; Lee's second was Evan Edwards. Hamilton also never invited Burr to his wedding as seen in "The Story of Tonight", and never approached Burr to help write The Federalist Papers as portrayed in "Non-Stop"; in Hamilton: The Revolution, Miranda calls the scene "Another great What if? Historically, we know that Hamilton asked other people to contribute to The Federalist Papers: Madison and John Jay agreed, but Gouverneur Morris declined. I extended that into this fictional scene, wherein Hamilton invites Burr to write [The Federalist Papers]." In "A Winter's Ball", the character of Aaron Burr says that "... Martha Washington named her feral tomcat after [Hamilton]", to which Alexander Hamilton replies: "That's true!" In Hamilton: The Revolution, Miranda clarifies that it is false: "[It] is most likely a tale spread by John Adams later in life. But I like Hamilton owning it. At this point in the story he is at peak cockiness." Hamilton researchers Michael E. Newton and Stephen Knott say that they have failed to find any evidence for the story; Newton notes that the sexual connotation of tomcat as a womanizer did not exist in the 18th century. "Take a Break" revolves around Angelica joining the Hamiltons in America for the summer and preceding this with a letter about it to Alexander himself; no such events took place in real life. In the same song, a nine-year-old Philip Hamilton claims, "I have a sister, but I want a little brother"; Philip already had two of his five younger brothers when he was age 9: Alexander Hamilton Jr. and James Alexander Hamilton. Miranda jokingly notes in Hamilton: The Revolution, "And, boy, did he get little brothers! Five of them, actually, and two sisters." While it is true that John Adams and Hamilton did not particularly get along, Adams did not fire Hamilton as told in the show. Hamilton himself tendered his resignation from his position as Secretary of the Treasury on December 1, 1794, two years before Adams became president. However, Hamilton remained close friends with Washington and highly influential in the political sphere until publishing a pamphlet criticizing Adams during the election of 1800, an event referenced in "The Adams Administration". In regards to the creation and reception of The Reynolds Pamphlet, Jefferson, Madison, and Burr did not approach Hamilton about his affair after John Adams became president; it was actually James Monroe, Frederick Muhlenberg, and Abraham Venable in December 1792. Monroe was a close friend of Jefferson's and shared the information of Hamilton's affair with him. In summer 1797, journalist James T. Callender broke the story of Hamilton's infidelity; this is why the impact of The Reynolds Pamphlet's publication is exaggerated in the show. Hamilton blamed Monroe and challenged him to a duel, which was averted due to the intervention of Burr. With nothing left to do, Hamilton then published The Reynolds Pamphlet. In "Blow Us All Away", George Eacker and Philip engage in a duel before the events of the 1800 presidential election; in said duel, the show has Eacker fire on Philip after seven paces. In reality, the duel occurred in 1801, with Philip Hamilton dying on November 24; furthermore, both men refused to fire for over a minute before Eacker shot Philip in the hips. In "The Election of 1800", Madison tells Jefferson that he won the election in a landslide. The final vote count in the House of Representatives was 10 votes for Jefferson, 4 votes for Burr, and 2 blank ballots, meaning a division of 62.5% of the votes were for Jefferson against 25% for Burr. It was not the presidential election of 1800 that led to Burr and Hamilton's duel. Burr did become Jefferson's vice-president, but when Jefferson decided not to run with Burr for reelection in 1804, Burr opted to run for Governor of New York instead; Burr lost to Morgan Lewis in a landslide. Afterward, a letter was published in The Albany Register from Charles D. Cooper to Philip Schuyler, claiming that Hamilton called Burr "a dangerous man and one who ought not be trusted with the reins of government", and that he knew of "a still more despicable opinion which General Hamilton has expressed of Mr. Burr". This led to the letters between Burr and Hamilton as seen in "Your Obedient Servant". ==== Critical analysis and scholarship ==== The show has been critiqued for a simplistic depiction of Hamilton and vilification of Jefferson. Joanne B. Freeman, a history professor at Yale, contrasted the show's Hamilton to the "real Hamilton [who] was a mass of contradictions: an immigrant who sometimes distrusted immigrants, a revolutionary who placed a supreme value on law and order, a man who distrusted the rumblings of the masses yet preached his politics to them more frequently and passionately than many of his more democracy-friendly fellows". Australian historian Shane White found the framing of the show's story "troubling", stating that he and many historian colleagues "would like to imagine that Hamilton is a last convulsion of the founding father mythology". According to White, Miranda's depiction of the founding of the United States "infuses new life into an older view of American history" that centered on the Founding Fathers, instead of joining the many historians who were "attempting to get away from the Great Men story" by incorporating "ordinary people, African-Americans, Native Americans and women" into a "more inclusive and nuanced" historical narrative in which Hamilton has a "cameo rather than leading role". Rutgers University professor Lyra Monteiro criticized the show's multi-ethnic casting as obscuring a complete lack of identifiable enslaved or free persons of color as characters in the show. Monteiro identified other commentators, such as Ishmael Reed, who criticized the show for making Hamilton and other historical personages appear more progressive on racial injustice than they really were. In The Baffler, policy analyst Matt Stoller criticized the musical's portrayal of Hamilton as an idealist committed to democratic principles, in contrast to what he characterized as the historical record of Hamilton's reactionary, anti-democratic politics and legacy. For example, Stoller cited Hamilton as a leader involved in the Newburgh conspiracy (a potential conspiracy against the Continental Congress in 1783); his development of a national financial system which, in Stoller's view, empowered the wealthy; and his use of military force, indefinite detention, and mass arrests against participants in the Whiskey Rebellion of 1791. Stoller cited history writer William Hogeland, who, in 2007, criticized Chernow's biography of Hamilton on similar grounds in the Boston Review. In 2018, Historians on Hamilton: How a Blockbuster Musical Is Restaging America's Past was published. Fifteen historians of early America authored essays on ways the musical both engages with and sometimes misinterprets history. Theatre scholars Meredith Conti and Meron Langsner have both published written analyses of the place of firearms and dueling in the musical. Writer and essayist Ishmael Reed wrote and produced the 2019 play The Haunting of Lin-Manuel Miranda, which critiques Hamilton's historical inaccuracies. The play, directed by Rome Neal, had an initial run in May 2019 at Nuyorican Poets Cafe and was produced again in October 2019. Philosopher Michael Sandel critiques Hamilton for its oversimplistic multiculturalism, avoidance of discussions on Hamilton's financial doctrines, and a blind embrace of liberal meritocracy in his 2022 edition of Democracy's Discontent. === Use in education === KQED News wrote of a "growing number of intrepid U.S. history teachers ... who are harnessing the Hamilton phenomenon to inspire their students". The Cabinet rap battles provide a way to engage students with topics that have traditionally been considered uninteresting. An elective course for 11th and 12th graders on the musical Hamilton was held at the Ethical Culture Fieldston School in New York. KQED News added that "Hamilton is especially galvanizing for the student who believes that stories about 18th century America are distant and irrelevant" as it shows the Founding Fathers were real humans with real feeling and real flaws, rather than "bloodless, two-dimensional cutouts who devoted their lives to abstract principles". A high school teacher from the Bronx noted his students were "singing these songs the way they might sing the latest release from Drake or Adele". One teacher focused on Hamilton's ability to write his way out of trouble and toward a higher plane of existence: "skilled writing is the clearest sign of scholarship—and the best way to rise up and alter your circumstance." Hamilton's producers have made a pledge to allow 20,000 New York City public high school students from low-income families to get subsidized tickets to see Hamilton on Broadway by reducing their tickets to $70 for students, and the Rockefeller Foundation provided $1.5 million to further lower ticket prices to $10 per student. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History created a study guide to accompany the student-ticket program. Through a private grant, over the course of the 2017 school year, nearly 20,000 Chicago Public Schools students got to see a special performance of the show, and some got to perform original songs on stage prior to the show. The website EducationWorld writes that Hamilton is "being praised for its revitalization of interest in civic education". Northwestern University announced plans to offer course work in 2017 inspired by Hamilton, in history, Latino studies, and interdisciplinary studies. In 2016, Moraine Valley Community College started a Hamilton appreciation movement, Straight Outta Hamilton, hosting panels and events that talk about the musical itself and relate them to current events. == Legacy and impact == === $10 bill === In 2015, the U.S. Department of the Treasury announced a redesign to the $10 bill, with plans to replace Hamilton with a then-undecided woman from American history. Possibly due to Hamilton's surging popularity, then-United States Treasury Secretary Jack Lew reversed the plans to replace Hamilton's portrait, instead deciding to replace Andrew Jackson with Harriet Tubman on the $20 bill. This decision would later be reversed by the first Trump administration, with Harriet Tubman replacing neither Hamilton or Jackson. === Hamilton: The Revolution === On April 12, 2016, Miranda and Jeremy McCarter's book, Hamilton: The Revolution, was released, detailing Hamilton's journey from an idea to a successful Broadway musical. It includes an inside look at not only Alexander Hamilton's revolution, but the cultural revolution that permeates the show. It also has footnotes from Miranda and stories from behind the scenes of the show. The book won a Goodreads Choice Award for Nonfiction in 2016, and the audiobook won Audiobook of the Year at the Audie Awards 2017 from the Audio Publishers Association. === Hamilton's America === After premiering on the New York Film Festival on October 1, 2016, PBS's Great Performances exhibited on October 21, 2016, the documentary Hamilton's America. Directed by Alex Horwitz, it "delves even deeper into the creation of the show, revealing Miranda's process of absorbing and then adapting Hamilton's epic story into groundbreaking musical theater. Further fleshing out the story is newly shot footage of the New York production with its original cast, trips to historic locations such as Mount Vernon and Valley Forge with Miranda and other cast members, and a range of interviews with prominent personalities, experts, politicians, and musicians." The film featured interviews with American historians and Hamilton authorities, and currently has a 100% rating on Rotten Tomatoes. === Hamilton: The Exhibition === Hamilton: The Exhibition was an interactive museum, which focused on the history concerning the life of Alexander Hamilton and also the musical. Designed to travel, it debuted in Chicago in April 2019. Located in a specially built structure on Northerly Island, according to theater critic Chris Jones, the exhibition marks something that "no Broadway show ever has attempted before". Lead producer of the exhibition was musical producer Jeffrey Seller, the artistic designer was David Korins, and the main historical consultant was Yale University professor Joanne Freeman. Alex Lacamoire provided the orchestration for the exhibit (in part, a take-off on the Hamilton score), and Lin-Manuel Miranda, actors, and historians provided recorded presentations. Hamilton: The Exhibition shut down on August 25, 2019, and plans to move the exhibition elsewhere were cancelled. Refunds were issued for tickets purchased for August 26 to September 8. === Hamilton for Puerto Rico === After Hurricane Maria, Lin-Manuel Miranda with family roots in Vega Alta, Puerto Rico used his influence to bring attention to the plight of the Puerto Rican people and to encourage tourism to Vega Alta. In 2017, Miranda and his father, Luis Miranda Jr., inaugurated the Placita Güisín, a café and restaurant in Vega Alta barrio-pueblo. In 2019, Lin-Manuel moved his memorabilia to a new gallery, the Lin-Manuel Miranda Gallery, within the Placita Güisín and opened a merchandise store, TeeRico. The location has become a tourist attraction. === 2016 Vice President–elect Pence controversy === Following a performance on November 18, 2016, with Vice President-elect Mike Pence in the audience, Brandon Victor Dixon addressed Pence from the stage with a statement jointly written by the cast, show creator Lin-Manuel Miranda and producer Jeffrey Seller. Dixon began by quieting the audience, and stated: Vice President-elect Pence, we welcome you and we truly thank you for joining us here at Hamilton: An American Musical, we really do. We, sir,—we—are the diverse America who are alarmed and anxious that your new administration will not protect us, our planet, our children, our parents, or defend us and uphold our inalienable rights, sir. But we truly hope that this show has inspired you to uphold our American values and to work on behalf of all of us. All of us. Again, we truly thank you truly for seeing this show, this wonderful American story told by a diverse group of men and women of different colors, creeds and orientations. Pence listened to the expression of concern about President-elect Donald Trump's upcoming administration and later expressed that he was not offended. However, Trump demanded an apology for what he described on Twitter as the cast having "harassed" Pence. This led to an online campaign called "#BoycottHamilton", which became widely mocked as the show was already sold out months in advance. Trump was criticized by The Washington Post, who noted the division between white and non-white America in the 2016 Presidential election and suggested Trump could have offered "assurances that he would be a president for all Americans—that he would respect everybody regardless of race or gender or creed"; instead, as presidential historian Robert Dallek expressed, Trump's Twitter response was a "striking act of divisiveness by an incoming president struggling to heal the nation after a bitter election", with the Hamilton cast a proxy for those fearful of Trump's policies and rhetoric. Jeffrey Seller, the show's lead producer, said that while Trump has not seen Hamilton or inquired about tickets, he is "welcome to attend". === Parodies === In April 2016, Jeb! The Musical appeared on the Internet with Jeb Bush in the place of Alexander Hamilton, with political figures like Donald Trump and Chris Christie holding supporting roles. A staged reading, given "just as much preparation as Jeb's campaign", was staged at Northwestern University in June of that year. The parody was crowdsourced, with contributions coming from a range of writers from Yale University, Boston University, McGill University and the University of Michigan, who met in a Facebook group named "Post Aesthetics". In 2016, Gerard Alessandrini, creator of Forbidden Broadway, wrote the revue Spamilton, which premiered at the Triad Theater in New York and also played at the Royal George Theatre in Chicago. It parodies Hamilton and other Broadway shows and caricatures various Broadway stars. On October 12, 2016, the American situation comedy Modern Family released the episode "Weathering Heights". The episode features a scene where Manny applies for college. To do so he records a parody of "Alexander Hamilton" as part of his application, complete with rewritten lyrics to accompany to his own life. It is revealed that most of the other applications are also Hamilton parodies. The 2022 Transformers: BotBots episode "I, Cheeseburger" prominently features a musical of the same name that directly parodies Hamilton, including an identical poster for the performance and fast-food-themed versions of several songs. "Weird Al" Yankovic recorded a polka medley of Hamilton songs in 2018 as part of the Hamildrops program, following it up in 2020 with a video using footage from the filmed version. ==== Scamilton production ==== In 2022, a church in Texas, known as The Door Christian Fellowship produced an illegal version of Hamilton known online as Scamilton. It was live streamed to YouTube reportedly around August 22, but it was reuploaded to YouTube on August 28, 2022. === Ham4Progress === Ham4Progress is a group of Hamilton cast members and staff that provides a platform for supporting social justice causes. ==== Education ==== The Hamilton Education Program was founded in 2016 with funding from the Rockefeller Foundation. It is a collaboration between the producers of Hamilton, the Miranda Family, and the Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. Together they established the Ham4Progress Award for Educational Advancement, an award supporting "college-bound high school juniors from communities that directly experience the consequences of social injustice and/or discrimination". ==== Civic engagement ==== Hamilton, in partnership with Michelle Obama's When We All Vote, have released "The Election of 2022", a video for National Voter Registration Day to encourage voting. Voter registration and get out the vote activities have been advanced by tumblr. Ohio State University held an on campus voter registration and voter awareness event sponsored by Ham4Progress. VoteRiders and VoteForward are partner organizations dedicated to voter education and enablement. Justice Sonia Sotomayor and Lin-Manuel Miranda discussed democracy, civics, inclusion and opportunity. Additionally, Ham4Progress has supported environmental issues by collaborating with NRDC. ==== Racial justice ==== On February 3, 2021, Hamilton Families with Hamilton cast member Christopher Henry Young, joined by staff and supporters of Hamilton Families, speaking to them about addressing family homelessness in the SF Bay Area. In 2021, Ham4Progress presented "The Joy In Our Voices" hosted by Wayne Brady and featuring Lin-Manuel Miranda, Senator Cory Booker, poet and activist Amanda Gorman, Senator Reverend Raphael Warnock, CBS' Gayle King, and members of Hamilton performing original pieces highlighting Black art and artists for Black History Month. Ham4Progress posted that May is Asian & Pacific American Heritage month. Jon M. Chu, director of the 2021 In the Heights movie, talked about AAPI representation in the industry with Hamilton cast members Marcus Choi and Taeko McCaroll. ==== Gender equality ==== Abortion rights has been promoted by fundraising activities for The Brigid Alliance and Planned Parenthood. Trans rights have been supported through collaboration with the Trans Youth Equality Foundation, an American non-profit dedicated to providing support and advocacy for young transgender individuals and their families. == Adaptations == === Filmed stage production === Several 2016 stage performances with the original principal cast in the Richard Rodgers Theatre were filmed by RadicalMedia and offered for bidding to major movie studios. On February 3, 2020, Walt Disney Studios acquired the distribution rights for $75 million, with an original theatrical release date on October 15, 2021, under the Walt Disney Pictures banner. Miranda later announced on May 12, 2020, that in light of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the film industry and the performing arts, which shut down the Broadway, West End, and touring productions, the film would be released early on Disney+ on July 3, 2020, in time for Fourth of July weekend. Acclaimed by critics for its visuals, performances, and direction, it became one of the most-streamed films of 2020. The film was named as one of the best films of 2020 by the American Film Institute, and was nominated for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy (for Miranda) at the 78th Golden Globe Awards, while Daveed Diggs was nominated for Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Male Actor in a Limited Series or Television Movie. Hamilton also received 12 nominations at the 73rd Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Lead Actor for Miranda and Odom Jr., Outstanding Supporting Actor for Groff, Ramos and Diggs, and Outstanding Supporting Actress for Soo and Goldsberry. The film saw a wide theatrical release in the United States and Canada on September 5, 2025, to celebrate the musical's tenth anniversary. This exhibition features new "Reuniting the Revolution" interviews with the original cast and creators. The release, in 1,825 screens, grossed $10.1 million, ranking second at the box office behind fellow newcomer The Conjuring: Last Rites. Further cinema releases are scheduled in the United Kingdom and Ireland on September 26, and Australia and New Zealand on November 13, 2025. === Potential film adaptation === On February 10, 2017, Miranda speculated that a film adaptation of Hamilton would eventually be made, but "not for years, so that people have ample time to see the stage version first". On July 6, 2020, after the release of the live film recording of the stage version on Disney+, Miranda stated, "I don't love a lot of movie musicals based on shows, because it's hard to stick the landing ... I don't know what a cinematic version of Hamilton looks like. If I had, I'd have written it as a movie." In December 2024, following the critical and commercial success of Universal Pictures' Wicked, the first installment of that musical's two-part film adaptation, interest grew again for an actual screen adaptation of Hamilton, with Miranda feeling that the property should wait at least "10 more years" given the success of the live film recording, but did say "But if someone's got an idea, holla at me." == See also == 1776, a 1969 musical about the signing of the Declaration of Independence Hamilton, 1917 play Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson, a 2010 historical rock musical about America's seventh President, Andrew Jackson, and the founding of the Democratic Party Latino theater in the United States List of plays and musicals about the American Revolution == References == == Further reading == Miranda, Lin-Manuel; McCarter, Jeremy (2016). Hamilton: The Revolution. Hachette. ISBN 978-1-4555-3974-1. (Preview available through Google Books.) Thelwell, Chinua (2016). "Chapter 9: Who tells your story? Hamilton, Future aesthetics and Haiti". In Thelwell, Chinua (ed.). Theater and Cultural Politics for a New World: An Anthology. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-39879-0. McManus, Stuart M. (2018). "Hip-hop historiography: Lin-Manuel Miranda's Hamilton and the Latinx historical imagination." Latino Studies, 16.2, pp. 259–267. Romano, Renee C., Claire Bond Potter, eds. Historians on Hamilton: How a Blockbuster Musical Is Restaging America's Past (Rutgers University Press, 2018) online review == External links == Official website Hamilton at the Internet Broadway Database Hamilton at the Internet Off-Broadway Database (archived) Hamilton articles and resources at BritishTheatre.com Archived April 24, 2024, at the Wayback Machine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Nolan#:~:text=Between%201981%20and%201983%2C%20Nolan,with%20Adrien%20and%20Roko%20Belic.	Christopher Nolan	Sir Christopher Edward Nolan (born 30 July 1970) is a British and American filmmaker. Known for his Hollywood blockbusters with structurally complex storytelling, he is considered a leading filmmaker of the 21st century. Nolan's films have earned over $6.6 billion worldwide, making him the seventh-highest-grossing film director. His accolades include two Academy Awards, a Golden Globe Award and two British Academy Film Awards. Nolan was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 2019 and received a knighthood in 2024 for his contributions to film. Nolan developed an interest in filmmaking from a young age. After studying English literature at University College London, he made several short films before his feature film debut with Following (1998). Nolan gained international recognition with his second film, Memento (2000), and transitioned into studio filmmaking with Insomnia (2002). He became a high-profile director with The Dark Knight trilogy (2005–2012) and found further success with The Prestige (2006), Inception (2010), Interstellar (2014) and Dunkirk (2017). After the release of Tenet (2020), Nolan parted ways with longtime distributor Warner Bros. Pictures and signed with Universal Pictures for the biographical thriller Oppenheimer (2023), which won him Academy Awards for Best Director and Best Picture. Nolan's work regularly features in the listings of best films of their respective decades. Infused with a metaphysical outlook, his films thematise epistemology, existentialism, ethics, the construction of time and the malleable nature of memory and personal identity. They feature mathematically inspired images and concepts, unconventional narrative structures, practical special effects, experimental soundscapes, large-format film photography and materialistic perspectives. His enthusiasm for the use and preservation of traditional film stock in cinema production as opposed to digital cameras has also garnered significant attention. He has co-written several of his films with his brother, Jonathan, and runs the production company Syncopy Inc. with his wife, Emma Thomas. == Early life and education == Christopher Edward Nolan was born on 30 July 1970 in Westminster, London. His father, Brendan James Nolan (1936–2009), was a British advertising executive of Irish descent who worked as a creative director. His mother, Christina Jensen (born 1942), is a former American flight attendant from Evanston, Illinois; she also worked as a teacher of English. He has an elder brother, Matthew, and a younger brother, Jonathan, also a filmmaker. The three brothers were raised Catholic in Highgate and spent their summers in Evanston. Nolan also spent time living in Chicago during his youth, and he holds both UK and US citizenship. Growing up, Nolan was particularly influenced by the work of Sir Ridley Scott and the science fiction films 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968) and Star Wars (1977). He would repeatedly watch the latter film and extensively research its making. Nolan began making films at the age of seven, borrowing his father's Super 8 camera and shooting short films with his action figures. These films included a stop motion animation homage to Star Wars called Space Wars. He cast his brother Jonathan and built sets from "clay, flour, egg boxes and toilet rolls". His uncle, who had worked at NASA building guidance systems for the Apollo rockets, sent him some launch footage: "I re-filmed them off the screen and cut them in, thinking no-one would notice", Nolan later remarked. From the age of 11, he aspired to be a professional filmmaker. Between 1981 and 1983, Nolan enrolled at Barrow Hills, a Catholic prep school in Witley, Surrey. In his teenage years, Nolan started making films with Adrien and Roko Belic. Nolan and Roko co-directed the surreal 8 mm Tarantella (1989), which was shown on Image Union, an independent film and video showcase on the Public Broadcasting Service. In 2021, after a fan posted a copy of Tarantella online, Nolan's production company filed a copyright infringement claim to have the film removed. Nolan was educated at Haileybury and Imperial Service College, an independent school in Hertford Heath, Hertfordshire, and later studied English literature at University College London (UCL). Opting out of a traditional film education, he pursued "a degree in something unrelated", which his father suggested "gives a different take on things". He chose UCL specifically for its filmmaking facilities, which comprised a Steenbeck editing suite and 16 mm film cameras. Nolan was president of the Union's Film Society, and with Emma Thomas (his girlfriend and future wife) he screened feature films in 35mm during the school year and used the money earned to produce 16 mm films over the summers. He graduated in 1993 with a bachelor's degree in English literature; Thomas, who studied history at UCL and was also active in the Film Society, met Nolan on his first day at Ramsay Halls. They later married and co-founded the production company Syncopy. Both have retained strong ties with UCL, receiving honorary fellowships (Nolan in 2006, Thomas in 2013), and in 2017 Nolan was awarded an honorary doctorate. == Career == === 1993–2003: Early career and breakthrough === After earning his bachelor's degree in English literature in 1993, Nolan worked as a script reader, camera operator and director of corporate films and industrial films. He directed, wrote and edited the short film Larceny (1996), which was filmed over a weekend in black and white with limited equipment and a small cast and crew. Funded by Nolan and shot with the UCL Union Film society's equipment, it appeared at the Cambridge Film Festival in 1996 and is considered one of UCL's best shorts. For unknown reasons, the film has since been removed from public view. Nolan filmed a third short, Doodlebug (1997), about a man seemingly chasing an insect with his shoe, only to discover that it is a miniature of himself. Nolan and Thomas first attempted to make a feature in the mid-1990s titled Larry Mahoney, which they scrapped. During this period in his career, Nolan had little to no success getting his projects off the ground, facing several rejections; he added, "[T]here's a very limited pool of finance in the UK. To be honest, it's a very clubby kind of place ... Never had any support whatsoever from the British film industry." Shortly after abandoning Larry Mahoney, Nolan conceived the idea for his first feature, Following (1998), which he wrote, directed, photographed and edited. The film depicts an unemployed young writer (Jeremy Theobald) who trails strangers through London, hoping they will provide material for his first novel, but is drawn into a criminal underworld when he fails to keep his distance. It was inspired by Nolan's experience of living in London and having his apartment burgled; he observed that the common attribute between larceny and pursuing someone through a crowd was that they both cross social boundaries. Co-produced by Nolan with Thomas and Theobald, it was made on a budget of around £3,000. Most of the cast and crew were friends of Nolan, and shooting took place on weekends over the course of a year. To conserve film stock, each scene was rehearsed extensively to ensure that the first or second take could be used in the final edit. Following won several awards during its festival run and was well-received by critics who labelled Nolan a majorly talented debutant. Scott Timberg of New Times LA wrote that it "echoed Hitchcock classics", but was "leaner and meaner". Janet Maslin of The New York Times was impressed with its "spare look" and "agile hand-held camerawork", saying, "As a result, the actors convincingly carry off the before, during and after modes that the film eventually, and artfully, weaves together." Following's success afforded Nolan the opportunity to make Memento (2000), which became his breakthrough film. His brother Jonathan pitched the idea to him, about a man with anterograde amnesia who uses notes and tattoos to hunt for his wife's murderer. Jonathan worked the idea into a short story, "Memento Mori" (2001), and Nolan developed it into a screenplay that told the story in reverse. Aaron Ryder, an executive for Newmarket Films, said it was "perhaps the most innovative script I had ever seen". The film was optioned and given a budget of $4.5 million, with Guy Pearce and Carrie-Anne Moss in the starring roles. Newmarket also distributed the film after it was rejected by studios who feared that it would not attract a wide audience. Following a positive word of mouth and screenings in 500 theatres, it earned $40 million. Memento premiered at the Venice Film Festival in September 2000 to critical acclaim. Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal wrote in his review, "I can't remember when a movie has seemed so clever, strangely affecting and slyly funny at the very same time." In the book The Philosophy of Neo-Noir, Basil Smith drew a comparison with John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which argues that conscious memories constitute our identities – a theme Nolan explores in the film. Memento earned Nolan many accolades, including nominations for an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay, as well as two Independent Spirit Awards: Best Director and Best Screenplay. Six critics listed it as one of the best films of the 2000s. In 2001, Nolan and Emma Thomas founded the production company Syncopy Inc. Impressed by his work on Memento, filmmaker Steven Soderbergh recommended Nolan to Warner Bros. to direct the psychological thriller Insomnia (2002), although the studio initially wanted a more seasoned director. A remake of the 1997 Norwegian thriller of the same name, the film is viewed as "the outlier of Nolan's filmography" due to its perceived lack of unconventionality he is known for. Starring Al Pacino, Robin Williams and Hilary Swank, Insomnia follows two Los Angeles detectives sent to a northern Alaskan town to investigate the murder of a local teenager. It received positive reviews from critics and earned $113 million against a budget of $46 million. Film critic Roger Ebert praised the film for introducing new perspectives and ideas on the issues of morality and guilt, adding, "Unlike most remakes, the Nolan Insomnia is not a pale retread, but a re-examination of the material, like a new production of a good play." Richard Schickel of Time deemed Insomnia a "worthy successor" to Memento and "a triumph of atmosphere over a none-too-mysterious mystery". Following, Memento and Insomnia established Nolan's image as an "auteur". After the lattermost, he wrote a screenplay for a Howard Hughes biopic. Nolan reluctantly tabled his script after learning that Martin Scorsese was already making one such film: The Aviator (2004). He was then briefly attached to direct a film adaptation of Ruth Rendell's novel The Keys to the Street for Fox Searchlight Pictures but chose to direct Batman Begins instead. In April 2003, filmmaker David O. Russell put Nolan in a headlock at a Hollywood party after learning that Jude Law, whom Russell wanted to cast, had decided to work with Nolan instead. Russell pressured Nolan to display "artistic solidarity" by relinquishing Law from his cast. === 2003–2013: Widespread recognition === In early 2003, Nolan was set to direct Troy (2004), based on Homer's the Iliad. After leaving Troy, Nolan approached Warner Bros. with the idea of making a new Batman film, based on the character's origin story. Nolan was fascinated by the notion of grounding it in a more realistic world than a comic-book fantasy. Warner Bros. let Nolan make Batman Begins (2005) to reconcile with him after he was forced out of Troy when that film's prolific producer, Wolfgang Petersen, decided he wanted to direct it. On Batman Begins, Nolan relied heavily on traditional stunts and miniature effects during filming, with minimal use of computer-generated imagery (CGI). That film was the biggest project Nolan had undertaken to that point, and it was released to critical acclaim and commercial success. Starring Christian Bale as Bruce Wayne / Batman—along with Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Morgan Freeman and Liam Neeson—Batman Begins revived the franchise. Batman Begins was 2005's ninth-highest-grossing film and was praised for its psychological depth and contemporary relevance; it is cited as one of the most influential films of the 2000s. Film author Ian Nathan wrote that within five years of his career, Nolan "[went] from unknown to indie darling to gaining creative control over one of the biggest properties in Hollywood, and (perhaps unwittingly) fomenting the genre that would redefine the entire industry". Nolan directed, co-wrote and produced The Prestige (2006), an adaptation of the Christopher Priest novel about two rival 19th-century magicians. The screenplay was the result of an intermittent, five-year collaboration between him and his brother Jonathan, who had begun writing it already in 2001. Nolan initially intended to make the film as early as 2003, but had postponed the project after agreeing to make Batman Begins. Starring Hugh Jackman and Christian Bale in the lead roles of rival magicians, The Prestige received critical acclaim and received two Academy Award nominations. Roger Ebert described it as "quite a movie – atmospheric, obsessive, almost satanic", and Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times called it an "ambitious, unnerving melodrama". The Guardian's Philip French wrote: "In addition to the intellectual or philosophical excitement it engenders, The Prestige is gripping, suspenseful, mysterious, moving and often darkly funny." Despite a negative box-office prognosis, the film earned over $109 million against a budget of $40 million. The Dark Knight (2008), the follow-up to Batman Begins, was Nolan's next venture. Initially reluctant to make a sequel, he agreed after Warner Bros. repeatedly insisted. Nolan wanted to expand on the noir quality of the first film by broadening the canvas and taking on "the dynamic of a story of the city, a large crime story ... where you're looking at the police, the justice system, the vigilante, the poor people, the rich people, the criminals". Continuing to minimise the use of CGI, Nolan employed high-resolution IMAX cameras, making it the first major motion picture to use this technology. The Dark Knight has been ranked as one of the best films of the 2000s and one of the best superhero films ever made. Many critics declare The Dark Knight to be "the most successful comic book film ever made". Manohla Dargis of The New York Times found the film to be of higher artistic merit than many Hollywood blockbusters: "Pitched at the divide between art and industry, poetry and entertainment, it goes darker and deeper than any Hollywood movie of its comic-book kind." Ebert expressed a similar point of view, describing it as a "haunted film that leaps beyond its origins and becomes an engrossing tragedy". The Dark Knight set many box-office records during its theatrical run, earning over $1 billion worldwide. At the 81st Academy Awards, the film was nominated in eight categories, winning two: Best Sound Editing for Richard King and a posthumous Best Supporting Actor award for Heath Ledger. The film's failure to garner a Best Picture nomination was criticised by the media. Beginning in 2010, the Academy increased their Best Picture nominees from five to ten, a change known as "The Dark Knight Rule". Nolan received many awards and nominations for his work on the film. In the late 2000s, Nolan was reported to direct a film adaptation of the 1960s television series The Prisoner. The success of The Dark Knight allowed Warner Bros. to sign Nolan to write, direct and co-produce Inception (2010) – a film for which he had the idea around nine years before its release. Nolan described the film as "a contemporary sci-fi actioner set within the architecture of the mind". Starring a large ensemble cast led by Leonardo DiCaprio, the film became a critical and commercial success upon its release. Film critic Mark Kermode named it the best film of 2010, stating "Inception is proof that people are not stupid, that cinema is not trash, and that it is possible for blockbusters and art to be the same thing." Philosophy professor David Kyle Johnson wrote that "Inception became a classic almost as soon as it was projected on silver screens", praising its exploration of philosophical ideas, including leap of faith and allegory of the cave. The film grossed over $836 million worldwide. Nominated for eight Academy Awards—including Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay—it won Best Cinematography, Best Sound Mixing, Best Sound Editing and Best Visual Effects. Nolan was nominated for a BAFTA Award and a Golden Globe Award for Best Director, among other accolades. Around the release of The Dark Knight Rises (2012), Nolan's third and final Batman film, Joseph Bevan of the British Film Institute wrote a profile on him: "In the space of just over a decade, Christopher Nolan has shot from promising British indie director to undisputed master of a new brand of intelligent escapism." After initial hesitation, Nolan agreed to return to direct The Dark Knight Rises and worked with his brother and David S. Goyer to develop a story that he felt would end the trilogy on a high note. The film was released to positive reviews. Kenneth Turan found the film "potent, persuasive and hypnotic" and "more than an exceptional superhero movie, it is masterful filmmaking by any standard". Christy Lemire of HuffPost wrote in her review that Nolan concluded his trilogy in a "typically spectacular, ambitious fashion", but disliked the "overloaded" story and excessive grimness. The Dark Knight Rises was a box office success, becoming the thirteenth film to gross $1 billion. During a midnight showing of the film in Aurora, Colorado, a gunman opened fire inside the theatre, killing 12 people and injuring 58 others. Nolan released a statement expressing his condolences for the victims of what he described as a "senseless tragedy". The Dark Knight trilogy inspired a trend in future superhero films seeking to replicate its gritty, realistic tone to little success. The second instalment in particular revitalised the genre at a time when recent superhero films had failed to meet expectations. Ben Child of The Guardian wrote that the three films "will remain thrilling totems of the genre for decades to come". During story discussions for The Dark Knight Rises, Goyer told Nolan of his idea about Man of Steel (2013), which the latter would produce. Impressed with Zack Snyder's work in 300 (2006) and Watchmen (2009), Nolan hired him to direct the film. Starring Henry Cavill as Clark Kent who learns that he is a powerful alien, Man of Steel received mixed reviews and grossed more than $660 million against a budget of $220 million. === 2014–2019: Further success with Interstellar, Dunkirk and other activities === Nolan next directed, wrote and produced the science-fiction film Interstellar (2014). The first drafts of the script were written by Jonathan Nolan, and it was originally to be directed by Steven Spielberg. Based on the scientific theories of theoretical physicist Kip Thorne, the film follows a group of astronauts who travel through a wormhole in search of a new home for humanity. In a 2014 discussion of the film's physics, Nolan expressed his admiration for scientific objectivity, wishing it were applied "in every aspect of our civilisation". Interstellar – starring Matthew McConaughey, Anne Hathaway and Jessica Chastain – was released to positive reviews and grossed $773 million worldwide. Observing its "visual dazzle, thematic ambition", The New York Times's A. O. Scott wrote that Interstellar is a "sweeping, futuristic adventure driven by grief, dread and regret". Documentary filmmaker Toni Myers called the film "a real work of art" and praised it for exploring a story spanning multiple generations. Interstellar was particularly praised for its scientific accuracy, which led to the publication of two academic papers. The American Journal of Physics called for it to be shown in school science lessons. At the 87th Academy Awards, the film won Best Visual Effects and received four other nominations. Also in 2014, Nolan and Emma Thomas served as executive producers on Transcendence, the directorial debut of his longtime cinematographer Wally Pfister. In the mid-2010s, Nolan took part in several ventures for film preservation and distribution of the work of lesser-known filmmakers. His production company, Syncopy, formed a joint venture with Zeitgeist Films to release Blu-ray editions of Zeitgeist's films. As a part of the Blu-ray release of the animation films of the Brothers Quay, Nolan directed the documentary short Quay (2015). He initiated a theatrical tour, showcasing the Quays' In Absentia, The Comb and Street of Crocodiles. IndieWire wrote that the brothers "will undoubtedly have hundreds, if not thousands more fans because of Nolan, and for that The Quay Brothers in 35mm will always be one of [the] latter's most important contributions to cinema". An advocate for the survival of the analogue medium, Nolan and visual artist Tacita Dean invited representatives from leading American film archives, laboratories and presenting institutions to participate in an informal summit entitled Reframing the Future of Film at the Getty Museum in March 2015. Subsequent events were held at Tate Modern in London, Museo Tamayo in Mexico City and Tata Theatre in Mumbai. In April 2015, Nolan joined the board of directors of The Film Foundation, a non-profitable organisation dedicated to film preservation, and was appointed, along with Martin Scorsese, by the Library of Congress to serve on the National Film Preservation Board as DGA representatives. Nolan serves on the Motion Picture & Television Fund Board of Governors. After serving as an executive producer on Zack Snyder's Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice (2016) and Justice League (2017), Nolan returned to directing with Dunkirk (2017). Based on his own original screenplay and co-produced with Thomas, the film is set amid World War II in 1940 and the evacuation of Allied soldiers from the beaches of Dunkirk, France. Describing the film as a survival tale with a triptych structure, Nolan wanted to make a "sensory, almost experimental movie" with minimal dialogue. He said he waited to make Dunkirk until he had earned the trust of a major studio to let him make it as a British film but with an American budget. Before filming, Nolan sought advice from Spielberg, who later said in an interview with Variety, "knowing and respecting that Chris [Nolan] is one of the world's most imaginative filmmakers, my advice to him was to leave his imagination, as I did on Ryan, in second position to the research he was doing to authentically acquit this historical drama". Starring an ensemble cast, Dunkirk was released to widespread critical acclaim and strong box office results. It grossed over $526 million worldwide, making it the highest-grossing World War II film of all time. In his review, Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote: "It's one of the best war films ever made, distinct in its look, in its approach and in the effect it has on viewers. There are movies—they are rare—that lift you out of your present circumstances and immerse you so fully in another experience that you watch in a state of jaw-dropped awe. Dunkirk is that kind of movie." The film received many accolades, including Nolan's first Oscar nomination for Best Director. In 2018, Nolan supervised a new 70 mm print of Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), made from the original camera negative; he presented it at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival. USA Today observed that festival-goers greeted Nolan "like a rock star with a standing ovation". A year later, Nolan and Thomas received executive producer credits on The Doll's Breath (2019), an animated short directed by the Quay brothers. === 2020–present: Tenet, Oppenheimer and The Odyssey === Nolan's next film was the science fiction film Tenet (2020), described by Tom Shone of The Sunday Times as "a globe-spinning riff on all things Nolanesque". Nolan had worked on the screenplay for more than five years after deliberating about its central ideas for over a decade. Delayed three times due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Tenet was the first Hollywood tent-pole to open in theatres after the pandemic shutdown. The film tells the story of an unnamed protagonist (played by John David Washington) who travels through time to stop a world-threatening attack. It grossed $363 million worldwide on a production budget of $200 million, becoming Nolan's first to underperform at the box-office. Tenet was described as his most polarising film; critics praised the ambition and technical aspects but found its story confusing. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian awarded it five out of five, calling it "a cerebral cadenza, a deadpan flourish of crazy implausibility—but supercharged with steroidal energy and imagination". Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter described it as "a chilly, cerebral film—easy to admire, especially since it's so rich in audacity and originality, but almost impossible to love, lacking as it is in a certain humanity". At the 93rd Academy Awards, the film won Best Visual Effects and was nominated for Best Production Design. Following the release of Tenet, Nolan joined the Advisory Board of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. He served as an executive producer on Zack Snyder's Justice League (2021), a director's cut of 2017's Justice League. Nolan's 12th film was Oppenheimer (2023), a biopic based on J. Robert Oppenheimer (played by Cillian Murphy) and his role in the development of the atom bomb. It was Nolan's first R-rated film since Insomnia (2002). The film was financed and distributed by Universal Pictures, making it Nolan's first feature film since Memento that was not made for Warner Bros. He disagreed with Warner Bros.' decision to simultaneously release their films in theatres and on HBO Max. Nolan secured the deal with Universal after he was promised a production budget of around $100 million with an equal marketing budget, total creative control, 20% of first-dollar gross, a 100-day theatrical window and a blackout period from the studio wherein the company would not release another film three weeks before or after Oppenheimer's release. The film received critical acclaim. Matthew Jackson of The A.V. Club wrote, "Oppenheimer deserves the title of masterpiece. It's Christopher Nolan's best film so far, a step up to a new level for one of our finest filmmakers, and a movie that burns itself into your brain." Terming it "boldly imaginative and [Nolan's] most mature work yet", BBC Culture's Caryn James added that it combined the "explosive, commercially-enticing action of The Dark Knight trilogy" with the "cerebral underpinnings" of Memento, Inception and Tenet. Oppenheimer grossed over $975 million worldwide, making it the third-highest-grossing film of 2023. Among the film's numerous accolades, Nolan won the Academy Awards for Best Director and Best Picture. As of February 2025, Nolan will once again work with Universal Studios on The Odyssey, an adaptation of the Ancient Greek epic poem the Odyssey by Homer. It is scheduled to be released in July 2026. It follows Odysseus (portrayed by Matt Damon), the legendary Greek king of Ithaca, on his perilous journey to return home following the Trojan War, his encounters with the cyclops Polyphemus, the Sirens, and the witch goddess Circe, and his reunion with his wife, Penelope. With an estimated production budget of $250 million, it is poised to be the most expensive film of Nolan's career. The film will be the first mainstream blockbuster to be shot entirely on IMAX film. Nolan was elected president of the Directors Guild of America, a labour organisation representing more than 19,500 members, in September 2025. == Personal life and public image == Nolan is married to Emma Thomas, whom he met at University College London when he was 19. She has worked as a producer on all of his films since 1997. The couple have four children and reside in Los Angeles. Nolan and Thomas were included in the Sunday Times Rich List of 2025 with an estimated net worth of £360 million. Nolan prefers to maintain a certain level of mystery about his work. Refusing to discuss his personal life, he feels that too much biographical information about a filmmaker detracts from the experience of his audiences. He stated, "I actually don't want people to have me in mind at all when they're watching the films." He does not own a smartphone or have an email address, preferring to hand-deliver his scripts to actors instead and have his wife handle outreach with producers and distributors. == Filmmaking style == Nolan's films are largely centred in metaphysical themes, exploring the concepts of time, memory and personal identity. His work is characterised by mathematically inspired ideas and images, unconventional narrative structures, materialistic perspectives, and evocative use of music and sound. Filmmaker Guillermo del Toro called Nolan "an emotional mathematician". BBC's arts editor Will Gompertz described him as "an art house auteur making intellectually ambitious blockbuster movies that can leave your pulse racing and your head spinning". Joseph Bevan wrote, "His films allow arthouse regulars to enjoy superhero flicks and multiplex crowds to engage with labyrinthine plot conceits." Nolan views himself as "an indie filmmaker working inside the studio system". In the sixteen-essay book The Philosophy of Christopher Nolan, professional philosophers and writers analysed Nolan's work; they identified themes of self-destruction, the nature and value of the truth, and the political mindset of the hero and villain, among others. Robbie B. H. Goh, a professor of English literature, described Nolan as a "philosophical filmmaker" who includes philosophical ideas—existentialism, morality, epistemology and the distinction between appearance and reality—in films that frequently portray suspense, action and violence. Goh appreciated his ability to incorporate such themes in films that possess "elements of the Hollywood blockbuster"—which help keep the audiences engaged—but simultaneously remain "more thoughtful and self-reflexive than the typical consumerist action film". He further wrote that Nolan's body of work reflect "a heterogeneity of conditions of products" extending from low-budget films to lucrative blockbusters, "a wide range of genres and settings" and "a diversity of styles that trumpet his versatility". David Bordwell, a film theorist, wrote that Nolan has been able to blend his "experimental impulses" with the demands of mainstream entertainment, describing his oeuvre as "experiments with cinematic time by means of techniques of subjective viewpoint and crosscutting". Nolan's use of practical, in-camera effects, miniatures and models, as well as shooting on celluloid film, has been highly influential in early 21st century cinema. IndieWire wrote in 2019 that Nolan "kept a viable alternate model of big-budget filmmaking alive", in an era where blockbuster filmmaking has become "a largely computer-generated art form". Because of Nolan's deep involvement in the technical facet of his films, Stuart Joy described him as a "complete filmmaker", who "oversees all aspects of production while also managing cultural and industrial factors outside of the text". == Recognition == Nolan has made some of the most influential and popular films of his time. Many of his films have been regarded by critics as among the best of their respective decades, and according to The Wall Street Journal, his "ability to combine box-office success with artistic ambition has given him an extraordinary amount of clout in the industry". His films have earned more than $6 billion. Nolan's films Memento and The Dark Knight have been selected by the US Library of Congress to be preserved in the National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically or aesthetically" significant. These films and Inception appeared in BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century and The Hollywood Reporter's poll of best films ever made. In 2017, The Dark Knight, Inception and Interstellar featured in Empire magazine's poll of "The 100 Greatest Movies". In 2018, The Hollywood Reporter listed Nolan as one of the 100 most powerful people in entertainment and described him as a "franchise unto himself". Parade ranked Nolan number eight in its 2022 list of 75 Best Movie Directors of All Time. Nolan's work has been as "intensely embraced, analysed and debated by ordinary film fans as by critics and film academics". Calling him "a persuasively inventive storyteller", Geoff Andrew of the British Film Institute named Nolan one of the few contemporary filmmakers producing highly personal films within the Hollywood mainstream. Andrew wrote that Nolan's films are "not so much [notable] for their considerable technical virtuosity and visual flair as for their brilliant narrative ingenuity and their unusually adult interest in complex philosophical questions". David Bordwell observed that Nolan is "considered one of the most accomplished living filmmakers", citing his ability to turn genre movies into both art and event films, as well as his box office numbers, critical acclaim and popularity among cinemagoers. In 2008, Philip French deemed Nolan "the first major talent to emerge this century". Mark Kermode complimented Nolan for bringing "the discipline and ethics of art-house independent moviemaking and apply[ing] them to Hollywood blockbusters. He's living proof that you don't have to appeal to the lowest common denominator to be profitable". The Observer's Ryan Gilbey described Nolan as a "skillful, stylish storyteller, capable of combining the spectacle of Spielberg with the intellectual intricacy of Nicolas Roeg or Alain Resnais". Mark Cousins applauded Nolan for embracing big ideas, "Hollywood filmmakers generally shy away from ideas—but not Christopher Nolan". Scott Foundas of Variety declared Nolan "the premier big-canvas storyteller of his generation", and Justin Chang of the Los Angeles Times called him "the great proceduralist of 21st century blockbuster filmmaking, a lover of nuts-and-bolts minutiae". Nolan has been praised by many of his contemporaries, and his work has influenced them. Kenneth Branagh called Nolan's approach to large-scale filmmaking "unique in modern cinema", adding, "regardless of how popular his movies become, he remains an artist and an auteur. I think for that reason he has become a heroic figure for both the audience and the people working behind the camera." Michael Mann complimented Nolan for his "singular vision" and credited with "invent[ing] the post-heroic superhero". Nicolas Roeg said of Nolan, "People talk about 'commercial art' and the term is usually self-negating; Nolan works in the commercial arena and yet there's something very poetic about his work." Martin Scorsese identified Nolan as a filmmaker creating "beautifully made films on a big scale". Damien Chazelle lauded Nolan for his ability "to make the most seemingly impersonal projects—superhero epics, deep-space mind-benders—feel deeply personal". Discussing the difference between art films and big studio blockbusters, Steven Spielberg referred to Nolan's Dark Knight series as an example of both; he has described Memento and Inception as "masterworks". Denis Villeneuve was impressed by Nolan's ability "to keep his identity and create his own universe in that large scope ... To bring intellectual concepts and to bring them in that scope to the screen right now—it's very rare. Every movie that he comes out with, I have more admiration for his work." James Cameron expressed disappointment that Nolan was not nominated for an Academy Award as Best Director for Inception, calling it "the most astounding piece of film creation and direction of the year, hands down". == Filmography == == Awards and honours == Nolan has been nominated for eight Academy Awards (winning two), eight British Academy Film Awards (winning two) and six Golden Globe Awards (winning one). From 2011 to 2014, he appeared in Forbes Celebrity 100 list based on his income and popularity. Nolan appeared in Time's 100 most influential people in the world in 2015. Nolan was named an Honorary Fellow of UCL in 2006, and conferred an honorary doctorate in literature in 2017. In 2012, he became the youngest director to receive a hand-and-footprint ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles. He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 2019 New Year Honours for services to film. In 2023, he was awarded the Federation of American Scientists' Public Service Award for his depiction of scientists in his film Oppenheimer. In 2024, Nolan received the British Film Institute Fellowship in recognition of his "extraordinary achievements and enormous contribution to cinema," and the Honorary César award from the Académie des Arts et Techniques du Cinéma for "continually push[ing] the boundaries of storytelling." In March 2024, Nolan was made a knight bachelor for his contributions to film, while his wife Emma Thomas was honoured with a damehood. == See also == List of Academy Award winners and nominees from Great Britain == Notes == == References == === Cited sources === == Further reading == == External links == Christopher Nolan at IMDb Christopher Nolan at Rotten Tomatoes Christopher Nolan Biography at Tribute.ca Christopher Nolan – How to Direct Your First Feature Film
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Broadbent#:~:text=Broadbent%20also%20served%20as%20a,Development%20from%201990%20to%201996.	Ed Broadbent	John Edward Broadbent (March 21, 1936 – January 11, 2024) was a Canadian social-democratic politician and political scientist. He was leader of the New Democratic Party (NDP) from 1975 to 1989, and a member of Parliament from 1968 to 1990 and from 2004 to 2006. He led the NDP through four federal elections. He oversaw a period of growth for the party with its parliamentary representation rising from 17 to 43 seats as of the 1988 federal election. Broadbent also served as a vice-president of Socialist International from 1979 to 1989 and director of the International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development from 1990 to 1996. Returning to politics in the 2004 federal election, he was elected to represent Ottawa Centre. He later chaired the Broadbent Institute, a policy think tank founded in 2011. == Early life == John Edward Broadbent was born in Oshawa, Ontario, the son of Percy, who worked at General Motors, and Mary (Welsh) Broadbent, a homemaker. In 1961, he married Yvonne Yamaoka, a Japanese Canadian town planner whose family had been interned by the federal government in World War II. They divorced in 1967. Broadbent received a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in political science from the University of Toronto in 1966, with a thesis titled "The Good Society of John Stuart Mill," under the supervision of C.B. Macpherson. == Early political career (1968–1975) == Broadbent was a university professor when he won a seat in the House of Commons of Canada in the riding of Oshawa—Whitby during the 1968 federal election. He defeated Progressive Conservative MP Michael Starr, a former cabinet minister (under John Diefenbaker) and acting leader of the opposition, by fifteen votes in a close three-way race. He began his parliamentary service in the 28th Canadian Parliament. After Tommy Douglas retired from the leadership of the party, Broadbent stood to succeed him but was eliminated on the second ballot of the 1971 leadership convention; David Lewis became leader. In 1974, Lewis himself retired as leader, due to a disappointing electoral result for the NDP in that year's federal election and ill health. Broadbent won the 1975 leadership election to succeed Lewis, going on to lead the party through four national elections. == Leader of the NDP (1975–1989) == In the 1979 federal election, the NDP under Broadbent boosted their seat count from 17 to 26 seats. In the 1980 election nine months later, Broadbent's NDP again experienced a boost of support from 27 to 32 seats. Following the election, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau approached Broadbent about the possibility of forming a coalition government even though his Liberals had just won a working majority government. Broadbent declined Trudeau's offer. In the 1984 federal election, the NDP finished with 30 seats, just ten behind the Liberal Party led by John Turner. After the election, Broadbent's personal popularity was consistently in first place among the leaders of federal parties. In 1987, he became the first NDP leader who took the party to first place in public opinion polling since it was founded. Some pundits predicted that the NDP could supplant Turner's Liberals as the primary opposition to the Brian Mulroney-led Progressive Conservatives. Like Turner, Broadbent supported Mulroney's proposed Meech Lake Accord (which proposed recognizing Quebec as a distinct society and extending provincial powers), which led to some dissent within the NDP. In the 1988 federal election, the NDP under Broadbent won 43 seats, a record unchallenged until the 2011 federal election, when it won 103 seats. Despite the polling milestones prior to the election, the NDP was not successful in translating this into a major breakthrough, as they remained in third place (behind the second-place Liberals). Broadbent gained criticism for not making the NDP's opposition to the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement the main issue during the campaign, as the Liberals reaped most of the benefits from opposing the agreement. On the international front, Broadbent served as a vice-president of Socialist International from 1979 to 1989, during which time Willy Brandt, the former chancellor of West Germany, was its president. Broadbent stepped down after 14 and a half years as leader of the federal NDP at the 1989 Winnipeg Convention, when he was succeeded by Audrey McLaughlin. He also resigned his Oshawa seat in the House of Commons that year. The 1990 Oshawa federal by-election was held for the NDP by Michael Breaugh. == Post-leadership (1989–2004) == In the decade following Broadbent's retirement from politics, the federal NDP declined in popularity. The party would not come close to the popularity that it had enjoyed under Broadbent until Jack Layton took over the leadership in 2003. Broadbent was director of the International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development from 1990 to 1996. In 1993, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada and was promoted to Companion in 2001. Broadbent spent a year as Fellow at All Souls College, University of Oxford, in 1996–1997. == Member of Parliament (2004–2006) == At Layton's invitation, Broadbent returned to politics in 2004. With the aid of a humorous and popular video clip, he successfully ran for Parliament in the riding of Ottawa Centre, where he lived later in life. He defeated the Liberal candidate, Richard J. Mahoney, a close ally of Prime Minister Paul Martin. In the NDP shadow cabinet, Broadbent was Critic for Democracy: Parliamentary & Electoral Reform, Corporate Accountability as well as Child Poverty. On May 4, 2005, he announced that he would not seek re-election in the 39th federal election so that he could spend time with his wife, Lucille, who was suffering from cancer. She died on November 17, 2006. == After politics == In November 2008, Broadbent and former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien came out of retirement to help to negotiate a formal coalition agreement between the Liberals and the New Democratic Party, which the Bloc Québécois would support. It was to replace the Conservative government led by Prime Minister Stephen Harper and would have been the first coalition government in Canada since World War I, when Robert Borden governed as a Unionist. The idea died after Michaëlle Jean, the Governor General of Canada, prorogued Parliament in December 2008 at Harper's request. Broadbent announced the creation of the Broadbent Institute on June 17, 2011, to explore social-democratic policy and ideas. It provides a vehicle for social-democratic and progressive academics, provides education, and trains activists. It is independent of the New Democratic Party. Three months later, he endorsed Brian Topp in his unsuccessful campaign during the 2012 leadership election. In 2017, Broadbent voiced his support for the campaign for the establishment of a United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, an organization that advocates for democratic reform in the United Nations, and the creation of a more accountable international political system. Five years later, he published Seeking Social Democracy, a detailed reflection on his life and career, co-authored with academic Francis Abele, policy strategist Jonathan Sas, and journalist Luke Savage. Until his death, he was a fellow in the School of Policy Studies at Queen's University. == Personal life == In 1971, Broadbent married a Franco-Ontarian widow, Lucille Munroe. Munroe died of cancer on November 17, 2006, at the age of 71. Broadbent married the Marxist historian and political theorist Ellen Meiksins Wood, an old friend, in 2014. She was a political theorist and socialist historian, author of several books, and a professor at York University for three decades. She died of cancer at the couple's Ottawa home at 73 in January 2016. Broadbent died on January 11, 2024, at the age of 87. His state funeral on January 28 at Carleton Dominion-Chalmers Centre in Ottawa was the first Canadian state funeral for a party leader who was never prime minister nor leader of the official opposition. == Archives == There is an Ed Broadbent fonds at Library and Archives Canada. == Books == The Liberal Rip–off: Trudeauism Versus the Politics of Equality, New Press 1970. Democratic Equality: What Went Wrong? (as editor), University of Toronto Press 2001. ISBN 9780802083326 Seeking Social Democracy: Seven Decades in the Fight for Equality, with Frances Abele, Jonathan Sas, and Luke Savage, ECW Press 2023. ISBN 9781778522154 == References == == External links == How'd They Vote?: Ed Broadbent's voting history and quotes Office of the Governor General of Canada. Order of Canada citation. Queen's Printer for Canada. Ed Broadbent – Parliament of Canada biography Ed Broadbent at IMDb Article at thecanadianencyclopedia.ca Appearances on C-SPAN
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debbie_Allen#Personal_life	Debbie Allen	Deborah Kaye Allen (born January 16, 1950) is an American actress, dancer, choreographer, singer, director, producer, and a former member of the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities. She has been nominated for 22 Emmy Awards (winning five), and two Tony Awards. She has won a Golden Globe Award, and received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1991. In 2025, she received an Academy Honorary Award. Allen is best known for her work in the musical-drama television series Fame (1982–1987), where she portrayed dance teacher Lydia Grant, and served as the series' principal choreographer. For this role in 1983, she received a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy and two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Choreography and also received four nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series. Allen later began working as director and producer, most notably producing and directing 83 of 144 episodes of the NBC comedy series A Different World (1988–1993). She returned to acting, playing the leading role in the NBC sitcom In the House from 1995 to 1996, and in 2011, began playing Dr. Catherine Avery in the ABC medical drama Grey's Anatomy also serving as an executive producer/director. She has directed more than 50 television and film productions. In 2001, Allen opened the Debbie Allen Dance Academy in Los Angeles, where she currently teaches young dancers. She also taught choreography to former Los Angeles Lakers dancer-turned-singer, Paula Abdul. She is the younger sister of actress/director/singer Phylicia Rashad. == Early life == Allen was born in Houston, Texas, the third child of orthodontist Andrew Arthur Allen and artist, poet, playwright, scholar, and publisher, Vivian (née Ayers) Allen. She earned a B.A. degree in classical Greek literature, speech, and theater from Howard University and studied acting at HB Studio in New York City. She was a member of Chi Delta Mu Health Professional Fraternity. She holds honoris causa doctorates from Howard University and the University of North Carolina School of the Arts. === Challenges === Debbie Allen auditioned at the Houston Ballet Academy at the age of twelve, but was denied admission. After another chance, she was admitted a year later by a Russian instructor who accidentally saw her perform in a show. Once recruiters from the academy became aware of the situation, they allowed her to stay because they recognized her talent. While at the academy, she trained under Suzelle Poole. Her experience at the Houston Ballet Academy is not the only time Allen was refused. When she was sixteen, she had a successful audition for the North Carolina School of the Arts and was given an opportunity to demonstrate dance techniques to other prospective students applying to the institution. However, she was refused admission and was told her body was not suited to ballet. After numerous rejections, she decided to focus on her academic studies and was on her way to the start of her acting career. == Career == === 1970–1981: Early works === Allen began her career appearing on Broadway theatre. Allen had her Broadway debut in the chorus of Purlie in 1970. She later created the role of Beneatha in the Tony Award-winning musical Raisin (1973), and appeared in Truckload, and Ain't Misbehavin'. In 1980, she received critical attention for her performance as Anita in the Broadway revival of West Side Story which earned her a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical and won her a Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical. In 1976, Allen made her television debut appearing in the CBS sitcom Good Times in a memorable 2-part episode titled "J.J.'s Fiancée" as J.J.'s drug-addicted fiancée, Diana. The following year, she went to star in the NBC variety show 3 Girls 3. Allen later was selected to appear in the 1979 miniseries Roots: The Next Generations by Alex Haley where she plays the wife of Haley. Also, that year, she made her big screen debut appearing in a supporting role in the comedy film The Fish That Saved Pittsburgh. In 1981, she had the important role of Sarah in the movie version of the best-selling novel Ragtime, a role that earned Audra McDonald a Tony Award for in the Broadway musical. === 1982–1987: Fame === In the film Fame (1980), Allen played the role of Lydia Grant. Though the film role was relatively small, Lydia became a central figure in the television adaptation, which ran from 1982 to 1987. During the opening montage of each episode, Grant told her students: "You've got big dreams? You want fame? Well, fame costs. And right here is where you start paying ... in sweat." Allen was nominated for the Emmy Award for Best Actress four times during the show's run. She is the only actress to have appeared in all three screen incarnations of Fame, playing Lydia Grant in both the 1980 film and 1982 television series and playing the school principal in the 2009 remake. Allen was also lead choreographer for the film and television series, winning two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Choreography and one Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy. She became the first Black woman to win a Golden Globe for Best Actress in a Television Series—Musical or Comedy. In 1986, Allen received a second Tony Award nomination, at that time for Best Leading Actress in a Musical, for her performance in the title role of Bob Fosse's Sweet Charity. Also that year, she had a supporting role in the comedy-drama film Jo Jo Dancer, Your Life Is Calling directed, produced by and starring Richard Pryor. === 1988–present === After Fame, Allen focused on working off-camera and as a choreographer. She choreographed the 1988 Broadway adaptation of Stephen King's “Carrie.” Carrie was a collaboration with her fellow “Fame” alumni Michael Gore, Dean Pitchford, and Gene Anthony Ray. The show opened to mixed reviews and closed after only 16 previews and 5 performances. ==== A Different World ==== In an article from the Museum of Broadcast Communications, The Hollywood Reporter commented on Allen's impact as the producer-director of the television series, A Different World. The show dealt with the lives of students at the fictional historically black college, Hillman. The show ran for six seasons on NBC. The Hollywood Reporter is quoted as stating that when Debbie Allen became the producer (and usually director) of A Different World after the first season, she transformed it "from a bland Cosby spin-off into a lively, socially responsible, ensemble situation comedy." She directed a total of 83 episodes. ==== Singing and choreographing ==== Allen has released two solo albums, Sweet Charity (1986) and Special Look (1989), which also produced several singles. Also that year, she directed musical film Polly. She later directed crime drama film Out-of-Sync (1995) as well as a number of television films. She choreographed the Academy Awards for ten years, six of which were consecutive. In 1995, Allen directed the voice cast and lent her voice to the children's animated series C Bear and Jamal for Film Roman and Fox Kids. That same year, she starred in the NBC sitcom In the House which ran for five seasons. She co-produced the 1997 Steven Spielberg historical drama film Amistad receiving a Producers Guild of America Award. ==== Debbie Allen Dance Academy and So You Think You Can Dance ==== In 2001, Allen founded the Debbie Allen Dance Academy, a 501(c)3 non-profit organization. Since 2007, Allen has participated as a judge and mentor for the U.S. version of So You Think You Can Dance. During Season 4, she stepped aside as a judge at the end of Vegas week to avoid perception of bias, since one of her former dancers, Will, had made it to the top 20. ==== Cat on a Hot Tin Roof ==== In 2008, Allen directed the all-African-American Broadway production of Tennessee Williams' Pulitzer Prize-winning drama Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, starring stage veterans James Earl Jones (Big Daddy), her sister Phylicia Rashad (Big Mama) and Anika Noni Rose (Maggie the Cat), as well as film actor Terrence Howard, who made his Broadway debut as Brick. The production, with some roles recast, had a limited run (2009 – April 2010) in London. She also directed and starred in the 2001 play and its television adaptation The Old Settler. ==== Television director and Grey's Anatomy ==== In 2000s and 2010s, Allen directed television shows, including 44 episodes of All of Us, as well as Girlfriends, Everybody Hates Chris, How to Get Away with Murder, Empire, Scandal, and Jane the Virgin. In 2011, she joined the cast of ABC medical drama Grey's Anatomy playing the role of Dr. Catherine Fox. As of the 12th season, she served as an executive producer. In 2020, she directed the musical film Christmas on the Square starring Dolly Parton for Netflix. == Personal life == Allen is married to former NBA player Norm Nixon; the couple have three children: dancer Vivian Nichole Nixon (who played Kalimba in the Broadway production of Hot Feet), basketball player Norman Ellard Nixon Jr. (Wofford College and Southern University), and DeVaughn Nixon. Allen was previously married to Win Wilford from 1975 to 1983. She is the sister of actress/director/singer Phylicia Rashad (she guest starred in an episode of The Cosby Show and Rashad in an episode of In the House and also Grey's Anatomy), Tex Allen (Andrew Arthur Allen III, born 1945), a jazz composer, and Hugh W. Allen, a real estate banker, who appeared on three episodes of A Different World as Quincy Tolleson. == Filmography == === Film === === Television === === Director === === Writer === Movement magazine, regular columnist since 2006 Dancing in the Wings paperback, by Debbie Allen (Author), Kadir Nelson (Illustrator) === Discography === Special Look (1989) == Awards and nominations == === Academy Awards === === Drama Desk Awards === === Emmy Awards === === Golden Globe Awards === === Tony Awards === === Miscellaneous honors === Allen has held the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Choreography record for most wins and most nominations. Allen was appointed by President George W. Bush in 2001 as a member of the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities. For her contributions to the television industry, Debbie Allen was honored in 1991 with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6904 Hollywood Boulevard in the center of Hollywood directly opposite the Dolby Theatre at Hollywood & Highland Center. Allen was presented with the George and Ira Gershwin Award for Lifetime Musical Achievement, at the 1992 UCLA Spring Sing. 10 NAACP Image Awards as a director, actress, choreographer, and producer for Fame, A Different World, Motown 25, The Academy Awards, The Debbie Allen Special and Amistad. On February 4, 2009, Debbie Allen was honored for her contributions to dance and was presented with a Lifetime Achievement Award by Nia Peeples at The Carnival: Choreographer's Ball 10th anniversary show. Allen was awarded an honorary doctorate from the North Carolina School of the Arts, as well as from her alma mater, Howard University. 2020 Kennedy Center Honoree == References == == External links == Debbie Allen on Twitter Debbie Allen at Playbill Vault (archive) Debbie Allen at the Internet Broadway Database Debbie Allen at IMDb Debbie Allen at The Interviews: An Oral History of Television
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severance_(TV_series)	Severance (TV series)	Severance is an American science fiction psychological thriller television series created by Dan Erickson, and executive produced and primarily directed by Ben Stiller. It stars Adam Scott, Zach Cherry, Britt Lower, Tramell Tillman, Jen Tullock, Dichen Lachman, Michael Chernus, John Turturro, Christopher Walken, Patricia Arquette, and Sarah Bock. The series follows employees at Lumon Industries, a biotechnology corporation, that have undergone "severance"—a procedure that splits a person's memories between work and their personal life. This creates two separate identities for employees: the "innie", who has no knowledge of the outside world, and the "outie", who lives their life outside without any knowledge of their job. Erickson and Stiller first developed Severance in 2015, with the series being greenlit by Apple TV+ in 2019, with Scott attached. The cast for the first season was rounded out by December 2020, and the cast for the second season was announced in October 2022. Principal photography for the series has taken place in New York, New Jersey and Newfoundland. Its first season aired from February 18 until April 8, 2022, and its second season from January 17 to March 21, 2025. Severance has been renewed for a third season. Severance has received critical acclaim for its cinematography, direction, production design, musical score, story, and performances. It has received numerous accolades, including 41 Primetime Emmy Award nominations, winning for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for Lower and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for Tillman. Scott's performance earned him nominations for a Primetime Emmy Award, two Television Critics Association Awards, and a Golden Globe Award, while Stiller and Erickson also received Emmy nominations for directing and writing. == Cast and characters == === Main === Adam Scott as Mark S. / Mark Scout, a former history professor and a severed worker for Lumon Industries in the Macrodata Refinement (MDR) department. Zach Cherry as Dylan G. / Dylan George, Mark's severed co-worker in the MDR department, who particularly enjoys company perks. Britt Lower as Helly R., a rebellious new severed employee in the MDR department at Lumon. Tramell Tillman as Seth Milchick, the Deputy Manager on the severed floor at Lumon. Jen Tullock as Devon Scout-Hale, Mark's sister. Dichen Lachman as Ms. Casey, who serves as the wellness counselor on the severed floor at Lumon. Michael Chernus as Ricken Hale, an eccentric self-help author who is Devon's husband and Mark's brother-in-law. John Turturro as Irving B. / Irving Bailiff, Mark's severed co-worker in the MDR department, who is a stickler for company policy and is drawn to Burt. Christopher Walken as Burt G. / Burt Goodman, another severed employee and the head of the Optics and Design (O&D) division who is drawn to Irving. Patricia Arquette as Harmony Cobel, the manager of the severed floor at Lumon, who outside of work uses the false identity of "Mrs. Selvig," and Mark's next-door neighbor. Sarah Bock as Eustice Huang (season 2), the young new Deputy Manager of the Severed floor. === Recurring === Yul Vazquez as Peter "Petey" Kilmer (season 1; voice season 2), Mark's former severed co-worker and best friend in the MDR division, who left Lumon under mysterious circumstances. Michael Cumpsty as Doug Graner (season 1), the head of security on Lumon's severed floor. Nikki M. James as Alexa (season 1), Devon's midwife and one of Mark's love interests. Sydney Cole Alexander as Natalie Kalen, Lumon's PR representative and speaker for the mysterious Board. Nora Dale as Gabby Arteta (season 1), the wife of Senator Angelo Arteta, whom Devon encounters at a birthing retreat. Mark Kenneth Smaltz as Judd, a security guard at Lumon. Donald Webber Jr. as Patton, a friend of Ricken's. Grace Rex as Rebeck, a friend of Ricken's. Annie McNamara as Danise (season 1), a friend of Ricken's. Claudia Robinson as Felicia, a severed O&D division employee who is close with Burt. Karen Aldridge as Asal Reghabi, a former Lumon surgeon who performs reintegrations. Michael Siberry as Jame Eagan, the current CEO of Lumon. Darri Ólafsson as Mr. Drummond (season 2), an intimidating Lumon enforcer who is involved with severance operations. Merritt Wever as Gretchen George (season 2), Dylan's wife. Robby Benson as Dr. Mauer (season 2), a doctor on Lumon's testing floor. Gwendoline Christie as Lorne (season 2), a severed employee running the Mammalians Nurturable division. Sandra Bernhard as Cecily (season 2), a nurse on the testing floor. === Guest === Marc Geller as Kier Eagan, the late founder of Lumon, who is worshipped with cult-like devotion within the company; he is represented throughout the series in sculptures, paintings, and audio recordings. Cassidy Layton as June Kilmer (season 1), Petey's daughter. Joanne Kelly as Nina (season 1), Petey's ex-wife. Ethan Flower as Angelo Arteta (season 1), a Lumon-backed state senator who supports legalizing the severance procedure and is married to Gabby Arteta, with whom he has three children. Rajat Suresh as Balf (season 1), a friend of Ricken's. Bob Balaban as Mark Wilkins (season 2), a new member of MDR, from Lumon branch 5X. Alia Shawkat as Gwendolyn Y. (season 2), a new member of MDR, from Lumon branch 5X. Stefano Carannante as Dario Rossi (season 2), a new member of MDR. Sarah Sherman (season 2) as the voice of a stop-motion water tower in a Lumon industrial film. Adrian Martinez as Mr. Saliba (season 2), a manager at a door factory who interviews Dylan for a position. John Noble as Fields (season 2), Burt's husband. James LeGros as Hampton (season 2), an acquaintance of Harmony Cobel from Salt's Neck. Jane Alexander as Celestine "Sissy" Cobel (season 2), Harmony's reclusive aunt in Salt's Neck. Ben Stiller has an uncredited voice cameo as an animated version of Kier Eagan in season 1. Keanu Reeves has an uncredited voice cameo as an animated Lumon building in a Lumon industrial film in season 2. == Episodes == === Season 1 (2022) === === Season 2 (2025) === Episodes in season 2 were promoted as being released on Fridays globally from January 17, but were released in American time zones on the preceding Thursday evenings. == Production == === Development === Erickson conceived of Severance during a period of depression, working an office job at a door factory after he had completed his master's degree in television writing. He found the job so monotonous that he wished he could "skip the eight hours of the workday, to disassociate and just get it over with". Erickson submitted his pilot script to Ben Stiller's production company Red Hour Productions in 2015, and it was passed to Stiller by the development executive Jackie Cohn and then head of creative Nicholas Weinstock. Stiller read it at least five years before Severance premiered, and said the project was "the longest thing I've ever worked on". He said he enjoyed the story's contributions to the genre of workplace comedy. Erickson has described his earlier versions of the pilot as "weirder" and containing many stray elements with no backstory such as a disembodied pair of legs running by Mark, a charred floor with burnt desks, and a woman trapped in a glass cubicle. Erickson credits Stiller with grounding the show, saying "he felt that the concept was weird enough that you didn't have to throw a bunch of other Terry Gilliam-esque bells and whistles at it." According to Erickson, "Ben fell in love with the part of the show that was this weird human sadness of a person who would willingly do this to himself." In November 2019, Apple TV+ gave Severance a series order, with Stiller directing and Scott in the leading role. Stiller was only attached to direct the pilot, but decided to direct more episodes as the series entered development. On April 6, 2022, Apple renewed the series for a second season. In April 2023, it was reported that Beau Willimon had been hired as an executive producer and writer for the second and potential third seasons. On March 21, 2025, shortly after the premiere of the season 2 finale, Apple announced the renewal of the series for a third season. The Writers Guild of America West database lists new showrunners Eli Jorne and Mary Laws alongside Erickson for the third season, replacing Chris Black and Mark Friedman, who showran the first two seasons alongside Erickson. === Writing === Media that influenced Severance include the Backrooms creepypasta, the 2013 video game The Stanley Parable, films including Office Space, The Truman Show, Being John Malkovich, and Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, the Black Mirror episode "White Christmas", and the comic strip Dilbert. Older influences include the existential hell in the 1944 Jean-Paul Sartre play No Exit and the totalitarian dystopia in the 1949 George Orwell novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. Aesthetically, the series was influenced by the films Brazil, Dark City, and Playtime. Erickson's siblings inspired some of the characters. In 2016, his screenplay for the pilot of Severance appeared on Blood List's survey results of the best unproduced genre screenplays. Erickson said: "The same frustrations that led us to this moment as a country [United States] and as a world are the ones that I was feeling when I wrote this because I was working office jobs, and I was dealing with all these increasingly insane requests that are made of workers. This was born of that ... Employees are the ones who are expected to give and give and give, with the understanding that this is a family—you're doing this out of love, but then that is often not returned by the employers in any kind of a substantive way." === Casting === In January 2017, Stiller invited Adam Scott to star. Stiller and Scott had previously worked together in Stiller's 2013 movie The Secret Life of Walter Mitty. Stiller intended to appear in the first season as a doctor character, but was later scrapped because Stiller didn't think it felt right and said he's happy to be off-camera. In January 2020, Patricia Arquette, Britt Lower, Jen Tullock, and Zach Cherry were added to the cast. Tramell Tillman joined in February 2020, and John Turturro and Christopher Walken were added in November 2020. Dichen Lachman was cast in December 2020. Turturro said he recommended Walken for the role of Burt because he had known him for "a long time and I don't have to really act like we're friends". On October 31, 2022, Gwendoline Christie, Bob Balaban, Merritt Wever, Alia Shawkat, Robby Benson, Stefano Carannante, Ólafur Darri Ólafsson, and John Noble were announced to have joined the cast for season two. Stiller offered former U.S. President Barack Obama a voice cameo role in the second season, but he declined; the role eventually went to Keanu Reeves. === Set design === Production designer Jeremy Hindle blended corporate looks from the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s for the show's distinctive look, and cited modernist architect Eero Saarinen as influential for the building design. This included the John Deere World Headquarters in Moline, Illinois, and the Bell Labs Holmdel Complex in New Jersey (the latter which served as both the exterior shots and the ground floor interiors for Lumon Industries), both buildings designed as "work designed to do work" according to Hindle. The set designs of Playtime also served as inspiration for the internal sets. The main sets for Severance were created on soundstages in The Bronx. One soundstage was used for the hallways within Lumon, using around 140 feet (43 m) of hallway that they would rearrange as necessary, along with special effects, to create the maze-like structure. Another soundstage used larger hallways that were used in latter episodes of the first season. A second soundstage was used for main rooms like the Macrodata Refinement Division. This space was designed to create the feeling of being trapped, using a large room (80 by 40 feet (24 m × 12 m)) with a low ceiling. Hindle also felt this room was meant to be a playroom for the newest Lumon hires, and gave it green carpeting in contrast with the whites to make it feel like grass. Other spaces within Lumon were inspired by the works of M.C. Escher. Erickson said the mix of cars and technologies from different eras was meant to "give a slight sense of disorientation" and make Lumon "feel unmoored from time and space". To this end, the production team sourced an anachronistic collection of 400 cars, largely commonplace boxy vehicles from the 1980s and 1990s, all in relatively good condition. Each car, even in the far background, was intentionally placed to curate the retro science fiction aesthetic. Characters' vehicles, chosen to show more of who they are, include Mark's Volvo S90, Cobel's Volkswagen Rabbit, Helena's Lincoln Continental, and Milchick's Royal Enfield motorcycle. All the office equipment carries Lumon branding. The prop designers reconstructed old computers with functional trackball devices so the actors could perform the work presented on the show in order to get adjusted to the office setting. The computers lacked an escape key, as a metaphor for the lack of control the innies have while in Lumon's offices. The computer terminals were modeled from the Data General Dasher terminals from the 1970s and the keycaps were recreated by Signature Plastics, who also made the original keycaps for the 1970s Dasher terminals. The keycap set was re-released in 2025 under the name "SA Macrodata Refinement". === Filming === The COVID-19 pandemic postponed the initial production start of March 2020. Principal photography for the first season started in New York City under the working title Tumwater on November 8, 2020. The opening scene of the show was shot on January 6, 2021. The series filmed for a few days in February in Nyack, New York for the homes of Mark and Cobel, and in Kingston and Beacon, New York in March. In April, filming moved to central New Jersey, mainly in the Bell Labs Holmdel Complex which stood in for Lumon HQ. Filming was scheduled to conclude on June 23, 2021. The second season began filming on October 3, 2022, in New York City, and was set to wrap on May 12, 2023. However, on May 8, 2023, production of the season was shut down due to the 2023 Writers Guild of America strike. Production had resumed by May 13, 2023, with filming occurring in Newfoundland. Filming was later shut down again due to both the actors strike and the writers strike, but resumed on January 29, 2024, and wrapped on April 23, 2024. == Reception == === Audience viewership === In 2025, Severance became the most watched series in the history of Apple TV+. === Critical response === Both seasons of Severance have received critical acclaim. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the overall series holds an approval rating of 96%. Meanwhile, on Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the overall series has received a score of 85 out of 100. ==== Season 1 ==== On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season of Severance has an approval rating of 97% based on 117 reviews, with an average rating of 8.5/10. The website's consensus reads: "Audacious, mysterious, and bringing fresh insight into the perils of corporate drudgery, Severance is the complete package." Metacritic assigned a score of 83 out of 100 based on 36 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". The series received a rating of five out of five from Lucy Mangan of The Guardian and Rachael Sigee of I, 4 out of 5 stars from Huw Fullerton of Radio Times, John Nugent of Empire, Alan Sepinwall of Rolling Stone and Anita Singh of The Telegraph, and 3.5 out of 4 stars from Patrick Ryan of USA Today. In her review, Mangan praised Stiller's direction, the writing, and the performances of the cast (particularly those of Arquette, Turturro, Walken, and Tillman). Sigee also praised the performances, especially Scott's, Arquette's, Turturro's and Walken's, and wrote, "Severance moves slowly but surely, allowing time to absorb both the impressive world-building and stunning visuals, [...] [and] its breathtaking cinematography and design. With an exceptional cast [...], this is an original, weird, thought-provoking and beautifully crafted story that asks just how much of ourselves we should give over to our jobs." Fullerton also praised Scott's performance and called the series "an impressive creation". Nugent praised the direction, performances of Scott, Arquette, Turturro and Walken, and chemistry between the latter two. Sepinwall also praised Stiller's direction and the cast's performances (most notably those of Scott, Turturro, Walken, Lower and Tillman), in addition to the production design, tone, and season finale. Grading the series an "A", Carly Lane of Collider wrote, "the most engrossing element of Severance is the many mysteries it presents, wrapped up in silent overarching questions of philosophy, morality, and free will versus choice, and as the series demonstrates, some of those questions aren't so easily solved, but some issues aren't as black-and-white as initially presented either." Also grading it an "A", Ben Travers of IndieWire wrote, "Whether you invest in the allegory, character arcs, or both, 'Severance' hits its marks. [...] Erickson and his writing staff deserve a ton of credit. The season plays out cleanly and efficiently; episodes range from nearly 60 minutes to a crisp 40; cliffhangers abound, but they're earned. [...] This is serialized storytelling that knows how to make the most of its episodic format." Stephen Robinson of The A.V. Club gave it an "A-" grade and praised Stiller's direction and the cast, with the performances of Lower, Scott, Tillman, Turturro, Walken, Tullock and Cherry singled out. For Entertainment Weekly, Kristen Baldwin graded it a "B+" and highlighted the performances of Scott, Lower and Tillman, writing, "Scott is a superb fit for Severance's central everyman, [...] Lower brings an effective vulnerability to the acerbic Helly, and Tramell Tillman is an absolute force of charisma as Milchick." Giving the series a score of nine out of ten, Samantha Nelson of IGN wrote, "Severance [...] uses a clever premise and excellent cast to set up an intriguing mystery that leaves plenty of room for the characters to evolve." Writing for Paste, Shane Ryan gave it an 8.1 out of 10 and praised the performances of Scott, Arquette and Tillman as well as Stiller and McArdle's direction. Kyle Mullin of Under the Radar gave it eight out of ten and said, "Severance's writer/creator Dan Erickson is another newcomer who pens scenes with veteran-level aplomb. Every scene is a Golden Age of TV gem in its own right. But Severance's dramatic heart resides at the workplace, where it also becomes a white-knuckle thriller. This is where director Ben Stiller especially shines, training his lens and setting the scenes [...]. He certainly brings the best out of his cast." The American Film Institute named it one of the ten best television programs of the year. The first season was also recognized with The ReFrame Stamp for hiring people of underrepresented gender identities, and of color. ==== Season 2 ==== The second season has an approval rating of 94% based on 223 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes. The website's consensus reads: "Masterfully managing its two halves of adroit character study and surreal nightmare, Severance's long-awaited sophomore season makes cognitive dissonance a mind-melting pleasure." Metacritic assigned a score of 86 out of 100 based on 43 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Writing for Variety, Alison Herman awarded the second season with a perfect rating, noting: "Season 2 fulfills this sine qua non with deceptive ease. Real-time viewers have had their patience strained; future binge-watchers will barely notice a blip." John Nugent of Empire gave season two 4 stars out of 5, while stating: "After a storming Season One, Season Two expands and deepens the original mysteries while opening up new ones. Sharply made and skilfully executed, the employee benefits are there if you stay with it." === Critics' top ten list === === Accolades === For its first season, the series received 7 major nominations for the 74th Primetime Emmy Awards, with an additional 7 nominations for the 74th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards. Nominations included Outstanding Drama Series, Adam Scott for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, John Turturro and Christopher Walken for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series, Patricia Arquette for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, Ben Stiller for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series, and Dan Erickson for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series. It won two awards at the Creative Arts Emmy Awards: Outstanding Title Design and Outstanding Music Composition for a Series (Original Dramatic Score). For its second season, the series received 10 major nominations for the 77th Primetime Emmy Awards, with an additional 17 nominations for the 77th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, making it the most-nominated series at both ceremonies. It won for three acting awards: Britt Lower for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, Tramell Tillman for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series and Merritt Wever for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series; it won five additional awards in technical categories. Notable nominations included Outstanding Drama Series, Adam Scott for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, Zach Cherry and John Turturro for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series, Jessica Lee Gagné and Ben Stiller for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series, and Dan Erickson for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series. == Marketing == The second season was teased during the Apple Event on September 7, 2022, which featured Helly (Britt Lower). The first footage from season 2 was released on June 10, 2024, as part of a promo for upcoming Apple TV+ programming. On July 9, 2024, a post on the Apple TV+ account on social media platform X teased an announcement about season 2. In the video, a light blinks the word "tomorrow" in Morse code. The next day on July 10, Apple TV+ announced that season 2 would debut on January 17, 2025. The first trailer for season 2 was released on October 23, 2024. On January 14, 2025, three days before the premiere of the second season, Apple TV+ recreated the show's 'Macrodata Refinement' office inside a glass box at Grand Central Terminal. Actors Scott, Cherry, Arquette, Lower, and Tillman entered the glass box and behaved as though they were working their respective jobs at Lumon Industries for about two and a half hours. The pop-up's uniqueness and the cast's dedication generated largely favorable responses from the public. On March 21, 2025, IKEA India and Australia posted the same advertisement promoting office supplies replicating a similar set up to the Macrodata Refinement office. The tagline pokes fun at the "mysterious and important work" joke that is told by the office workers. On March 26, 2025, some cast members appeared at Tower Bridge in London to celebrate the renewal of season 3. Cast members included Adam Scott, Britt Lower, Tramell Tillman, Zach Cherry, and Gwendoline Christie. At the event were balloons with Adam Scott's face. On the same day, Apple updated their computer section on their website to include the Lumon Terminal Pro. However, the item was not actually for sale but served as marketing to promote both the show and the Apple TV+ service. == Release == The official release dates of second-season episodes were on Fridays, but Apple TV+ released episodes the prior Thursday at 9:00 pm ET. === Home media === The first season was released in the UK on Blu-ray and DVD on December 2, 2024, in Australia on December 4, 2024, and in the United States on December 17, 2024. == Other media == An epistolary novel related to the series, Severance: The Lexington Letter, was released by Apple Books purporting to be a "tell-all" exposé of sinister occurrences at Lumon Corporation, in the form of a dialogue between former Lumon employee Margeret "Peg" Kincaid and her innie (work self), sent as a letter to a Topeka newsletter. A fictional self-help book from the series, The You You Are, was released by Apple Books as an e-book and an audiobook, the latter read by the actor Michael Chernus in his role as Ricken Hale. The official Severance podcast premiered in January 2025, hosted by Ben Stiller and Adam Scott. Each episode of the podcast recaps an episode of the series, and features interviews with an actor, crew member, or fan of the show. == See also == Cypher, a 2002 thriller with similar themes of memory erasure and separate identities in a mysterious workplace setting Drug-induced amnesia § In popular culture My Own Worst Enemy, a 2008 TV series about a secret agent and his cover, who has no knowledge of his own double life Paycheck, a 1952 novelette by Philip Dick, that explores a theme of erasing memory of the time spent on a contract == Notes == == References == == External links == Severance – official site Severance at IMDb Severance – wiki site
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Giolitti#:~:text=In%202006%2C%20he%20was%20awarded,Rome%20on%208%20February%202010.	Antonio Giolitti	Antonio Giolitti (12 February 1915 – 8 February 2010) was an Italian politician and cabinet member. He was the grandson of Giovanni Giolitti, the well-known liberal statesman of the pre-fascist period who served as Prime Minister of Italy five times. == Biography == Giolitti was born in Rome. He joined the Italian Communist Party (Italian: Partito Comunista Italiano, or PCI) in 1940 and was arrested and tried by the fascist regime but acquitted, for his associations with them. In the spring of 1943 Giolitti resumed his clandestine activities for the Communist Party, contacting numerous military and political personalities, in order to plan the overthrow of the fascist regime. During the Italian Resistance in World War II, Giolitti was seriously wounded in combat. He was sent to France to recover, and was not able to return to Italy until after the end of the conflict. After the war, Giolitti was involved in much political activity: he was junior minister to the foreign minister for Ferruccio Parri's government, communist deputy to the Constituent Assembly, elected to the Chamber of Deputies in the list of PCI in 1948 and 1953. In 1957 he left the Communist Party after the Soviet suppression of the Hungarian uprising and the Manifesto of the 101. He then joined the Italian Socialist Party. Antonio Giolitti was a minister in several Italian governments. He was Minister for the Budget from 1963 to 1964, from 1969 to 1972 and from 1973 to 1974 in the governments led, respectively, by Aldo Moro, Mariano Rumor and Emilio Colombo. In this capacity he inspired the Italian economic planning. From 1977 to 1985, he was a member of the Executive Commission of the European Economic Community in Brussels, and responsible for Regional Policy. In 1987, Giolitti left the Italian Socialist Party for disagreements with its leader Bettino Craxi. He then returned to the Italian Communist Party (PCI) as an independent candidate and he was elected to the Italian Senate. At the end of the parliamentary term, he withdrew from active politics. Antonio Giolitti has written political texts and, in 1992, he published a book with his memoirs. He also participated actively to the Italian cultural activity. In his youth, he was an advisor to the publisher Giulio Einaudi. He collaborated with several cultural magazines, including Lettera Internazionale. In 2006, he was awarded the Cavaliere di Gran Croce, the highest honour bestowed by the President of the Italian Republic. He died in Rome on 8 February 2010. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_Kight	Morris Kight	Morris Kight (November 19, 1919 – January 19, 2003) was an American gay rights pioneer and peace activist. He is considered one of the original founders of the gay and lesbian civil rights movement in the United States. == Biography == === Early life === Kight was born and grew up in Comanche County, Texas. He graduated from Texas Christian University in 1941 with a degree in personnel administration and public administration. From 1941 until 1958, Kight lived in northern New Mexico, where he and many other gay people were active in Adlai Stevenson's campaign in the 1952 presidential election. The presence of many gay people in Stevenson's campaign led to the spreading of a rumor that Stevenson was gay. While in New Mexico, Kight married and had two daughters, Carol Kight-Fyfe and Angela Chandler. He only shared that information with his closest friends, apparently believing that would diminish his credibility as a spokesman for gay rights. Kight also acted while he was in Albuquerque. From 1950 to 1955, he was involved in the "Summerhouse Theater" and the "Old Town Players" in Albuquerque. The two companies brought in many actors from California, and Kight was able to read some of the new "homophile" organizations' pamphlets and circulations that these actors brought with them. This was his first exposure to groups such as the Mattachine Society, which he considered elitist. === Labor and civil rights activities === Kight was active in many political, civil rights, and labor rights groups. As early as the 1940s, he was involved in organizing the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union. After moving to Los Angeles, he kept up his involvement in varied rights groups. This work led to the first protest groups he himself founded: the "Dow Action Committee" in 1967. The Committee protested the chemical company, including its production of Agent Orange and its use, during the Vietnam War. Kight's strong beliefs sometimes put him at odds with members of the gay community. In 1977, Kight began what became a national Coors boycott to expose how the Coors Brewing Company used its millions to finance union busting legislation and anti-gay politicians. Morris infuriated organizers of Outfest the year the festival accepted Coors funding. He organized a demonstration in front of the event, using the opportunity to educate the community about the ways anti-gay corporations try to clean up their public image by funding cash-starved gay organizations and events. Morris persevered and Outfest no longer accepts Coors funding. === Gay rights activities === In 1958, Kight moved to Los Angeles, where he was the founder or co-founder of many gay and lesbian organizations. The first such organization was the 'militant' Committee for Homosexual Freedom or CHF, with Leo Laurence, Gale Whittington, Mother Boats and others, later to be renamed the Gay Liberation Front (GLF) in October 1969, the third GLF in the country (after New York City and Berkeley). The name was used to show solidarity with the Vietnamese National Liberation Front. By the next year, there were over 350 GLF organizations around the country. He also co-founded Christopher Street West gay pride parade in Los Angeles in 1970, Aid For AIDS in 1983, and the Gay Community Center in 1971, (now the Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center), the Stonewall Democratic Club in 1975, and many others. Kight remarked that creating the Community Center was the achievement of which he was most proud. In addition, he hosted the first Asian/Pacific Gays and Friends meetings in his home. Kight brought his experiences in political action into the realm of gay rights. One of the first actions by the LA GLF was against a local eatery called Barney's Beanery. The restaurant, located in West Hollywood, not only had a sign above the bar that said "Fagots [sic] Stay Out", but also printed up matchbook covers with the same saying. Kight, along with Troy Perry and 100 activists, protested outside, sending in protesters occasionally to order coffee and take up space at the tables. The protest was initially successful - the owner eventually handed Kight the sign in front of news cameras. But after the media left the owner replaced the sign, where it remained until West Hollywood's first lesbian mayor, Valerie Terrigno, took it down when the city council passed an anti-discrimination ordinance. Perry vowed at the initial protest to never set foot in the place again until the owner apologized, which finally happened in 2005. The new owner, David Houston, not only apologized but, among other methods to reach out to the gay community, holds monthly lunches for disadvantaged gay youth. Kight was one of the leaders of the 1987 Second National March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights. He was subsequently one of the organizers of the 1988 March on Sacramento for Lesbian and Gay Rights, at which Leonard Matlovich gave his last public speech. Kight served on the Los Angeles County Human Relations Commission for two decades. In 2003 the City of Los Angeles dedicated the corner of Hollywood Boulevard and McCadden Place, in Hollywood, as "Morris Kight Square." This location was selected as it was the stepping off point for Christopher Street West, the very first street-closing gay pride parade in the world. === Twilight years === Toward the end of his life, Kight had several strokes that slowed him down. On November 16, 1998, just before his 79th birthday, the City Council of West Hollywood presented him a Lifetime Achievement Award. In September 2001 he made a video documentary with West Hollywood Public Access host James Fuhrman, called "Early Gay and Lesbian History in Los Angeles", which included his recollections of the Barney's Beanery protest and other actions. He had a longtime companion named Roy Zucheran. Three days before his death, he donated his memorabilia and archives to the National Gay and Lesbian Archives in Los Angeles. UCLA also has possession of some of his archives. He died peacefully at the Carl Bean Hospice in Los Angeles, on January 19, 2003. == Legacy == Season 3, episode 8 of the podcast “Making Gay History” is about Morris Kight. The Christopher Street West/Los Angeles Gay Pride Morris Kight Lifetime Achievement Award was first given out in 2003. There is a Chinese magnolia tree and a bronze plaque dedicated to him at the Matthew Shepard Triangle in West Hollywood. Kight used to visit this park weekly to tidy up the area, water and plant new flowers. He encouraged others to do the same. == References == == External links == Morris Kight "Interview with Morris Kight" - Gay Asia Pacific Support Network Archived 2007-02-06 at the Wayback Machine Morris Kight at IMDb Gay Today interview Gay and Lesbian - Political Action & Support Groups – Memorial Honors Gay Rights Pioneer Morris Kight The Advocate - obituary
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaw_Prize#Mathematical_sciences	Shaw Prize	The Shaw Prize is a set of three annual awards presented by the Shaw Prize Foundation in the fields of astronomy, medicine and life sciences, and mathematical sciences. Established in 2002 in Hong Kong, by Hong Kong entertainment mogul and philanthropist Run Run Shaw (邵逸夫), the awards honour "individuals who are currently active in their respective fields and who have recently achieved distinguished and significant advances, who have made outstanding contributions in academic and scientific research or applications, or who in other domains have achieved excellence." The prize has been described as the "Nobel of the East". == Award == The prize consists of three awards in the fields of astronomy, life science and medicine, and mathematical sciences; it is not awarded posthumously. Nominations are submitted by invited individuals beginning each year in September. Winners are announced in the summer and receive the award at a ceremony in early autumn. Each award consists of a gold medal, a certificate and USD$1.2 million (US$1 million before 2015). The front of the medal bears a portrait of Shaw and the name of the prize in English and Traditional Chinese characters; the back bears the year, category, laureate's name and a quotation from the Chinese philosopher Xunzi "制天命而用之" (translated to English as "Grasp the law of nature and make use of it"). As of 2022, there have been 99 Shaw Laureates. 16 Nobel laureates - Jules A. Hoffmann, Bruce Beutler, Saul Perlmutter, Adam Riess, Shinya Yamanaka, Robert Lefkowitz, Brian Schmidt, Jeffrey C. Hall, Michael Rosbash, Michael W. Young, Kip Thorne, Rainer Weiss, Jim Peebles, Michel Mayor, Reinhard Genzel, and David Julius - are Shaw Laureates. The inaugural laureate of the Shaw Prize in Astronomy was Jim Peebles, honored for his contributions to cosmology. Two inaugural prizes were awarded for the Shaw Prize in Life Science and Medicine: Stanley Norman Cohen, Herbert Boyer and Yuet Wai Kan jointly won one of them for their research in DNA while physiologist Richard Doll won the other for his contribution to cancer epidemiology. Shiing-Shen Chern was awarded the inaugural Shaw Prize in Mathematical Sciences for his work on differential geometry. == Shaw Laureates == === Astronomy === === Life science and medicine === === Mathematical sciences === == See also == List of general science and technology awards List of astronomy awards List of mathematics awards List of medicine awards List of physics awards == Notes == a The form and spelling of the names according to the Shaw Prize Foundation. b Sites of the work places of the Laureates at the time of the award. c The rationale from the Shaw Prize Foundation. d Two prizes were awarded for the life science and medicine category in 2004: Stanley N. Cohen, Herbert W. Boyer and Yuet-Wai Kan jointly received one of the prizes (half went to Cohen and Boyer; the other half went to Kan). Richard Doll received the other prize. e Half of the 2008 life science and medicine prize went to Keith H. S. Campbell and Ian Wilmut; the other half went to Shinya Yamanaka. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahria_Town#:~:text=Its%20second%20gated%20community%20opened,is%20the%20smallest%20of%20them.	Bahria Town	Bahria Town (Private) Limited (Urdu: بحریہ ٹاؤن) is an Islamabad-based privately employee-owned real-estate development company that owns, develops, and manages properties across Pakistan. It established its first gated community in Rawalpindi/Islamabad. Its second gated community opened in Lahore. In 2015, it launched Bahria Town Karachi, the largest of its gated communities, while the Bahria Enclave Islamabad (launched in 2013) is the smallest of them. Most of these communities are large towns in their own right; its oldest community in the Southern Rawalpindi/Islamabad area spans over 16,000 hectares (40,000 acres). The under-construction Bahria Town Karachi spans over 16,000 hectares (40,000 acres), making it the largest privately owned residential community in the country. The companies subsidiaries include the Mall of Lahore and the under-construction Mall of Islamabad, a chain of cinemas under the brand Cine Gold, a chain of supermarkets under the banner of Green Valley Hypermarket and skyscrapers including the Bahria Icon Tower, which is the tallest building in Pakistan. The group is also the developer of Grand Jamia Mosque, Lahore, which is the seventh largest in the world and is constructing the third largest mosque in Karachi. The under-construction Rafi Cricket Stadium, when completed, will also be the largest in the country. In November 2016, Bahria entered into a contract with Hyatt to develop four properties across Pakistan, including two golf resorts, worth a combined $600 million. The properties would be owned by Bahria. ACE International Academy is also a project of Bahria Town. Bahria projects usually house upper-middle and high-income Pakistanis; these communities have private security, the ability to restrict access to non-residents and are energy independent from the national grid. Bahria gated communities are home to private schools, including those operated by the company, private hospitals, hotels, and commercial avenues. Bahria has been featured by several international news agencies. == Communities == === Bahria Town Islamabad/Rawalpindi === Bahria Town Rawalpindi is the oldest and first project of Malik Riaz. Bahria Town Rawalpindi is mostly located in Rawalpindi, it is sometimes referred to as Bahria Town Islamabad because of it partially being in the Islamabad Capital Territory. The original gated community has over 100,000 people and has series of projects. It is divided into various phases and smaller projects. Unlike other housing societies in Pakistan, Bahria produces its own electricity and sells it to its residents through the Bahria Town Electric Supply Company. Bahria Town projects in Rawalpindi and Lahore were running respectively 12 and 9 megawatts of generation units of their own. Bahria Town also has constructed 3 grid stations with its own resources and also provides underground lines to its residents. === Bahria Enclave Islamabad === Bahria Enclave is a housing scheme launched by Bahria Town in July 2011. It is located approximately 8 km from Chak Shahzad, the Park Road, and the Kuri Road, with access from Srinagar Highway, Lehtrar Road, and Islamabad Highway. On January 31, 2012, Capital Development Authority approved the plan for development of Jinnah Avenue in Zone-IV. The construction project of four-lane road would link main Kuri Road to Kuri Model Village and was awarded to Bahria Town. === Bahria Town Lahore === It is a flagship gated community in Lahore. The community is home to the Grand Jamia Mosque, Lahore which is the seventh largest mosque in the world which has a total capacity of 70,000 people. === Bahria Town Karachi === Bahria Town Karachi is a privately developed, gated community located northeast of Karachi, Pakistan, along the M-9 Motorway. Covering an area of 46,000 acres (72 sq mi; 19,000 ha), it is one of the largest private real estate developments in Pakistan, undertaken by the Bahria Town Group since 2014. === Bahria Town Nawabshah (Shaheed Benazirabad) === Bahria Town Nawabshah (Urdu: بحریہ ٹاؤن نوابشاہ) is a currently constructed privately owned gated community of Benazirabad, Sindh, Pakistan. The location of Bahria Town Nawabshah is to be located at Qazi Abdullah Road, on the bank of Rohri Canal Nawabshah. == Shopping malls == == Skyscrapers == == Hospitality == On November 14, 2016, Hyatt Hotels Corporation and Bahria Town Group entered into an agreement in Abu Dhabi to develop four properties in Pakistan worth over $600 million. All properties are under construction as of 2016. == Recognition and awards == After success at the national level, Bahria has been featured by international magazines and news agencies, referred to as the prosperous face of Pakistan. GlobalPost claimed that in 2013, Bahria houses some 100,000 people in total. Newsweek calls it as Pakistan's "Gateway to Paradise". On October 6, 2011, Los Angeles Times referred to Bahria as a "functioning state within a non-functioning one". Regardless of that Bahria has been subject to controversies, it is referred to as a symbol of inequality, blamed for illegal encroachment of forests and unholy alliances with the military. == Controversies == Bahria has been subject to controversies; it is referred to as a symbol of inequality and blamed for illegal encroachment of forests. To begin with, the name 'Bahria' itself has been controversial, and in 2018, a senior court in Pakistan ruled against the use of this name by the private owners of the project. Ayesha Siddiqa, a civilian military analyst and author of Military Inc.: Inside Pakistan's Military Economy, alleges that those links have allowed him to acquire land, in some cases returning a percentage to senior officers as developed plots. Chief Executive of Bahria Town, Ali Riaz Malik, has submitted his statement regarding Arsalan Iftikhar (son of Chief Justice of Pakistan Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry) suo moto case in the Supreme Court of Pakistan that Bahria Town was not behind any allegations against Arsalan and that the court's proceedings were not aimed at investigating the affairs of Bahria Town. The written reply also said that if any statement were made against Bahria Town or against its administration, then the organization would have the right to respond to it. In April 2016, Malik Riaz Hussain's son, Ahmed Ali Riaz Malik, was named in the Panama Papers. === Dispute with Nayatel and CCP fine === In August 2016, a complaint from a resident of Bahria Town was forwarded to the Competition Commission of Pakistan (CCP) which revealed that Bahria Town was deliberately preventing other fixed-line service providers from expanding into Bahria Town, and thus giving PTCL the majority of the market share in the housing society. It was also in violation of the Competition Act (2010) by abusing its dominant position and entering into a prohibited agreement. Six months later, CCP imposed a fine on Bahria Town of 2 million PKR for deliberately not issuing a NOC (No-Objection Certificate) to Nayatel in Phases 1 to 6. Bahria Town has been directed to work with Nayatel to lay its fiber optic network in Phases 1 to 6. == See also == List of largest companies in Pakistan Developments in Islamabad == References == == External links == Official website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Leary	Stuart Leary	Stuart Edward Leary (30 April 1933 – 21 August 1988) was a South African sportsman who played professional football as a centre-forward and cricket as an all-rounder. Leary started his career with Cape Town side Clyde before moving to English side Charlton Athletic in 1950 along with team-mate Eddie Firmani. He was one of a number of South Africans to move to The Valley in this era. After making his debut in 1951, he became a prolific goal-scorer scoring a record number of league goals for the club. Despite being South African born, he appeared for the England under-23 team but was prevented from representing the full team by the Football Association who banned non-English-born players from representing the national team. During his period of National Service he served with the Royal Air Force. In all, he made 403 appearances for the Addicks, scoring 163. After failing to agree a new contract, he joined Queens Park Rangers in 1962 and remained there until his retirement in 1966. Leary also had a long and successful career as a first-class cricketer for Kent County Cricket Club between 1951 and 1971. He scored 16,517 runs at a batting average of 31 and took 146 wickets at an average of 34. His body was discovered on Table Mountain in South Africa on 23 August 1988. It was believed he had died two days earlier after taking his own life. == References == == External links == Stuart Leary at ESPNcricinfo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Medal	Guy Medal	The Guy Medals are awarded by the Royal Statistical Society in three categories; Gold, Silver and Bronze. The Silver and Bronze medals are awarded annually. The Gold Medal was awarded every three years between 1987 and 2011, but is awarded biennially as of 2019. They are named after William Guy. The Guy Medal in Gold is awarded to fellows or others who are judged to have merited a signal mark of distinction by reason of their innovative contributions to the theory or application of statistics. The Guy Medal in Silver is awarded to any fellow or, in exceptional cases, to two or more fellows in respect of a paper/papers of special merit communicated to the Society at its ordinary meetings, or in respect of a paper/papers published in any of the journals of the Society. General contributions to statistics may also be taken into account. The Guy Medal in Bronze is awarded to fellows, or to non-fellows who are members of a section or a local group, in respect of a paper or papers read to a section or local group or at any conference run by the Society, its sections or local groups, or published in any of the Society's journals. Preference will be given to people under the age of 35. Exceptionally two or more authors of a paper/papers may be considered for the award provided they are members of sections or local groups. == Gold Medalists == Source: == Silver Medalists == == Bronze Medalists == == See also == List of mathematics awards == References == == External links == Guy Medal. Royal Statistical Society website.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyro_monorail#:~:text=Just%20as%20Brennan%20completed%20testing,at%20the%20Berlin%20Zoological%20Gardens.	Gyro monorail	A gyro monorail, gyroscopic monorail, or gyro-stabilized monorail is a single-rail land vehicle that uses the gyroscopic action of one or more spinning wheels to overcome the inherent instability of balancing atop a single rail. For a similar steerable vehicle, see Gyrocar. The monorail is associated with the names Louis Brennan, August Scherl and Pyotr Shilovsky, who each built full-scale working prototypes during the early part of the twentieth century. A version was developed by Ernest F. Swinney, Harry Ferreira and Louis E. Swinney in the US in 1962. The gyro monorail was never developed beyond the prototype stage. The principal advantage of the monorail cited by Shilovsky is the suppression of hunting oscillation, a speed limitation encountered by conventional railways at the time. Also, sharper turns are possible compared to the multi-kilometre radius of turn typical of modern high-speed trains such as the TGV, because the vehicle will bank automatically on bends, like an aircraft, so that no lateral centrifugal acceleration is experienced on board. A major drawback is that many cars – including passenger and freight cars, not just the locomotive – would require a powered gyroscope to stay upright. Unlike other means of maintaining balance, such as lateral shifting of the centre of gravity or the use of reaction wheels, the gyroscopic balancing system is statically stable, so that the control system serves only to impart dynamic stability. The active part of the balancing system is therefore more accurately described as a roll damper. == History == === Brennan's monorail === Louis Brennan developed a 22-tonne (22-long-ton; 24-short-ton) (unladen weight) prototype vehicle. Brennan filed his first monorail patent in 1903. His first demonstration model was just a 30.0-by-11.8-inch (762 by 300 mm) box containing the balancing system. However, this was sufficient for the Army Council to recommend a sum of £10,000 for the development of a full-size vehicle. This was vetoed by their Financial Department. However, the Army found £2,000 from various sources to fund Brennan's work. Within this budget Brennan produced a larger model, 6.0 by 1.5 feet (1.83 by 0.46 m), kept in balance by two 5.0-inch (127 mm) diameter gyroscope rotors. This model is still in existence in the London Science Museum. The track for the vehicle was laid in the grounds of Brennan's house in Gillingham, Kent. It consisted of ordinary gas piping laid on wooden sleepers, with a 50-foot (15 m) wire rope bridge, sharp corners and slopes up to one in five. Brennan demonstrated his model in a lecture to the Royal Society in 1907 when it was shown running back and forth "on a taught and slender wire" "under the perfect control of the inventor". Brennan's reduced scale railway largely vindicated the War Department's initial enthusiasm. However, the election in 1906 of a Liberal government, with policies of financial retrenchment, effectively stopped the funding from the Army. However, the India Office voted an advance of £6,000 (equivalent to £801,733 in 2023) in 1907 to develop the monorail for the North West Frontier region, and a further £5,000 (equivalent to £659,406 in 2023) was advanced by the Durbar of Kashmir in 1908. This money was almost spent by January 1909, when the India Office advanced a further £2,000 (equivalent to £263,333 in 2023). On 15 October 1909, the railcar ran under its own power for the first time, carrying 32 people around the factory. The vehicle had a 20-horsepower (15 kW) petrol engine with a speed of 22 miles per hour (35 km/h). The transmission was electric, with the petrol engine driving a generator, and electric motors located on both bogies. This generator also supplied power to the gyro motors and the air compressor. The balancing system used a pneumatic servo, rather than the friction wheels used in the earlier model. The gyros were located in the cab, although Brennan planned to re-site them under the floor of the vehicle before displaying the vehicle in public, but the unveiling of Scherl's machine forced him to bring forward the first public demonstration to 10 November 1909. There was insufficient time to re-position the gyros before the monorail's public debut. In December 1909, the Brennan demonstrated the railcar to the Royal Society. It carried 40 people at a speed of 40 km/h (25 mph) on a single-rail circular track that was 200 m (660 ft) in circumference. The length, height, and width of the vehicle was 12.2 m × 4.0 m × 3.0 m (40 ft × 13 ft × 10 ft). The public debut for Brennan's monorail was the Japan-British Exhibition at the White City, London in 1910. The monorail car carried 50 passengers at a time around a circular track at 20 miles per hour (32 km/h). Passengers included Winston Churchill, who showed considerable enthusiasm. Interest was such that children's clockwork monorail toys, single-wheeled and gyro-stabilised, were produced in England and Germany. Although a viable means of transport, the monorail failed to attract further investment. Of the two vehicles built, one was sold as scrap, and the other was used as a park shelter until 1930. === Scherl's car === Just as Brennan completed testing his vehicle, August Scherl, a German publisher and philanthropist, announced a public demonstration of the gyro monorail which he had developed in Germany. The demonstration was to take place on Wednesday 10 November 1909 at the Berlin Zoological Gardens. Scherl's machine, also a full-size vehicle, was somewhat smaller than Brennan's, with a length and width of only 5.5 by 1.2 m (18 by 4 ft). It could accommodate four passengers on a pair of transverse bench seats. While Brennan used a pair of horizontal axis gyros, Scherl's gyros had vertical axes. They consisted of the 57 kg (125 lb) flywheels that were located under the seats, and rotated at 8,000 revolutions per minute. The servomechanism was hydraulic, and propulsion electric. Scherl's railcar had two additional safety features. The first is that the gyroscopes would keep rotating several hours without power before they stopped completely, allowing the vehicle to be stopped long before it lost its balance. The second was small wheels at each corner that could be lowered to the ground to stabilize the vehicle before the gyros stopped. Strictly speaking, August Scherl merely provided the financial backing. The righting mechanism was invented by Paul Fröhlich, and the car designed by Emil Falcke. A Scientific American editorial questioned its practicality due to possible changes to rails and bridges. Although well received and performing perfectly during its public demonstrations, the car failed to attract significant financial support, and Scherl wrote off his investment in it. === Shilovsky's work === Following the failure of Brennan and Scherl to attract the necessary investment, the practical development of the gyro-monorail after 1910 continued with the work of Pyotr Shilovsky, a Russian aristocrat residing in London. His balancing system was based on slightly different principles to those of Brennan and Scherl, and permitted the use of a smaller, more slowly spinning gyroscope. === Post-World War I developments === In 1922, the Soviet government began construction of a Shilovsky monorail between Leningrad and Tsarskoe Selo, but funds ran out shortly after the project was begun. In 1929, at the age of 74, Brennan also developed a gyrocar. This was turned down by a consortium of Austin/Morris/Rover, on the basis that they could sell all the conventional cars they built. === 21st century: Monocab === In October 2022 the Technische Hochschule OWL, the Bielefeld University of Applied Sciences, the Fraunhofer-Institut für Optronik, Systemtechnik und Bildauswertung and the Landeseisenbahn Lippe e. V. presented a gyro-stabilized monorail based on Brennan's system on a section of the Extertal railway in Germany. The system called Monocab is meant to permit bi-directional service on a single track since the vehicles use only one rail. The cabins that shall operate autonomously on-demand are designed accordingly narrow. In September 2020 Monocab was funded from the European Regional Development Fund and by the state of North Rhine-Westphalia with 3.6 million euros combined. == Principles of operation == === Basic idea === The vehicle runs on a single conventional rail, so that without the balancing system it would topple over. A spinning wheel is mounted in a gimbal frame whose axis of rotation (the precession axis) is perpendicular to the spin axis. The assembly is mounted on the vehicle chassis such that, at equilibrium, the spin axis, precession axis and vehicle roll axis are mutually perpendicular. Forcing the gimbal to rotate causes the wheel to precess resulting in gyroscopic torques about the roll axis, so that the mechanism has the potential to right the vehicle when tilted from the vertical. The wheel shows a tendency to align its spin axis with the axis of rotation (the gimbal axis), and it is this action which rotates the entire vehicle about its roll axis. Ideally, the mechanism applying control torques to the gimbal ought to be passive (an arrangement of springs, dampers and levers), but the fundamental nature of the problem indicates that this would be impossible. The equilibrium position is with the vehicle upright, so that any disturbance from this position reduces the height of the centre of gravity, lowering the potential energy of the system. Whatever returns the vehicle to equilibrium must be capable of restoring this potential energy, and hence cannot consist of passive elements alone. The system must contain an active servo of some kind. === Side loads === If constant side forces were resisted by gyroscopic action alone, the gimbal would rotate quickly on to the stops, and the vehicle would topple. In fact, the mechanism causes the vehicle to lean into the disturbance, resisting it with a component of weight, with the gyro near its undeflected position. Inertial side forces, arising from cornering, cause the vehicle to lean into the corner. A single gyro introduces an asymmetry which will cause the vehicle to lean too far, or not far enough for the net force to remain in the plane of symmetry, so side forces will still be experienced on board. In order to ensure that the vehicle banks correctly on corners, it is necessary to remove the gyroscopic torque arising from the vehicle rate of turn. A free gyro keeps its orientation with respect to inertial space, and gyroscopic moments are generated by rotating it about an axis perpendicular to the spin axis. But the control system deflects the gyro with respect to the chassis, and not with respect to the fixed stars. It follows that the pitch and yaw motion of the vehicle with respect to inertial space will introduce additional unwanted, gyroscopic torques. These give rise to unsatisfactory equilibria, but more seriously, cause a loss of static stability when turning in one direction, and an increase in static stability in the opposite direction. Shilovsky encountered this problem with his road vehicle, which consequently could not make sharp left hand turns. Brennan and Scherl were aware of this problem, and implemented their balancing systems with pairs of counter rotating gyros, precessing in opposite directions. With this arrangement, all motion of the vehicle with respect to inertial space causes equal and opposite torques on the two gyros, and are consequently cancelled out. With the double gyro system, the instability on bends is eliminated and the vehicle will bank to the correct angle, so that no net side force is experienced on board. Shilovsky claimed to have difficulty ensuring stability with double-gyro systems, although the reason why this should be so is not clear. His solution was to vary the control loop parameters with turn rate, to maintain similar response in turns of either direction. Offset loads similarly cause the vehicle to lean until the centre of gravity lies above the support point. Side winds cause the vehicle to tilt into them, to resist them with a component of weight. These contact forces are likely to cause more discomfort than cornering forces, because they will result in net side forces being experienced on board. The contact side forces result in a gimbal deflection bias in a Shilovsky loop. This may be used as an input to a slower loop to shift the centre of gravity laterally, so that the vehicle remains upright in the presence of sustained non-inertial forces. This combination of gyro and lateral cg shift is the subject of a 1962 patent. A vehicle using a gyro/lateral payload shift was built by Ernest F. Swinney, Harry Ferreira and Louis E. Swinney in the US in 1962. This system is called the Gyro-Dynamics monorail. == Comparison to two-rail vehicles == Shilovsky gave a number of claimed benefits including reduced right-of-way problems because steeper gradients and sharper corners may be negotiated in theory. In his book, Shilovsky describes a form of on-track braking, which is feasible with a monorail, but would upset the directional stability of a conventional rail vehicle. This has the potential of much shorter stopping distances compared with conventional wheel on steel, with a corresponding reduction in safe separation between trains. The result is potentially higher occupancy of the track, and higher capacity. Shilovsky claimed his designs were actually lighter than the equivalent duo-rail vehicles. The gyro mass, according to Brennan, accounts for 3–5% of the vehicle weight, which is comparable to the bogie weight saved in using a single track design. Considering a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve, the most serious problems arise if the gyro axis is vertical. There is a component of turn rate Ω {\displaystyle \Omega } acting about the gimbal pivot, so that an additional gyroscopic moment is introduced into the roll equation: A d 2 ϕ d t 2 + H ( d θ d t + Ω ϕ ) = W h ϕ {\displaystyle A{\frac {d^{2}\phi }{dt^{2}}}+H({\frac {d\theta }{dt}}+\Omega \phi )=Wh\phi } This displaces the roll from the correct bank angle for the turn, but more seriously, changes the constant term in the characteristic equation to: ( W h − H Ω ) k A J {\displaystyle {\frac {(Wh-H\Omega )k}{AJ}}} Evidently, if the turn rate exceeds a critical value: Ω = W h H {\displaystyle \Omega ={\frac {Wh}{H}}} The balancing loop will become unstable. However, an identical gyro spinning in the opposite sense will cancel the roll torque which is causing the instability, and if it is forced to precess in the opposite direction to the first gyro will produce a control torque in the same direction. In 1972, the Canadian Government's Division of Mechanical Engineering rejected a monorail proposal largely on the basis of this problem. Their analysis was correct, but restricted in scope to single vertical axis gyro systems, and not universal. Gas turbine engines are designed with peripheral speeds as high as 400 metres per second (1,300 ft/s), and have operated reliably on thousands of aircraft over the past 50 years. Hence, an estimate of the gyro mass for a 10 tonnes (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons), with a center-of-gravity height of 2 metres (6 ft 7 in), assuming a peripheral speed of half what is used in jet engine design, is a mere 140 kilograms (310 lb). Brennan's recommendation of 3–5% of the vehicle mass was therefore highly conservative. == See also == == References == == Further reading == == External links == "Gyro-Dynamics Monorail". The Monorail Society. Retrieved 15 March 2025. "Oddities - Gyroscope Railroad - Louis Brennan's Mono-rail Car". Catskill Archive-Welcome. 11 July 2007. Archived from the original on 8 January 2025. Retrieved 15 March 2025. The Self Balancing Monorail on YouTube Cunningham, Ewan (22 December 2023). "The Brennan Gyro Monorail from 1910". Primal Nebula. Retrieved 7 December 2025.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss_USA_1976	Miss USA 1976	Miss USA 1976 was the 25th Miss USA pageant, televised live by CBS from Niagara Falls, New York, on May 15, 1976. The pageant was won by Barbara Peterson of Minnesota, who succeeded outgoing titleholder Summer Bartholomew of California. Peterson was the first – and to date only – woman from Minnesota to win the Miss USA title, and went on to participate at Miss Universe 1976, where she became the first Miss USA titleholder to fail to advance to the semi-final stage of the pageant. == Results == == References == == External links == Miss USA official website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamia_College_of_Science_and_Commerce,_Srinagar	Islamia College of Science and Commerce, Srinagar	The Islamia College of Science and Commerce, Srinagar (commonly referred to as Islamia College or ICSC) is a University Grants Commission Autonomous College, and accredited as A grade by National Assessment and Accreditation Council, in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, located on a 12.17-acre (0.0493 km2) campus in Hawal Srinagar. It is affiliated to University of Kashmir. It has the distinction to be the first college in Jammu and Kashmir to take the lead in incorporating the CBCS (choice based Credit system) from the year 2015. == Establishment == The Government of Jammu and Kashmir established this Institute in 1961 during the Prime-ministership of Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad as an Autonomous Educational Institute. == Courses == === Under Graduate (UG) courses === Source: Bachelor of Computer Application BCA Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) Bachelor of Commerce (Honours) B.Com Bachelor of Information Technology BSc IT Bachelor of Science (Medical) BSc Bachelor of Science (Non Medical) BSc Bachelor of Science (Bio-Technology) BSc Bachelor of Science (Bio-Chemistry) BSc Bachelor of Science (Electronics) BSc Bachelor of Arts (Economics) B.A. Bachelor of Science (Zoology) BSc Bachelor of Science (Nano-Science & Nano Technology) BSc Bachelor of Science (Botany) BSc Bachelor of Science (Chemistry) BSc === Post Graduate (PG) courses === Master of Computer Applications MCA Master of Commerce MCom Master of Arts (English) Master of Business Administration MBA Master of Science (Botany). MSc Master of Science (Chemistry) MSc Master of Science (Zoology) MSc Mathematics MSc === Integrated Post Graduate (I-PG) courses === Master of Science (Botany) MSc Master of Science (Chemistry) MSc Master of Science (Zoology) MSc == Awards and achievements == The National Assessment and Accreditation Council, Bangalore (NAAC) has accredited the college at A level grade in its Certificate issued on 12 September 2017; the Institutional score being 3.27 CGPA, the highest rated college in J&K. It was accredited as the College for Potential Excellence by the University Grants Commission (India) in April 2010. Adventures Activities The college has also Mountaineering & Trekking Club which is affiliated with The Jammu & Kashmir Mountaineering and Trekking Association. The students of the college keenly participate in the activities held by the Club. The college adventure club is headed by Dr. Altaf Ur Rehman and Aga Syed Ashtar, Jasim Ali, Syed Kumail Madni were the leads of the Islamia College Mountaineering & Trekking Club. == Notable alumni == MC Kash - Rapper Ashiq Hussain Faktoo - Scholar Fareed Parbati - Indian Poet Z. G. Muhammad - Writer Ghulam Rasool Nazki - Poet Abrar Qazi - Indian Actor == References == Islamia College to introduce three post-grad programmes this year. https://kashmirreader.com/2018/09/19/islamia-college-to-introduce-three-post-grad-programmes-this-year/ Archived 29 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Kashmir Reader. (Published: September 19, 2018). Retrieved September 29, 2018 == External links == www.islamiacollege.edu.in http://www.naac.gov.in/docs/27th%20-%202nd%20cycle.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Tunisia#:~:text=Beji%20Caid%20Essebsi,-(1926%E2%80%932019)&text=By%20winning%20the%202014%20presidential,office%20on%2025%20July%202019.	President of Tunisia	The president of Tunisia, officially the president of the Republic of Tunisia (Arabic: رئيس الجمهورية التونسية, romanized: Ra'īs al-Jumhūriyyah at-Tūnisiyyah), is the executive head of state of Tunisia. The president exercises executive power with the assistance of a government headed by the prime minister in a presidential system and is the commander-in-chief of the Tunisian Armed Forces. Under the Constitution, the president is elected by direct universal suffrage for a term of five years, renewable once. The first president of the Tunisian Republic when the position was created on 25 July 1957 was Habib Bourguiba, who remained in power for 30 years until he was removed through the coup of 7 November 1987, by his prime minister Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, who appointed himself President of the Republic, and in turn remained in power for 23 years, until his fall in the Tunisian revolution on 14 January 2011. He then appointed Fouad Mebazaa as interim president, until he handed over power on 13 December 2011 to the politician Moncef Marzouki, the first democratic president in the country's history, who was elected by the Constituent Assembly. Marzouki handed over power on 31 December 2014 to his successor, Beji Caid Essebsi, who won the 2014 presidential elections, thus becoming the second directly democratically elected president in the history of Tunisia, until his death on 25 July 2019, with Parliament Speaker Mohamed Ennaceur assuming the presidency temporarily until presidential elections were held. Bourguiba and Ben Ali also headed the ruling party, called the Neo Destour, Socialist Destourian Party then the Democratic Constitutional Rally, from independence in 1956 until the Tunisian revolution in 2011, when the president of the republic must abandon his party status if he wins the presidency. The 2022 Tunisian constitutional referendum transformed Tunisia into a presidential republic, giving the president sweeping powers while largely limiting the role of the parliament. The current president of the Republic of Tunisia is Kais Saied, since 23 October 2019. == History == Since the promulgation of a republican constitution in June 1959, three years after gaining independence from France, Tunisia has had just four directly elected presidents. The first president was Habib Bourguiba, who became the country's first president after the proclamation of a republic in 1957; he had been the country's de facto leader as prime minister since independence in 1956. He was formally elected to the post in 1959, and was proclaimed president for life in 1975. He was removed from office in a coup d'état in 1987 by Prime Minister Zine El Abidine Ben Ali after being declared medically unfit to continue in office. Ben Ali ascended as acting president, was elected in his own right in 1989 and served until 2011, when he was forced from office during an uprising against his rule. In the country's first free presidential election, held in December 2014, Beji Caid Essebsi was elected in the second round. For most of its history as an independent state, Tunisia lacked political democracy in the Western sense, and saw widespread violations of human rights. Because of this, presidential elections in Tunisia, such as that of 2009, lacked international credibility. Elections resulted in implausibly high margins for the ruling party, the Constitutional Democratic Rally and its previous incarnations as the Neo Destour party and the Socialist Destourian Party. Prior to 1999, presidential candidates had to be endorsed by at least 30 political figures—a realistic possibility only for a candidate from a well-organized party like the RCD. Given the RCD's near-total domination of Tunisian politics, opposition candidates found it impossible to get their nomination papers signed. Even when this requirement was lifted, incumbent Ben Ali was reelected three more times by implausibly high margins; his lowest margin was 89 percent in 2009. Tunisia's original republican constitution vested the president with sweeping executive and legislative powers. Indeed, within the context of the system, he was a virtual dictator. He was elected for a term of five years, with no term limits. In 1975, five months after winning his third full term, Bourguiba was named president for life. From 1987 to 2002, a president was limited to three five-year terms, with no more than two in a row. However, this provision was removed in June 2002. The 2014 Constitution retained the presidency as the key institution, but hedged it about with numerous checks and balances to prevent a repeat of past authoritarian excesses. Most notably, a president is limited to two five-year terms, even if they are non-successive. The Constitution explicitly forbids any amendment to increase the length of a president's term or allow him to run for more than two terms. Under the current constitution, the president is primarily responsible for foreign policy, defense and national security, while the head of government (prime minister) is responsible for domestic policy. Following Zine El Abidine Ben Ali's ousting in January 2011, prime minister Mohamed Ghannouchi invoked article 56 of the Constitution regarding temporary absence of the president to assume the role of acting president. This move was deemed unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court hours later and President of the Chamber of Deputies Fouad Mebazaa was appointed as acting president based on article 57 of the Constitution regarding permanent absence of the president. On 12 December 2011, Moncef Marzouki was elected by the newly formed Constituent Assembly as interim president of the Republic. == Elections == The president is elected by universal suffrage by majority during elections held in the last sixty days of the previous presidential term. Article 74 of the Constitution establishes that the right to presidential candidacy is open to every Tunisian national of at least 35 years of age and of Muslim faith. Candidates must renounce any prior nationality upon election. Voting takes place in the form of a two round election. Article 75 indicates that if no candidate receives an absolute majority of the votes cast during the first round, a second round shall be held within two weeks of the announcement of the final results of the first round. The two candidates having received the most votes in the first round are both presented in the second round, with the candidate receiving the most votes between the two being declared president-elect. If one of the candidates on the ballot dies, a new call for candidates is made, with new election dates set within no more than 45 days; this provision does not apply to the potential withdrawal of candidates. The Constitution also specifies that one may not occupy the position of president for more than two full terms, consecutive or non-consecutive, and that in the event of resignation, the term is considered to have been completed in full. == List == == Timeline == == Latest election == == See also == Tunisia List of beys of Tunis List of French residents-general in Tunisia List of presidents of Tunisia First Lady of Tunisia Prime Minister of Tunisia Lists of office-holders List of current heads of state and government == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurie_Anderson	Laurie Anderson	Laura Phillips "Laurie" Anderson (born June 5, 1947) is an American avant-garde artist, musician and filmmaker whose work encompasses performance art, pop music, and multimedia projects. Initially trained in violin and sculpting, Anderson pursued a variety of performance art projects in New York City during the 1970s, focusing particularly on language, technology, and visual imagery. She achieved unexpected commercial success when her song "O Superman" reached number two on the UK singles chart in 1981. Anderson's debut studio album Big Science was released in 1982 and has since been followed by a number of studio and live albums. She starred in and directed the 1986 concert film Home of the Brave. Anderson's creative output has also included theatrical and documentary works, voice acting, art installations, and a CD-ROM. She is a pioneer in electronic music and has invented several musical devices that she has used in her recordings and performance art shows. == Early life and education == Laura Phillips Anderson was born in Chicago on June 5, 1947, and grew up in the nearby suburb Glen Ellyn, Illinois, one of eight children born to Mary Louise (née Rowland) and Arthur T. Anderson. Growing up, she spent weekends studying painting at the Art Institute of Chicago and played with the Chicago Youth Symphony. She graduated from Glenbard West High School. She attended Mills College in California, and, after moving to New York in 1966, graduated in 1969 from Barnard College with a B.A. magna cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa, studying art history. In 1972, she obtained an M.F.A. in sculpture from Columbia University. Her first performance-art piece — a symphony played on automobile horns — was performed in 1969. In 1970 she drew the underground comix Baloney Moccasins, which was published by George DiCaprio. In the early 1970s she worked as an art instructor and as an art critic for magazines such as Artforum, and illustrated children's books — the first of which was titled The Package (1971), a mystery story in pictures alone. == Career == === 1970s === Anderson performed in New York during the 1970s. One of her most-cited performances, Duets on Ice, which she conducted in New York and other cities around the world, involved her playing the violin along with a recording while wearing ice skates with the blades frozen into a block of ice; the performance ended only when the ice had melted away. Two early pieces, "New York Social Life" and "Time to Go", are included in the 1977 compilation New Music for Electronic and Recorded Media, along with works by Pauline Oliveros and others. Two other pieces were included on Airwaves, a collection of audio pieces by various artists. She also recorded a lecture for Vision, a set of artist's lectures released by Crown Point Press as a set of six LPs. Many of Anderson's earliest recordings remain unreleased or were issued only in limited quantities, such as her first single, "It's Not the Bullet that Kills You (It's the Hole)". That song, along with "New York Social Life" and about a dozen others, was originally recorded for use in an art installation that consisted of a jukebox that played the different Anderson compositions, at the Holly Solomon Gallery in New York City. Among the musicians on these early recordings are Peter Gordon on saxophone, Scott Johnson on guitar, Ken Deifik on harmonica, and Joe Kos on drums. Photographs and descriptions of many of these early performances were included in Anderson's retrospective book Stories from the Nerve Bible (1993). During the late 1970s, Anderson made a number of additional recordings that were either released privately or included on compilations of avant-garde music, most notably releases by the Giorno Poetry Systems label run by New York poet John Giorno, an early intimate of Andy Warhol. In 1978, she performed at the Nova Convention, a major conference involving many counter-culture figures and rising avant-garde musical stars, including William S. Burroughs, Philip Glass, Frank Zappa, Timothy Leary, Malcolm Goldstein, John Cage, and Allen Ginsberg. She also worked with comedian Andy Kaufman in the late 1970s. === 1980s === In 1980, Anderson was awarded an honorary doctorate from the San Francisco Art Institute. In 1982, she was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship for Creative Arts — Film. In 1987, Anderson was awarded an honorary doctorate in the fine arts from the University of the Arts in Philadelphia. Anderson became widely known outside the art world in 1981 with the single "O Superman", originally released in a limited quantity by B. George's One Ten Records, which ultimately reached number two on the UK singles chart. The sudden influx of orders from the UK (prompted partly by British station BBC Radio 1 playlisting the record) led to Anderson signing a seven-album recording contract with Warner Bros. Records, which re-released the single. "O Superman" was part of a larger stage work titled United States Live (1984) and was included on her debut studio album Big Science (1982). Prior to the release of Big Science, Anderson returned to Giorno Poetry Systems to record the collaboration album You're the Guy I Want to Share My Money With (1981); Anderson recorded one side of the double-LP set, with William S. Burroughs and John Giorno recording a side each, and the fourth side featured a separate groove for each artist. This was followed by the back-to-back releases of her albums Mister Heartbreak and United States Live (both 1984), the latter of which was a five-LP (and, later, four-CD) recording of her two-evening stage show at the Brooklyn Academy of Music. She also appeared in a television special produced by Nam June Paik broadcast on New Year's Day 1984, titled "Good Morning, Mr. Orwell". She next starred in and directed the 1986 concert film Home of the Brave and also composed the soundtracks for the Spalding Gray films Swimming to Cambodia (1987) and Monster in a Box (1992). During this time, she also contributed music to Robert Wilson's Alcestis at the American Repertory Theater in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She also hosted the PBS series Alive from Off Center during 1987, after having produced the short film What You Mean We? for the series the year before. What You Mean We? introduced a new character played by Anderson: "The Clone", a digitally altered masculine counterpart to Anderson who later "co-hosted" with her when she did her presenting stint on Alive from Off Center. Elements of the Clone were later incorporated into the titular "puppet" of her later work, Puppet Motel. In that year, she also appeared on Peter Gabriel's fifth studio album So, co-writing and performing on the song "This is the Picture (Excellent Birds)". (The first version of "Excellent Birds" had been released on Mister Heartbreak.) Release of Anderson's first post-Home of the Brave album, 1989's Strange Angels, was delayed for more than a year in order for Anderson to take singing lessons. This was due to the album being more musically inclined (in terms of singing) than her previous works. The single "Babydoll" was a moderate hit on the Modern Rock Tracks chart in 1989. === 1990s === In 1991, she was a member of the jury at the 41st Berlin International Film Festival. In the same year, Anderson appeared in The Human Face, a feature arts documentary directed by artist-filmmakers Nichola Bruce and Michael Coulson for BBC Television. Anderson was the presenter in this documentary on the history of the face in art and science. Her face was transformed using latex masks and digital special effects as she introduced ideas about the relationship between physiognomy and perception. Her varied career in the early 1990s included voice-acting in the animated film The Rugrats Movie (1998). In 1994, she created a CD-ROM titled Puppet Motel, which was followed by Bright Red, co-produced by Brian Eno, and another spoken-word album, The Ugly One with the Jewels (1995). This was followed by an appearance on the 1997 charity single "Perfect Day". In 1996, Anderson performed with Diego Frenkel (La Portuária) and Aterciopelados for the AIDS benefit album Silencio=Muerte: Red Hot + Latin produced by the Red Hot Organization. An interval of more than half a decade followed before her next album release. During this time, she wrote a supplemental article on the cultural character of New York City for the Encyclopædia Britannica and created multimedia presentations, including one inspired by Moby-Dick (Songs and Stories from Moby Dick, 1999–2000). One of the central themes in Anderson's work is exploring the effects of technology on human relationships and communication. Starting in the 1990s, Anderson and Lou Reed, whom she had met in 1992, collaborated on recordings together. Reed contributed to the tracks "In Our Sleep" from Anderson's Bright Red (1994), "One Beautiful Evening" from Anderson's Life on a String (2001), and "My Right Eye" and "Only an Expert" from Anderson's Homeland (2010), which Reed also co-produced. Anderson contributed to the tracks "Call on Me" from Reed's collaborative project The Raven (2003), "Rouge" and "Rock Minuet" from Reed's Ecstasy (2000), and "Hang On to Your Emotions" from Reed's Set the Twilight Reeling (1996). In late 1998, Artist Space, New York presented an exhibit of Anderson’s work from 1970s to 1980s, along with her 1990s work, Whirlwind. === 2000s === Life on a String appeared in 2001, by which time she signed a new recording contract with another Warner Music Group label, Nonesuch Records. Life on a String was a mixture of new works (including one song recalling the death of her father) and works from the Moby-Dick presentation. In 2001, she recorded the audiobook version of Don DeLillo's novella The Body Artist. Anderson went on tour performing a selection of her best-known musical pieces in 2001. One of these performances was recorded in New York City a week after the September 11 attacks, and included a performance of "O Superman". This concert was released in early 2002 as the double CD Live in New York. In 2003, Anderson produced albums with French musicians La Jarry and Hector Zazou and also performed with them. Zazou's album Strong Currents (2003), which brought together well-known soloists, features her alongside Jane Birkin, Lori Carson and Irene Grandi, among others. She became NASA's first artist-in-residence in the same year, which inspired her performance piece The End of the Moon. In May 2004, she received an honorary doctorate from Columbia University. She was part of the team that created the opening ceremony for the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens and collaborated with choreographer Trisha Brown and filmmaker Agnieszka Wojtowicz-Vosloo on the multimedia project O Zlozony/O Composite for the Paris Opera Ballet which premiered at the Palais Garnier in Paris in December 2004. She mounted a succession of themed shows and composed a piece for Expo 2005 in Japan. In 2005, Anderson visited Russia's space program — the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Centre and mission control — with the Arts Catalyst and took part in the Arts Catalyst's Space Soon event at the Roundhouse to reflect on her experiences. In 2005, her exhibition The Waters Reglitterized opened at the Sean Kelly Gallery in New York City. According to the press release by Sean Kelly, the work is a diary of dreams and their literal recreation as works of art. This work uses the language of dreams to investigate the dream itself. The resulting pieces include drawings, prints, and high-definition video. The installation ran until October 22, 2005. In 2006, Anderson was awarded a Residency at the American Academy in Rome. She narrated Ric Burns' Andy Warhol: A Documentary Film, which was first televised in September 2006 as part of the PBS American Masters series. She contributed a song to Plague Songs, a collection of songs related to the 10 Biblical plagues. Anderson also performed in Came So Far for Beauty, the Leonard Cohen tribute event held at the Point Theatre in Dublin, Ireland, on October 4–5, 2006. In November 2006, she published a book of drawings based on her dreams, titled Night Life. Material from Homeland was performed at small work-in-progress shows in New York throughout May 2007 supported by a four-piece band with lighting and video visuals mixed live by Willie Williams and Mark Coniglio, respectively. A European tour of the Homeland work in progress included performances on September 28–29, 2007, at the Olympia Theatre, Dublin; on October 17–19 at the Melbourne International Arts Festival; and in Russia at the Moscow Dom Muzyky concert hall on April 26, 2008. The work was performed in Toronto, Canada, on June 14, 2008, with husband Lou Reed, making the "Lost Art of Conversation" a duet with vocals and guitar. Anderson's Homeland Tour performed at several locations across the United States as well, such as at the Ferst Center for the Arts, Atlanta, Georgia; The Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, New York City; and Harris Theater for Music and Dance in Millennium Park, Chicago, Illinois, co-presented by the Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago. === 2010s === In February 2010, Anderson premiered a new theatrical work, titled Delusion, at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Canada. This piece was commissioned by the Vancouver 2010 Cultural Olympiad and the Barbican Centre, London. Anderson was honored with the Women's Project Theater Woman of Achievement Award in March 2010. In May–June 2010, Anderson curated the Vivid Live festival in Sydney, together with Lou Reed. Her new studio album Homeland was released on June 22. She performed "Only an Expert" on July 15, 2010, on the Late Show with David Letterman, and her song "Gravity's Angel" was featured on the Fox reality television dance competition show So You Think You Can Dance the same day. She appears as a guest musician on several tracks from experimental jazz musician Colin Stetson's studio album New History Warfare Vol. 2: Judges (2011). Anderson developed a theatrical work titled "Another Day in America". The first public showings of this work-in-progress took place in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, in January 2012 as part of Theatre Junction Grand's 2011–12 season and One Yellow Rabbit's annual arts festival, the High Performance Rodeo. Anderson was named the Inaugural Distinguished Artist-In-Residence at the Experimental Media and Performing Arts Center (EMPAC) at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York, in May 2012. In March 2013, an exhibition of Anderson's work entitled Laurie Anderson: Language of the Future, selected works 1971–2013 at the Samstag Museum was part of the Adelaide Festival of the Arts in Adelaide, South Australia. Anderson performed her Duets on Ice outside the Samstag on opening night. Anderson received the Honorary Doctor of Arts from the Aalto University School of Arts, Design and Architecture in 2013. In June/July 2013, Anderson performed "The Language of the Future" and guest curated at the River to River Festival in New York City. In November 2013, she was the featured Guest of Honor at the B3 Biennale of the Moving Image in Frankfurt, Germany. In 2018, Anderson contributed vocals to a re-recording of the David Bowie song "Shining Star (Makin' My Love)", originally from Bowie's seventeenth studio album Never Let Me Down (1987). She was asked to join the production by producer Mario J. McNulty, who knew that Anderson and Bowie had been friends. On February 10, 2019, at the 61st Annual Grammy Awards, held in Los Angeles, Anderson and the Kronos Quartet's Landfall won the Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music/Small Ensemble Performance. It was Anderson's first collaboration with the Kronos Quartet and her first Grammy Award, and was the second Grammy for Kronos. Inspired by her experience of Hurricane Sandy, Nonesuch Records said, "Landfall juxtaposes lush electronics and traditional strings by Kronos with Anderson's powerful descriptions of loss, from water-logged pianos to disappearing animal species to Dutch karaoke bars." Chalkroom is a virtual reality work by Anderson and Taiwanese artist Hsin-Chien Huang in which the reader flies through an enormous structure made of words, drawings, and stories. To the Moon, a collaboration with Hsin-Chien Huang, premiered at the Manchester International Festival on July 12, 2019. A 15-minute virtual reality artwork, To the Moon allows audience members to explore a moon that features donkey rides and rubbish from Earth in a non-narrative structure. Alongside, a film shows the development of the new work. === 2020s === Anderson was appointed the 2021 Charles Eliot Norton Professor of Poetry at Harvard University and presented a series of six lectures titled Spending the War Without You: Virtual Backgrounds over two semesters. In 2021, Anderson created a show on the second floor of the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington, D.C., titled "The Weather" and described by The New York Times as "a sort of nonretrospective retrospective of one of America's major, and majorly confounding, modern artists". In mid-2023, Laurie Anderson created "Looking into a Mirror Sideways", an exhibit that highlights various different styles of her art techniques. It opened at the Moderna Museet in Stockholm, Sweden. Since opening, this artwork has been Anderson's biggest solo show in Europe. While in Europe, Anderson teamed up with Sexmob, a New York jazz band. Sexmob and Anderson toured Europe where they performed multiple versions of her songs, but adding a twist to them all. This tour was seen as "an attempt at defying gravity, resisting the pull, [and] reverting the downward fall". In 2024, Anderson withdrew from a guest professorship at the Folkwang University of the Arts in Essen, Germany, after university officials objected to her support of a "Letter Against Apartheid" organised by Palestinian artists, calling for "an immediate and unconditional cessation of Israeli violence against Palestinians". In November 2024 Anderson staged United States V, a multimedia performance envisioned as a sequel to United States. The work was commissioned by Factory International and staged at their Aviva Studios venue in Manchester, England. It featured video appearances from Ai Weiwei as God and Anohni as an angel. She is a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music. == Inventions == Anderson has invented several experimental musical instruments that she has used in her recordings and performances. In 1977, she created a tape-bow violin that uses recorded magnetic tape on the bow instead of horsehair and a magnetic tape head in the bridge. In the late 1990s, she collaborated with Interval Research to develop an instrument she called a "talking stick", a six-foot-long (1.8 m) baton-like MIDI controller that can access and replicate sounds. === Tape-bow violin === The tape-bow violin is an instrument created by Laurie Anderson in 1977. It uses recorded magnetic tape in place of the traditional horsehair in the bow, and a magnetic tape head in the bridge. Anderson has updated and modified this device over the years. She can be seen using a later generation of this device in her film Home of the Brave during the Late Show segment in which she manipulates a sentence recorded by William S. Burroughs. This version of the violin used MIDI-based audio samples, triggered by contact with the bow. === Talking stick === The talking stick is a six-foot-long baton-like MIDI controller. It was used in the Moby-Dick tour in 1999–2000. She described it in program notes as follows: The Talking Stick is a new instrument that I designed in collaboration with a team from Interval Research and Bob Bielecki. It is a wireless instrument that can access and replicate any sound. It works on the principle of granular synthesis. This is the technique of breaking sound into tiny segments, called grains, and then playing them back in different ways. The computer rearranges the sound fragments into continuous strings or random clusters that are played back in overlapping sequences to create new textures. The grains are very short, a few hundredths of a second. Granular synthesis can sound smooth or choppy depending on the size of the grain and the rate at which they're played. The grains are like film frames. If you slow them down enough, you begin to hear them separately. === Voice filters === A recurring motif in Anderson's work is the use of an electric pitch-shifting voice filter that deepens her voice into a masculine register, a technique that Anderson has referred to as "audio drag". Anderson has long used the resulting character in her work as a "voice of authority" or conscience, although she later decided that the voice had lost much of its authority and instead began using the voice to provide historical or sociopolitical commentary, as it is used on "Another Day in America", a piece from her seventh studio album Homeland (2010). For much of Anderson's career, the voice was nameless or called the Voice of Authority, although as early as 2009 it was dubbed Fenway Bergamot at Lou Reed's suggestion. The cover of Homeland depicts Anderson in character as Bergamot, with streaks of black makeup to give her a moustache and thick, masculine eyebrows. In "The Cultural Ambassador", a piece on her second live album The Ugly One with the Jewels (1995), Anderson explained some of her perspective on the character: (Anderson:) I was carrying a lot of electronics so I had to keep unpacking everything and plugging it in and demonstrating how it all worked, and I guess I did seem a little fishy — a lot of this stuff wakes up displaying LED program readouts that have names like Atom Smasher, and so it took a while to convince them that they weren't some kind of portable espionage system. So I've done quite a few of these sort of impromptu new music concerts for small groups of detectives and customs agents and I'd have to keep setting all this stuff up and they'd listen for a while and they'd say: So um, what's this? And I'd pull out something like(Bergamot:) this filter, and say, now this is what I like to think of as the voice of authority. And it would take me a while to tell them how I used it for songs that were, you know, about various forms of control, and they would say, now why would you want to talk like that? And I'd look around at the SWAT teams, and the undercover agents, and the dogs, and the radio in the corner, tuned to the Super Bowl coverage of the war. And I'd say, take a wild guess. == Personal life == Anderson moved to New York in 1966 and now lives in Tribeca. She met musician and songwriter Lou Reed in 1992, and was married to him from April 2008 until his death in 2013. In October 2012, Hurricane Sandy destroyed archives documenting decades of Anderson's creative work, including photographs, performance props, audiovisual equipment, musical instruments, and other materials. This loss became the impetus for her book All the Things I Lost in the Flood (2018), where she reflects on her career and the ephemeral nature of art. Anderson's album Landfall was also inspired by Hurricane Sandy and won the Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music/Small Ensemble Performance in 2019. Anderson is a long-time student of Buddhism and meditation. She first learned meditation on a retreat with the Insight Meditation Society in 1977. She has since become a student of Tibetan Nepali teacher Yongey Mingyur Rinpoche. == Discography == === Studio albums === === Spoken word albums === The Ugly One with the Jewels (1995) Heart of a Dog (Soundtrack) (2015) === Live albums === United States Live (boxed set) (1984) US No. 192 Live in New York (2002) === Compilation albums === Talk Normal: The Laurie Anderson Anthology (2000) === Audio book === The Body Artist by Don DeLillo (2001) === Collaborations === Airwaves (1977 – One Ten Records); various artists compilation including three tracks by Anderson You're the Guy I Want to Share My Money With with William S. Burroughs and John Giorno (1981 – Giorno Poetry Systems) "This Is the Picture (Excellent Birds)" with Peter Gabriel (1986, So – Geffen / Charisma) "Design for Living", with Nona Hendryx (1983), Nona, also with Gina Schock of the Go-Go's, Valerie Simpson of Ashford & Simpson, Tina Weymouth of Tom Tom Club and Talking Heads, Nancy Wilson of Heart, and former bandmate Patti LaBelle "Diva" from Zoolook by Jean-Michel Jarre (1984 – Disques Dreyfus) "Tightrope" and "Speak My Language" (1993; Faraway, So Close! Soundtrack – SBK Records / ERG) A Chance Operation: The John Cage Tribute with text by John Cage (1993 – Koch International Classics) "Enquanto Isso" with Marisa Monte (1994, Verde, anil, amarelo, cor de rosa e carvão – EMI-Odeon) (1994, Rose and Charcoal – Blue Note Records) "Una hoja, una raiz (One Leaf, One Root)" with Diego Frenkel (La Portuária) and Aterciopelados (1996, Silencio=Muerte: Red Hot + Latin – H.O.L.A) "Je me souviens" by Jean Michel Jarre (2000, Métamorphoses – Sony Music) "Gentle Breeze" with Lou Reed (2004, Mary Had a Little Amp – a preschool education benefit CD – Epic) "The Fifth Plague (the Death of Livestock)" (2006, Plague Songs – 4AD) The Stone: Issue Three with John Zorn and Lou Reed (2008 – Tzadik) "The Electrician" (2009, Music Inspired by the Film Scott Walker: 30 Century Man – Lakeshore) Femina by John Zorn (2009 – Tzadik) New History Warfare Vol. 2: Judges by Colin Stetson (2011 – Constellation) "Rely on Me" with Jean Michel Jarre (2015, Electronica 1: The Time Machine – Columbia) Landfall (2018) (with Kronos Quartet) (BE #146, NL #186, PT #36) Songs from the Bardo (2019) (with Tenzin Choegyal and Jesse Paris Smith) The Great Lakes Suite (2025), with Rheostatics === Singles === "O Superman" (1981) No. 28 AUS; No. 2 UK; BE (Vl) No. 19; IRL No. 11; NL No. 10; NZ No. 21 "Big Science" (1981) "Sharkey's Day" (1984) "Language Is a Virus" (1986) No. 96 AUS; "Strange Angels" (1989) "Babydoll" (1989) No. 7 US Modern Rock Tracks "Beautiful Red Dress" (1990) "In Our Sleep" (1994) "Big Science 2" (2007) "Mambo and Bling" (2008) "Only an Expert" (2010) The single "Sharkey's Day" was for many years the theme song of basic cable channel Lifetime. Anderson also recorded a number of limited-release singles in the late 1970s (many issued from the Holly Soloman Gallery), songs from which were included on a number of compilations, including Giorno Poetry Systems' The Nova Convention and You're the Guy I Want to Share My Money With. Over the years she has performed on recordings by other musicians such as Peter Gabriel, Lou Reed, and Jean-Michel Jarre. She also contributed lyrics to the Philip Glass album Songs from Liquid Days, and contributed a spoken-word piece to a tribute album in honor of John Cage. == Music videos == Formal music videos have been produced for: "O Superman" "Sharkey's Day" "This Is the Picture (Excellent Birds)" "Language Is a Virus" (from Home of the Brave) "Beautiful Red Dress" In addition, in lieu of making another music video for her Strange Angels album, Anderson taped a series of one- to two-minute "Personal Service Announcements" in which she spoke about issues such as the U.S. government debt and the arts scene. Some of the music used in these productions came from her soundtrack of Swimming to Cambodia. The PSAs were frequently shown between music videos on VH1 in early 1990. == Films == == Digital media == Puppet Motel (Macintosh CD-ROM, 1995) – collaboration with Hsin-Chien Huang. == Legacy == In 2013, Dale Eisinger of Complex ranked United States as the third greatest work of performance art ever, with the writer arguing that Anderson is "able to ascertain just exactly the climate of life in the United States, without being so punctuated that it causes a standoff. Perhaps the zenith of this configuration was her multimedia performance, 'United States I – IV.' [...] [Anderson displays] her vast, incisive range of talents on the 'United States Live' recordings." == Awards and nominations == == Television == Bei Bio – musical guest on German TV show, 1984 The New Show – musical guest, 1984 Saturday Night Live – musical guest, 1986 Alive from Off Center – host, 1987 Space Ghost Coast to Coast – guest 1996 Late Show with David Letterman – guest 2010 PBS Newshour —guest October 4, 2024 == Audiobooks == The Path to Tranquility by His Holiness the Dalai Lama – co-narrator, 1999 The Body Artist by Don DeLillo – sole narrator, 2001 Nothing in My Pockets – two-part sound diary recorded in 2003, orig. 2006 French radio broadcast, booklet with text and photography (Dis Voir, 2009) ISBN 978-2-914563-43-7 (also published in French) == Bibliography == United States (HarperCollins, 1984) ISBN 0-06-091110-7 Empty Places (A Performance) (Harper Perennial, 1991) ISBN 978-0-06-096586-0 Stories from the Nerve Bible: A Twenty-Year Retrospective (HarperCollins, 1994) ISBN 0-06-055355-3 Dal vivo (Fondazione Prada, 1999) ISBN 88-87029-10-5 Night Life (Edition 7L, 2007) ISBN 3-86521-339-1 All the Things I Lost in the Flood (Rizzoli Electa, 2018) ISBN 0-8478-6055-8 == References == == Further reading == Golden, Barbara. "Conversation with Laurie Anderson". eContact! 12.2 – Interviews (2) (April 2010). Montréal: CEC. Mutant, Mite. "Talking with Laurie Anderson". Mutant Renegade Zine #7, June 1996. Nicom, John. "Homeland insecurity: Laurie Anderson takes uncompromising look at how America has changed". LJWorld.com. September 12, 2008. "Laurie Anderson". Music Technology. Vol. 1, no. 9. July 1987. p. 75. ISSN 0957-6606. OCLC 24835173. == External links == Official website Laurie Anderson at AllMusic Laurie Anderson discography at Discogs Laurie Anderson at IMDb "Talk Normal: The Laurie Anderson Anthology (Liner Notes)". Archived from the original on January 11, 2001. Some Notes on Seeing: The Waters Reglitterized By Laurie Anderson for exhibition 2005 "Eclectic Laurie Anderson visits Ames". Archived from the original on August 18, 2003. "NASA Art Program". Archived from the original on December 1, 1998. Guardian interview. A Life of Storytelling. An interview with Laurie Anderson, 2016 Video by Louisiana Channel SoundCloud - Hear the world's sounds with Georgina Godwin Advice to Young Artists. An interview with Laurie Anderson, 2016 Video by Louisiana Channel Laurie Anderson on Self-Playing Violin, MoMA Audio A Trip to the Moon. An interview with Laurie Anderson & Hsin-Chien Huang, 2018 Video by Louisiana Channel 60 Minutes profile, April 3, 2022 WTF with Marc Maron, March 20, 2023
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infosys	Infosys	Infosys Limited is an Indian multinational technology company that offers information technology, business consulting, and outsourcing services. Founded in 1981 by seven engineers, the company is headquartered in Bengaluru and considered one of the Big Six Indian IT companies. Infosys has also attracted controversies due to allegations of visa and tax fraud in the United States and for creating malfunctioning government websites. == History == Infosys was founded by N. R. Narayana Murthy, Nandan Nilekani, Kris Gopalakrishnan, S. D. Shibulal, K. Dinesh, N. S. Raghavan, and Ashok Arora, with an initial capital of $250. It was incorporated as Infosys Consultants Private Limited in Pune on 2 July 1981, before relocating to Bangalore in 1983, which still houses the global headquarter campus. Arora left the company in 1989 and sold his shares to the other co-founders. In the 1980s, Infosys briefly made hardware products like electronic telex machines and keyboard concentrators. Its core business of offshore custom software development witnessed growth after the 1991 economic liberalisation of India. In February 1993, Infosys launched its initial public offering (IPO) with an offer price of ₹95 per share. The IPO was initially undersubscribed but was "bailed out" by US investment bank Morgan Stanley, which acquired a 13% equity stake at the offer price. When trading began in June 1993, the share price opened at ₹145 per share. Infosys released its banking automation software package Bancs2000 in 1994, middleware architecture product Entark in 1995, and Y2K problem toolset "In2000" a year later. In the mid to late 1990s, Infosys also incubated software product subsidiaries like e-fulfillment and WMS software provider Yantra, and mobile VAS developer OnMobile, which were subsequently spun off and divested. Infosys listed its American depositary receipts (ADRs) on Nasdaq in March 1999, making it the first Indian company to be listed on Nasdaq. Infosys was then among the top 20 companies by market capitalization on the Nasdaq. The ADR listing was later transferred to NYSE Euronext to provide European investors with better access to the company's shares. In 1999, Infosys rolled out Finacle, a core banking software suite developed as the successor to Bancs2000. The same year, Infosys started its research and innovation arm called SETLabs (later renamed Infosys Labs). In 2004, SETLabs formed an intellectual property (IP) cell; Infosys was reported to be earning about 10% of its total revenue from patent pending IP assets in 2006. In 2002, Infosys created a business process management division called Progeon (now Infosys BPM), with Citigroup taking a minority stake in the venture for $20 million. In 2004, Infosys established a wholly owned consulting subsidiary called Infosys Consulting, based in Fremont, California. In 2006, Infosys bought out Citigroup's entire 23% stake in Progeon for $115 million. In 2009, Infosys set up a subsidiary, Infosys Public Services, based in Rockville, Maryland, with a focus on federal and state government projects in the US, Canada, and the UK. In 2012, Infosys opened its 18th US office, in Milwaukee, primarily to serve Harley-Davidson; the company also announced having hired over 1,200 employees in the US in 2011 and an additional 2,000 employees in 2012. In July 2014, Infosys established an enterprise software products subsidiary named EdgeVerve Systems, with products in business operations, customer service, procurement, and commerce network domains. In August 2015, Infosys transferred assets of Finacle to EdgeVerve Systems. In 2015, Infosys launched the $500 million Infosys Innovation Fund to invest in early-stage startups focused on emerging and deep tech, including a $250 million allocation for Indian startups. In 2018, Infosys formed a Singapore-based 60:40 joint venture with Temasek Holdings known as Infosys Compaz (iCompaz), serving clients in the Southeast Asian markets. On 24 August 2021, Infosys became the fourth Indian company to achieve a market capitalization of US$100 billion. == Services and products == Infosys offers software development, maintenance, and independent validation services across industries such as finance, insurance, manufacturing, among others. Through its subsidiary Infosys Consulting, it provides consulting services in digital experience, cloud, data analytics, artificial intelligence, engineering, and sustainability. Its subsidiary Infosys BPM provides outsourcing services for business processes such as finance, procurement, customer service, and HR. Infosys offers digital products and platforms for digital transformation, including digital banking software Finacle, application delivery platform Panaya, digital commerce platform Infosys Equinox, workplace platform Infosys Meridian, and customer engagement platform Infosys Cortex. It also provides sets of services and platforms in domains such as cloud with Cobalt, generative AI with Topaz, and AI marketing with Aster. == Acquisitions == == Listing and shareholding pattern == In India, Infosys shares are listed on the BSE, where it is a part of the BSE SENSEX, and on the NSE, where it is included in the NIFTY 50 index. Infosys also trades its shares through American depositary receipts (ADRs) on the New York Stock Exchange. Over the years, the shareholding of Infosys's promoters has steadily decreased. This trend began in June 1993, when Infosys first listed its shares on the BSE. The promoter shareholding further declined when Infosys instated employee stock option scheme in 1993 and listed ADRs on Nasdaq on 11 March 1999. The Life Insurance Corporation of India is the biggest shareholder in Infosys. == Operations == === Geographical presence === As of 31 March 2024, Infosys operates 94 sales and marketing offices and 139 development centers globally. The company's operations are spread across key regions, including India, the United States, Canada, China, Australia, Japan, the Middle East, and Europe. In the fiscal year 2023-24, Infosys generated approximately 61% of its revenue from North America, 25% from Europe, 3% from India, and 11% from other regions, including the Middle East, Australia, and Japan. Infosys faced scrutiny over its continued operations in Moscow following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. The company clarified that it had no active business with Russian firms. By November 2022, only administrative staff remained, handling the transfer of contracts to other contractors. === Training centre in Mysore === As the world's largest corporate university, the Infosys Global Education Centre, located on a 337-acre campus in Mysore, features 400 instructors and over 200 classrooms. Established in 2002, it had trained approximately 125,000 engineering graduates by June 2015. The centre can accommodate and train up to 14,000 employees at any given time across various technologies. The Infosys Leadership Institute (ILI), located in Mysore, trains approximately 4,000 trainees annually. Its primary objective is to cultivate and develop senior leaders within Infosys, preparing them for both current and future executive roles. === Employees === As of 31 March 2024, Infosys employed a total of 317,240 people, commonly referred to as "Infoscions," with 39.3% of them being women. In 2023, 85% of Infosys' employees were located in India. Starting mid-2015, Infosys did away with its dress code, allowing jeans and casual clothes every day. This change is noticeable because, since 2008, a formal dress code—including a tie for males twice a week—had been mandatory at the company. === CEOs === From its establishment in 1981 until 2014, Infosys' CEOs were its founders, with N. R. Narayana Murthy leading the company for the initial 21 years. Vishal Sikka was the first external CEO, serving for approximately three years. Sikka resigned in August 2017. Following his departure, UB Pravin Rao was appointed as Interim CEO and Managing Director of the company. Infosys appointed Salil Parekh as Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and Managing Director (MD), effective from 2 January 2018. List of CEOs == Controversies == === Settlement of visa and tax fraud cases in the US === In 2011, Infosys was accused of visa fraud for using B-1 (visitor) visas for work that required H-1B (work) visas. The allegations originated from an internal complaint by an American employee of Infosys, who subsequently filed a lawsuit against the company, claiming harassment and marginalization after raising the issue. Although the lawsuit was dismissed, along with another similar case, these allegations were brought to the attention of U.S. authorities, leading to investigations by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and a federal grand jury. In October 2013, Infosys agreed to settle the civil suit with U.S. authorities by paying $34 million. While the company did not admit guilt, it stated that it settled to avoid the complications of "prolonged litigation". Infosys asserted that, "As reflected in the settlement, Infosys denies and disputes any claims of systemic visa fraud, misuse of visas for competitive advantage, or immigration abuse. Those claims are untrue and are assertions that remain unproven." In December 2019, Infosys reached an $800,000 settlement with the State of California in a visa and tax fraud case. Between 2006 and 2017, nearly 500 Infosys employees were found to be working in the state on Infosys-sponsored B-1 visas instead of the required H-1B visas, enabling the company to avoid paying California payroll taxes, including unemployment insurance, disability insurance, and employment training taxes. === Malfunctioning government portals === In 2013, technical issues emerged after Infosys took over the MCA21 portal from Tata Consultancy Services. Similar problems arose in 2016 after a system migration and version update. In 2020, the finance ministry identified glitches in the GSTN portal, leading to a summons for Infosys executives. In 2022, chartered accountants and tax professionals raised concerns over technical issues with the GSTN portal. In 2021, the newly launched Income Tax portal, developed by Infosys, encountered multiple glitches. Despite a summons for Infosys CEO Salil Parekh, the issues remained unresolved for months, forcing an extension of the tax filing deadline. In 2022, users continued to report malfunctions and issues on the first anniversary of the portal's launch. === Tracking software === It was reported in late 2013 that Infosys’ plan to install software to track the actual time staff spent on their computers caused resentment among employees. == See also == List of IT consulting firms List of Indian IT companies == References == == External links == Official website Business data for Infosys Ltd:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract_law_in_Saudi_Arabia#:~:text=The%20unseated%20cleric%20was%20also,for%20codification%20of%20Sharia%20law.	Contract law in Saudi Arabia	Contract law in Saudi Arabia is governed by the conservative Wahhabi movement of Sharia law, which adopts a fundamentalist and literal interpretation of the Quran. Any contract that is not specifically prohibited under Sharia law is legally binding, with no discrimination against foreigners or non-Muslims. The Wahhabis are the most liberal among the Sunnis with respect to the freedom of persons to contract. However, the degree of freedom of contract is governed by the prohibitions in the Quran, and two distinctive doctrines in Sharia law: riba (usury) and gharar (speculation). Unlike other Sharia law jurisdictions, Sharia law remains uncodified in Saudi Arabia due to the strong literalist view of Wahhabism. There is also no established case reporting in the courts. This has led to much uncertainty and variation in court decisions. Despite being the world's 11th easiest economy to do business in, Saudi Arabia ranks 140th out of 183 economies in terms of enforcement of contracts. (see below: Appendix) In 2007, King Abdullah initiated legal reforms to modernise the courts and codify Sharia law in Saudi Arabia. The ulama, the religious body, approved a codification of Sharia law in 2010, and a sourcebook of legal principles and precedents was published on January 3, 2018. (see below: Legal Reform) == Sources of law in Saudi Arabia == Saudi Arabia is principally governed by Sharia Law, with royal decrees playing a complementary role. === Four sources of Sharia law === The Wahhabis acknowledges the following sources of law: The Quran is a sacred book which contains the divine revelations made to Muhammad by God and is the foundation for Sharia law. Much of the Quran does deal with legal matters, but instead, sets out the goals and aspirations of Muslims, and the general accepted conduct and way of living. The Sunna (meaning "habitual practice" or "trodden path") is the other primary source of law. It contains the explanations of the Quran and records the sayings, deeds, and approved practices of Muhammad. Ijma (consensus) is a secondary source of law. There are however, conflicting interpretations as to the meaning of consensus. The Wahhabis prevailing in Saudi Arabia asserts that a legally binding consensus only arises from agreement of Muhammad and his Companions, and not the universal agreement of Muslim authorities today. Qiyas (reasoning by analogy) is another secondary source of law. Forms of analytical reasoning are categorised as law. Both ijmas and qiyas constitute fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence based upon scholar opinions amassed over the years. === Regulations (lai'hah) and ordinances (nizma) === Ordinances (nizam), consisting of royal decrees which address modern legal issues and bureaucratic matters, is another source of law. These royal decrees by the King supplement fiqh. Royal decrees are considered subordinate to Sharia law as only religious law is considered "law" under Sharia law. The courts will apply fiqh over nizam if the legal issue is already considered in Sharia law, or if nizam conflicts with Sharia law. Other forms of regulations (lai'hah) including Royal Orders, Council of Ministers Resolutions, Ministerial Resolutions and, Ministerial Circulars, are likewise subordinate to Sharia law. While contract law is generally governed under Sharia law, many areas of modern business and commercial activities are not considered under Sharia law and are hence governed by the applicable regulations. Saudi Arabia also abides by international treaties, which are approved by royal decree. One such example is Royal Decree No.11, dated 16 Rajab 1414, corresponding to 30 December 1993, which declared Saudi Arabia's ascension to the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards. == Formation of contract == A contract of sale (bay’) can be concluded for the exchange of anything regarded as a commodity or property (mal). However, there are certain things that are not included as mal under Sharia and therefore cannot be the subject of a sale. These include: pigs, alcohol, and animals not ritually slaughtered. In accordance to the Quran, there are two exceptions to contract formation: the taking of interest (riba), and the use of speculative contracts. The rules on conclusion of the contract of sale are stricter than the rules in most modern legal systems. Conclusion of the contract must take place at the same transaction as offer and acceptance. Furthermore, there is a right of withdrawal of the offer even after acceptance. At common law, auctions, advertisements, displays of goods on shelves, tenders and the like are treated as mere invitations to create an offer. In contrast, Sharia law recognises these as valid offers (Ijab) which, upon being accepted (Qabul), will become binding by law upon the parties involved in the transaction. Generally, a statement with the description and price of goods constitutes an offer, and a display of goods with the price similarly is an offer. However, advertisers can specify that the advertisement is only an invitation to treat. === Offer and acceptance === Like the common law, offer and acceptance are among the vital ingredients of a contract in Islamic law. An offer is a proposal, which leads to an agreement when there is an acceptance of the offer. If there is an acceptance, the offeror is bound by law to perform his promise. The offeror has no right to revoke his offer after its acceptance and he must be prepared to complete his promised accordingly. A statement of an offer has to be made in the past tense (Sighatul-Madhi) to be constituted as a valid offer in Sharia law. Making the statement in past tense signifies the seller's intention of making a valid offer which is capable of being accepted by the buyer. Once the offer has been accepted, the seller has no right to revoke his offer. If he does revoke his offer, it will be considered a breach of promise on his behalf, which is a great sin in Islam as it encourages rivalry and mischief among the people. Unlike common law, Saudi Arabian law requires acceptance to be made before the parties attempting to contract physically part. Certain terms must also be stated for a Saudi Arabian contract to be enforceable. These include: the items involved, quantity, price, parties and how payment will be made. === Consideration === The concept of consideration implies the bargain, or value given in return for value received. Islamic law, unlike common law, does not require consideration. A contract in Saudi Arabia is a bond between the parties and God, hence, the element of consideration is deemed superfluous. === Defects of consent and vitiating factors === Similar to common law, defects of consent will prevent the formation of a valid agreement. == Limitations on enforceability of contracts == Not all contractual arrangements are condoned in Sharia law. Unless a term is positively allowed by revelation ("in the book of God"), it is invalid. Classical Sharia law rarely discusses the idea of contractual freedom outside the standard contract types. Instead, it provides for situation where standard contracts can be altered or combined. There are specific prohibitions raised by other hadiths, some important ones prohibiting a loan and a sale, two sales in one, and a sale of what one does not have. Stipulations are divided into three types: If the court finds stipulation a void, the contract itself may or may not be void- results vary casuistically. In particular, concomitant stipulations that coincide with or contradict an entailment of the contract, such as a stipulation that a buyer must never resell the object, are forbidden. Combinations of contracts conditioned on each other are open to many objections, because they confuse the price of the individual contracts and obstruct meting out fair remedies for breach, thereby opening a door to riba and gharar. There are two major types of contracts that are prohibited in Islamic law: contracts involving usury or uncertainty. === Usury (riba) === The Quran forbids riba in the strongest terms. Riba is an unjustified enrichment and the principle encompasses a total ban on the charging of interest. Usurious transactions were classified into three classes: Riba al-fadl and riba al-nasi'a apply to the exchange of two precious metals (gold or silver) and four commodities (wheat, barley, dates and salt), based on Muhammad's tradition. It was further extended by analogy to the products of these six articles if their present or future exchange could have the smell or taint of riba. Islamic law did not permit exchange of unequal values of these articles and by analogy to a variety of their products. These articles happened to be the basic necessities of life and were a convenient means of exploitation. Promises for future performance were forbidden if goods comprised these articles as the transactions were suspected to contain riba. The interpretation of riba has continued to be revised under the changing economic setting. By the turn of the century, the leading Islamic scholars Abduh and Rida held the view that riba al-Jahilya was forbidden but it could be deemed lawful under extreme necessity, and that riba al-fadl and riba al nasi'a are under a rebuttable presumption of prohibition. The ban against interest rates has been circumvented by both parties pretending that a greater amount was lent or that the difference between loan and debt is actually a commission rate. === Speculation (Gharar) === Gambling is another type of transaction condemned in the Quran. Intoxicants, games of chance [maysir], [worship of] idols, and [divination by] arrows are but an abomination, Satan's handiwork... The Sunna takes this prohibition much further; it not only condemns gambling but also sales of gharar (peril, risk or hazard). The Messenger of God forbade the 'sale of the pebble' [hash, sale of an object chosen or determined by the throwing of a pebble] and the sale of gharar. Besides this, other transactions that are conditioned on uncertain events are also prohibited. Lack of knowledge about the existence or nonexistence of the subject matter, or concerning its quality, quantity, or date of performance, was held to trigger gharar. The ongoing refinement of the doctrine has been narrowed down to the presence or absence of uncertainty about future performance and not to the existence or non-existence of the subject matter at the time of contract. If the nonexistent article or subject matter is certain to be delivered or performed at a future date the prohibition of gharar does not apply. == Remedies for breach of contract == Rescission is allowed under specific circumstances, such as when the seller fails to perform; the merchandise is defective or the quantity incorrect; the quality of service inferior; or when unforeseen circumstances prevent the completion of the contract. In accordance with Islamic law, remedies for contract are restricted to direct and actual damages. The courts will not recognize economic loss of chance, interest, potential profits and other speculative awards that normally might be given. Specific performance and injunctive relief are likewise generally unavailable. Saudi Courts also preclude consequential damages based on anticipated profits. As such, contracts involving relationships over time such as continuous supply of goods will not attract full liability if wrongfully terminated. Courts would only award reparations for immediate damages. Islamic law fixes the relationship of contracting parties to any object involved in the contract as to liability for loss or damage. A party holds the object either as a 'trustee' (amin) or as a 'guarantor' (damin). A trustee is not liable at all for injury to the object, unless shown to be in breach of trust. A damin, however, bears the same risk of loss as an owner. If an object is destroyed through an act of God or force majeure, the guarantor has no recourse. == Procedures and prerequisites of contract enforcement == Enforcing of a contract consists of three main stages: === Filing and service === The plaintiff is to ask the defendant for compliance with the contract before filing his summons with the court. Before admitting a plaintiff's summons, a judge will examine it for formal requirements. The summons will be then delivered to a summoning officer for service of process on defendant. === Trial and judgment === The defendant files a written defense in answer to the plaintiff's claim. The judge will then set a deadline for the plaintiff to answer the defendant's answer with a written pleading. A pre-trial conference will be held where the judge will discuss procedural issues with the parties. At trial, merits of the case will be argued, and cross examination of witnesses, if any, will take place. After receiving the judgment, the plaintiff is to formally notify the defendant of the judgment. The defendant will then be given a choice to appeal before a certain deadline. === Enforcement === The plaintiff approaches a court enforcement office or private bailiff to request for an enforcement order. The defendant will be requested to voluntarily comply with the judgment. For contracted debt, the judge will call for a public auction for the property to be sold after the attachment of the defendant's movable goods. The proceeds of the public auction are distributed to various creditors according to rules of priority. == Foreign law contracts == Foreign law contracts are generally enforceable so long as they conform to Sharia law. Thus contracts deemed to be usury or dealing with gambling or risk would not be enforceable. Courts and judicial committees in Saudi Arabia also do not recognise the doctrine of conflict of laws. Hence any action based on a foreign law contract can be submitted to the courts even if there are express choice of law provisions. === Enforcement of foreign judgments and arbitral awards === The Board of Grievances, a statutory tribunal separate from the Sharia courts, is empowered to hear requests for the enforcement of foreign judgments and arbitral awards. Article 6 of the Rules of Pleadings and Procedures of the Grievances Board provides that an applicant seeking to enforce foreign judgments or arbitral awards must prove that: the judgment or award is not contrary to Sharia law or public policy; and the applicant proves reciprocity of enforcement ie that a Saudi judgment or award would be accepted and enforced in the applicant's country. Firstly, the judgment or award must not be contrary to Sharia law or public policy; it must not offend the Sharia principles of riba and gharar. Judgments or awards involving conventional insurance, speculative loss of chance, interest and potential profits would not be recognized. The applicant must also show that a judgment or award by the Saudi Courts would be reciprocally enforced in the applicant's country. In the past, the Board has declined to accept a legal opinion by a foreign lawyer or a letter from the UK government stating that foreign judgments would generally be enforced in the UK. This second requirement applies in the absence of any bilateral or multilateral agreement relating to the reciprocal enforcement of decisions. Despite being a signatory to regional reciprocity agreements and an international convention on the enforcement of arbitral awards, the decision to enforce such foreign judgements or awards is subject to compliance with Sharia law and public policy. == Legal reform == King Abdullah succeeded to the throne in 2005 and since then has implemented various reforms in Saudi Arabia with the aim of modernizing the legal system to improve investor confidence. The King enacted the Law of Judiciary in 2007 to restructure the judicial system and proposed a codification of unwritten Sharia regulations and principles to ensure certainty and uniformity of judicial decisions. In 2009, the King removed the chairman of the Supreme Judicial Council as the ultraconservative cleric was impeding the king's proposed restructuring of the court system. The unseated cleric was also known to oppose codification of Sharia law. In 2010, the top religious body in Saudi Arabia gave the green light for codification of Sharia law. Nonetheless, it has been commented that such legal reforms will take a considerable period of time to be fully implemented due to lack of well-trained judges and lawyers and the ulama's resistance to modernisation and change. == Appendix == Ease of enforcing contracts among the world's top 15 "easiest to doing business" economies compared (2010 World Bank Data) == See also == Basic Law of Saudi Arabia Hanafi Islamic schools and branches Maliki Saudi Arabia Shafi`i Sources of Islamic law Sunni == Notes == == References == H. Gibb and K. Kramer, Shorter Encyclopedia of Islam 57 ed. 1961 Frank E. Vogel and Samuel L. Hayes (2006), Islamic Law and Finance Religion Risk and Return, Koninklijke Brill NV Carol Lee Childress (1990), "Saudi-Arabian Contract Law: A Comparative Perspective", St. Thomas L. F.: 70 Mohd Ma'sum Billah (2007), Applied Islamic Law of Trade and Finance, A Selection of Contemporary Practical Issues, Third Edition, Sweet & Maxwell Asia. N.A. Saleh, Unlawful Gain & Legitimate Profit in Islamic Law, 12-13 (1986). == Further reading == Otto, Jan Michiel (2010). Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present. p. 167. ISBN 978-90-8728-057-4. Kourides, P. Nicholas (1970), "Influence of Islamic Law on Contemporary Middle Eastern Legal Systems: The Formation and Binding Force of Contracts", Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 9. H. Patrick Glenn (2007), Legal Traditions of the World: Sustainable Diversity in Law, United States: Oxford University Press. Seaman, Bryant W (1979–1980), "Islamic Law and Modern Government: Saudi Arabia Supplements the Shari'a to Regulate Development", Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 18. Gayle E. Hanlon (2009), "International Business Negotiations in Saudi Arabia", in James R Silkenat, Jeffrey M. Aresty & Jacqueline Klosek eds., The ABA Guide to International Business Negotiations, Chicago, Illinois: American Bar Association, pp. 851–229, para. 918, ISBN 978-1-60442-369-3. Jeanne Asherman (1982), "Doing Business in Saudi Arabia: The Contemporary Application of Islamic Law", International Lawyer. M.E. Hamid, "Islamic Law of Contract or Contracts," Journal of Islamic and Comparative Law. James Dorsey (22 December 2010). "Judicial Reform in Saudi Arabia: A Battle of the Fatwas". World Security Network. "Tentative steps in Saudi Arabia: The king of Saudi Arabia shows some reformist credentials". The Economist. 17 February 2009. == External links == The Riba-Interest Equation and Islam: Reexamination of the Traditional Arguments by Dr. Mohammad Omar Farooq. Islamic Contract Law by Saudilegal. Saudi Sharia Laws Applied in US Courts Ministry of Justice, Saudi Arabia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldas,_Antioquia	Caldas, Antioquia	Caldas is a town and municipality in Antioquia Department, Colombia. Caldas is part of The Metropolitan Area of Medellín. It is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Caldas. The population was estimated to be 83,423 in 2020. It is located in the city of Medellín, 30 minutes away. == Climate == Caldas has a subtropical highland climate (Cfb) with abundant rainfall year-round. == Notables Caldeños == Luis Fernando Montoya professional soccer coach Ciro Mendía poet and playwright == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snatch_Game#:~:text=Tatianna%20(left)%20won%20on%20season,Mo'Nique%20(right).	Snatch Game	Snatch Game is a comedy challenge recurring across the Drag Race television franchise and a fixture of the reality competition series. Since the second season of the original American RuPaul's Drag Race series in 2010, the challenge has returned for every subsequent season. Typically arranged as a parody of Match Game (known as Blankety Blank in the UK, Blankety Blanks in Australia, and Jogo dos Pontinhos in Brazil), the challenge is a test of the contestants' skills at celebrity impersonation and improvisational comedy. The challenge similarly recurs on various spin-offs, including All Stars and Secret Celebrity Drag Race, as well as the international adaptations for Thai, British, Canadian, Dutch, Australian-New Zealand, Spanish, Italian, French, Philippine, Belgian, Swedish, Mexican, Brazilian, and German audiences. Usually occurring midway through each Drag Race season, Snatch Game is widely considered among the most important and memorable challenges of the show and, in RuPaul's own words, separates "the basic bitches from the fierce-ass queens." Winners of the show are often amongst the top performers in the Snatch Game, though there are a few exceptions. The drag queen contestants typically impersonate women, though several contestants choose male celebrities with sufficiently flamboyant public images to fit a drag aesthetic. Several contestants have chosen to impersonate other people directly associated with the show, such as other past or present contestants, Michelle Visage, or RuPaul. Queens cannot choose copyrighted characters, although some celebrity portrayals have been closely based on a specific screen performance. The challenge often relies on special celebrity guests to participate in game play, who frequently double as the episode's guest judges. Other seasons feature the show's regular production team—Michelle Visage, Ross Mathews, Carson Kressley, Rhys Nicholson, or members of the Pit Crew—in lieu of outside guests. Ginger Minj has won Snatch Game three times, the most of any queen in the franchise. Eight other queens have won Snatch Game twice: BenDeLaCreme, Baga Chipz, Jinkx Monsoon, Trinity the Tuck, Jimbo, Hannah Conda, Gottmik and Punani. Three queens have been eliminated twice for their Snatch Game performances: Gia Gunn, Onyx Unleashed and Cynthia Lee Fontaine. == United States == Legend: === RuPaul's Drag Race === === RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars === === RuPaul's Drag Race Global All Stars === === RuPaul's Secret Celebrity Drag Race === == International == Legend: === Canada's Drag Race === ==== Canada's Drag Race: Canada vs. the World ==== === Drag Race Belgique === === Drag Race Brasil === === Drag Race España === ==== Drag Race España All Stars ==== === Drag Race France === ==== Drag Race France All Stars ==== === Drag Race Germany === === Drag Race Holland === === Drag Race Italia === === Drag Race México === Cristian Peralta won the Snatch Game challenge on the first season of Drag Race México for portraying Verónica Castro. Luna Lansman won on the second season for impersonating José José. === Drag Race Philippines === Xilhouete won the Snatch Game challenge for impersonating Vicki Belo on the first season of Drag Race Philippines. Captivating Katkat and Angel won on the second and third seasons for impersonating Joy Belmonte and Maria Clara, respectively. ==== Drag Race Philippines: Slaysian Royale ==== On the spin-off series Drag Race Philippines: Slaysian Royale, contestants impersonated celebrities in a version of Snatch Game called "Snatch Elections". === Drag Race Sverige === === Drag Race Thailand === === RuPaul's Drag Race Down Under === === RuPaul's Drag Race UK === ==== RuPaul's Drag Race: UK vs. the World ==== == Most frequent impersonations == Cardi B and Jennifer Coolidge are the most frequently impersonated celebrities, with Coolidge as the first celebrity to be simultaneously impersonated by two competing queens in the same Snatch Game followed only by Liberace. Both queens who impersonated Mariah Carey and two of the five queens who impersonated Cardi B were eliminated, making them the only choices of impersonation subject to lead to multiple contestants' eliminations. Both of the queens to impersonate Ariana Grande, Celine Dion, Ellen DeGeneres, Nancy Grace, and Rue McClanahan, respectively, and two of the three queens to impersonate Lady Gaga were up for elimination due to their performances, but only one queen was eliminated for each. Two of the four queens to impersonate Eartha Kitt, and two of the three queens to impersonate Cher and RuPaul, respectively, landed in the bottom, but none of them were eliminated. Three of the four queens to impersonate Liza Minnelli won the Snatch Game, making her the first impersonation subject to earn multiple queens a win, while Joan Rivers became the second following season 15 of RuPaul's Drag Race. == Reception == Snatch Game is considered the signature challenge on the show. Kevin O'Keeffe from Into discusses that the challenge isn't only about the celebrity impersonation and RuPaul looks for accuracy, humor, and the idea of the character. He also states that the challenge tests a lot of different skills, such as the queens' ability to put on a different look from their signature one, and also their ability to be "funny on a dime". RuPaul states each year, as the challenge is introduced, that the cardinal rule of the challenge is to make him laugh. Writing for Vulture, Bowen Yang and Matt Rogers state that "Snatch Game" is "the mother of all comedy challenges on a reality show" despite the varied results over the years. On a more critical reception of the challenge, Josh Lee, for PopBuzz, argues that while the annual challenge has given viewers some of the best moments from RuPaul's Drag Race, it is starting to feel stale overall. He comments that recent celebrity impersonations in the challenge have been lackluster and the show should adapt and retire "Snatch Game" in future seasons of the series. == Notes == == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juneteenth	Juneteenth	Juneteenth, officially Juneteenth National Independence Day, is a federal holiday in the United States. It is celebrated annually on June 19 to commemorate the end of slavery in the United States. The holiday's name, first used in the 1890s, is a portmanteau of June and nineteenth, referring to June 19, 1865, the day when Major General Gordon Granger ordered the enforcement of the Emancipation Proclamation in Texas at the end of the American Civil War. In the Civil War period, slavery came to an end in various areas of the United States at different times. Many enslaved Southerners escaped, demanded wages, stopped work, or took up arms against the Confederacy of slave states. In January 1865, Congress proposed the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution for the national abolition of slavery. By June 1865, almost all of the enslaved population had been freed by the victorious Union Army or by state abolition laws. When the national abolition amendment was ratified in December, the remaining enslaved people in Delaware and in Kentucky were freed. Early Juneteenth celebrations date back to 1866, at first involving church-centered community gatherings in Texas. They spread across the South among newly freed African-Americans and their descendants and became more commercialized in the 1920s and 1930s, often centering on a food festival. Participants in the Great Migration brought these celebrations to the rest of the country. During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, Juneteenth celebrations were eclipsed by the nonviolent determination to achieve civil rights, but they grew in popularity again in the 1970s, with a focus on African-American freedom and African-American arts. Beginning with Texas by proclamation in 1938, and by legislation in 1979, every U.S. state and the District of Columbia has formally recognized the holiday in some way. The day was recognized as a federal holiday in 2021, when the 117th U.S. Congress enacted and President Joe Biden signed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law. Juneteenth became the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was adopted in 1983. Juneteenth is also celebrated by the Mascogos, descendants of Black Seminoles who escaped from slavery in 1852 and settled in Coahuila, Mexico. == Celebrations and traditions == The holiday is considered the "longest-running African-American holiday" and has been called "America's second Independence Day". Juneteenth falls on June 19 and has often been celebrated on the third Saturday in June. Historian Mitch Kachun notes that celebrations of the end of slavery have three goals: "to celebrate, to educate, and to agitate." Early celebrations consisted of baseball, fishing, and rodeos. African Americans were often prohibited from using public facilities for their celebrations, so instead they were typically held at churches or outdoors near bodies of water. Celebrations were characterized by elaborate large meals and people wearing their best clothing. It was common for formerly enslaved people and their descendants to make a pilgrimage to Galveston, Texas, where the announcement of emancipation had originally taken place. News coverage of early festivals, Janice Hume and Noah Arceneaux state, "served to assimilate African-American memories within the dominant 'American story'". Modern observance is primarily in local celebrations. In many places, Juneteenth has become a multicultural holiday. Traditions include public readings of the Emancipation Proclamation which promised freedom, singing traditional songs such as "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot" and "Lift Every Voice and Sing", and reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph Ellison and Maya Angelou. Celebrations include picnics, rodeos, street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, blues festivals, and Miss Juneteenth contests. Red food and drinks are traditionally served during the celebrations, including red velvet cake and strawberry soda, with red meant to represent resilience and joy. Juneteenth celebrations often include lectures and exhibitions on African-American culture. The modern holiday places much emphasis on teaching about African-American heritage. Karen M. Thomas writes in Emerge that "community leaders have latched on to [Juneteenth] to help instill a sense of heritage and pride in black youth." Celebrations are commonly accompanied by voter registration efforts, the performing of plays, and retelling stories. The holiday is also a celebration of soul food and other cuisine with African-American influences. In Tourism Review International, Anne Donovan and Karen DeBres write that "Barbecue is the centerpiece of most Juneteenth celebrations." Major news networks host specials and marathons on national outlets featuring prominent Black voices. The Black Seminoles of Nacimiento in Mexico hold a festival and reunion known as el Día de los Negros on June 19. Many former British colonies celebrate Emancipation Day on August 1, commemorating the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. Since 2021, the United Nations has designated August 31 as the International Day for People of African Descent. == History == On September 22, 1862, President Abraham Lincoln announced that the Emancipation Proclamation would go into effect on January 1, 1863, promising freedom to enslaved people in all of the rebellious parts of Southern states of the Confederacy including Texas. Enforcement of the Proclamation generally relied upon the advance of Union troops. Texas, as the most remote state of the former Confederacy, had seen an expansion of slavery because the presence of Union troops was low as the American Civil War ended; thus, the enforcement of the Emancipation Proclamation had been slow and inconsistent there prior to Granger's order. In all June 19, 1865, was 900 days after the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect, 71 days after Robert E. Lee surrendered to the Union on April 9, 1865, and 24 days after the disbanding of the Confederate military department covering Texas on May 26, 1865. === Early history === ==== The Civil War and celebrations of emancipation ==== During the American Civil War (1861–1865), emancipation came at different times in different parts of the Southern United States. Large celebrations of emancipation, often called Jubilees (recalling the biblical Jubilee, in which enslaved people were freed), took place on September 22, January 1, July 4, August 1, April 6, and November 1, among other dates. When emancipation finally came to Texas, on June 19, 1865, as the southern rebellion collapsed, celebration was widespread. While that date did not actually mark the unequivocal end of slavery, even in Texas, June 19 came to be a day of shared commemoration across the United States – created, preserved, and spread by ordinary African Americans – of slavery's wartime demise. ==== End of slavery in Texas ==== Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation in the midst of the Civil War on September 22, 1862, declaring that if the rebels did not end the fighting and rejoin the Union, all enslaved people in the Confederacy would be freed on the first day of the year. On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the final Emancipation Proclamation, declaring that all enslaved people in the Confederate States of America in rebellion and not in Union hands were freed. Planters and other slaveholders from eastern states had migrated into Texas to escape the fighting, and many brought enslaved people with them, increasing by the thousands the enslaved population in the state at the end of the Civil War. Although most lived in rural areas, more than 1,000 resided in Galveston or Houston by 1860, with several hundred in other large towns. By 1865, there were an estimated 250,000 enslaved people in Texas. Despite the surrender of Confederate General-in-Chief Robert E. Lee at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865, the western Confederate Army of the Trans-Mississippi did not formally surrender until June 2. On the morning of June 19, 1865, Union Major General Gordon Granger arrived on the island of Galveston to take command of the more than 2,000 federal troops recently landed in the department of Texas to enforce the emancipation of its enslaved population and oversee Reconstruction, nullifying all laws passed within Texas during the war by Confederate lawmakers. The order informed all Texans that, in accordance with a Proclamation from the Executive of the United States, all enslaved people were free: The people of Texas are informed that, in accordance with a proclamation from the Executive of the United States, all slaves are free. This involves an absolute equality of personal rights and rights of property between former masters and slaves, and the connection heretofore existing between them becomes that between employer and hired labor. The freedmen are advised to remain quietly at their present homes and work for wages. They are informed that they will not be allowed to collect at military posts and that they will not be supported in idleness either there or elsewhere. Longstanding urban legend places a historic reading of General Order No. 3 at Ashton Villa; but no historical evidence supports this claim. There is no evidence that Granger or any of his troops proclaimed the Ordinance by reading it aloud. All indications are that copies of the Ordinance were posted in public places, including the Negro Church on Broadway, since renamed Reedy Chapel A.M.E. Church. On June 21, 2014, the Galveston Historical Foundation and Texas Historical Commission erected a Juneteenth plaque where the Osterman Building once stood signifying the location of Major General Granger's Union Headquarters believed to be where he issued his general orders. Although this event commemorates the end of slavery, emancipation for the remaining enslaved population in two Union border states, Delaware and Kentucky, would not come until December 6, 1865, when the Thirteenth Amendment was ratified. The federal amendment also put a definitive end to chattel slavery and indentured servitude in New Jersey, freeing approximately 16 elderly individuals. Furthermore, thousands of black slaves were not freed until after the Reconstruction Treaties of late 1866, when the Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole tribes were forced to sign new treaties that required them to free their slaves. The freedom of formerly enslaved people in Texas was given state law status in a series of Texas Supreme Court decisions between 1868 and 1874. ==== Early Juneteenth celebrations ==== Formerly enslaved people in Galveston rejoiced after General Order No. 3. One year later, on June 19, 1866, freedmen in Texas organized the first of what became annual commemorations of "Jubilee Day". Early celebrations were used as political rallies to give voting instructions to newly freed African Americans. Other independence observances occurred on January 1 or 4. In some cities, Black people were barred from using public parks because of state-sponsored segregation of facilities. Across parts of Texas, freed people pooled their funds to purchase land to hold their celebrations. The day was first celebrated in Austin in 1867 under the auspices of the Freedmen's Bureau, and it had been listed on a "calendar of public events" by 1872. That year, Black leaders in Texas raised $1,000 for the purchase of 10 acres (4 ha) of land, today known as Houston's Emancipation Park, to celebrate Juneteenth. The observation was soon drawing thousands of attendees across Texas. In Limestone County, an estimated 30,000 Black people celebrated at Booker T. Washington Park, established in 1898 for Juneteenth celebrations. The Black community began using the word Juneteenth for Jubilee Day early in the 1890s. The word Juneteenth appeared in print in the Brenham Weekly Banner, a white newspaper from Brenham, Texas, as early as 1891. Mentions of Juneteenth celebrations outside of Texas appeared as early as 1909 in Shreveport, Louisiana. ==== Decline of celebrations during the Jim Crow era ==== In the early 20th century, economic and political forces led to a decline in Juneteenth celebrations. From 1890 to 1908, Texas and all former Confederate states passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised Black people, excluding them from the political process. White-dominated state legislatures passed Jim Crow laws imposing second-class status. Gladys L. Knight writes the decline in celebration was in part because "upwardly mobile blacks ... were ashamed of their slave past and aspired to assimilate into mainstream culture. Younger generations of blacks, becoming further removed from slavery were occupied with school ... and other pursuits." Others who migrated to the Northern United States could not take time off or simply dropped the celebration. The Great Depression forced many Black people off farms and into the cities to find work, where they had difficulty taking the day off to celebrate. From 1936 to 1951, the Texas State Fair served as a destination for celebrating the holiday, contributing to its revival. In 1936, an estimated 150,000 to 200,000 people joined the holiday's celebration in Dallas. In 1938, Governor of Texas James Allred issued a proclamation stating in part: Whereas, the Negroes in the State of Texas observe June 19 as the official day for the celebration of Emancipation from slavery; and Whereas, June 19, 1865, was the date when General [Gordon] Granger, who had command of the Military District of Texas, issued a proclamation notifying the Negroes of Texas that they were free; and Whereas, since that time, Texas Negroes have observed this day with suitable holiday ceremony, except during such years when the day comes on a Sunday; when the Governor of the State is asked to proclaim the following day as the holiday for State observance by Negroes; and Whereas, June 19, 1938, this year falls on Sunday; NOW, THEREFORE, I, JAMES V. ALLRED, Governor of the State of Texas, do set aside and proclaim the day of June 20, 1938, as the date for observance of EMANCIPATION DAY in Texas, and do urge all members of the Negro race in Texas to observe the day in a manner appropriate to its importance to them. Seventy thousand people attended a "Juneteenth Jamboree" in 1951. From 1940 through 1970, in the second wave of the Great Migration, more than five million Black people left Texas, Louisiana and other parts of the South for the North and the West Coast. As historian Isabel Wilkerson writes, "The people from Texas took Juneteenth Day to Los Angeles, Oakland, Seattle, and other places they went." In 1945, Juneteenth was introduced in San Francisco by a migrant from Texas, Wesley Johnson. During the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement focused the attention of African Americans on expanding freedom and integrating. As a result, observations of the holiday declined again, though it was still celebrated in Texas. === Revival of celebrations === ==== 1960s–1980s ==== Juneteenth soon saw a revival as Black people began tying their struggle to that of ending slavery. In Atlanta, some campaigners for equality wore Juneteenth buttons. During the 1968 Poor People's Campaign to Washington, DC, called by Rev. Ralph Abernathy, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference made June 19 the "Solidarity Day of the Poor People's Campaign". In the subsequent revival, large celebrations in Minneapolis and Milwaukee emerged, as well as across the Eastern United States. In 1974, Houston began holding large-scale celebrations again, and Fort Worth, Texas, followed the next year. Around 30,000 people attended festivities at Sycamore Park in Fort Worth the following year. The 1978 Milwaukee celebration was described as drawing more than 100,000 attendees. In 1979, the Texas Legislature made the occasion a state holiday. In the late 1980s, there were major celebrations of Juneteenth in California, Wisconsin, Illinois, Georgia, and Washington, D.C. ==== Prayer breakfast and commemorative celebrations ==== In 1979, Democratic State Representative Al Edwards of Houston successfully sponsored legislation to make Juneteenth a paid Texas state holiday. The same year, he hosted the inaugural Al Edwards prayer breakfast and commemorative celebration on the grounds of the 1859 home, Ashton Villa. As one of the few existing buildings from the Civil War era and popular in local myth and legend as the location of Major General Granger's order, Edwards's annual celebration includes a local historian dressed as the Union general reading General Order No. 3 from the second-story balcony of the home. The Emancipation Proclamation is also read and speeches are made. Representative Al Edwards died of natural causes April 29, 2020, at the age of 83, but the annual prayer breakfast and commemorative celebration continued at Ashton Villa, with the late legislator's son Jason Edwards speaking in his father's place. ==== Official statewide recognitions ==== In the late 1970s, when the Texas Legislature declared Juneteenth a "holiday of significance ... particularly to the blacks of Texas", it became the first state to establish Juneteenth as a state holiday. The bill passed through the Texas Legislature in 1979 and was officially made a state holiday on January 1, 1980. During the 1980s and 1990s, the holiday became more widely celebrated among African-American communities across the country and received increasing mainstream attention. Before 2000, three more U.S. states officially observed the day, and over the next two decades it was recognized as an official observance in all states, except South Dakota, until becoming a federal holiday. ==== Juneteenth in pop culture and the mass media ==== Ralph Ellison's 1965 short story "Juneteenth" in the Quarterly Review of Literature, an excerpt from his novel in progress of the same name, brought the holiday to more widespread attention. In 1991, there was an exhibition by the Anacostia Community Museum (part of the Smithsonian Institution) called "Juneteenth '91, Freedom Revisited". In 1994, a group of community leaders gathered at Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans to work for greater national celebration of Juneteenth. International awareness arose as expatriates and U.S. military bases overseas celebrated Juneteenth in cities abroad, such as Paris. In 1999, Ralph Ellison's novel Juneteenth was posthumously published, increasing recognition of the holiday. By 2006, at least 200 cities across the United States celebrated the day. The holiday gained mainstream awareness outside African-American communities through depictions in media, such as episodes of TV series Atlanta (2016) and Black-ish (2017), the latter of which featured musical numbers about the holiday by Aloe Blacc, The Roots, and Fonzworth Bentley. In 2018, Apple added Juneteenth to its calendars in iOS under official U.S. holidays. Private companies began to adopt Juneteenth as a paid day off for employees, while others officially marked the day in ceremonial ways, such as holding a moment of silence. In 2020, additional American corporations and educational institutions, including Twitter, the National Football League, Nike, began treating Juneteenth as a company holiday, providing a paid day off to their workers, and Google Calendar added Juneteenth to its U.S. Holidays calendar. Also in 2020, a number of major universities formally recognized Juneteenth, either as a "day of reflection" or as a university holiday with paid time off for faculty and staff. The 2020 mother-daughter film on the holiday's pageant culture, Miss Juneteenth, featured African-American women "determined to stand on their own" while confronting sexist tendencies within their community. ==== Becoming a federal holiday ==== In 1996, the first federal legislation to recognize "Juneteenth Independence Day" was introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives, H.J. Res. 195, sponsored by Barbara-Rose Collins (D-MI). In 1997, Congress recognized the day through Senate Joint Resolution 11 and House Joint Resolution 56. In 2013, the U.S. Senate passed Senate Resolution 175, acknowledging Lula Briggs Galloway (late president of the National Association of Juneteenth Lineage), who "successfully worked to bring national recognition to Juneteenth Independence Day", and the continued leadership of the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation. In the 2000s and 2010s, activists continued a long process to push Congress towards official recognition of Juneteenth. Organizations such as the National Juneteenth Observance Foundation sought a Congressional designation of Juneteenth as a national day of observance. By 2016, 45 states were recognizing the occasion. Activist Opal Lee, often referred to as the "grandmother of Juneteenth", campaigned for decades to make Juneteenth a federal holiday, leading walks in many states to promote the idea. In 2016–17 at the age of 89, she led a symbolic walk from Fort Worth, Texas to Washington D.C. to advocate for the federal holiday. When it was officially made a federal holiday on June 17, 2021, she was standing beside President Joe Biden as he signed the bill. Juneteenth became one of five date-specific federal holidays along with New Year's Day (January 1), Independence Day (July 4), Veterans Day (November 11), and Christmas Day (December 25). Juneteenth is the first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was declared a holiday in 1986. Juneteenth also falls within the statutory Honor America Days period, which lasts for 21 days from Flag Day (June 14) to Independence Day (July 4). == The Juneteenth Flag == In 1997, activist Ben Haith created the Juneteenth flag, which was further refined by illustrator Lisa Jeanne Graf. In 2000, the flag was first hoisted at the Roxbury Heritage State Park in Boston by Haith. The star at the center represents Texas and the extension of freedom for all African Americans throughout the whole nation. The burst around the star represents a nova and the red curve represents a horizon, standing for a new era for African Americans. The red, white, and blue colors represent the American flag, which shows that African Americans and their enslaved ancestors are Americans, and the national belief in liberty and justice for all citizens. == Legal observance == === State and local holiday === Texas was the first state to recognize the date by enacted law, in 1980. By 2002, eight states officially recognized Juneteenth and four years later 15 states recognized the holiday. By 2008, just over half of the states recognized Juneteenth in some way. By 2019, 47 states and the District of Columbia recognized Juneteenth, although as of 2020 only Texas had adopted the holiday as a paid holiday for state employees. In June 2019, Governor of Pennsylvania Tom Wolf recognized Juneteenth as a holiday in the state. In the yearlong aftermath of the murder of George Floyd that occurred on May 25, 2020, nine states designated Juneteenth a paid holiday, including New York, Washington, and Virginia. In 2020, Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker issued a proclamation that the day would be marked as "Juneteenth Independence Day". This followed the filing of bills by both the House and Senate to make Juneteenth a state holiday. Baker did not comment on these bills specifically but promised to grant the observance of Juneteenth greater importance. On June 16, 2021, Illinois adopted a law changing its ceremonial holiday to a paid state holiday. Some cities and counties have also recognized Juneteenth through proclamation. In 2020, Juneteenth was formally recognized by New York City (as an annual official city holiday and public school holiday, starting in 2021). Cook County, Illinois, adopted an ordinance to make Juneteenth a paid county holiday. The City and County of Honolulu recognizes it as an "annual day of honor and reflection", and Portland, Oregon (as a day of remembrance and action and a paid holiday for city employees). North Dakota approved recognition of Juneteenth as a state-recognized annual holiday on April 13, 2021, with Hawaii becoming the 49th state to recognize the holiday on June 16, 2021. On June 16, 2020, South Dakota Governor Kristi Noem proclaimed that the following June 19, 2020, was to be Juneteenth Day for that year only, spurning calls for it to be recognized annually, rather than just for 2020. In February 2022, South Dakota became the last state to recognize Juneteenth as an annual state holiday or observance. Its law provided for following the federal law even before it was official. On May 2, 2022, Colorado Governor Jared Polis signed a bill changing the state's ceremonial observance to a state holiday and it is now the 11th state holiday in Colorado. As of 2024, 27 states and the District of Columbia have made Juneteenth an annualized paid holiday for state employees, with the remainder maintaining at least a ceremonial observance (New Mexico's personnel board declared it a paid worker holiday, although it is not a statutory holiday in New Mexico). Additional states may observe it as a paid holiday for state workers but rely on a decision, often of the governor, in each year, instead of perpetual by statute, which may or may not occur again the next year. Local governments including counties and municipalities also may close their offices and pay their workers time-off. The table below only includes the states with perpetual, annual, paid holiday laws identified by the Congressional Research Service in 2023 or subsequent sources: === Federal holiday === Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the United States. For decades, activists and congress members (led by many African Americans) proposed legislation, advocated for, and built support for state and national observances. During his campaign for president in June 2020, Joe Biden publicly celebrated the holiday. President Donald Trump, during his 2020 campaign for reelection, added making the day a national holiday part of his "Platinum Plan for Black America". Spurred on by Opal Lee, the racial justice movement and the Congressional Black Caucus, on June 15, 2021, the Senate unanimously passed the Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, establishing Juneteenth as a federal holiday. It passed through the House of Representatives by a 415–14 vote on June 16. President Joe Biden signed the bill (Pub. L. 117–17 (text) (PDF)) on June 17, 2021, making Juneteenth the eleventh American federal holiday and the first to obtain legal observance as a federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was designated in 1983. According to the bill, federal government employees will now get to take the day off every year on June 19, or should the date fall on a Saturday or Sunday, they will get the Friday or Monday closest to the Saturday or Sunday on which the date falls. Juneteenth is observed with the closure of post offices, banks, the NYSE and Nasdaq stock exchanges and other financial markets, most government offices, and many schools, universities, and private businesses. In January 2025, President Donald Trump issued an executive order banning diversity, equity, and inclusion programs in federal agencies that has been interpreted by various agencies as eliminating in-agency observance planning for a number of cultural remembrance events, including Juneteenth, Black History Month, and several others. Nonetheless, for February 2025, Trump issued the traditional presidential proclamation calling on officials to commemorate Black History Month. In December 2025 however, free entry to national parks on MLK Day and Juneteenth was ended; and replaced by free entry on Flag Day, which is also Donald Trump's birthday. == See also == History of African Americans in Texas Independence Day (United States) List of African-American holidays Negro Election Day Public holidays in the United States == Explanatory notes == == Citations == == General and cited references == Barr, Alwyn (1996). Black Texans: A History of African Americans in Texas, 1528–1995. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0806128788. Blanck, Emily. "Galveston on San Francisco Bay: Juneteenth in the Fillmore District, 1945–2016." Western Historical Quarterly 50.2 (2019): 85–112. Galveston on San Francisco Bay: Juneteenth in the Fillmore District, 1945–2016 Cromartie, J. Vern. "Freedom Came at Different Times: A Comparative Analysis of Emancipation Day and Juneteenth Celebrations." NAAAS Conference Proceedings. National Association of African American Studies, (2014) online. Donovan, Anne, and Karen De Bres. "Foods of freedom: Juneteenth as a culinary tourist attraction." Tourism Review International 9.4 (2006): 379–389. link Gordon-Reed, Annette (2021). On Juneteenth, New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation. ISBN 978-1631498831. OCLC 1196176524 Guzzio, Tracie Church (1999). "Juneteenth". In Samuels, Wilford D. (ed.). Encyclopedia of African-American Literature. Facts on File. Hume, Noah; Arceneaux, Janice (2008). "Public Memory, Cultural Legacy, and Press Coverage of the Juneteenth Revival". Journalism History. 34 (3): 155–162. doi:10.1080/00947679.2008.12062768. S2CID 142605823. Jaynes, Gerald David (2005). "Juneteenth". Encyclopedia of African American Society. Vol. 1. Sage Publications. pp. 481–482. ISBN 9781452265414. Knight, Gladys L. (2011). "Juneteenth". Encyclopedia of African American Popular Culture. Greenwood. pp. 798–801. OCLC 694734649. Mustakeem, Sowandé (2007). "Juneteenth". In Rodriguez, Junius (ed.). Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World. Routledge. Taylor, Charles A. (2002). Juneteenth: A Celebration of Freedom. Open Hand Pub Llc. ISBN 978-0940880689. Turner, E. H. "Juneteenth: The Evolution of an Emancipation Celebration." European Contributions to American Studies. 65 (2006): 69–81. Wiggins Jr, William H. "They Closed the Town Up, Man! Reflections on the Civic and Political Dimensions of Juneteenth." in Celebration: Studies in Festivity and Ritual, ed. Victor Turner (1982): 284–295. Wilson, Charles R. (2006). The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture: Volume 4: Myth, Manners, and Memory. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0807830291. JSTOR 10.5149/9781469616704_wilson. Wynn, Linda T. (2009). "Juneteenth". In Carney Smith, Jessica (ed.). Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience. Credo Reference. == Further reading == Cotham, Edward T. Jr. (2021). Juneteenth: The Story Behind the Celebration. State House Press. ISBN 978-1649670007. == External links == Juneteenth: Fact Sheet Congressional Research Service (updated July 1, 2022) Juneteenth World Wide Celebration, website for 150th anniversary celebration Juneteenth Historical Marker, Juneteenth historical marker at 2201 Strand, Galveston, TX 2022 Holidays, United States Office of Personal Management Celebrating Freedom: Juneteenth and Emancipation Day Commemorations, Richmond, Va., Social Welfare History Project, Virginia Commonwealth University Libraries
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosoliso_Airlines_Flight_1145	Sosoliso Airlines Flight 1145	Sosoliso Airlines Flight 1145 (SO1145/OSL1145) was a scheduled Nigerian domestic passenger flight from Nigeria's capital of Abuja (ABV) to Port Harcourt (PHC). At about 14:08 local time (13:08 UTC) on 10 December 2005, Flight 1145 from Abuja crash-landed at Port Harcourt International Airport. The aircraft, a McDonnell Douglas DC-9-32 with 110 people on board, slammed into the ground and burst into flames. Immediately after the crash, seven survivors were recovered and taken to hospitals, but only two people survived. It was the second air disaster to occur in Nigeria in less than three months, after Bellview Airlines Flight 210, which crashed on 22 October 2005 for reasons unknown, killing all 117 people on board. It was the company's first and only fatal accident. Investigation into the crash by Nigeria's Accident Investigation Bureau concluded that the crash was attributed to the pilot's decision to keep descending on the airport even though the aircraft had passed the minimum decision altitude. The pilots decided to go-around while they were in wind shear condition. This decision was also too late as they still had not configured the aircraft for a go-around and their altitude was already too low. == Aircraft == The McDonnell Douglas DC-9 operating the flight was manufactured in 1972, with 2 Pratt & Whitney JT8D-9A engines, and the serial number 47562/685. It became registered in Nigeria on 12 June 2003. The aircraft was owned by JAT Airways, and operated by Sosoliso Airlines Ltd. The aircraft certificate was released on 17 March 2005 and would have been due to another check on 27 June 2006. The aircraft was described as airworthy at the time of the accident. == Passengers and crews == Flight 1145 was carrying 103 passengers and 7 crew members. The majority of those on board were children aged between 12 - 16 years old who were travelling home for Christmas holiday. Among the passengers were about sixty secondary school students from Loyola Jesuit College in the Federal Capital Territory region of Nigeria. At first, Loyola Jesuit College students from Port Harcourt traveled between school and their homes via buses using the roads. Rising crime along roads during the 1990s, however, made parents believe that road travel was too dangerous. In 2001, when Sosoliso Airlines began services between Port Harcourt and Abuja, parents placed their children on the flights. Also on the flight were two volunteers for Medecins Sans Frontieres/Doctors Without Borders, one of whom was an American and the other was a French citizen, en route to work in Port Harcourt, as well as televangelist Bimbo Odukoya, pastor of the Fountain of Life Church. The National President of the Petroleum and Natural Gas Senior Staff Association of Nigeria (PENGASSAN), Uche Marcus Okoro who was returning from a union meeting, was also on the passenger list. The captain was Benjamin Adebayo, a 48-year-old Nigerian with a total flying experience of 10,050 hours with 1,900 of them on the DC-9. He had his last simulator training at Pan Am International Flight Academy in Miami on 7 July 2005. The first officer was Gerald Andan, a 33-year-old Ghanaian with a total flying experience of 920 hours which 670 hours were on the type. He had his last simulator training in August 2005 with a result of 'satisfying'. The flight was supposed to be his last, after doubting the safety of the airline. == Crash == Flight 1145 was a scheduled domestic passenger flight from Nigeria's capital Abuja to Port Harcourt, the capital of Rivers State. The aircraft departed from Nnamdi Azikiwe International Airport at 12:25 p.m with 103 passengers and 7 crew members, with Captain Adebayo (48) as the pilot who was in control of the aircraft and First Officer Andan (33) as his co-pilot. The flight was uneventful until its final approach in Port Harcourt. About 140 kilometres (90 mi) from the airport, the aircraft contacted controller for initial descent clearance and was cleared by controller to descent to 4,900 metres (16,000 ft). The aircraft continued its descent until 13:00, when the crew asked the controller for the weather condition at the airport. The controller told the crews that there was no precipitation and that there were scattered cumulonimbus clouds in the area. The crew acknowledged the report and continued their descent. At 11 kilometres (6 nmi) from the airport, on 13:04 p.m, the aircraft had been established on the glide-slope. At this time, the aircraft had entered adverse weather condition with headwind and tailwind. The flight crews then requested clearance to land at Runway 21. The controller then contacted Flight 1145 and advised that there was a possibility of rain in the airport. The controller then cleared the aircraft to land at Runway 21, but warned the pilots that the runway could be slightly wet, indicating that hydroplaning was a possibility. The flight crews then acknowledged this message. Flight 1145 then descended until it had passed the decision altitude of 307 feet (94 m). As the rain intensified, the visibility deteriorated. The unlit runway further aggravated the situation. Unable to make out the unlit runway through the rain, Captain Adebayo called for a go around (missed approach) at an altitude of about 200 feet (61 m) or approximately 120 feet (37 m) above the ground. This call was made about 100 feet (30 m) below the decision altitude. His decision, however, was too late as Flight 1145 was already too low for a go-around. The "TOO LOW-GEAR" warning then sounded and the flight crews tried to add more thrust. The flight crews had not managed to prepare the aircraft's configuration in a timely manner and the aircraft kept descending. The DC-9 then slammed onto the grass strip between the runway and the taxiway. It then slid and struck a concrete drainage culvert located near the runway. The collision then disintegrated the aircraft. The tail section was immediately destroyed and the engine was lodged into the drainage. As it broke up, the fuel spilled and the aircraft burst into flames. The fuselage and the cockpit, now in flames, continued to slide for few hundreds metres before it finally came to rest on the taxiway. === Immediate aftermath === Of the 103 passengers and 7 crew members there were only two survivors, although seven survivors were initially rescued. Many passengers survived the initial impact but died in the resulting fire. Other passengers later died from their injuries. Port Harcourt Airport had one fire truck and no ambulances. None of 7 crew members survived the crash. Out of the 60 teenagers from Ignatius Loyola Jesuit College; a boarding school located in Abuja, 59 were killed, with Kechi Okwuchi being the only survivor from her school. Kechi was treated at Milpark Hospital in Johannesburg, South Africa and at Shriners Hospitals for Children in Galveston, Texas, United States. The other survivor was Bunmi Amusan who survived with 40% burns on her body. == Investigation == === Weather === Weather data was obtained from the Nigerian Meteorological Agency and from satellite imagery that were provided by Boeing. The data suggested that at 13:00 p.m, a sea breeze front, possibly reinforced by an outflow, pushed inland in the vicinity of Port Harcourt. This condition caused a rapidly deteriorating visibility during Flight 1145's approach to the airport. The leading edge of the boundary, in theory, also could have caused an abrupt increase in wind speed and significant changes on the direction of the wind, which would produce wind shear. According to the AIB, the weather information was not relayed to the flight crews in a correct manner. The controller did not relay the wind speed and the possibility of a thunderstorm in the area. Had the controller relayed the information properly, the crew would have prepared the aircraft according to the said weather condition. The controller should have asked the crews to be vigilant on the prevailing wind condition. However, the controller had only cleared the aircraft to land and to exercise caution on the wet runway. Further investigation revealed that Sosoliso Airlines didn't include wind shear recognition and recovery into its simulator training program. === Flight recorder analysis === As the flight recorders were retrieved by investigators, it was revealed that both flight recorders had been damaged by the impact forces and post-impact fire. The recorders were later taken to the United Kingdom for further analysis by the Air Accidents Investigation Branch. The flight data recorder revealed that during Flight 1145's final approach the aircraft had passed the decision altitude of Port Harcourt Airport. The decision altitude is the exact altitude where pilots need to find the runway by visual reference until a certain point where the pilot decides to make a call for a go-around when visual contact with the runway has not been established. Flight 1145 leveled off at an altitude of 204 feet (62 m), which was below the minimum decision altitude of 307 feet (94 m). The airspeed then decreased to 145 knots and the aircraft kept descending even lower than 204 feet (62 m). A few seconds later, there was an increase of speed to 151 knots, indicating that the flight crews had decided to initiate a go-around. As the aircraft had descended well below 204 feet (62 m), the crew was unable to recover the aircraft as the altitude was too low. The data then ceased functioning when the aircraft speed was at 160 knots. The cockpit voice recorder revealed that Captain Adebayo had called for a go-around approximately 16 seconds before the crash. As he called for a go-around, the flight crews added thrust and then tried to retract the gear and the flaps. As the flaps had not been completely retracted and the gears were not in its correct position, the "TOO LOW-GEAR" warning sounded. According to the correct procedures for a missed approach, the flight crews should have set the take-off thrust, retracted the flaps to 15 degree and retracted the landing gear until a positive rate of climb had been established. The flight crews did try to follow the procedure, however the low altitude of Flight 1145, added by the bad weather condition at the time, prevented the flight crews to conduct a proper missed approach procedure. Flight 1145 was flying slightly above its stall speed and the windshear condition caused the airspeed to decrease. As such, the aircraft didn't climb in a timely manner and ultimately crashed onto the ground. === Other factors === There were several other findings that were included as contributing factors in the crash of Flight 1145. The presence of a drainage culvert near an operating runway poses serious risks to other aircraft during the landing and take-off phase, particularly to aircraft that accidentally veer off of the runway. In the case of Flight 1145, the DC-9 exploded immediately after it had struck a drainage culvert located about 70 meters to the left of Runway 21. The report implied that there could be more survivors had the DC-9 not impacted the culvert. Investigators also noted that the runway was only lit at certain conditions i.e at night, on request by pilots or during bad weather in the area. This was due to the unstable power supply from the Nigerian National Grid and the lack of resources and funds to maintain the lighting in the airport. === Conclusion === The final report was published on 26 July 2006. The Nigerian Accident Investigation Bureau concluded that the probable cause of the crash was due to the crew's decision to continue the approach beyond the Decision Altitude without having the runway in sight. The adverse weather condition was listed as a contributing factor. The Nigerian AIB recommended that wind shear recognition and recovery should be made compulsory into pilot's initial and recurrent simulator training. This was not applied in a timely manner and resulted in another airliner crash a year later in Abuja which was caused by wind shear. == Aftermath == The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) mandates that each family of an air crash victim is entitled to only 3 million naira or US$18,157 from the airline. In January 2009 Harold Demuren, the director general of the Nigerian Civil Aviation Authority (NCAA), said that the families of the air crash victims would be compensated and that Sosoliso had already paid $2.3 million into an escrow account to compensate the families. Pope Benedict XVI sent condolences to the families of victims and offered prayers for relief workers at the site of the accident. In response to the crash, then-Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo cut short his visit to Portugal and vowed to overhaul the country's aviation sector and to "plug loopholes" of the aviation safety in Nigeria. A crisis meeting was later called and some senior air officials were suspended from their job. === Legacy === Andy and Ify Ilabor, the parents of crash victims Chuka, Nkem, and Busonma "Buso" Ilabor, started a foundation called the Ilabor Angels to assist orphans and AIDS victims. Loyola Jesuit College dedicated a Memorial Hall to the deceased students. A Concerned Students Club was also created after the crash to discuss and reflect on the issues within Nigeria, and the school founded the Jesuit Memorial College in 2013 and Loyola Academy in 2014 which focus on providing education to lower income families. == See also == ADC Airlines Flight 053 Bhoja Air Flight 213 Flydubai Flight 981 TransAsia Airways Flight 222 == References == == External links == "Final report on the accident to Sosoliso Airlines DC 9-32 aircraft registered 5N – BFD at Port Harcourt International Airport on 10th December 2005" (PDF). Nigerian Federal Ministry of Aviation. 20 July 2006. FMA/AIPB/424. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2012. (Alternate, Archive of Alternate Alternate #2) "Jet crashes in flames in Nigeria". Associated Press. 10 December 2005. Archived from the original on 13 December 2005. "Nigeria jet crash leaves 103 dead". BBC News. 10 December 2005. "Toll rises in Nigerian air crash". Agence France-Presse. 10 December 2005. Archived from the original on 13 December 2005. "Nigerian plane crash kills 103: official". Reuters. 10 December 2005. "As Death Stalks a Nation's Air Space... 103 Die in P/Harcourt Crash". This Day. 10 December 2005. Archived from the original on 14 December 2005. "Plane 'struck by lightning'". News24. 10 December 2005. Archived from the original on 12 December 2005. "At least 103 dead in jet crash". News Corporation. 11 December 2005. Archived from the original on 13 December 2005. Passenger manifest Archived 17 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine "NATURAL DISASTER CAUSE OF SOSOLISO CRASH." (Archive) Sosoliso Airlines. 21 April 2006. Statement on Sosoliso Airlines Crash. Boeing (Archive)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Antonio_de_Arag%C3%B3n	Pedro Antonio de Aragón	Pedro Antonio de Aragón (7 November 1611 – 1 September 1690) was a Spanish nobleman, military figure and politician who served under Kings Philip IV and Charles II of Spain. He was the brother of Cardinal Pascual de Aragón, Viceroy of Naples, 1664–1666 and the son of Enrique Ramón Folch de Cardona y Córdoba and Catalina Fernández de Córdoba y Figueroa. He was born in Lucena, in what is now the Province of Córdoba. A cultured and educated man, he held different positions of high importance for the Court, acting as Viceroy of Catalonia from 1642 to 1644, as ambassador in Rome (1664–1666), and Viceroy of Naples (1666–1671), as well as Commander in chief of Catalonia. He claimed in 1670 the joint titles of 8th Duke of Segorbe, and 9th Duke of Cardona, after the death of his brother Luis Raimundo Folch de Cardona (January 1670) and his infant son Joaquín (March 1670), leaving only 7 daughters. He was brought before the Justice Courts by two of his nieces and their husbands, but he died in Madrid before the case was solved, creating some problems afterwards with the numbering of the titles of both Dukedoms since then, as apparently he had been too quick claiming "legal", self-appointed, succession to both Dukedoms. During his period of ten years in Italy (1662–1672), he amassed a personal library of great value. Being one of the protectors and patrons of Poblet Monastery, he donated his library of approximately 3600 volumes in 1677 in exchange for being able to be buried amongst its venerated figures after his death. He sent back to Naples, from the Poblet Monastery, in 1671, the body of king Alfonso V of Aragon. He was President of the Council of Aragon between 1677 and 1690. He published a book on Geometria Militar in 1671. == References == Biblioteca del virrey Pedro Antonio de Aragón (1611-1690) "El gobierno de las imágenes. Ceremonial y mecenazgo en la Italia española de la segunda mitad del siglo XVII"
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tottie_Goldsmith	Tottie Goldsmith	Caroline "Tottie" Goldsmith (born 27 August 1962) is an Australian actress and singer, known for her roles as Trixie Sheldon in Starting Out, Toni Sheffield in The Young Doctors, Marilyn "Tex" Perez in Fire, and Cassandra Freedman in Neighbours. She hosted the Network Ten program Sex/Life in 1996, and was a contestant on I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! in 2022. In addition to her film and television work, Goldsmith is a founding member of the Chantoozies, a pop group formed in 1986. == Career == === Television === In the early 1980s, Goldsmith acted in the Australian television series The Young Doctors, Starting Out, Prisoner, Saturdee, and The Henderson Kids . She made a guest appearance on a 1989 episode of Mission: Impossible, which was filmed in Australia. She also guested in G.P. and Embassy. During 1996, Goldsmith starred as Marilyn "Tex" Perez in the second season of drama series Fire. She also hosted Sex/Life, a Network Ten program about sexual health, and appeared in Twisted Tales and soap spoof Shark Bay. She was also a panellist on such programs as Beauty and the Beast and All-Star Squares. Goldsmith made various guest appearances on Australian TV shows in the 2000s, including The Secret Life of Us, Bert's Family Feud, Big Questions, Surprise Surprise Gotcha, Pizza and Celebrity Singing Bee, and had a three episode run on Blue Heelers. Goldsmith appeared in a 2001 episode of Stingers, followed by another appearance in 2004. In 2009, Goldsmith appeared in the television soap opera Neighbours for three months as Cassandra Freedman. She acted in two episodes of the Australian television show Swift and Shift Couriers. She appeared in the 2010 Australian film, Ricky! The Movie, as the ex-girlfriend of Ricky T, and as a gangster's girlfriend in the 2011 television film Underbelly Files: Infiltration. She also had a supporting role in the 2012 Jack Irish telefilm Bad Debts. In 2022, Goldsmith appeared on the 8th season of the Australian version of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! === Music === From 1986 Goldsmith was one of four female lead vocalists of the Australian band the Chantoozies. They released four singles: "Witch Queen", "He's Gonna Step On You Again", "Wanna Be Up", "Kiss and Tell", and an album, Chantoozies. Goldsmith left the Chantoozies to pursue a solo singing career before the band released their second album, Gild the Lily in 1991. She later rejoined when the group temporarily reformed in 2006 for the Countdown Spectacular concert series, and more permanently in 2012. She again left the band in 2020. With Chantoozies member Eve von Bibra, Goldsmith also performed in the duo the Toozies. The Toozies performed the opening act at the 2010 Antenna Awards. On 8 January 2023, Goldsmith returned to music after a 3-year break, performing in St. Kilda with the "3XY Allstars". 30 July that year would also see her invite former Chantoozies bandmate Ally Fowler to the stage to cover her aunt Olivia Newton-John's "You're the One That I Want", her first performance with a Chantoozie since leaving the band. She would also return to the Chantoozies at a concert at the Sandstone Point Hotel on the Sunshine Coast on 26 July, filling in for Fowler. === Other work === In the late 1990s, Goldsmith co-hosted a breakfast program on Melbourne radio station TTFM, replacing Nicky Buckley. She played Janet in a season of the New Rocky Horror Show, and participated in an arena version of the musical Grease. Goldsmith works as a marriage celebrant and has released two meditation and relaxation albums, Unwind Your Mind (2004) and Falling Asleep (2005). After having a bout of chronic fatigue syndrome and struggling for years with sleep issues, Goldsmith used her meditation skills in partnership with sleep specialist Chris Bunney to record Falling Asleep, which has since been prescribed by doctors. In 2007, she collaborated with a child psychologist on A Sleep Story, which is aimed at children. She was known as a sex symbol early in her career, and posed nude for art magazine Black+White in August 1996. == Personal life == Goldsmith is the daughter of Melbourne restaurateur and nightclub owner Brian Goldsmith and British-born actress Rona Newton-John (1941–2013). Her great-grandfather, the father of her grandmother Irene, was German-British physicist, mathematician and Nobel Prize winner Max Born. Olivia Newton-John was her maternal aunt, while bassist Brett Goldsmith is her elder brother and racecar driver Emerson Newton-John her half brother. She has six other siblings. Goldsmith was married to skier Steven Lee and they have one child together, a daughter. She became engaged to businessman James Mayo in January 2008. == Honours == In the 2020 Queen's Birthday Honours, Goldsmith was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia (OAM) for "service to the community, and to the performing arts". == Filmography == === Film === === Television === == Theatre == Source: == References == == External links == Official website Tottie Goldsmith at IMDb
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glipa_annulata	Glipa annulata	Glipa annulata is a species of beetle in the genus Glipa. It was described in 1868. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Chrome	Google Chrome	Google Chrome is a cross-platform web browser developed by Google. It was launched in 2008 for Microsoft Windows, built with free software components from Apple WebKit and Mozilla Firefox. Versions were later released for Linux, macOS, iOS, iPadOS, and also for Android, where it is the default browser. The browser is also the main component of ChromeOS, on which it serves as the platform for web applications. Most of Chrome's source code comes from Google's free and open-source software project known as Chromium, but Chrome is licensed as proprietary freeware. WebKit was the original rendering engine, but Google eventually forked it to create the Blink engine; all Chrome variants except iOS used Blink as of 2017. As of September 2025, StatCounter estimates that Chrome has a 71.77% worldwide browser market share (after peaking at 72.38% in November 2018) on personal computers. It is the most in use browser on tablets (having surpassed Safari), and is also dominant on smartphones. With a market share of 71.77% across all platforms combined, Chrome is the most used web browser in the world today. Google chief executive Eric Schmidt was previously involved in the "browser wars" (a part of U.S. corporate history) and was against the expansion of the company into such a new area. However, Google co-founders, Sergey Brin and Larry Page, spearheaded a software demonstration that pushed Schmidt into making Chrome a core business priority, which resulted in it becoming a commercial success. Because of the proliferation of Chrome, Google has expanded the "Chrome" brand name to other products. This includes ChromeOS, Chromecast, Chromebook, Chromebit, Chromebox, and Chromebase. == History == Google chief executive Eric Schmidt opposed the development of an independent web browser for six years. He stated that "at the time, Google was a small company", and he did not want to go through "bruising browser wars". Company co-founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page hired several Mozilla Firefox developers and built a demonstration of Chrome. Afterwards, Schmidt said, "It was so good that it essentially forced me to change my mind." In September 2004, rumors of Google building a web browser first appeared. Online journals and U.S. newspapers stated at the time that Google was hiring former Microsoft web developers, among others. It also came shortly after the release of Mozilla Firefox 1.0, which was surging in popularity and taking market share from Internet Explorer, which had noted security problems. Chrome is based on the open-source code of the Chromium project. Development of the browser began in 2006, spearheaded by Sundar Pichai. Google has since become the world's most popular search engine. 90% of searches on search engines come from Google users === Announcement === The release announcement was originally scheduled for September 3, 2008, and a comic by Scott McCloud was to be sent to journalists and bloggers explaining the features within the new browser. Copies intended for Europe were shipped early, and German blogger Philipp Lenssen of Google Blogoscoped made a scanned copy of the 38-page comic available on his website after receiving it on September 1, 2008. Google subsequently made the comic available on Google Books, and mentioned it on their official blog along with an explanation for the early release. The product was named "Chrome" as an initial development project code name, because it is associated with fast cars and speed. Google kept the development project name as the final release name, as a "cheeky" or ironic moniker, as one of the main aims was to minimize the user interface chrome. === Public release === The browser was first publicly released, officially as a beta version, on September 2, 2008, for Windows XP and newer, and with support for 43 languages, and later as a "stable" public release on December 11, 2008. On that same day, a CNET news item drew attention to a passage in the Terms of Service statement for the initial beta release, which seemed to grant Google a license to all content transferred via the Chrome browser. This passage was inherited from the general Google terms of service. Google responded to this criticism immediately by stating that the language used was borrowed from other products, and removed this passage from the Terms of Service. Chrome quickly gained about 1% usage share. After the initial surge, usage share dropped until it hit a low of 0.69% in October 2008. It then started rising again and by December 2008, Chrome again passed the 1% threshold. In early January 2009, CNET reported that Google planned to release versions of Chrome for macOS and Linux in the first half of the year. The first official macOS and Linux developer previews of Chrome were announced on June 4, 2009, with a blog post saying they were missing many features and were intended for early feedback rather than general use. In December 2009, Google released beta versions of Chrome for macOS and Linux. Google Chrome 5.0, announced on May 25, 2010, was the first stable release to support all three platforms. Chrome was one of the twelve browsers offered on BrowserChoice.eu to European Economic Area users of Microsoft Windows in 2010. === Development === Chrome was assembled from 25 different code libraries from Google and third parties such as Mozilla's Netscape Portable Runtime, Network Security Services, NPAPI (dropped as of version 45), Skia Graphics Engine, SQLite, and several other open-source projects. The V8 JavaScript virtual machine was considered a sufficiently important project to be split off (as was Adobe/Mozilla's Tamarin) and handled by a separate team in Denmark coordinated by Lars Bak. According to Google, existing implementations were designed "for small programs, where the performance and interactivity of the system weren't that important", but web applications such as Gmail "are using the web browser to the fullest when it comes to DOM manipulations and JavaScript", and therefore would significantly benefit from a JavaScript engine that could work faster. Chrome initially used the WebKit rendering engine to display web pages. In 2013, they forked the WebCore component to create their own layout engine, Blink. Based on WebKit, Blink only uses WebKit's "WebCore" components, while substituting other components, such as its own multi-process architecture, in place of WebKit's native implementation. Chrome is internally tested with unit testing, automated testing of scripted user actions, fuzz testing, as well as WebKit's layout tests (99% of which Chrome is claimed to have passed), and against commonly accessed websites inside the Google index within 20–30 minutes. Google created Gears for Chrome, which added features for web developers typically relating to the building of web applications, including offline support. Google phased out Gears as the same functionality became available in the HTML5 standards. In March 2011, Google introduced a new simplified logo to replace the previous 3D logo that had been used since the project's inception. Google designer Steve Rura explained the company's reasoning for the change: "Since Chrome is all about making your web experience as easy and clutter-free as possible, we refreshed the Chrome icon to better represent these sentiments. A simpler icon embodies the Chrome spirit – to make the web quicker, lighter, and easier for all." On January 11, 2011, the Chrome product manager, Mike Jazayeri, announced that Chrome would remove H.264 video codec support for its HTML5 player, citing the desire to bring Google Chrome more in line with the currently available open codecs available in the Chromium project, which Chrome is based on. Despite this, on November 6, 2012, Google released a version of Chrome on Windows which added hardware-accelerated H.264 video decoding. In October 2013, Cisco announced that it was open-sourcing its H.264 codecs, and it would cover all fees required. On February 7, 2012, Google launched Google Chrome Beta for Android 4.0 devices. On many new devices with Android 4.1 or later preinstalled, Chrome is the default browser. In May 2017, Google announced a version of Chrome for augmented reality and virtual reality devices. == Features == Google Chrome features a minimalistic user interface, with its user-interface principles later being implemented in other browsers. For example, the merging of the address bar and search bar into the omnibox or omnibar. === Web standards support === The first release of Google Chrome passed both the Acid1 and Acid2 tests. Beginning with version 4.0, Chrome passed all aspects of the Acid3 test, However, as of April 2017 Chrome no longer passes Acid3 due to changing consensus on Web standards. As of May 2011, Chrome has very good support for JavaScript/ECMAScript according to Ecma International's ECMAScript standards conformance Test 262 (version ES5.1 May 18, 2012). This test reports as the final score the number of tests a browser failed; hence, lower scores are better. In this test, Chrome version 37 scored 10 failed/11,578 passed. For comparison, Firefox 19 scored 193 failed/11,752 passed, and Internet Explorer 9 had a score of 600+ failed, while Internet Explorer 10 had a score of 7 failed. In 2011, on the official CSS 2.1 test suite by the standardization organization W3C, WebKit, the Chrome rendering engine, passed 89.75% (89.38% out of 99.59% covered) CSS 2.1 tests. On the HTML5 web standards test, Chrome 41 scored 518 out of 555 points, placing it ahead of the five most popular desktop browsers. Chrome 41 on Android scored 510 out of 555 points. Chrome 44 scored 526, only 29 points less than the maximum score. === User interface === By default, the main user interface includes back, forward, refresh/cancel, and menu buttons. A home button is not shown by default, but can be added through the Settings page to take the user to the new tab page or a custom home page. Tabs are the main component of Chrome's user interface and have been moved to the top of the window rather than below the controls. This subtle change contrasts with many existing tabbed browsers, which are based on windows and contain tabs. Tabs, with their state, can be transferred between window containers by dragging. Each tab has its own set of controls, including the Omnibox. The Omnibox is a URL box that combines the functions of both the address bar and search box. If a user enters the URL of a site previously searched from, Chrome allows pressing Tab to search the site again directly from the Omnibox. When a user starts typing in the Omnibox, Chrome provides suggestions for previously visited sites (based on the URL or in-page text), popular websites (not necessarily visited before – powered by Google Instant), and popular searches. Although Instant can be turned off, suggestions based on previously visited sites cannot be turned off. Chrome will also autocomplete the URLs of sites visited often. If a user types keywords into the Omnibox that do not match any previously visited websites and presses enter, Chrome will conduct the search using the default search engine. One of Chrome's differentiating features is the New Tab Page, which can replace the browser home page and is displayed when a new tab is created. Originally, this showed thumbnails of the nine most visited websites, along with frequent searches, recent bookmarks, and recently closed tabs; similar to Internet Explorer and Firefox with Google Toolbar, or Opera's Speed Dial. In Google Chrome 2.0, the New Tab Page was updated to allow users to hide thumbnails they did not want to appear. Starting in version 3.0, the New Tab Page was revamped to display thumbnails of the eight most visited websites. The thumbnails could be rearranged, pinned, and removed. Alternatively, a list of text links could be displayed instead of thumbnails. It also features a "Recently closed" bar that shows recently closed tabs and a "tips" section that displays hints and tricks for using the browser. Starting with Google Chrome 3.0, users can install themes to alter the appearance of the browser. Many free third-party themes are provided in an online gallery, accessible through a "Get themes" button in Chrome's options. Chrome includes a bookmarks submenu that lists the user's bookmarks, provides easy access to Chrome's Bookmark Manager, and allows the user to toggle a bookmarks bar on or off. On January 2, 2019, Google introduced Native Dark Theme for Chrome on Windows 10. In 2023, it was announced that Chrome would be completely revamped, using Google's Material You design language, the revamp would include more rounded corners, Chrome colors being swapped out for a similar dynamic color system introduced in Android 12, a revamped address bar, new icons and tabs, and a more simplified 3 dot menu. === Built-in tools === Starting with Google Chrome 4.1, the application added a built-in translation bar using Google Translate. Language translation is currently available for 52 languages. When Chrome detects a foreign language other than the user's preferred language set during the installation time, it asks the user whether or not to translate. Chrome allows users to synchronize their bookmarks, history, and settings across all devices with the browser installed by sending and receiving data through a chosen Google Account, which in turn updates all signed-in instances of Chrome. This can be authenticated either through Google credentials or a sync passphrase. For web developers, Chrome has an element inspector that allows users to look inside any web page's Document Object Model (DOM) structure and examine the code elements that make up the webpage. Chrome has special URLs that load application-specific pages instead of websites or files on disk. Chrome also has a built-in ability to enable experimental features. Originally called about:labs, the address was changed to about:flags to make it less obvious to casual users. The desktop edition of Chrome can save pages as HTML with assets in a "_files" subfolder, or as an unprocessed HTML-only document. It also offers an option to save in the MHTML format. === Desktop shortcuts and apps === Chrome allows users to make local desktop shortcuts that open web applications in the browser. The browser, when opened in this way, contains none of the regular interface except for the title bar, so as not to "interrupt anything the user is trying to do". This allows web applications to run alongside local software (similar to Mozilla Prism and Fluid). This feature, according to Google, would be enhanced with the Chrome Web Store, a one-stop web-based web applications directory which opened in December 2010. In September 2013, Google started making Chrome apps "For your desktop". This meant offline access, desktop shortcuts, and less dependence on Chrome—apps launch in a window separate from Chrome, and look more like native applications. ==== Chrome Web Store ==== Announced on December 7, 2010, the Chrome Web Store allows users to install web applications as extensions to the browser, although most of these extensions function simply as links to popular web pages or games, some of the apps, like Springpad, do provide extra features like offline access. The themes and extensions have also been tightly integrated into the new store, allowing users to search the entire catalog of Chrome extras. The Chrome Web Store was opened on February 11, 2011, with the release of Google Chrome 9.0. === Extensions === Browser extensions can modify Google Chrome. They are supported by the browser's desktop edition, but not on mobile. These extensions are written using web technologies like HTML, JavaScript, and CSS. They are distributed through Chrome Web Store, initially known as the Google Chrome Extensions Gallery. Some extensions focus on providing accessibility features. Google Tone is an extension developed by Google that when enabled, can use a computer's speakers to exchange URLs with nearby computers with an Internet connection that have the extension enabled as well. On September 9, 2009, Google enabled extensions by default on Chrome's developer channel and provided several sample extensions for testing. In December, the Google Chrome Extensions Gallery beta began with approximately 300 extensions. It was launched on January 25, 2010, along with Google Chrome 4.0, containing approximately 1500 extensions. In 2014, Google started preventing some Windows users from installing extensions not hosted on the Chrome Web Store. The following year Google reported a "75% drop in customer support help requests for uninstalling unwanted extensions" which led them to expand this restriction to all Windows and Mac users. ==== Manifest V3 ==== In October 2018, Google announced a major future update to Chrome's extension API, known as "Manifest V3" (in reference to the manifest file contained within extensions). Manifest V3 is intended to modernize the extension architecture and improve the security and performance of the browser; it adopts declarative APIs to "decrease the need for overly-broad access and enable more performant implementation by the browser", replaces background pages with feature-limited "Service Workers" to reduce resource usage, and prohibits remotely-hosted code. Google faced criticism for this change since it limits the number of rules and types of expressions that may be checked by ad blockers. Additionally, the prohibition of remotely-hosted code will restrict the ability for ad-blocking filter lists to be updated independently of the extension itself. ==== Notable examples ==== === Speed === The JavaScript virtual machine used by Chrome, the V8 JavaScript engine, has features such as dynamic code generation, hidden class transitions, and precise garbage collection. In 2008, several websites performed benchmark tests using the SunSpider JavaScript Benchmark tool as well as Google's own set of computationally intense benchmarks, which include ray tracing and constraint solving. They unanimously reported that Chrome performed much faster than all competitors against which it had been tested, including Safari (for Windows), Firefox 3.0, Internet Explorer 7, Opera, and Internet Explorer 8. However, on October 11, 2010, independent tests of JavaScript performance, Chrome has been scoring just behind Opera's Presto engine since it was updated in version 10.5. On September 3, 2008, Mozilla responded by stating that their own TraceMonkey JavaScript engine (then in beta), was faster than Chrome's V8 engine in some tests. John Resig, Mozilla's JavaScript evangelist, further commented on the performance of different browsers on Google's own suite, commenting on Chrome's "decimating" of the other browsers, but he questioned whether Google's suite was representative of real programs. He stated that Firefox 3.0 performed poorly on recursion-intensive benchmarks, such as those of Google, because the Mozilla team had not implemented recursion-tracing yet. Two weeks after Chrome's launch in 2008, the WebKit team announced a new JavaScript engine, SquirrelFish Extreme, citing a 36% speed improvement over Chrome's V8 engine. Like most major web browsers, Chrome uses DNS prefetching to speed up website lookups, as do other browsers like Firefox, Safari, Internet Explorer (called DNS Pre-resolution), and in Opera as a UserScript (not built-in). Chrome formerly used their now-deprecated SPDY protocol instead of only HTTP when communicating with servers that support it, such as Google services, Facebook, Twitter. SPDY support was removed in Chrome version 51. This was due to SPDY being replaced by HTTP/2, a standard that was based upon it. In November 2019, Google said it was working on several "speed badging" systems that let visitors know why a page is taking time to show up. The variations include simple text warnings and more subtle signs that indicate a site is slow. No date has been given for when the badging system will be included with the Chrome browser. Chrome formerly supported a Data Saver feature for making pages load faster called Lite Mode. Previously, Chrome engineers Addy Osmani and Scott Little announced Lite Mode would automatically lazy-load images and iframes for faster page loads. Lite Mode was switched off in Chrome 100, citing a decrease in mobile data costs for many countries. === Security === Chrome periodically retrieves updates of two blacklists (one for phishing and one for malware), and warns users when they attempt to visit a site flagged as potentially harmful. This service is also made available for use by others via a free public API called "Google Safe Browsing API". Chrome uses a process-allocation model to sandbox tabs. Using the principle of least privilege, each tab process cannot interact with critical memory functions (e.g. OS memory, user files) or other tab processes – similar to Microsoft's "Protected Mode" used by Internet Explorer 9 or greater. The Sandbox Team is said to have "taken this existing process boundary and made it into a jail". This enforces a computer security model whereby there are two levels of multilevel security (user and sandbox) and the sandbox can only respond to communication requests initiated by the user. On Linux sandboxing uses the seccomp mode. In January 2015, TorrentFreak reported that using Chrome when connected to the internet using a VPN can be a serious security issue due to the browser's support for WebRTC. On September 9, 2016, it was reported that starting with Chrome 56, users will be warned when they visit insecure HTTP websites to encourage more sites to make the transition to HTTPS. On December 4, 2018, Google announced its Chrome 71 release with new security features, including a built-in ad-blocking system. In addition, Google also announced its plan to crack down on websites that make people involuntarily subscribe to mobile subscription plans. On September 2, 2020, with the release of Chrome 85, Google extended support for Secure DNS in Chrome for Android. DNS-over-HTTPS (DoH) was designed to improve safety and privacy while browsing the web. Under the update, Chrome automatically switches to DNS-over-HTTPS (DoH) if the current DNS provider supports the feature. ==== Password management ==== ===== Windows ===== Since 2008, Chrome has been faulted for not including a master password to prevent casual access to a user's passwords. Chrome developers have indicated that a master password does not provide real security against determined hackers and have refused to implement one. Bugs filed on this issue have been marked "WontFix". As of February 2014, Google Chrome asks the user to enter their Windows account password before showing saved passwords. ===== Linux ===== On Linux, Google Chrome/Chromium can store passwords in three ways: GNOME Keyring, KWallet, or plain text. Google Chrome/Chromium chooses which store to use automatically, based on the desktop environment in use. Passwords stored in GNOME Keyring or KWallet are encrypted on disk, and access to them is controlled by dedicated daemon software. Passwords stored in plain text are not encrypted. Because of this, when either GNOME Keyring or KWallet is in use, any unencrypted passwords that have been stored previously are automatically moved into the encrypted store. Support for using GNOME Keyring and KWallet was added in version 6, but using these (when available) was not made the default mode until version 12. ===== macOS ===== As of version 45, the Google Chrome password manager is no longer integrated with Keychain, since the interoperability goal is no longer possible. ==== Security vulnerabilities ==== No security vulnerabilities in Chrome were exploited in the three years of Pwn2Own from 2009 to 2011. At Pwn2Own 2012, Chrome was defeated by a French team who used zero day exploits in the version of Flash shipped with Chrome to take complete control of a fully patched 64-bit Windows 7 PC using a booby-trapped website that overcame Chrome's sandboxing. Chrome was compromised twice at the 2012 CanSecWest Pwnium. Google's official response to the exploits was delivered by Jason Kersey, who congratulated the researchers, noting "We also believe that both submissions are works of art and deserve wider sharing and recognition." Fixes for these vulnerabilities were deployed within 10 hours of the submission. A significant number of security vulnerabilities in Chrome occurred in the Adobe Flash Player. For example, the 2016 Pwn2Own successful attack on Chrome relied on four security vulnerabilities. Two of the vulnerabilities were in Flash, one was in Chrome, and one was in the Windows kernel. In 2016, Google announced that it was planning to phase out Flash Player in Chrome, starting in version 53. The first phase of the plan was to disable Flash for ads and "background analytics", with the ultimate goal of disabling it completely by the end of the year, except on specific sites that Google has deemed to be broken without it. Flash would then be re-enabled with the exclusion of ads and background analytics on a site-by-site basis. Leaked documents from 2013 to 2016 codenamed Vault 7 detail the capabilities of the United States Central Intelligence Agency, such as the ability to compromise web browsers (including Google Chrome). ==== Malware blocking and ad blocking ==== Google introduced download scanning protection in Chrome 17. In February 2018, Google introduced an ad blocking feature based on recommendations from the Interactive Advertising Bureau. Sites that employ invasive ads are given a 30-day warning, after which their ads will be blocked. Consumer Reports recommended users install dedicated ad-blocking tools instead, which offer increased security against malware and tracking. ==== Plugins ==== Chrome supported, up to version 45, plug-ins with the Netscape Plugin Application Programming Interface (NPAPI), so that plug-ins (for example Adobe Flash Player) run as unrestricted separate processes outside the browser and cannot be sandboxed as tabs are. ActiveX is not supported. Since 2010, Adobe Flash has been integral to Chrome and does not need be installed separately. Flash is kept up to date as part of Chrome's own updates. Java applet support was available in Chrome with Java 6 update 12 and above. Support for Java under macOS was provided by a Java Update released on May 18, 2010. On August 12, 2009, Google introduced a replacement for NPAPI that is more portable and more secure called Pepper Plugin API (PPAPI). The default bundled PPAPI Flash Player (or Pepper-based Flash Player) was available on ChromeOS first, then replaced the NPAPI Flash Player on Linux from Chrome version 20, on Windows from version 21 (which also reduced Flash crashes by 20%), and eventually came to macOS at version 23. On September 23, 2013, Google announced that it would be deprecating and then removing NPAPI support. NPAPI support was removed from Linux in Chrome release 35. NPAPI plugins like Java can no longer work in Chrome (but there are workarounds for Flash by using PPAPI Flash Player on Linux including for Chromium). On April 14, 2015, Google released Chrome v42, disabling the NPAPI by default. This makes plugins that do not have a PPAPI plugin counterpart incompatible with Chrome, such as Java, Silverlight, and Unity. However, NPAPI support could be enabled through the chrome://flags menu until the release of version 45 on September 1, 2015, which removed NPAPI support entirely. === Privacy === ==== Incognito mode ==== The private browsing feature called Incognito mode prevents the browser from locally storing any history information, cookies, site data, or form inputs. Downloaded files and bookmarks will be stored. In addition, user activity is not hidden from visited websites or the Internet service provider. Incognito mode is similar to the private browsing feature in other web browsers. It does not prevent saving in all windows: "You can switch between an incognito window and any regular windows you have open. You'll only be in incognito mode when you're using the incognito window". The iOS version of Chrome also supports the optional ability to lock incognito tabs with Face ID, Touch ID, or the device's passcode. In 2022, Google began to implement this feature into Android versions of Chrome. This feature is now available for Android 12 devices and above, assuming the hardware allows it. In 2024, Google agreed to destroy billions of records to settle a lawsuit claiming it secretly tracked the internet use of people who thought they were browsing privately in incognito mode. ==== Do Not Track ==== In February 2012, Google announced that Chrome would implement the Do Not Track (DNT) standard to inform websites of the user's desire not to be tracked. The protocol was implemented in version 23. In line with the W3's draft standard for DNT, it is turned off by default in Chrome. === Stability === A multi-process architecture is implemented in Chrome where, by default, a separate process is allocated to each site instance and plugin. This procedure is termed process isolation, and raises security and stability by preventing tasks from interfering with each other. An attacker successfully gaining access to one application gains access to no others, and failure in one instance results in a Sad Tab screen of death, similar to the well-known Sad Mac, but only one tab crashes instead of the whole application. This strategy exacts a fixed per-process cost up front, but results in less memory bloat over time as fragmentation is confined to each instance and no longer needs further memory allocations. This architecture was later adopted in Safari and Firefox. Chrome includes a process management utility called Task Manager which lets users see what sites and plugins are using the most memory, downloading the most bytes and overusing the CPU and provides the ability to terminate them. Chrome Version 23 ensures its users an improved battery life for the systems supporting Chrome's GPU accelerated video decoding. === Release channels, cycles and updates === The first production release on December 11, 2008, marked the end of the initial Beta test period and the beginning of production. Shortly thereafter, on January 8, 2009, Google announced an updated release system with three channels: Stable (corresponding to the traditional production), Beta, and Developer preview (also called the "Dev" channel). Where there were before only two channels: Beta and Developer, now there are three. Concurrently, all Developer channel users were moved to the Beta channel along with the promoted Developer release. Google explained that now the Developer channel builds would be less stable and polished than those from the initial Google Chrome Beta period. Beta users could opt back to the Developer channel as desired. Each channel has its own release cycle and stability level. The Stable channel is updated roughly quarterly, with features and fixes that passed "thorough" testing in the Beta channel. Beta is updated roughly monthly, with "stable and complete" features migrated from the Developer channel. The Developer channel is updated once or twice per week and was where ideas and features were first publicly exposed, "(and sometimes fail) and can be very unstable at times". [Quoted remarks from Google's policy announcements.] On July 22, 2010, Google announced it would ramp up the speed at which it releases new stable versions; the release cycles were shortened from quarterly to six weeks for major Stable updates. Beta channel releases now come roughly at the same rate as Stable releases, though approximately one month in advance, while Dev channel releases appear roughly once or twice weekly, allowing time for basic release-critical testing. This faster release cycle also brought a fourth channel: the "Canary" channel, updated daily from a build produced at 09:00 UTC from the most stable of the last 40 revisions. The name refers to the practice of using canaries in coal mines, so if a change "kills" Chrome Canary, it will be blocked from migrating down to the Developer channel, at least until fixed in a subsequent Canary build. Canary is "the most bleeding-edge official version of Chrome and somewhat of a mix between Chrome dev and the Chromium snapshot builds". Canary releases run side by side with any other channel; it is not linked to the other Google Chrome installation and can therefore run different synchronization profiles, themes, and browser preferences. This ensures that fallback functionality remains even when some Canary updates may contain release-breaking bugs. It does not natively include the option to be the default browser, although on Windows and macOS it can be set through System Preferences. Canary was Windows-only at first; a macOS version was released on May 3, 2011. The Chrome beta channel for Android was launched on January 10, 2013; like Canary, it runs side by side with the stable channel for Android. Chrome Dev for Android was launched on April 29, 2015. All Chrome channels are automatically distributed according to their respective release cycles. The mechanism differs by platform. On Windows, it uses Google Update, and auto-update can be controlled via Group Policy. Alternatively, users may download a standalone installer of a version of Chrome that does not auto-update. On macOS, it uses Google Update Service, and auto-update can be controlled via the macOS "defaults" system. On Linux, it lets the system's normal package management system supply the updates. This auto-updating behavior is a key difference from Chromium, the non-branded open-source browser which forms the core of Google Chrome. Because Chromium also serves as the pre-release development trunk for Chrome, its revisions are provided as source code, and buildable snapshots are produced continuously with each new commit, requiring users to manage their own browser updates. In March 2021, Google announced that starting with Chrome 94 in the third quarter of 2021, Google Chrome Stable releases will be made every four weeks, instead of six weeks as they have been since 2010. Also, Google announced a new release channel for system administrators and browser embedders with releases every eight weeks. ==== Release version numbers ==== Releases are identified by a four-part version number, e.g., 42.0.2311.90 (Windows Stable release April 14, 2015). The components are major.minor.build.patch. Major.minor reflects scheduling policy Build.patch identifies content progression Major represents a product release. These are scheduled 7–8 per year, unlike other software systems where the major version number updates only with substantial new content. Minor is usually 0. References to version 'x' or 'x.0', e.g., 42.0, refer to this major.minor designation. Build is ever-increasing. For a release cycle, e.g., 42.0, there are several builds in the Canary and Developer periods. The last build number from Developer is kept throughout Beta and Stable and is locked with the major.minor for that release. Patch resets with each build, incrementing with each patch. The first patch is 0, but usually the first publicly released patch is somewhat higher. In Beta and Stable, only patch increments. Chromium and Chrome release schedules are linked through Chromium (Major) version Branch Point dates, published annually. The Branch Points precede the final Chrome Developer build (initial) release by 4 days (nearly always) and the Chrome Stable initial release by roughly 53 days. Example: The version 42 Branch Point was February 20, 2015. Developer builds stopped advancing at build 2311 with release 42.0.2311.4 on February 24, 4 days later. The first Stable release, 42.0.2311.90, was April 14, 2015, 53 days after the Branch Point. === Color management === Chrome supports color management by using the system-provided ICC v2 and v4 support on macOS, and from version 22 supports ICC v2 profiles by default on other platforms. === Dinosaur Game === In Chrome, when not connected to the Internet and an error message displaying "No internet" is shown, on the top, an "8-bit" Tyrannosaurus rex is shown, but when pressing the space bar on a keyboard, mouse-clicking on it or tapping it on touch devices, the T-Rex instantly jumps once and starts dashing across a cactus-ridden desert, revealing it to be an Easter egg in the form of a platform game. The game itself is an infinite runner, and there is no time limit in the game as it progresses faster and periodically tints to a black background. A school or enterprise manager can disable the game. == Platforms == The current version of Chrome runs on: Windows 10 or later Windows Server 2016 or later macOS Monterey or later 64-bit versions of Ubuntu 18.04+, Debian 10+, openSUSE 15.5+ and Fedora 39+ Android 10 or later iOS 17 or later iPadOS 17 or later As of April 2016, stable 32-bit and 64-bit builds are available for Windows, with only 64-bit stable builds available for Linux and macOS. 64-bit Windows builds became available in the developer channel and as canary builds on June 3, 2014, in the beta channel on July 30, 2014, and in the stable channel on August 26, 2014. 64-bit macOS builds became available as canary builds on November 7, 2013, in the beta channel on October 9, 2014, and in the stable channel on November 18, 2014. Starting with the release of version 89, Chrome will only be supported on Intel/Intel x86 and AMD processors with the SSE3 instruction set. === Android === A beta version for Android 4.0 devices was launched on February 7, 2012, available for a limited number of countries from Google Play. Notable features: synchronization with desktop Chrome to provide the same bookmarks and view the same browser tabs, page pre-rendering, hardware acceleration. Many of the latest HTML5 features: almost all of the Web Platform's features: GPU-accelerated canvas, including CSS 3D Transforms, CSS animations, SVG, WebSocket (including binary messages), Dedicated Workers; it has overflow scroll support, strong HTML5 video support, and new capabilities such as IndexedDB, WebWorkers, Application Cache and the File APIs, date- and time-pickers, parts of the Media Capture API. Also supports mobile oriented features such as Device Orientation and Geolocation. Mobile customizations: swipe gesture tab switching, link preview allows zooming in on (multiple) links to ensure the desired one is clicked, font size boosting to ensure readability regardless of the zoom level. Features missing in the mobile version include sandboxed tabs, Safe Browsing, apps or extensions, Adobe Flash (now and in the future), Native Client, and the ability to export user data such a list of their opened tabs or their browsing history into portable local files. Development changes: remote debugging, part of the browser layer has been implemented in Java, communicating with the rest of the Chromium and WebKit code through Java Native Bindings. The code of Chrome for Android is a fork of the Chromium project. It is a priority to upstream most new and modified code to Chromium and WebKit to resolve the fork. The April 17, 2012, update included availability in 31 additional languages and in all countries where Google Play is available. A desktop version of a website can also be requested, as opposed to a mobile version. In addition, Android users can now add bookmarks to their Android home screens if they choose and decide which apps should handle links opened in Chrome. On June 27, 2012, Google Chrome for Android exited beta and became stable. Chrome 18.0.1026311, released on September 26, 2012, was the first version of Chrome for Android to support mobile devices based on Intel x86. Starting from version 25, the Chrome version for Android is aligned with the desktop version, and usually new stable releases are available at the same time for both the Android and the desktop versions. Google released a separate Chrome for Android beta channel on January 10, 2013, with version 25. As of 2013 a separate beta version of Chrome is available in the Google Play Store – it can run side by side with the stable release. === iOS and iPadOS === Chrome is available on Apple's mobile iOS and iPadOS operating systems. Released in the Apple App Store on June 26, 2012, it supports the iPad, iPhone, and iPod Touch, and the current version requires that the device has iOS 16.0 or greater installed. In accordance with Apple's requirements for browsers released through their App Store, this version of Chrome uses the iOS WebKit – which is Apple's own mobile rendering engine and components, developed for their Safari browser – therefore it is restricted from using Google's own V8 JavaScript engine. Chrome is the default web browser for the iOS and iPadOS Gmail application. In a review by Chitika, Chrome was noted as having 1.5% of the iOS web browser market as of July 18, 2012. In October 2013, Chrome had 3% of the iOS browser market. === Linux === On Linux distributions, support for 32-bit Intel processors ended in March 2016, although Chromium is still supported. As of Chrome version 26, Linux installations of the browser may be updated only on systems that support GCC v4.6 and GTK v2.24 or later. Thus deprecated systems include (for example) Debian 6's 2.20, and RHEL 6's 2.18. === Windows === Support for Google Chrome on Windows XP and Windows Vista ended in April 2016. The last release of Google Chrome that can be run on Windows XP and Vista was version 49.0.2623.112, released on April 7, 2016, then re-released on April 11, 2016. Support for Google Chrome on Windows 7 was originally supposed to end on July 15, 2021. However, the date was moved back to January 15, 2022, due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Since enterprises took more time to migrate to Windows 10 or 11, the end of support date was pushed back again until January 15, 2023. Support for not only Windows 7, but also Windows 8 and 8.1 ended on this date. The last version to support these versions of Windows is Chrome 109. "Windows 8 mode" was introduced in 2012 and has since been discontinued. It was provided to the developer channel, which enabled Windows 8 and 8.1 users to run Chrome with a full-screen, tablet-optimized interface, with access to snapping, sharing, and search functionalities. In October 2013, Windows 8 mode on the developer channel changed to use a desktop environment mimicking the interface of ChromeOS with a dedicated windowing system and taskbar for web apps. This was removed on version 49 and users that have upgraded to Windows 10 will lose this feature. === macOS === Google dropped support for Mac OS X 10.5 with the release of Chrome 22. Support for 32-bit versions of Chrome ended in November 2014 with the release of Chrome 39. Support for Mac OS X 10.6, OS X 10.7, and OS X 10.8 ended in April 2016 with the release of Chrome 50. Support for OS X 10.9 ended in April 2018 with the release of Chrome 66. Support for OS X 10.10 ended in January 2021 with the release of Chrome 88. Support for OS X 10.11 and macOS 10.12 ended in August 2022 with the release of Chrome 104. Support for macOS 10.13 and macOS 10.14 ended in September 2023 with the release of Chrome 117. Support for macOS 10.15 ended in September 2024 with the release of Chrome 129. Support for macOS 11 ended in August 2025 with the release of Chrome 139. === ChromeOS === Google Chrome is the basis of Google's ChromeOS operating system that ships on specific hardware from Google's manufacturing partners. The user interface has a minimalist design resembling the Google Chrome browser. ChromeOS is aimed at users who spend most of their computer time on the Web; the only applications on the devices are a browser incorporating a media player and a file manager. Google announced ChromeOS on July 7, 2009. == Reception == Google Chrome was met with acclaim upon release. In 2008, Matthew Moore of The Daily Telegraph summarized the verdict of early reviewers: "Google Chrome is attractive, fast and has some impressive new features..." Initially, Microsoft reportedly played down the threat from Chrome and predicted that most people would embrace Internet Explorer 8. Opera Software said that "Chrome will strengthen the Web as the biggest application platform in the world". But by February 25, 2010, BusinessWeek had reported that "For the first time in years, energy and resources are being poured into browsers, the ubiquitous programs for accessing content on the Web. Credit for this trend – a boon to consumers – goes to two parties. The first is Google, whose big plans for the Chrome browser have shaken Microsoft out of its competitive torpor and forced the software giant to pay fresh attention to its own browser, Internet Explorer. Microsoft all but ceased efforts to enhance IE after it triumphed in the last browser war, sending Netscape to its doom. Now it's back in gear." Mozilla said that Chrome's introduction into the web browser market comes as "no real surprise", that "Chrome is not aimed at competing with Firefox", and furthermore that it would not affect Google's revenue relationship with Mozilla. Chrome's design bridges the gap between desktop and so-called "cloud computing." At the touch of a button, Chrome lets you make a desktop, Start menu, or QuickLaunch shortcut to any Web page or Web application, blurring the line between what's online and what's inside your PC. For example, I created a desktop shortcut for Google Maps. When you create a shortcut for a Web application, Chrome strips away all of the toolbars and tabs from the window, leaving you with something that feels much more like a desktop application than like a Web application or page. With its dominance in the web browser market, Google has been accused of using Chrome and Blink development to push new web standards that are proposed in-house by Google and subsequently implemented by its services first and foremost. These have led to performance disadvantages and compatibility issues with competing browsers, and in some cases, developers intentionally refusing to test their websites on any other browser than Chrome. Tom Warren of The Verge went as far as comparing Chrome to Internet Explorer 6, the default browser of Windows XP that was often targeted by competitors due to its similar ubiquity in the early 2000s. In 2021, computer scientist and lawyer Jonathan Mayer stated that Chrome has increasingly become an agent for Google LLC than a user agent, as it is "the only major web browser that lacks meaningful privacy protections by default, shoves users toward linking activity with a Google Account, and implements invasive new advertising capabilities." == Criticism == === Privacy === ==== Incognito mode ==== A class-action lawsuit seeking $5 billion in damages was filed against Google in 2020 because it misled consumers into thinking it would not track them when using incognito mode, despite using various means to do so. In December 2023, a settlement was reportedly agreed to, with public disclosure expected in February 2024. ==== Listening capabilities ==== In June 2015, the Debian developer community discovered that Chromium 43 and Chrome 43 were programmed to download the Hotword Shared Module, which could enable the OK Google voice recognition extension, although by default it was "off". This raised privacy concerns in the media. The module was removed in Chrome 45, which was released on September 1, 2015, and was only present in Chrome 43 and 44. ==== User tracking concerns ==== Chrome sends details about its users and their activities to Google through both optional and non-optional user tracking mechanisms. Some of the tracking mechanisms can be optionally enabled and disabled through the installation interface and through the browser's options dialog. Unofficial builds, such as SRWare Iron, seek to remove these features from the browser altogether. The RLZ library, which is used to measure the success of marketing promotions, is not included in the Chromium browser either. In March 2010, Google devised a new method to collect installation statistics: the unique ID token included with Chrome is now used for only the first connection that Google Update makes to its server. The optional suggestion service included in Google Chrome has been criticized because it provides the information typed into the Omnibox to the search provider before the user even hits return. This allows the search engine to provide URL suggestions, but also provides them with web use information tied to an IP address. Chrome previously was able to suggest similar pages when a page could not be found. For this, in some cases, Google servers were contacted. The feature has since been removed. A 2019 review by Washington Post technology columnist Geoffrey A. Fowler found that in a typical week of browsing, Chrome allowed thousands more cookies to be stored than Mozilla Firefox. Fowler pointed out that because of its advertising businesses, despite the privacy controls it offers users, Google is a major producer of third-party cookies and has a financial interest in collecting user data; he recommended switching to Firefox, Apple Safari, or Chromium-based Brave. ==== IP Protection ==== In 2023, Google proposed a technology that claims to "hide the IP and traffic of its users" by routing Chrome traffic to Google servers. This has drawn criticism as all traffic is readily available for Google to use. === Advertising === Also tied with Google is its advertising business, which, given the vast market share of Chrome, sought to introduce features that protect this revenue stream, mainly the introduction of a cookie-tracking alternative named Federated Learning of Cohorts (FLoC), which evolved into Topics, and Manifest V3 API changes for extensions. ==== FLoC ==== In January 2021, Google stated it was making progress on developing privacy-friendly alternatives that would replace third-party cookies currently being used by advertisers and companies to track browsing habits. Google then promised to phase out the use of cookies in its web browser in 2022, implementing its FLoC technology instead. The announcement triggered antitrust concerns from multiple countries for abusing the Chrome browser's market monopoly, with the U.K.'s Competition and Markets Authority and the European Commission both opening formal probes. The FLoC proposal also drew criticism from DuckDuckGo, Brave, and the Electronic Frontier Foundation for underestimating the ability of the API to track users online. On January 25, 2022, Google announced it had killed off development of its FLoC technologies and proposed the new Topics API to replace it. Topics is similarly intended to replace cookies, using one's weekly web activity to determine a set of five interests. Topics are supposed to refresh every three weeks, changing the type of ads served to the user and not retaining the gathered data. ==== Manifest V3 ==== Manifest V3 has faced criticism for changes to the WebRequest API used by ad blocking and privacy extensions to block and modify network connections. The declarative version of WebRequest uses rules processed by the browser, rather than sending all network traffic through the extension, which Google stated would improve performance. However, DeclarativeWebRequest is limited in the number of rules that may be set, and the types of expressions that may be used. Additionally, the prohibition of remotely-hosted code will restrict the ability for filter lists to be updated independently of the extension itself. As the Chrome Web Store review process has an invariable length, filter lists may not be updated in a timely fashion. Google has been accused of using Manifest V3 to inhibit ad-blocking software due to its vested interest in the online advertising market. Google cited performance issues associated with WebRequest, as well as its use in malicious extensions. In June 2019, it announced that it would increase the aforementioned cap from 30,000 to 150,000 entries to help quell concerns about limitations to filtering rules. In 2021, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) issued a statement that Manifest V3 was "outright harmful to privacy efforts", as it would greatly limit the functionality of ad blocking extensions. In December 2022, Google announced the transition would be paused "to address developer feedback and deliver better solutions to migration issues". In November 2023, Google announced it would resume the transition to Manifest V3; support for Manifest V2 extensions would be removed entirely from non-stable builds of Chrome beginning June 2024. Other Chromium-based web browsers will adopt Manifest V3, including Microsoft Edge. Manifest V3 support is being added to Mozilla Firefox's implementation of Chrome's extension API (WebExtensions) for compatibility reasons, but Mozilla has stated that its implementation would not contain limitations that affect privacy and content-blocking extensions, and that its implementation of V2 would not be deprecated. === Anti-competition === In August 2024, a federal judge in Washington, D.C. ruled that Google maintained an illegal monopoly over search services. In November 2024, the US Department of Justice (DOJ) demanded that Google sell Chrome to stop Google from maintaining its monopoly in online search. On August 12, 2025, artificial intelligence company Perplexity AI made a bid to buy the browser from Google for $34.5 billion. Perplexity stated that the sale could remedy anti-trust litigation against Google, in which a judge was considering compelling the sale of Chrome. == Usage == === Market share === Chrome overtook Firefox in November 2011 in worldwide usage. As of December 2025, according to StatCounter, Google Chrome had 75% worldwide desktop usage share, making it the most widely used web browser. It was reported by StatCounter, a web analytics company, that for the single day of Sunday, March 18, 2012, Chrome was the most used web browser in the world for the first time. Chrome secured 32.7% of the global web browsing on that day, while Internet Explorer followed closely behind with 32.5%. From May 14–21, 2012, Google Chrome was for the first time responsible for more Internet traffic than Microsoft's Internet Explorer, which had long held its spot as the most used web browser in the world. According to StatCounter, 31.88% of web traffic was generated by Chrome for a sustained period of one week and 31.47% by Internet Explorer. Though Chrome had topped Internet Explorer for a single day's usage in the past, this was the first time it had led for one full week. At the 2012 Google I/O developers' conference, Google claimed that there were 310 million active users of Chrome, almost double the number in 2011, which was stated as 160 million active users. In June 2013, according to StatCounter, Chrome overtook Internet Explorer for the first time in the US. In August 2013, Chrome was used by 43% of internet users worldwide. This study was done by Statista, which also noted that in North America, 36% of people use Chrome, the lowest in the world. === Enterprise deployment === In December 2010, Google announced that to make it easier for businesses to use Chrome, they would provide an official Chrome MSI package. For business use, it is helpful to have full-fledged MSI packages that can be customized via transform files (.mst) – , but the MSI provided with Chrome is only a very limited MSI wrapper fitted around the normal installer, and many businesses find that this arrangement does not meet their needs. The normal downloaded Chrome installer puts the browser in the user's local app data directory and provides invisible background updates, but the MSI package will allow installation at the system level, providing system administrators control over the update process – it was formerly possible only when Chrome was installed using Google Pack. Google also created group policy objects to fine-tune the behavior of Chrome in the business environment, for example, by setting automatic update intervals, disabling auto-updates, and configuring a home page. Until version 24 the software is known not to be ready for enterprise deployments with roaming profiles or Terminal Server/Citrix environments. In 2010, Google first started supporting Chrome in enterprise environments by providing an MSI wrapper around the Chrome installer. Google starting providing group policy objects, with more added each release, and today there are more than 500 policies available to control Chrome's behavior in enterprise environments. In 2016, Google launched Chrome Browser Enterprise Support, a paid service enabling IT admins to access Google experts to support their browser deployment. In 2019, Google launched Chrome Browser Cloud Management, a dashboard that gives business IT managers the ability to control content accessibility, app usage and browser extensions installed on its deployed computers. === Chromium === In September 2008, Google released a large portion of Chrome's source code as an open-source project called Chromium. This move enabled third-party developers to study the underlying source code and to help port the browser to the macOS and Linux operating systems. The Google-authored portion of Chromium is released under the permissive BSD license. Other portions of the source code are subject to a variety of open-source licenses. Chromium is similar to Chrome, but lacks built-in automatic updates and a built-in Flash player, as well as Google branding and has a blue-colored logo instead of the multicolored Google logo. Chromium does not implement user RLZ tracking. Initially, the Google Chrome PDF viewer, PDFium, was excluded from Chromium, but was later made open-source in May 2014. PDFium can be used to fill PDF forms. == Developing for Chrome == It is possible to develop applications, extensions, and themes for Chrome. They are zipped in a .crx file and contain a manifest.json file that specifies basic information (such as version, name, description, privileges, etc.), and other files for the user interface (icons, popups, etc.). Google has an official developer's guide on how to create, develop, and publish projects. Chrome has its own web store where users and developers can upload and download these applications and extensions. == Impersonation by malware == As with Microsoft Internet Explorer, the popularity of Google Chrome has led to the appearance of malware abusing its name. In late 2015, an adware replica of Chrome named "eFast" appeared, which would usurp the Google Chrome installation and hijack file type associations to make shortcuts for common file types and communication protocols link to itself, and inject advertisements into web pages. Its similar-looking icon was intended to deceive users. == See also == Browser wars – Competition between web browsing applications for share of worldwide usage Google Chrome Experiments – Online showroom of web browser based experiments Google Chrome Frame – Plug-in designed for Internet Explorer based on the open-source Chromium project Google Workspace – Productivity and collaboration software History of web browsers List of Google products List of Google Easter eggs List of web browsers Widevine – Digital rights management technology == Notes == == References == == External links == Official website Google I/O 2009 - Exploring Chrome Internals on YouTube, presented by Darin Fisher, a member of the Chrome team Google I/O 2010 - Chrome at Google I/O 2010 (recap / Chrome team sessions & demos from that year). Google I/O 2011 -Chrome-focused day / keynote segments and Chrome sessions are in the 2011 video uploads Google I/O 2012 - Official I/O sessions listings (includes web/Chrome sessions). Google I/O 2013 - Sessions page and Chrome team deep dives Google I/O 2014 - I/O 2014 host page + specific Chrome/web talks Google I/O 2015 - I/O 2015 site and videos include Polymer / modern web API sessions Google I/O 2016 - Web and Chrome at Google I/O 2016 — dedicated playlist and many Chrome/web sessions Google I/O 2017 - I/O 2017 all-sessions playlist + many Chrome/web technical talks. Google I/O 2018 - Chrome & Web at Google I/O 2018 playlist (DevTools, performance, web platform features). Google I/O 2022 — All Google I/O 2022 Sessions and playlists include Web/Chrome updates - see the I/O 2022 sessions playlist and the “Web” track. Google I/O 2023 — ChromeOS and Web playlists (dedicated ChromeOS playlist and Web sessions for I/O 2023). Google I/O 2024 — All sessions (I/O 2024) and a “Web at I/O 2024” playlist highlighting Chrome and web platform updates. Google I/O 2025 — I/O 2025 explore page and the All Sessions (2025) playlist — includes the Web track and Chrome/ChromeOS sessions (privacy, performance, DevTools, AI features in the browser).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garvan%E2%80%93Olin_Medal#:~:text=The%20medal%20was%20designed%20by%20Margaret%20Christian%20Grigor.&text=Given%20annually%20%22to%20recognize%20distinguished,to%20chemistry%20by%20women%20chemists.%22	Garvan–Olin Medal	The Francis P. Garvan–John M. Olin Medal, previously called the Francis P. Garvan Medal, is an annual award that recognizes distinguished scientific accomplishment, leadership and service to chemistry by women chemists. The Award is offered by the American Chemical Society (ACS), and consists of a cash prize (US$5,000) and a medal. The medal was designed by Margaret Christian Grigor. == Background == Any individual may nominate a single eligible chemist in one year. Nominees must be a female citizen of the United States. The award was established by Francis Garvan and Mabel Brady Garvan in 1936 in honor of their daughter. It was initially an essay contest, that ran for seven years, as a memorial to their daughter (the American Chemical Society's Prize Essay Contest). It was solely funded by the Francis P. Garvan Medal Endowment from its establishment in 1936 until 1979. W. R. Grace & Co. assumed co-sponsorship of the award from 1979 to 1983. In 1984, Olin Corporation assumed co-sponsorship. Mabel Brady Garvan remained involved with the Award through 1967. The Garvan–Olin Award is the ACS' third-oldest award, and the first award established to honor women chemists. == Award recipients == == See also == List of chemistry awards List of science and technology awards for women == References == == External links == "Francis P. Garvan-John M. Olin Medal". American Chemical Society. Special Collections and University Archives. "Finding Aid for MS 678 Garvan Medalists Survey Collection, 1981-2000". Iowa State University.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khusro_Bakhtiar	Khusro Bakhtiar	Makhdum Khusro Bakhtyar (Urdu: مخدوم خسرو بختیار; born 7 July 1967) is a Pakistani politician who recently served as Pakistan's Federal Minister for Industries & Production. Previously, he has served as Federal Minister of Economic Affairs, Federal Minister of National Food Security and Research and Federal Minister for Planning, Development and Reforms in the PTI Government under the leadership of Prime Minister Imran Khan. He had been a member of the National Assembly of Pakistan from 2002 to 2008, 2013 to 2018 and 2018 till 2023. Previously, he was a member of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab from 1997 to 1999 and served as provincial advisor to the then Chief Minister, Shehbaz Sharif. During his first tenure as Member of the National Assembly, he served as Minister of State for Foreign Affairs from September 2004 to November 2007 in the Federal Cabinet of Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz. == Early life and education == Bakhtyar was born on 7 July 1967. He hails from Mian Wali Qureshian, a village in the Rahim Yar Khan District of Punjab and belongs to a prominent political family. He graduated from the University of Punjab in 1990, and received an LLB (Hons.) degree in 1994 from the London School of Economics and Political Science and a Bar-at-Law degree from Lincoln's Inn, United Kingdom in 1995. == Political career == He was elected to the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab as a candidate of Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML-N) from Constituency PP-236 (Rahim Yar Khan-V) in the 1997 Pakistani general election. He received 19,736 votes and defeated Makhdoom Ashfaq Ahmad, a candidate of Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP). He was elected to the National Assembly of Pakistan as a candidate of Pakistan Muslim League (Q) (PML-Q) from Constituency NA-194 (Rahim Yar Khan-III) in the 2002 Pakistani general election. He received 70,116 votes and defeated Makhdoom Shahabuddin. In the same election, he also ran for the seat of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab as a candidate of PML-Q from Constituency PP-291 (Rahim Yar Khan-VII) but he was unsuccessful. On 4 September 2004, he was inducted into the Federal Cabinet of Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz and was appointed as Minister of State for Foreign Affairs. He continued to serve as Minister of State for Foreign Affairs until 15 November 2007. He ran for the seat of the National Assembly as a candidate of PML-Q from Constituency NA-194 (Rahim Yar Khan-III) in the 2008 Pakistani general election, but was unsuccessful. He received 42,442 votes and lost the seat to Makhdoom Shahabuddin. He was re-elected to the National Assembly as an independent candidate from Constituency NA-194 (Rahim Yar Khan-III) in the 2013 Pakistani general election. He received 64,272 votes and defeated Makhdoom Shahabuddin. In the same election, he also ran for the seat of the National Assembly as an independent candidate from Constituency NA-195 (Rahim Yar Khan-IV) but was unsuccessful. He received 46,897 votes and lost the seat to Mustafa Mehmood. In the same election, he was re-elected to the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab as an independent candidate from Constituency PP-289 (Rahimyar Khan-V). He received 25,898 votes and defeated Mian Muhammad Aslam Advocate. Following the election, he abandoned his Punjab Assembly seat in favor of the National Assembly seat. On 23 May 2013, he joined PML-N. In 2017 he was made Chairman House Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs In March 2018, he became business partner of Jahangir Khan Tareen after they together purchased a sugar mill for Rs 27 billion. This triggered speculation that he might join PTI soon. On 9 April 2018, Bakhtyar, together with seven other PML-N parliamentarians, quit the PML-N and formed a new group under the name of "Junoobi Punjab Suba Mahaaz". The group accused PML-N for ignoring the southern part of Punjab and demanded the creation of separate province for southern Punjab. On 30 April, he resigned from his National Assembly seat in protest. On 9 May 2018, Junoobi Punjab Sooba Mahaaz (JPSM) merged with Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) after the latter promised to create a South Punjab province on administrative grounds. Subsequently, Bakhtyar joined PTI after signing an agreement with PTI chairman Imran Khan on the promise of the creation of a South Punjab province and an equitable distribution of resources to the region. He was re-elected to the National Assembly as a candidate of PTI from Constituency NA-177 (Rahim Yar Khan-III) in the 2018 Pakistani general election after securing 100,768 votes. On 18 August, Imran Khan formally announced his federal cabinet structure and Bakhtyar was named as Minister for Water Resources. However, on 20 August 2018, he was sworn in as Federal Minister for Planning, Development and Reforms in the federal cabinet of Prime Minister Imran Khan. On 19 November 2019, he was appointed as Federal Minister for National Food Security and Research and served in that position until a perceived conflict of interest arose due to his sugar business, after which he resigned on 6 April 2020. He was appointed Minister of Economic Affairs after a cabinet reshuffle. After a year of holding the Economic Affairs portfolio, Bakhtiar was made Federal Minister of Industries & Production, a position which he held until the end of the Imran Khan government on 10th April, 2022. He was also appointed president for the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf South Punjab chapter in December, 2021. In May, 2023, Bakhtiar announced his decision to leave party positions, saying the “May 9 incidents” led him to reevaluate his alignment with PTI’s ideology. Bakhtiar revealed his plan to resign from key positions, including his membership in the core committee and presidency of the South Punjab chapter. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Govind_Ballabh_Pant	Govind Ballabh Pant	Govind Ballabh Pant (10 September 1887 – 7 March 1961) was an Indian independence activist and politician who was the first Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh. Alongside Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru and Vallabhbhai Patel, Pant was a key figure in the Indian independence movement and later a pivotal figure in the Indian government. He was one of the foremost political leaders of Uttar Pradesh (then known as United Provinces) and a key player in the successful movement to establish Hindi as the official language of Indian Union.. Today, several Indian hospitals, educational institutions and foundations bear his name. Pant received India's highest civilian honour, the Bharat Ratna, in 1957. == Early life == Govind Ballabh Pant was born on 10 September 1887 in Khoont village near Almora. He was born in a Marathi Karhade Brahmin family that had migrated from the present day northern Karnataka to Kumaon region. The name of his mother was Govindi Bai. His maternal grandfather, Badri Dutt Joshi, an important local government official who played a significant role in shaping his personality and political views, raised Govind because his father, Manorath Pant, was a government official who was constantly on the move. Pant studied at Allahabad University and subsequently worked as a lawyer in Kashipur. Here, he began active work against the British Raj in 1914, when he helped a local parishad, or village council, in their successful challenge of coolie begar, a law requiring locals to provide free transportation of the luggage of travelling British officials. In 1921, he entered politics and was elected to the Legislative Assembly of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. == In the freedom struggle == Known as an extremely capable lawyer, Pant was appointed by the Congress party to initially represent Ramprasad Bismill, Ashfaqulla Khan and other revolutionaries involved in the Kakori case in the mid 1920s. He participated in the protests against Simon Commission in 1928. Jawaharlal Nehru, in his autobiography, mentions how Pant stood by him during the protests and his large figure made him an easy target for the police. In those protests he sustained severe injuries which prevented him from straightening his back for the rest of his life. In 1930, he was arrested and imprisoned for several weeks for organising a Salt March inspired by Gandhi's earlier actions. In 1933, he was arrested along with Harsh Dev Bahuguna (Gandhi of Choukot) and imprisoned for seven months for attending a session of the then-banned provincial Congress. In 1935, the ban was rescinded, and Pant joined the new Legislative Council. During the Second World War, Pant acted as the tiebreaker between Gandhi's faction, which advocated supporting the British Crown in their war effort, and Subhas Chandra Bose's faction, which advocated taking advantage of the situation to expel the British Raj by all means necessary. He increased his support base and influence in Lucknow and surrounding areas of Oudh by seeking help and guidance from Chaubey Mukta Prasad, a civil engineer and public figure. In 1934, the Congress ended its boycott of the legislatures and put up candidates, and Pant was elected to the Central Legislative Assembly. He became deputy leader of the Congress party in the Assembly. In 1940, Pant was arrested and imprisoned for helping organise the Satyagraha movement. In 1942 he was arrested again, this time for signing the Quit India resolution, and spent three years in Ahmednagar Fort along with other members of the Congress working committee until March 1945, at which point Jawaharlal Nehru pleaded successfully for Pant's release, on grounds of failing health. == Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh == Pant took over as the Chief Minister of the United Provinces from 1937 to 1939. In 1945, the British Labour government ordered new elections to the Provincial legislatures. The Congress won a majority in the 1946 elections in the United Provinces and Pant was again the Premier, continuing even after India's independence in 1947 till 1954. His judicious reforms and stable governance in the Uttar Pradesh stabilised the economic condition of the most populous State of India. The Ram Janmabhoomi issue emerged during his rule. The idols of Rama and Sita were installed inside the Babri Masjid on the night of 22–23 December 1949 and the devotees began to gather from the next day. Home Minister Vallabhbhai Patel and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru directed Pant to remove the idols, however Pant was not willing to remove the idols and added that "there is a reasonable chance of success, but things are still in a fluid state and it will be hazardous to say more at this stage". By 1950, the state took control of the structure under section 145 CrPC and allowed Hindus, not Muslims, to perform their worship at the site. He played a significant role in developing panchayat system in the state. He also urged farmers to become self-reliant and educate their children and strive on a co-operative basis to enhance their life and ways of cultivation. == Union Home Minister of India == Pant served as Union Home Minister from 1955 to 1961. Pant was appointed Minister of Home Affairs in the Union Cabinet on 10 January 1955 in New Delhi by Jawaharlal Nehru. As Home Minister, his chief achievement was the re-organisation of States along linguistic lines. He was also responsible for the establishment of Hindi as an official language of the central government and a few states. During his tenure as the Home Minister, Pant was awarded the Bharat Ratna on 26 January 1957. == Death == In 1960, he suffered a heart attack. He was treated by top doctors in India, including his friend Dr Bidhan Chandra Roy, the then Chief Minister of West Bengal. His health started deteriorating and he died on 7 March 1961 at the age of 73, from a cerebral stroke. At that time he was still in office as the Home Minister of India. Mourning him, Dr Rajendra Prasad, the then President of India was quoted as saying, "I had known Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant since 1922 and in this long period of association it had been my privilege to receive from him not only consideration but also affection. This is no time to assess his labour and his achievements. The grief is too intense for words. I can only pray for peace to his soul and strength to those who loved and admired him." == Institutions and monuments == == Family == Govind Ballabh Pant's son, Krishna Chandra Pant, was also a politician. == See also == K. C. Pant Ila Pant == References == == Further reading == Bakshi, S. R. (1991). Govind Ballabh Pant: The True Gandhian. South Asia Books. ISBN 9788170414308. 18 volumes on the Selected Works of Govind Ballabh Pant authored by Dr. B. R. Nanda == External links == Read the complete biography of Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant, why he married trice? View Profile/Photos and Videos of Govind Ballabh Pant Govind Ballabh Pant Memorial Site Archived 31 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amusement_Today#Golden_Ticket_Awards	Amusement Today	Amusement Today is a monthly periodical that features articles, news, pictures and reviews about all things relating to the amusement park industry, including parks, rides, and ride manufacturers. The trade newspaper, which is based in Arlington, Texas, United States, was founded in January 1997 by Gary Slade, Virgil E. Moore III and Rick Tidrow. In 1997, Amusement Today won the Impact Award in the services category for "Best New Product" from the International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA). A year later, in 1998, the magazine founded the Golden Ticket Awards, for which it has become best known for throughout the amusement park industry. On January 2, 2001, Slade bought out his two partners, giving him sole ownership of the paper. The paper has two full-time and two part-time staff members at its Arlington office, along with two full-time writers and several freelance writers in various parts of the world. == Golden Ticket Awards == Every year, Amusement Today gives out awards to the best of the best in the amusement park industry in a ceremony known as the Golden Ticket Awards. The awards are handed out based on surveys given to experienced and well-traveled amusement park enthusiasts from around the world. The awards, which were first handed out in 1998, have been featured on the Discovery Channel and the Travel Channel. === 2025 winners === === 2024 winners === === 2023 winners === === 2022 winners === === 2021 winners === === 2020 winners === === 2019 winners === === 2018 winners === === 2017 winners === === 2016 winners === === 2015 winners === === 2014 winners === === 2013 winners === === 2012 winners === === 2011 winners === === 2010 winners === === 2009 winners === === 2008 winners === === 2007 winners === === 2006 winners === === 2005 winners === === 2004 winners === === 2003 winners === === 2002 winners === === 2001 winners === === 2000 winners === === 1999 winners === === 1998 winners === === Publisher's Picks === == Host venues == From 1998 to 2000, there was no Host Park; the awards were announced from Amusement Today's Arlington, Texas, office instead. The 2020 event was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic that affected the amusement industry. Voting was not held in 2020 and regular categories were not awarded. Instead, a special category of industry leader awards was created along with publisher picks. == Former awards == Best Shows (1998–2018) - Busch Gardens Williamsburg (1998), Six Flags Fiesta Texas (1999–2008), Dollywood (2009–2018) Cleanest Park (1998–2018) - Busch Gardens Williamsburg (1998–1999), Holiday World & Splashin' Safari (2000–2018) Friendliest Park (1998–2018) - Holiday World & Splashin' Safari (1998–2008, 2010–2011), Silver Dollar City (2009), Dollywood (2012–2018) Best Marine Life Park (2006–2018) SeaWorld Orlando Best Carousel (2007–2018) Grand Carousel, Knoebels Amusement Resort Best Indoor Roller Coaster (2007–2018) - Revenge_of_the_Mummy: The Ride, Universal Studios Florida (2007–2018) Best Seaside Park (2007–2018) - Santa Cruz Beach Boardwalk (2007–2014, 2016–2018), Morey's Piers (2015) Best Funhouse/Walk-Through (2008–2018) - Frankenstein's Castle, Indiana Beach (2008–2009), Noah's Ark, Kennywood, (2010–2018) The award for Best Shows was revamped after 2018, to just showcase a specific new show at a park. Best Halloween Event (published 2005–2023 for seasons 2004–2022) - Knott's Berry Farm (2005, 2007), Universal's Halloween Horror Nights (2006, 2008-2018, 2021-2022), Six Flags Fiesta Texas (2020). Best Christmas Event (published 2007–2023 for seasons 2006–2022) - Dollywood (2006–2022) Best Indoor Waterpark (2007–2013) - Schlitterbahn Galveston Island (tied 2007, 2008–2013), World Waterpark (tied 2007) Best Food (1998-2025) - Knoebels for twenty-three out of the twenty-seven years, including one tie. == Repeat winners == Best Amusement Park – Europa-Park for nine of the last ten years. Best Water Park – Schlitterbahn every year since the beginning of the Golden Ticket Awards. Best Landscaping/Most Beautiful Park – Busch Gardens Williamsburg for twenty-three of the twenty-five years. Best Steel Roller Coaster – Fury 325 for the last eight years. Best Wooden Roller Coaster - Phoenix, Knoebels, winner since 2018. Best Waterpark – Schlitterbahn Galveston Island for all 8 years the award has been given. Best Outdoor Production Show – IllumiNations: Reflections of Earth at Epcot for 12 out of the 13 years the award has been given. == Notes == == References == == External links == Golden Ticket Awards
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratan_Parimoo#:~:text=Awards%5Bedit,Govt.%20of%20India	Ratan Parimoo	Ratan Parimoo is an Indian art historian from Kashmir, who has worked as an art educator, pedagogue, artist and former director of the Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Museum, Ahmedabad. Ratan Parimoo was one of the founder members of Baroda Group. In January 2025, he was honored with the Padma Shri, India's fourth-highest civilian award, by the Government of India. He publishes on the arts of Ajanta, Ellora, Jain, Rajasthani, Pahari and Mughal paintings and drawings. He authored Art of Three Tagores- From Revival to Modernity. He is married to artist Naina Dalal. == Books == === Books Authored === Paintings of the three Tagores, Abanindranath, Gaganendranath, Rabindranath – Chronology and Comparative Study (PhD Thesis), MS University of Baroda, Vadodara,1973. Studies in Modern Indian Art, Kanak Publications-Books India, New Delhi, 1975. Life of Buddha in Indian Sculpture, Kanak Publications, New Delhi, 1982. Enlarged edition, DK Printworld, Delhi, 2009. Sculptures of Sheshashayi Vishnu, MS University of Baroda, Vadodara, 1983. The Pictorial World of Gaganendranath Tagore, National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi, 1995. Studies in Indian Sculptures, Essays in New Art History, Books & Books, New Delhi, 2000. Studies on the Art of Raja Ravi Varma, Thrissur (Kerala), 2006. NC Mehta Collection Vol I, Gujarati School and Jaina Manuscript Paintings, Ahmedabad, 2010. The Art of Three Tagores, From Revival to Modernity, Kumar Gallery, New Delhi, 2011. NC Mehta Collection Vol II, Rajasthani, Central Indian, Pahari and Mughal Paintings, Ahmedabad, 2013 Treasures from the Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Museum], Ahmedabad, 2013. Gaganendranath Tagore, A Retrospective, an Exhibition Catalogue, Victoria Memorial Hall in collaboration with Rabindra Bharati Society, Kolkata, 2014. From the Earthly World to the Realm of Gods, Kasturbhai Lalbhai Collection of Indian Drawings. Ahmedabad, 2019. === Books Edited === Proceedings of Workshop in History of Art, 1977, published on behalf of University Grant Commission, New Delhi, by MS University of Baroda, Vadodara, 1979. Vaiṣhnavism in Indian Art and Culture, Books & Books, New Delhi, 1987. Ellora Caves – Sculptures and Architecture, Books & Books, New Delhi, 1988. The Paintings of Rabindranath Tagore, Lalit Kala Akademi, New Delhi, 1989. Revised edition, Lalit Kala Akademi, New Delhi, 2008. The Arts of Ajanta – New Perspectives, Books & Books, New Delhi, 1991. Creative Arts in Modern India, Books & Books, New Delhi, 1995. The Legacy of Raja Ravi Varma – The Painter, Maharaja Fatehsingh Museum Trust, Baroda, 1998. (with Sandip Sarkar) Historical Development of Contemporary Indian Art 1800 – 1947, Lalit Kala Akademi, New Delhi, 2009. Ellora Caves – Sculptures and Architecture, Books & Books, New Delhi, 1988. Revised edition, Aparant Books, Pune, 2018. Shridhar Andhare, (ed) Ratan Parimoo, Calligraphy and Art of Writing in Jain Manuscripts, Ahmedabad, 2020. === Felicitations Published in His Honour === Towards a New Art History: Studies in Indian Art, Essays in Honour of Prof Ratan Parimoo, (ed) Shivaji Panikkar, Parul Dave Mukherji, et al., DK Printworld, New Delhi, 2003. RATNA DiPAh, New Dimensions of Indian Art History & Theory, Essays in Honour of Prof Ratan Parimoo, (ed) Gauri Parimoo Krishnan, RH Kulkarni, Agam Kala Prakashan, 2021. == Art exhibitions == 1955 onwards — National Exhibitions of Lalit Kala Akademi, New Delhi. 1956,57,58,59 — Baroda Group of Artists Exhibitions in Bombay. 1958 — First one-man show, Srinagar. 1962 — South Asian Artists, Durham, U.K. 1964,65,75 — Joint shows with wife Naina Dalal, at Bombay, Delhi and I.P.C.L., Baroda. 1972 — Retrospective Exhibition at Delhi, Rabindra Bhawan. 1975,1976 — Alumni Exhibition, Faculty of Fine Arts, Silver Jubilee, Bombay, Baroda. 1973,75 — One-man shows at Bombay. 1976 — One-man show in Delhi. 1979 — One-man show in Ahmedabad. 1990 — Organized and exhibited with EIGHT BARODA ARTISTS, CMC Ltd., New Delhi. 1991-1992 — Artists Against Communalism, Delhi. 1992 — Birla Akademi of Art, Calcutta, Silver Jubilee Exhibition, West Zone. 1995 — Bharat Bhavan Biennale, Bhopal. 1995 — Tribute to Husain on 80th Birthday, Aurodhan Gallery, Hyatt Regency Hotel, Delhi. 1996 — Contemporary Indian Painting, Bombay Art Society, Bombay. 1997 — Major Trends in Indian Art, Lalit Kala Akademi, New Delhi. 1999 — Retrospective Exhibitions, Jehangir Art Gallery, Cymroza Art Gallery, Bombay. 2000 — Retrospective Exhibitions, Natarani Theatre, Ahmedabad & Welcome Hotel, Baroda. 2002 — Allahabad Museum, Allahabad. — Exhibitions-Auctions of OSIAN'S, Mumbai, curated by Shri Neville Tuli 2001, February — India: The Passionate Detachment 2002, July — India in Making, 1757–1950 2002, November — Masterpieces and Museum Quality Indian Modern and Contemporary Paintings. 2005, February — Masterpieces and Museum Quality Indian Modern and Contemporary Paintings. 2004 — Art for Vision (For Shankara Netralaya) LKA, New Delhi. 2006 — Parimini Shakla, Fifty years of Ratan Parimoo's Paintings (1956-2006), Baroda, Delhi. 2008 — Parimoo's Chaurapanchashika: Iconography of A Nayika, Jehangir Art Gallery, Mumbai. 2009 — Parimoo's Chaurapanchashika: Iconography of A Nayika, Habitat Centre, New Delhi. 2010–11 — Ratan Parimoo's Early Phase, (1956-1960), Sponsored by Marvel Gallery, Ahmedabad, Baroda, Mumbai. 2018 — CONCOURSE, 9th Annual Contemporary Art Show Exhibition of Kashmiri Muslim and Pandit Artists Srinagar (Kashmir). == Artists' camp == Participated in artists' camps: 1969 — Pavagarh 1976 — Srinagar, Kashmir 2005 — Regional Centre, Lalit Kala Akademi, Lucknow == Awards == 1957 Cultural Scholarship for Painting, Govt. of India 1960-1963 Commonwealth Scholarship to study in London 1966 First prize in Painting, Annual Exhibition, J & K, Cultural Akademi. 1974 Rockefeller IIIrd Grant to study & travel in USA. 1991-1993 Jawaharlal Nehru Fellowship for Jataka Stories in Buddhist Art. 2000 Gaurav Puraskar, Gujarat State Lalit Kala Akademi. 2016 Raja Ravi Varma Chitrakar Sanman award, Megh Mandal Sansthan Mumbai. 2019 'Rabindranath Tagore Birth Centenary Medal' by Asiatic Society in Kolkata at 235th annual meet for contribution to human culture (2018). == Collections == Hermitage, Lenningrad National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi Punjab University, Chandigarh Air India, Bombay Shyamal Builders, Baroda Gujarat State Lalit Kala Akademi, Delhi Sahitya Kala Parishad, Madhavan Nair Foundation, Cochin, Cymroza Art Gallery, Mumbai Welcome Hotel, Vadodara. & Private Collections == Major Lecture Series == 1980 – Radhakamal Mukherji Memorial Lecture, U.P. State Lalit Kala Akademi, Lucknow. 1983 – UGC National Lectures at Chandigarh, Santiniketan & Madurai. 1989 – Hindi Sahitya Parishad, Ahmedabad. 1990 – Somashekhar Memorial Lecture, Dept. of Archaeology, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad. 1999 – Abanindranath Memorial Lecture, Calcutta. 2005 – Raja Ravi Varma Death Centenary Lecture, Cochin. == Foreign Travels == 1960-61 – Commonwealth Fellowship to study in London University. 1967 – One month's traveling in USSR under Indo-Soviet Cultural Programme. 1974 – JDR Rockefeller IIIrd Fund, New York, USA. 1978 – Invited to participate in the world Congress of International Society for Education Through Art, Adelaide, Australia. 1993 – Travelled to London, Paris, Berlin. == Membership(s) of Societies/ Associates being held == 1981-1984 – Member, Executive Board, Lalit Kala Akademi, Delhi. 1982 – Member, UGC Panel Art History / Museology. 1982-1988 – Executive Secretary, Indian Association of Art Historians. 1985 – Member, UGC Pay Scale Revision committee. 1987 – Member, Central Advisory Board of Museums, Govt. of India. 1993-1995 – Member, History of Science Panel, Indian National Science Akademi, New Delhi. 1994-1997 – Member, UGC Panel for Art History / Fine Arts. 1998-2000 – Art Purchase Committee, NGMA, Delhi. 2003-2005 – Programme Advisory Committee, NGMA, Mumbai. 2003- 2005 – Board of Studies, Jawahar Nehru University, New Delhi. Board of Studies, National Council of Educational Research and Teaching, New Delhi. 2011 – Authentication Committee appointed by Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, to access the exhibition of 20 fake paintings of Rabindranath Tagore held at College of Arts and Crafts, Kolkata. 2012-2014 – Member, Board of Studies, School of Art and Aesthetics, JNU. 2014-2016 – Member, Acquisition Committee, NGMA, New Delhi. 2015-2020 – Chief Advisor, Textbooks in Fine Arts for class XI and Class XII, National Council of Educational Research and Training. == External links == https://web.archive.org/web/20070929082616/http://www.ratanparimoo.com/ https://aaa.org.hk/en/collections/search/archive/ratan-parimoo-archive https://independent.academia.edu/RatanParimoo https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/art/artist-ratan-parimoo-on-raja-ravi-varmas-contributions/article8589618.ece https://www.amazon.in/Books-Ratan-Parimoo/s?rh=n%3A976389031%2Cp_27%3ARatan+Parimoo https://www.youtube.com/live/Rig4CaRh5FY?si=421jszWgIUONmwvU https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLwgcMUuFtYD_sh2x5yyegIvtxwrq24jIg&si=l7alVdurBadcZmAi == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ajoy_Nath_Ray#Early_life	Ajoy Nath Ray	Ajoy Nath Ray (born 31 October 1946) is an Indian retired judge and former Chief Justice of Allahabad and Sikkim High Court. == Early life == Ray was born in 1946 in Kolkata. His father Mr. A. N. Ray was the 14th Chief Justice of India. He graduated in Science with Physics Honours from the Calcutta University and passed B.A. from the School of Jurisprudence at Oriel College, Oxford. == Career == Ray started practice as an Advocate on 4 August 1970 in the Calcutta High Court in civil matters. On 6 August 1990, he was promoted as a permanent Judge of the same High Court. In June 2004, Ray also took charge in the post of Acting Chief Justice of Calcutta High Court. He became the Chief Justice of the Allahabad High Court on 11 January 2005. Justice Ray was transferred to Sikkim High Court as Chief Justice on 27 January 2007. He retired from the judgeship on 30 October 2008. == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syed_Bashir_Ahmad	Syed Bashir Ahmad	Syed Bashir Ahmad (Urdu: سید بشیر احمد) (born 2 January 1952 in Sheikhar, Pulwama district in Jammu and Kashmir) is a Kashmiri politician. He has worked for the social upliftment of people living in rural areas and has championed the cause of weaker sections. He was the Member of Legislative Assembly from Rajpora Constituency and Chairman of Petitions Committee of the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly. == Political career == He was associated with politics from a very young age and remained associated with Janata Dal, Indian National Congress and Jan Morcha. When elections for the state assembly were held in 1996, Syed Bashir contested the elections from Pulwama constituency on a Janata Dal ticket against the National Conference candidate, but lost by a thin margin. In 1999, he along with other leaders founded Jammu & Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), which was then headed by the former Home Minister of India and Jammu and Kashmir Chief Minister Mufti Mohammad Sayeed. In 2002, he contested and won the Assembly Elections from Rajpora Constituency and was made a Minister for Education in the Mufti Mohammad Sayeed led Government. He later held the portfolios of 'PHE, Irrigation and Flood Control', and 'Roads & Buildings'. He again won from the same constituency in the 2008 Assembly Elections. In July 2005, militants made a bid on the life of Syed Bashir Ahmad at crowded Budshah Chowk in Srinagar when he was on way from Civil Secretariat. He escaped unhurt but two of his personnel security officers (PSO) and a civilian were injured in the shooting incident. In July 2014, PDP dropped the name of Syed Bashir Ahmad from its list of candidates for 2014 Assembly elections. Soon after that hundreds of his party workers from Rajpora Constituency took to streets and staged a massive protest outside Housing Colony in Pulwama which houses top politicians and legislative members. The protesters amid anti-party slogans castigated Mufti Muhammad Sayeed for ignoring Syed Bashir. These protesters later on drove their vehicles towards Srinagar and staged a protest outside PDP president’s official Gupkar residence and demanded mandate in favour of Syed Bashir. Syed Bashir later revealed that he was not taken into confidence before dropping his name from the list which had earlier included his name as the party candidate from Rajpora constituency and was just told on phone that the candidate was changed. In October 2014, Syed Bashir was expelled from PDP. According to a statement by PDP, Syed Bashir was expelled from the party for holding anti-party activities. In an interview to press, Syed Bashir refuted those allegations and said: "I do not know why I have been expelled. I did not receive any notice from the party stating the cause of my expulsion. I was phoned by a journalist yesterday evening that I have been expelled from the party. They should have exposed my anti-party activities. I never involved myself in any anti-party activity. I didn't speak against PDP. I respected the party symbol even when I was denied the party mandate." On 30 October 2014, Syed Bashir Ahmad announced that he would contest the J&K Legislative Assembly elections 2014, as an independent candidate. Addressing a press conference at his Sheikhar residence, Syed Bashir said, "Though many political parties had offered me the ticket but I declined them as my workers and supporters wanted me to contest independently. I was left with no option but to respect their aspirations and emotions." On 22 August 2024, Syed Bashir Ahmad rejoined the People's Democratic Party. == Electoral performance == == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Preudhomme	Jean Preudhomme	Jean Preudhomme or Preud'ho(m)me or Prudhomme (c. 23 November 1732 – c. 20 July 1795) was a Swiss painter. He was a contemporary of the Swiss painters Anton Graff, Johann Jakob Schalch, Angelica Kauffman, Jakob Emanuel Handmann, Johann Caspar Füssli and his son Johann Heinrich Füssli. == Life and work == Jean Preudhomme was baptised on 23 November 1732 in Rolle. He was a pupil of the well known painters Jean Baptiste Le Prince and Jean-Baptiste Greuze in Paris. He was a landscapist and an animal painter. However, his speciality was portrait painting. In Switzerland he was very popular with the landed gentry and the patricians in Geneva, Lausanne, Neuchâtel and Bern. In a Swiss publication, published between 1782 and 1786, he was described as a “portraitist à la mode”. Preudhomme's paintings, especially the portraits, are rare on the art market. His portrait of Franz Rudolf Frisching is one of his best known paintings. == Paintings in public collections == Preudhomme's portrait of Douglas, 8th Duke of Hamilton, on his Grand Tour with his physician Dr John Moore and the latter's son John, with a view of Geneva in the distance, is in the collection of the National Museums of Scotland. On his Grand Tour the Duke and his companions stayed for two years in Geneva. A portrait of a Lady is in the collection of the Musée Rath. == Literature == Brun, Schweizerisches Künstlerlexikon == References == == External links == "Preudhomme, Jean". SIKART Lexicon on art in Switzerland. Portrait of Douglas, 8th Duke of Hamilton, and his companions during their stay in Geneva. Painted by Jean Preudhomme in 1774
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cl%C3%A9o_Hamon#:~:text=Hamon%20began%20learning%20to%20skate,Rooster%20Cup%20in%20April%202016.	Cléo Hamon	Cléo Hamon (born 25 November 2001) is a French pair skater. With her former skating partner, Denys Strekalin, she is a two-time French national champion (2020, 2021), 2018 Volvo Open Cup champion, and has competed in the final segment at three World Junior Championships (2017–2019). == Personal life == Cléo Hamon was born on 25 November 2001 in Cormeilles-en-Parisis, France. Her brother, Axel, is a triathlete. == Career == === Single skating === Hamon began learning to skate in 2006. Competing in ladies' singles, she won silver in the advanced novice category at the Rooster Cup in April 2016. She appeared once on the junior level, placing 13th at the Golden Bear of Zagreb in October 2016. === Early partnerships === In the 2014–2015 season, Hamon competed in partnership with Xavier Vauclin. The two became the French national novice champions in March 2015. Hamon also skated with Brice Panizzi. === Partnership with Strekalin === ==== Early seasons ==== In August 2016, Hamon teamed up with Ukraine's Denys Strekalin to compete for France in pairs. Coached by Mehdi Bouzzine in Courbevoie, they made their international debut in February 2017, placing seventh in junior pairs at the Bavarian Open. In March, they placed fourteenth at the 2017 World Junior Championships in Taipei, Taiwan. In September 2017, Hamon/Strekalin debuted on the ISU Junior Grand Prix (JGP) series, placing eighth in Riga, Latvia. In December, appearing on the senior level, they won silver at the French Championships, behind Lola Esbrat / Andrei Novoselov. In March, they finished eleventh at the 2018 World Junior Championships in Sofia, Bulgaria. Competing in the 2018 JGP series, Hamon/Strekalin placed sixth in Linz, Austria, and fifth in Ostrava, Czech Republic. Making their senior international debut, the pair took gold at the Volvo Open Cup in November 2018. In March 2019, they finished ninth at the 2019 World Junior Championships in Zagreb, Croatia. ==== 2019–20 season ==== After placing eighth at the 2019 JGP United States, Hamon/Streklain debuted on the senior Challenger series with a seventh-place finish at the 2019 CS Finlandia Trophy. They would go on to place tenth at the 2019 CS Warsaw Cup, and ninth at their first European Championships. Hamon/Strekalin also won the French senior national title for the first time, due to the absence of James/Cipres from the competition season. They finished the season at the 2020 World Junior Championships, where they placed fifth. Hamon/Strekalin were scheduled to participate in the 2020 World Championships in Montreal, which would have been their senior World debut, but these were canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. ==== 2020–21 season ==== With the pandemic ongoing, Hamon/Strekalin began the new season at the 2020 CS Nebelhorn Trophy, where only pairs training in Europe competed. They were fourth after the short program, and after the top-ranked Hase/Seegert withdrew, they placed third in the free and won the bronze medal. Hamon/Strekalin were scheduled to make their Grand Prix debut at the 2020 Internationaux de France, but the event was cancelled due to the pandemic. In February, they won their second straight National title. Later that month, they competed at the International Challenge Cup, placing fifth. On March 1, they were named to the team for the 2021 World Championships. They placed twentieth in their World Championship debut. Hamon/Strekalin finished the season at the 2021 World Team Trophy, where they finished fifth in both segments and Team France finished in fifth place overall. ==== 2021–22 season ==== Hamon/Strekalin began the season at the 2021 Lombardia Trophy, where they finished in fourth place. They were originally scheduled to compete at the Nebelhorn Trophy, where the final Olympics spots would be decided, but were later replaced by Coline Keriven / Noël-Antoine Pierre. It was later announced that Hamon would be taking a break from figure skating, due to health issues from a burnout, and that had been the reason for them being replaced at the Nebelhorn Trophy. The team later split, and Strekalin began looking for a new partner in October. == Programs == (with Strekalin) == Competitive highlights == GP: Grand Prix; CS: Challenger Series; JGP: Junior Grand Prix === Pairs with Strekalin === === Ladies' singles === == References == == External links == Cléo Hamon / Denys Strekalin at the International Skating Union
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dadabhai_Naoroji	Dadabhai Naoroji	Dadabhai Naoroji (4 September 1825 – 30 June 1917) was an Indian political leader, merchant, scholar and writer who played a prominent role in both Indian and British public life. He was among the founding members of the Indian National Congress and served as its President on three occasions, from 1886 to 1887, 1893 to 1894 and 1906 to 1907. Naoroji's early career included serving as the Diwan of Baroda in 1874. Subsequently, he moved to England, where he continued to advocate for Indian interests. In 1892, he was elected to the House of Commons as a Liberal Party Member of Parliament, representing Finsbury Central until 1895. He was the second person of Asian descent to become a British MP following David Ochterlony Dyce Sombre, who was an Anglo Indian MP. Naoroji is particularly known for formulating the "drain theory", which argued that economic exploitation under British rule led to the transfer of wealth from India to Britain. He detailed these views in his 1901 publication Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, which contributed to emerging debates on colonial economics and political representation. His work was influential among early nationalists and reformers, and he remained a key figure in shaping early Indian political thought. Naoroji also took part in international socialist networks and was a member of the Second International, alongside figures such as Karl Kautsky and Georgi Plekhanov. While Naoroji himself maintained a moderate stance, his engagement with transnational political groups reflected his broader concern with issues of labour, empire and global inequality. In later years, Naoroji received posthumous recognition in both India and the United Kingdom. In 2014, the British government introduced the Dadabhai Naoroji Awards, launched by then Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg, to honour contributions to UK-India relations. India Post commemorated him with postal stamps issued in 1963, 1997 and 2017. His legacy continues to be studied in the context of Indian nationalism, colonial critique and the early history of Asian participation in British politics. == Biography == Naoroji was born in Navsari in a Gujarati-speaking Parsi Zoroastrian family, and educated at the Elphinstone Institute School. His patron was the Maharaja of Baroda, Sayajirao Gaekwad III, and he started his career as Dewan (Minister) to the Maharaja in 1874. Being an Athornan (ordained priest), Naoroji founded the Rahnumai Mazdayasan Sabha (Guides on the Mazdayasne Path) on 1 August 1851 to restore the Zoroastrian religion to its original purity and simplicity. In 1854, he also founded a Gujarati fortnightly publication, the Rast Goftar (The Truth Teller), to clarify Zoroastrian concepts and promote Parsi social reforms. Around this time, he also published another newspaper called The Voice of India. In December 1855, he was appointed Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Elphinstone College in Bombay, becoming the first Indian to hold such an academic position. He travelled to London in 1855 to become a partner in Cama & Co, opening a Liverpool location for the first Indian company to be established in Britain. Within three years, he had resigned on ethical grounds. In 1859, he established his own cotton trading company, Dadabhai Naoroji & Co. In 1861 he also founded The Zoroastrian Trust Funds of Europe alongside Muncherjee Hormusji Cama. In 1865, Naoroji directed and launched the London Indian Society, the purpose of which was to discuss Indian political, social and literary subjects. In 1867, he also helped to establish the East India Association, one of the predecessor organisations of the Indian National Congress with the aim of putting across the Indian point of view before the British public. The Association was instrumental in counter-acting the propaganda by the Ethnological Society of London which, in its session in 1866, had tried to prove the inferiority of the Asians to the Europeans. This Association soon won the support of eminent Englishmen and was able to exercise considerable influence in the British parliament. The organisation soon had branches in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. In 1874, he became Prime Minister of Baroda and was a member of the Legislative Council of Bombay (1885–88). He was also a member of the Indian National Association founded by Sir Surendranath Banerjea from Calcutta a few years before the founding of the Indian National Congress in Bombay, with the same objectives and practices. The two groups later merged into the INC, and Naoroji was elected President of the Congress in 1886. Naoroji published Poverty and Un-British Rule in India in 1901. Naoroji moved to Britain once again and continued his political involvement. Elected for the Liberal Party in Finsbury Central at the 1892 general election, he was the first British Indian MP. He refused to take the oath on the Bible, as he was Zoroastrian. He was allowed to take the oath of office in the name of God on his copy of the Khordeh Avesta. During his time he put his efforts towards improving the situation in India. He had a very clear vision and was an effective communicator. He set forth his views about the situation in India over the course of the history of the governance of the country and the way in which the colonial rulers rule. In Parliament, he spoke on Irish Home Rule and the condition of the Indian people. He was a notable Freemason. In 1906, Naoroji was again elected president of the Indian National Congress. He was a staunch moderate within the Congress, during the phase when opinion in the party was split between the moderates and extremists. Such was the respect commanded by him that assertive nationalists could not oppose his candidature and the rift was avoided for the time being. Naoroji's Poverty and Un-British Rule in India influenced Mahatma Gandhi. === Lord Salisbury's controversial remarks === Lord Salisbury, the then-Prime Minister, caused controversy in 1888 after Gainsford Bruce had won the Holborn by-election for the Unionists, beating the Liberal Lord Compton. Bruce had won the seat with a smaller majority than Francis Duncan had for the Unionists in 1885. Salisbury explained this by saying in a speech in Edinburgh on 30 November: "But then Colonel Duncan was opposed to a black man, and, however great the progress of mankind has been, and however far we have advanced in overcoming prejudices, I doubt if we have yet got to the point where a British constituency will elect a black man to represent them.... I am speaking roughly and using language in its colloquial sense, because I imagine the colour is not exactly black, but at all events, he was a man of another race." The "black man" was, in fact, Dadabhai Naoroji. Salisbury's comments were criticised by the Queen and by Liberals who believed that Salisbury had suggested that only white Britons could represent a British constituency. Three weeks later, Salisbury delivered a speech at Scarborough, where he denied that "the word "black" necessarily implies any contemptuous denunciation: "Such a doctrine seems to be a scathing insult to a very large proportion of the human race... The people whom we have been fighting at Suakin, and whom we have happily conquered, are among the finest tribes in the world, and many of them are as black as my hat". Furthermore, "such candidatures are incongruous and unwise. The British House of Commons, with its traditions... is a machine too peculiar and too delicate to be managed by any but those who have been born within these isles". In 1888, the New York Times published an article that was extremely critical of Lord Salisbury's remark. It included the following quotation, "Of course the parsees are not black men, but the purest Aryan type in existence, with an average complexion fairer than Lord Salisbury's; but even if they were ebony hued it would be grotesque and foolish for a Prime Minister of England to insult them in such a wanton fashion as this." Naoroji was later elected for Finsbury in 1892 and Salisbury invited him to become a Governor of the Imperial Institute, which he accepted. == Personal life and death == He was married to Gulbai at the age of 11. He died in Bombay on 30 June 1917, at the age of 91. The Dadabhai Naoroji Road, a heritage road of Mumbai, is named after him, as are the Dadabhai Naoroji Road in Karachi, Pakistan and Naoroji Street in the Finsbury area of London. A prominent residential colony for central government servants in the south of Delhi is also named Naoroji Nagar. His granddaughters, Perin and Khurshedben, were also involved in the independence movement. In 1930, Khurshedben was arrested along with other revolutionaries for attempting to hoist the Indian flag in a Government College in Ahmedabad. == Drain theory and poverty == Naoroji's work focused on the drain of wealth from India to Britain during the period of British rule in India. One of the reasons that the Drain theory is attributed to Naoroji is his decision to estimate the net national profit of India, and by extension, the effect that colonial rule had on the country. Through his work with economics, Naoroji sought to prove that Britain was draining money out of India. Naoroji described six factors that resulted in the external drain. India was governed by a foreign government. India did not attract immigrants who brought labour and capital for economic growth. India paid for Britain's civil administrations in India and her Indian army. India bore the burden of empire building in and out of its borders. Opening the country to free trade allowed for foreigners to take highly paid jobs over those of equally qualified Indians. The principal income-earners would spend their money outside of India or leave with the money as they were mostly foreign personnel. His book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India estimated a 200–300 million pounds drain of India's revenue to Britain that was not recirculated into India. When referring to the drain, Naoroji stated that he believed some tribute was necessary as payment for the services that Britain brought to India such as the newly constructed railways. However, the money from these services were being drained out of India; for instance the money being earned by the railways did not belong to India, which supported his assessment that India was sending too much to Britain. According to Naoroji, India was paying tribute for something that was not bringing profit to the country directly. Instead of paying off foreign investment, as other countries did, India was paying for services rendered despite the operation of the railway being already profitable for Britain. This type of drain was experienced in different ways as well, for instance, British workers earning wages that were not equal with the work that they have done in India, or trade that undervalued India's goods and overvalued outside goods. British workers in India were encouraged to take on high paying jobs in India, and the British government allowed them to take a portion of their income back to Britain. Furthermore, the East India Company was purchasing Indian goods with money drained from India to export to Britain, which was a way that the opening up of free trade allowed India to be exploited. When elected to Parliament by a narrow margin of five votes, his first speech was devoted to the issue of questioning Britain's role in India. Naoroji explained that Indians would either be British subjects or their slaves, depending on how willing Britain was to give India control over the institutions that Britain presently operated. By giving these institutions to India it would allow India to govern itself and as a result all revenue would stay in India. Naoroji identified himself as a fellow subject of the Empire and was able to address the economic hardships facing India to a British audience. By presenting himself as an imperial subject he was able to use rhetoric to show the benefit to Britain that an ease of financial burden on India would have. He argued that by allowing the money earned in India to stay in India, tributes would be willingly and easily paid without fear of poverty; he argued that this could be done by giving equal employment opportunities to Indian professionals who were consistently forced to take jobs that they were over-qualified for. Indian labour would be more likely to spend their income within India preventing one aspect of the drain. Naoroji also found it important to examine Anglo-Indian trade to prevent the premature dissolution of budding industries to unfair valuing of goods and services. By allowing industry to grow and develop in India, tribute could be paid to Britain in the form of taxation and the increase in Indian interest for British goods. Over time, Naoroji became more inflammatory in his comments as he began to lose patience with Britain over the seemingly lack of progress regarding reforms. He rhetorically questioned whether or not the British government would be willing to award French youths all the high ranking posts in the British economy. He also pointed to historical examples of Britain being opposed to the "wealth drain" concept, including the English objection to the wealth drain to the papacy during the 1500s. Naoroji's work on the drain theory was the main reason behind the creation of the Royal Commission on Indian Expenditure in 1896 in which he was also a member. This commission reviewed financial burdens on India and in some cases came to the conclusion that those burdens were misplaced. == Views and legacy == Dadabhai Naoroji is regarded as one of the most important Indians during the birth of the nascent independence movement. In his writings, he came to the conclusion that the exertion of foreign rule over India was not favourable for the nation, and that independence (or at the very least, responsible government) would be the better path for India. Further development was checked by the frequent invasions of India by, and the subsequent continuous rule of, foreigners of entirely different character and genius, who, not having any sympathy with the indigenous literature – on the contrary, having much fanatical antipathy to the religion of the Hindus – prevented its further growth. Priest-hood, first for power and afterwards from ignorance, completed the mischief, as has happened in all other countries. Naoroji is often remembered as the "Grand Old Man of Indian Nationalism." Mahatma Gandhi wrote to Naoroji in 1894, saying that "The Indians look up to you as children to the father. Such is really the feeling here." Bal Gangadhar Tilak admired him; he said: If we twenty eight crore of Indians were entitled to send only one member to the British parliament, there is no doubt that we would have elected Dadabhai Naoroji unanimously to grace that post. Here are the significant extracts taken from his speech delivered before the East India Association on 2 May 1867 regarding what educated Indians expect from their British rulers: The difficulties thrown in the way of according to the natives such reasonable share and voice in the administration of the country as they are able to take, are creating some uneasiness and distrust. The universities are sending out hundreds and will soon begin to send out thousands of educated natives. This body naturally increases in influence... "In this Memorandum I desire to submit for the kind and generous consideration of His Lordship the Secretary of State for India, that from the same cause of the deplorable drain [of economic wealth from India to Britain], besides the material exhaustion of India, the moral loss to her is no less sad and lamentable . . . All [the Europeans] effectually do is to eat the substance of India, material and moral, while living there, and when they go, they carry away all they have acquired . . . The thousands [of Indians] that are being sent out by the universities every year find themselves in a most anomalous position. There is no place for them in their motherland . . . What must be the inevitable consequence? . . . despotism and destruction . . . or destroying hand and power. " A plaque referring to Dadabhai Naoroji is located outside the Finsbury Town Hall on Rosebery Avenue, London. On 10 August 2022 English Heritage unveiled a blue plaque in his honour at the site of his former home, 72, Anerley Park, Bromley, London where he lived between 1897 – 1904 or 1905. == Works == Started the Rast Goftar Anglo-Gujarati Newspaper in 1854. The Parsee Religion . University of London. 1861 – via Wikisource. The Manners and Customs of the Parsees . Bombay. 1862 – via Wikisource.{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) The European and Asiatic Races . London. 1866 – via Wikisource.{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Admission of educated natives into the Indian Civil Service (London, 1868) The wants and means of India (London, 1876) Condition of India (Madras, 1882) Poverty of India Bombay, Ranima Union Press (1876). A Paper Read Before the Bombay Branch of the East India Association. C. L. Parekh, ed., Essays, Speeches, Addresses and Writings of the Honourable Dadabhai Naoroji, Bombay, Caxton Printing Works (1887). An excerpt, "The Benefits of British Rule", in a modernised text by J. S. Arkenberg, ed., on line at Paul Halsall, ed., Internet Modern History Sourcebook Archived 22 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Lord Salisbury's Blackman (Lucknow, 1889) Dadabhai Naoroji (1901). Poverty and Un-British Rule in India. Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.; "Poverty and Un-British Rule in India" Commonwealth Publishers, 1988. ISBN 81-900066-2-2 == Commemorative postage stamps == Naoroji has been portrayed on commemorative stamps released by India Post (by year): == See also == Electoral firsts in the United Kingdom == References == == Further reading == == External links == Leigh Rayment's Historical List of MPs "Dr Dadabhai Naoroji, 'The Grand Old Man of India'", Vohuman.org – Presents a complete chronology of Naoroji's life. Portraits of Dadabhai Naoroji at the National Portrait Gallery, London Works by or about Dadabhai Naoroji at the Internet Archive Works by Dadabhai Naoroji at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) B. Shantanu, "Drain of Wealth during British Raj", iVarta.com, 6 February 2006. Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Dadabhai Naoroji
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Ficquelmont	Karl Ludwig von Ficquelmont	Karl Ludwig, Count of Ficquelmont (German: [ˈfɪkɛlˌmɔnt]; French: Charles-Louis comte de Ficquelmont; 23 March 1777 – 7 April 1857) was an Austrian aristocrat, statesman and General of the cavalry of the Austrian Imperial army of French noble origin. == Biography == === French nobleman === He was born Gabriel-Charles-Louis-Bonnaventure, Count de Ficquelmont at the Castle of Dieuze, in his family's estate in the present-day French département of Moselle. A member of a noble family from Lorraine dating back to the 14th century (House of Ficquelmont), he was introduced to King Louis XVI at Versailles in 1789. Only a few months later, the French Revolution started. His family, as aristocrats, were targeted by the Revolution; several of his relatives were beheaded and many of their estates were confiscated during the Terreur era. Ficquelmont chose to join the "Army of the Princes" fighting against revolutionary France. === Austrian military === He eventually entered the military service of the Habsburg monarchy in 1793. Ficquelmont participated in all Austrian campaigns in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and was regarded as a brilliant military officer. In 1809, he rose to the rank of Oberst and was appointed chief of staff of Archduke Ferdinand Karl Joseph of Austria-Este. In 1811 and 1812, he led troops in Spain, where his victories attracted the attention of Emperor Napoleon I, who unsuccessfully tried to recruit him. He was then elevated to the rank of Generalmajor in 1814 and received the capitulation of Lyon a few months later. In the following decades, Ficquelmont continued his rise in the imperial Austrian military, achieving the following promotions: 1830: Feldmarschallleutnant 1831: General of the Dragoons 1840-1848: Minister of the State and conferences, in charge of the Imperial Army 1843: General of the cavalry === Austrian diplomat === In 1815, thanks to his credentials as a gifted military officer loyal to the Habsburgs, Ficquelmont was approached to represent Austria as a diplomat. As the War of the Sixth Coalition ended, he was sent to Stockholm as the Austrian Ambassador Extraordinary to Sweden. His mission was to smooth relations between Austria and the newly elected heir to the Swedish throne and former French General Bernadotte in order to maintain him within the coalition during the progressing towards the Congress of Vienna. The mission was a success, launching Ficquelmont's diplomatic career. After the fall of Napoleon, Italy was once again the key sphere of influence of the Austrian Empire, which intended to exert control over its many states. In 1820, Ficquelmont was appointed Ambassador to Tuscany and Lucca, in order to increase Austrian influence over Grand Duke Ferdinand III of Tuscany. He met his future wife, Russian countess Dorothea von Tiesenhaussen, while in Florence. In 1821 he was appointed ambassador plenipotentiary to the Naples in the midst of the political crisis that followed the 1820 Carbonari Revolution. In July 1820 a military revolt broke out in Naples, forcing their king into signing a constitution based on the model of the Spanish Constitution of 1812. The Holy Alliance feared the revolt might spread to other Italian states and turn into a general European conflagration, so Austria sent an army to march into Naples to restore order. The Austrians defeated the Neapolitans at Rieti (7 March 1821) and entered Naples. Ficquelmont was sent to manage the following occupation. He soon gained enormous influence over king Ferdinand I and Neapolitan elites and practically administrated the kingdom, ensuring Austria's grasp over its domestic and foreign policies. While in Naples, Ficquelmont was recognized as Austria's main diplomatic asset for his political subtlety as well as his social skills, "Count de Ficquelmont's personality is made of Germanic seriousness, Italian subtlety but, above all, it is made of the prodigious 18th century French nobility's wit" In 1829, Ficquelmont was appointed Ambassador Extraordinary to Russia. Ficquelmont's wife, countess Dorothea von Tiesenhausen, was the heiress of the prominent Tiesenhausen family as well as the granddaughter of Prince Kutuzov and became influential on the politics of Emperor Nicholas I. The Saltykov Mansion that was the Austrian Embassy had been described as a "place of wisdom and intelligence" and as "(...) the setting the two most illustrious salon of the period (1830s), reigned over by Ficquelmont's wife". Ficquelmont's and Dorothea's influence in Russia was long-lasting and as a sign of his appreciation, Emperor Nicolas I awarded him the Orders of St. Andrew, St. Alexander Nevsky, St. Vladimir, and St. Anna. === Austrian statesman === In 1839, Ficquelmont was recalled to Vienna to assume the duties of the Foreign Office during the absence of Prince Metternich. In 1840, he was appointed Minister of the State and Conferences and chief of staff of the Imperial Army. Ficquelmont was not only Prince Metternich's right-hand man but officially the second most senior statesmen of the Empire, "Count de Ficquelmont stands just behind or next to Prince Metternich (..) Every conference starts with Count de Ficquelmont and ends with Prince Metternich". Back in Vienna, the Ficquelmonts were some of the most prominent social figures of the Imperial court, "Count de Ficquelmont's salon is the most sophisticated, the most erudite, the most mindful, and the most beloved of Vienna". In 1841, Ficquelmont's daughter, countess Elizabeth Alexandrine, married Prince Edmund von Clary-und-Aldringen, heir to one of the Empire's most prominent princely family. In 1847, Ficquelmont was sent to Milan as acting Chancellor of Lombardy–Venetia and senior advisor of its viceroy, Archduke Rainer Joseph of Austria. Resentment against Austrian rule was growing and Ficquelmont was appointed to restore it while taking over Northern Italy's administration. After just a few months, he was recalled to Vienna to assume the leadership of the Council of War as the Revolutions of 1848 started. === Minister-President of the Austrian Empire === As the Revolutions of 1848 continued, Ficquelmont played an instrumental role. From early 1848 to 13 March, he led the Austrian Council of War. On 13 March Prince Metternich gave his resignation and fled the country. Ficquelmont then assumed his duties until 17 March, when Count Franz Anton von Kolowrat was appointed Minister-President. From 17 March until the fall of the Kolowrat cabinet on 3 April, Ficquelmont took charge of the Department of Foreign Affairs and the War Ministry. On 4 April Ficquelmont became Minister-President of the Empire. However, due to his close ties with the "Metternich System" and the Russian tsar, popular feeling against him compelled him to resign on 4 May. It was a violent period, his wife Countess Dolly, who was at their Venice's palace at the time, was arrested twice by the Venetian guarda civil and finally had to flee the city on board an English ship with her daughter, son-in-law, and grandchildren. Moreover, Ficquelmont's kinsman in the War Ministry, count Theodor Franz Baillet von Latour, was lynched during the Vienna Uprising of October 1848. === Later life === After the end of the revolutions, Ficquelmont refused to return to politics to dedicated himself to the writing and publishing of several political essays that gained wide recognition throughout Europe. Germany, Austria and Prussia published in Vienna in 1851 Lord Palmerston, England and the Continent published in Vienna in 1852 The Religious Side of the Eastern Question and Politics of Russia and the Danubian Principalitie published in Vienna in 1854 The Peace to Come: A Matter of Conscience published in Vienna in 1856 Moral and Political thoughts of the Count de Ficquelmont, State Minister of Austria, published posthumously in Paris in 1859 In 1852, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria made Ficquelmont a Knight of the Golden Fleece, the most prestigious order of the Empire. In his later years, Ficquelmont retired first to his palace of Vienna and later to his Venetian palace, where he died in 1857 at the age of 81. == Family == As a consequence of the French Revolution, the Ficquelmont family spread across Europe. Beyond Austria and France, members of the family settled in Italy, Hungary, England and the Netherlands, where one of Charles-Louis's uncle, Count Antoine-Charles de Ficquelmont (1753−1833), recreated the title Count de Ficquelmont in the Dutch nobility (16 July 1822). Charles-Louis had five siblings of which only one had issue, one girl and one boy. His niece was Clotilde de Vaux (Paris 1815–Paris 1846), who gave philosopher Auguste Comte the inspiration for the Religion of Humanity organized around the public veneration of Humanity through a Goddess made after her. In 1821, Ficquelmont, 44, married countess Dorothea von Tiesenhausen (St. Petersburg 1804 − Venice 1863), 17, granddaughter of Prince Kutuzov. Countess Dorothea de Ficquelmont was famous for her beauty, while living in Naples a famous Neapolitan proverb was diverted to praise her looks « Vedi Napoli, la Ficquelmont e poi muori ! » (« To see Naples, the countess Ficquelmont, and die ! »). Countess Dolly was also famous for her letter-writing and diary (the former was published in Italian and Russian in 1950) telling of her life as a high society's aristocrat in 19th-century Europe. The couple had only one daughter, Elisabeth-Alexandrine-Marie-Thérèse de Ficquelmont (Naples 1825 − Venice 1878), Countess de Ficquelmont by birth and Princess Clary und Aldringen by her marriage to Edmund, 4th Prince of Clary-Aldringen. Through Elisabeth, he was a grandfather of Prince Siegfried von Clary-Aldringen (Teplitz 1848 − Teplitz 1929) and Count Manfred von Clary-Aldringen (Vienna 1852 − Salzburg 1928). == Decorations == Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Januarius == Works == Aufklärungen über die Zeit vom 20 März bis zum 4 Mai, 1848 (second edition, 1850) Die religiöse Seite der orientalischen Frage (second edition, 1854) Deutschland, Österreich und Preußen (1851) Lord Palmerston, England und der Kontinent (2 volumes, 1852) Die religiöse Seite der orientalischen Frage (1854) Russlands Politik und die Donaufürstentümer (1854) Zum künftigen Frieden: e. Gewissensfrage (1856) Pensées et réflexions morales et politiques du Comte de Ficquelmont, ministre d'état en Autriche (1859) == References == This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty \|title= (help)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mingus_Mapps	Mingus Mapps	Mingus Ulysses Mapps (born April 9, 1968) is an American professor and politician in Portland, Oregon. He was elected to the city council in November 2020, winning 56% of the vote. His bureau assignments as of September 2023 are Water Bureau, the Bureau of Environmental Service and the Bureau of Transportation (PBOT) == Education == Mapps graduated from Reed College and received his Ph.D. in government from Cornell University. == Career == Mapps, a former political science professor, promised during his campaign to reform Portland's police department, pass policies that protect renters, expand mental health response teams called "Portland Street Response" in all parts of the city to reduce homelessness, and pay for more mental health services. He is the third black male ever to serve as a Portland commissioner. In July 2023, Mapps announced that he would run for mayor of Portland in the 2024 election. He was defeated in the general election. == See also == List of Cornell University alumni List of Reed College people == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugatti	Bugatti	Automobiles Ettore Bugatti was a French manufacturer of high-performance automobiles. The company was founded in 1909 in the then-German city of Molsheim, Alsace, by the Italian-born industrial designer Ettore Bugatti. The cars were known for their design beauty and numerous race victories. Famous Bugatti automobiles include the Type 35 Grand Prix cars, the Type 41 "Royale", the Type 57 "Atlantic" and the Type 55 sports car. The death of Ettore Bugatti in 1947 proved to be a severe blow to the marque, and the death of his son Jean in 1939 meant that there was no successor to lead the factory. With no more than about 8,000 cars made, the company struggled financially, and it released one last model in the 1950s before eventually being purchased for its airplane parts business in 1963. In 1987, an Italian entrepreneur bought the brand name and revived it as Bugatti Automobili S.p.A. The name is owned by Bugatti Rimac since 2021. A film about the founding of Bugatti is being produced by Andrea Iervolino. == Under Ettore Bugatti == The founder Ettore Bugatti was born in Milan, Italy, and the automobile company that bears his name was founded in 1909 in Molsheim located in the Alsace region which was part of the German Empire from 1871 to 1919. The company was known both for the level of detail of its engineering in its automobiles, and for the artistic manner in which the designs were executed, given the artistic nature of Ettore's family (his father, Carlo Bugatti (1856–1940), was an important Art Nouveau furniture and jewelry designer). === World War I and its aftermath === During the war Ettore Bugatti was sent away, initially to Milan and later to Paris, but as soon as hostilities had been concluded he returned to his factory at Molsheim. Less than four months after the Versailles Treaty formalised the transfer of Alsace from Germany to France, Bugatti was able to obtain, at the last minute, a stand at the 15th Paris motor show in October 1919. He exhibited three light cars, all of them closely based on their pre-war equivalents, and each fitted with the same overhead camshaft 4-cylinder 1,368cc engine with four valves per cylinder. Smallest of the three was a "Type 13" with a racing body (constructed by the Bugatti themselves) and using a chassis with a 2,000 mm (78.7 in) wheelbase. The others were a "Type 22" and a "Type 23" with wheelbases of 2,250 and 2,400 mm (88.6 and 94.5 in) respectively. === Racing successes === The company also enjoyed great success in early Grand Prix motor racing: in 1929, a privately entered Bugatti won the first ever Monaco Grand Prix. Bugatti's racing success culminated with driver Jean-Pierre Wimille winning the 24 hours of Le Mans twice (in 1937 with Robert Benoist and in 1939 with Pierre Veyron). Bugatti cars were extremely successful in racing. The little Bugatti Type 10 swept the top four positions at its first race. The 1924 Bugatti Type 35 is one of the most successful racing cars - developed by Bugatti with master engineer and racing driver Jean Chassagne who also drove it in the car's first ever Grand Prix in 1924 Lyon. Bugattis swept to victory in the Targa Florio for five years straight from 1925 through 1929. Louis Chiron held the most podiums in Bugatti cars, and the modern marque revival Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. named the 1999 Bugatti 18/3 Chiron concept car in his honour. But it was the final racing success at Le Mans that is most remembered—Jean-Pierre Wimille and Pierre Veyron won the 1939 race with just one car and meagre resources. === Aeroplane racing === In the 1930s, Ettore Bugatti got involved in the creation of a racer airplane, hoping to beat the Germans in the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize. This would be the Bugatti 100P, which never flew. It was designed by Belgian engineer Louis de Monge who had already applied Bugatti Brescia engines in his "Type 7.5" lifting body. === Railcar === Ettore Bugatti also designed a successful motorised railcar, the Autorail Bugatti. === Family tragedy === The death of Ettore Bugatti's son, Jean Bugatti, on 11 August 1939 marked a turning point in the company's fortunes as he died while testing a Type 57 tank-bodied race car near the Molsheim factory. == After World War II == World War II left the Molsheim factory in ruins and the company lost control of the property. During the war, Bugatti planned a new factory at Levallois, a northwestern suburb of Paris. After the war, Bugatti designed and planned to build a series of new cars, including the Type 73 road car and Type 73C single seat racing car, but in all Bugatti built only five Type 73 cars. Development of a 375 cc supercharged car was stopped when Ettore Bugatti died on 21 August 1947. Following his death, the business declined further and made its last appearance as a business in its own right at a Paris Motor Show in October 1952. After a long decline, the original incarnation of Bugatti ceased operations in 1952. == Design == Bugatti models are known to focus on design. Engine blocks were hand scraped to ensure that the surfaces were flat so that gaskets were not required for sealing, and many of the exposed surfaces of the engine compartment featured guilloché finishes on them. Safety wires were threaded through most fasteners in intricately laced patterns. Rather than bolt the springs to the axles as most manufacturers did, Bugatti's axles were forged such that the spring passed through an opening in the axle, a much more elegant solution requiring fewer parts. Bugatti himself described his competitor Bentley's cars as "the world's fastest lorries" for focusing on durability. According to Bugatti, "weight was the enemy". === Notable models === == Gallery == === Notable finds in the modern era === Relatives of Harold Carr found a rare 1937 Bugatti Type 57S Atalante when cataloguing the doctor's belongings after his death in 2009. Carr's Type 57S is notable because it was originally owned by British race car driver Earl Howe. Because much of the car's original equipment is intact, it can be restored without relying on replacement parts. On 10 July 2009, a 1925 Bugatti Brescia Type 22 which had lain at the bottom of Lake Maggiore on the border of Switzerland and Italy for 75 years was recovered from the lake. The Mullin Museum in Oxnard, California bought it at auction for $351,343 at Bonham's Rétromobile sale in Paris in 2010. == Attempts at revival == The company attempted a comeback under Roland Bugatti in the mid-1950s with the mid-engined Type 251 race car. Designed with help from Gioacchino Colombo, the car failed to perform to expectations and the company's attempts at automobile production were halted. In the 1960s, Virgil Exner designed a Bugatti as part of his "Revival Cars" project. A show version of this car was actually built by Ghia using the last Bugatti Type 101 chassis, and was shown at the 1965 Turin Motor Show. Finance was not forthcoming, and Exner then turned his attention to a revival of Stutz. Bugatti continued manufacturing airplane parts and was sold to Hispano-Suiza, also a former auto maker turned aircraft supplier, in 1963. Snecma took over Hispano-Suiza in 1968. After acquiring Messier, Snecma merged Messier and Bugatti into Messier-Bugatti in 1977. == Modern revivals == === Bugatti Automobili S.p.A. (1987–1995) === Italian entrepreneur Romano Artioli acquired the Bugatti brand in 1987, and established Bugatti Automobili S.p.A.. Artioli commissioned architect Giampaolo Benedini to design the factory which was built in Campogalliano, Modena, Italy. Construction of the plant began in 1988, alongside the development of the first model, and it was inaugurated two years later—in 1990. By 1989, the plans for the new Bugatti revival were presented by Paolo Stanzani and Marcello Gandini, designers of the Lamborghini Miura and Lamborghini Countach. The first production vehicle was the Bugatti EB110 GT which featured a 3.5-litre, 5-valve per cylinder, quad-turbocharged 60° V12 engine, a six-speed gearbox, and four-wheel drive. Stanzani proposed an aluminium honeycomb chassis, which was used for all early prototypes. He and president Artioli clashed over engineering decisions so Stanzani left the project and Artioli sought Nicola Materazzi to replace him in June 1990. Materazzi, who had been the chief designer for the Ferrari 288 GTO and Ferrari F40 replaced the aluminium chassis with a carbon fibre one manufactured by Aerospatiale and also altered the torque distribution of the car from 40:60 to 27:73. He remained Director until late 1992. Racing car designer Mauro Forghieri served as Bugatti's technical director from 1993 through 1994. On 27 August 1993, through his holding company, ACBN Holdings S.A. of Luxembourg, Romano Artioli purchased Lotus Cars from General Motors. Plans were made to list Bugatti shares on international stock exchanges. Bugatti presented a prototype large saloon called the EB112 in 1993. Perhaps the most famous Bugatti EB110 owner was seven-time Formula One World Champion racing driver Michael Schumacher who purchased an EB110 in 1994. Schumacher sold his EB110, which had been repaired after a severe 1994 crash, to Modena Motorsport, a Ferrari service and race preparation garage in Germany. By the time the EB110 came to market, the North American and European economies were in recession. Poor economic conditions caused the company to fail and operations ceased in September 1995. A model specific to the US market called the "Bugatti America" was in the preparatory stages when the company ceased operations. Bugatti's liquidators sold Lotus Cars to Proton of Malaysia. German firm Dauer Racing purchased the EB110 licence and remaining parts stock in 1997 in order to produce five more EB110 SS vehicles. These five SS versions of the EB110 were greatly refined by Dauer. The Campogalliano factory was sold to a furniture-making company, which became defunct prior to moving in, leaving the building unoccupied. After Dauer stopped producing cars in 2011, Toscana-Motors GmbH of Germany purchased the remaining parts stock from Dauer. Ex vice-president Jean-Marc Borel and ex-employees Federico Trombi, Gianni Sighinolfi and Nicola Materazzi established the B Engineering company and designed and built the Edonis using the chassis and engine from the Bugatti EB110 SS, but simplifying the turbocharging system and driveline (from 4WD to 2WD). === Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. (1998–present) === ==== Pre-Veyron ==== Volkswagen Group acquired the Bugatti brand in 1998. Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. commissioned Giorgetto Giugiaro of ItalDesign to produce Bugatti Automobiles's first concept vehicle, the EB118, a coupé that debuted at the 1998 Paris Auto Show. The EB118 concept featured a 408-kilowatt (555 PS; 547 bhp), W-18 engine. After its Paris debut, the EB118 concept was shown again in 1999 at the Geneva Auto Show and the Tokyo Motor Show. Bugatti introduced its next concepts, the EB 218 at the 1999 Geneva Motor Show and the 18/3 Chiron at the 1999 Frankfurt Motor Show (IAA). ==== Veyron era (2005–2015) ==== Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. began assembling its first regular-production vehicle, the Bugatti Veyron 16.4 (the 1001 PS super car with an 8-litre W-16 engine with four turbochargers) in September 2005 at the Bugatti Molsheim, France assembly "studio". On 23 February 2015, Bugatti sold its last Veyron Grand Sport Vitesse, which was named La Finale. ==== Chiron era (2016–present) ==== The Bugatti Chiron is a mid-engined, two-seated sports car, designed by Achim Anscheidt, developed as the successor to the Bugatti Veyron. The Chiron was first revealed at the Geneva Motor Show on March 1, 2016. In February 2024, Bugatti announced the successor to the Chiron, which will use a V16 hybrid-electric powertrain. In June 2024 the successor was confirmed as the Bugatti Tourbillon. == See also == Musée National de l'Automobile de Mulhouse, home of the Schlumpf Collection of Bugatti cars == References == == External links == Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. Bugatti bibliography The Bugatti Trust Bugatti at LeMans
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Elena_Walsh	María Elena Walsh	María Elena Walsh (1 February 1930 – 10 January 2011) was an Argentine poet, novelist, musician, playwright, writer and composer, mainly known for her songs and books for children. Her work includes many of the most popular children's books and songs of all time in her home country. == Biography == María Elena Walsh was born in Villa Sarmiento, Morón, Greater Buenos Aires, to a railway worker of Irish descent who played the piano, and a woman of Spanish descent. As a child, she lived in a big house, where she greatly enjoyed reading and listening to music in a cultural environment. When she was 15, Walsh had some of her poems published in El Hogar (magazine) and La Nación (newspaper). In 1947, before graduating from art school, she published her first book, Otoño Imperdonable, a collection of poems that was critically acclaimed and received recognition from important Latin American writers. After graduation in 1948, she traveled to North America at the invitation of poet Juan Ramón Jiménez, and Europe during the era of Peronism and then moved to Paris, where she spent four years in the early 1950s. While there, Walsh performed in concerts featuring Argentine folklore with fellow Argentine singer Leda Valladares (born 1919), forming the duo "Leda & María" and recording for Le chant du monde. Some of these recordings were exchanged with "Topic Records" in England in the late 1950s. She returned to Argentina in 1956 after the Revolución Libertadora. From 1958 onwards, Walsh wrote numerous TV scripts, plays, poems, books and songs, specially dedicated to young children. She was also a successful performer, singing her own songs onstage and recording them later in albums, like Canciones para mirar, Canciones para mí and El País de Nomeacuerdo. Juguemos en el mundo, also an album, was a satirical show for adults, which was made into a film of the same title, albeit with a story unrelated to the original stage show and songs recording. The film was based on her characters Doña Disparate y Bambuco and was directed by her partner at that time, Maria Herminia Avellaneda (1933–1997). Her work has often contained an underlying political message, as in the song El País del Nomeacuerdo ("I-Don't-Remember Land"), which was later used as the theme song for the film The Official Story, winner of the 1985 Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. During the military dictatorship (1976–83) she was a fierce opponent, her song "Oración a la justicia" (Prayer for Justice) became a civil right anthem. In an open letter she criticized the regime censorship comparing the country to a preschool, calling it "Desventuras en el Pais-Jardin-de-Infantes" (Misadventures in the Preschool Country). In 1985 she received the title of Illustrious Citizen of the City of Buenos Aires, and in 1990 was named Doctor honoris causa of the National University of Cordoba and Illustrious People of Buenos Aires Province as well. In 1994 she was Highly Commended for the Hans Christian Andersen Award, a prize awarded by the International Board on Books for Young People. Walsh has been considered a "living legend, cultural hero (and) crest of nearly every childhood". What was written by María Elena configures the most important work of all time in its genre, comparable to Lewis Carroll's Alice or Pinocchio, a work that revolutionized the way to understand the relationship between poetry and childhood. == Death == María Elena Walsh died of bone cancer in Buenos Aires, aged 80, on 10 January 2011. == Personal life == Walsh's partner from 1978 until her death in 2011 was Sara Facio, an Argentine photographer, best-known herself for having photographed, along with Alicia D'Amico, various cultural personalities, including Argentine writers Julio Cortázar and Alejandra Pizarnik. == Bibliography == === Books === Walsh published her first poem at the age of 15, in El Hogar magazine of Argentina. Her favorite audience was children, for whom she wrote more than 40 books. The following list includes mainly complete books but also some long newspaper articles. Books for adults Otoño imperdonable (1947) – edited by Walsh at 17 Apenas Viaje (poems) (1948) Baladas con Ángel (poems) (1951) with Ángel Bonomini Casi Milagro (poems) (1958) Hecho a Mano (poems) (1965) Juguemos en el mundo (poems) (1971) La Sirena y el Capitán - 1974 ("The Mermaid and the Captain") Cancionero contra el Mal de Ojo (poems) (1976) Los Poemas (1982) Novios de Antaño (novel) (1990) Desventuras en el País-Jardín-de-Infantes (1993) () ("Misfortunes in Kindergarten-Country") Hotel Pioho's Palace (2002) Fantasmas en el Parque (2008) Books for children La Mona Jacinta (1960) La Familia Polillal (1960) Tutú Marambá (1960) Circo de Bichos (1961) Tres Morrongos (1961) El Reino del Revés (poems and songs) (1965) Zoo Loco (1965) Cuentopos de Gulubú (1966) Dailán Kifki (novel) (1966) Versos para Cebollitas (1966) Versos Folklóricos para Cebollitas (1967) Aire Libre (school book) (1967) Versos Tradicionales para Cebollitas (1967) El Diablo Inglés (short stories) (1970) Angelito (1974) El País de la Geometría (1974) Chaucha y Palito (short stories) (1977) Veo Veo (1984) Bisa Vuela (1985) Los Glegos (1987) La Nube Traicionera (1989) Notes: () This book reprinted her famous letter against censorship in Argentina, originally published by Clarín newspaper on 16 August 1979. Due to the publication of that article, Walsh herself would be censored by the Military Government of Argentina. === Discography === Walsh recorded many albums with songs for children and for adults too. Her first albums were strongly influenced by Argentine folklore, working with composer and singer Leda Valladares. The album Canciones para Mí was her first release as a soloist, containing the songs Canción de Tomar el Té and Manuelita la tortuga (which had been previously edited on an EP). This would become Walsh's best-known song. as "Leda y María", with Leda Valladares Chant d'Argentine (1954) Souns le Ciel de l'Argentine (1955) Entre Valles y Quebradas Vol. 1 & 2 (1957) Canciones del Tiempo de Maricastaña (1958) Leda y María Cantan Villancicos (EP) (1959) Canciones de Tutú Marambá (EP) (1960) 6 as "María Elena Walsh" Canciones para Mirar (with Leda Valladares) (1962) 1 Doña Disparate y Bambuco (EP) (with Leda Valladares) (1962) Navidad para los Chicos (EP) (with Leda Valladares) (1963) Canciones para Mí (1963) 2 Canciones para Mirar (1964) El País de Nomeacuerdo (1966) 3 El País de la Navidad (1968) ("The Country of Christmas") Cuentopos (1968) Juguemos en el Mundo (1968) Cuentopos para el Recreo (1969) Juguemos en el Mundo II (1969) 4 El Sol no tiene Bolsillos (1971) Como la Cigarra (1973) 5 El Buen Modo (1975) De Puño y Letra (1976) Notes: 1 Contains the classics El Reino del Revés (whose previous version had been released on Canciones de Tutú Marambá), Canción del Jardinero, La Vaca Estudiosa, La Mona Jacinta. 2 This was Walsh's first album as a soloist, with the hits Canción de tomar el té, Manuelita la tortuga, El twist del Mono Liso. 3 Includes the songs la Reina Batata, Canción del Jacarandá (co-written with Palito Ortega). 4 After many years of recording LP with songs for children, Walsh wrote and recorded an album for adult audiences. 5 The song Como la Cigarra became a huge hit. The album also contains other successful songs like Carta de un León a Otro, with strong politic references. == References == == External links == Biography at the Ministry of Education of Argentina (Spanish) "María Elena Walsh y la opinión urgente", ensayistas.org; accessed 2 January 2018. Interview with Sara Facio, escritorasunidas.blogspot.com, April 2011 Obituaries: BA Times, ABC News, LAHT Archived 22 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine Videos editados en 3D y otros desde Youtube (Spanish) Maria Elena Walsh at IMDb
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Cunnell#:~:text=Clifford%20%22Cliff%22%20James%20Cunnell%20(,batsman%20who%20played%20for%20Suffolk.	Clifford Cunnell	Clifford "Cliff" James Cunnell (b 31 August 1944 - d 5 October 2016) was an English cricketer. He was a right-handed batsman who played for Suffolk. He was born in Ipswich. Cunnell made his Minor Counties Championship debut during the 1965 season, and with one season's exception, continued to play for the team until 1972. Cunnell made a single List A appearance for the team, during the 1966 Gillette Cup, against Kent. Cunnell's brother, Bob, made four appearances for Suffolk over a 13-year timespan. == External links == Clifford Cunnell at Cricket Archive (subscription required)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegram_(software)	Telegram (software)	Telegram (also known as Telegram Messenger) is a cloud-based, cross-platform social media and instant messaging (IM) service. It launched for iOS on 14 August 2013 and Android on 20 October 2013. It allows users to exchange messages, share media and files, and hold private and group voice or video calls as well as public livestreams. It is available for Android, iOS, Windows, macOS, Linux, and web browsers. Telegram offers end-to-end encryption in voice and video calls, and optionally in private chats if both participants use a mobile device. Telegram also has social networking features, allowing users to post stories, create public groups with up to 200,000 members, and share one-way updates to unlimited audiences in so-called channels. Telegram was founded in 2013 by Pavel and Nikolai Durov. Its servers are distributed worldwide with several data centers, and its headquarters are in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. It was the most downloaded app worldwide in January 2021, with 1 billion downloads globally as of late August 2021. As of 2024, registration to Telegram requires either a phone number and a smartphone or one of a limited number of non-fungible tokens (NFTs) issued in 2022. As of March 2025, Telegram has more than 1 billion monthly active users, with India as the country with the most users. == History == === Development === Telegram was launched in 2013 by the brothers Nikolai and Pavel Durov. Previously, the pair founded the Russian social network VK, which they left in 2014, saying it had been taken over by the government. Pavel sold his remaining stake in VK and left Russia after resisting government pressure. Nikolai created the MTProto protocol that is the basis for the messenger, while Pavel provided financial support and infrastructure through his Digital Fortress fund. Telegram Messenger denies that its end goal is to profit, but it is not structured as a nonprofit organization. Telegram is registered as a company in the British Virgin Islands and as an LLC in Dubai. It does not disclose where it rents offices or which legal entities it uses to rent them, citing the need to "shelter the team from unnecessary influence" and protect users from governmental data requests. After Pavel Durov left Russia in 2014, he was said to be moving from country to country with a small group of computer programmers consisting of 15 core members. While a former employee of VK said that Telegram had employees in Saint Petersburg, Pavel said the Telegram team made Berlin, Germany, its headquarters in 2014, but failed to obtain German residence permits for everyone on the team and moved to other jurisdictions in early 2015. Since 2017, the company has been based in Dubai. Its data centers are spread across a complex corporate structure of shell companies in various jurisdictions to avoid compliance with government subpoenas. The company says this is done "to protect the data that is not covered by end-to-end encryption". Telegram's FAQ page says it does not process requests related to illegal content in chats and group chats, and that "to this day, we have disclosed 0 bytes of user messages to third parties, including governments". But according to Pavel, Telegram disclosed data for 203 legal requests from the Brazilian government in January to September 2024 and 6,992 legal requests from India, its largest market, during that period. Users can use Telegram's transparency bot to check how many legal requests from their country it has processed. === Usage === In October 2013, Telegram announced that it had 100,000 daily active users. On 24 March 2014, Telegram announced that it had reached 35 million monthly users and 15 million daily active users. In October 2014, South Korean government surveillance plans drove many of its citizens to switch to Telegram from the Korean app KakaoTalk. In December 2014, Telegram announced that it had 50 million active users, generating 1 billion daily messages, and that it had 1 million new users signing up on its service every week, traffic doubled in five months with 2 billion daily messages. In September 2015, Telegram announced that the app had 60 million active users and delivered 12 billion daily messages. In February 2016, Telegram announced that it had 100 million monthly active users, with 350,000 new users signing up every day, delivering 15 billion messages daily. In December 2017, Telegram reached 180 million monthly active users. By March 2018, that number had doubled, with Telegram reaching 200 million monthly active users. On 14 March 2019, Pavel said that "3 million new users signed up for Telegram within the last 24 hours." He did not specify what prompted this flood of new sign-ups, but the period matched a prolonged technical outage experienced by Facebook and its family of apps, including Instagram. According to the US Securities and Exchange Commission, as of October 2019, Telegram had 300 million monthly active users worldwide. On 24 April 2020, Telegram announced that it had reached 400 million monthly active users. On 8 January 2021, Pavel announced in a blog post that Telegram had reached "about 500 million" monthly active users. In August, TechCrunch reported that India was Telegram's largest market, with a 22% share of total installs coming from the region. Telegram then gained over 70 million new users as a result of an outage which affected Facebook and its affiliates on 5 October 2021. On 19 June 2022, Telegram announced that it had reached 700 million monthly active users. In July 2023, Telegram surpassed 800 million monthly active users, later reaching 900 million in March 2024 and 950 million in July 2024. In March 2025, Pavel Durov announced that Telegram surpassed 1 billion monthly active users. == Features == === Messaging === To use Telegram, a user must sign up with their phone number or an anonymous +888 number purchased from the Fragment blockchain platform. Changing the phone number in the app will automatically reassign the user's account to that number without exporting data or notifying their contacts. Phone numbers are hidden by default, with only a user's contacts able to see them. Sign-ups can be done only on an Android or iOS device. Messages users send and receive are tied to their numbers and custom usernames, not the device. Telegram content is synced between users' logged-in devices automatically through cloud storage, except for device-specific secret chats. By default, any account that is inactive for 6 months is deleted, but the period can be shortened or extended up to 18 months. Telegram allows groups, bots and channels with a verified social media or Wikipedia page to be verified, but not individual user accounts. Messages can contain formatted text, media, files up to 2 GB (4 GB with Premium), locations, and audio or video messages recorded in-app. Telegram messages in private chats can be edited for up to 48 hours; an "edited" icon indicates changes. Messages may also be deleted for both sides without a trace. Users may delete messages and whole chats for both themselves and other participants. Chats can be exported to preserve them via Telegram's Desktop client, but the saved data cannot be imported back into the user's account. Users can import chat history, including both messages and media, from WhatsApp, Line, and KakaoTalk due to data portability, making a new chat to hold the messages or adding them to an existing one. As users can be logged into many devices at once, starting to type a message on one of them will create a "cloud draft" that syncs with others, so that typing can be started on a phone and finished on a laptop, for example. Any message can be translated by opening the context menu. Premium users can translate a whole chat with one click. Users can hide the translate button for messages written in specific languages. Reactions can be used to respond to a message with emoji. Premium users have access to more reaction choices and can leave more reactions per message. Reactions are always on in private chats and can be enabled by admins in groups and channels. Specific reactions can be allowed or excluded. Reaction emoji play an animation with special effects. Users can also send stickers, which can be static, animated or video. Sticker packs are made by Telegram designers as well as regular users and can be shared via links. They use the WebP or WebM format and do not require special software to create or upload. Some stickers feature full-screen effects that play out when first sent or when tapped. Users can schedule messages to send at a particular time or when their conversation partner comes online, as well as choose to send a message "without sound" without a notification. Messages from private chats can be forwarded, with an option to hide the original sender's identity or to hide captions from media messages. Forwarded messages also maintain reply formatting, able to show which messages in a thread are replying to others. Any user can also send a message to a special "Saved Messages" chat as a form of bookmarking them. The contents of the chat are only visible to the user. Chats can be sorted into folders to organize them with preset options like "Unread" and "Muted" or custom separations such as "Work" and "Family". Premium users have the ability to set any chat folder as the default screen in the app while regular users will always see the full chat list when first opening the app. Users have the option to start a one-on-one, end-to-end-encrypted "Secret Chat", which remains accessible only on the device on which it started and self-destructs upon logging out. Secret Chats restrict screenshotting by Android devices and warn when one is taken on an iOS device, while also hiding the chat contents from the final image. Secret Chats support perfect forward secrecy and switch encryption keys after a key has been used 100 times or a week has passed. Secret Chats are available only on Android, iOS, and macOS clients. Both in Secret and regular chats, messages can self-destruct after they are read, disappearing for all parties after a period set by the user, ranging from one day to one year. === Groups and channels === Telegram users can create and join groups and channels. Groups are large multi-user chats that support up to 200,000 members and can be public or private. Users can freely join public chats and find them using the in-app search function, while private chats require an invitation. They support flexible admin rights and can use bots for moderation to prevent spam and unwanted activity. Groups can be split into topics, effectively creating subgroups dedicated to various subjects with separate settings for each. Admins can choose to hide the list of members in a group, as well as post anonymously themselves. Similarly, groups and channels can have content protection enabled, which prevents screenshots, forwarding and downloading of media. Ownership of channels and groups can be transferred to one of the admins if the owner wishes to give up their rights. Groups support threaded replies, where bringing up the context menu on a message allows one to open a screen with a thread of replies made to that message and the subsequent ones in the thread. Specific users can be tagged in the group by adding @username to a message, where "username" is that particular user's username. Groups and channels also support polls, which can be open or anonymous and can support multiple choices. When forwarded, polls retain the answer data and any votes cast in other chats will count toward the overall total. Channels are one-way feeds where the channel owner or admins can post content while followers can only read, react and comment, if comments have been enabled. Channels can be created for broadcasting messages to an unlimited number of subscribers. The list of those who subscribe to a channel can only be seen by its admins. Posting in the channel is anonymous, though admins can choose to add signatures to their posts. Channels offer detailed statistics on view counts, user growth and interactions, also visible only to admins. Channel owners are able to use Telegram to create giveaways, randomly awarding channel members with prizes such as Telegram Premium subscriptions to their followers, based on certain criteria. Users with a Telegram Premium subscription have a number of "boosts" that they can give to channels, which allow the channel to "level up" and unlock features, such as the ability to customize messages or post stories as the channel. In December 2019, Bloomberg News moved their messenger-based newsletter service from WhatsApp to Telegram after the former banned bulk and automated messaging. Other news services with official channels on the platform include the Financial Times, Business Insider and The New York Times. Channels have also been used by governments and heads of state. Notable examples include Volodymyr Zelenskyy and Emmanuel Macron. Channels have been used by journalists in oppressive regimes to establish independent news networks. === Telegram Mini Apps === Telegram also provides an open API for the creation of custom bots which can perform various tasks, integrate other services into Telegram chats, or work as mini apps or games. Among the Mini Apps, there are also various infrastructures for working with cryptocurrency, one of the best examples of which is Crypto Office. Most of them work on the 8XR game engine. In July 2024, Telegram Mini Apps reached 500 million monthly active users. === Video and voice calls === Since 2017, Telegram users have been able to initiate one-on-one calls in private chats. Calls are end-to-end encrypted and prioritize peer-to-peer connections. Video calls were introduced in August 2020. According to Telegram, there is a neural network working to learn various technical parameters about a call to provide better quality of service for future uses. Telegram added group voice chats in December 2020 and group video chats in June 2021. Group voice and video chats support picture-in-picture video, as well as sharing one's screen, creating a recording of the call, noise suppression and selective muting. In channels, users can start a livestream, that is able to integrate with third-party apps such as OBS Studio and XSplit. Once launched, a group voice chat will remain active and open to all group members until an admin specifically closes it. In April 2025, Telegram launched secure group calls with end-to-end encryption by using blockchain-like encryption technology. Group calls can handle up to 200 participants, and provide voice/video calls and screen sharing. === Privacy and security features === By default, logging into Telegram requires either an SMS message sent to the registered number or a code message sent to one of the active sessions on another device. Users have the option to set a two-step verification password and add a recovery email. In late 2022, options to Sign in with Apple and Sign In with Google or with an email address were added. Whenever a new device successfully logs in to a user's account, a special service notification is sent and a login alert is displayed in the chat list of their other devices. In the Privacy and Security submenu of Settings, users have the option to hide their "Last Seen" status, which reflects the last time the user opened a Telegram app. Hiding the status obfuscates the exact time the user was online and hides the statuses of other people respectively. Similarly, users can hide their phone number and profile photo from people based on categories such as Non-Contacts or by adding exceptions. When a user chooses to hide their profile photo, they can set an alternative "Public Profile Picture" that will be shown instead. In the same menu, users can restrict the circle of people who can call them or invite them to groups and channels, while Premium users also have the option to restrict who can send them text and voice messages. The Devices submenu shows all of the active devices on a user's account and allows them to remotely log out from those devices. === Data and storage settings === Telegram clients can turn off media autoplay and automatic downloads for both WiFi and mobile data, adjusting them for media type and size. Auto download settings can also be applied based on chat type such as group, channel or private. Cache settings can be changed to automatically clear the cache once it reaches a certain size or a certain time passes. The interface shows users a visual representation of their storage usage and also lets them sort their cached media by size to clear specific items. === Bots === In June 2015, Telegram launched a platform for third-party developers to create bots. Bots are Telegram accounts operated by programs. They can respond to messages or mentions directly or can be invited into groups, and are able to perform tasks, integrate with other programs and host mini apps. Bots can accept online payments made with credit cards or Apple Pay. The Dutch website Tweakers reported that an invited bot can potentially read all group messages, when the bot controller changes the access settings silently at a later point in time. Telegram pointed out that it considered implementing a feature that would announce such a status change within the relevant group. There are also inline bots, which can be used from any chat screen. To activate an inline bot, a user must type the bot's username and a query in the message field. The bot then will offer its content. The user can choose from that content and send it within a chat. Certain approved bots are also able to integrate into the attachment menu, making them accessible in any chat. Bots can handle transactions provided by Paymentwall, Yandex.Money, Stripe, Ravepay, Razorpay, QiWi and Google Pay for different countries. Bots power Telegram's gaming platform, which utilizes HTML5, so games are loaded on-demand as needed, like ordinary webpages. Games work on iPhone 4 and newer, and on Android 4.4 devices and newer. People can use Internet Of Things (IoT) services with two-way interaction via IFTTT implemented within Telegram. In April 2021, the Payments 2.0 upgrade enabled bot payments within any chat, using third-party services such as Sberbank, Tranzoo, Payme, CLICK, LiqPay and ECOMMPAY to process the credit card information. Bots are also commonly used for businesses to communicate with customers as the bot APIs integrate with communication platforms so that Telegram messages can be sent and received in an omnichannelinbox. These platforms also enable businesses to add Telegram chat widget to their websites and gives them the option to automate conversations or let human agents reply. Examples of platforms providing Telegram bot integration include respond.io, Manychat and Trengo. In February 2018, Telegram launched its social login feature, Telegram Login. It features a website widget that can be embedded into websites, allowing users to sign into a third party website with their Telegram account. The gateway sends the user's Telegram name, username, and profile picture to the website owner, while the user's phone number remains hidden. The gateway is integrated with a bot, which is linked with the developer's specific website domain. In June 2021, an update introduced a new bot menu where users can browse and send commands while in a chat with a bot. In April 2022, bots gained support for customized interfaces and inline page loading. Interfaces can be adjusted to match the app's theme even if it changes while interacting with the bot. In October 2024, Telegram added increased messaging limits for bots, allowing bots to send up to 1000 messages per second to their users. Messages beyond the free limit of 30 per second are paid for using Telegram Stars. Telegram introduced affiliate programs in December 2024 that allow developers to create an affiliate program for their bot or mini app. Any Telegram user can join the affiliate program and be rewarded for referring others to the bot or mini app by receiving a commission from purchases made by the people they referred. === Stickers, emoji, reactions and effects === Telegram has more than 40,000 stickers. Stickers are cloud-based, high-resolution images intended to provide more expressive emoji. When typing in an emoji, the user is offered to send the respective sticker instead. Stickers come in collections called "packs", and multiple stickers can be offered for one emoji. Telegram comes with one default sticker pack, and users can install additional sticker packs provided by third-party contributors. Sticker sets installed from one client become automatically available to all other clients. Sticker images use WebP file format, which is better optimized to be transmitted over the internet. The Telegram clients also support animated emoji. In January 2022, video stickers were added, which use the WebM file format and do not feature any software requirements to create. In August 2019, Telegram introduced animated emoji, larger versions of familiar emoji with unique animations. In September 2021, Telegram added interactive emoji, a type of animated emoji which also play a fullscreen effect in the chat. These kinds of effects were later used for Premium Stickers in June 2022 and for message effects in May 2024. In August 2022, Telegram launched an emoji platform where users could upload their own custom emoji, either in animated or static versions. While any user can upload custom emoji to the platform, the use of custom emoji in chats is only available to users with Telegram Premium. Reactions were first added to Telegram in 2021 and expanded to include more emoji options for Premium users. In September 2022, Telegram gave free users access to dozens of reactions, even some that were only previously available to Premium subscribers. In order to accommodate the new reactions, the reaction panel was expanded and redesigned. === People Nearby and Groups Near Me === People Nearby and Groups Near Me were features that helped users contact people in their physical vicinity, using their phone's GPS location. They were removed in 2024, with Durov saying that they had had "issues with bots and scammers". === Stories === Similar to other social platforms, Telegram users can post stories, a type of short-form content. Telegram stories have several distinctive features, like a dual-camera mode, extra privacy settings, the ability to edit stories after posting them, as well as to rewind and fast-forward them while watching. === Premium features === Telegram Premium was launched on 19 June 2022 with regional pricing. The optional paid subscription gives users increased limits in the app, such as larger file uploads, faster download speeds, unlimited voice message transcription, as well as numerous other increases such as the number of pinned chats and folders. Premium users have access to extra stickers, emoji, reactions, and customization features like a special badge and the ability to change the look of their messages in chats. Premium users get access to additional settings, like instant chat translation, and the ability to restrict who can send them text and voice messages. As of 2023, Telegram Premium can be acquired via in-app purchases facilitated by Apple and Google, directly via Telegram's @PremiumBot, or with cryptocurrency on the Fragment platform. Users are able to purchase a subscription for themselves, or purchase a subscription for someone else to send as a gift. Premium subscriptions can also be won through official Channel Giveaways, in which Telegram channels pre-purchase a specific number of Premium subscriptions that are randomly given away to their subscribers. === Gifts === In October 2024, Telegram launched Gifts, a type of virtual cosmetic item that users can purchase and send to each other in the app using Telegram Stars. In January 2025, Collectible Gifts were released, which are unique collections that contain special artwork and attributes. Specific limited-edition gifts can be upgraded to a collectible version, unlocking a random appearance and other attributes. These collectible gifts are registered on the TON blockchain as a form of NFT and can then be traded or sold both on the Telegram platform via the in-app Gift Marketplace or via outside platforms and marketplaces. In July 2025, Telegram partnered with the rapper and media figure Snoop Dogg to release a set of limited edition collectible gifts alongside his music video "Gifts". In November 2025, Telegram began using an auction-based system for new sets of collectible gifts and partnered with Khabib Nurmagomedov and with the UFC for two limited-edition releases. == Related platforms == People can use their Telegram accounts to author articles on Telegraph – a minimalistic text editor and publisher. While articles on Telegraph can be published anonymously, tying them to one's account allows one to check their view count and edit them later. Telegraph natively supports Instant View, a feature which lets users read full articles in the chat with no load time and without opening an external browser. When an article is first published, the URL is generated automatically from its title. Non-Latin characters are transliterated, spaces are replaced with hyphens, and the date of publication is added to the address. For example, an article titled "Telegraph (blog platform)" published on 17 November would receive the URL /Telegraph-blog-platform-11-17. Text formatting options are also minimal: two levels of headings, single-level lists, bold, italics, quotes, and hyperlinks are supported. Authors could upload images and videos to the page, with a limit of 5 MB, however, it has been disabled since September 2024. When an author adds links to YouTube, Vimeo, or Twitter, the service allows you to embed their content directly in the article. In February 2018, Telegram launched their social login feature to its users, named Telegram Login. It features a website widget that could be embedded into websites, allowing users to sign into a third party website with their Telegram account. The gateway sends users' Telegram name, username, and profile picture to the website owner, while users' phone number remains hidden. The gateway is integrated with a bot, which is linked with the developer's specific website domain. In July 2018, Telegram introduced their online authorization and identity-management system, Telegram Passport, for platforms that require real-life identification. It asks users to upload their own official documents such as passport, identity card, driver license, etc. When an online service requires such identification documents and verification, it forwards the information to the platform with the user's permission. Telegram stated that it does not have access to the data, while the platform will share the information only with the authorized recipient. However, the service was criticised for being vulnerable to online brute-force attacks. In December 2020, Telegram launched a Bugs and Suggestions platform, where users can submit bug reports and suggestion cards for new features. Others can then vote and comment on the cards. In October 2024, Telegram launched a verification platform, called Telegram Gateway, allowing third-party services to authenticate their users by sending verification codes via Telegram. == Architecture == === Privacy === For encrypted chats (branded as Secret Chats), Telegram uses a custom-built symmetric encryption scheme called MTProto. The protocol was developed by Nikolai Durov and other developers at Telegram and, as of version 2.0, is based on 256-bit symmetric AES encryption, 2048-bit RSA encryption and Diffie–Hellman key exchange. MTProto 1.0 was deprecated in favor of MTProto 2.0 in December 2017, which was deployed in Telegram clients as of v4.6. Version 2.0 was proven formally correct in December 2020 by a team from the University of Udine, Italy. The team reviewed the protocol after realizing that they could only find in-depth verifications done of version 1.0, where most criticisms were levied. They used ProVerif, a verifier based on the symbolic Dolev-Yao model. In the published paper, they "provide a fully automated proof of the soundness of MTProto 2.0’s protocols for authentication, normal chat, end-to-end encrypted chat, and re-keying mechanisms with respect to several security properties, including authentication, integrity, confidentiality and perfect forward secrecy...MTProto 2.0 is assumed to be a perfect authenticated encryption scheme (IND-CCA and INT-CTXT)." However, the team also stated that because all communication, including plaintext and ciphertext, passes through Telegram servers, and because the server is responsible for choosing Diffie–Hellman parameters, the "server should not be considered as trusted." They also concluded that a man-in-the-middle attack is possible if users fail to check the fingerprints of their shared keys. Finally, they qualified their conclusion with the caveat that "properties need to be formally proved in order to deem MTProto 2.0 definitely secure. This proof cannot be done in a symbolic model like ProVerif's, but it can be achieved in a computational model, using tools like CryptoVerif or EasyCrypt." === Servers === As with most instant messaging protocols, apart from XMPP, Telegram uses centralized servers. Telegram Messenger LLP has servers in a number of countries throughout the world to improve the response time of their service. Telegram's server-side software is closed-source and proprietary. Pavel Durov said that it would require a major architectural redesign of the server-side software to connect independent servers to the Telegram cloud. For users who signed in from the European Economic Area (EEA) or United Kingdom, the General Data Protection Regulations (GDPR) are supported by storing data only on servers in the Netherlands, and designating a London-based company as their responsible data controller. === Clients === Telegram has various client apps, some developed by Telegram Messenger LLP and some by the community. Most of them are free and open-source and released under the GNU General Public Licence version 2 or 3. The official clients support sending any file format extensions. The built-in media viewer supports common media formats – JPEG, PNG, WebP for images and H.264 and HEVC in videos in MP4 container and MP3, FLAC, Vorbis, Opus and AAC for audio. This enables the building of clients for non-traditional platforms like KaiOS (supported by Telekram), or S30+/Mocor Feature phones (still in development). In 2021, the Telegram team announced a direct build of its Android app. Telegram for Android is available directly from the Telegram website. It is automatically updated and will most likely get new versions faster than the apps in the Play Store and App Store. A distinctive feature of this version is the ability to view channels/groups on a specific topic without censorship, which cannot be viewed from an app distributed from Google Play or the Apple Store due to their policies. Common specifications: No cloud backup option for secret chat === APIs === Telegram has public APIs with which developers can access the same functionality as Telegram's official apps to build their own instant messaging applications. In February 2015, creators of the unofficial WhatsApp+ client released the Telegram Plus app, later renamed to Plus Messenger, after their original project got a cease-and-desist order from WhatsApp. In September 2015, Samsung released a messaging application based on these APIs. Telegram also offers an API that allows developers to create bots, which are accounts controlled by programs. Such bots are used, among other things, to emulate and play old games in the app and inform users about vaccine availability for COVID-19. In addition, Telegram offers functions for making payments directly within the platform, alongside an external service such as Stripe. == xAI == In 2025, founder of Telegram claimed that xAI had signed a $300mln program with Telegram for Grok to provide full functions within Telegram starting from Summer 2025. The amount was paid using a combination of cash and xAI equity. This seems to have been abandoned though as there has been no new announcement since and the promised features have not been released. == Business == The company was initially supported by founding CEO Pavel Durov's personal funds after the sale of his stake in VK. In January 2018, it launched a private placement and collected $1.7 billion from investors such as Kleiner Perkins, Sequoia Capital, and Benchmark. After the shutdown of the TON project, the company needed to repay the investors the money that was not spent on its development during 2018 and the beginning of 2019, while the project was active. On 15 March 2021, Telegram conducted a five-year public bonds placement worth $1 billion. The funding was required to cover the debts amounting to $625.7 million, including $433 million to investors who bought futures for Gram tokens in 2018 and included purchasers such as David Yakobashvili. On 23 March, Telegram sold additional bonds worth $150 million to the Abu Dhabi Mubadala Investment Company and Abu Dhabi Catalyst Partners. A day later, the Mubadala Investment Company stated that Russia's sovereign wealth fund participated in its deal undisclosed through the Russia-UAE joint investment platform to buy convertible bonds. A Telegram spokesperson stated: "RDIF is not in the list of investors we sold bonds to. We wouldn't be open to any transaction with this fund" and "[t]he funds that did invest, including Mubadala, confirmed to us that RDIF was not among their LPs [limited partners]." According to the contract, the holders of the bonds will be provided with an option to convert them to shares at a 10% discount if the company conducts an open IPO. Durov stated that the move aimed to "enable Telegram to continue growing globally while sticking to its values and remaining independent". According to press reports, prior to the bonds placement, Durov had rejected an investment offer for a 5–10% stake in the company as well as several undisclosed ones, valuing the company in a $30–40 billion range. In March 2024, Telegram sold an additional $330 million in bonds. Durov said the bond sale "will further solidify our position as an independent platform that is able to challenge the 'Goliaths' of our industry". === Advertising and monetization === Telegram has stated that the company will never serve advertisements in private chats. In late 2020, Durov announced that the company was working on its own ad platform, and would integrate non-targeted ads in public one-to-many channels, that already were selling and displaying ads in the form of regular messages. Ads from Telegram's "Sponsored Messages" platform began to appear in channels with more than 1000 followers in October 2021. In late 2020, Durov announced that Telegram will consider adding paid features aimed at enterprise clients. According to him, these features will require more bandwidth and the added cost will be covered by the feature prices, in addition to covering some of the costs incurred by regular users. In June 2024, Telegram launched Telegram Stars to facilitate in-app purchases of digital goods and services, in compliance with policies from the App Store and Play Store. Following the launch of Stars, Telegram released several updates to their functionality, such as allowing Stars to be used to unlock media in channels or to buy gifts for other users. In December 2024, Telegram CEO Pavel Durov announced that Telegram had reached profitability, due to significant growth in Premium subscriptions and Telegram ad sales, assisted by the other monetization features launched throughout 2024. === TON Telegram Open Network === In 2017, in an attempt to monetize Telegram without advertising, the company began the development of a blockchain platform dubbed either "The Open Network" or "Telegram Open Network" (TON) and its native cryptocurrency "Gram". The project was announced in mid-December 2017 and its 132-page technical paper became available in January 2018. The codebase behind TON was developed by Pavel Durov's brother Nikolai Durov, the core developer of Telegram's MTProto protocol. In January 2018, a 23-page white paper and a detailed 132-page technical paper for TON blockchain became available. Durov planned to power TON with the existing Telegram user base, and turn it into the largest blockchain and a platform for apps and services akin to a decentralized WeChat, Google Play, and App Store. Besides, the TON had the potential to become a decentralized alternative to Visa and MasterCard due to its ability to scale and support millions of transactions per second. In January and February 2018, the company ran a private sale of futures contracts for Grams, raising around $1.7 billion. No public offering took place. The development of TON took place in a completely isolated manner, and the release was postponed several times. The test network was launched in January 2019. The launch of the TON main network was scheduled for 31 October. On 30 October, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission obtained a temporary restrictive order to prevent the distribution of Grams to initial purchasers; the regulator considered the legal scheme employed by Telegram as an unregistered securities offering with initial buyers acting as underwriters. The judge hearing the Telegram v. SEC case, P. Kevin Castel, ultimately agreed with the SEC's argument and kept the restrictions on Gram distribution in force. The ban applied to non-U.S.-based purchasers as well, because Telegram could not prevent the re-sale of Grams to U.S. citizens on a secondary market, as the anonymity of users was one of the key features of TON. Following that, Durov announced the end of Telegram's active involvement with TON. On 26 June, the judge approved the settlement between Telegram and SEC. The company agreed to pay an $18.5 million penalty and return $1.22 billion to Gram purchasers. In March 2021, Telegram launched a bonds offering to cover the debt and fund further growth of the app. The TON ecosystem was later developed by others and began offering decentralized domain names and cloud storage solutions via TON DNS. == Criticism == Due to Telegram's mixed nature as both a private communication method and a social media-like platform with mass groups and channels, along with its minimal restrictions on content with only calls to violence, illegal forms of pornography, and scamming forbidden, it has been used by organizations and large groups for recruitment and spreading their agendas. Organized use of the app has been linked to pro-democracy protests in Belarus, Russia, Hong Kong, and Iran, as well as to dissemination of state propaganda and violent rhetoric in oppressive regimes, promotion of extremist views, and digitalization of services provided by government entities and private businesses. Numerous research institutions and internet monitoring bodies have criticized Telegram because violent organizations like ISIS, Proud Boys, and the Myanmar junta used it to communicate, both privately between members and publicly through channel posts. Telegram made substantial efforts to ban illegal content such as child abuse and pro-terrorist channels, including a partnership with Europol to eliminate IS presence on the platform, but communities of far-right extremist users are still on the app. Such content is usually linked to Telegram allowing misinformation on the platform as, according to Pavel Durov, "conspiracy theories only strengthen each time their content is removed by moderators". In September 2024, Telegram announced that it would begin to hand over users' IP addresses and phone numbers to authorities who have search warrants or other valid legal requests. === Russian use for destabilization activities === Martin Jäger, the head of Germany's Federal Intelligence Service (BND), warned that Russia was recruiting saboteurs across Europe through Telegram by monitoring pro-Russian channels to identify potential "low-level agents" for small acts of sabotage, surveillance or provocation in exchange of small payments. According to a study by the international analysis company OpenMinds published on the eve of the 2025 Moldovan parliamentary election, which was subject to external interference from Russia, a third of all Telegram channels in Moldova systematically spread Russian propaganda and one in eight comments came from bots. Moldovan president Maia Sandu denounced that Telegram refused any collaboration with the Moldovan state authorities against illegal activities taking place in its platform such as vote buying. === Use by militant groups === In September 2015, in response to a question about the use of Telegram by Islamic State (ISIS), Pavel Durov stated: "I think that privacy, ultimately, and our right for privacy is more important than our fear of bad things happening, like terrorism." Durov sarcastically suggested to ban words because terrorists use them for communication. ISIS has used Telegram for recruiting attempts with some cells recommending the app to their followers. In France, initial investigations of a terrorist act revealed the perpetrators used Telegram to communicate, though follow-up research suggested that the extent of the app's use was "unclear". Beginning in December 2016, Telegram began publishing daily moderation statistics regarding terror-related content in an official channel named @ISISwatch. Following efforts by Telegram to remove ISIS-related content from the platform, the terrorist organization reportedly moved its recruitment groups to the dark web, with US officials citing the app's purging of terrorist content as particularly effective at deplatforming ISIS. In 2023, Saudi Arabia's Global Center for Combating Extremist Ideology (Etidal) reported that in collaboration with Telegram, over 59 million pieces of extremist content had been removed from the platform since 2022. Throughout 2020, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps used groups and channels to dox Iraqi and Iranian citizens, while sharing propagandistic posts on the platform. After the 2021 coup d'état in Myanmar, the junta used Telegram channels to spread propaganda and organize misinformation campaigns against pro-democracy groups. In response to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights call to prevent such abuse, Telegram reportedly banned 13 accounts related to or supporting the Myanmar military. On 26 April 2023, Telegram was temporarily suspended in Brazil and fined R$1 million (2023) (US$185,528.76) per day for not complying with a Federal Police investigation into neo-Nazi activities on the platform. The company only partially fulfilled a court request for personal data on two antisemitic Telegram groups, which authorities considered an intentional lack of cooperation. The decision was made after a series of violent school attacks, with at least one incident linked to exchanges on an antisemitic group. Telegram's CEO then said that the requested data was technologically impossible to obtain. A federal court lifted the suspension three days later but upheld the daily fine. Twelve days later, Telegram told its users that the Brazilian Congressional Bill No. 2630 against online disinformation, which was about to be approved, would end freedom of speech in the country. Far-right and white supremacist communities on Telegram have spread videos of the Christchurch and Halle shootings in groups and channels after the original livestreams were taken down by Twitch. British far-right publication TR.news, following multiple deplatformings, launched a Telegram channel to spread its posts and the Institute for Strategic Dialogue reported that Irish far-right groups grew substantially between 2019 and 2020. But research by Oxford University suggests that, because Telegram does not use sorting algorithms in its search function, many such groups remain obscure and small while select others receive a lot of attention. === Illegal pornography === Telegram has been used to distribute illegal pornography, including child pornography. Telegram's internal reporting system has an option to report content that contains child abuse, including specific messages in groups and channels. The company has a verified channel called "Stop Child Abuse", where daily statistics on the number of groups and channels banned for sharing illegal materials are posted. It also provides an email address dedicated to reports of content related to child abuse. In January 2021, North Macedonian media outlets reported that a now-banned Telegram group, "Public Room" ("Јавна соба"), with more than 7,000 members, was used to share nude photos of women and young teenage girls. Along with the shared photographs, anonymous accounts shared the women's private information, including phone numbers and social media profiles, encouraging members of the group to contact the women and ask for sexual favors. This was done without the women's agreement or knowledge, causing intense public backlash and demand that the group be shut down. North Macedonia President Stevo Pendarovski and Prime Minister Zoran Zaev demanded an immediate response from Telegram and threatened to completely restrict access to the app in the country if no action was taken. The group was banned, but no public statement was made. An August 2024 BBC investigation found that Telegram had not responded to requests to join the US–based National Center for Missing & Exploited Children (NCMEC) or the UK–based Internet Watch Foundation, both nonprofit NGOs. In response, Telegram said that it "proactively moderates harmful content on its platform including child abuse material" and that its moderation is "within industry standards and constantly improving". In August 2024, journalist Ko Narin of the Hankyoreh exposed Telegram chats of teenagers who used generative AI to deepfake images of their classmates and teachers for porn. === Bot abuse === Volodymyr Flents, the chairman of the public organization "Electronic Democracy", announced on 11 May 2020 that a Telegram bot appeared on the Web, which sold the personal data of Ukrainian citizens. It is estimated that the bot contains data from 26 million Ukrainians registered in the Diia application. But deputy prime minister and minister of digital transformation Mykhailo Fedorov denied that any data from the app had leaked. The criminal activity of 25 people was confirmed and copies of 30 databases were seized. In 2020, Apple blocked a Telegram bot after it posted deepfake pornography. The same year, Telegram reportedly banned more than 350,000 bots and channels, including those that contained child abuse and terrorism-related content. In 2021, a bot was found selling leaked phone numbers from Facebook. === Fraudulent jobs === Telegram has received criticism for its failure to curb fraud. The most common mode of fraud involves scammers sending messages to unsuspecting users, offering part-time online jobs that comprise a series of tasks. Scammers employ a variety of confidence tricks to entice users into completing "prepaid tasks" in which users deposit money into scammers' accounts with the expectation of receiving high returns. In July 2023, Hyderabad Police uncovered a fraud wherein 15,000 Indian citizens were duped out of ₹712 crore (US$84 million) in less than a year, all related to "prepaid tasks" on Telegram. A cybercrime police investigation of the money trail revealed that the fraud originated in China and the money was laundered by mules through cryptocurrency wallets. In September 2023, the Singapore Police Force stated that more than 6,600 Singaporeans had lost over S$96.8 million (US$72.24 million) to prepaid job scams on Telegram and WhatsApp since the start of the year. === Copyright infringement === In March 2024, a judge of Spain's Audiencia Nacional ordered the temporary blocking of Telegram in Spain. The order came following a complaint from media organizations —Mediaset, Atresmedia and Movistar Plus+— saying the app allowed users to share copyrighted content without their consent. A few days later, following repeated criticism, the same judge suspended his order until the police issue a report on the consequences this measure would have for users. Finally, the judge annulled the order, considering it "disproportionate". === Drug trade === In recent years, Telegram has become more popular for the purpose of buying and selling illicit drugs. In 2024, Sociology Compass released a paper exploring this trend in drug trade. === User numbers === In August 2024, an EU probe was launched into Telegram to determine whether the platform breached EU digital rules by failing to provide accurate user numbers. Telegram said in February 2024 that it had 41mn users in the EU. Under the EU's Digital Services Act (DSA), Telegram was supposed to provide an updated number in August but failed to do so, only declaring it had "significantly fewer than 45mn average monthly active recipients in the EU". === Advertisements === As part of the monetization model, Telegram can display advertisement banners for non-premium users in public channels with more than 1000 subscribers. The revenue of these advertisements is shared with the channel owner in form of Telegram's Toncoin crypto currency. As of August 2025, there was no option for channel owners to opt out of this mechanism. This is seen as an issue for non-profit organizations and similar entities who want to operate a Telegram channel. In August 2025, the German public media broadcaster NDR closed its tagesschau Telegram channel, which published summaries of news stories from the German television news service by the same name. The TV program and news stories are produced for the joint organization ARD to be simulcast by its members. The editorial staff was made aware of the advertisement by a Telegram user and the online magazine Übermedien. They argued the advertisements could be seen as a violation of the Rundfunkstaatsvertrag (Interstate Broadcasting Agreement), which places strict rules on how German public media broadcasters may generate revenue from advertisements, including an advertisement ban for online media apart from product placement. Additional criticism was expressed as some advertisements were described as "shady" or "fraudulent" offerings on sports bets. The NDR stated that they had not noticed these ads before, but closed the channel, stating that an advertisement-based accumulation of Toncoin, albeit unsolicited and not withdrawn, was unacceptable for a German public media broadcaster. == Reception == Channels have been used by celebrities such as Arnold Schwarzenegger and Snoop Dogg and politicians: President of France Emmanuel Macron, former President of Brazil Jair Bolsonaro, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, President of Moldova Maia Sandu, President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy, former Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador, former Singaporean Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong, President of Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev, former Taiwan President Tsai Ing-wen, Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and others. === Security === Telegram's security model has received notable criticism by cryptography experts. They criticized how, unless modified first, the default general security model stores all contacts, messages and media together with their decryption keys on its servers continuously; and that it does not enable end-to-end encryption for messages by default. Pavel Durov has argued that this is because it helps to avoid third-party unsecured backups, and to allow users to access messages and files from any device. Criticisms were also aimed at Telegram's use of a custom-designed encryption protocol. In December 2020, a study titled "Automated Symbolic Verification of Telegram's MTProto 2.0" was published, confirming the security of the updated MTProto 2.0 and reviewing it while pointing out several theoretical vulnerabilities. The paper provides "fully automated proof of the soundness of MTProto 2.0's authentication, normal chat, end-to-end encrypted chat, and re-keying mechanisms with respect to several security properties, including authentication, integrity, confidentiality and perfect forward secrecy" and "proves the formal correctness of MTProto 2.0". This partially addresses the concern about the lack of scrutiny while confirming the formal security of the protocol's latest version. The desktop clients, excluding the macOS client, do not feature options for end-to-end encrypted messages. When the user assigns a local password in the desktop application, data is also locally encrypted. Telegram has defended the lack of ubiquitous end-to-end encryption by saying that online-backups that do not use client-side encryption are "the most secure solution currently possible". In May 2016, critics disputed claims by Telegram that it is "more secure than mass market messengers like WhatsApp and Line", as WhatsApp claims to apply end-to-end encryption to all of its traffic by default and uses the Signal Protocol, which has been "reviewed and endorsed by leading security experts", while Telegram does neither and stores all messages, media and contacts in their cloud. Since July 2016, Line has also applied end-to-end encryption to all of its messages by default, though it has also been criticized for being susceptible to replay attacks and the lack of forward secrecy between clients. In 2013, an author on the Russian programming website Habr discovered a weakness in the first version of MTProto that would allow an attacker to mount a man-in-the-middle attack and prevent the victim from being alerted by a changed key fingerprint. The bug was fixed on the day of the publication with a $100,000 payout to the author and a statement on Telegram's official blog. On 26 February 2014, the German consumer organization Stiftung Warentest evaluated several data-protection aspects of Telegram, along with other popular instant-messaging clients. Among the aspects considered were: the security of the data transmission, the service's terms of use, the accessibility of the source code, and the distribution of the app. Telegram was rated 'problematic' (kritisch) overall. The organization was favorable to Telegram's secure chats and partially free code but criticized the mandatory transfer of contact data to Telegram's servers and the lack of an imprint or address on the service's website. It noted that while the message data is encrypted on the device, it could not analyze the transmission due to a lack of source code. The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) listed Telegram on its "Secure Messaging Scorecard" in February 2015. Telegram's default chat function received a score of 4 out of 7 points on the scorecard. It received points for having communications encrypted in transit, having its code open to independent review, having the security design properly documented, and having completed a recent independent security audit. Telegram's default chat function missed points because the communications were not encrypted with keys the provider did not have access to, users could not verify contacts' identities, and past messages were not secure if the encryption keys were stolen. Telegram's optional secret chat function, which provides end-to-end encryption, received a score of 7 out of 7 points on the scorecard. The EFF said that the results "should not be read as endorsements of individual tools or guarantees of their security", and that they were merely indications that the projects were "on the right track". In December 2015, two researchers from Aarhus University published a report in which they demonstrated that MTProto 1.0 did not achieve indistinguishability under chosen-ciphertext attack (IND-CCA) or authenticated encryption. The researchers stressed that the attack was of a theoretical nature and they "did not see any way of turning the attack into a full plaintext-recovery attack". Nevertheless, they said they saw "no reason why [Telegram] should use a less secure encryption scheme when more secure (and at least as efficient) solutions exist". The Telegram team responded that the flaw does not affect message security and that "a future patch would address the concern". Telegram 4.6, released in December 2017, supports MTProto 2.0, which now satisfied the conditions for IND-CCA. MTProto 2.0 is seen by qualified cryptographers as a vast improvement to Telegram's security. In April 2016, several Russian opposition members' accounts were hijacked by intercepting the SMS messages used for login authorization. In response, Telegram recommended using the two-factor authentication feature. In May 2016, the Committee to Protect Journalists and Nate Cardozo, senior staff attorney at Electronic Frontier Foundation, recommended against using Telegram because of "its lack of end-to-end encryption [by default] and its use of non-standard MTProto encryption protocol, which has been publicly criticized by cryptography researchers, including Matthew Green". On 2 August 2016, Reuters reported that Iranian hackers compromised more than a dozen Telegram accounts and identified the phone numbers of 15 million Iranian users, as well as the associated user IDs. Researchers said the hackers belonged to a group known as Rocket Kitten. Rocket Kitten's attacks were similar to ones attributed to Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps. The attackers took advantage of a programming interface built into Telegram. According to Telegram, these mass checks are no longer possible because of limitations introduced into its API earlier in 2016. Login SMS messages are known to have been intercepted in Iran, Russia and Germany, possibly in coordination with phone or telecom companies. Pavel Durov has said that Telegram users in "troubled countries" should enable two-factor authentication by creating passwords in order to prevent this. In June 2017, Pavel Durov in an interview said that U.S. intelligence agencies tried to bribe the company's developers to weaken Telegram's encryption or install a backdoor during their visit to the U.S. in 2016. In 2018, Telegram sent a message to all Iranian users stating that the Telegram Talai and Hotgram unofficial clients are not secure. In March 2014, Telegram promised that "all code will be released eventually", including all the various client applications (Android, iOS, desktop, etc.) and the server-side code. As of May 2021, Telegram had not published their server-side source code. In January 2021, Durov explained his rationale for not releasing server-side code, citing reasons such as inability for end-users to verify that the released code is the same code run on servers, and a government that wanted to acquire the server code and make an instant messaging network that would end competitors. On 9 June 2019, The Intercept released leaked Telegram messages exchanged between current Brazilian Minister of Justice and former judge Sérgio Moro and federal prosecutors. The hypothesis is that either mobile devices were hacked by SIM swap or the targets' computers were compromised. The Telegram team tweeted that it was either because the user had malware or they were not using two-step verification. On 12 June 2019, Telegram confirmed that it suffered a denial-of-service attack which disrupted normal app functionality for approximately one hour. Pavel Durov tweeted that the IP addresses used in the attack mostly came from China. In December 2019, multiple Russian businessmen suffered account takeovers that involved bypassing SMS single-factor authentication. Security company Group-IB suggested SS7 mobile signalling protocol weaknesses, illegal usage of surveillance equipment, or telecom insider attacks. On 30 March 2020, an Elasticsearch database holding 42 million records containing user IDs and phone numbers of Iranian users was exposed online without a password. The accounts were extracted from not Telegram but an unofficial version of Telegram, in what appears to be a possibly government-sanctioned fork. It took 11 days for the database to be taken down, but the researchers say the data was accessed by other parties, including a hacker who reported the information to a specialized forum. In September 2020, it was reported that Iran's RampantKitten espionage group ran a phishing and surveillance campaign against dissidents on Telegram. The attack relied on people downloading a malware-infected file from any source, at which point it would replace Telegram files on the device and 'clone' session data. David Wolpoff, a former Department of Defense contractor, has stated that the weak link in the attack was the device itself and not any of the affected apps: "There's no way for a secure communication app to keep a user safe when the end devices are compromised." In July 2021, researchers from Royal Holloway, University of London and ETH Zurich published an analysis of the MTProto protocol, concluding that the protocol could provide a "confidential and integrity-protected channel" for communication. They also found that attackers had the theoretical ability to reorder messages coming from the client to the server though the attacker would not be able to see the content of the messages. Several other theoretical vulnerabilities were reported as well, in response to which Telegram released a document stating that the MITM attack on the key exchange was impossible as well as detailing the changes made to the protocol to protect from it in the future. All issues were patched before the paper's publication with a security bounty paid out to the researchers. In September 2021, a Russian researcher published details about a bug with the self-destruct feature that allowed the user to recover deleted photos from their own device. The bug was patched prior to publication and Telegram representatives offered a €1,000 bug bounty. The researcher did not sign the NDA that came with the offer and did not receive the award, opting to disclose the bug. In March 2023, the Norwegian National Security Authority (NSM) advised against the use of Telegram and TikTok on business devices (especially the ones used for government related activities), the assessment has been commissioned and supported by the Ministry of Justice and Public Security, Emilie Enger Mehl. Regarding Telegram, the report cites its lack of end-to-end encryption by default, its Russian origins and third-party open source intelligence as major critical points. In July 2024, ESET reported a vulnerability allowed malicious files being sent to users masked in multimedia. In June 2025, an IStories investigation revealed that key parts of Telegram's technical infrastructure are operated by companies owned by a network engineer who has collaborated with the Russian intelligence services, raising concerns over potential metadata access and user surveillance. ==== Cryptography contests ==== Telegram has organized two cryptography contests to challenge its own security. Third parties were asked to break the service's cryptography and disclose the information contained within a secret chat between two computer-controlled users. A reward of respectively US$200,000 and US$300,000 was offered. Both of these contests expired with no winners. Security researcher Moxie Marlinspike, founder of the competing Signal messenger, and commenters on Hacker News criticized the first contest for being rigged or framed in Telegram's favor and said that Telegram's statements on the value of these contests as proof of the cryptography's quality are misleading. This was because the cryptography contest could not be won even with completely broken algorithms such as MD2 (hash function) used as key stream extractor, and primitives such as the Dual EC DRBG that is known to be backdoored. === Censorship === Telegram has been blocked temporarily or permanently by some governments including Iran, China, Brazil, and Pakistan. The Russian government blocked Telegram for several years before lifting the ban in 2020. The company's founder has said he wants the app to have an anti-censorship tool for Iran and China similar to the app's role in fighting censorship in Russia. On 19 April 2024, Apple removed Telegram from the App Store in China. In September 2024, Ukraine banned the usage of Telegram by government officials, military personnel, and key workers on official devices, citing fears of Russian espionage. The National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine enforced the restrictions following evidence reported to them by Kyrylo Budanov, showing Russia's ability to access messages and user data on the platform. Andriy Kovalenko, head of the security council's centre on countering disinformation, clarified that the ban was limited to official devices and did not extend to personal phones. ==== 2019 Puerto Rico "Telegramgate" ==== Telegram was the main subject surrounding the 2019 Puerto Rico riots that ended up in the resignation of then-Governor Ricardo Rosselló. Hundreds of pages of a group chat between Rosselló and members of his staff were leaked. The messages were considered vulgar, racist, and homophobic, with members of the chat discussing how they would use the media to target potential political opponents. ==== 2021 shutdown of Russian political bots ==== In September 2021, prior to the regional elections in Russia, Telegram suspended several bots spreading information about the election, including a bot run by the opposition party and critics of incumbent president Vladimir Putin's government, citing election silence as the reason, though a blog post by the company's CEO implied the company was following Apple and Google, which "dictate the rules of the game to developers". The blocking of the main Smart Voting bot was criticized by allies of Alexei Navalny, a Kremlin critic and former opposition leader. Navalny's spokeswoman Kira Yarmysh called the block and the deletion of the tactical voting app from app stores "censorship [...] imposed by private companies". In a later blog post, Durov directly stated that the block was a result of pressure from Google and Apple as refusal to comply with their policies would result "in an immediate shutdown of Telegram for millions of users". The post included a screenshot showing an internal email sent by the App Store to developers, demanding the takedown of content related to Navalny. ==== 2022 Delhi High Court ruling ==== On 24 November 2022, Telegram disclosed the admin names, phone numbers and IP addresses of channels accused of unauthorised sharing of national exam study materials following an order by the Delhi High Court which rejected Telegram's argument that its regional servers were located in Singapore and thus no data could be disclosed as the local laws prohibit it. ==== 2024 arrest of Pavel Durov ==== On 24 August 2024, Pavel Durov, who is both a French and UAE citizen, was arrested in France by French authorities. On 28 August he was charged with a wide array of crimes, including complicity in managing an online platform to enable illegal transactions; complicity in crimes such as enabling the distribution of child sexual abuse material; drug trafficking and fraud; and refusal to cooperate with law enforcement authorities. Durov posted bail of five million Euros, was barred from leaving France, and was released on condition he report to a French police station twice weekly. The case would be handled by a special magistrate with investigative and prosecutorial powers. == See also == Alt-tech – Internet platforms favored by the alt-right Censorship of Telegram Comparison of cross-platform instant messaging clients Internet privacy – Right or mandate of personal privacy concerning the internet Secure instant messaging == References == == Sources == Espinoza, Antonio; Tolley, William (August 2017). "Alice and Bob, who the FOCI are they?: Analysis of end-to-end encryption in the LINE messaging application" (PDF). Usenix. USENIX Association. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 12 May 2021. Rottermanner, Christoph; Kieseberg, Peter; Huber, Markus; Schmiedecker, Martin; Schrittwieser, Sebastian (December 2015). Privacy and Data Protection in Smartphone Messengers (PDF). Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Information Integration and Web-based Applications & Services (iiWAS2015). ACM International Conference Proceedings Series. ISBN 978-1-4503-3491-4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 March 2016. Retrieved 18 March 2016. == Further reading == == External links == Official website
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toby_Jones	Toby Jones	Toby Edward Heslewood Jones (born 7 September 1966) is an English actor. He is known for his extensive character actor roles on stage and screen. From 1989 to 1991, Jones trained at L'École Internationale de Théâtre Jacques Lecoq. He made his stage debut in 2001 in the comedy play The Play What I Wrote, which played in the West End and on Broadway, earning him a Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role. In 2020, he was nominated for his second Olivier Award, for Best Actor for his performance in a revival of Anton Chekov's Uncle Vanya. Jones made his film debut in Sally Potter's period drama Orlando in 1992. He appeared in minor roles in films such as Naked (1993), Les Misérables (1998), Ever After (1998), Finding Neverland (2005), and Mrs Henderson Presents (2005). He portrayed Truman Capote in the biopic Infamous (2006). He has since acted in Amazing Grace (2006), The Painted Veil (2006), W. (2008), Frost/Nixon (2008), Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy (2011), My Week with Marilyn (2011), Berberian Sound Studio (2012), Dad's Army (2016), Journey's End (2017), and Empire of Light (2022). Jones is also known for his voice roles as Dobby in the Harry Potter films (2002–2010), Aristides Silk in The Adventures of Tintin (2011) and Owl in Disney's Christopher Robin (2018). He is also known for his blockbuster roles as Claudius Templesmith in The Hunger Games franchise (2012–2013), Arnim Zola in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) films Captain America: The First Avenger (2011) and Captain America: The Winter Soldier (2014), Mr. Eversoll in Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom (2018), and Basil Shaw in Indiana Jones and the Dial of Destiny (2023). Jones's television credits include Doctor Who (2010), Julian Fellowes's Titanic miniseries (2012), MCU's Agent Carter (2015), Sherlock (2017) and What If...? (2021) and Wayward Pines (2015–2016). He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television Film for his role as Alfred Hitchcock in the HBO television film The Girl (2012) and won a Best Male Comedy BAFTA for his role in Detectorists (2018). In 2024, Jones starred as Alan Bates in the acclaimed series Mr Bates vs The Post Office, a biographical drama about the Horizon Post Office scandal. The series won a Peabody Award at the 85th Annual ceremony. == Early life == Jones was born in Hammersmith, London to actors Jennifer Jones (née Heslewood) and Freddie Jones, and grew up in Oxford. He has two brothers. He attended Christ Church Cathedral School and Abingdon School in Oxfordshire in the 1980s. He studied drama at the University of Manchester from 1986 to 1989, and at L'École Internationale de Théâtre Jacques Lecoq in Paris from 1989 to 1991. == Career == === Film and television === Jones has appeared in more than 60 films since his first acting role in the 1992 film Orlando. He voiced Dobby in two Harry Potter films: Chamber of Secrets (2002) and The Deathly Hallows – Part 1 (2010). He played Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury in the HBO/Channel 4 production Elizabeth I. In 2006, he portrayed Truman Capote in the biopic Infamous. He appeared in the film adaptation of Stephen King's The Mist in 2007. In 2008, he portrayed Karl Rove in Oliver Stone's W and Hollywood agent Swifty Lazar in Frost/Nixon. He appeared alongside his father in the 2004 film Ladies in Lavender. Jones appeared in the 2010 episode "Amy's Choice", of Doctor Who, as the Dream Lord, and in the Big Finish Productions series' Dark Eyes (audio drama) as Kotris. He also played the role of Samuel Ratchett in Agatha Christie's Poirot TV Series 12 episode "Murder on the Orient Express". In 2011, he played the role of the British spy master Percy Alleline in the adaptation of John Le Carré's Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy and Arnim Zola in Captain America: The First Avenger, a role which he reprised in the sequel Captain America: The Winter Soldier three years later as well as in a cameo in the TV series Agent Carter the following year. In 2012, he had a leading role in the ITV mini-series Titanic, starred as one of the seven dwarves in Snow White and the Huntsman, played Dr. Paul Shackleton in Red Lights, and Max in Virginia. He also portrayed film director Alfred Hitchcock in the HBO television film The Girl, a role that earned him his first Golden Globe Award nomination, as well as his first Primetime Emmy Award nomination. In 1998, he appeared as a City businessman in the music video for Gomez's song "Whippin' Piccadilly", from their album Bring It On. He played Neil Baldwin in the BBC drama Marvellous in 2014. Sam Wollaston, in The Guardian, praised Jones's "lovely, very human, performance", one that earned him his second British Academy Television Award nomination. From 2014, he appeared in the BBC Four television series Detectorists, for which he received a nomination for the British Academy Television Award for Best Male Comedy Performance in 2016 before winning the award in 2018. In 2015, Jones played the part of Roger Yount, a banker, in the three-part BBC series Capital based on John Lanchester's novel of the same name. Discussing working with Jones on Capital, writer Peter Bowker said, "I think Toby is a genius and thought that long before I worked with him. He always wants to know a character's needs, and what's beneath those needs. Then he takes all that material and somehow embeds it into the character and physically inhabits the character, so that you never think he's playing the character. It's fascinating to watch him close up. He carries the emotional complexities in every tiny gesture that his character makes so that you immediately can see what his character is like. A character like Roger is full of contradictions, a city banker with an air of entitlement but also a little insecurity picking away at him. Toby can portray that in his walk alone. That's what's great about him, he can portray cold he can portray warm and he can portray both of those things at once." He played Captain Mainwaring in the film Dad's Army, released in February 2016. In July, of the same year he starred as the eponymous agent Verloc in the BBC's The Secret Agent, a three-part television adaptation of Joseph Conrad's 1907 novel. In 2017, he portrayed Culverton Smith in "The Lying Detective", an episode of the BBC crime drama Sherlock. In 2018, he played the dinosaur auctioneer Mr. Eversoll in Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom, the fifth instalment of the Jurassic Park series. In the same year, Jones voiced Owl in Disney's live-action Christopher Robin. Jones co-wrote with Tim Crouch the comedy series Don't Forget the Driver, released on BBC 2 in 2019, and in which he appeared as Peter Green; it was Jones's first time writing for television. In 2024, Jones played Alan Bates in the ITV drama Mr Bates vs The Post Office, a dramatisation of the British Post Office scandal. He appears as newspaper editor Alan Rusbridger in ITV television drama series about the News International phone hacking scandal, The Hack. In 2025 he also appeared as Philip Burton in Mr Burton a film about the early life of Richard Burton. === Radio and audiobooks === In 2003 Jones played the part of Lord Brideshead in a BBC Radio adaptation of Brideshead Revisited. Jones voiced the title character in the 2005 BBC Radio 4 adaptation of Oblomov. He also read the 2009 Radio 4 adaptation of John Irving's A Prayer for Owen Meany. He played Inspector Goole in the 2010 BBC Radio adaptation of An Inspector Calls. Since 2013 Jones has been the voice of the lead character, Joey Oldman in the BBC Radio 4 series The Corrupted, an adaptation of the G. F. Newman novel Crime and Punishment. On 2 December 2012 he played Napoleon Bonaparte in Anthony Burgess's Napoleon Rising on Radio 3. In 2013 he played Kotris in the award-winning Doctor Who audio play, Dark Eyes, and read an abridged version of "The Manual of Detection" by Jedediah Berry for the BBC. In 2020 he portrayed Falstaff in BBC Radio 3's Henry IV, Part 1. In 2021, Jones recorded the audiobook versions of John Le Carré's final novel Silverview for Penguin Audio and, for Harper Audio, the seminal dystopian novel We by Yevgeny Zamyatin in a translation by Bela Shayevich. === Stage === In 2001, he starred in the London West End comedy The Play What I Wrote, directed by Kenneth Branagh. His comic turn as Arthur earned him the Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role, and the play moved to Broadway in 2003. In 2009, he returned to the stage in Every Good Boy Deserves Favour at the National Theatre, Parlour Song at the Almeida Theatre, and The First Domino at Brighton Festival Fringe. In 2011, he played J. M. W. Turner in The Painter at the Arcola Theatre. Jones starred as Stanley in the 2018 revival of The Birthday Party at The Harold Pinter Theatre. In 2020, he starred in the title role in the Conor McPherson adaptation of Uncle Vanya by Anton Chekhov, at the Harold Pinter Theatre. == Personal life == On The Graham Norton Show, Jones said that he and his wife Karen were together for 26 years before they married in 2015. They have two daughters. In 2018, Jones was awarded an honorary doctorate by Oxford Brookes University. He was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2021 New Year Honours, for services to drama. In football, Jones supports EFL Championship side Stoke City, owing to his father’s love for the club. == Filmography == === Film === === Television === === Theatre === === Theme park attractions === == Awards and nominations == === Film === === Television === === Theatre === ==== Honorary Degree ==== In July 2025, Jones was awarded an honorary degree by Keele University. At the award ceremony he was reunited with Neil Baldwin, whom he played in Marvellous. == See also == List of Old Abingdonians == References == == External links == Toby Jones at IMDb
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuai#Education	Tuai	Tuai is a village and rural community located around Lake Whakamarino, in the Wairoa District of the Hawke's Bay Region, on New Zealand's North Island. The local Tuai Power Station was opened in 1929 on the shores of Lake Whakamarino, as part of the Waikaremoana power scheme. Genesis Energy has controlled the power station remotely from Tokaanu power station since the early 2000s. Artist Doris Lusk depicted the power station in a 1948 painting. She described the power station as a “gothic building in the middle of the wild hills”. Lake Whakamarino, also known as Tuai Lake, is popular with anglers. It can be used by fly-fishers, and accessed with small unanchored boats. == Demographics == Statistics New Zealand describes Tuai as a rural settlement, which covers 21.99 km2 (8.49 sq mi). It had an estimated population of 230 as of June 2025, with a population density of 10 people per km2. It is part of the larger Maungataniwha-Raupunga statistical area. Tūai had a population of 222 in the 2023 New Zealand census, an increase of 6 people (2.8%) since the 2018 census, and an increase of 9 people (4.2%) since the 2013 census. There were 108 males and 114 females in 87 dwellings. 1.4% of people identified as LGBTIQ+. The median age was 32.4 years (compared with 38.1 years nationally). There were 63 people (28.4%) aged under 15 years, 42 (18.9%) aged 15 to 29, 90 (40.5%) aged 30 to 64, and 30 (13.5%) aged 65 or older. People could identify as more than one ethnicity. The results were 25.7% European (Pākehā), 87.8% Māori, and 1.4% Pasifika. English was spoken by 94.6%, Māori by 54.1%, and other languages by 2.7%. No language could be spoken by 2.7% (e.g. too young to talk). The percentage of people born overseas was 6.8, compared with 28.8% nationally. Religious affiliations were 20.3% Christian, 32.4% Māori religious beliefs, 1.4% New Age, and 1.4% other religions. People who answered that they had no religion were 40.5%, and 6.8% of people did not answer the census question. Of those at least 15 years old, 24 (15.1%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, 99 (62.3%) had a post-high school certificate or diploma, and 45 (28.3%) people exclusively held high school qualifications. The median income was $31,200, compared with $41,500 nationally. 3 people (1.9%) earned over $100,000 compared to 12.1% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was 63 (39.6%) full-time, 21 (13.2%) part-time, and 12 (7.5%) unemployed. == Marae == Te Kūhā Tārewa Marae and Te Poho o Hinekura or Ruapani meeting house is a meeting place of the Tūhoe hapū of Ngāti Hinekura, and the Ngāti Ruapani hapū of Ngāti Hinekura and Tuwai. In October 2020, the Government committed $1,949,075 from the Provincial Growth Fund to upgrade the marae and 23 other Ngāti Kahungunu marae. The funding was expected to create 164 jobs. == Education == Te Kura o Waikaremoana is a Year 1–8 co-educational state primary school. It is a decile 2 school with a roll of 24 as of July 2025. The school was formed by the merger of Tuai School and Kokako School in 2005. Tuai School was established by 1929 and Kokako School was established between 1896 and 1898. == Climate == == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fencing_at_the_1964_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_team_foil	Fencing at the 1964 Summer Olympics – Men's team foil	The men's team foil was one of eight fencing events on the fencing at the 1964 Summer Olympics programme. It was the eleventh appearance of the event. The competition was held on October 15 – 16 1964. 78 fencers from 16 nations competed. == Results == === Round 1 === Ties between teams were broken by individual victories (in parentheses), then by touches received. === Championship rounds === ==== Fifth place semifinal ==== == Rosters == == References == == Sources == Tokyo Organizing Committee (1964). The Games of the XVIII Olympiad: Tokyo 1964, vol. 2.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigray_People%27s_Liberation_Front	Tigray People's Liberation Front	The Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF; Tigrinya: ህዝባዊ ወያነ ሓርነት ትግራይ, romanized: Həzbawi Wäyyanä Ḥarənnät Təgray, lit. 'Popular Struggle for the Freedom of Tigray'), also known as the Tigrayan People's Liberation Front, is a left-wing ethnic nationalist, paramilitary group, and the former ruling party of Ethiopia. It was classified as a terrorist organization by the Ethiopian government during the Tigray War until its removal from the list in 2023. In older and less formal texts and speech it is known as Woyane (Tigrinya: ወያነ, lit. 'Revolutionary') or Weyané (Amharic: ወያኔ). The TPLF was founded on February 18, 1975, in Dedebit, Tigray. Within 16 years, it grew from about a dozen men to become the most powerful armed liberation movement in Ethiopia. Unlike the Eritrean or Somali liberation fronts at the time, the TPLF did not seek independence from the Ethiopian state; instead, it aimed to overthrow the central government and implement its own version of the Ethiopian revolution. From 1989 to 2018, it led a political coalition, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). It fought a 15-year-long war against the Derg regime, which was overthrown on 28 May 1991. The TPLF, with the support of the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF), overthrew the government of the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) on May 28, 1991, and installed a new government that remained in power for decades. The new ruling EPRDF government, was dominated by the TPLF, who gradually consolidated control over Ethiopia's federal administrations, the ENDF, and key economic resources such as foreign aid, loans, and land leases, amassing billions. The TPLF's restructuring of Ethiopia into an ethnic federal state further fueled civil conflicts in the ensuing decades. The TPLF lost control of the federal government in 2018. During the Tigray War that began in 2020, the National Election Board of Ethiopia terminated the party's legal status. In 2021, the Ethiopian House of Peoples' Representatives formally approved a parliamentary resolution designating the TPLF as a terrorist organization. On 2 November 2022, the African Union brokered a deal in Pretoria, South Africa, between the federal government and the TPLF to end the Tigray War. As per the peace agreement, the TPLF began disarming in January 2023. Following the Pretoria peace agreement in 2022, the TPLF began experiencing severe internal divisions. This has seen the rise of a hardline faction within the front. == History == === Origins === The TPLF is considered to be the product of the marginalization of Tigrayans within Ethiopia after Menelik II of Shewa became emperor in 1889. The Tigrayan traditional elite and peasantry had a strong regional identity and a resentment due to their own perception of the decline of Tigray. It was popularly referred to as Woyane, for evoking memories of the armed revolt of 1942–43 (the First Woyane) against the re-establishment of imperial rule after Italian occupation remained alive and provided an important reference for the new generations of educated Tigrayan nationalists. At Haile Selassie I University (now Addis Ababa University), Tigrayan students had formed the Political Association of Tigrayans (PAT) in 1972 and the Tigrayan University Students' Association (TUSA) beginning in the early 1960s. These student groups evolved into a radical nationalist group that operated in Tigray after the start of the Ethiopian revolution in 1974, and began calling for Tigrayan independence, forming the Tigray Liberation Front (TLF). Meanwhile, a Marxist current emerged in TUSA that advocated national self-determination for Tigray within a revolutionary, democratic Ethiopia. While the multinational leftist movements prioritized class struggle over national self-determination for the Ethiopian nationalities, the Marxists of the TUSA argued for self-determination as the starting point for the final socialist revolution because of the existing inequalities among the Ethiopian nationalities. === 1974–1977 === In February 1974, the Marxists within TUSA welcomed the Ethiopian Revolution but opposed the Derg (a military junta that ruled Ethiopia from 1974 to 1991), as they were convinced that it would neither lead a genuine socialist revolution nor correctly resolve the Ethiopian nationality question. Two days after the Derg took power, on 14 September 1974, seven leaders of this trend established the Association of Progressives of the Tigray Nation (Tigrinya: ማሕበር ገስገስቲ ብሔረ ትግራይ, Maḥbär Gäsgästi Bəḥer Təgray), also known as the Tigrayan National Organization (TNO). The founders were: Alemseged Mengesha (nom de guerre: Haylu), Ammaha Tsehay (Abbay), Aregawi Berhe (Berhu), Embay Mesfin (Seyoum), Fentahun Zere'atsion (Gidey), Mulugeta Hagos (Asfeha), and Zeru Gesese (Agazi). The TNO was to prepare the ground for the future armed movement in Tigray. It secretly approached both the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) and the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) for support, but the ELF already had relations with the TLF. In November 1974, the EPLF agreed to train TNO members and allowed EPLF fighters from the Tigrayan community in Eritrea, including Mehari Tekle (Mussie), to join the TPLF. The first group of trainees was sent to the EPLF in January 1975. On the night of 18 February 1975, eleven men, including Gesese Ayyele (Sehul), Gidey, Asfeha, Seyoum, Agazi, and Berhu, left Enda Selassie for Sehul's home area of Dedebit, where they founded the TPLF (original name Tigrinya: ተጋድሎ ሓርነት ሕዝቢ ትግራይ, Tägadlo Ḥarənnät Ḥəzbi Təgray, "The Popular Struggle for the Freedom of Tigray"). Welde Selassie Nega (Sebhat), Legese Zenawi (Meles), and others soon joined the original group, and, after the arrival of the trainees from Eritrea in June 1975, the TPLF had about 50 fighters. It then elected a formal leadership consisting of Sehul (the chairman), Muse (the military commander), and the seven TNO founders. Berhu was appointed political commissar. Sehul played a crucial role in helping the nascent TPLF establish itself among the local peasantry. The TPLF embraced a Marxist vision focused on 'radical decentralization' of the Ethiopian state. In contrast to the Eritrean and Somali liberation movements, the TPLF sought not independence, but the overthrow of the central government to establish its own revolutionary framework for Ethiopia. Although a few successful raids bolstered its military credibility, the TPLF grew to only about 120 fighters in early 1976, but a rapidly growing clandestine network of supporters in the cities and a support base among the peasants provided vital supplies and information. On February 18, 1976, a conference of fighters elected a new leadership: Berhu (chairman), Muse (military committee), Abbay (political committee), Agazi (socioeconomic committee), Seyoum (foreign relations), Gidey, and Sebhat. Meles became head of the political cadre school. The first three years of its existence were marked by a constant struggle for survival, unstable cooperation with Eritrean forces, and power struggles against the other Tigrayan fronts: in 1975, the TPLF liquidated the TLF; in 1976–78, it fought the Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU) in Shire; and in 1978, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party (EPRP) in East Tigray. The front also suffered heavy losses from Derg offensives in the region. Although the TPLF, the ELF, and the EPLF cooperated during the 1976 and 1978 Derg offensives in Tigray and Eritrea, no stable alliance emerged. The ELF resented the liquidation of the TLF and considered the relationship between the EPLF and the TPLF a serious threat. Since 1977, there had been conflict between ELF and the TPLF over the issue of Eritrean settlers in western Tigray, who were organized at ELF and rejected the TPLF's land reform. Relations with the EPLF also did not develop smoothly. Its material support was much less than the TPLF had anticipated. Politically, the EPLF favored the multinational EPRP over the ethno regionalist TPLF with its separatist agenda at the time. === 1978–1990 === After the Derg's victory in the Ogaden War in February 1978 and Mengistu Haile Mariam's new support from the Soviets permitted the substantial growth of his forces, the TPLF's momentum seemed to slow. During the TPLFs early years, the Derg was primarily focused on the Eritrean and Somali insurgencies, allowing it to avoid the full force of the Ethiopian military as its numbers grew to 20,000 strong. In February 1979, the TPLF held its first regular congress. It declared its struggle the Second Woyane (kalay wäyyanä) and changed its Tigrinya name to Həzbawi Wäyyanä Harənnät Təgray. It adopted a new political program calling for self-determination within a democratic Ethiopia, with independence an option only if unity proved impossible. Gaining and maintaining the support of the local population was at the core of the TPLF's strategy in the 1970s and 1980s. TPLF leaders knew that the goodwill of the population would sustain their movement and ultimately lead them to victory over the Derg. Consequently, any fighter caught mistreating locals was punished or even executed by TPLF authorities. As a result, local support for the TPLF was consistent and invaluable. The local population shared food and resources with the fighters, provided them with safe havens, and, most importantly, provided the TPLF with up-to-date information. In retrospect, it is evident that the 1978-1985 period further strengthened the TPLF. The increasingly alienating intervention of the Derg, the front's handling of famine and refugee problems, and the foreign connections it built through its mission in Khartoum, enabled the movement to mobilize and better equip more fighters to prepare for the shift from guerrilla to frontal attack. Moreover, developments within the TPLF in the mid-1980s led to a conceptual shift from a struggle for the liberation of Tigray to that of all Ethiopia. They established their headquarters in caves in Addi Geza'iti, some 50 kilometers west of Mekelle. The Ethiopian People's Democratic Movement (EPDM), a TPLF-loyal splinter group from the EPRP, used caves in Melfa (Dogu'a Tembien). The TPLF managed to use the catastrophic famine of 1983-85 to its advantage. In early 1985, it organized a march of over 200,000 famine victims from Tigray to Sudan to draw international attention to the plight in Tigray. Its humanitarian arm, the Relief Society of Tigray (REST), founded in 1978, received large amounts of international humanitarian aid for famine victims and small-scale development projects in liberated Tigray. In 1984–1985, the TPLF diverted Western aid money intended for starving civilians to purchase weapons. A power struggle in the leadership saw future Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi rise to power during 1985. In July 1985, the Marxist–Leninist League of Tigray (MLLT) was founded at a congress of a few hundred selected cadres. The MLLT was to be the nucleus of the future Marxist–Leninist vanguard party for all Ethiopia. The MLLT invited the genuine revolutionaries in the ranks of the Derg regime, which was busy organizing its own communist party, the Ethiopian Workers' Party, to join it. In December 1988, the TPLF and EPDM formed the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) as the core of the planned United Democratic Front. In the spring of 1989, first the MLLT and then the TPLF held a congress. Abbay was elected chairman of both organizations, but toward the end of 1989 Meles became chairman of both. In May 1989, the EPDM formed the Ethiopian Marxist–Leninist Force (EMLF). In July 1989, MLLT and EMLF formed the Union of Ethiopian Proletarian Organizations. In April 1990, the TPLF formed the Ethiopian Democratic Officers Movement from politically re-educated captured Ethiopian officers to undermine the Free Officers Movement, which had been formed in 1987 by exiled Ethiopian officers in opposition to the Derg. In May 1990, Oromo members of the EPDM and politically re-educated Oromo prisoners of war founded the Oromo Peoples' Democratic Organization (OPDO) to deny the Oromo Liberation Front's claim to be the exclusive representative of the Ethiopian Oromo. In November 1990, a Marxist–Leninist Oromo movement was established within the OPDO. Also in 1990, the TPLF formed the Afar Democratic Union to undermine the Afar movements. It had already helped build liberation fronts in Gambella and Benshangul before 1985. In early 1988, the EPLF and the TPLF went on the offensive. The evolving situation in both Eritrea and Tigray, as well as the changing international context after the breakup of the Soviet bloc, prompted the TPLF and EPLF to put aside their differences and resume military cooperation. in 1989, the EPRDF formed a shadow government in Ethiopia to administer the liberated areas under its control. === 1991–2018 === In February 1991, the EPRDF began its offensive against the ruling regime with the support of a large EPLF contingent. On May 28, 1991, the EPRDF captured Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia, and took control of the country. In July 1991, the EPRDF established the Transitional Government of Ethiopia. In May 1991, the TPLF had 80,000 fighters, the EPDM had 8,000, and the OPDO had 2,000. The total number of TPLF members was well over 100,000. Reacting to the international political context after the demise of communism, the EPRDF and TPLF dropped all Marxist references in their political discourse and adopted a program of change based on multi-party politics, constitutional democracy, ethno-linguistic federalization, and a mixed economy. The TPLF restructured the Ethiopian state and introduced ethnic federalism, which has contributed significantly to civil conflicts in Ethiopia over the following decades. Under the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), the nation was governed by TPLF leader Meles Zenawi who became the first prime minister. The EPRDF government, particularly in areas concerning the military-security complex and the economy, was dominated by the TPLF. Gradually the TPLF hegemony within the EPRDF grew stronger as the party dominated Ethiopia's federal administrations and the Ethiopian National Defence Force (ENDF) officer corps. The party exercised, "near-exclusive control over foreign aid, international loans, and the leasing of public land to amass billions of dollars." With the EPRDF effectively under TPLF control, the Tigrayan position in Ethiopian governance post-1991 mirrored the political dominance that the Amharas had held in the country during most of the 20th century. PM Meles Zenawi purged many members of the TPLF who opposed him, and a 2001 split in the party nearly saw his removal. Following Zenawi's death in 2012, the organization quickly splintered into factions of Meles loyalists, young technocrats in Addis and party officials in Mekelle. These factions took a wide range of positions on core issues, paralyzing the TPLF. Zenawi's handpicked successor, Halemariam Desalegn, proved too weak to manage growing internal strife in Ethiopia. Over the years the TPLF's position in the EPRDF weakened as Amhara and Oromo parties pushed backed against Tigrayan dominance. After 30 years of TPLF-based authoritarian rule, strong popular opposition to the dominance of the party emerged across the country during 2016. Amhara and Oromo elites came to an agreement to reform the TPLF created system, resulting in the accession of Abiy Ahmed to Prime Minister of Ethiopia in the following years. Internal power struggles within the EPRDF and its inability to quell popular protests resulted in a major political transition and Abiy Ahmed's election in 2018. === 2018–2020 === During 2018, newly elected prime minister Abiy began curtailing the influence and position of the TPLF within Ethiopian politics. In June of that year he unexpectedly sacked the two most powerful TPLF members since Zenawi's death - Samora Yunis (army chief of staff) and Getachew Assef (intelligence chief). The party felt threatened as Abiy carried out significant reforms that aimed to merge Ethiopia's ethnic parties and reduce the TPLF's influence. In November 2019, PM Abiy and the chairman of the EPRDF unified the constituent parties of the coalition into the new Prosperity Party. The TPLF viewed this merger as illegal and did not participate. Abiy called on the TPLF to dissolve and become part of his newly established Prosperity Party. Many TPLF leaders began shifting from the nation's capital of Addis Ababa to the Tigray regional state capital of Mekelle. In this period the organization recruited a substantial amount of fighters from different groups such as the police and paramilitary organizations, while also withdrawing its supporters from the Ethiopian national security establishment. This precipitated the Tigray War in late 2020. As TPLF leaders and parliament members began shifting back to Mekelle, the organization began to challenge the administration of Abiy Ahmed. In June 2020, the Ethiopian parliament—to which the TPLF was a party—voted to postpone the 2021 Ethiopian General Election, which was originally scheduled to occur in 2020. The TPLF defied the parliamentary vote and held regional elections anyway. The 2020 Tigray regional election was held on 9 September 2020. 2.7 million people participated in the election, though was it was boycotted by Arena Tigray and the Tigray Democratic Party. PM Abiy stated that the federal government would not recognize the results of the Tigray election and banned foreign journalists from traveling to the region document it. === 2020–2022 === In November 2020, a civil conflict erupted between the TPLF and the Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) when the TPLF attacked the ENDF Northern Command headquarters in the north of the country in what TPLF spokesman Getachew Reda described as a "preemptive strike". In November 2020, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed declared victory over the TPLF. Other sources suggested that the Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) controlled only about 70% of the Tigray region. Many TPLF members joined the Tigray Defense Forces (TDF). The TPLF has accused the ENDF and Eritrean forces of war crimes, but it is difficult to independently verify these allegations because of the media blackout imposed by the federal government under Abiy. On March 23, 2021, in response to international pressure, the prime minister admitted for the first time that Eritrean forces had been in the Tigray region. In July 2021, after the Ethiopian government declared a unilateral cease-fire and withdrew from much of the Tigray region, the TDF entered neighboring Afar and Amhara regions. The ENDF then launched its own counteroffensive and recaptured these regions by December 2021. By March 2022, the war had come to a virtual standstill. On 2 November 2022, the Pretoria Peace Agreement was signed, ending the Tigray War. The TPLF was accused of forcing recruitment into the TDF, including minors. According to several witnesses and Tigrayan administrators, every household in Tigray was required to enlist a family member in the TDF. Those who refused were arrested and imprisoned, including the parents of minors who refused to enlist. === 2022–2024: Post-Tigray War === After the Tigray War significantly reshaped the region's political landscape, the TPLF faced deepening divisions following the signing of the Pretoria Agreement. These divisions emerged between two factions: a 'hardline' group led by TPLF chairman Debretsion Gebremichael and a 'conciliatory' group led by deputy chairperson Getachew Reda. The power struggle between the Debretsion and Getachew has raised concerns of the creation of a volatile political environment that could reignite the civil war. The TPLF also suffers a crisis of legitimacy among the Tigrayan population following the war. In July 2024, the TPLF released a statement announcing it faced an unprecedented 'severe test' that has brought the party to the verge of disintegration. The statement accused senior leaders of putting their personal interests above the party, thus threatening its existence. During August 2024, the National Election Board of Ethiopia (NEBE) rejected the TPLF's request to reinstate its pre-war legal status. On 12 August, chairman Debretsion declared that NEBE's decision undermined the TPLF's 50-year legacy and violated the Pretoria deal which had ended the Tigray War during November 2022. Following the decision, the federal government announced that the issue of TPLF registration and legality had been resolved. NEBE also warned against the convening a congress without the election boards approval or monitoring. ==== 14th party congress and growing internal split ==== On 13 August 2024, the TPLF began its controversial 14th party congress in Mekelle, ignoring the NEBE's warning. The last congress had been held in September 2018. 14 members of the party's central committee, including deputy chair Getachew, boycotted the congress. Getachew described it as, "illegal movements by a group that does not represent the TPLF" several days before it was due to be held. Ethiopian PM Abiy Ahmed warned that the TPLF could find itself in a war if it went ahead with holding the congress. As the six day long meeting commenced on 13 August, an Ethiopian government minister accused the TPLF of "practically nullifying" the Pretoria agreement and threatening the peace. Debretsion stated that the congress was unprecedented and warned those gathered that the party's situation had "gone from bad to worse". Since the 14th party congress, factionalism within the TPLF escalated as both sides became more entrenched in their positions. Debretsion effectively has popular support and power over the TPLF party apparatus, while Getachew maintains authority over Tigray's interim regional government and is being backed by the Ethiopian federal government. There is a growing risk the internal split will escalate into the outbreak of violence as it becomes more intractable. In the period following, Debretsion's faction removed Getachew and several other officials from their roles in the administration, claiming they "no longer have the authority to lead, make decisions, or issue directives." In response, the interim administration has accused Debretsion's group of attempting to destabilize Tigray through a coup d'état. Getachews administration has warned that it would pursue legal action against Debretsion's faction for allegedly sowing "chaos and anarchy". On 10 November 2024, Getachew released a statement declaring that Debretsion Gebremichael's TPLF was plotting an 'official coup' against the interim regional government. He claimed that this faction within the TPLF has escalated from merely obstructing his government to actively plotting to overthrow it. === 2025: Return to regional power and internal leadership === In March 2025, The Guardian reported that a faction of the TPLF, led by Debretsion, took over several offices in Mekelle. In what it called a coup, it reported that armed men belonging to the faction patrolled the streets of the city at night, checking people's identification. The Guardian also said that there are some reports suggesting that Eritrean intelligence helped Debretsion's faction assume power. Meanwhile, it reported that Getachew Reda, the interim leader of Tigray, had fled to Addis Ababa. The power shift marked the return of a hardline faction within the TPLF, supported by the Tigray Defense Forces (TDF), which accused the previous leadership of failing to secure core Tigrayan interests, particularly the return of disputed territories and resettlement of displaced persons. The TPLF nominated TDF commander Tadesse Werede as interim president, triggering a dispute with Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed, who claimed sole authority to appoint a replacement. The faction is led by four influential party veterans—Debretsion Gebremichael, Fetlework "Monjorino" Gebregziabher, Alem Gebrewahid, and former intelligence chief Getachew Assefa—who have reemerged as dominant figures in Tigrayan politics. Some critics have expressed concern that the group’s confrontational stance toward Addis Ababa could jeopardize the fragile peace established by the 2022 Pretoria Agreement. TPLF leaders have vowed to pursue a tougher negotiating position with the federal government, particularly on the issue of Western Tigray, though some analysts caution this may risk renewed conflict. After the 2025 Tigrayan coup, the TPLF accused the Ethiopian government of funding and aiding in multiple anti-TPLF groups active on the Tigray-Afar border, including the Tigray Peace Force, Hara Meret, and Getachew Reda's newly-founded Simret Party. These anti-TPLF groups have launched attacks on Tigray forces, killing several. On 5 November, 2025, the Afar Regional government accused elements of the TPLF of crossing over the Tigray-Afar border and attacking Afar pastoralists in Megale (woreda). It further stated that the regional government would retaliate if the TPLF did not withdraw from the 6 villages it occupied. The TPLF denied the allegations, accusing the Tigray Peace Force (TPF) —an anti-TPLF militia purportedly funded by the Ethiopian government and active on the Tigray-Afar border— of orchestrating the attack. The day after, the TPLF accused Ethiopian forces of launching a drone strike on Raya Azebo, killing Tigrayan forces and civilians in violation of the Pretoria ceasefire. == Election results == Elections from 1995 to 2015 were conducted under the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front banner. == Ideology == The party has its roots in the 1960s student movement which was ideologically nationalist before shifting towards Marxism–Leninism in late 1960s. After revolutionary students formed the Tigray University Student Association, a new leftwing organization known as the Tigrayan National Organization was founded in 1974, from which the TPLF emerged in February 1975. The core ideology of the party was ethnonationalism infused with the theme of a class-based - ethnonationalism is the fundamental foundation of the party and it persisted throughout the entire existence of the TPLF. The TPLF argues that Ethiopia is a collection of nationalities subjugated by the Amhara ethnic group, which imposes its culture and language over all others; the first manifesto of the party stated: "Disagreement and suspicion among the nations of Ethiopia have resulted from the worsening of the oppression by the Amhara ethnic group over the oppressed nations of Ethiopia and especially over the Tigray ethnic group. Therefore, we now reached a stage where all the oppressed nations of Ethiopia can no more undertake a common class struggle." The TPLF castigated the formation of the centralized empire state during the conquests of Menelik II as, "the beginning of national oppression" in the groups manifesto. Initially the group called for independence of Tigray from Ethiopia, arguing that it is the only way to liberate Ethiopian cultures from the ethnic and national oppression of the Amhara culture. However, separatism was abandoned in 1978, which subsequently led to defections and splits within the party. It was increasingly dominated by a faction known as the Marxist–Leninist League of Tigray, which took over the leadership of the party and proclaimed Marxism–Leninism to be the organization's overarching ideology. The party's ideological shift made Marxist aspects temporarily dominate over the ethnonationalist ones, though the party remained ethnonationalist and envisioned a 'national revolution' that would install "a planned socialist economy free of exploitation of man by man". Core Marxist aspects embraced by the TPLF included vanguardism, democratic centralism, dictatorship of the proletariat, and also self-determination in the name of national liberation. The party was also heavily influence by the Albanian communist model of Enver Hoxha, stressing self-reliant economy and every nation having its unique way towards socialism. After the fall of the USSR, the TPLF moderated itself and rebranded its ideology as "revolutionary democracy", pledging to introduce a new kind of democracy in Ethiopia that would differ from the liberal democratic structure, while also maintaining the core socialist values of the party. The concept of revolutionary democracy came from Lenin's 1919 thesis "Bourgeois Democracy and the Proletarian Dictatorship", which proposed replacing the 'bourgeois' parliamentary democracy with revolutionary democracy, which would be secured by a vanguard party representing the masses, which would consult its constituency while still adhering to the socialist ideological guidelines. Meles Zenawi wrote that Ethiopia can become a developed country "if it is guided by 'revolutionary democracy'", adding that while "liberal democracy is partial wager, a collector of rents, and a representative of the comprador bourgeoisie, 'revolutionary democracy' stands for sustainable development." This marked the point at which TLPF abandoned Marxism-Leninism in favour of socialism and revolutionary ethnonationalism, moving closer to its initial position from the 1970s. == Allegation of terrorism == The United States government removed the TPLF's classification as a Tier III level terrorist group when the group came to power in 1991. However, an analysis by the Terrorism Research and Analysis Consortium (TRAC) also classified it as a terrorist group dating back to 1976. According to the TRAC:The Tigrayan People's Liberation Front (TPLF) is a political party in Tigray, Ethiopia that has been listed as a perpetrator in the Global Terrorism Database, based on ten incidents occurring between 1976 and 1990 (see GTD link). In 2021, the Ethiopia federal government passed a parliamentary resolution classifying the TPLF as a terrorist organization. According to Article 23, "this decision applies to organizations and individuals that collaborate with, have links with, or are associated with the ideas and actions of the designated terrorist organizations, as well as others that have undertaken similar activities". Individuals or organizations that carry out " humanitarian activities", however, are exempt under Ethiopia's Anti-Terrorism Proclamation 1176/2020. On November 3, 2022, the Ethiopian government and the nationalist paramilitary group entered into a peace agreement, ending their two-year conflict. A draft agreement was sent to The Associated Press stating that the TPLF will first be disarmed with their "light weapons" followed by the Ethiopian federal forces' retrieval of "all federal facilities, installations, and major infrastructure such as airports and highways within the Tigray region." After the signed peace agreement matured for four months, the TPLF was removed from the country's list of terrorist group on March 22, 2023. == Notes == == References ==
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_Hopf_Prize#cite_note-1	Heinz Hopf Prize	The Heinz Hopf Prize is awarded every two years at ETH Zurich. The prize honours outstanding scientific work in the field of pure mathematics. It is named after the German mathematician Heinz Hopf (1894–1971), Professor of Mathematics at ETH from 1931 to 1965. The prize is awarded on the occasion of the Heinz Hopf Lectures that are given at ETH by the laureate. The prize was awarded for the first time in October 2009. == Laureates == == See also == List of mathematics awards == References == == External links == Official website

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.